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= = Alumni = =
Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening . Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David Paulison , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto Moreno , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida . Charles Ghigna or " Father Goose " is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist . Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto Rican author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays . Other alumni are Chris Carrabba , the lead singer of the band Dashboard Confessional ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good Privacy . Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian Carrot Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university . Alumnus and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during STS @-@ 119 in March 2009 .
= The Clean Tech Revolution =
The Clean Tech Revolution : The Next Big Growth and Investment Opportunity is a 2007 book by Ron Pernick and Clint Wilder , who say that commercializing clean technologies is a profitable enterprise that is moving steadily into mainstream business . As the world economy faces challenges from energy price spikes , resource shortages , global environmental problems , and security threats , clean technologies are seen to be the next engine of economic growth .
Pernick and Wilder highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications , and water filtration . Six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , are pushing clean technology into the mainstream : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology .
The book has been reviewed in USA Today , Business Week , Energy Priorities , Sustainability Investment News and several other magazines , and has been translated into seven languages . Clean Tech Nation is the sequel to The Clean Tech Revolution .
= = Themes = =
Pernick and Wilder explain that , in the 1970s , clean technology was considered “ alternative , ” the province of back @-@ to @-@ the @-@ land lifestyle advocates , altruistic environmentalists , and lab scientists on research grants . Such technology was in an early stage of development , was too expensive , it did not have widespread political support , and very few large , established companies were embracing the sector . Even at the start of the 21st century , the term clean tech was not yet in the financial or business community ’ s vocabulary . But now , throughout much of the world , in trends large and small , there is " the beginning of a revolution that is changing the places where we live and work , the products we manufacture and purchase , and the development plans of cities , regional governments , and nations around the globe . "
Pernick and Wilder define " clean tech " as " any product , service , or process that delivers value using limited or zero non @-@ renewable resources and / or creates significantly less waste than conventional offerings . " They highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications ( such as portable fuel cells ) , and water filtration . The authors explain how investors , entrepreneurs , and individuals can profit from technological innovation in these areas . Pernick and Wilder identify some specific clean technologies , companies , and regions that are leading the way .
The authors present a list of drivers for clean tech : " high energy prices , depleted natural resources , volatile sources of foreign oil , record deficits , and unprecedented environmental and security challenges " . The central message , which is repeated in almost every chapter , is that a clean tech revolution with benefit humanity worldwide , and will require significant collaboration between the public and private sectors .
Pernick and Wilder present examples which show that the " clean tech revolution " is already under way . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology . Emerging clean tech cities are seen to include Copenhagen , where wind power generates 20 percent of Denmark 's electricity , and Chicago , a leader in " green " buildings saving energy , heating and cooling costs . Statistics from the U.S. and from abroad , especially from China , India , Brazil , and Europe are presented .
The authors ' say that nuclear power and clean coal are not clean technologies . Apart from the risks associated with nuclear power , " multibillion @-@ dollar nuclear plants are simply not cost @-@ effective when compared with other energy sources . " The authors also believe that clean coal is an oxymoron for a myriad of reasons , including the sheer number of coal mine @-@ related deaths and the fact that coal @-@ fired plants , even some cleaner ones , are major contributors to serious illnesses such as asthma , heart disease , and mercury poisoning .
Pernick and Wilder do not recommend specific stocks or securities . They prefer to lay out a blueprint of opportunities , technologies , companies , and trends that may build successful businesses and strengthen economies .
= = Six C 's = =
Pernick and Wilder identify six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , that are pushing clean technology into the mainstream and driving rapid growth and expansion : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate .
Costs . " Perhaps the most powerful force driving today ’ s clean @-@ tech growth is simple economics . As a general trend , clean @-@ energy costs are falling as the costs of fossil fuel energy are going up . The future of clean tech is going to be , in many ways , about scaling up manufacturing and driving down costs . "
Capital . " An unprecedented influx of capital is changing the clean tech landscape , with billions of dollars , euros , yen , and yuan pouring in from a myriad of public and private sector sources . "
Competition . " Governments are competing aggressively in the highstakes race to dominate in the clean @-@ tech sector and build the jobs of the future . "
China . " Clean tech is being driven by the inexorable demands being placed on the earth not only by mature economies but also by the explosive demand for resources in China , India , and other developing nations . Their expanding energy needs are driving major growth in clean @-@ energy , transportation , building , and water @-@ delivery technologies . "
Consumers . " Savvy consumers are demanding cleaner products and services that use resources efficiently , reduce costs , and embrace quality over quantity . "
Climate . " The debate around climate change has gone from question mark to peer @-@ reviewed certainty , and smart businesses are taking heed . "
The six C ’ s are a simple list of factors , not necessarily a useful framework for understanding , or profiting from , the clean technology industry .
= = Release and reception = =
The Clean Tech Revolution was published by Collins as a 320 @-@ page hardcover book on June 12 , 2007 . An e @-@ book version was published by HarperCollins on June 7 , 2007 . In 2008 , a revised paperback edition was published , with a new sub @-@ title : Discover the Top Trends , Technologies and Companies to Watch . The book has been translated into seven languages .
Paul Gruber from the Erb Institute states that the The Clean Tech Revolution is logically organized and is " an excellent resource for those who would like a solid understanding of clean tech and the potential of each sector " . He also says that it is very useful for those seeking out the names of companies , NGOs , agencies , and people working on each technology . Gruber identifies one omission : the concern that major investments in clean technology parallel those made during the Internet boom , with the attendant fear that there " may be a bubble burst with clean tech " .
The physicist and environmentalist , Joseph Romm , has recommended The Clean Tech Revolution to people who are looking for one book to help them understand what is happening in clean technology . He says The Clean Tech Revolution is the only book that covers the whole gamut of the latest in clean energy .
Russ Juskalian from USA Today says The Clean Tech Revolution shows the green movement not in " heartstring terms " but as economically profitable . The real power players are the mainstream consumers , investors , entrepreneurs , governments and multinational corporations whose " eyes are trained on that most crucial of economic fundamentals : the bottom line " .
According to Reena Jana from Business Week , The Clean Tech Revolution is a " readable , straightforward guide to earth @-@ friendly business strategies " . The authors explain how businesses can follow the lead of companies such as Toyota by designing , selling , or funding inventive eco @-@ friendly products and services . Jana says that the Toyota Prius is just one well @-@ known example of successful clean technology in action .
Denis Du Bois , editor of Energy Priorities magazine , commented on the realistic and comprehensive coverage of the book . However , he suggests that The Clean Tech Revolution is not an explanation of the technologies and how they work , nor is it an analysis of energy or environmental policy . Policy is complicated and the authors avoid discussing it in detail . Little discussion ties the various clean technologies together and a " single @-@ minded American focus " dominates . There is very little on the influence of mass transit and urban planning in Europe and other progressive regions . The chapter on water focuses on filtration , which is already an area of considerable opportunity , affecting even " green " industries , such as photovoltaics manufacturing .
Francesca Rheannon in Sustainability Investment News says that the book does not ask the most challenging question of all : is " clean growth " an oxymoron ? She says that at a time when some experts say carbon emissions will need to be cut by 80 to 90 % by 2050 , the world may have to accept steady or even decreasing energy production , no matter how clean it is . Rheannon also states that there is little coverage of social issues . For example , nowhere is there mention of how water supply privatization and delivery by multinational corporations could affect the poor people of the world .
The Clean Tech Revolution was followed by the 2012 book Clean Tech Nation : How the U.S. Can Lead in the New Global Economy .
= = Authors = =
Author Ron Pernick is co @-@ founder and managing director of Clean Edge , a research and strategy firm in the United States which focuses on the commercialization of renewable energy and other clean technologies . Clint Wilder is senior editor at Clean Edge , and a veteran business and technology journalist . Both authors have been mapping clean technology trends for many years , and identifying business opportunities for prospective investors .
