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Octopus is a genus of cephalopod mollusc in the order Octopoda. The genus is quite typical of most octopods. They have two, large eyes and eight limbs with suckers. They have a hard beak, with the mouth at the center point of the arms.
Octopods have no internal or external skeleton, allowing them to squeeze through tight places. Many stay in cracks between rocks or corals when they are not hunting. They are intelligent predators with a taste for crabs.
Octopods inhabit many regions of the ocean, especially coral reefs. For defense against predators, they hide, flee quickly, expel ink, or use colour-changing camouflage. They live rather short lives.
An octopus trails its eight arms behind it as it swims. All octopods are venomous, but only the small blue-ringed octopus is known to be deadly to humans.
There are about 300 octopod species, of which more than 100 are in the genus Octopus. Octopods make up over one-third of the total number of living cephalopods. The term 'octopus' may be used to refer to those in the genus Octopus. The term 'octopod' is correct for members of the order Octopoda in general.
Anatomy
Unlike most other cephalopods, most octopods have only soft body with no internal skeleton. They have no protective outer shell like the nautilus, which is another type of cephalopod.
A beak, similar in shape to a parrot's beak, is their only hard part.
Because of this, it is very easy for an octopus to squeeze through very narrow openings between rocks, for example squeezing through a hole as big as its eye.
Eyes
Octopod eyes are complex. In fact, they do not have a blind spot. A blind spot is a special place in the eyes that is not able to sense light. So, when we look somewhere, part of what is there is not actually perceived (the brain 'fills in' so we do not notice). However, an octopus does not have this problem.
The lens in octopod are movable. It moves back and forth to focus. This is the way a camera focuses. When a camera focuses on an object to take a picture, the lens moves back and forth until the image that the camera sees is in the right focus.
Colours
Some octopuses can use their chromatophores for more than camouflage. If they are not blending in with their surroundings, they can signal their feelings using colour. When they are relaxed, for example, they are a dull, grayish brown or orange-tinged colour. When they become angry, they can become red. If they feel scared, they may turn white.
Behaviour
Intelligence
Octopods are highly intelligent, probably more so than any other invertebrate. The exact extent of their intelligence and learning capability is much debated among biologists. Maze and problem-solving experiments have shown that they do have both short and long-term memory. Their short lifespans limit the amount they can learn.
Some octopods, such as the mimic octopus, can move their arms in ways which copy the movements of other sea creatures.
In laboratory experiments, octopuses can be readily trained to distinguish between different shapes and patterns. They have been seen in what some have described as play: repeatedly releasing bottles or toys into a circular current in their aquariums and then catching them. Octopuses often break out of their aquaria and sometimes into others in search of food.
The largest of the 300+ species of octopods, the giant octopus Enteroctopus, is large indeed. Mature males average about 50 pounds and females about 33 pounds. Their arm spans are about eight feet. They have even boarded fishing boats and opened holds to get in and eat crabs.
In the UK, cephalopods such as octopuses are regarded as honorary vertebrates under the Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. This gives them protection not normally given to invertebrates.
Octopods are the only invertebrate which have been definitely shown to use tools. At least four specimens of the veined octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus) have been seen picking up discarded coconut shells, and then reassembling them to use as shelter.
Octopods are active and intelligent predators, with good eyesight and brains. They eat mostly crabs and some fish.
Defences
Octopods have a variety of defences. They use active camouflage and mimicry, controlled by their nervous system. Most can eject black ink clouds to help escape, and some can shed an arm in extreme danger. It wriggles, and attracts the attacker.
Reproduction and death
When octopods reproduce, males use a specialized arm to put packets of sperm into the female's mantle cavity. Males die within a few months of mating. In some species, the female octopus can keep the sperm alive inside her for weeks until her eggs are mature.
After they have been fertilized, the female lays about 200,000 eggs (this figure dramatically varies between species). The female cares for the eggs, guarding them against predators, and gently blows currents of water over them so they get enough oxygen. The female does not hunt during the one-month period spent taking care of the unhatched eggs, and may ingest some of her own arms for sustenance.
At around the time the eggs hatch, the mother leaves the lair and is too weak to defend herself from predators like cod, often succumbing to their attacks. The young larval octopuses spend a period of time drifting in clouds of plankton, where they feed until they are ready to descend to the ocean bottom, where the cycle repeats.
All octopods for which we have data have a relatively short life expectancy. Some species live for as little as six months. Larger species, such as the North Pacific giant octopus, may live for up to five years under suitable circumstances.
Reproduction is a cause of death: males can only live for a few months after mating, and females die shortly after their eggs hatch. They neglect to eat during the (roughly) one-month period spent taking care of their unhatched eggs, but apparently they do not die of starvation. A biological explanation of these short lifespans (or rapid ageing) is not agreed at present.
Deep-sea octopod broods eggs
Off the coast of California, marine biologists have watched the same female octopod guarding her eggs for over four years. Their development took a long time because the water 1.4 kilometres down was very cold. They knew it was the same octopod because it had a characteristic scar. The research was done using a remote diving vehicle with cameras, lights and robotic arms.
References
Cephalopods |
The Byzantine Empire (or Eastern Roman Empire) was the name of the eastern remnant of the Roman Empire which survived into the Middle Ages. Its capital was Constantinople, which today is called Istanbul. Unlike the Western Roman Empire, the most important language was Greek, not Latin, and Greek culture and identity dominated.
Name
The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as:
the "Roman Empire" or the "Empire of the Romans" (Latin: Imperium Romanum, Imperium Romanorum; Greek: Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn, Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn),
"Romania" (Latin: Romania; Greek: Rhōmania),
the "Roman Republic" (Latin: Res Publica Romana; Greek: , Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn),
"Graecia" (Greek: meaning "land of the Greeks"),
"Rhōmais" (Greek: ).
Start of the Empire (330–476 AD)
In 324, the Roman emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire to the Greek city of Byzantium, and he renamed the city Constantinople. 150 years later, after the city of Rome was slowly taken over by Germanic people during the Migration period, Constantinople was the only remaining capital of the empire. This Eastern empire had a smaller territory than the original Roman Empire.
Problems in the Empire (476–717 AD)
Wars in the West
The Byzantine Empire tried to take back Rome and Italy from the Germans. Between 530–555 AD, the Byzantines won many battles and took back Rome.
These gains did not last however. More Germans came and eventually Italy and Rome was lost again. Worse was to come when Avar and Slavic peoples came to take Southeast Europe from the Byzantines. After the 560s, the invaders gradually conquered the Balkans except for parts of modern Greece and Albania. These invaders were later followed by the Bulgarians. The Avars and Bulgarians were both Turkic peoples at first. They ruled over Slavic people called "Sklavinai" and slowly absorbed Slavic language and customs.
Wars in the East
After western Rome was captured by Germanic people, the Empire continued to control modern Egypt, Greece, Palestine, Syria and Turkey. However, another empire, known as the Persian or Sassanid Empire, tried to take these lands for itself. Between 224 and 628, the Greco-Romans and the Persians fought many battles with many men killed in the fighting. Eventually, the Persians were defeated in 627 in modern-day Iraq, near the ancient city of Nineveh, allowing the Byzantines to keep their lands.
After this, another enemy appeared: the Arabs. The Byzantines were economically damaged by the battles with the Persians. They could not withstand the Arabs. Palestine, Syria and Egypt were lost between 635 and 645. However, the Byzantines defended Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and the Arab advance stopped.
Recovery of the Empire (717–1025 AD)
In 718, the Arabs were defeated outside Constantinople, ending the Arab threat in the east, but leaving the Byzantine Empire severely weakened. In the west, the Byzantines launched a number of attacks against the Bulgarians. Some of these were successful, others were not and led to the deaths of many emperors. Over time, the Byzantine Empire would become weaker as it lost land to outside invaders.
Recovery in the west
Between 1007–1014, the ambitious Byzantine emperor Basil II attacked Bulgaria many times and eventually won a great victory. Later, he fully recaptured Greece, adding it back to the Byzantine Empire. He then went on to conquer Bulgaria, which was completed in 1018.
Recovery in the east
In the east, the Arabs once again became a threat to the empire. However, Basil II's attacks won many more victories. Much of Syria was restored to the empire and Turkey and Armenia were secured. After 1025, the Arabs were no longer a threat to the Byzantine Empire.
Decline of the Empire (1025–1453 AD)
Start of Decline (1025–1071)
After the Byzantine Emperor Basil II died, many unskilled Emperors came to the throne. They wasted the money of the Empire and reduced its army. This meant that it could not defend itself well against enemies if they would attack. Later, the Byzantines relied on mercenaries, soldiers who fought for money and not for their country, so they were less loyal and reliable and more expensive. Because they had mercenaries, military generals were able to rise to power and grab it from the elaborate bureaucracy, a system of administration where tasks are divided by departments.
Rise of the Turks (1071–1091)
A large number of people known as the Turks rode on horseback from central Asia and attacked the Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Empire took most of Anatolia from the Byzantines by 1091. However, the Byzantines received help from people in Europe. This help is known as the First Crusade. Many knights and soldiers left to help the Byzantines but also to secure Jerusalem for Christians, which at the time was in Muslim hands.
The Byzantines survive (1091–1185)
The Byzantine Empire survived and with the help of the Europeans took back half of Turkey from the Turks, with the other half remaining under the Turks. The Byzantines survived because three good Emperors ruled one after the other, allowing the Byzantines to grow strong again.
The Byzantines become weak again (1185-1261)
After the three good Emperors, the remaining Emperors ruled badly and again wasted a lot of money and soldiers.
In the west, the Europeans betrayed the Byzantines and attacked their capital, Constantinople. The Byzantines lost their capital in 1204 and they did not take it back until 1261. The Byzantines were then divided into many smaller Greek states that were fighting with each other for the throne of the empire.
The Turks take the Byzantines (1261–1453)
After the Byzantines took back Constantinople, they were too busy fighting the Europeans who had betrayed them and could not find enough soldiers or money to fight the new Ottoman Empire of the Turks. All of Anatolia was lost by 1331. In 1369, the Turks crossed over from Turkey and into Greece, taking over much of Greece between 1354 and 1450.
The Byzantines lost so much land, money and soldiers that they became very weak and begged for help from the Europeans. Some soldiers and ships came from Italy and the Pope to assist the Byzantines when the Turks attacked Constantinople in April 1453. They were very outnumbered though and the walls of Constantinople were badly damaged by cannons used by the Turks. At the end of May 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople by entering through one of the gates along the walls and the empire came to an end. The city was plundered for three days. At the end, the population which had not been able to escape, was deported to Edirne, Bursa and other Ottoman cities, leaving the city deserted except for the Jews of Balat and the Genoese of Pera. After that, Constantinople became Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, which it would be until the 1900s, when the capital was moved to Ankara, a city in the Asian part of Turkey.
Legacy
The Byzantine Empire had many achievements:
They protected Europe from eastern invasions.
They preserved Greek language and Hellenistic culture.
They preserved many Roman political traditions that had been lost by Western Europe.
They kept a lot of knowledge for us to read about today.
They produced much fine art with a distinctive style.
They were the protectors and sponsors of the Eastern Church, which later becomes the Orthodox Church.
They used good architecture that is still used.
Their cities had plumbing which is still in use.
A lot of beautiful churches and mosques in Turkey and Greece today are either made from Byzantine buildings or inspired by them.
They made several inventions, such as the flamethrower and "Greek fire", a kind of napalm.
They made advances in many studies, like political studies, diplomacy and military sciences.
Notes
See also
Byzantine art
Byzantine Greeks
References
Citations
Sources
Other websites
World History Encyclopedia: Byzantine Empire
Roman Emperors (De Imperatoribus Romanis)
18 Centuries of Roman Empire: A Cartography by Howard Wiseman
12 Byzantine Rulers: The History of the Byzantine Empire (Lars Brownworth)
18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).
Byzantine & Christian Museum
Dumbarton Oaks: Byzantine Studies
Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the Internet
Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204
De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History
Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium
Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life (University of Vienna)
Constantinople Home Page
Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture.
Byzanzforschung: Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
Places of Ancient Rome
Former countries in Europe
Former countries in the Middle East
Former countries in Africa
Roman Empire
285 establishments
1453 disestablishments
Establishments in Africa
3rd-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in Europe
Disestablishments in Europe
Disestablishments in Asia
Disestablishments in Africa |
The (; ; Wade–Giles: ku-ch'in; literally "ancient stringed-instrument") is the modern name for a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument of the zither family. It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favored by educated people as an instrument of great beauty and refinement. It is uncommonly spelt as Gu Qin (and sometimes GuQin or Gu-qin) in English.
Traditionally the instrument was called simply qin 「琴」, but by the 20th century the term had come to be used on many other musical instruments as well (for example, the yangqin 「揚琴」 hammered dulcimer, the huqin 「胡琴」 family of bowed string instruments, and the Western piano (; literally "steel stringed-instrument")), so the prefix "gu-" 「古」 (meaning "ancient") was added for clarification. It can also be called qixianqin 「七絃琴」 ("seven-stringed instrument"). The guqin is not to be confused with the guzheng, another Chinese long zither also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Because Robert Hans van Gulik's famous book about the qin is called The Lore of the Chinese Lute, the qin is sometimes inaccurately called a lute. Other incorrect classifications (mainly from music CDs) include "harp" or "table-harp". Other Western nicknames for the guqin include "Chinese guitar" and "Chinaman's harp".
The qin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register (its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello). Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. Stopped sounds are special for the variety of slides and ornaments used, and the use of glissando (sliding tones) gives it a sound similar to a pizzicato cello or fretless bass guitar. Extended sections in music scores consisting entirely of harmonics are common, this made possible because the 91 indicated harmonic positions allow great flexibility; early tablature shows that even more harmonic positions were used in the past. By tradition the qin originally had five strings, but ancient qin-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized from about two thousand years.
History
Legend has it that the qin, has a history of about 5,000 years; that the legendary people of China's pre-history; Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di (the Yellow Emperor), was involved in its creation. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and related instruments have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. Chinese tradition says the qin originally had five strings, but then two were added about 1,000 BCE, making seven.
Based on the detailed description in the poetic essay "Qin Fu" 【琴賦】 by Xi Kang / Ji Kang (223–262), the form of the qin that is recognizable today was most likely set around the late Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). The earliest surviving qin in this modern form, preserved in both Japan and China, have been dated to the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Many are still playable, the most famous perhaps being the one named "Jiuxiao Huanpei" 《九霄環佩》, said to have been made by the famous late Tang dynasty qin maker Lei Wei (雷威). It is kept in the Forbidden City Museum in Beijing.
According to Robert Temple, the qin played an important part in the gaining the first understanding of music timbre for the Chinese. He said that "the Chinese understanding of the nature of sound as vibration was much increased by studying the production of timbre on the strings of the ch'in." This understanding of timbre, overtones and higher harmonics eventually led the Chinese to discover equal temperament in music.
In 1977, a recording of "Liu Shui" (Flowing Water, as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecrafts. It is the longest music track included on the disc. In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.
Schools, societies and players
Historical schools and societies
Because of the difference in geography in China, many qin schools known as qin pai (琴派) developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest.
The main schools are:
Guangling (廣陵); Yushan (虞山 also known as Qinchuan (琴川) or Shu (熟)) in Changshu 常熟
Shu (蜀 or Chuan (川)) in Sichuan 四川
Fanchuan (泛川)
Songjiang (松江)
Jinling (金陵)
Zhucheng (諸城)
Mei'an (梅庵 / 楳盦)
Min (閩) in Fujian 福建
Pucheng (浦城)
Jiuyi (九嶷)
Zhe (浙)
Shaoxing (紹興)
Wu (吳)
Shan'nan (山南)
Most qin schools and groups are based in China. During the 20th century some societies began in other countries. Qin study was initially confined to China in ancient times. Today countries like Japan also have their own qin small traditions. The Tokyo Qin Society was recently founded. Japan has published a qinpu (qin tablature collection) in the past, known as Toukou Kinpu or Donggao Qinpu 【東臯琴譜】.
Players
There have been many players throughout the ages. The instrument was a favourite of the scholars, so many artists played it. Some famous players are also associated with some melodies, like Confucius and Qu Yuan.
Historical:
Confucius 孔子: Philosopher, 551–479 BCE, associated with the piece Kongzi Duyi 《孔子讀易》, Weibian Sanjue 《韋編三絕》 and Youlan 《幽蘭》.
Bo Ya 伯牙: Qin player of the Spring and Autumn Period, associated with the piece Gao Shan 《高山》 and Liu Shui 《流水》.
Zhuangzi 莊子: Daoist philosopher of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Zhuang Zhou Mengdie 《莊周蒙蝶》 and Shenhua Yin 《神化引》.
Qu Yuan 屈原: Poet of the Warring States Period, associated with the piece Li Sao 《離騷》.
Cai Yong 蔡邕: Han Dynasty musician, author of Qin Cao 【琴操】.
Cai Wenji 蔡文姬: Cai Yong's daughter, associated with the piece Hujia Shiba-pai 《胡笳十八拍》, etc.
Sima Xiangru 司馬相如: Han poet, 179-117 BCE.
Ji Kang 嵇康: Sage of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet, writer of Qin Fu 【琴賦】.
Li Bai 李白: Tang poet, 701-762.
Bai Juyi 白居易: Tang poet, 772-846.
Song Huizong 宋徽宗: Song emperor famous for his patronage of the arts, had a Wanqin Tang 『萬琴堂』 ("10,000 Qin Hall") in his palace.
Guo Chuwang 郭楚望: Patriot at the end of the Song Dynasty, composer of the piece Xiaoxiang Shuiyun 《瀟湘水雲》.
Classical books such as Qin Shi, Qinshi Bu and Qinshi Xu have biographies of hundreds of more players.
Playing technique
The beauty of qin melodies comes not only from the melodies themselves, but from the variation a player can apply to the individual tones and their combinations. The rich tones of the qin can be categorised as three distinctively different "sounds." The first is san yin 〔散音〕, which means "scattered sounds." This meant simply pluck the required string to sound an open note. The second is fan yin 〔泛音〕, or "floating sounds." These are harmonics, and the player simply lightly touches the string with one or more fingers of the left hand at a position indicated by the white hui dots, pluck and then lift, creating a crisp and clear sound ringing sound. The third is an yin 〔按音 / 案音 / 實音 / 走音〕, or "stopped sounds." This forms the majority of most qin pieces and requires the player to press on a string with a finger or thumb of the left hand until it touches with the surface board, then pluck. Afterwards, the hand can slide up and down, thereby changing the pitch.
When plucking the strings, it is not required to attach fake-nails on one's fingers. One will often leave their fingernails long, and cut them into an rounded shape. The length is subjective and will depend on the player's preference, but it is usually around 3-4mm from the finger tip. If it is too short, then the finger tip will deaden the sound as it touches the string after the nail has plucked it. If it is too long then the fingers can make playing difficult. Generally, the nails of the right hand are kept long, whilst the nails of the left are cut short, so as to be able to press on the strings without difficulty.
There are eight basic right hand finger techniques: pi 〈劈〉 (thumb pluck outwards), tuo 〈托〉 (thumb pluck inwards), mo 〈抹〉 (index in), tiao 〈挑〉 (index out), gou 〈勾〉 (middle in), ti 〈剔〉 (middle out), da 〈打〉 (ring in), and zhai 〈摘〉 (ring out); the little finger is not used. Out of these basic eight, their combinations create many more. Cuo 〈撮〉 is to pluck two strings at the same time, lun 〈輪〉 is to pluck a string with the ring, middle and index finger out in quick succession, the suo 〈鎖〉 technique involves plucking a string several times in a fixed rhythm, bo 〈撥〉 cups the fingers and strums two strings at the same time, and gun fu 〈滾拂〉 is to create a sequence of sounds by running up and down the strings continuously with the index and middle fingers. These are just a few.
Left hand techniques start from the simple pressing down on the string (mostly with the thumb between the flesh and nail, and the ring finger), sliding up or down to the next note (shang 〈上〉 and xia 〈下〉), to vibrati by swaying the hand (yin 〈吟〉 and nao 〈猱〉, there are as many as 15 plus different forms of vibrato), plucking the string with the thumb whilst the ring finger stops the string at the lower position (qiaqi 〈掐起 / 搯起〉), hammering on a string using the thumb (yan 〈掩 / 罨〉), to more difficult techniques such as pressing on several strings at the same time.
Techniques executed by both hands together are more difficult to achieve, for example, qia cuo san sheng 〈掐撮三聲〉 (a combination of hammering on and off then plucking two strings, then repeating), to more exciting forms, like pressing of all seven strings with the left, then strumming all the strings with the right, then the left hand quickly moves up the qin, creating a rolling sound like a bucket of water being thrown in a deep pool of water (this technique is used in the Shu style of Liu Shui to copy the sound of water).
In order to master the qin, there are in excess of 50 different techniques that must be mastered. Even the most commonly used (such as tiao) are difficult to get right without proper instruction from a teacher.
Tablature and notation
Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played like many outer musical instruments; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and plucking technique, thus made up of a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. Some tablatures do indicate notes using the gongche notation system, or indicate rhythm using dots.
The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the 12th century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the 7th century CE, called Jieshi Diao: You Lan 《碣石調幽蘭》 (Solitary Orchid, in Stone Tablet Mode). It is written in a longhand form called wenzi pu 〔文字譜〕 (literally "written notation"), which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty, Cao Rou (曹柔) and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, hui number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called jianzi pu 〔減字譜〕 (literally "reduced notation") and it was a great step forward for recording qin scores. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) onwards, a lot of qinpu 〔琴譜〕 (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan (朱勸), the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 130 qinpu that contain well over 3360 pieces of written music. Many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years.
Existing qinpu generally come from private collections or in public libraries throughout China, etc. Those that are available for public purchase are photographic copies printed and bound in the traditional Chinese bookbinding process. More modern qinpu tend to be bound in the normal Western way on modern paper. The format uses qin notation with staff notation and/or jianpu notation.
Repertoire
Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San" 《廣陵散》, which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" 《流水》 (Flowing Water), "Yangguan San Die" 《陽關三疊》 (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" 《梅花三弄》 (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" 《瀟湘水雲》 (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" 《平沙落雁》 (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player can generally play around ten pieces from memory which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it. Players mainly learn popular well studied versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to be successful at it.
Dapu 〔打譜〕 is the conversion of old tablature into a playable form. This can be used to create new music as well as to reconstruct the ancient melodies. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for him/herself. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be looked at if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them. If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to say that qin music has no rhythm or melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the shorthand notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced. There are two views of how to best use dapu: one is to use it to create new music, and the other is to use it to reconstruct the way the original music was played.
Construction
According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang 周文王 added a sixth string to mourn his son, Bo Yihou 伯邑考. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang 周武王, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen hui 『徽』 on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent earth. The entire length of the qin (in Chinese measurements) is 3 feet, 6.5 inches, representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" 『龍池』 and "phoenix pond" 『鳳沼』.
The sound chamber of the qin is constructed with two boards of wood, typically of differing wood types. The slightly rounded top board (soundboard) is usually made of tong wood 『桐』, the Chinese parasol tree, or Chinese paulownia. The bottom board is made of zi mu 『梓木』 catalpa (Catalpa ovata) or, more recently, nan mu 『楠木』 camphor wood (Machilus nanmu). The wood must be well aged, that is, the sap and moisture must be removed (of the top board wood). If sap remains then the sound will not be clear and, as the moisture evaporates, the wood will warp and crack. Some makers use old or ancient wood to construct qins because most of the sap and moisture has been removed naturally by time (old shan mu 『杉木』, Chinese Cunninghamia or Japanese Cryptomeria, is often used for creating modern qins). Some go to lengths to obtain extremely ancient wood, such as that from Han dynasty tomb structures or coffins. Although such wood is very dry, it is not necessarily the best since it may be infected with wood worm or be of a bad quality or type. Many modern qins made out of new tong wood (such as those made by Zeng Chengwei) can be better than the quality of antique qins.
There are two sound holes in the bottom board, as the playing techniques of the qin employ the entire surface of the top board which is curved / humped. The inside of the top board is hollowed out to a degree. Inside the qin, there are 'nayin' 『納音』 sound absorbers, and a 'tian chu' 『天柱』 and 'di chu' 『地柱』 soundposts that connect the bottom board to the top. The boards are joined using bamboo nails. Lacquer 『漆』 from the Chinese lacquer tree (Rhus vernicifera) is then applied to the surfaces of the qin, mixed with various types of powder, the most common being "lujiao shuang" 『鹿角霜』, the remains of deer antler after the glue has been eremoved. Often, ceramic powder is used instead of deer antler powder, but the quality is not as good. After the lacquer has dried (a qin will need several layers), the surface will be polished using oil stones. At the head end of the instrument is the "yue shan" 『岳山』 or bridge, and at the other end is the "long yin" 『龍齦』 (dragon's gums) or nut. There are 13 circular mother-of-pearl inlays which mark the harmonic positions, as well as a reference point to note position, called hui 『徽』 ("insignia").
Strings
Until the Cultural Revolution, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk 『絲』, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound steel strings 『鋼絲』. This was partly due to the scarcity of high quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone.
Silk strings are made by gathering a prescribed number of strands of silk thread, then twisting them tightly together. The twisted cord of strings is then wrapped around a frame and immersed in a vat of liquid of natural glue that binds the strands together. The strings are taken out and left to dry, before being cut into the appropriate length. The top thicker strings (i.e. strings one to four) are further wrapped in a thin silk thread, coiled around the core to make it smoother.
Recently in China, production of very good quality silk strings has resumed and more players are beginning to use them. Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone. Furthermore, it is the case that nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds.
Tuning
To string a qin, one traditionally had to tie a butterfly knot (shengtou jie 『蠅頭結』) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord (rongkou 『絨剅』) which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs (zhen 『軫』). The string is dragged over the bridge (yueshan 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut (longyin 『龍齦』 dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around two legs (fengzu 『鳳足』 "phoenix feet" or yanzu 『雁足』 "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine tuned using the tuning pegs. The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 〈正調〉, is pentatonic: 1245612 in the traditional Chinese number system or jianpu 〔簡譜〕. Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d, but this should be considered do re fa so la do re, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch. In fact the same tuning can also be considered as 5612356 when the third string is played as do. Thus, except when accompanied by other instruments, only the pitch relations between the seven strings needs to be accurate. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus manjiao diao 〈慢角調〉 (slackened third string) gives 1235612 and ruibin diao 〈蕤賔調〉 (raised fifth string) gives 1245712, which is transposed to 2356123.
Playing context
The guqin is nearly always used a solo single instrument, as its quietness of tone means that it cannot be heard over the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a xiao (end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the se (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings, similar to the Japanese koto) was frequently used in duets with the qin.
In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the xiao generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the key of F, known as qin xiao, which is narrower than an ordinary xiao. If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in an operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. To enjoy qin songs, one must learn to become accustomed to the strange style some players may sing their songs to.
Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet studio or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yaji (『雅集』 literally "elegant gatherings"), at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin.
References
Chinese books on qin:
Zhou, Ningyun (1915). Qinshu Cunmu.
Zha, Fuxi (1958). Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. .
Xu, Jian (1982). Qinshi Chubian. Beijing: The People's Music Publishers. .
Li, Xiangting (1992). Tangdai Guqin Yanzou Meixue ji Yinyue Sixiang Yanjiu. Taipei.
Gong, Yi (1999). Guqin Yanzhoufa; 2nd ed., rev. inc. 2 CDs. Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Publishers.
Li, Mingzhong (2000). Zhongguo Qinxue. Volume one. Shanxi: Shanxi Society Science Magazine Association.
Yin, Wei (2001). Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi. Yunnan: People's Publishers of Yunnan. /I‧866
Li, Xiangting (2004). Guqin Shiyong Jiaocheng. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publishers.
Yao, Bingyan and Huang, Shuzhi (2005). Tangdai Chen Zhuo Lun Guqin Zhifa: Yao Bingyan Qinxue Zhu Shu zhi Yi. Beijing: Shu zhi Zhai Wenhua Co. Ltd. .
Wu, Zhao (2005). Jueshi Qingyin; inc. 1 CD. Suzhou: Ancient Inn of Wu Publishings. /G‧259
English books on qin:
Gulik, Robert Hans van (1940, 1969). The Lore of the Chinese Lute. 2nd ed., rev. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles Tuttle and Sophia University; Monumenta Nipponica.
Gulik, Robert Hans van (1941). Hsi K'ang and his Poetical Essay on the Chinese Lute. Tokyo: Monumenta Nipponica.
Lieberman, Fredric (1983). A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u. Trans. and commentary. Washington and Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
Other websites
Historical
A Complete Study of the Chinese Zither is an old book from 1670
Qin society sites
North American Guqin Association Wang Fei's US based qin society, with a link to a store that sells good quality qins, CDs and books as well as other Chinese instruments, updates often and a library of qin music samples and other useful material
London Youlan Qin Society Cheng Yu's UK based qin society with information about each yaji and regular updates on upcoming events
New York Qin Society New York based qin society, with information of their previous yaji, now updated with new material.
General Qin sites
John Thompson's Silk-stringed Qin A host of information on the qin and silk strings for qins in English, including extensive study of Shenqi Mipu and analysis of playing style, plus useful section on qin sources
Yugu Zhai Qinpu Jim Binkley's translation of the qin construction manual with links to other sources. Includes a qin FAQ section and pictures of his 'blue qin' made by himself
Friends of Guqin : Amics del Guqin 古琴之友 A site by Qin players in Spain (English)/(Spanish)/(Catalan)
Other specialist Qin sites
Wang Fei's Webpage A site about Wang Fei and her projects, with links to other interconnected sites
Qiulai 秋籟 Cheng Gongliang's site. In Chinese only
Sites with music samples
Listen to Qin Music page from John Thompson site
WOMAD 2005 for the Guqin and Pipa concert of Zeng Chengwei and Cheng Yu
Plucked string instruments
Chinese music
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity |
Ripuarian may refer to:
Ripuarian Franks, a subset of Frankish people who lived in the Rhineland
Ripuarian language, a West Central German dialect group
Riparian water rights (or simply riparian rights) a system for allocating water among those who possess land along its path
Riparian zone (or riparian area), the interface between land and a river or stream
Riparian-zone restoration, the ecological restoration of riparian zone habitats of streams, rivers, springs, lakes, floodplains, and other hydrologic ecologies
Related pages
London Stone (riparian), the name given to a number of boundary stones which stand beside the rivers Thames and Medway, which formerly marked the limits of jurisdiction of the City of London |
Vandal can mean several things:
The Vandals were a German tribe during the migration period (a time when groups of people moved around) in Europe.
Vandal is also what a person that does vandalism is called
Specifically on Wikipedia, it is someone who vandalizes pages. |
São Paulo (Portuguese: Saint Paul) is a state in the Southeast Region of Brazil. Its capital city is called São Paulo too.
Geography and economy
São Paulo is located in the south-east region of Brazil, with close to 248,000 square kilometers of area. (For comparison, Oregon State in the United States of America has 251,000 square miles).
It borders the state of Minas Gerais to the north, the state of Rio de Janeiro and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the state of Paraná to the south and state of Mato Grosso do Sul to the west.
The capital of São Paulo is the city of São Paulo.
São Paulo is the state in Brazil with the highest economical output.
It has the second highest per capita income of Brazil, second only to the Federal District, where Brasília is located.
With the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul it shares the highest standard of living in Brazil, despite of pockets of blight poverty in its largest cities.
The robust economy of São Paulo is based in industrial production, to include automobile and aviation, agriculture, services and tourism.
Demographics
São Paulo is the Brazilian state with the largest population and also is the most ethnically diverse.
Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Arab, Asian and other descents chose São Paulo as their home, due to its thriving economy.
Also migrants from other Brazilian states (especially from the Northeast Region) come to São Paulo in search of a better life. Because there are not enough jobs, these people usually want to back to their states.
Transportation
São Paulo is the state in Brazil with the largest and most efficient transportation system.
The city of São Paulo relies on underground train and also suburban at-grade rail systems. City buses complement the public transportation system.
Air traffic is the busiest of all Brazil.
Harbors along the state's ocean front receive and ship a great share of Brazil's export and import goods.
Sports
São Paulo is a vibrant place when it comes to sports. Football (soccer) is king but the state has human resources and facilities to produce some of the best athletes in the world in many other fields.
The state has many professional soccer clubs but also volleyball has found a niche here.
Auto racing is a staple of the paulista's way of life. The state has produced several racing drivers that have attained international fame.
Main cities
São Paulo, Campinas, Guarulhos, Osasco, Ribeirão Preto, Santo André, Santos, São Bernardo do Campo, São Carlos, São José dos Campos and Sorocaba.
References
Other websites
Official site (Portuguese)
States of Brazil |
A trolley is a small vehicle with wheels that can carry things. People can push trolleys.
There are different kind of trolleys. There are shopping trolleys which are used in supermarkets and other large stores with self-service. In American English these are called shopping carts. Customers can put things they want to buy in the trolley and then pay for everything at the checkout. Usually they are then allowed to wheel the trolley with the things they have bought out to their car.
Sometimes the customers have to pay a small deposit when collecting a trolley. The trolleys are chained together. The customer puts in a coin (in Britain a £1 coin) which he can have back again when he parks the trolley back in the trolley chain.
Trolleys are used in airports and some large railway stations for passengers to carry their luggage. Deposits are not refundable.
A trolley can also be a tea-trolley. This is a small trolley used traditionally in the house for plates, cups, saucers and sandwiches and cakes for afternoon tea. Tea-trolleys are also used in hospitals and offices to take cups of tea and coffee to people.
In American English "trolley" can be used to mean a tram (or streetcar). This is not to be confused with a trolleybus which is a bus which uses electricity from an overhead cable (like a tram).
Land vehicles |
Abuse might mean:
Abuse of power
Alcohol abuse
Animal abuse
Child abuse
Domestic abuse
Physical abuse
Psychological abuse
Sexual abuse |
A mutant is a type of fictional character in a fictional universe created by Marvel Comics. In this world, mutants can be either heroes or villains. A mutant is someone who has different DNA than its parents. These mutations often lead to superpowers. They may also cause physical changes such as wings, blue skin, or a tail.
Mutants were created in the Marvel Universe in the 1960s with the comic book The X-Men. It was a way for them to tell stories that dealt with racism. Racism, hatred and fear of mutants are an important part of their history . Two main teams of mutants have been around since the 1960s: The X-Men (heroes) and the Brotherhood of Mutants (villains).
Overview
Sometimes a human is born with a certain kind of DNA change. This X-GENE is passed to their children. This genetic change may not create any noticeable difference. It could pass for generations without anyone knowing about it.
Mutants may be born to human or mutant parents, though the odds of a mutant birth are much better for the latter. Likewise, it is rare but possible for mutant parents to have human children, termed "baseline" by characters within the Marvel Universe. Some baseline humans are genetically predisposed towards having mutant descendants such as the Guthrie family (see Cannonball, Husk, and Icarus). Mutant children born to mutant parent(s) will not necessarily have the same power(s) as their parent(s), nor will they necessarily have the same power(s) as any mutant siblings they may have; however, examples of children with the same power(s) as their parents and/or siblings are not uncommon.
There is, however, a chance that mutants may not even be able to reproduce a child at all. The Hayes (Runaways), telepathic mutant doctors, were unsure their mutant heritage could even produce a child; it did, however, take them several years to finally have a child: Molly Hayes.
Classification
Marvel's mutants are classified by their level of power.
OMEGA: Omega mutants are those with the highest level of power. They are the most powerful of the Alphas.
ALPHA: Alpha mutants have very powerful and useful mutant powers and no drawbacks such as changes in appearance. They are perhaps the most feared mutants.
BETA: Betas are as powerful as alphas but they have some physical changes as a drawback.
GAMMA: Gammas are also powerful mutants but they suffer from large physical changes. These changes make their lives very hard and make them very easy to tell they are a mutant.
DELTA: Delta mutants have low levels of power than Alphas. Like Alphas, they have no physical changes. Most Deltas do not even know they are mutants.
EPSILON: Epsilons have minor superhuman powers and major physical flaws. They are easily recognized just by looking at them.
Note: Only Alpha and Omega have actually been used as classification within comics. The other ranks were created by fans.
Mutants as a metaphor for racism
The X-Men were created in the 1960s during a time of civil unrest in the United States. The characters allowed the writer to write stories that showed racism and bigotry without singling out a specific minority.
By classifying Mutants as they did, they also created different aspects of racism. Some mutants are easily recognized by how they look (similar to African-Americans). Some have a few physical characteristics that can make them get noticed (Similar to Jews). Other mutants blend in so well that it nearly impossible to tell they are a mutant unless they use their powers (similar to how people in the LGBT community were thought of in society).
In the Marvel universe normal people often hate and fear mutants. This is because they think mutants may make normal humans extinct. They fear what they do not understand. They are jealous of them having superpowers. Bigotry and xenophobia are also reasons for hatred of mutants. In the Marvel universe, anti-mutant feeling has led to the separation of mutants from society. It has led to mob violence and government sponsored attempts to fight mutants.
The X-Men books have been written as typical superhero comic books. They have epic adventures and battles with super villains. Yet, the idea of mutants as a metaphor for real world minorities who face oppression is shown throughout the series. Some examples:
Magneto, a Jewish Holocaust survivor who once lived in Israel. He has tried to create a "mutant home state" similar to Israel. He became ruler of Genosha, a fictional island off the coast of Madagascar, recognized by the United Nations as a mutant state.
The 1981 story set in the future, Days of Futures' Past, shows a mutant Holocaust. Mutants are herded into concentration camps and killed.
Senator Robert Kelly has proposed a Mutant Registration Act. It would force mutants to list their powers and identities with the federal government. This is very similar to McCarthyism and other acts of Congress that outlawed the American Communist Party.
The anti-mutant hate group Friends of Humanity was inspired by the Aryan Nations. Its leader was inspired on Frank Collin, Chairman of the National Socialist (Nazi) Party of America.
Most mutant powers take effect at puberty. A large number of young mutants are rejected by their families. This is similar to young gay people discovering their homosexuality in their teen years and the rejection they receive from their family. This is show very openly in the second X-Men movie with the line "Have you ever tried not being a mutant?"
The Legacy Virus storyline of the 1990s was seen as a metaphor for the AIDS epidemic.
Other websites
Marvel Entertainment official site
Marvel Comics |
The urethra is a tube that connects the bladder to the outside of the body. It allows people and animals to remove urine from the body. People and animals control urination using the urethral sphincter.
The urethra is part of the urinary system in mammals. Because humans are mammals, they have urethras. In male mammals, the urethra is also a part of the reproductive system, because males use it as a tube for sperm during sex.
Human anatomy
In human anatomy, men have longer urethras than women. This means that women have bladder infections more often, because their bladders are closer to the outside. Because the male urethra is longer and is not straight, inserting a catheter (tube to help urination) is more difficult in men.
In women, the urethra is 3-4 cm (1.5 in) long. Its opening to the outside of the body is part of the vulva (the area between a woman's legs). The female urethra is between the clitoris and the opening to the vagina. Men's urethra goes through their penis, but in women it is not in the clitoris.
In men, the urethra is about 20 cm (8 in) long and its opening to the outside of the body is at the end of the penis.
The male urethra has three sections:
The prostatic urethra crosses the prostate gland. The vas deferens also opens into the urethra in this section.
The membranous urethra is a short section that goes through the urethral sphincter. It is 1 or 2 cm long, and is the narrowest (least wide) part of the urethra.
The spongy or penile urethra goes through the penis on its lower side. This section is 15-16 cm (6 in) long and goes through the corpus spongiosum.
Medical problems
Urethritis is infection of the urethra. It often pain when urinating.
Urethral syndrome is related to urethritis.
Kidney stones that go through the urethra can be painful.
Medical procedures
To send a tube up the urethra to help drain urine is a common type of catheterization.
To send a tube up the urethra to see the inside of the bladder is called cystoscopy.
Anatomy of the urinary system
Anatomy of the male reproductive system |
Stanisław Herman Lem () (September 12, 1921 – March 27, 2006) was a Polish science fiction writer. His writings are highly philosophical and satirical. His books have been translated into 41 languages. Over 27 million copies of his books have been sold worldwide. At one point he was among the most widely read science fiction authors in the world. Lem's writing is full of intelligent humor, puns, and neologisms, and Michael Kandel's translations into English have been praised by many for capturing Lem's style.
Lem is perhaps best known for his novel Solaris. This novel was published in 1961. It is set into the future. Humans have discovered what they think is intelligent life in space. They want to talk to the alien life form. The only problem they have is that the life form is the size of a planet. It is an ocean. This book has also been made into a film by Andrei Tarkowski in 1972. Steven Soderbergh made another film of the book in 2002.
Lem won various prizes for his novels.
References
Other websites
1921 births
2006 deaths
Lem, Stanislaw |
A hostage is a person who is held captive against his or her will. Hostages are often taken (held captive) to force someone else to do something for their captors (the people who took them hostage). Hostages are taken for many different reasons.
Kidnapping is the act of taking a hostage and asking for a sum of money, called ransom. If the ransom is paid, the hostage is freed. If the ransom is not paid, the hostage is killed.
During some crimes, for example when robbing a bank, hostages may be taken to stop the police from attacking. The hostages are commonly used to help the thief escape by either stopping the police from shooting them or by freeing a hostage if the police will do something, for example, getting the robbers a car or a helicopter.
Hostages may be taken for political reasons. This is mostly done as a form of terrorism. It is often done to get prisoners freed or get attention for a group or issue.
Kidnapping |
Intel Corporation (Integrated Electronics Corporation) is a microprocessor company that was set up in the 1960s. Different types of processors made by Intel are used in many computers. Their most famous older products are the i386, i486, and Pentium models. Intel makes many different products, with their first dedicated consumer GPU scheduled to be released in late 2021. The first Pentium chips were released on March 22, 1993.
Intel Corporation is traded on the NASDAQ under the ticker INTC and has been a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average since 1999.
Processors
The 4-bit processors
Intel 4004
Intel 4040
The 8-bit processors
Intel 8080
Intel 8085
The 16-bit processors
Intel 8086
Intel 8088
Intel 80286
The 16-bit processors: the 80386 range
Intel 80386
From 1993 to today
Pentium
Atom
Celeron
Intel Core
Intel Core 2
Intel Core i3
Intel Core i5
Intel Core i7
Intel Core i9
References
Other websites
Official homepage of Intel
American technology companies
1968 establishments in the United States
1960s establishments in California |
The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is the first video game console made by Nintendo in Japan, Europe, the United States. It came out in 1985 in the United States and was very popular.
The controller for the e joysticks that older consoles had. It had a D-pad button, that could go up, down, left, or right. It also had A, B, Select, and Start buttons. The NES could use up to two controllers for multiplayer games. There were also other types of controllers that could be used with the NES.
Some famous games for the NES are Super Mario Bros., The Legend of Zelda, Metroid, Mega Man, Castlevania, Donkey Kong, and Final Fantasy. There have been many sequels made to these games and they are still enjoyed today. Nintendo discontinued (stopped making and selling) the NES in 1995.
Technical details
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) in the NES is called MOS 6502 and is an 8-bit CPU. The chip that contains the CPU also contains other electronics that generate sound for games and help with some other things. There are two different versions of the chip called 2A03 and 2A07 that are used in different regions of the world (2A03 works with NTSC TVs, 2A07 with PAL TVs). It was made by a company called Ricoh.
The NES uses a chip called the PPU (Picture Processing Unit) to draw graphics on the TV. It has two different versions called 2C02 (for NTSC TVs) and 2C07 (for PAL TVs). It was also made by Ricoh.
Related pages
10NES
Nintendo
References
Nintendo video game consoles |
System of a Down is an American metal band. They started in 1995 in Los Angeles, California with four members of Armenian descent, Serj Tankian (lead singer, born August 21, 1967), Daron Malakian (lead guitar, singer, born July 18, 1975), Shavo Odadjian (bass, background singer, born April 22, 1974) and drummer Andy Khachaturian (but was replaced with John Dolmayan).
The band has five albums:
System of a Down (1998)
Toxicity (2001)
Steal This Album! (2002)
Mezmerize (2005)
Hypnotize (2005).
The band became successful with popular songs like "Sugar", "Spiders", "Chop Suey!", "Toxicity", "Aerials", "B.Y.O.B.", "Question!", "Hypnotize", and "Lonely Day".
After the release of MEZMERIZE/Hypnotize, System of a Down went on a break, but they say they have not broken up.
Often described as very angry, Khachaturian was unhappy about his place as drummer, and wanted to lead the band. He left the band and the drummer from the band, "Friik", John Dolmayan, joined the band.
Early days
Serj, Daron, and Shavo, went to the same school, Alex Pilibos School for Armenian Americans in Los Angeles, when they were young.
In 1995, they made their first demo tape, and had the songs: "Suite-Pee", "Sugar", "Dam", and "P.L.U.C.K.(Politically Lying Unholy Cowardly Killers)". In 1996, another demo tape was released with the songs: Soil, and two songs that were not on the first album, "Honey" and "Temper". They made another demo tape, and this was the one that got them put on the record label. The producer, Rick Rubin, had tried to sign up the band several times before they agreed.
First album
In 1997, SOAD teamed up with Rubin and produced their first studio album. In 1998, System of a Down was released. This album was not as popular as the next album, but it made people aware of who and what System of a Down stood for.
Their next album, Toxicity, made in 2001, had their first UK top 20 single "Chop Suey". This album explores a more melodic side of metal music. It is also political; for example the opening track: "Prison Song" which has Serj speaking the lines.
Double album
In May 2005, the band released part one of a double album, Mezmerize. It was more melodic than before, and included "B.Y.O.B" (Bring Your Own Bombs), and "Lost in Hollywood" - a song based on Daron's childhood about growing up in Hollywood, which he did not think was very glamorous.
Months later, the second part of the double album, Hypnotize, was released. This was the same sort of style because they were recorded at the same time.
Taking a break
In 2006, the band decided that they were going to have a break for a little while. They said they were going to come back together in a few years. After 10 years together, they each wanted to do different things for a while. There were rumors of them returning in 2011. In July 2010, Dolmayan said in an interview that the band would probably tour in 2011.
Band members
Current lineup
Serj Tankian – vocals, keyboards, rhythm guitar (1994–2006, 2010–present)
Daron Malakian – lead guitar, vocals (1994–2006, 2010–present)
Shavo Odadjian – bass, backing vocals (1994–2006, 2010–present)
John Dolmayan – drums, percussion (1997–2006, 2010–present)
Former
Andy Khachaturian – drums (1994–1997)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
System of a Down (June 30, 1998)
Toxicity (September 4, 2001)
Mezmerize (May 17, 2005)
Hypnotize (November 22, 2005)
Related pages
John Heartfield
References
American heavy metal bands
Grammy Award winners
Alternative metal bands
Musical groups from Los Angeles |
The Belarusian language (, biełaruskaja mova) is an Eastern Slavic language and an Indo-European language.
It is spoken in Belarus and eastern Poland (in the area of Białystok). It is also spoken by Belarusians who live in other countries of Europe, Australia, and North America.
Belarusian is written by the either the Cyrillic alphabet or the Latin alphabet.
References
Slavic languages
Languages of Europe |
Kevin Norwood Bacon (born July 8, 1958 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) is an American movie actor who has starred in Stir of Echoes, Wild Things, JFK, Footloose and Apollo 13, among others. He has been married to actress Kyra Sedgwick since September 4, 1988. They have two children, Travis and Sosie Ruth. Bacon is known for the Bacon Number.
References
Other websites
Bacon's official website
Actors from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
American movie actors
American movie producers
American television actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Saturn Award winners
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
1958 births
Living people |
Kyra Sedgwick (born August 19, 1965) is an American actress. She was born in New York City, New York to a father of English descent and a Jewish mother. She is the great-granddaughter of Endicott Peabody, the founder of Groton School. She is married to actor Kevin Bacon. She produced and starred in The Closer.
References
Other websites
1965 births
Living people
Actors from New York City
American movie actors
American movie producers
American television actors
American television producers
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors |
The Treaty of Versailles () was a peace treaty between the nations of Japan, the United States, France, Germany and the United Kingdom in 1919, after World War I. Germany, Austria and Hungary did not participate in writing the treaty. Germany had the choice of signing it or facing its occupation by Allied troops.
Germany had to reduce its armed forces from 6 million to 100,000 men and to get rid of its submarines and military aircraft and most of its artillery. It was allowed to keep only navy battleships.
Germany also had to give back the French territories that it had occupied. It also had to give up large territories to Poland and other neighbours and all of its colonies. It also had to pay huge reparations for the damage that had been done to Allied countries, especially France, during the war by German troops. The sum would be very large but was not yet fixed. Many gold marks had to be paid only as the first part of the German debt.
The treaty set up the League of Nations, which was intended to make decisions and to keep the peace after the treaty had been signed. The League solved some international disputes without war but could not stop World War II.
The treaty can be seen as a one-sided peace, which was dictated to Germany. The British economist John Maynard Keynes thought that it was a great mistake to force such harsh measures on the German people, but his advice was ignored.
Germany set up the democratic Weimar Republic, but it suffered an economic collapse that went with huge inflation of its currency, the Reichsmark.
Adolf Hitler became the German chancellor and got rid of the treaty. His actions would eventually lead to World War II.
Terms
Germany had to give back Alsace-Lorraine. France was still embarrassed that Germany had been taken during the Franco-Prussian War. The French also made Germany take its troops out of the Rhineland, the long stretch of land on Germany's border with France with the Rhine River, which was important since Germany had many factories and businesses there. If German troops returned the Rhineland, the treaty allowed the French were to invade Germany.
Germany also had to give parts to Poland, a country made out of Russian and Austrian parts and the Polish and Lithuanian people who lived in them. Poland had been a big kingdom a few hundred years earlier, but Austria, Prussia and Russia, during the Partitions of Poland, taken parts of the kingdom and ended its existence.
Belgium was allowed to have Moresnet and Eupen and Malmedy. That is the main reason that Belgium has a German-speaking community.
The treaty also split up many large empires on the losing side. US President Woodrow Wilson thought that was a very good idea because many people in Europe wanted to be free from the big empires. but that also created problems such as having many little countries next to a much bigger Germany.
In the separate Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye the same year, Austria-Hungary was split into many countries. One was Austria, which was meant to be the homeland of the Austrians, who spoke German and had ruled Austria-Hungary. Its capital was Vienna. One of the problems of the Treaty of Versailles was that most Austrians like Adolf Hitler thought that Austria should become part of Germany. That later led to the German invasion of Austria.
Hungary was also created. Like Poland, it was a country that had been strong centuries earlier. Another new country, Czechoslovakia, was created to be the homeland of the Czechs and Slovaks. The Czech part had been called Bohemia and Moravia before the war. Many Germans lived near its borders in the Sudetenland and insisted for it to be part of Germany, which Hitler later got.
Bosnia, Slovenia, Croatia (parts of Austria-Hungary), northern Macedonia (part of Bulgaria), Serbia, and Montenegro were made into one country, called Yugoslavia, meaning "Southern Slavic". The new country was made to be a Southern Slavic homeland but had many religious, linguistic and national differences.
New countries by the Baltic Sea (Estonia, Finland, Latvia, and Lithuania) were also created in other treaties after World War I. The Russian Revolution had started during the war, and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia was killed and a communist state formed. A civil war raged in Russia between the anticommunist Whites and the communist Reds. Russia had lost control of its western territory (Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Poland). Later, during World War II, the Soviet Union took over Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and half of Poland.
Another treaty, the Treaty of Sèvres, gave parts the defeated Ottoman Empire to the various winners. However, the Greek and Turkish Armies soon started another war.
Long-term problems
The German Empire became the Weimar Republic. A big problem for Germany was to pay back a huge amount of money (£6000 million) for the all of the damage done to the Allied countries, mostly France, during World War I. That made Germany one of the poorest countries in Europe for almost 20 years and caused political fighting in Germany. Two important parties, the Communist Party, which wanted a communist revolution like in Russia, and the Nazis, who thought that Germany should become the most powerful country in Europe, fought for many years.
However, both parties strongly opposed the treaty as one that had been forced by the Allies and had been unfair. After all, Germans had to live in new countries even if they wanted to be part of Germany, but new countries were set up under the excuse of respecting the will the local populations. The treaty was, for that reason and many others, hated in Germany.
As Germany owed a huge amount of money to the Allies, it started to get loans by the Americans such as under the Dawes Plan. During the Great Depression in 1932, the United States wanted all its money back. Germany refused to pay and printed more and more money to pay its debts. That led to hyperinflation and the Reichsmark was worthless. Some Germans even wanted to fight another war to get rid of it.
Also, the League of Nations, which had been created by the treaty, usually had too little power to stop wars from happening. Japan took Manchuria, but the League did not stop that from happening. Italy invaded Ethiopia, the Ethiopian emperor begged the League to help him, but it did not do much. Germany, Japan and Italy left the League, became the Axis powers, invaded many peaceful countries, and caused World War II. The United States and for some time the Soviet Union did not even join the League even though US President Woodrow Wilson had pushed for his idea to go into the treaty. The League was never taken seriously although it had been created partly to check that the treaty was being followed.
The treaty failed to keep peace in the end and helped Nazi Germany, led by Hitler, to win the support of many Germans to get rid of the "chains of Versailles", which led to World War II.
Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Rapollo in 1922 in which both governments agreed to ignore previous treaties such as Versailles, co-operate "in a spirit of mutual goodwill" and help each other with their economic needs.
Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, and World War II started that day.
References
Langley, Andrew, "Living through World War II'', Chicago, IL: Heinemann Library, 2012.
Other websites
Treaty of Versailles Citizendium
1919 in Europe
1919 in France
Versailles, Treaty of
World War I |
Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon) is a French overseas collectivity. It is made up of several small islands. They are close to Newfoundland on the eastern coast of Canada. It is the only remaining bit of the former French colonial empire territory of New France.
Communes
The communes are:
Miquelon-Langlade
Saint-Pierre
Historically L'Île-aux-Marins was a separate commune. Then in 1945 it was added into the commune of Saint-Pierre.
In each commune there are settlements Miquelon, Miquelon-Langlade and Saint-Pierre, Saint-Pierre.
References
Other websites
Official tourism website for St Pierre and Miquelon
Le Phare: Association of Tourism Professionals |
Fifty is the integer that is after forty-nine and before fifty-one.
The prime factors of fifty are 2 and 5. (2 * 5 * 5 = 50) The factors of 50 are 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, and 50. 5*10=50. 50 is the smallest number that can be written as the sum of two squares in two distinct ways: 50=12+72=52+52. Also, 50 is one-half of 100 or half of a century (a century is 100 years).
Integers |
Rzeszów (, ) is city in the south-east part of Poland in Subcarpathian Voivodeship with a population of 170,722 (2008). The city is located on the river Wislok.
Cities in Poland |
Events
January 14 – Hampton Court conference with James I of England, the Anglican bishops and representatives of Puritans
September 20 – Capture of Ostend by Spanish forces under Ambrosio Spinola after a three-year siege.
October 9 – Supernova 1604 is observed. As of this writing, this was the last supernova to be observed in the Milky Way.
November 1 – At Whitehall Palace in London, the William Shakespeare tragedy Othello is presented for the first time.
The Sikh Holy Scripture Guru Granth Sahib is compiled and edited by Guru Arjan .
Luis Váez de Torres is the first European to sail through the Torres Strait.
France begins settling Acadia, first successful French North American colony
France begins settling French Guiana.
England concludes the Treaty of London with Spain, ending its involvement in the Eighty Years' War.
Peter Blundell founds Blundell's School in Tiverton, England.
Za Dengel deposed as Emperor of Ethiopia by Za Sellase, who restores his cousin Yaqob.
The first known English Dictionary to be organized by alphabetical ordering was published. |
Houston is the largest city in the state of Texas. It is the fourth-largest city in the United States. As of 2019, it had a population of over 2 million people. Sylvester Turner became the mayor of Houston in 2015 is. Houston is named for Sam Houston, who fought for Texas freedom in 1836. It is well known for the Johnson Space Center of NASA.
Houston is known for having the largest medical center and complex in the world, the Texas Medical Center.
George Bush Intercontinental Airport is the main international airport serving Houston, and William P. Hobby Airport is the other international airport that is serving close to downtown Houston.
Sports
Houston has many sports teams, including the Astros, Texans, Rockets, and Houston Dynamo. The Astros play baseball, the Rockets play basketball, the Texans play American Football, and the Houston Dynamo play soccer.
Climate
Houston has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa in the Koeppen climate classification).
References
1836 establishments in the United States
1830s establishments in the Republic of Texas
County seats in Texas |
Events
Robert Warelwast becomes Bishop of Exeter.
March 13 – Cardinal Gregory is elected anti-pope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II.
August 9 – Deadly earthquake in Aleppo, Syria killing about 230,000 people.
August 22 – Battle of the Standard between David I of Scotland and the English. The Scots were defeated.
Bavaria was taken away from the Welfen Duke Henry the Proud and given to the Austrian Margrave Leopold IV. |
Events
1142
End of the reign of Emperor Sutoku, emperor of Japan
Emperor Konoe becomes Emperor of Japan
1143: Celestine II is elected pope.
1144: Pope Celestine II is succeeded by Pope Lucius II
1146: Saint Bernard of Clairvaux preaches the Second Crusade at Vezelay, Burgundy
1145–1147: Second Crusade. Crusaders capture Lisbon from Muslims |
Polynesians are native people from islands in Polynesia, including Hawaii, Tahiti, Samoa, and Maoris in New Zealand.
Polynesia |
Colonialism occurs when a country or a nation takes control of other lands, regions, or territories outside of its borders (boundaries of the country) by turning those other lands, regions, or territories into a colony. Usually, it is a more powerful, richer country that takes control of a smaller, less powerful region or territory. Sometimes the words "colonialism" and "imperialism" are used to mean the same thing. Colonialism is one of the main results of imperialism.
In the 1700s and 1800s, many of the richer, more powerful European countries (such as Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands) established colonies in the continents of Africa, South America, Asia, and the Caribbean.
Some countries use colonialism to get more land for their people to live in. They helped settlers move to the new area. The local people living in the land or territories were usually moved away by using force and violence from armies. To protect these settlers from the local residents who were pushed aside, colonial nations often set up a military fort or colonial police system.
Other countries use colonialism to get more land so that they can use the land for farming or to extract (take out) resources such as trees (wood), coal, or metals, or to create a local government or military fort.
Other countries use colonialism so that they can get workers from the poorer country to work in factories or farms (either in the richer country, or in the poorer country). In the past, powerful countries that were colonizing poorer countries or regions often forced the people from the poorer countries to work as slaves.
History
The Phoenicians started many trade colonies around the Mediterranean. Carthage was the largest and most famous colony, and also made other colonies including Cartagena in Spain.
Later, the Ancient Greeks expanded their territories with colonies. Ancient Greece was many city-states. Each city was independent with a government in place. Those cities also fought wars against each other and traded goods. To get more influence, or to secure a trade route, the city would send settlers to a new place. These people would then make a new city called a colony. Sometimes a new city had to pay some form of taxes to the mother city in exchange for protection, for example. The colonies, however, ruled themselves. The mother city did not send them a governor. Syracuse is the most famous of these Greek colonies.
If the Greek settlers found a local tribe living in the new territory, they would fight to force them to leave. The local tribe was usually made into slaves. The new colony would exploit the land it found, by growing crops or by raising cattle.
Ancient Rome invented the word "colonia" from the word "colonus" meaning "farmer". "Colonia" at that time meant a new town to which some Romans moved, including farmers. Many of the settlers were veterans. In later centuries the word "colony" less often meant settlers, and more often meant rule by foreigners.
Types of colonialism
There are several different types of colonialism. Some countries that expanded their territory made settler colonies. Some countries that started out as settler colonies include the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the states of Latin America. In all of these countries, people from European countries moved to the best parts of the new place, and forced the indigenous peoples (such as Indians, Maori, etc.) to move. When the local people or tribes had to move, it caused a lot of problems. Many of these indigenous peoples were also enslaved, killed through genocide or died in pandemics because they had no immunity against infectious diseases brought by the settlers.
With the plantation colony, the powerful, rich country use the poorer country's land to grow crops. Typically, slaves work on the farms. Examples of plantation colonies include Barbados, Saint-Domingue and Jamaica.
In some regions which were colonized, the settlers married the local people and had children with them. An example is Mexico, where a new people called the mestizos came from the marriages of the settlers and the local tribes. In other regions which were colonized, the settlers and the local people lived in separate areas, without living together or marrying. An example of this situation is French Algeria (when France colonized the African country of Algeria) or Southern Rhodesia.
Another type of colonialism is when a powerful country sets up (establishes) dependencies. With a dependency, the colonizing country does not send over thousands of settlers to the new territory. Instead, the colonizing country sets up administrators (a governing organization) that controls the existing local (native) populations or tribes. Examples include the British Raj, (geraldine) in which the British government controlled India; the Dutch East Indies, in which the Netherlands controlled parts of the East Indies; and the Japanese colonial empire, in which Japan controlled Asian territories.
Another type of colony is the trading post colony. Rich and powerful countries set up trading post colonies so that there would be a territory where trading, selling, and business could be conducted. The rich and powerful countries usually set up military forts or police forces to enforce the rules and laws of the colonizing country. Examples of trading colonies include Macau, Malacca, Deshima and Singapore.
Massive colonization took place in Ancient India too. But the history of colonization is attributed to Greece only. In Ancient India Colonization began not with political conquest but with cultural conquest. Hinduism, and after centuries Buddhism became the main source of colonization. It was a colonization that began with cultural expansion leading to economic colonization. Indians were in the role of masters for a few centuries and in the role of slaves for centuries.
Related pages
Colonization
Neocolonialism
Other websites
Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf) - by professor Daniel Klein
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Colonialism -Citizendium |
Hey Arnold! was an American animated television show on the Nickelodeon network. It was about a boy with a football-shaped head named Arnold, his "gang" of friends, and their lives in the fictional city of Hillwood. Each episode of Hey Arnold! ran for about 15 minutes each. In 2002, Nickelodeon made a movie from it. Arnold's best friends in his gang are Gerald, Sid, Stinky, Eugene, Rhonda, Phoebe, Lila, and Curly (who was voiced by Haley Joel Osment). Adult Arnold was voiced by Christopher Walberg.
Animated television series
Nickelodeon television series
English-language television programs
1996 television series debuts
2004 television series endings |
Diego Armando Maradona (30 October 1960 – 25 November 2020) was an Argentine professional footballer and manager. He was nicknamed El Diez, Pelusa, El Diego and El Pibe de Oro (The Golden Boy). He is widely regarded as one of the best footballers ever because of his skill moves and ability to score goals, so this is why many people compare him to Brazilian legend Pelé. They were both winners of the FIFA Player of the 20th century award.
Maradona made 91 appearances and scored 34 goals with Argentina. He played at four world cups. His greatest and most important achievement was winning the 1986 FIFA World Cup in Mexico.
Club Career
Maradona made his professional debut with Argentina on 20 October 1976 wearing the number 16 shirt, a week before his 16th birthday. He scored his first goal in November 1976 two weeks after turning 16. In 1981, he transferred to Boca Juniors, and won the league title with them that same year. His performances at the 1982 FIFA World Cup attracted the interest of FC Barcelona, and they signed him shortly after the tournament.
In the 1984 Copa Del Rey final against Athletic Bilbao, Maradona was involved in a fight with several other Bilbao players. During the game, Bilbao player Andoni Goikoetxea made a rough tackle on Maradona, and Bilbao fans insulted Maradona and his family. This made him very angry. Barca lost 1-0, and when he was insulted by Miguel Sola at the end of the match, Maradona lost control and became furious. He headbutted Sola, kneed Bilbao's goalie in the head, elbowed another one in the face, and kicked and punched other players as well. This ended up being his last game with the Catalan club.
Maradona signed for Napoli in the summer of 1984 for around €8 million. At his presentation, he was greeted by 75,000 fans at the Stadio San Paolo in Naples. He led the club to its first Serie A title in 1987. That same year, he won the Coppa Italia. For the 1987-88 season, Maradona was top scorer of the league, with 15 goals. Napoli also finished second in the league to A.C. Milan. In the 1989 UEFA Cup Final against VfB Stuttgart, Maradona played an important role in Napoli's victory. He scored and assisted Careca's goal in the 2-1 victory during the first leg. In the second leg, he assisted Ciro Ferrara's goal in a 3-3 draw (5-4 on aggregate). The following year, Napoli won the Supercoppa Italiana with a 5-1 demolishing of Juventus.
In March 1991, Maradona failed a drug test for cocaine. He was given a 15-month ban and a fine, so he missed the rest of the 1990-91 season and the entire 1991-92 season. After being allowed to return to football in June 1992, he didn't want to return to Napoli, and he asked for a transfer. He eventually signed for Spanish club Sevilla. He stayed there for one year. He moved back to the Argentine League with Newell's Old Boys in 1993, and stayed there for one season. Maradona ended his career by making a return to Boca Juniors in 1995. He stayed there for two years until retiring on 25 October 1997. He played his last match against Boca's rival River Plate, and Boca won 2-1.
International Career
Maradona played his first match for the Argentina national team on 27 February 1977 against Hungary, as a 16 year old.
Maradona is most famously known for his performance against England in the 1986 World Cup quarter final, where he scored two legendary goals. The first one was controversially scored with his hand. It started with a poor clearance from an English defender that sent the ball into the penalty box. As goalkeeper Peter Shilton came off his line to challenge the ball, Maradona jumped and punched it in past Shilton, while also adding a movement as if he hit the ball with his head that fooled the referees. He later called it the "Hand of God", and said that he used his hand because he knew he was not going to reach the ball. The second one was voted the best goal scored in World Cup history in 2002 and many people call it the "Goal of the Century", where he received the ball behind the half-field line and dribbled five England players before juking out goalkeeper Shilton and passing the ball with his left foot into the open net from 6 yards out. The match ended 2-1 in favor of Argentina.
Argentina won the World Cup after defeating West Germany in the final, and Maradona was named as the tournament's best player. The British named him "athlete of the decade."
Personal life
Health problems
Maradona was addicted to cocaine from the mid-1980s until 2004. During his time at Napoli, he failed a drug test in 1991 and had his conversations wiretapped by police. He was also accused of working with the Italian mafia. In 2000 he suffered a heart attack caused by cocaine overdose. In 2004, he was placed in intensive care with high blood pressure, respiratory failure, and a lung infection.
After Maradona retired, he suffered from obesity. At one point, he weighed 280 lbs (130 kg). In March 2005, Maradona had a Gastric bypass surgery in Cartagena, Colombia and was placed on a liquid diet for three months to try to reduce his obesity.
Death
On 2 November 2020, Maradona was hospitalized in La Plata because of mental health reasons. A day later, he had emergency brain surgery to treat a subdural hematoma. He was released on 12 November after successful surgery.
On 25 November 2020, Maradona died of a heart attack at his home in Tigre, Buenos Aires, Argentina at the age of 60.
Club career statistics
Notes
International career statistics
|-
|1977||3||0
|-
|1978||1||0
|-
|1979||8||3
|-
|1980||10||7
|-
|1981||2||1
|-
|1982||10||2
|-
|1983||0||0
|-
|1984||0||0
|-
|1985||10||6
|-
|1986||10||7
|-
|1987||6||4
|-
|1988||3||1
|-
|1989||7||0
|-
|1990||10||1
|-
|1991||0||0
|-
|1992||0||0
|-
|1993||4||0
|-
|1994||7||2
|-
!Total||91||34
|}
Notes
References
1960 births
2020 deaths
1982 FIFA World Cup players
1986 FIFA World Cup players
1990 FIFA World Cup players
1994 FIFA World Cup players
Argentine footballers
Argentine football managers
People from Buenos Aires Province
Deaths from myocardial infarction |
Don José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (; born 4 August 1960 in Valladolid) is a Spanish politician. He was elected for two terms as Prime Minister of Spain. This was in the 2004 and 2008 general elections. On 2 April 2011 he said he would not stand for re-election. His party is the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE).
He left the office on 21 December 2011. He was succeeded by Mariano Rajoy. He left the PSOE's Secretary General chair on 4th February 2012 to Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba. On 9th February he entered the Spanish Council of State.
Important actions of his government have included withdrawing Spanish troops from Iraq, legalizing same-sex marriages and negotiating with Basque terrorist group ETA.
He studied Law at the University of León, graduating in 1982. Rodríguez Zapatero met Sonsoles Espinosa in León in 1981. They married on 27 January 1990 and have two daughters named Laura (born 1993) and Alba (born 1995).
Zapatero is a supporter of FC Barcelona.
References
Other websites
Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero biography on Infoplease
1960 births
Living people
People from Valladolid
Prime Ministers of Spain
Socialist politicians
Spanish socialists |
The Electric guitar is a type of musical instrument. It was made in 1931 by George Beauchamp. It is a string instrument usually played with a pick and sometimes with the fingers. It uses things called "electric pickups" which are wire-wound magnets that change the vibration of the strings into electric current. This electric current is then sent to an amplifier (amp for short) that changes it to sound. This electric current can also be changed to produce effects. The main parts of an electric guitar are the neck, the pickups, the tuners, the bridge, the input, the body, the frets, the pick guard, the volume knobs and the tone knobs. There may also be other parts that can change other sounds. A normal electric guitar has one neck with 6 strings on it, although there are 12 string guitars and guitars with more than one neck.
Guitars are made and sold in many parts of the world by many companies. They can be hand made or factory made. Some companies that make electric guitars are Fender, Gibson, and Ibanez.
Introduction to playing
The strings of a guitar are normally tuned to the keys E, B, G, D, A, E (starting from the highest sounding string).
Electric guitars normally have 21, 22 or 24 frets.
Going up the fret board towards the body (from the head), the notes on the E strings are E, F, F#, G, G#, A, A#, B, C, C#, D, D# and back to E on the 12th fret. Each fret closer to the body raises the pitch by a semitone.
It is normal for the fingers to hurt from fretting when starting out. The skin on the fingers will quickly become accustomed to this, depending on the amount of practice.
Reading guitar tablature
Many guitarists today share their music through a system called tablature (commonly known as 'tab'). Tablature is a way of reading notes for a guitar. It is much simpler than musical notes, but most tabs do not support rhythm. Many tabs can be found online or in books and magazines.
To read guitar tab, generally there is a staff like this:
high E ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
G ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
low E ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Each line represents a string. Tab is always read as if the player were holding the guitar on their lap, strings facing up. Each number then represents what fret the finger is placed on.
E -----------------0------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B -----------------0------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
G --1-------------1-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D ----2-----------2-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A ------2---------2-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E -----------------0------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The above diagram would be to play an open E chord, picking each string individually, and then strumming the chord. If the notes are stacked directly above each other, it means to strum the chord.
Some guitar music is written in both musical note format and tablature. The musical notes are written out, with the corresponding tablature under each line of notes.
Guitars |
Louise Brooks (Cherryvale, Kansas, 14 November 1906 – Rochester, New York, 8 August 1985) was an American dancer and actress. She became a leading film star, and a style icon famous for her beauty and her bobbed hair style.
In 2006, the centenary of Brooks' birth was celebrated by the release of three DVDs and three books, museum exhibits, screenings, and other events.
Filmography
Brooks' signature film role was as Lulu in G.W. Pabst's Pandora's Box (Die Büchse der Pandora) in 1929. Brooks' portrayal was of a young woman whose raw sexuality and uninhibited nature brings ruin to herself and those who love her. It made the actress a star.
The Street of Forgotten Men (1925)
The American Venus (1926)
A Social Celebrity (1926)
It's the Old Army Game (1926)
The Show Off (1926)
Love 'Em and Leave 'Em (1926)
Just Another Blonde (1926)
Evening Clothes (1927)
Rolled Stockings (1927)
Now We're in the Air (1927)
The City Gone Wild (1927)
A Girl in Every Port (1928)
Beggars of Life (1928)
The Canary Murder Case (1929)
Pandora's Box (1929)
Diary of a Lost Girl (1929)
Prix de Beaute (1930)
Windy Riley Goes Hollywood (1931) (short subject)
It Pays to Advertise (1931)
God's Gift to Women (1931)
Empty Saddles (1936)
When You're in Love (1937)
King of Gamblers (1937) (scenes deleted)
Overland Stage Raiders (1938)
Film Firsts: Louise Brooks (1960) (television)
Lulu in Berlin (1984) (documentary)
Louise Brooks: Looking for Lulu (1998) (documentary)
Mysteries and Scandals: Louise Brooks (1999) (television)
Further reading
Louise Brooks, Fundamentals of Good Ballroom Dancing, United States: self-published, 1940
Pandora's Box (Lulu), United States: Simon & Schuster, 1971
Rolland Jaccard (editor), Louise Brooks: Portrait d'une Anti-Star, France: Editions Phebus, 1977
Louise Brooks, Lulu in Hollywood, United States: Knopf, 1982
Vincenzo Mollica, Louise Brooks: Una Fiaba Nocturne, Italy: Editori del Grifo, 1984
Homenagem a Louise Brooks, Portugal: Cinemateca Portuguesa, 1986
Rolland Jaccard (editor), Louise Brooks: Portrait of an Anti-Star, United States: New York Zoetrope, 1986
Barry Paris, Louise Brooks, United States: Knopf, 1989
Omaggio a Louise Brooks e Maya Deren, Italy: Cineteca D. W. Griffith, 1996
Louise Brooks: L'europeenne, France: Transeuropa, 1999
Louise Brooks, Lulu in Hollywood: Expanded Edition, United States: University of Minnesota Press, 2000
Peter Cowie, Louise Brooks: Lulu Forever, United States: Rizzoli, 2006
Quotations
There is no Garbo! There is no Dietrich! There is only Louise Brooks! – Henri Langlois, 1955.
I have a gift for enraging people, but if I ever bore you it will be with a knife. – Louise Brooks, from her autobiography, 'Lulu in Hollywood'.
Other websites
Louise Brooks Society
Louise Brooks, silent star
All Movie Guide
Louise Brooks Studies
1906 births
1985 deaths
Actors from Kansas
American autobiographers
American silent movie actors
American stage actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from myocardial infarction |
Bangor is the 3rd-largest city in Maine. In 2000, the city had 31,473 people.
In history
In 1937, Al Brady, an armed robber and murderer is shot dead in a gun battle with FBI agent Walter Walsh, ending a long crime spree.
References
County seats in Maine |
Portland can mean:
Portland, Oregon, USA
Portland, Maine, USA
Portland, Missouri, USA
Isle of Portland, UK
Portland limestone, a limestone rock in western Europe |
Benjamin Peter James Bradshaw (born 30 August 1960) is an English politician and the Member of Parliament for the Exeter constituency in the United Kingdom. He was elected in the 1997 general election.
He was a Minister of State in the Department of Health, a Minister for the South West and Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. He holds no posts in the current shadow government.
He is a member of the Labour Party.
1960 births
Living people
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Labour Party (UK) MPs |
Eschelbronn is a village with 2597 people living there. It is in the Rhein-Neckar area of Baden-Württemberg, Germany and close to Sinsheim.
Eschelbronn is in the north of Kraichgau with a distance of about 25 km to Heidelberg.
History
It was already mentioned in the years 788/789 in a document of the monastery of Lorsch. Afterwards there was no documentation until the end of the 13th century when it became part of the restrict of Speyer.
The first mayor was Heinrich von Eschelbrunnen in the year 1261. In 1267 a castle made of wood was built and later rebuilt into a water-castle of stone in 1375. In 1526 the village became Protestant.
In 1803 Eschelbronn became part of Baden. From 1807 on the village was administered by Waibstadt and 1803 by Sinsheim until the 31st of December 1972. Today it belongs to the Rhein-Neckar area.
In former times most of the people were farmers, however later in the 18th century the production of textiles became more and more important. Since the end of the 19th century Eschelbronn is well known for its furniture production.
Other websites
Official website
Museum of Furniture Production
Villages in Baden-Württemberg
Municipalities in Baden-Württemberg |
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry. It was founded by George I, on 18 May 1725. The name comes from an old ceremony, first mentioned in 1128. In the ceremony, men participated in a vigil of fasting, prayer, and taking a bath. They did this on the day before they were made a knight. The ceremony was abolished in 1815.
The Order is made up of the Sovereign (the British Sovereign), the Great Master (Charles, Prince of Wales), and three classes of members: (Highest to lowest)
Knight or Dame Grand Cross (GCB)
Knight or Dame Commander (KCB or DCB)
Companion (CB)
Originally founded as a military order of chivalry, the star (or pip) is worn as army officers' rank insignia. The insignia is that of the Order of the Bath. Members of the order now belong to either the Civil or the Military Division. The Order's motto is Tria juncta in uno (Latin for "Three joined in one"). This is a reference to either the union of England, Scotland and Ireland, or to the Holy Trinity. A symbol of the Order that is seen over and over has three crowns in it. Another motto, Ich dien (German for "I serve") is used occasionally, but only by members of the Order who serve in the military.
The Order is the fourth oldest of the British Orders of Chivalry, after The Most Noble Order of the Garter, The Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle, and The Most Illustrious Order of St Patrick. The last of those Orders–which relates to Ireland, no longer a part of the United Kingdom–still exists, but is no longer active; no appointments have been made to it since 1934.
History of the British Isles |
The Kurds () are an ethnic group from Western Asia. They speak Kurdish and the Kurdish homeland is Kurdistan, a region in the Middle East. Kurdish is an Indo-European language, being part of the Iranian language family. The Kurds are an Iranic Indo-European people, like the peoples of western and north-western Iran.
Kurds are one of the largest and most important ethnic groups in the Middle East. There are between about 35 million and about 40 million Kurds. Most of the Kurdish population lives in Kurdistan. Kurdistan is the area where Kurds live. Today, it is a border country with lands in the east and southeast of Turkey, in the north-west of Iran, in the north of Iraq, and in the north-east of Syria. (Lands in Armenia and Azerbaijan also have small Kurdish populations.) After most of these borders came into existence after World War I, many Kurds went out of Kurdistan. They migrated to the large cities in the Middle East and to Western Europe. Since the Middle Ages, there have also been Kurdish communities in Cairo, Beirut, Damascus, and Aleppo. Since the Early Modern Period, there have also been Kurdish communities in Khorasan (north-eastern Iran and Afghanistan).
Many Kurds speak the Kurdish language. The two largest Kurdish dialects are Kurmanji Kurdish and Sorani Kurdish. The Kurds of Turkish Kurdistan and of Syrian Kurdistan speak Kurmanji. About half of Kurds in Iranian Kurdistan and Iraqi Kurdistan speak Kurmanji, but other Kurds there speak Sorani. Some other Kurds in Iranian Kurdistan speak the Gorani Kurdish dialect, and others in Turkish Kurdistan speak Zazaki Kurdish.
Until the 20th century, most Kurds were nomadic people. The Kurds' economy had a close connection with pastoralism and animal husbandry. In the 21st century, nomadism is not common among Kurds. Most Kurds now live in cities. In the economy of the 21st century, farming is the most important work in Kurdistan. Industrialization means that fewer Kurds work as farmers, and this has caused urbanization of the Kurdish population. In the past, Kurds were part of the Silk Road economic system. Trade routes form connections between different countries through Kurdistan.
The Kurds share their lands with other ethnic groups. Some of the Kurds' neighbours are Turks, Arabs, Persians, Jews, Armenians, and Assyrians. In the past, some Arabic and Turkic people became Kurds by cultural assimilation. In the nationalist period, the governments of the states that control Kurdistan tried to assimilate the Kurds into Turkish, Iranian, and Arabic culture. These states (Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria) also moved Turks, Persians, and Arabs into Kurdistan. The governments of these states have used genocide, ethnocide, linguicide, and ethnic cleansing against Kurds. The Soviet Union also forced Kurds from the Caucasus to migrate to Central Asia. When the Soviet Union ended, the First Nagorno-Karabakh War between Armenia and Azerbaijan affected most of the Kurds in the Caucasus.
Most Kurds are Muslims. Most are part of Sunni Islam. Most Kurds are part of the Shafi'i school of jurisprudence, but some Kurds are part of the Hanafi school. Sufism is also common among Kurds. There are also Kurds who are part of Shia Islam and Kurds who are part of Alevism. There are also Kurdish Jews and Yazidis.
Name
The name of the Kurds is very old. The first proof of the name is from writing in Middle Persian (Pahlavi), the language of the Sasanian Empire. The name became most common after the Muslim conquests during the 7th century CE.
In the Islamic world of the early Middle Ages, the word had a loose meaning. The meaning was variable, and people gave many tribes and nomadic peoples the word Kurd. Peoples living in the mountains between Anatolia and the Iranian plateau often had the name "Kurd". In the Persian language and the Arabic language, writers during the 10th century gave the name to different ethnic groups. Some scholars make an argument that the meaning of the name was not an ethnonym at that time, because many different groups of nomads and pastoralists had the name "Kurds" during the Middle Ages. However, other scholars make the argument that the name was not the name of lifestyle or economic system (like nomadism or pastoralism) but the name of a population. This population shared a common character in linguistics, shared an area to live in, and shared a mythology. Whether the people and groups who had the name "Kurds" thought that they were a common community before the 12th century is unknown.
History
Late Antiquity
The history of the Kurds starts with the late Sasanian Empire and the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia. Arab armies first fought against the Kurds in the late 630s. At that time, the Arabs overcame the tribes of Kurds in the mountains near Mosul. Arab armies took control of Mesopotamia in 637. Kurdish tribes helped the Sasanian armies fight against the Arabs in 639 and 644, but the Arabs had more success. Utba bin Farqad led the Arab armies that took control of the Shahrizor (a plain now in Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan) and the lands around Hulwan (a town now in Kermanshah Province, Iranian Kurdistan).
Then the Kurds came under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate and converted to Islam. The Arab Muslim armies came to Kurdistan after they took control of Ctesiphon (the capital of the Sasanian Empire) in 636. This was in the time of Umar, the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. The Muslim armies attacked and overcame the cities Masibezan (near Ilam) and Hulwan (now Sarpol-e Zahab). When the armies of the Sasanian Empire and the Rashidun Caliphate met at Nahavand, they fought the Battle of Nahavand. In the battle, the Rashidun Caliphate's army overcame the army of the Sasanian Empire. The Arab armies also took control of Mosul, Shahrizor, and Urmia by force. Some places surrendered, like Mandali.
Most Kurds converted to Islam between the 7th and 9th centuries CE. The exact process of their religious conversion is unknown, but Kurds probably wanted to free themselves from the jizya, a tax on people who were not Muslims. Most became part of Sunni Islam, and most were Shafi'ites. The Kurds fought against the government at some times, but fought with the government's army at other times. Kurdish tribes made rebellions against the Rashidun Caliphate in 645 and in 659. In 666 there were two rebellions (in Ahvaz and in Fars). During the Umayyad Caliphate, Kurds made rebellions in 685, 702, and 708. Kurdish tribes fought for Marwan II (who controlled the Umayyad Caliphate) against the rebellion in 746.
When the Kurds became Muslims, they became part of the community of the Islamic world. Kurds were then able to became a part of the political and military power of the region. When the some of largest towns in the area became part of the Rashidun Caliphate (Mosul, Erbil, Shahrizor, Seymere, Borujerd, Hamadan, Dinavar, Nahavand, Siravand, and Karaj of Abu Dulaf), they became important places of education and religion during early Islam.
Middle Ages
During the Abbasid Caliphate, there were many rebellions by Kurds. During rebellions in 840, 846, and 866, Kurds took control of Mosul. Some Kurds were part of the Zanj Rebellion (869–883) and some were part of Ya'qub ibn al-Layth as-Saffar's rebellion. The Abbasid Caliphate became weak in the 9th century, and Kurdish lords were sometimes able to take control of government in the mountains.
There were a number of Kurdish dynasties that controlled a number of emirates in the Kurdish region. The Shaddadids controlled lands in Armenia and Azerbaijan from 951 to 1174. The Rawwidids controlled lands in Azerbaijan between 955 and 1071. The Hasanwayhids controlled parts of western Iran between 959 and 1095. The Marwanids controlled the lands around Diyarbakır (a city now in Turkish Kurdistan) and Lake Van between 990 and 1096.
In the 11th century, the Seljuk dynasty and the Zengid dynasty fought wars with the Kurdish emirates. The Seljuk dynasty took control of Iran, Iraq, and Anatolia. The Zengid dynasty controlled the lands around Mosul for the Seljuks. The success of their armies ended the independence of the Kurds' emirates. When the Seljuks took control of Dvin (now in Armenia) from the Shaddadid dynasty, Shadhi ibn Marwan and his two sons Najm ad-Din Ayyub and Asad ad-Din Shirkuh worked for the Shaddadids. They went away from the city and came to Iraq. Najm ad-Din Ayyub and Asad ad-Din Shirkuh became important soldiers in the armies of Nur ad-Din Zengi, who controlled Syria and Mosul. Najm ad-Din Ayyub became governor of Baalbek and Damascus. Asad ad-Din Shirkuh became governor of Homs.
In 1163, Shirkuh led an invasion of the Fatimid Caliphate, which controlled Egypt. After this first attack, Shirkuh's Zengid army went out of Egypt in 1164, but they attacked again in 1167. This invasion had success, but after two years Shirkuh died. The son of Najm ad-Din Ayyub then took control of his uncle Shirkuh's army in Egypt. This son was Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ("Saladin"). Working for Nur ad-Din Zengi, Saladin then used the Zengid army for the destruction of the Fatimid Caliphate. Doing this, Saladin ended the control of Shia Islam in Egypt and took control of Egypt himself when Nur ad-Din died in 1174.
Saladin's Ayyubid dynasty controlled many lands. Libya, the Hejaz, Yemen, Sudan, Egypt, and Syria were all under Saladin's control. Saladin also took control of many castles, and he took control of Jerusalem after the Battle of Hattin in 1187. (Jerusalem had been part of the Roman Catholic Kingdom of Jerusalem from the time of the First Crusade. Saladin took back Jerusalem for the Muslims.) Saladin died in 1193. The Ayyubid dynasty ended in 1250, when the Mamluks took control of Egypt and the Mongols attacked the Ayyubids in Syria. With the end of the Ayyubids' government in Egypt and Syria, Kurdish power there ended. (Some of the Ayyubid dynasty continued to control Hasankeyf into the 16th century.) Kurds continued to live in many lands that the Ayyubids had controlled. From this time, many Kurds lived in the Kurdish quarter of Damascus. (They spoke Kurdish there into the 20th century.)
Safi ad-Din Ardabili (1252–1334), a Kurdish mystic, started the Safavid order. The Safavids were Sufis, and at first they were Sunni Muslims. (Safi ad-Din Ardabili was the first of the Safavid dynasty, a family that later came to be the rulers of Iran.)
Kurdish emirates and tribes continued to have military power. Both the Mongols' Ilkhanate in Iran and the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt tried to use Kurds as allies, because many Kurds lived in the mountains on the border between the Mongol Ilkhanate and the Mamluk Sultanate. The Ilkhanate government gave authority to some Kurdish rulers among the tribes. The Sultanate gave authority to an officer with the title Generalissimo of the Kurds (). Kurdistan became part of the Timurid Empire in the time of Timur, but after Timur died in 1404, the Timurid dynasty started to lose control of the country. The Qara Qoyunlu took control of the Kurdish emirates around Bitlis, Siirt, and Hasankeyf before 1450. By that time, the Kurds around Diyarbakır were controlled by the Aq Qoyunlu. In 1460 the Aq Qoyunlu attacked and took control of Siirt and Hasankeyf. Then they took control of Cizre (the emirate of Bohtan), Bitlis, and Hakkari.
Kurds were common in the hills near Gaziantep and Kilis. Near Antakya, the hills of the Jabal al-Akrad and the Kurd Dagh both had Kurdish populations. Qusayr, by the Jabal al-Akrad was the same. By the 11th century, Kurds had migrated to Jabal al-Ansariyya ("the Alawite mountains") and parts of Greater Lebanon (the lands of modern Lebanon). Most of these Kurds joined the Arabs in these lands and became "Arabized", but others became warlords in the time of the Ottoman Empire. Kurds that came from Diyarbakır in the early 16th century were the ancestors of the Druze Ma'an dynasty. They controlled Mount Lebanon in the 17th century. Some Arab families of the area have Kurdish ancestors.
Early Modern Period
At the end of the 15th century, the Safavids overcame the Aq Qoyunlu and started the Safavid Empire. The leader of the Safavid order became shah as Shah Ismail I in 1501. He controlled the lands from Kurdistan to Afghanistan. By the 15th century, the Safavid order had become Shia Muslims, and they had military power with help from Turkmen tribes. Shah Ismail made the Twelvers' Shia Islam the state religion. Many of the Kurds, who were mostly Sunni Muslims, became enemies of the Safavid government. Although some Kurdish emirs joined the Shiites, Shah Ismail took away the authority of many Kurdish emirs. The shah gave the lands of these emirs to the Qizilbash, men who supported the shah's religious ideas.
The rulers of the Ottoman Empire were also Sunni Muslims, and they became the enemies of the Safavid Empire. At that time, the Ottoman Empire gave better treatment to Sunni Muslim Kurds than did the Safavid Empire. Kurdistan was part of the Safavid Empire. The Ottoman sultan, Selim I, started an invasion of Kurdistan. The armies of Sultan Selim overcame the armies of Shah Ismail at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. The Ottoman Empire took control of the western part of Kurdistan. The majority of Kurdistan became part of the Ottoman Empire, but the eastern part continued to be a part of the Safavid Empire.
The Ottoman government gave Idris Bitlisi authority to get help from the Kurdish emirs. The Kurdish emirs sent their soldiers to help the Ottomans. In the first half of the 16th century, many important Kurdish soldiers fought against the Safavids' allies in Kurdistan. The Ottoman government made variable allowances for the autonomy of Kurdish emirs and tribes in their own lands. There was also an Ottoman governor in each province. The emirs of Bitlis, Hakkari, and the emirate of Bohtan (Cizre) did not have to pay tax to the Ottoman government. Other tribes did pay tax, but the Ottoman government gave their "Kurdish counties" () as fiefs () to Kurdish tribes' own leaders, who inherited their position. For the Ottoman Empire at this time, the Kurds were useful as allies on the border with the Safavid Empire. The Ottomans had success in getting Kurdish allies, and the Safavids gave the Kurds better treatment in order to get the same result. Some parts of Iranian Kurdistan became parts of the provinces of the Safavid Empire, but others had Kurdish governors who inherited their positions. The Ardalan clan of Sanandaj and the Mukriyani tribes of west Azerbaijan both had Kurdish governors of this kind. The sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, took away the authority of the Kurdish emir of Bitlis, so he and his clan went to the Safavid Empire, where the shah gave them good treatment and gave the emir's grandson education at the royal court. The Safavid government gave the emir's grandson, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi, authority for the Kurds at the royal court, and gave him a title: "the high emir of the Kurds" (). However, Sharaf Khan Bidlisi later returned to his grandfather's emirate in Bitlis, defecting from the Safavid Empire to the Ottoman Empire.
Some Safavid shahs forced Kurdish tribes to migrate to Khorasan to the east of the Safavids' lands. There they set up Kurdish emirates which defended the border against attacks from the Turkmen and Uzbek tribes. The government moved many Kurds there in the 16th century, in order to make the Kurds fight against the Uzbek people who were then attacking Iran. Abbas the Great, the shah, moved tens of thousands of Kurds from Iranian Kurdistan to the borders of Afghanistan and the land that is now Turkmenistan. Shah Abbas's government did this between 1598 and 1610. The Safavid government continued to threaten the Ottoman government's control in Kurdistan.
It was most common for the Ottomans to use the Turkoman people to control the population, but they also used Kurds. Ali Janbulad was a Kurdish warlord from Kilis. He fought in the Ottoman armies, and controlled the Ottoman army in Palestine. The Ottomans tried to settle the nomadic people and tried to make them become farmers. The Kurds, however, started to have firearms in the 1580s and 1590s. Kurdish lords became more powerful and started to control the trade routes between Mosul, Baghdad, Aleppo, and Adana. Kurdish lords controlled the mountain lands between the inland cities of Syria (Aleppo, Damascus, Hama and Homs) and the ports of the Mediterranean Sea (Payas, Iskenderun, Antioch, Latakia, Tripoli). Kurdish traders carried the imports and exports, and Kurdish tribes sometimes attacked the trade routes. Kurdish soldiers attacked the river trade route of the Tigris, and the Yazidis on the way between Mosul and Aleppo always gave resistance to the Ottoman government. The mountain roads were sometimes impossible to pass through for months or years because of the Kurdish lords. Travellers would bribe the Kurds, and take hostages. The Ottoman government did not have success in trying to control the roads with the army and with fortifications. The Ottoman government sometimes gave Kurdish warlords government authority, so that they might do as the government wanted. After 1600, the power of the Ottoman governors in Aleppo and Mosul was weak, so each governor had an army. The cavalry in these armies were mostly Kurds from the area of Kilis. However, when governors went away after their term of office, their armies' veterans became unemployed and many became bandits in rural areas. Banditry from Kurds and Bedouins was so common in the early 18th century that the population of farmers around Homs and Hama became smaller and there was not enough food in Damascus as a result.
The Safavid Empire started to become weak at the end of the 17th century. The authority of the government became weak, and some Kurdish tribes were able to take power for themselves. Attacks from Afghans started in 1709. At the time of these attacks, Kurdish tribes were able to take control of some lands from the Safavid government. In 1719, Kurds took control of Hamadan and the tribes were able to move almost to Isfahan. The Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire both took control of lands in the north and west of Iran. The Russian Empire's armies took control of Derbent and Baku in the years 1722 and 1723. They were also able to move to Rasht. The Safavid dynasty's downfall was in 1735. Nader Shah, the first shah of the Afsharid dynasty, went to try to stop a rebellion among the Kurds in 1747. (He was assassinated on his way.)
From the 1790s, Ardalan rulers (walis) were an important part of the political support for the Qajar dynasty. The Qajar dynasty started to come to power in Iran in the 1790s. The Qajar rulers took hostages from the tribes to keep the Kurdish rulers' loyalty. The Qajar Empire continued to lose lands to the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. Both of these empires wanted to control Kurdistan and Azerbaijan. The Qajar Empire lost most of the land to the north of the Aras () river before 1800.
During the 18th century, the Kurdish emirate of Baban came into power in the Shahrizor area. Its capital city was Sulaymaniyah. In 1821, the emir of Baban defected from the Ottoman Empire to the Qajar Empire. The emir started to help Abbas Mirza, the crown prince of Iran and the Qajar governor of Azerbaijan. The emir's defection caused a war to start between the Ottomans and the Qajars (the 1821–1823 Ottoman–Persian War).
During the early modern period, the importance of the Baban emirate in the later 18th century was one of the reasons for the growth of the Sorani Kurdish dialect. From Amadiya's emirate came poetry in the Kurmanji Kurdish dialect. The rulers of the Ardalan emirate were patrons of poetry in the Gorani Kurdish dialect.
Working with the Kurds in Anatolia, Kurds in Syria came to control most of the trade in livestock and in the galls of oak trees across the region. (The oak galls traded at Aleppo and were exports to Europe for making into ink. The livestock they sold for meat.) In the cities of the region, Kurdish lords and landlords became powerful leaders with authority over the Kurdish people who lived in and came to the city.
In the past, people feared the Kurds. In the Middle Ages, people thought of the Kurds as being bandits. In the 18th century, people in Aleppo and Mosul would say that Kurds were as dangerous as rats and locusts. People in Aleppo would also say the Kurds were like the Bedouin (a group of nomadic people). They would say: "Four were born to do mischief: rats, locusts, Bedouin and Kurds". Because of this, and because many Kurds were in military units, Kurds often lived outside the defensive walls of big cities like Aleppo and Damascus. Many of the veterans of Ottoman governors' private armies who became bandits were Arabs and Turkomans as well as Kurds, but Kurds were the group most connected with the problem. People in northern Syria and Mesopotamia thought of themselves as different from the Kurds, who did not have a good reputation. These differences were in existence into the 21st century.
19th century
In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire and the Qajar Empire both started reforms. The reforms' purpose was to modernize each empire, because both had started to have less power than the Great Powers of the Western world. The reforms meant that the governments took away the autonomy of the Kurdish rulers and the existence of the Kurdish emirates ended. Muslims, including Kurds, feared the successes of the Western powers, and feared the power that Christian empires had. The Tanzimat reforms were part of a new, secular nationalism, in the Ottoman Empire, and this made many traditional Muslim Kurds unhappy. Nationalism among the Ottoman Empire's Christian Armenian people also caused unhappiness to grow among the Kurds. The power of Sufism grew among the Kurds. As a result of the reforms, a social class of Kurdish intellectuals and professionals came into existence with the development of Western education. Many of this new class were descendants of the families that had been the rulers of emirates. Many of these Kurds joined the new institutions of the Ottoman state, including the army. For these Kurds, there was some cultural assimilation with the other people who formed the empire's government social class. Among these Kurds too was also the start of Kurdish political nationalism.
In the Qajar Empire, this reform process was not as fast as it was in the Ottoman Empire. The Qajar Empire got help from Europe to make military reforms in the Qajar army. In 1812, the Qajar Empire tried to take back lands from the Russian Empire when the armies of Napoleon's First French Empire were attacking Russia. The British Empire helped the Qajar Empire with its reforms in the early the 19th century because the Russian Empire's growth was a threat to the British Empire's control of India. In 1828 (after the Russo-Persian War), the Russian Empire took control of all the lands and all the Kurdish tribes to the north of the Aras river. This was the agreement of the Treaty of Turkmenchay. The influence of the Russian Empire was growing in the north of Kurdistan, and the influence of the British Empire was growing in the south of Kurdistan. Many of the Kurdish rulers on the border between the Ottoman Empire and the Qajar Empire chose to work with the Ottoman Empire. This was because the most of the Kurds in the north of Kurdistan were part of Sunni Islam, like the Ottoman dynasty's sultan (and caliph) in Constantinople. (Other Kurds in the south of Kurdistan were part of Shia Islam, like the shah in Tehran.) The Kurdish rulers thought that the Ottoman government would not be as able to tax or conscript their tribes, because the Qajar government in Tehran was nearer than the Ottoman government in Constantinople. Both governments helped rebels who had fought against the other government. For the governments of both empires, controlling the Kurdish lands on the border with their armies was not possible.
The provinces and government of the Ottoman Empire started to have a different organization because of the reforms that Sultan Mahmud II started. His government named new governors for the provinces, and took away the authority of the Kurdish emirs and governors. There was a lot of fighting against this and the Ottoman army started to attack the Kurdish emirs. In the Qajar Empire, the existence of the Kurdish emirates in Khorasan ended in the first half of the 19th century. The Ardalan clan continued to control Sanandaj until the 1860s. At that time, the Qajar government ended the clan's inherited position as governor.
During the 19th century, farmers started to grow new crops that had greater profits. Farmers started to grow Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco), and farming became more common. At the middle of the 19th century, about a third of the population of Iranian Kurdistan were nomadic people. Many of the crops from Iranian Kurdistan (grains, fruits, and nuts) went out of the Qajar Empire as exports along the trade route between Tabriz and the Black Sea at Trabzon. Carriage of the exports from Kurdistan to the sea was by draught animals. The peasant farmers grew the crops, and the nomads of the tribes supplied the domestic animals for the crops' transport. (The peasant farmers also had to pay taxes and extortion to the tribes.) In 1870, 40% of Iran's international trade went through Iranian Kurdistan on the Tabriz–Trabzon trade route. However, from that time the trade route became less important. The Russian Empire completed a new railway from Baku (on the Caspian Sea) to Tbilisi and then to Poti (on the Black Sea). The British and French empires completed the Suez Canal in 1869, and because of this, many exports started to go to the Persian Gulf at Bushehr or through Baghdad at Basra. These two new trade routes meant that Kurds did not profit from the exports and the Kurdish tribes became more weak.
Bedir Khan Bey was the emir of Cizre (the emirate of Bohtan). Bedir Khan Bey, the emir of Hakkari, and the emir of Mûkûs all took part in a rebellion against the Ottoman government. Bedir Khan Bey started the rebellion in 1842, but in 1846 the Ottomans took him prisoner and he went into exile. In 1849, the government took away the authority of Hakkari's emir, Nurullah Bey. The Ottoman government also took away the power of the Baban emirate, and they took control of Sulaymaniyah themselves. In the towns and cities, the Ottoman and Qajar governments of Kurdistan started new schools, newspapers, law courts, and government councils. In the countryside however, where most Kurds lived, modernization brought new taxes and conscription into the army. Sufi religious leaders – sheikhs – started to have more power in Kurdistan. Some Kurdish sheikhs helped the Ottoman army fight the army of the Russian Empire during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). However, Kurdish sheikhs also worked against the government. One sheikh who had fought for the Ottoman side in the war, Sheikh Ubeydullah, started a rebellion against the Ottoman government.
During the Russo-Turkish War, the government in both parts of Kurdistan (Ottoman Kurdistan and Iranian Kurdistan) lost control of the land. After the war there was a famine. There was also a rumour that the Ottoman Empire was going to recognize a new state for the Armenians. Armenians were the largest minority in parts of Kurdistan. At that time, Sheikh Ubeydullah started his rebellion. He hoped to start new Kurdish state whose lands would be both Ottoman Kurdistan and Iranian Kurdistan. The rebellion ended without having this success. The Shi'ite Qajar government punished the Sunni Kurds in Iranian Kurdistan when they took control again. In Ottoman Kurdistan, Sultan Abdul Hamid II started to get support from Muslims by using Islamism, going against the secularization of the modernization reforms. The sultan's government tried to get friends among the Kurdish tribes. In 1891, the sultan started a new Ottoman military unit in the cavalry: the Hamidiye. Many Kurdish men from the tribes started to work for the government in the Hamidiye. Abdul Hamid II gave the Hamidiye his own name.
The Ottoman government gave the Hamidiye and the Kurdish tribes' rulers power because the government feared the growth of Armenian nationalism. The Hamidiye became famous across the world when they took part in pogroms, attacking the Armenian people in the east of Anatolia between 1894 and 1896. The government gave many tribes' rulers good treatment. Sheikh Said Berzinci became the ruler of Sulaymaniyah, and had a good relationship with the Ottoman government in Mosul. Said Berzinci became the most important of the government's friends in the Mosul Vilayet. Milli Ibrahim Pasha was ruler from the tribes; he was an important military officer in the Hamidiye and a friend of the sultan. The power, tyranny, and violence of the Hamidiye and some of the Kurdish tribes' rulers made some other Kurds unhappy. Many of the Kurdish professionals and intellectuals were part of the constitutionalist political groups. They were against the Islamism of Sultan Abdul Hamid and the autocracy of his government.
Two Kurds, Abdullah Cevdet and İshak Sükuti were part of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) from its start. The CUP was the most important organization in the Ottoman Empire to want a revolution. The first Kurdish newspaper was Kurdistan which started in 1898. The writings in the newspaper supported constitutionalism and the CUP, and the CUP gave money and other help to the newspaper's publishers. However, writings in the newspaper also spoke of Kurdish culture and Kurdish politics for the Kurdish intelligentsia. The publishers of Kurdistan were two sons of the old emir of Cizre, Bedir Khan Bey. His sons were Mikdad Midhat Bedir Khan and Abdurrahman Bedir Khan, and both had worked in the Ottoman government. Their newspaper made the argument that constitutionalism was the answer to the Kurds' problems.
In Iranian Kurdistan, chiefs and men from the tribes started to become farmers and landlords. By 1900, most of the men of the tribes had become peasants on lands a landlord owned. Some of the tribes' chiefs went to live in cities: some worked with the local government. In the second half of the 19th century, the Tabriz–Trabzon trade route through Iranian Kurdistan became less important because of the Suez Canal and the new railways in the Russian Empire. In 1900, the Tabriz–Trabzon trade route was responsible for only 10% of Iran's international trade.
20th century
During the second half of the 20th century's first decade, the political power of constitutionalism in Qajar Iran and Ottoman Turkey became very strong. In Ottoman Kurdistan, some Kurds took part in tax resistance revolts that did not have success. In Iran, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah made a constitution in December 1906 after there were many protests in the country during 1905. However, Mohammad Ali Shah became Iran's ruler when Mozaffar ad-Din Shah died, and the new shah ended the constitution and the new parliament in 1908. The Russian Empire and the British Empire helped Mohammad Ali Shah take power. By that time, the Qajar government's power was weak, and it had lost control in Iranian Kurdistan. Many Kurdish rebels came there from Ottoman Kurdistan, where the control of the government was more complete. In June 1908, a constitutionalist rebellion in the Ottoman military started. There were connections between this rebellion and the CUP. The rebellion forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to set up a parliament and a constitutionalist government. The end of Abdul Hamid's autocracy was important for many Kurds living in the capital city, Constantinople. Many of them supported the CUP and the new constitution. A number of Kurdish organizations then started in Constantinople. The Society for Kurdish Mutual-Aid and Progress (SKMP) was in existence from September 1908 until 1909. The Society for the Propagation of Kurdish Education (SPKE) was in existence from 1910 to 1911. The Kurdish Students' Hope Society, however, was in existence from 1912 until the start of World War I.
In Constantinople, the political Kurds supported the Ottoman Empire and the constitutional government. In Ottoman Kurdistan, other Kurds were not as happy with the revolution. The CUP wanted to take away the power of the Hamidiye. The government planned to end the existence of the Hamidiye itself. Many rulers from the tribes feared that they would lose their power. Many Kurds from the tribes joined local Kurdish organizations in 1908 and 1909. Although these "clubs" were part of the constitutionalist SKMP organization, they started to work against the constitutional government. The club at Bitlis started a rebellion against the CUP. After that, the government forced the clubs' existence to end. The existence of the Hamidiye continued, although the government took away more of its power. The government also planned to give lands to Armenian farmers, whose lands Kurdish tribes took in the past. Many Kurds started to think that constitutionalism was helping the Armenians but not helping the Kurds. Many Muslim Kurds thought the CUP was irreligious, and thought the empire was becoming weak. Italy overcame the Ottomans in the Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912). The Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro) overcame the Ottomans in the First Balkan War (1912–1913). In these wars, the Ottoman Empire lost many lands in Africa and Europe.
Starting in 1911, Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan (another descendant of Bedir Khan Bey) was moving through Kurdistan and the Ottoman–Qajar border. He set up a network of important men from the tribes, which worked for an independent Kurdistan. Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan hoped to get help for this plan from the Russian Empire. Simko Shikak, Sheikh Taha of Nehri, and Sheikh Abdüsselam Barzani all joined Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan in having this plan. They did not start a rebellion, but they were an important danger to the government. However, the position of the Kurds in Ottoman Kurdistan and in Iranian Kurdistan changed with the start of World War I.
During World War I, Kurdistan became a battlefield. The armies of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire fought in Ottoman Kurdistan and in Iranian Kurdistan. After the Battle of Sarikamish (January 1915), the Russian army took control of many Ottoman lands. Kurds fought in the Ottoman army across the empire. Many Kurds fought as conscripts in the Ottoman army against the Russian armies. Others fought in the Ottoman army in Mesopotamia. When the Ottoman Empire asked for their help, other Kurds in the tribes of Iranian Kurdistan fought against the Russian Empire there. Kurdish tribes fought for the Ottomans in the Battle of Dilman (April 1915). Other Kurds helped the Russian armies. Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan was one of those who helped the Russians. The Russian Empire made Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan governor of Erzurum when the Russians took military control of that city. Many people in the Kurdish population were persecuted by the Russian army and by Armenian partisans fighting with the Russians. Other Kurds were persecuted by the CUP Ottoman government. The government wanted to Turkify the Kurds, and in 1916, the CUP wanted the Kurdish refugees from the war to separate from one another to make Turkification more easy. Many Kurds themselves took part in the Armenian Genocide, a genocide planned by the government. Armenians were the largest minority in parts of Kurdistan before the Armenian Genocide.
After the Russian Revolutions in 1917, the Ottomans again took control over some lands Russians controlled. The Ottomans executed Abdürrezzak Bedir Khan. However, in Mesopotamia the British Empire took control of Baghdad. The British military was on its way to Mosul when the Ottoman government surrendered, and made an armistice (the Armistice of Mudros) with the Allies of World War I in October 1918. Simko Shikak took control of lands in Iranian Kurdistan near Lake Urmia. (Simko Shikak kept control of these lands until 1920.) In December 1918, Kurds in Constantinople started the Society for the Betterment of Kurdistan (SBK). The power in this organization was in two parts: a Kurdish nationalist political faction and another faction which supported the Ottoman Empire's existence. The son of Sheikh Ubeydullah, Sheikh Abdülkadir, was the leader of the Ottoman faction of the SBK. Bedir Khan Beg's son, Emin Ali Bedir Khan, was the leader of the SBK's nationalist faction.
In the north of Ottoman Kurdistan, in Anatolia, the power of Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) was growing. Mustafa Kemal's Kemalist (Turkish nationalist) armies fought against the First Republic of Armenia. In this fight, the help of Kurds was important for the Kemalists' success. The Kemalists got help from the Kurds by saying that the Armenians wanted their land, and by saying that the Great Powers (the Allies of World War I) wanted Kurdistan to become part of the new Armenian state. In August 1919 Kurdish leaders were at the Erzurum Congress, and in September 1919 they were at the Sivas Congress.
At the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), the SBK's representative was Şerif Pasha. With the representatives of the Armenians, Şerif Pasha made an agreement about the lands of a new Kurdish state and the lands of a new Armenian state. A possible Kurdish state in Ottoman Kurdistan was one of the agreements in the Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920). However, other Kurds did not support the Treaty of Sèvres. They were unhappy that lands of a Muslim empire were going to have a Christian government when they became parts of Armenia. Some Kurdish leaders sent telegrams to Paris to say that they were not in agreement with the Treaty of Sèvres.
In both the south and the north of Ottoman Kurdistan, new powers were in development. In the north, the Kemalists were taking control. In the south, the British Empire was in control. The son of Said Berzinci, Sheikh Mahmud Barzanji was the leader of the Kurdish nationalists in Sulaymaniyah. The British Empire overcame the rebellion of Mahmud Barzanji, and the south of Kurdistan became part (Iraqi Kurdistan) of the new Kingdom of Iraq. In 1921, the Kemalists overcame a Kurdish rebellion (the Koçgiri rebellion) in the area of Koçgiri (near Sivas). By 1923, the Kemalist government was in control of all Anatolia. After the Kemalist armies overcame the Kingdom of Greece in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), the Allies ended their Occupation of Constantinople in 1923. Then the Kemalists took control of the capital city. The new government in Constantinople ended the existence of many Kurdish organizations. Many Kurds went into exile.
As a result of the Kemalists' military success, the Treaty of Lausanne (July 1923) took the place of the Treaty of Sèvres. The Treaty of Lausanne did not set up an independent Kurdistan or give autonomy to the Kurds. The Berlin–Baghdad railway became the border between the new Turkish Republic and the French Empire. The Kurdish lands between Aleppo and Antep became part (Syrian Kurdistan) of the French Empire. The parts of Kurdistan to the north of the railway became part (Turkish Kurdistan) of the new Turkish state. The Kemalist government ended the Ottoman caliphate March 1924. The division of the Ottoman Empire's Kurds and of Ottoman Kurdistan was complete when the League of Nations gave Mosul and its Kurdish lands to the Kingdom of Iraq in 1926. The division of Kurdistan and the Kurdish population into four (Turkish Kurdistan, Iranian Kurdistan, Iraqi Kurdistan and Syrian Kurdistan) continues to exist.
Religion
In Classical Antiquity, the most important deities of the Kurds' lands were Ahura Mazda and Mithra. The most common religion was Zoroastrianism. Zoroastrianism was probably the state religion of the Achaemenid Empire. There are connections between the writings of Zoroastrianism and the Vedas, the Hindu writings of ancient India.
In Late Antiquity before the 7th century, Kurds had many different religious beliefs. There were Christians and Zoroastrians. There were also Kurdish Jews. Some sects among the Kurdish Christians and Jews had religious beliefs from Zoroastrianism and Mithraism in their religion. There may have been Kurds among the Companions of the Prophet (the people who knew Muhammad).
The Muslim conquests by Arab armies in the 7th century meant that most Kurds became Muslims in the 7th and 8th centuries. Most Kurds converted to Islam between the 7th and 9th centuries CE. Kurds who were not Muslim had to pay the jizya, a tax. Most of these were part of the Shafi'ite system of Islamic jurisprudence. However, although most Kurds are Muslims and part of Sunni Islam, there are also Kurds of many other religions and sects.
There are Kurdish Jews in Iraqi Kurdistan and in Israel.
References |
A guerrilla is a civilian who attacks a regular army.
Guerrilla warfare is a war tactic in which people () fight against an organized army. Guerrilla warfare is sometimes practiced in places in which a regular army would have difficulty, such as forests and mountains. Usually, the army is invading a territory. In open fields, the organized army, which is better armed and larger, has the advantage. However, in forests and mountains, the guerillas can gain an advantage over larger and better-armed armies. In some wars such as the American Revolutionary War or the Vietnam War, guerilla warfare tactics have been successful and were one of the main reasons (but not the only one) for their victory.
Guerrilla, a word of Spanish origin, and means "little war". It was first used in 1808, when Spain was invaded by Napoleon, resulting in the Peninsular War with Spanish guerilla forces resisting the French Army.
This war tactic was used on the British by the Native Americans. The natives had an advantage because they used guerrilla warfare against the British Army. During the American Revolutionary War, the Americans used guerilla warfare against the larger and better armed British Army. Guerilla warfare was common in the Border States during the American Civil War and was used also during the Vietnam War by the North Vietnamese against the French, Americans and South Vietnamese.
Related pages
Terrorism
War |
Sometimes Sacrament can stand for Eucharist
In Christianity, a sacrament is a special rite. It is a visible token of the reality of God.
Sacraments in the Catholic Church
The Roman Catholic Church knows seven such sacraments. These are
Baptism - usually given shortly after birth, it is meant to forgive original sin.
Confirmation - done when reaching maturity
Holy Eucharist - The body and blood of Jesus Christ is eaten to remember the Last Supper.
Marriage
Holy orders - the deacon, the priest and bishop.
Penance and remission of sins
Anointing of the Sick - used to be known as Last Rites, given shortly before death
Protestant views
Following Martin Luther's tradition, many Protestant churches see only Baptism and Lord's Supper as Sacraments. They also have most of the other rites, but do not consider them to be sacraments.
Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox views
Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches basically have the same views as the Roman Catholic Church. They say however, that many things the church does (as church), can be seen as sacraments, in some way.
Sacraments |
For the city in Russia, see Saint Petersburg
St. Petersburg (shortened to St. Pete by the area residents) is a city in the U.S. state of Florida. It is in Pinellas County. It is home to the MLB team Tampa Bay Rays. |
Twenty is the number that is after nineteen and before twenty-one.
The prime factors of twenty are 2 and 5. (2 * 2 * 5 = 20)
Its factors are: 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20. As the sum of its factors is more than itself (i.e. 22), it can be referred to as an abundant number.
20 can been used as a number base. Remnants of this system remain in some European languages, for example in the English “score” (20) and the French “quatre-vingts” (80, literally four groups of twenty). The old (pre-decimal) English monetary system had twenty shillings in a pound. The ancient Mayan numerical system – counting on fingers and toes – was a base 20 or "vigesimal" system.
A polyhedron of 20 faces is an icosahedron, one of the five Platonic solids. It is a convex regular polyhedron composed of twenty triangular faces, with five meeting at each of the twelve vertices. It has 30 edges and 12 vertices. Its dual polyhedron is the dodecahedron.
In Japanese tradition, adulthood is established at the age of 20. See seijin not hi (the celebration of adulthood in Japan).
It is the number of milk teeth in an infant’s mouth.
In Roman numerals, 20 is written as XX.
Integers |
Forty is the number that is after thirty-nine and before forty-one.
The prime factors of forty are 2 and 5. (2 * 2 * 2 * 5 = 40)
Forty is also the only number in the English language which is spelt in alphabetical order.
The Bible
In the Judeo-Christian Bible, the number forty has special meaning. The Jews wandered in a desert for forty years, there was a forty-day and forty-night rainstorm, and other instances.
Integers |
Seventy is the number that is after sixty-nine and before seventy-one.
The prime factors of seventy are 2, 5, and 7. (2 * 5 * 7 = 70)
Integers |
A gas giant is a large planet that has a solid core, but a very thick atmosphere. This means that most of the planet is made up of gas. These planets are very large.
In our outer Solar System, there are four gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. However, Uranus and Neptune are also called ice giants.
Jupiter and Saturn are similar because they are made up of mostly hydrogen and helium. They both contain massive rocky cores that are bigger than Earth. Neptune and Uranus are similar because they are mainly made up of water and rock (a mixture of one or several minerals).
Gas giants have also been found around other stars than the sun. Most of those giant extrasolar planets are "hot giants" orbiting close to their star.
Types of planet |
The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) (Vietnamese: Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cộng Hòa), also known as North Vietnam, was a country that existed from 1945 until 1976. It took control in northern Vietnam and eventually took over its southern opponent. It lay north of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, and South Vietnam lay to the south of it.
It was proclaimed by President Hồ Chí Minh in Hà Nội on September 2, 1945. The country was supported by China and the Soviet Union during the Vietnam War, eventually defeating South Vietnam 20 years later in the Vietnam War.
References
1945 establishments in Asia
1976 disestablishments in Asia
20th century in Vietnam
Former countries in Asia
States and territories established in the 1940s
States and territories disestablished in the 20th century |
Set theory is the study of sets in mathematics. Sets are collections of objects. We refer to these objects as "elements" or "members" of the set. To write a set, one wraps the numbers in {curly brackets}, and separates them with commas. For example. the set holds 1, 2, and 3. Sets are also often referred to using capital roman letters such as , , .
There are three methods one can use to describe a set: Description method, Roster method (tabular form) and Rule method (set builder form).
History
Set theory was created around 1874 by Georg Cantor. It had to be made better because collections of objects can cause problems if we work with them without explaining them better. Russell's paradox was one of the problems. Think about the set of all sets that are not members of themselves. If it were inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it is not inside itself. But, if it were not inside itself, then the rule which defines it would mean that it is inside itself. This was a serious problem, and it meant that the old set theory was broken.
It was improved by people including Zermelo and Bertrand Russell.
Theory
Set theory begins by giving some examples of things that are sets. Then it gives rules in which you can make other sets from the already known sets. Collections of objects that are not sets are called (proper) classes. It is possible to do mathematics using only sets, rather than classes, so that the problems that classes cause in mathematics do not occur.
Example: An object and a set . If is a member (or element) of , we write . Since sets are objects, the membership relation can relate sets as well.
A binary relation between two sets is the subset relation, also called set inclusion. If all the members of set are also members of set , then is a subset of , marking . For example, is a subset of , but is not. From this example, it is clear that a set is a subset of itself. In cases where one wishes to not to have this, the term proper subset is meant not to have this possibility.
The self-considering objects in set theory was considered too, with some example numbers being 1={1}, 2={1, 2}, 3={1, 2, 3} and so on.
Related pages
Cantor set
Cantor's theorem
Cardinality
Continuum (mathematics)
Mathematical logic
Naive set theory
Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory
References
Further reading
Chechulin V. L., Theory of sets with self-considering (foundations and some applications), Publishing by Perm State University (Russia), Perm, 2010, 100 p. (In this non-predicative theory overcoming the limitations of predicative formal systems, i.e. Godel's theorems, the text is accessible from the page http://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=15267103 ) |
Bangor is a city name found in several countries.
Australia
Bangor, New South Wales
Bangor, South Australia
Bangor, Tasmania
Canada
Bangor, Nova Scotia
Bangor, Ontario
Bangor, Prince Edward Island
Bangor (city), Saskatchewan
Bangor (town), Saskatchewan
Bangor Lodge, Saskatchewan
Bangor Road, Prince Edward Island
France
Bangor, Morbihan
United Kingdom
Bangor, County Down
Bangor, Gwynedd (Wales)
Bangor-on-Dee, in Wales; also known as Bangor Is-Coed or Bangor-Is-y-Coed
United States
Bangor, Alabama
Bangor, California
Bangor, Maine
Bangor, Michigan (see also Bangor Township, Michigan, below)
Bangor, New York
Bangor, Pennsylvania
Bangor, Washington
Bangor, Wisconsin (village)
Bangor (town), Wisconsin
Bangor Township, Iowa
Bangor Township, Minnesota
Bangor Township, Bay County, Michigan (see also Bangor, Michigan, above)
Bangor Township, South Dakota
East Bangor, Pennsylvania |
A demo, in music, is the first version of a song or album.
It can also refer to an album made by the band as a "sample" in hopes of getting a contract with a record label.
Musical terminology
it:Demo#In musica |
Breton (, in Breton) is a Celtic language spoken in Brittany, in the north-west of France. Breton is closely related to the Cornish language of Cornwall spoken in south-west Great Britain. It is less closely related to Welsh, and the Goidelic languages of Scotland, Ireland and the Isle of Man. The Breton language has about 240,000 speakers,111 but this number is falling very quickly due to the French government's policy of using French. As such, Breton is considered to be an endangered language.
References
Celtic languages
Languages of Europe |
The Celtic languages are a language family inside of Indo-European languages. There are six Celtic languages still spoken in the world today, spoken in north-west Europe. They are divided into two groups, Goidelic (or Gaelic) and the Brythonic (or British).
The three Goidelic languages still spoken are Irish, Scottish, and Manx. Scottish is the main language spoken in parts of north-west Scotland and Irish is the main language spoken in the Gaeltacht in Ireland. Manx is spoken mainly by people interested in the language.
The three Brythonic languages are Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. Of these Cornish became extinct in the 18th century but people have started speaking it again now. Welsh is spoken everywhere throughout Wales, but is mainly first language for people in the western part of Wales, in the area some people call the Bro Gymraeg. Breton is spoken mainly in west Brittany, and is the only Celtic language not mainly spoken on the islands of Great Britain and Ireland. Because Brittany is part of France, the language is in danger of becoming extinct, just like Cornish, and there are ongoing efforts to prevent this from happening.
Scottish Gaelic also has a native community of speakers in Canada where it was once very widely spoken, and there are Welsh speakers in Patagonia, Argentina.
List of Celtic languages
Goidelic languages
Scottish Gaelic
Irish
Manx
Brythonic languages
Welsh
Breton
Cornish
Related pages
Celtic League |
Salem is a district capital and major city in Tamil Nadu, in India. It is known for its steel plants, factories which make steel.
Salem online yellow pages Directory
Cities in Tamil Nadu
Salem district |
A hunger strike is a way that people protest by not eating. Many people have done this to get people's attention, especially the attention of leaders.
Sometimes, hunger strikes are done by people who are in prison. In this case, the hunger strikes are sometimes ended by force feeding, when the prisoners are fed against their will through a feeding tube.
References
Social sciences
Deaths from starvation
Political prisoners |
The Hermitage Museum (Эрмитаж) in St. Petersburg, Russia is one of the largest and oldest art galleries and museums of human history and culture in the world. The vast Hermitage collections are displayed in six buildings, founded by Catherine II of Russia in 1764 and opened in public since 1852. The main building is the Winter Palace. This was the official residence of the Russian Tsars.
Collections
Strong points of the Hermitage collection of Western art include Michelangelo, Giambattista Pittoni, Leonardo da Vinci, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, Poussin, Claude Lorraine, Watteau, Tiepolo, Canaletto, Canova, Rodin, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, Cézanne, Van Gogh, Gauguin, Picasso, and Matisse. There are several more collections. Among the collections are the Russian imperial regalia, an assortment of Faberge jewellery, and the largest existing collection of ancient gold from Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
Cats
A population of cats lives on the museum grounds. They are named the Hermitage cats. They are an added attraction for tourists.
Art museums
Buildings and structures in Saint Petersburg
Education in Russia
1764 establishments
18th-century establishments in Russia |
Dirt may refer to:
Soil, on the ground (usually used in North America)
Waste material, an unwanted mixture of dust, soil, and other solids. |
The Boeing 747 is a jet airliner developed by Boeing in 1969. It is made by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. The Boeing 747 has more than one aisle, which means it is a wide-body aircraft. It is often called the Jumbo Jet or Queen of the Skies. The Boeing 747 is one of the easiest planes in the world to recognise. It was the first wide-body aircraft ever made. The first type of 747 was two and a half times the size of the Boeing 707. The Boeing 747 made its first flight for an airline in 1970. The 747 could carry more people than any other aircraft for 37 years, until the Airbus A380 was made.
The 747 is a double deck plane. It can carry people, cargo and many other things. Boeing designed the 747's upper deck to be a first class lounge or just extra seats. They also designed the upper deck so that the aircraft could be changed into a cargo plane easily. This was done by removing seats and putting in a cargo door at the front of the plane. Boeing did this because they thought that supersonic airliners would become much more popular than the 747 and other subsonic airliners. However, they thought that subsonic cargo planes would always be popular. It was thought that the 747 would become unpopular after 400 were sold. However, 1,000 planes had been made by 1993, so it stayed popular. By September 2012, 1,448 aircraft had been built. 81 747-8s were still waiting to be built.
The 747-400 is one of the fastest airliners being used today. It usually flies at Mach 0.85–0.855 (up to ). It can fly for 7,260 nautical miles (8,350 mi or 13,450 km). The newest version of the 747, the 747–8, is now being made.
The 747 will be replaced by the Boeing Y3 (part of the Boeing Yellowstone Project) eventually.
Development
Background
In 1963, the United States Air Force began to look for a very big plane to transport things. At that time, they were using the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter. However, the Air Force thought that a much bigger plane which could carry more cargo was needed. The Air Force called the big plane the CX-Heavy Logistics System (CX-HLS). It needed to be able to carry of cargo and travel at Mach 0.75 (). It also had to be able to fly for while carrying of cargo. The cargo bay had to be wide, high and long. There had to be doors for the bay at the front and the back of the plane.
The Air Force also wanted the plane to have only four engines. This meant that new engines had to be made. On May 18, 1964, Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed and Martin Marietta designed a plane. General Electric, Curtiss-Wright and Pratt & Whitney designed the engines. The Air Force liked Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed's designs. They also liked General Electric and Pratt & Whitney's engine designs.
In 1965, Lockheed's plane and General Electric's engines were used for the C-5 Galaxy. At that time, it was the biggest military cargo plane in the world.
Airliner
The idea for the 747 was thought of in the 1960s. Jets like the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 had made it easy to travel long distances. Juan Trippe from Pan American World Airways (Pan Am), asked Boeing to build a plane which was more than two times bigger than the Boeing 707. At this time, airports were very busy. Trippe thought that a big plane could help make them quieter.
In 1965, Joe Sutter was told to design this new plane. It was called the 747. Sutter asked Pan Am and other airlines what they would like from the plane. At the time, it was thought that supersonic aircraft would replace the 747. Because of this, Boeing made the 747 so that it could easily be turned into a cargo plane if the passenger version became less popular.
In April 1966, Pan Am bought 25 747-100 planes. The order cost US$525 million. Since Pan Am was the launch customer, Pan Am had a big say in the design and making of the 747. No other airline before then or since then has been able to have so much influence over a plane.
Designing
The design that Boeing made for the Air Force in 1963 was not used for the 747. However, Boeing made some new things for the Air Force which were used in the 747. The first design had two full decks. However, in 1966, this was changed to only one deck. The cockpit was put above the deck, which made a "bulge". There was a small space behind the cockpit which people could sit in. At first, it was a "lounge" area with no seats.
Planes as big as the 747 needed high-bypass turbofan engines. High-bypass turbofans can produce twice the power of turbojets, and also use a lot less fuel. General Electric made the first of these engines. However, it was making the engines for the C-5 Galaxy. It did not make engines for airliners until later. Pratt & Whitney was also working on this type of engine. In 1966, Boeing, Pan Am and Pratt & Whitney designed a new engine, the JT9D, for the 747.
Boeing used some special devices to make the plane make more lift. This was done so that the 747 could take off from shorter runways. The 747 has a lot of flaps on the wing. The flaps make the wings bigger by 21 percent. They also make 90 percent more lift when they are used.
Boeing tried to give the 747 to Pan Am by the end of 1969. This meant that Boeing only had 28 months to design the aircraft. The people who worked on the 747 had the nickname "The Incredibles".
Factory
Boeing did not have a factory big enough to make the new plane. Boeing thought about putting their factory in 50 different cities. They eventually decided to build their factory in Seattle, near Everett, Washington. Boeing bought the factory in June 1966.
Designing the 747 was very difficult. Building its factory was also not easy. Boeing's president, William M. Allen, asked Malcolm T. Stamper to be in charge of the building of the Everett factory. He was also asked to begin building the 747. The factory is the biggest building ever built (by volume). It has been made bigger many times so that Boeing can build even bigger planes.
Development and testing
Before the first 747 was put together, parts and systems were being tested. In one important test, 560 volunteers evacuated a replica of a 747 cabin using the emergency chutes. The first evacuation took two and a half minutes. However, the FAA says that the maximum time for an evacuation is 90 seconds. Many of the volunteers were hurt. More evacuations happened, and they eventually reached the 90 seconds. However, they also caused a lot of injuries. Evacuating from the top deck of the plane was difficult. Instead of using the usual slides, the volunteers had to leave the plane using a harness. The plane's taxiing also had to be tested. Boeing made "Waddell's Wagon" (named after a 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) to train the pilots. "Waddell's Wagon" was a replica of a 747 cockpit which was put on the roof of a truck. This helped pilots to learn how to taxi the plane.
On September 30, 1968, the first 747 was finished. People from the 26 airlines that had ordered the 747 were also there. The 747 first flew on February 9, 1969. Its pilots were Jack Waddell and Brien Wygle. There was a small problem with the flaps, but the 747 handled well.
The testing was delayed because of some problems with the JT9D engines. For example, the engines stalled if the throttles were moved too quickly. This meant that 747s could not be delivered for many more months. 20 planes were stuck at the factory while they were waiting on engines. On December 13, 1969 the test plane was being taken to have some changes made to it. The pilot, Ralph C. Cokely landed too early and did not reach the runway. One of the landing gears was ripped off, and two of the engines were damaged. However, Boeing took the 747 to the 28th Paris Air Show in mid-1969. There, the public saw the 747 for the first time.
Designing the 747 and building the new factory cost a lot of money. This meant that Boeing had to borrow a lot of money from a bank. Just before the first aircraft was finished, Boeing had to keep asking for more money. If Boeing was not given this money, the company could have collapsed. Boeing was in over $2 billion in debt. Allen said, "It was really too large a project for us." However, the 747 program was a success. Boeing was the only company to make very big planes for many years.
Use by airlines
The very first time a 747 was used by an airline was on January 22, 1970. Pan Am used it to fly from New York to London. The flight was supposed to happen on the evening of January 21. However, the engines on the aircraft overheated. Pan Am had to find another plane, which took six hours.
The 747 did quite well when it first began to be used. Some people thought that airports would not be able to handle such a big plane. However, they could. There were some problems, but they were quite small and they were fixed quickly. After Pan Am began to use the plane, other airlines began to use their 747s. Boeing thought that a lot of 747s would be sold because airlines wanted a plane which could fly for a long time, not because it was so big.
The recession of 1969-1970 was very bad for Boeing. For over a year after September 1970, it only sold two 747s. None were sold to an American airline for over three years. Some airlines did not have enough passengers to fly the 747. Therefore, they replaced them with the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar. American Airlines eventually only used its 747s to carry cargo. In 1983, AA gave its 747s to Pan Am. Pan Am gave American Airlines some smaller planes. Delta Air Lines also stopped using its 747s after many years. Delta would later merge with Northwest Airlines, which operates 747s.
Flights which landed in smaller cities became quite usual in the 1980s. This was bad for the 747. However, many airlines still used the 747 to fly across the Pacific.
Upgrades made to the 747
The first type of 747 was called the 747–100. After this, Boeing made the , which has a higher MTOW (maximum takeoff weight), and the (Short Range). The -100SR could carry more passengers. A higher MTOW means that the plane can carry more fuel and fly further. In 1971, Boeing made the . It had better engines and a higher MTOW. Airliner and cargo versions of the were made. The 747SP (special performance) was also made. It began being used in 1976.
In 1980, Boeing made the 747–300. The first 747-300 was made in 1983. Its upper deck was longer, it flew faster and it could hold more passengers. The −300 was first called the 747SUD for "stretched upper deck". Then it was called the 747-200 SUD, then the 747EUD, and finally it was called the 747–300.
In 1985, Boeing began to design the 747-400. This type has a glass cockpit. This meant that only two people were needed in the cockpit. It also had new engines and a new cabin. The workers who made the 747-400 were not very experienced and Boeing wanted them to work for longer than they needed to. This meant that there were some problems with the first 747-400s. The −400 began being used by airlines in 1989.
In 1991, 1,087 passengers were taken to Israel on a 747. This was a part of Operation Solomon. The Antonov An-225 cargo transport is the world's biggest plane. The Hughes H-4 Hercules has the biggest wingspan, but it only flew once.
More developments
Since the 747-400 was made, many more types of 747 have been suggested. Boeing said that they would make the 747-500X and in 1996. These new planes would have cost more than US$5 billion to design and make. Airlines did not like it enough, so Boeing decided not to make the planes. In 2000, Boeing said it would make a 747X to rival the Airbus A3XX. However, airlines did not like the 747X enough, so it was cancelled. A year later, Boeing began concentrating on the Sonic Cruiser. The Sonic Cruiser was stopped, so Boeing then focused on the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Some of the ideas that Boeing had for the 747X were used on the 747-400ER.
In 2004, Boeing said that it might work on the 747 Advanced. Boeing decided to go ahead with this. The 747 Advanced used some things from the 787 to make the 747's design more modern. The 747 was the world's biggest passenger plane until the Airbus A380 was finished in 2007.
On November 14, 2005, Boeing said it had changed the name of the 747 Advanced to the Boeing 747-8. The last 747-400s were made in 2009. On February 8, 2010, the 747-8 Freighter made its first flight. Cargolux got the first 747–8 in 2011. Eventually, the 747 will be replaced by "Y3".
Design
The Boeing 747 is a big, wide-body airliner. It has four engines on the wings, and the wings are swept at 37.5 degrees, so the 747 can fly very fast. The sweep also means that the 747 does not need any special hangars.
Since the cockpit is above the main deck, it makes a "hump", and because it is so high, the plane can have a cargo door installed at the front.
The 747-100 can fly for 5,300 nautical miles (6,100 mi, 9,800 km), and the 747-8i can fly for 8,000 nmi (9,200 mi, 14,815 km).
The 747 has special flaps, which allow the 747 to fly slowly and land on normal runways. A 747 can carry a fifth engine on the wing, but it cannot be used.
Types of Boeing 747
The 747-100 was the very first type of 747, which was made in 1966. The 747–200, the next version, was made in 1968. The 747-300 was made in 1980 and the 747-400 was made in 1985. The newest version, the 747–8, was announced in 2005. These types also have smaller sub-types. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) names these planes by combining the model number of the plane with its type number. For example, the 747-100 is "B741" and the 747-400 is "B744".
747-100
The first 747-100s had six windows on the upper deck. Later, airlines began to use the upper deck to hold more people instead of using it as a lounge. Boeing then made an upper deck with ten windows. Some −100s had the new ten-window upper deck installed after the plane was made (retrofitted). The −100 had Pratt & Whitney JT9D-3A engines. Boeing did not make a freighter version of the 747–100, but some airlines have turned some 747-100s into freighters. 167 747-100s were made.
747-100SR
After Japanese airlines requested an aircraft to fly routes between major cities in Japan, Boeing produced the -100SR. This model flies shorter distances, but is able to carry more passengers. The first -100SR started flying with Japan Air Lines (JAL) on October 7, 1973. The -100SR had four General Electric CF6-45A2 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A engines. A total of 7 -100SR were produced.
Later, Boeing designed a type of -100SR with the ability of taking off with greater weight. This was the -100BSR. It was first delivered to All Nippon Airways (ANA) on December 21, 1978. 20 -100BSR were delivered to JAL and ANA.
In 1986, 2 -100BSR with stretched upper deck (SUD) from the -300 series were delivered to JAL. It was the last -100SR/BSR ever built. The last delivery was to JAL, in September 1986. There were a total of 29 -100SR/BSR made.
747SP
The 747SP (SP means special performance) is designed as Pan Am and Iran Air both wanted a wide-body plane that can fly long distances; from New York to the Middle East (for Pan Am) and Tehran to New York (for Iran Air). The first 747SP was produced on May 19, 1975. Its first flight was on July 4. On this flight, it flew at a top speed of Mach 0.92 (). It started flying people on April 25, 1976, after being delivered on March 5. Now, it is not often used. A total of 45 747SP were made and used by airlines like Qantas, China Airlines, Air China, and South African Airways.
747-200
After the -100 were made, Boeing started making -200. The -200 has a longer range, but still carries the same number of people. This is because airlines said the -100 could not fly long distances. The -200 is made in passenger type (-200B), freighter type (-200F), Combi type (A plane that carries both cargo and people; -200M) and convertible type (a plane that can be easily changed to carry cargo; -200C).
The first -200B was finished on September 10, 1970 before its first flight on October 11 and finally, it started being used by KLM. Boeing then started making the other types of -200. The -200F first flight was on November 30, 1971, 7 days after it was finished. It was then delivered to Lufthansa.
The -200C first flew on March 23, 1973 before being delivered to World Airways in May the same year. Finally, the -200M had its first flight on November 11, 1974 before being delivered to Air Canada.
There was a total of 393 -200 series ever made, which includes 225 -200B, 78 -200M, 73 -200F, 13 -200C and 4 military.
747-300
The 747-300 is a stretched upper deck version of the 747–200. It was designed to fit more passengers on the upper deck. The 747-300 also has updated General Electric CF6-80C2 engines. Otherwise, there are not many differences between the 747-200 and 747–300. The 747-300 has a length of 231 feet 10 inches and a wingspan of 195 feet 8 inches.
747-400
The 747-400 was the next-generation Boeing 747 introduced in 1989. It is the best-selling variant of the Boeing 747. It includes improvements over the 747-300 including new engines, and new winglets, which improve fuel efficiency. Its length is the same as the 747-300 but the wingspan has been increased to 211 feet 5 inches. The 747-400 retains the same longer upper deck as the 747-300 (excluding freighter versions), and came in six variants: the 747–400, 747-400F, 747-400M, 747-400D, 747-400ER, and the 747-400ERF.
747-8
The most recent variant of the Boeing 747 was announced in 2005 and released in 2011. It includes a longer stretched upper deck, a new Boeing Sky Interior, an updated flight deck, new wings based on ones from the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, and new GEnx turbofan engines. It totals 250 feet in length, making it the longest commercial passenger jet ever built. The 747-8 comes in two variants: 747-8I and 747-8F (freighter).
References
747 |
Events
Corfu taken from Byzantine Empire by Robert Guiscard, Norman King of Southern Italy
Byzantine emperor Nicephorus III is overthrown by Alexius I Comnenus, ending the Middle Byzantine period and beginning the Comnenan dynasty
Alexius I helps defend Albania from the Normans (the first recorded mention of Albania), but is defeated at the Battle of Dyrrhachium.
Beginning of the construction of Saint Canute's Cathedral in Odense.
May 8 – Alfonso VI of Castile marries Constance of Burgundy. |
Richard Trevithick (April 13,1771 - April 22, 1833) was a Cornish inventor and engineer. He is best known for making the first working steam locomotive. However, it was designed to be a road vehicle, not a railroad one.
Trevithick was from the heart of a big mining area in Cornwall, U.K. His parents were Richard Trevithick (1735-1797) and Ann Teague (d. 1810.) In 1797, Trevithick married Jane Harvey. He died of pneumonia in 1833.
1771 births
1833 deaths
English inventors |
Wasilla is a small city in the U.S. state of Alaska, about 43 miles from Anchorage. It is one of the ten largest cities in Alaska. Sarah Palin was once mayor and owns a house with her family there.
The city's population was 7,831 at the 2010 census.
Other websites
Official City of Wasilla website
Cities in Alaska |
Rantoul is a village in Champaign County, Illinois, United States. Almost 13,000 people were living in Rantoul as of 2000. Rantoul has an area of 7.4 square miles.
References
Villages in Illinois |
Winter Springs is a city in Florida. It is sometimes considered a suburb of Orlando.
Cities in Florida |
Fredericton is the capital city of New Brunswick, Canada. It is filled with rich history. Fredericton is on the Saint John River. There is a playhouse. There are scenic walking trails. Frederiction is the capital of New Brunswick. The population of Fredericton was 1,886 at the 2011 census.
Fredericton is known as a cultural and artistic city in New Brunswick. The city hosts an annual Harvest Jazz & Blues Festival which attracts both regional as well as international jazz, blues, rock, and world musicians.
References
Other websites
City of Fredericton's official website
Cities in New Brunswick
Provincial and territorial capitals of Canada |
Clearwater is a city in Florida, it is in the Tampa Bay area. It is the county seat of Pinellas County.
The first Hooters restaurant opened here in 1984. The Church of Scientology's international headquarters is also in the city.
Cities in Florida
County seats in Florida |
Jordanhill railway station is in a suburb of Glasgow, Scotland. It is a station where passenger trains stop on the First ScotRail railway line. The station opened on August 1, 1887 as part of a different railway line.
On March 2, 2006, a new article on the Jordanhill railway station became English Wikipedia's one-millionth article.
Railway stations in Scotland
Buildings and structures in Glasgow
1887 establishments in Europe
1880s establishments in Scotland |
A googolplex is the number 10googol, equivalent to 1010100 or 10Ten duotrigintillion or 1010,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
Like the number googol, googolplex was thought of by Milton Sirotta, the nephew of mathematician Edward Kasner.
The company Google named their headquarters, the Googleplex, after the number.
A googolplexplex or googolplexian is a 1 followed by a Googolplex amount of zeros which is 10Googolplex (101010100 ).
Related pages
Graham's number
Googol
Integers |
Flint, or flintstone, is a kind of sedimentary rock, made of silica.
Bands of flint are found embedded in chalk and other kinds of soft limestone.
When the chalk is eroded, the hard flint nodules survive as pebbles on a shingle beach. It may happen that the pebbles later get cemented into another rock, such as a puddingstone. In this way, they make up a sedimentary rock for the second time.
Technical description
Flint is a cryptocrystalline (means you can't see the crystals) form of the mineral quartz. It is a variety of chert. It occurs as a line of knobbly masses in chalk and some limestones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually translucent, and can be various colours. A thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually different in colour, typically white and rough in texture.
Uses
Flintstones often have a rough lumpy surface but when they are broken, they look like dark glass. It has been one of the most useful types of stone to humankind.
Flint was used by hominins for over three million years. Stone tools found at Lake Turkana in Kenya, are dated as 3.3 million years old. This predates the genus Homo by half a million years. The oldest known Homo fossil is 2.8 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old stone tools.
When flintstones are broken, they have a sharp edge which could be used as a knife, or a scraper. When flint and an iron-containing material such as pyrite or steel are hit together, they can make a spark. For many centuries, flint was one of the main ways for people in many countries to make fire. People would carry a little box called a "tinder box" which had some tinder along with flint and pyrite or steel. The tinder was used to catch the spark and start a fire. Tinder could be sawdust, cloth, grass or bark. Flints were later used to make a spark to fire a gun. A gun that used flint was called a "flintlock" gun.
Flintstones are used in some countries for building. In England the flintstones used for building were often "knapped" which means they were broken to show the inside, like the stones used for the tower of Long Melford Church (below). This gave a better finish to the building that the dull knobbly stones would have made.
Gallery
Related pages
Chalk
Palaeolithic
References
Sedimentary rocks |
Valley Center is a census-designated place in San Diego County, California. It has a population of 9,277 people.
References
Census-designated places in California
Settlements in San Diego County, California |
Newbridge (Droichead Nua in Gaelic) is a town in County Kildare, Republic of Ireland. It is the second largest town in Kildare.
Towns in Ireland
County Kildare |
Anaheim is a city in the United States. It was founded by German immigrants in 1857. It is the home of Disneyland, and two professional sports teams, The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim (baseball) and the Anaheim Ducks (ice hockey). In 2012, there was a riot following a police officer shooting a man.
Anaheim, California
1857 establishments in California |
A chair is a piece of furniture. It is used for sitting on and it can also be used for standing on if you can't reach something. They usually have four legs to support the weight. Some types of chairs, such as the bar-stool, have only one leg in the center. Those chairs are usually able to spin. Sometimes chairs have armrests. These chairs may be called armchairs. There are many types of chairs such as Windsor chairs and rocking chairs. There is another type of chair called a sofa or settee Another type of chair is a desk chair. It has wheels on the bottom to move around.
Other websites
Furniture |
Events
Owain Gwynedd is recognized as ruler of Wales.
Silesian duchies accept suzerainty of Holy Roman Empire.
Law of Succession is introduced in Norway.
Council of Tours is held, names and condemns Albigensians.
Abbey of Lokkum in Hanover is founded as a Cistercian house by Cornwall
Egyptian empire re– resurrected for 10 days
1163 |
Hercules is a hero in Roman mythology. He is a mortal son of Alcmene and Zeus. Hercules is known for his great strength. In Greek mythology he is named Herakles, but he has some different stories.
Etymology
The name Hercules (Latin Herculēs) comes from the Etruscan Hercle. He was an Etruscan hero who was the equivalent to the Greek hero Herakles.
The twelve
In one of the more well known stories of Hercules, he had to complete twelve tasks. These tasks were:
Kill the Nemean Lion and bring back its fur. (Leo)
Kill the Lernaean Hydra.
Capture the Ceryneian Hind.
Capture the Erymanthian Boar.
Clean the Augean stables in a single day.
Kill the Stymphalian Birds.
Capture the Cretan Bull.
Steal the Mares of Diomedes.
Get the Girdle of Hippolyte.
Get the Cows of Geryon.
Steal the Apples of the Hesperides.
Capture Cerberus, the guardian dog of The Underworld and bring him back.
Other versions of the title Hercules
Hercules is also a character in Marvel Comics. He was an ally of the mighty Thor. He is the leader and a founding member of the super team the Champions. He was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby in 1962.
Hercules also appears in the 1997 Disney movie of the same name, in which he is voiced by Tate Donovan.
Other websites
Roman mythology |
Navigation is the methods used to learn where someone is and how to go to another place. Since this is easy when landmarks are visible, the word is often limited to the methods ships or aircraft use. The word navigation was invented in the 15th century from the Latin word navis which means "ship" and is found in other Indo-European languages. Navigation is literally "art of ship mastery" but is also used for 'finding one's way'. The Global Positioning System is the main tool for it.
Simple navigation
One type of navigation was made by the Polynesians and is called Polynesian navigation. Polynesians used different things found all around them to find their way across large areas of open ocean. Other early people also learned how to travel large distances using the natural world. For example:
A long time ago (and still used by some people today) people would watch the stars, the sun and the moon. From this they would know where north was. With charts they could find how far from the equator they were. This is called celestial navigation. Until they had accurate clocks they didn't know their Longitude (how far east or west they were) without seeing landmarks.
Some types of clouds form over land, and waves can bounce off of a shore and travel out to sea.
The time it took to get to a place. When traveling on land they knew it would take them, for example, two days to get from one place to another. This time would most likely stay the same. From this they could travel two days and know they were close to where they wanted to be.
The animals they found helped too. In different places the people would find different types of fish, whales or birds that only lived in one place, or near land. From that they could tell either they were near or far from where they needed to be.
An example of people who used the stars were the Vikings. They knew that the star called Polaris (the North Star) does not change location and points to the north. They would then know the latitude (distance from the equator), by measuring the angle between Polaris and the horizon. They also used animals, especially birds, to know if land was nearby. They also knew that specific kind of clouds form near land and that waves are different near land than at high seas.
Medieval navigation
As time went by better methods of navigation were invented or discovered. Some of these methods are:
Dead reckoning. A ship could throw a log over the side. Attached to the log was a rope with knots tied at regular distances. By counting how many knots went over the side before they pulled the log back in, they knew how fast they were going. They would write this down every day and figure out how much they traveled for the day. This is why a ship's speed is measured in knots.
A compass. It was discovered that the Earth had two poles (North and South) and that these poles had different magnetic charges (positive and negative). Resting a strip of magnetic iron on the point of pin it was found that the strip would spin until it matched the magnetic field of Earth. From this a direction could be taken and paths could be followed. The compass was first invented in China. It was later invented in France in 12th century.
Accurate clocks. With a clock, it was finally possible to know what a person's longitude was. Longitude is the location east or west. Before this, only landmarks and dead reckoning could be used.
Pilotage is when ships look out for special beacons or man made markers, which tell them where they are or to watch out for certain obstacles such as reefs.
People divided the compass into 360 degrees. Then they could give an accurate number for the direction the ship had to follow (the "bearing") to arrive at a harbor. The first navigational sea maps, called "nautical charts", showed the bearings needed to get from one harbor to another.
Modern navigation
Stellar navigation is an improvement on navigating by stars. It uses a sextant, a compass and a very accurate clock called a chronometer. By measuring the altitude of a star (how high it is above the horizon), and its direction on a compass at a known time, the navigator can determine where the ship is. GPS has pretty much replaced stellar navigation, but stellar navigation is still taught in all maritime schools because it does not need special electronics.
Radio navigation was invented in the early 20th century. Hyperbolic navigation uses radio transmitters to find the location of a ship between two or three radio transmitters that do not move.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) replaced other radio methods in the late 20th century. It is a system of satellite transmitters. Travelers use a small receiver to find their location almost anywhere on Earth.
Related pages
Sailing |
Hercules is a 1997 American animated musical fantasy comedy movie based on the legendary Greek mythology hero Heracles (known in the movie by his Roman name, Hercules), the son of Zeus in Greek mythology. The movie was directed by Ron Clements and John Musker, and was produced by The Walt Disney Company. It is the 35th animated movie in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series.
"Go the Distance" was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Original Song and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. It lost both to Celine Dion's hit "My Heart Will Go On" from Titanic.
Cast
Tate Donovan as Hercules, based on the mythological deity Heracles.
Josh Keaton provided the speaking voice of Hercules as a teenager. Roger Bart was his singing voice.
Danny DeVito as Philoctetes/Phil.
James Woods as Hades.
Susan Egan as Megara.
Frank Welker as Pegasus.
Rip Torn and Samantha Eggar as Zeus and Hera, Hercules' birth-parents.
Lillias White, Cheryl Freeman, LaChanze, Roz Ryan and Vanéese Y. Thomas as the Muses (Calliope, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Thalia and Clio respectively), the narrators of the movie's story.
Bobcat Goldthwait and Matt Frewer as Pain and Panic, Hades' henchmen.
Patrick Pinney as the Cyclops.
Hal Holbrook and Barbara Barrie as Amphitryon and Alcmene, Hercules' adoptive parents.
Amanda Plummer, Carole Shelley and Paddi Edwards as Clotho, Lachesis, Atropos, the three Fates who predict Hades' attempt to conquer Olympus.
Paul Shaffer as Hermes.
Jim Cummings as Nessus.
Wayne Knight as Demetrius
Keith David as Apollo
Charlton Heston has a cameo appearance as the opening narrator.
Awards and nominations
Academy Awards
Academy Award for Best Original Song - "Go the Distance" (Nominated)
Golden Globes
Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song - "Go the Distance" (Nominated)
Saturn Award
Best Fantasy Movie (Nominated)
Blockbuster Entertainment Awards
Favorite Animated Family Movie (Nominated)
Favorite Song from a Movie - "Go the Distance" (Nominated)
Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a Voice Over Role - Young Actor Josh Keaton for Young Hercules's voice (Nominated)
Annie Awards
References
Other websites
1997 movies
1997 animated movies
Disney animated movies
1990s American fantasy movies
Movies based on Greek and Roman mythology
Movies composed by Alan Menken
Movies set in Greece
1990s American comedy movies
American animated movies
Hercules (Disney) |
The Karate Kid is a 1984 American drama movie starring Ralph Macchio and Pat Morita. It tells the story of a boy named Daniel (Macchio) who moves with his mother from New Jersey to Los Angeles, California. Daniel has trouble adjusting and is victimized by a gang of bullies at his school. Mr. Miyagi (Morita), the handyman from the apartment building Daniel lives in, teaches Daniel martial arts, so he can fight the bullies in a tournament. In the song "You're the Best", the Roland Juno-106 patch "Brass" was heard. The movie was very successful and was compared to the boxing movie Rocky. It was followed by three sequels: The Karate Kid Part II, The Karate Kid Part III, The Next Karate Kid and a remake in 2010.
Cast
Ralph Macchio as Daniel LaRusso
Noriyuki "Pat" Morita as Mr. Miyagi
Elisabeth Shue as Ali Mills
William Zabka as Johnny Lawrence
Randee Heller as Lucille LaRusso
Release Dates
Other websites
1984 drama movies
1980s sports movies
1980s teen drama movies
American sports drama movies
American teen drama movies
Columbia Pictures movies
English-language movies
Movies about bullying
Movies set in Los Angeles
Teen sports movies
Martial arts movies
Karate
Movies directed by John G. Avildsen |
Events
January 2 – John II becomes Pope, succeeding Pope Boniface II, who had died in 532.
Belisarius, a general in the service of Justinian I, lands in North Africa and attacks the Vandals.
September 13 – Battle of Ad Decimium: Belisarius defeats the Vandals under Gelimer. Gelimer, forced to flee, leaves Carthage unprotected.
December 15 – The Battle of Ticameron begins.
December – Battle of Ticameron: Belisarius defeats a new Vandal force under Gelimer and Tzazo. Tzazo is killed in an all-cavalry fight, and Gelimer flees to the mountains of Numidia.
December 16 – The Digesta or Pandectae, a collection of jurist writings and other sources, is completed (see Corpus Juris Civilis).
Theodebert I becomes king of Austrasia. |
Crazy Horse (born about 1838 – died September 5, 1877) was an Oglala Sioux Native American chief. There is a huge sculpture being carved of him in South Dakota, United States.
When Crazy Horse was first born he was given the name 'Curly'. When he was young, he had a vision when he was not supposed to and his family did not know where he was. His father found him and was very unhappy at what young Curly had done.
As Crazy Horse grew into a man, he was given his father's name Crazy Horse. His father then changed his own name to Worm.
Crazy Horse had good medicine, so he was never killed when he went into battle. He led his people to the Little Bighorn river in northern Montana to join forces with other Sioux bands like the Hunkpapa and Miniconjou, and with other tribes like the Cheyennes and Arapahos. There they fought General George Armstrong Custer, killing and defeating him and his many horsemen.
Eventually Crazy Horse made a tough decision to lead his people, the Oglalas, to a reservation because they were starving. Game was scarce and the bison (buffalo) were nearly gone. He had no choice but to leave the Black Hills. When he arrived at Fort Robinson, he was forced to give up his weapons and horses. This made him very unhappy. One day, even though he was granted time to go on a hunt, he was lied to and, trying to get away, he was stabbed in his liver and died later that night, thus ending the Great Sioux War.
"Once I moved about like the wind. Now I surrender to you and that is all"
Quote by Geronimo, Chief of the Apaches .
The Sioux Royal Family, the House of Thasunke Witko, are descendants of Crazy Horse. A queen, Queen Wakiyan, was elected Queen of the Kingdom of Lakota (in Sioux, "Oglala Oyanke") and of the Oglala Sioux, and tried to improve the economy at the Pine Ridge Reservation with creativity and imagination, and to bring the Sioux forward into modern times;however, a conspiracy of jealous chieftains who were both male chauvinists opposed to having a female leader and also a corrupt group of men jealous of their own power and who prefer to preside over the poverty of the Sioux People, ruthlessly trumped up false allegations in order to depose this good queen.
According to Frederick Hoxie's 'Encyclopedia of North American Indians' Crazy Horse was the third in his male line of descent to bear the name of Crazy Horse, which in Oglala is Tasunke Witko. Tasunke Witko III was the son of Rattling Blanket Woman and Tasunke Witko II. He married three times: 1st to Black Buffalo Woman, 2nd to Black Shawl, and 3rd to Nellie Larrabee (Laravie). Only his second wife, Black Shawl, bore him any children: a daughter named They Are Afraid of Her, who died aged three.
Native American people
1838 births
1877 deaths
People from South Dakota |
Events
April 25 – Genpei War – Naval battle of Dan-no-ura leads to Minamoto victory in Japan
Templars settle in London and begin the building of New Temple Church
End of the Heian Period and beginning of the Kamakura period in Japan.
Founding of Katedralskolan in Lund, Sweden. The school is the oldest in northern Europe, and one of the oldest in Europe.
Peter and Asen led a revolt of the Vlachs and Bulgars against the Byzantine Empire, eventually establishing the Second Bulgarian Kingdom.
August 15 – The cave city of Vardzia was consecrated by Queen Tamar of Georgia
Births
April 23 – King Afonso II of Portugal (died 1223)
Inge II of Norway (died 1217)
Gertrude of Merania, queen of Andrew II of Hungary (died 1213)
Deaths
April 25 – Emperor Antoku, 81st emperor of Japan (b. 1178)
June 16 – Richeza of Poland, daughter of Wladislaus II the Exile of Poland
July 18 – Stefan, first Archbishop of Uppsala
July 25 – King Afonso I of Portugal (born 1109)
September 12 – Andronicus I Comnenus, Byzantine Emperor
November 25 – Pope Lucius III
December 6 – King Afonso I of Portugal (born 1109)
Baldwin IV of Jerusalem (born 1161)
Taira no Munemori, Japanese soldier (born 1147)
Taira no Noritsune, Japanese soldier (born 1160)
Taira no Shigehira, Japanese soldier (born 1158)
Taira no Tomomori, Japanese soldier (born 1152)
Ibn Tufail, Arab philosopher, physician, and courtier
References
1185 |
Events
January 17 – Gregory XI enters Rome.
January 27 – The Bad Parliament begins sitting.
February 23 – The Bad Parliament dissolved.
May – Continuous riots in Rome induce Gregory XI to remove temporarily to Anagui.
May 22 – Gregory XI issues five Bulls in which the opinions of John Wyclif are condemned.
June 21 – Edward III dies at age 65.
July 16 – Coronation of 10-year-old Richard II.
October 13 – Richard II's first parliament meets.
October 18 – Andronicus IV Palaeologus crowned emperor in Constantinople.
Informed that khan Urus of the White Horde has died, Timur Lenk sends Tokhtamish to take the Horde throne, but the successor of Urus defeats him.
Mamluk sultan Sha'ban II is succeeded by 'Ali II.
Muhammad al-Mutawakkil I is briefly deposed this year as Abbasid puppet caliph of the Mamluks, Zakariyya' al-Mu'tasim taking the throne for that period.
A sermon by a German monk states "the game of cards has come to us this year" and prohibitions against cards are issued by John of Castile and the cities of Florence and Basel.
Papal legate to northern Italy Robert of Geneva (the future Clement VII) pillages Cesena and 4,000 antipapal rebels are massacred. |
He-Man and the Masters of the Universe was a cartoon series, that first came out in 1983. It aired in first run syndication. It was based on a popular toy line and told the story of Adam, who was prince of the planet, Eternia. Prince Adam had a magic sword that could turn him into He-Man, the most powerful man in the universe. He-Man along with, Battle Cat, Teela, Man-At-Arms, and Orko, fought Skeletor, who wanted to take over the universe. It was very popular in the 1980s and was revived three times, one made in the early 1990s, another in 2002 for Cartoon Network, and another in 2021 for Netflix. There was also a spin-off called She-Ra: Princess of Power, which was about He-Man's sister.
Other websitess
He-Man and the Masters of the Universe on YouTube
Masters of the Universe on Hulu
Animated television series
First run syndicated television programs
English-language television programs |
Fantasia Barrino (born June 30, 1984) is an American singer. She was the winner of the third season on American Idol.
References
1984 births
Living people
Singers from North Carolina
American Idol winners
Actors from North Carolina |
Cabrillo Beach is a historic beach in San Pedro, California.
Cabrillo has two separate beach areas.
Lifeguards
Los Angeles City and Los Angeles County Lifeguards are responsible for the beach and ocean safety in and around the Cabrillo Beach area.
Geography
Cabrillo Beach is next to the Los Angeles Harbor and is only a short boat ride away from Catalina Island.
Water Sports
Cabrillo Beach is a popular destination for those interested in water sports, such as windsurfing, kayaking and SCUBA diving.
Cabrillo Beach is known by windsurfers as "Hurricane Gulch" because of its predictably strong winds.
Landmarks
It is also home to a few famous landmarks, namely the 1.75 mile Los Angeles Breakwater which ends at the Angeles Gate Lighthouse, the recently restored Cabrillo Beach Bathhouse, and the Cabrillo Marine Aquarium. The Angels Gate Lighthouse is home to the annual Angel's Gate Lighthouse Swim competition, held by Lifeguards and San Pedro residents each summer.
Beaches of California
Geography of Los Angeles |
Chulalongkorn University () is the oldest university in Thailand. It has been ranked as the number 1 university in Thailand. It is in Bangkok (the capital city of Thailand). It was founded in 1917. Currently, there are about 30,000 students. The name of the university comes from the name of one of the kings of Thailand, Chulalongkorn (Rama V).
Rankings
In the QS Asia University Rankings 2016. Chulalongkorn has been ranked as the top Thai university and ranked 45th in Asia
In the QS World University Rankings 2018. Chulalongkorn was ranked the 1st in national rankings and ranked 245nd in the world
In the Center for World University Ranking or CWUR, Chulalongkorn was ranked the 1st in national rankings and 320th in world rankings in 2016, considered by alumni, researches, quality of curriculums and instructors.
In the Round University Ranking. Chulalongkorn was ranked the 1st in national rankings and ranked 398th in the world.
In the CWTS Leiden Ranking 2016. Chulalongkorn was ranked the 1st in national rankings and ranked 432nd in the world.
In the THE World University Rankings 2016. Chulalongkorn was ranked 601- 800 in the world.
In the SCImago institutions Ranking, which ranks international researches of universities. Chulalongkorn was ranked 475th in World rankings in 2016, up six places from last year.
In the U.S. News. Chulalongkorn was ranked 579th in the world. considered by the university's reputation, medium, citations, international cooperation, quantity of PhD students, etc.
QS World University Ranking by Subject 2017
27 subjects that CU tops in the country's list includes:
Arts & Humanities
Anthropology
English Language & Literature
History
Modern Languages
Linguistics
Philosophy
Engineering & Technology
Chemical Engineering
Computer Science
Electrical Engineering
Mechanical, Aeronautical & Manufacturing Engineering
Mineral & Mining Engineering
Life Sciences & Medicine
Biological Sciences
Dentistry
Psychology
Veterinary Science
Natural Sciences
Physics & Astronomy
Mathematics
Environmental Sciences
Earth & Marine Sciences
Chemistry
Materials Sciences
Geography
Social Sciences & Management
Accounting & Finance
Communication & Media Studies
Social Policy & Administration
Economics & Econometrics
Politics & International Studies
9 subjects that CU comes in second on the country's list includes:
Arts & Humanities
Architecture / Built Environment
Engineering & Technology
Engineering – Civil & Structural
Life Sciences & Medicine
Medicine
Nursing
Pharmacy & Pharmacology
Social Sciences & Management
Education
Business & Management
Sociology
Statistics & Operational Research
3 subjects that CU ranks third in the country's list includes:
Arts & Humanities
Performing Arts
Social Sciences & Management
Development Studies
Law
Other Rankings
QS Graduate Employability Rankings 2017 indicates the impressive alumni outcomes or the strongest reputation among employers. Chulalongkorn University has been ranked as Number 1 in Thailand and 151-200 in the World.[22]
In the Nature Index, the affiliations of high quality scientific articles. Chulalongkorn was ranked the 1st in Thailand in 2016.
In the UI Green Metric, Chulalongkorn was ranked the 1st in national rankings and the 30th in world rankings. considered by Setting and Infrastructure, Energy and Climate Change, Waste, Water, Transportation and Education.
The Webometric ranking indicates quantity and quality is the university's medium, considered by being searched by search engines, online documents and citations in Google Scholar. Chulalongkorn was ranked 407th in the world.
International Programs
International Programs offered at Chulalongkorn University
Undergraduate
Graduate
Scholarships
Research Scholarships
The 90th Anniversary of Chulalongkorn University Scholarship
CU.Graduate School Thesis Grant
Overseas Research Experience Scholarship for Graduate Student
Overseas Academic Presentation Scholarship for Graduate Students
Overseas Academic Presentation Scholarship Option II for Graduate Student's and Postdoctoral Fellow's Publication
Domestic Academic Presentation Scholarship for Graduate Student
Postdoctoral Fellowship
Education Scholarships
The 100th Anniversary Chulalongkorn University for Doctoral Scholarship
H.M. the King Bhumibhol Adulyadej's 72nd Birthday Anniversary Scholarship
Thainess Study Schorlarship for Graduate Students
60/40 Support for Tuition Fee
Teaching Assistant Scholarship
Research Assistant Scholarship
Tuition fees Scholarship for Master to Doctoral
ASEAN Scholarship
Scholarship for International Graduate Students
for more details see Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University.
Living in University
Normally, this university spends 4 years for studying the same as other universities but Faculty of Education, and Faculty of Architecture spends 5 years for studying. While Faculty of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Faculty of Dentistry spends 6 years.
Related pages
List of Bangkok universities
References
Colleges and universities in Thailand
1917 establishments
Bangkok
20th-century establishments in Thailand
1910s establishments in Asia |
Khartoum is the capital city of Sudan. It is also Sudan's largest city. It is where the Blue Nile and main Nile come together. Its name means "elephant tusk". Two other cities nearby are Omdurman and Khartoum North.
Khartoum has a hot desert climate (BWh in the Koeppen climate classification). |
Konkani is a language from India. Konkani belongs to Indo-Aryan family of languages. It is the official language of Goa, a state in India.
Some people from the part of India known as Konkan speak Konkani language. Konkan is on the west coast of India.
The name Konkani means "from the Konkan". The word Konkan means corner (kona) and piece/part of earth (kana). The name of the language comes from the place where it is spoken.
Writing systems
People write Konkani in many different scripts (writing systems or alphabets). People from different regions use different scripts. Hindu Konkani people from Goa and Maharashtra use Devanagari script. Konkani people from Karnataka use Kannada script. Christains in Goa use Roman script. Konkani Muslims use Arabic script. Konkani people from Kerala use Malayalam script. Devanagari is the official script.
References
Indo-Aryan languages
Languages of India |
A trench is a long, narrow ditch.
Trench warfare has often been used in defense. Entrenched soldiers can be somewhat safe from enemy fire. Trench warfare made World War I longer than expected. The trench coat got its name from there.
Several kinds of trench exist:
Utility trench has pipes, wires, or other infrastructure
Road trench carries vehicles
Military trench provides shelter for soldiers shooting at each other
Oceanic trench: For example, the Mariana Trench
Rift valley
Archaeological trench dug by archaeologists
Everyday life |
A trench coat (or trenchcoat) is a type of outdoor clothing. Trenchcoats are long coats made from stiff material, like heavy-duty cotton. They were invented for soldiers to wear in The First World War to keep them warm. Most trench coats also protect the wearer against rain.
As a fashion
In the 1950s, trench coats became a popular fashion item. In the 1980s and 1990s, trench coats were worn by punk rock musicians and gothic rock musicians. There have been many remodels of it.
Clothing |
A trumpet is a brass instrument used mainly in Classical music and jazz music. The most common type of trumpet is a B♭ trumpet, meaning that if the player plays a C, it will sound like a B♭ in concert pitch. The trumpet is played by blowing into the mouthpiece and making a "buzzing" sound. There are three keys called valves that the player can press to change the pitch.
History
The trumpet has been around for about 3000 years. An early example of a brass instrument like a trumpet is called a shofar, which is still used in religious ceremonies. Eventually people started making trumpet-like instruments with wood (for example, the cornetto), and later, with brass. Modern bugles are similar to early metal trumpets.
Many years ago, when the use of instrumental music was growing, trumpets became very important. Trumpets were long and without valves. This meant a player had to control the pitch of the sound with only his mouth, which was very difficult. Everyone respected trumpet players because trumpets were just so difficult to play.
The chromatic trumpet was developed in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, good valves made it easier to play notes on the trumpet. Still, trumpet is a difficult instrument to master.
Music for trumpet
Classical music is written for solo trumpet, and trumpets are included in orchestras. Trumpets play an important part in Jazz music, and other various popular genres. Sometimes, they also play short parts to emphasize sections in rock songs.
Trumpet players
Some famous classical trumpet players are Adolph Herseth, Sergei Nakariakov and Maurice Andre.
Some famous jazz trumpet players are Miles Davis, Louis Armstrong, Arturo Sandoval, Wynton Marsalis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Maynard Ferguson.
Other websites
Brass instruments
Jazz instruments |
A microwave is a high-frequency radio wave. They are broadly defined as having a wavelength between 1 millimeter and 1 meter, or narrowly between 3 mm and 300 mm. Microwaves have many uses including radar, radio astronomy, and to heat food in a microwave oven. Unlike longer radio waves, they do not bend around land obstacles but go in line of sight. Still, they are much used for communication because they can have a high bandwidth. Almost all spacecraft communicate by microwave radio.
When something moves, it almost always has a wave pattern to its movement - this can be seen in water most easily, in ripples and ocean waves. A very common type of wave in the universe is electromagnetic waves. Light is an example of an electromagnetic wave, and so is a microwave, for example the cosmic microwave background radiation. We can only see electromagnetic radiation in the visible light spectrum (which is why it's called the visible light spectrum), so microwaves are invisible.
Microwaves were among the first radio waves discovered, in the late 19th century, by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.
Microwave Ovens
Microwave ovens work because microwaves make polar molecules (molecules that act like tiny magnets) all face the same direction - to visualize it, imagine that the microwave oven is telling all of the molecules to face left, then right. Heat is just the movement of molecules, so when the molecules do a great amount of moving, they are hot.
Like other heat sources, microwave radiation can cause burns. They can go through skin and muscles. If vital organs are burned, the burns can kill. This is why a microwave oven does not work with the door open.
References
wave physics |
A microwave oven (commonly called a microwave) is a machine that cooks food using microwaves, a type of radio wave. The idea was invented when a scientist who was experimenting with radio waves saw his chocolate bar, which was in his pocket, had melted. He then knew that radio waves could cook food and invented the microwave oven.
History
In 1945, the heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Hired by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a chocolate bar he had in his pocket. First, Spencer deliberately cooked popcorn with a microwave oven. And the second time, he cooked an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters.
To prove his finding, Spencer created a high density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing.
How it works
The microwave oven uses a magnetron, which is a type of vacuum tube. This is similar to a radio transmitter. It makes very short radio waves which go into the food to a depth of about 2.5cm (one inch). This makes water molecules twist about 2.5 billion times a second. This heats up the molecules around it. As they heat up the heat goes to the inside of the food. This process is called conduction. This also happens in a normal oven, but microwave energy goes deeper so that the food cooks much faster. In an ordinary oven the energy stays mostly near the surface, so it takes more time.
Apart from this, the oven has a wave guide, turntable, and a timer switch. When we place the food inside the chamber and turn the timer switch on, it sends a command to the magnetron to send microwaves, as well as to the turn table to start turning. The microwaves of microwave ovens can heat foods containing polar molecules, such as water, as polar molecules are prone to the vibration effect caused by the microwaves. To heat the food evenly the microwave's turntable spins the food around.
Metals tend to spark in microwaves, rather than heating. The reason why is that metals like to give away electrons, so when the microwaves "push" at their magnet-like electrons, instead of turning, they just give the electrons away. A bunch of electrons running off of metal is called electricity, and we see it in the form of sparks.
Related pages
Frozen dinner
Induction heating
References
Other websites
Metamaterials for microwave shielding
Wave physics
Cooking appliances |
Cobalt (chemical symbol Co) is a chemical element. It has an atomic number of 27 and an atomic mass of about 59. It is a metal.
Properties
Cobalt is a transition metal. It is shiny and conducts electricity. It is magnetic. It is a hard metal. It is moderately reactive. Iron is more reactive and copper is less reactive. It dissolves slowly in acids. This reaction makes hydrogen and a salt of cobalt. Cobalt is normally in its +2 oxidation state as an ion. Some chemical compounds contain cobalt ions in its +4 oxidation state. Cobalt(II) chloride is one of the most common cobalt compounds. Many cobalt compounds are blue or pink. One of them is black.
Chemical compounds
Cobalt comes in two oxidation states, +2 and +3. Most soluble cobalt compounds are red. They can also be green, blue, brown, and black.
Cobalt(II) compounds
Cobalt(II) chloride, red solid, most common cobalt compound
Cobalt(II) fluoride, used in dentistry, red solid
Cobalt(II) hydroxide, red or green-blue solid
Cobalt(II) oxide, black solid
Cobalt(II) sulfate, reddish solid, used in pigments
Mixed oxidation state
Cobalt(II,III) oxide, black solid, oxidizing agent
Cobalt(III) compounds
Cobalt(III) fluoride, brown solid, strong oxidizing agent
Cobalt(III) oxide, black solid
Occurrence and preparation
Cobalt is too reactive to occur as a pure element in the earth. It is found in certain minerals. It is found with copper and nickel deposits. Normally the three metals are bonded to arsenic and sulfur. The majority of cobalt mining is in central Africa.
It is found as a byproduct (left over substance) when copper and nickel are produced. It is made by reaction with the sludge from copper and nickel processing.
Uses
Cobalt is used in some types of steel. It hardens the steel. It is also used to make very strong tough alloys. These alloys are known as superalloys. Some cobalt compounds are used in the lithium-ion battery. Cobalt compounds were used as an artificial food coloring until 1971. It was discovered that it has harmful effects. It is used to make glass blue. It is also used as a catalyst. It is also used in some medicines.
The human body needs small amounts of cobalt for certain vitamins. Cobalt compounds are used to stop cyanide from poisoning the body.
Safety
People need cobalt compounds in small amounts, but cobalt is toxic in large quantities. Sometimes cobalt compounds were added to beer, and people that drank it were poisoned. It can cause skin irritation when touched.
Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals |
Canidae is a family of carnivorous and omnivorous mammals of the order Carnivora. Animals that belong to the family Canidae are called canids. The family Canidae is divided into two tribes: Vulpini ("true foxes"), and Canini ("true dogs").
Canids of the tribe Vulpini (foxes) are called "vulpines". Canids of the tribe Canini (wolves, dogs, coyotes and others) are called "canines". Some people call all these canids "canines", but this is wrong.
Examples of canids are dogs, wolves, foxes, coyotes, and jackals.
Taxonomy
Tribe Vulpini, True foxes
Genus Vulpes
Indian Fox, Vulpes bengalensis
Blanford's Fox, Vulpes cana
Cape fox, Vulpes chama
Corsac fox, Vulpes corsac
Tibetan fox, Vulpes ferrilata
Pale fox, Vulpes pallida
Rüppell's Fox, Vulpes rueppelli
Swift fox, Vulpes velox
Kit fox, Vulpes macrotis
Red Fox, Vulpes vulpes
Fennec, Vulpes zerda
Genus Alopex
Arctic Fox, Alopex lagopus
Genus Urocyon
Gray fox, Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Island fox, Urocyon littoralis
Genus Otocyon
Bat-eared fox, Otocyon megalotis
Tribe Canini, True dogs
Genus Dusicyon
Falkland Island Fox, Dusicyon australis†
Genus Pseudalopex
Culpeo, Pseudalopex culpaeus
South American Grey fox, Pseudalopex griseus
Darwin's fox, Pseudalopex fulvipes
Pampas fox, Pseudalopex gymnocercus
Sechura fox, Pseudalopex sechurae
Hoary fox, Pseudalopex vetulus
Genus Atelocynus
Short-eared dog, Atelocynus microtis
Genus Cerdocyon
Crab-eating fox, Cerdocyon thous
Genus Speothos
Bush dog, Speothos venaticus
Genus Chrysocyon
Maned wolf, Chrysocyon brachyurus
Genus Nyctereutes
Raccoon Dog (Tanuki), Nyctereutes procyonoides
Genus Cuon
Dhole, Cuon alpinus
Genus Lycaon
African wild dog, Lycaon pictus
Genus Canis
Grey Wolf, Canis lupus
domestic dogs, Canis lupus familiaris
Red Wolf, Canis rufus
Coyote, Canis latrans
Golden Jackal, Canis aureus
Black-backed jackal, Canis mesomelas
Side-striped jackal, Canis adustus
Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis
Eastern wolf, Canis lycaon
Gallery
Other websites
canids.org |
Nickel (chemical symbol Ni) is an element. It has an atomic number of 28 and an atomic mass of about 58.69amu. It has 28 protons. It is a transition metal.
Properties
Physical properties
Nickel is a silver-white metal. It is easily polished (made shiny). It is magnetic. It is not magnetic when heated above . It is not soft like many other metals. It can be stretched into wires easily. It is not radioactive.
Chemical properties
Nickel is not a reactive metal. It dissolves slowly in acids. It does not rust like iron. It makes a thin coating of nickel(II) oxide which stops more corrosion. Aluminium does a similar thing.
Chemical compounds
Nickel is found in two oxidation states: +2, nickel(II); and +3, nickel(III). Nickel(II) is more common. Nickel in its +2 oxidation state is green. Nickel(II) chloride is a common +2 oxidation state compound. Nickel(II) oxide is normally dark green, but sometimes it is gray. This is because some of the nickel is in the +3 oxidation state (nickel(III). Nickel(III) compounds are oxidizing agents. They also are grayish. Nickel compounds can be green, blue, gray, or black.
Nickel(II) compounds
Nickel(II) compounds are not highly reactive. They are normally green or blue. They are toxic and irritate skin. Some of them are carcinogens.
Nickel(II) carbonate, green
Nickel(II) chloride, greenish
Nickel(II) hydroxide, light green
Nickel(II) nitrate, greenish
Nickel(II) oxide, gray or light green
Nickel(II) sulfate, blue-green
Nickel(III) compounds
Nickel(III) compounds are black or gray.
Nickel(III) oxide
Isotopes
The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48Ni to 78Ni. Nickel that is found in nature is made up of five stable isotopes; 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni and 64Ni.
At least 26 radioisotopes of nickel have been found. The most stable radioisotope is 59Ni which has a half-life of 76,000 years. Nickel also has one meta state.
History
Nickel was found when an ore that looked like copper did not make copper metal. Later it was found that the ore actually had a new metal, called nickel. Nickel was isolated as a metal and classified as a chemical element by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt in 1751. At first, the copper colored nickel ore was the only source. Later, it was made as a byproduct of cobalt blue making.
Occurrence
Nickel is normally found in minerals, and not as a metal in the ground. Sometimes meteorites have nickel and iron metal in them. The most common nickel mineral is pentlandite. Most of the nickel on Earth is thought to be in the Earth's outer and inner cores. There are sulfidic and lateritic nickel ores. Philippines mines the most nickel. Other major mining countries are Russia, Canada and Australia.
Preparation
Nickel is found in both laterite and sulfide ores. They are heated to melt them and concentrate them. They are also separated by oils. Nickel is made from its sulfide by heating it in air. This oxidizes the sulfide to sulfur dioxide, leaving liquid nickel behind. This nickel is not yet pure and not ready for use.
Pure nickel with a nickel content greater than 99% is made in an electrolytic process. In this process, the nickel is dissolved in bath of sulfuric acid. When the pure nickel sticks to cathodes hanging into the bath, the impurities remain in the sulfuric acid or at the bottom of the bath. These impurities are very interesting, as they can contain precious metals.
Uses
Sixty-eight percent of all nickel produced is used to make stainless steel. Nickel is also used in nichrome, a name for a nickel-chromium alloy, and other alloys. Nickel is used in magnets. Nickel is used in special expensive alloys called superalloys.
Nickel sulphate is used in rechargeable batteries. A lithium ion battery contains up to 15% of nickel while the lithium content is less than 1%. A nickel cadmium battery also uses nickel. Nickel compounds are also used to electroplate nickel on items. Nickel and some of its compounds are also used as a catalyst. Nickel is used in stainless steel. It is also used in some nonferrous alloys. It is used in electroplating.
Nickel is used to make many products like stainless steel, alnico magnet, coinage, rechargeable batteries, electric guitar strings, microphone capsules and plating on plumbing fixtures. It is used as a green tint in glass.
Nickel foam is used in gas diffusion electrodes for alkaline fuel cells.
Nickel and its alloys are used as catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented tungsten carbide.
63Ni is used in krytron devices as a beta particle emitter to make ionization by the keep-alive electrode more reliable. Raney nickel is used for hydrogenation of unsaturated oils to make margarine.
Concentrations in Surface Sea water
Nickel concentrations vary over the surface layer of the worlds’ oceans. Nickel concentrations correlate with nutrient concentrations because it can be up taken by photosynthesizing organisms, such as diatoms. Nickel is then remineralized at depth from biogenic material. However, there is regional variability. In general, dissolved Nickel concentrations are rarely below 1.5-2.0 nmol/kg of seawater, usually in nutrient-deplete areas since it follows a similar profile. For example, there are generally lower concentrations in the northern hemisphere of the Atlantic Ocean, with the lowest Nickel concentration being 1.7 nanomol (nmol)/ kg of seawater. This could be related to greater Nickel uptake by nitrogen fixers and a high influence of aeolian iron concentrations. Photosynthesizing organisms’ uptake the Nickel with an uptake in iron because iron stimulates nutrient in photosynthesizing organisms. Furthermore, in nutrient-rich eastern boundary currents, Nickel concentrations average 3.5 nmol/kg of seawater. North Atlantic surface waters (Equator to 40⁰) from 0-100 meters range from 2.06 to 2.52 nmol/kg of seawater. In the North Atlantic, Nickel concentrations increase in concentration with depth from 0-500m range at 3.13 to 3.61 nmol/kg of sea water.
In the Southern Ocean, Nickel concentrations from 0-500m range from 5.67 nmol/kg of seawater to 6.51 nmol/kg of seawater. Southern oceans tend to have greater concentrations mainly due to the absence of a thermocline, which encourages intense mixing through storms and internal wave action. In the northeast Pacific Ocean from 0-500m, Nickel concentrations range from 5.54 nmol/kg of seawater to 6.63 nmol/kg of seawater, as there is a region of productivity there. In the non-upwelling, open-ocean of the North Pacific, concentrations of Nickel are between 1.0 and 2.0 (nmol) per kilogram of seawater (kg). Meanwhile, in equatorial upwelling surface zones of the Eastern Pacific, concentrations of Nickel average 3.0 nmol/kg of seawater. Upwelling brings nutrients to the surface waters, including various Nickel ion species.
Safety
Nickel can irritate skin. That is why jewelry that releases nickel ions is bad for some people. Some nickel salts are carcinogens. Nickel is not as toxic as other metals such as mercury but it is still toxic.
References
Related pages
Nickel compounds
Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals |
A fox is a small mammalian carnivore. They hunt and eat live prey, mostly rabbits and rodents (squirrels and mice). They may also eat grasshoppers, birds' eggs, and even fruit and berries. Sometimes they eat carrion. Foxes are the smallest members of the dog family Canidae.
Twelve species belong to the Vulpes genus of monophyletic "true foxes". There are about another 25 living or extinct species which are sometimes called foxes.
The fox has pointed ears, narrow snout, and a bushy tail.
Foxes are swift and agile runners which live in family groups. A female fox is called a vixen, and a male is called a dog. Foxes' tails are multi-purpose organs. Their bushy tail helps them keep warm while they are sleeping in cold weather. It is also part of the animal's food store for wintertime. Foxes' plump, bushy tail is easily seen, and is used for sending signals to its family members. The tail is also used for balance while running.
Foxes are found on all continents (except Antarctica), mostly living in forest, shrubland, and desert regions. They were not native to Australia, but were introduced in some way. The most common fox species is the red fox. In the United Kingdom, it was a common sport for people to hunt foxes with horses and dogs. This is now banned.
"Most agricultural damage is caused by rabbits, and this can be considerable. Yet in lowland areas, rabbits comprise 45 to 70 per cent of the diet of foxes... One study estimated that, over its lifetime, each fox was worth between £150 and £900 in increased revenue to farmers... A strong argument against killing foxes".
True foxes
The informal term 'true fox' refers to members of the Vulpes genus.
There are 12 species of Vulpus. They are:
Bengal fox, Vulpes bengalensis
Blanford's fox, Vulpes cana
Cape fox, Vulpes chama
Corsac fox, Vulpes corsac
Tibetan sand fox, Vulpes ferrilata
Arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus
Kit fox, Vulpes macrotis
Pale fox, Vulpes pallida
Rüppell's fox, Vulpes rueppellii
Swift fox, Vulpes velox
Red fox, Vulpes vulpes (includes silver fox)
Fennec fox, Vulpes zerda
The arctic fox is included in this genus as Vulpes lagopus. There is genetic evidence that shows it is probably a true fox.
Some species of true fox are extinct. Fossils have been found of:
Vulpes hassini
Vulpes praeglacialis Kormos
Vulpes riffautae
References
Foxes |
A food pyramid is a chart that can be used to see how many servings of each food should be eaten each day. It is for having good health.
Grains give carbohydrates and some vitamins and minerals. Vegetables and fruits give a lot of vitamins, some minerals, and few fats, but fruits often have more calories and sugar. Dairy products (like milk, cheese, yogurt, etc.) have protein, some fat, and a lot of calcium, an element that helps build strong bones. Meat have protein, some fat, and B vitamins. Fats, oils, and sweets give calories, fats, and sugars but not a lot of nutrition.
Criticisms
The food pyramid has been criticized for recommending huge amounts of grains as that is a lot of carbohydrates.
Related pages
Healthy diet
References
Nutrition
Pyramid |
The torso also known as the trunk, is the part of the human body where the limbs are attached. Some people also call it the trunk. It is made of chest, back, and abdomen.
Related pages
Bodybuilding
Trapezius muscle |
Trunk may be:
The nose of an elephant.
Trunk (botany), the main part of a tree.
Torso, a term for the human body without the head and limbs.
Trunk (luggage), a large case.
Trunk (automobile), a compartment on a car used for storage in American English, called a boot in British English.
Trunk (motorcycle), a case mounted above and behind a motorcycle seat, or the space under the seat
Trunk (telecommunications) has a number of closely related meanings.
Trunk (software)
Trunk build, the section for current development of software using version control |
Age of Mythology is a real-time strategy computer game made by Ensemble Studios. The game has an expansion to it named Age of Mythology: The Titans. Age of Mythology is a spinoff of the Age of Empires game series.
Other websites
Official Site
Age of Mythology at HeavenGames.com
2002 video games
Real-time strategy video games |
Mississauga, Ontario is the sixth-largest city in Canada and the third largest city in Ontario (after Toronto and Ottawa). It borders the largest city in Canada, Toronto. In fact, it is a part of the Greater Toronto Area. Toronto Pearson International Airport is located in Mississauga.
Visitor attractions
Art Gallery of Mississauga, a free gallery in the Civic Centre showcasing local art
Benares Historic House
Bradley House Museum
Living Arts Centre, a showcase for the arts
Opera Mississauga
Heritage Mississauga
Portuguese Cultural Centre of Mississauga
Renaissance Catering & Convention Centre
History
On August 2, 1805, Toronto Township was formed when officials from York (what is now the City of Toronto) purchased 84,000 acres (340 km²) of land from the Mississaugas. In January 2010, the Mississaugas and the federal government settled a land claim. The aboriginal people received $145,000,000 from that.
After the land was surveyed, much of it was given in the form of land grants to United Empire Loyalists. They emigrated from the Thirteen Colonies during and after the American Revolution, as well as loyalists from New Brunswick. A group of settlers from New York City arrived in the 1830s. In 1820, the government purchased additional land from the Mississaugas. Additional settlements were established, including: Barbertown, Britannia, Burnhamthorpe, Derry West, Elmbank, Malton, Meadowvale Village, Mount Charles, and Streetsville. European-Canadian growth led to the eventual displacement of the Mississaugas. In 1847, the government relocated them to a reserve in the Grand River Valley, near present-day Hagersville.
In 1873, the Toronto Township Council was formed to oversee the events of the various villages that were unincorporated at that time. The Council's responsibilities included road maintenance, and a police force. Most of present-day Mississauga was agricultural land: including fruit orchards, through much of the 19th and first half of the 20th century. Exceptions included small villages, some gristmills and brickworks served by railway lines,
In the 1920s, cottages were constructed along the shores of Lake Ontario for people who lived in the city. 17 years later in 1937, 1,410.8 acres of land was sold to build the Malton Airport (later known as the Pearson Airport). It became Canada's busiest airport which also put the end to the community of Elmank.
The township settlements of Lakeview, Cooksville, Lorne Park, Clarkson, Erindale, Sheridan, Dixie, Meadowvale Village, and Malton were combined in 1968 to form the Town of Mississauga. At the time, both Port Credit and Streetsville were left out and remained separate. The town name was chosen by voting. In 1974, Port Credit and Streetsville became part of Mississauga. In that same year, the Square One Shopping Centre opened.
On November 10, 1979, a freight train left its tracks on the Canadian Pacific rail line while carrying explosive and poisonous chemicals just north of the intersection of Mavis Road and Dundas Street. One of the tank cars carrying propane exploded. Since other tank cars were carrying chlorine, the decision was made to evacuate nearby residents. With the possibility of a deadly cloud of chlorine gas spreading through Mississauga, 218,000 people were evacuated. Residents were allowed to return home, once the area was safe. It was one of the largest evacuations in North American history.
Geography
Mississauga covers of land, with of shoreline on Lake Ontario.
Statistics
Mississauga is a quickly growing and multicultural city. Statistics Canada estimates that Mississauga now has 704,000 people, an increase of 150,000 from the previous decade and the population has almost doubled in the past twenty years.
Law and Government
The city of Mississauga has only had four mayors in its past and it was created in 1974. This is because in Mississauga usually mayors serve for a very long time. For example, Hazel McCallion, 99, has been mayor from 1978. The current mayor is Bonnie Crombie who assumed office in the December of 2014.
Mayors
Dr. Martin L. Dobkin 1974-1976
Ron A. Searle 1976-1978
Hazel McCallion 1978-2014
Bonnie Crombie 2014-now
Council
Mississauga is split into 11 wards (parts) each of them having their own councillor.
Ward 1 Stephen Dasko
Ward 2 Karen Ras
Ward 3 Chris Fonseca
Ward 4 John Kovac
Ward 5 Carolyn Parrish
Ward 6 Ron Starr
Ward 7 Dipka Damerla
Ward 8 Matt Mohoney
Ward 9 Pat Saito
Ward 10 Sue McFadden
Ward 11 George Carlson
Also, Mississauga is the largest city in Canada where there are more women in the council than men.
Federal and Provincial Ridings
Mississauga has six legislative (government) ridings that are the same for the Canadian government and the Ontario government. The Canadian government has people in charge of those ridings called M.P.'s (Member of Parliament) and the Ontario government has M.P.P.'s (Member of Provincial Parliament) in charge of them.
Bramalea-Gore-Malton
M.P.: Gurbax Malhi (Liberal)
M.P.P.: Kuldip Kular (Liberal)
Mississauga-Erindale
M.P.: Bob Dechert (Conservative)
M.P.P.: Harinder Takhar (Liberal)
Mississauga-Brampton South
M.P.: Navdeep Bains (Liberal)
M.P.P: Amrit Mangat (Liberal)
Mississauga East-Cooksville
M.P.: Albina Guarnieri (Liberal)
M.P.P.:
Mississauga South
M.P.:
M.P.P.: Charles Sousa (Liberal)
Mississauga-Streetsville
M.P.: Gagan Sikand (Liberal, 2015-now)
M.P.P.: Nina Tangri (PC, 2018-now)
References
Cities in Ontario |
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