= Missouri River =
The Missouri River is the longest river in North America . Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri . The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces . When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .
For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation . More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains . The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase . The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .
The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century . The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region and blazed trails . Pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river . Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .
During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power . Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries . Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times . Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .
= = Course = =
From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River . The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains . Flowing west then north , it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the Beaverhead , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson . The Firehole River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the Gibbon to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park . These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .
The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream . The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains . Issuing from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls . It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the Marias River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the Musselshell River . Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .
Flowing eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the Poplar River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest . At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river . The Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam . Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west . It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence . While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .
The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest . It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary . At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north . The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west . Downstream , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas . The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri . To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River . It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and Gasconade Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City . The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .
= = Watershed = =
With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ 371 @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America . Comparable to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed . Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large . The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .
In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people . This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan . The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand . Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin . Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi . In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated . However , many northwestern cities , such as Billings , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .
With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the plow , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats . However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated . A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle . Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land . Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .
Elevations in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado . The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ 626 feet ( 2 @,@ 629 m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source . Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.@ 9 m / km ) from east to west . The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .
The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters . Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year . However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) . The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota . Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .
As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada . The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed . The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming . The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range . South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado . Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean . However , a large endorheic drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming . This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .
To the north , the much lower Laurentian Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the Souris , Sheyenne , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North . All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay . There are also several large endorheic basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan . The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin . Finally , on the south , the Ozark Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .
= = = Major tributaries = = =
Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth . Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .
The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / Smoky Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri . Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) . The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area . In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte . On the other end of the scale is the tiny Roe River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .
The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows . Length is measured to the hydrologic source , regardless of naming convention . The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long . However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to 749 miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) . Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .
The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem . Measured to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long . Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) . When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ 745 miles ( 6 @,@ 027 km ) .
= = = Discharge = = =
By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair . The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a strait between Lake Huron and Lake Erie . Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and Koksoak .
As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length . Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the " April Rise " or " Spring Fresh " , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the " June Rise " , caused by snowmelt and summer rainstorms in the Rocky Mountains . The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years . The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) . By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows . Evaporation from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .
The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River . The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( 621 m3 / s ) . This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin . At Kansas City , 366 @.@ 1 miles ( 589 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) . The river here drains about 484 @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .
The lowermost gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.@ 9 miles ( 157 @.@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 . About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann . The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 . Extremes of the flow vary even further . The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood . The lowest , a mere 602 cu ft / s ( 17 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .
= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = =
The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa . The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis . The Lower Missouri River has no Hydroelectric or Lock and dams but it has a plethora of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel . These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .
See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River
= = Geology = =
The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide Orogeny , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the Mesozoic through the early Cenozoic ) . This orogeny uplifted Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior Seaway , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now underlie much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River . This Laramide uplift caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed . The Laramide Orogeny is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .
The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the Ogallala Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic sedimentary rocks . The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of claystone , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate . Channel sandstones and finer @-@ grained overbank deposits of the fluvial Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago . The Miocene @-@ age Ogallala and the slightly younger Pliocene @-@ age Broadwater Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major aquifer .
Immediately before the Quaternary Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope . As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ Illinoian ( or possibly the Illinoian ) glaciation diverted the Missouri River southeastwards towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope . In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear Paw Mountains . Sapphires are found in some spots along the river in western Montana . Advances of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as Glacial Lakes Great Falls , Musselshell and others . As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and coulees including the Shonkin Sag , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long . When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the Bearpaws , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .
The Missouri 's nickname , the " Big Muddy " , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river . In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year . The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day . Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the meander belt ; every time the river changed course , it would erode tons of soil and rocks from its banks . However , damming and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course . Reservoirs along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year . Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .
= = First peoples = =
Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene . During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas . As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths . Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the Mound builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .