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Individuals with disabilities are at far greater risk for abuse of all kinds than people without disabilities. We believe people with disabilities must be free from abuse, neglect or any kind of mistreatment. The Arc provides training for self-advocates and those who support them, plus a wealth of online and print resources.
- Read The Arc’s Position Statement
- Take the pledge to stop violence, abuse and bullying
- Watch our video “It’s Not OK”
Developmental Disability and Sexuality Online Course
Talking with your child about sexuality can create anxious feelings along with many reasons to avoid the topic. Take the Developmental Disability and Sexuality Online Course and learn how to creating a supportive, safe, and trusting space for you and your child. Click here to learn more.
Relationships, Sexuality, and Dating Classes
The Arc’s Relationships, Sexuality, and Dating classes are curriculum-based classes that offer people with intellectual and developmental disabilities a wide-range of accessible information about healthy relationships and sexuality.
Designed for and by people with developmental disabilities, these sessions use a groundbreaking and accessible curriculum developed by The Green Mountain Self-Advocates and Planned Parenthood of Northern New England. In the spirit of “nothing about us without us” people with developmental disabilities played an active role in the creation of this curriculum and all sessions are led by a 2-person teaching team which includes a self-advocate with a disability and an Arc Advocate.
To learn more and register for the classes, click here.
ARC GUIDE RESOURCES
- Arc Guide to Abuse Definition & Statistics
- Arc Guide to Risk Factors for Abuse
- Arc Guide to How to Empower Individuals to Prevent Abuse
- Tips Case Managers Can Use to Help Prevent Abuse of People with Disabilities
HOW DO I GET MORE INFORMATION?
For more information, please submit your question to Ask an Advocate or call The Arc Greater Twin Cities at 952-920-0855.
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| 0.918132 | 412 | 2.78125 | 3 |
American Sign Language Dictionary
This ASL Dictionary is an online curriculum resource for ASL students,
instructors, interpreters, and parents of Deaf children. Please update
your browser to see our site as it should be viewed.
ASL classes online
ASL related articles
Why an American Sign Language Dictionary?
Any true language evolves to meet the ever changing needs of the people who
use it. American Sign Language is constantly adapting to the needs of Deaf
people, our families, and those with whom we associate. Lexicography, (the
making of dictionaries), is like painting sunsets. By the time the paint dries
the subject has changed.
To use this dictionary, at the top of this page click the first letter
of the word you are seeking. That will load the links into
the left hand side of the page. Then scroll down to the
word you are looking for and click on it. Not all words are
there (yet) but I add more and more as time goes on.
Best wishes in your ASL endeavors.
- Dr. Bill
William G. Vicars, Ed.D
Associate Professor, American Sign Language
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| 0.898087 | 249 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Peer Grading FRQS
Peer grading free response questions is a great way to
1. Teach kids how the questions are graded by the national readers and how picky and precise the language should be.
2. Save you some personal time.
My method of peer grading has morphed into this method through the years. Like most teachers I’ve take ideas of here and there and merged into what works for me. You can read how I use and teach FRQs here.
When we peer grade, my students write their student ID # on the FRQ instead of their name. A couple of days after the exam (when most make-ups are finished), I pass out the FRQs to grade. Since I teach multiple sections of AP, classes don’t grade their own class’ FRQs. That way, its harder for the students to know if they’re grading someone that they know. I also pass out a pink slip.
I don’t usually use the College Board rubrics for peer grading with the students. Many students find them confusing. Instead, I type the most common answers from the rubric that I know my students will use on a PowerPoint. If you are new to teaching the course, I suggest you place the answers that your students learned in the textbook, activities, or lecture. Its unlikely that students will know or guess something different (but it does happen so be sure to answer questions). We go through each part of the FRQ on the PowerPoint and I answer any questions. The only exception to is when we grade math.
Students need to highlight the exact words that give the points. This helps students understand that they don’t need to write lots of words and sentences for points and helps them clearly identify where the points are. They are not guessing or saying “well it sounds right” and give points. They need to clearly indicate where the points are by highlighting.
When we grade math, I find it best to copy just the page with the math solutions from the College Board rubrics. That way, kids can see exactly what their math needs to look like. I also make notes on the rubric about remembering units and how any points each question is worth. After the math is graded, we go back to a PowerPoint for the rest of the FRQ.
After all sections are graded, students add up the points out of 10 or 11 and write on the top of the students’ paper. They also write it on the pink slip. If they need me to check something or they had another comment for me only, they need to write it on the pink slip. Students will never get the pink slips back to them. They are only for me. This helps with anonymity.
I go through each pink slip and check for comments. When I’m finished, I recycle/toss the pink slips.
Students will get their own FRQ returned to them to check over on a different day. I also include a “fudge” point in the curve. If they want to argue 1 point, I say I don’t want to hear it as its factored in the curve. If they find 2 or more points in error, they can come see me, but they have to show me exactly where the mistake was made. They cannot say “I’m sure I got more points, can you please check it over?” This prevents a long line of students who want to argue one point or grasping at straws to get a better grade.
Here’s my peer-graded curve as an FRQ is worth 50 exam points for me. (Multiple Choice is worth 100 points)
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| 0.956663 | 765 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Author: Dr Phillip E Judkins, University of Buckingham Centre for Security and Intelligence Studies
Title: Before Dawn: Air Defence and Telecommunications during World War One
During World War 1, Britain developed a comprehensive system of air defence, using telecommunications to link its sensors (radio intercept/ decryption, sound locators, visual observers) through a central control room, to civilian air-raid warning and to military air defence, both ground-based (searchlights, anti-aircraft guns both static and mobile) and fighter aircraft. How was this achieved, and how best are the remaining artefacts and sites to be interpreted? The paper examines these questions with particular examples drawn from sites local to Yorkshire, but with conclusions relevant nationally.
By contrast, Germany possessed the intellectual property to a primitive but patented and workable radar system, but despite this and despite having organised anti-airborne weapons against balloons at the Siege of Paris in 1871, did not capitalise on this knowledge to produce comprehensive air defence of its own. What factors inhibited German developments? The paper draws upon Dutch and German research to illustrate the issues of countervailing power of intellectual property claims upon the development of novel technology; and shows Dutch use of artefact reconstruction in interpretation.
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| 0.930765 | 250 | 2.625 | 3 |
bill (noun, verb) /bɪl/ LISTEN
A bill is a statement with the detail of how much money is owed to somebody and also, in US English, a piece of paper that is worth a specific amount (this is called a note in the UK). In politics, a bill is a proposal for a new law and, in show business (ie, film, theater), it is a schedule for an entertainment event. As a verb, to bill means ‘to send a list of charges to someone’ and, in show business, ‘to advertise something or someone.’ Unrelated to this meaning, a bill is also the beak of a bird or, in US English, the visor of a cap (called a peak in UK English).
- The electricity bill arrived in the mail this morning.
- Wendy paid with a $10 bill.
- The Senate is voting on the renewable energies bill.
- There are several comedy acts on the bill tonight.
- The translator billed her client for the work she had done.
- There is a new show billed at the theater this week.
- The bird picked up the twig in its bill. (A twig is a very small piece of wood from a tree or bush.)
- The old man had turned his cap around, so the bill was at the back.
Words often used with bill
fill the bill (US), fit the bill (UK): fulfill a purpose or need well. Example: “I need a new dress for the party and I’ve seen one that fits the bill, but I can’t afford it!”
bill and coo (dated): behave amorously. Example: “The school dance was full of teenagers billing and cooing.”
give someone a clean bill of health: say that someone is healthy. “The doctor gave me a clean bill of health, so I can leave the hospital!”
foot the bill: pay for something. “My parents are footing the bill for our wedding so they want to invite all of their friends.”
In pop culture
No one likes having to pay bills! Here is Destiny’s Child with a song about just that:
In both the US and the UK a bill is a demand for payment for utilities (like electricity, gas, and water) or for services (like getting your car repaired or a website designed). These kinds of bills can also be called invoices. In the UK, the word bill is also used for the amount you need to pay at the end of a meal in a restaurant (and we never say invoice for this), but in the US that is called the check.
Did you know?
biller (noun), billable (adjective)
Bill first appeared in English before the year 900. The Old English noun bill was a fancy word for a sword, especially one with a hooked blade. It can be traced back to the Proto-Indo-European root bheie-, which meant ‘to cut or hack,’ and is related to the Old Saxon bil ‘sword,’ as well as the Middle Dutch bile, the Dutch bijl, the Old High German bihal, the German Beil, and the Old Norse bilda (all meaning ‘hatchet’). Because of the physical resemblance, this word came to be used to describe the beak of birds around the year 1000, and, for the same reason, in Middle English (around the year 1200), it was used to name thin strips of land projected into the sea. The original meaning has disappeared, but the other two remain. The other meaning of bill, a ‘statement of money owed,’ is completely unrelated. It came into English as the Middle English noun bille from the Anglo-French (bille) in the early 14th century. It can be traced back to the Latin bulla, which meant ‘list.’ The verb, ‘to charge someone,’ comes from this noun.
Word of the Day is released Monday through Friday.
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| 0.963858 | 876 | 3.71875 | 4 |
Conservationists working with loggers to produce better conservation results — a science-based vision of the future, or a pipe dream?
The online news service E&E News has just published a three-part series on how such efforts are playing out in Indonesia — the world’s third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases, in part because of deforestation there. And The Nature Conservancy’s forest science and conservation efforts there are a cornerstone of the coverage.
Links to each installment of the series below:
Reduced-impact logging techniques could reduce CO2 emissions from deforestation by up to 30 percent, according to a Conservancy analysis. E&E News reporter Coco Liu goes into the forest with Conservancy scientist Peter Ellis to find out why the benefits of such a logging approach might often outweigh the costs.
How might conservation scientists convince loggers to adopt reduced-impact logging tactics? It’s not easy — but a variety of pitches helps, as the Conservancy’s Bambang Wahyudi and Peter Ellis demonstrate.
Members of the Dayak community — an ethnic group in Indonesian Borneo who used to use blowguns to hunt their food — are now part of a Nature Conservancy program to entice them away from slash-and-burn agriculture toward more sustainable livelihoods.
Opinions expressed on Cool Green Science and in any corresponding comments are the personal opinions of the original authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Nature Conservancy.
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| 0.909687 | 304 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Grape vines can be used in many interesting ways. We most often see them in images from wine growing areas and have them at home growing up a lattice or chain link fence. But what if you use them not only for food, but to produce a cool shade or as a fast growing screen on a fence?
Although very fast growing in season, with little effort, the vines can be kept under control and can be used very nicely as an informal hedge-with some support, or to provide summer shade on an arbor or pergola. To produce the best fruit and to help reduce mildew, it is best to grow the plants in full sun.
Here is a vine grown for wine production.
This is the structure of the vine when it is deciduous, or has lost its foliage in the winter.
An older vine supported on a wire can add interesting branching structure, try this at home.
Here are example of grapes grown on an overhead wire structure and pergola.
This European city uses much of its unused area as green space. Young grape vines grow in the median.
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| 0.955136 | 227 | 2.59375 | 3 |
The Giving Compass family put together this book list as a starting point for readers looking to learn more about environmental problems and solutions. From informative nonfiction to inspiring fiction, this list has something for everyone. Get a hard copy or an ebook from your local library to enjoy these books without consuming natural resources.
The Botany of Desire: A Plant’s-Eye View of the World by Michael Pollan
Pollan explores the relationship between humans and nature through four crops that have suffered and benefited from cultivation by humans.
Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water by Marc Reisner
Originally published in 1986, this book examines the history of western water management – a topic fraught with controversy that persists to this day.
The Elephant Whisperer: My Life with the Herd in the African Wild by Lawrence Anthony with Graham Spence
The true story of Anthony’s work to save a herd of elephants from poachers in South Africa. An animal conservation must-read.
Last Child in the Woods: Saving our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder by Richard Louv
Louv explains the connection between children raised indoors on screens and the rise of concerning health trends.
The Nature Fix: Why Nature Makes Us Happier, Healthier, and More Creative by Florence Williams
Williams investigates current research on the health benefits of spending time in nature.
Silent Spring by Rachel Carson
Carson’s 1962 book on the harmful effects of DDT brought environmental concerns to the fore of American political discussion. No history of environmentalism is complete without mention of this pivotal book.
The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History by Elizabeth Kolbert
Kolbert introduces species that have already been driven extinct by human activity, and many more that are currently endangered.
World Without Us by Alan Weisman
What would the world look like if all humans disappeared? Weisman paints a compelling picture of what would crumble to dust and what would be preserved for long time periods.
Annihilation: A Novel (The Southern Reach Trilogy) by Jeff VanderMeer
An exploration of Area X – a twisted, natural landscape inhospitable to humans – by researchers attempting to uncover the truths buried there.
The Lorax by Dr. Seuss
A classic children’s book with an environmental message about extractive capitalism that is relevant to all age groups.
Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind by Hayao Miyazaki
This graphic novel follows the story of a princess in a post-apocalyptic world attempting to protect her people both from an invading kingdom and the creep of the toxic forest that is taking over the earth.
Parable of the Sower by Octavia E. Butler
In a future where society is in partial collapse due to climate change, Lauren Oya Olamina is forced from her relatively comfortable gated community to journey on foot to look for a safe and habitable refuge.
Original contribution by Clarissa Coburn with input from the Giving Compass family.
Since you are interested in Arts and Culture, have you read these selections from Giving Compass related to impact giving and Arts and Culture?
Are you ready to give?
If you are looking for opportunities to take action and give money to Arts and Culture, here are some Giving Funds, Charitable Organizations and Projects aggregated by Giving Compass where you can take immediate action.
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| 0.922413 | 689 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Close to 20,000 studies in the past 30 years have tried to determine caffeine's effect on the body. After writing my blog on antioxidants and their good effect it has on your body...would you believe most people get their daily antioxidants from coffee!! Yes, you read that right...In study of 100 food items, including vegetables, fruits, nuts, spices, oils and common beverages. They concluded that the average adult consumes 1,299 milligrams of antioxidants daily from coffee. The closest competitor was tea at 294 milligrams. Rounding out the top five sources were bananas, 76 milligrams; dry beans, 72 milligrams; and corn, 48 milligrams. According to the Agriculture Department, the typical adult American drinks 1.64 cups of coffee daily.
Now that certainly doesn't mean you can replace fruits and vegetables with coffee...it simply means there are benefits to coffee. Other benefits to that little cup of joe has is....... regular coffee drinkers reduced their risk of Parkinson's disease by 80 percent. Two cups of coffee per day reduced cirrhosis by 80 percent, too. It reduced colon cancer by 20 percent, and seemed to protect elderly brains against Alzheimer's disease.
Coffee helps your headache and not just the withdrawal headaches caused by skipping your daily dose of caffeine! Studies show that 200 milligrams of caffeine—about the amount in 16 ounces of brewed coffee—provides relief from headaches, including migraines. Exactly how caffeine relieves headaches isn’t clear. But scientists do know that caffeine boosts the activity of brain cells, causing surrounding blood vessels to constrict.
It's not all good when it comes to coffee....Coffee acts on the brain in similar ways as methamphetamines by increasing dopamine levels, making you feel good while it increases adrenaline, which keeps your body in an alert state. Staying in this state for long periods of time can make you jumpy and irritable. Both regular and decaffeinated coffee contain acids that can make heartburn worse.
Just like anything with your healthy Journey ....Moderation!!
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| 0.94995 | 428 | 2.640625 | 3 |
THE CARIBOO GOLDRUSH ADVENTURE GAME
An Adventure Game exploring the 1860's Goldrush in British Columbia
In the decade of the 1860's, the Colony of British Columbia came to the attention of the world. GOLD had
been discovered on Fraser's River and in Cariboo - land occupied by Salish and Chilcotin Indians, as well
as by fur trappers and traders. The search for gold was a major force in opening British Columbia for
settlement and in shaping our landscape, our government and laws. The story of the Cariboo Goldrush is
an exciting chapter in the history of Canada.
In THE CARIBOO GOLDRUSH ADVENTURE GAME, join goldseekers along the Cariboo Trail
and learn how the goldrush shaped British Columbia. The Cariboo Trail begins in Fort Victoria and heads
north 500 miles to the goldrush town of Barkerville.
It is a hard trail. Many never return. On your adventure, you will meet many historical characters.
Sometimes they speak a different language, or in dialect, or they use words or phrases differently than we
do today. Pay attention to their stories and advice. Choose your partner carefully - his character can help
or hinder your adventure. Gain all the knowledge you can; take care of your health and keep track of your
wealth. There is danger and hardship at every turn of the Cariboo Trail, but a wise goldseeker could strike
it rich in Cariboo!
In THE CARIBOO GOLDRUSH ADVENTURE GAME Web site students use reading-comprehension
and problem-solving skills to relive the Cariboo Goldrush of the 1860's - a significant event in the
settlement of the Canadian West. Teacher's Corner provides information and lesson plans to help you use
THE CARIBOO GOLDRUSH ADVENTURE GAME in the Classroom.
Check out the Attractions link for more information on Historic Sites, Museums and
relics of the Cariboo Waggon Road that you can visit today!
HISTORIANS & DEDICATED PLAYERS
Check out the Primary Sources link to read historic
manuscripts, letters and reports about the Cariboo Goldrush. Review the Maps to locate yourself in time
and place. Also check out the Cariboo Music and the Bibliography.
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| 0.891973 | 490 | 2.953125 | 3 |
EVACUATION: THE RECEPTION
The first task of the receiving authorities was to find accomodation for the mothers and children before nightfall. The methods used to obtain billets vared from place to place and depended, to a large extent, on the preparations made beforehand. In some areas rehearsals had been held, billets selected, communications tested, local transport planned, food supplies arranged, talks given to householders on the care of children, while questions of education had been discussed between the billeting and the education authorities. In these instances, where the imagination and planning had marched together, the loca lworkers were better able to cope with the problems set by the arrival of groups of evacuees different from those expected. Over many parts of the country, however, reception arrangements had been incompletely organised. Not only have the inability of the Health and Transport Departments to guarantee the composition of the evacuated parties been a serious impediment to planning, but it had sometimes been ued as an excuse for inaction until the arrival of the evacuees was imminent.
The conferences which the county councils had been asked to convene several months before the war were chiefly preoccupied with transport arrangements. They did not stimulate much discussion on welfare. The Ministry of Helath representaztives who attended and addressed these conferences aroused little interest in the human side of the reception plans. As the Department had only four woem inspectors at the time, this may have contributed to the faiulure to foresee the conditions in which the mothers and children would arrive, and the kind of services they would require. The evacuating authorities too were not helpful; they either failed to volunteer information or else they sent reassuring statements. Some instances of lack of cooperation are given later.
In addition, however, to ehse reasons the ban imposed on advance expenditure by reception authorities generally explainedf, if it did not wholly justify the absence of adequate reception arrangements. It will be recalled1 that local authorities had been asking for months to be allowed to spend money on preparing maternity homes and hostels, and for the purchase of various utems of equipment. All these applications had been refused until six days before the outbreak of war. Local authorities then received permission to incur 'such reasonable expenditure as is necessary for the reception of evacuated
persons'.2 The operation of this ban during the period of evacuation planning from January 1939 onwards probably made some local authorities think that they need not take the matter very seriously, for surely a Government in earnest about evacuating 4,000,000 persons (including a large number of young children and expectant mothers) would allow reception authorities to make some preparations in advance?
When the order for evacuation was given by the Cabinet on 31st August there were, in the reception areas, no reception areas, no reception hostels or sick bays; maternity accomodation was quite inadequate in most places; none of the camps was ready; beds, blankets, crockery, blackout material, furniture, lighting, heating, cooking and many kinds of equipment and categories of staff were either insufficient or in the wrong places. Moreover, as was only to be expected, the standard—in quality and quanitity—of the social services in the rural areas was inferior to that in London and other big cities. Even so, there was at least one county authority which proceeded to curtail its maternity and child welfare activities in the belief that such things were unnecessary in wartime.
Many reports testify to the general confusion and unpreparedness which characterised the reception of the mothers and children in September 1939.3 All the troubles caused by lack of pre-knowledge about the evacuees, train delays, the ban on spending and other factors, were piled higher when many of the parties, travelling in crowded trains, sometimes without lavatories and adequate water supplies, arrived in a dirty and uncooperative state. It was not a good start. Town and country met each other in a critical mood.
The wartime guests of the country were further aggrieved when, in many areas, they were walked or paraded around while householders took their pick. 'Scenes reminiscent of a cross between an earlyRoman slave market and Selfridge's bargain basement ensued.'4 One boy likened it to 'a cattle show',5 for farmers picked strong-looking lads, and the presentable, nicely dressed children were quickly chosen. The method of billeting seems geenrally to have been either direct selection by householders or haphazard allotment. Mothers were not in demand, and there were many who gave advice similar to that received by Lady Stanley—'I hope you will be more lucky in your attempt to get soldiers' children than us. Don't
get a mother anyhow—it is that which has overset us'.6 The indiscriminate handing round of evacuees in the billeting of 1939 inevitably resulted in every conceivable kind of social and psychological misfit. Conservative and Labour supporters, Roman Catholics and Presbyterians, lonely spinsters and loud-mouthed, boisterous mothers, the rich and the poor, city-bred Jews and agricultural labourers, the lazy and the hard-working, the sensitive and the tough, were thrown into daily, intimate contact. The hardest group of all to billet were the mothers with several children. Such difficulties often occurred among Roman Catholic parties from Liverpool and Glasgow,7 for the mothers refused to be parted from their children. Attempts were made to install them in empty and unfurnished houses. Not infrequently they took the next train home.
It was some days before any authority knew how many evacuees had been received either in particular areas or in the country as a whole. While the last trainloads of evacuees were arriving, small groups of mothers and children were waiting on opposite platforms to return home and, in most areas, a great deal of reshuffling and redistribution was taking place. School units had been completely broek up and scattered over wide areas,8 particular groups had arrived in the wrong place or had temporarily got lost, expectant mothers and nursery parties had to be found, sorted out, accomodated afresh, and a host of difficulties had to be handled without delay. Emergency services of many kinds had to be hasilty improvised. Empty houses were requisitioned and adapted in a few hours for maternity cases; hostels, nurseries and sick bays were hurriedly organised, and country towns and villages were ransacked for medical equipment, furniture, beds, blankets, crockery and blakout material. Town clerks, directors and inspectors of education, medical officers, teachers, civil servants and volunary workers
scoured the market places and assumed the roles of carpenters, electricians and general handymen. Treasury edicts and departmental circulars were temporarily forgoten in the presence of sick children and mothers in a late stage of pregnancy.
The provision of maternity services for these mothers waw one of the most difficult and serious problems, although the number of expectant mothers electing to be evcuated was relatively small (12,300 in England and 405 in Scotland). Before the war, plans had been drawn up for sending the mothers out; but little had been done to provide for them in the reception areas. By July 1939, arrangements had been made for the transfer of about seventy-five percent of the midwives in London municipal and voluntary hospitals to casualty work, while two-thirds of the maternity beds in London had been earmarked for air raid casualties; but when the Ministry of Health inquired on 4th August if it might sancaiton expenditure on emergency maternity homes in the country the Treasurty was not very helpful. '… there is obviously a danger that enthusiasts will tend to magnify the need … not all expectant mothers will have babies in the first weeks of a war, and if a war should occur there should be time after the outbreak to make reasonable provision in most areas since I gather that nothing very elaborate is contemplated and makeshift arrangements would have to suffice in the early days.'9 There followed, during the first week or two of war, a desperate search for suitable buildings, equipment and midwives.
In the eastern region, which received some 1,900 expectant mothers, improvised accomodation included a unit of two beds in an occupied private house, four beds in a midwife's house, while such buildings as a farmhouse, a boys' club, and a disused block of a public assistance institution were hurriedly acquired and equipped. In setting up a maternity hom, the shortest time taken from the first inspection to readiness for use was five dazys. The kind of worh which had to be done to amek these buildings fit for use included the installation of bathrooms, lavatories, sinks, sluices and cooking facilities. In all, 100 units comprising 1,385 beds were provided in the eastern region during September and October 1939. Similar feats of improvisation were achieved in other parts of the country. A detailed account of these developments, which later grew into the emergency maternity scheme—one of the most successful wartime social services—are contained in Studies in the Social Services.
All this work of improvising a variety of services and of rebilleting mothers and children had to be carried on in an atmosphere which, from being friendly and compassionate at the start, rapidly deteriorated until, in some areas, it became openly hostile. It did so, partly
because of the complications and irritations that have already been described, partly because of bad manners and behaviour and for other reasons which will become apparent later, and partly because both parties had rarely met before and knew little about each other's way of life. But the absence of air attacks, and—in the West—the undramatic opening phase of the war, were perhaps the chief reasons for the rapid change in mood from sympathy to hostility.
The excitement and tension aroused at the end of August, the sense of momentous events, the dissemination of rumours and the distribution of gas masks; these were the things which made many people in country districts ready to cast themselves for the role of comforter and friend to the refugees who were expected to pour out of the cities. While the countrysie wsa thus preparing itself, the adulty refugees were giving reign to self-pity, getting tired and despondent on their journeys, and consoling themselves with thoughts of ease and comfort at the end. Both sides were, when they met, expecting too much. Disillusionment set in from the first day, and the local and national press were soon filled with protests from indignant householders. Instead if the expected stories of bravery and endurance under air attack, the newspapers (with less news than in peacetime to report) carried thousands of articles on the condition of the evacuees, while the post-bags of two ministers and many M.O.s were loaded with complaints of dirt, lousiness and immorality.
All the evidence that accumulated in the Health Departments led the Government ot change its policy on evacuation. That is one reason for studying closely the question of social conditions. Another is that, so far as the social services were concerned, evacuation dominated social policy for at least the first nine months of war. The debate on the condition of the people continued much longer, though on a quieter note. It was heard again—but in a minor key—when the second great migration took place in the autumn of 1940; it affected in various ways the development of certain welfare services, while the Education Act of 1944 and other legilsation bore witness to its deep influenece. At no time, however, was opinion so vividly, and so freely voiced, as in the autumn of 1939. The subject is therefore confined to this chapter, and will not be discussed in detail again.
The complaints that were made about the evacuees took various forms. It was said that the children's clothing was generally inadequate and, very often, in a filthy condition: that many of the mothers and chldren were dirty, verminous and affected with scavies, impetigo and other skin troubles: that a large proportion of the children wetted their beds and soiled their clothes, and that many mothers were feckless, irresponsible, ungrateful, and deplorably mannered. To what extent were these statements true? Did they apply to five percent, fifty percent, or one hundred percent of the
1,500,000 mothers and children? Sifting the evidence to answer this question was been a heavy task. Fortunately, a great deal of it may be discarded as merely repetitive, or obiously coloured by resentment, by the sharpness of what the anthropologists call 'culture-contact', or by the sudden consciouness of things neglected. Even so, the bulk of relevant material is formidable. In the present chapter, only a small part of it has been used for purposes of illustration.
As soon as the evacuation movement was complted the Health Departments began to receive a stream of appeals, resolutions and complaints about clothing and footwear conditions from local authorities, voluntary agencies, civil servants and private individuals ranging from Lord Derby to the wives of agricultural labourers. Newcastle reported that of 31,000 children registered for evacuation thirteen percent were deficient in footwear and twenty-one percent were deficient in clothing. In Manchester it was said that about twenty percent of the childern arrived for the evacuation rehearsals in plimsolls. A large number of Welsh local authorities who received evacuees from Liverpool spoke of 'children in rags', in a condition which 'baffles description', and of clothing which was so dirty and verminous that it had to be destroyed. Liverpool became known, in the early months of the war, as 'the plimsoll city'. 'It is all wrong', commented one report, 'tha a rich city like Liverpool should look to Welsh peasants and labourers to clothe and shoe its children'. Merseyside was not, however, the only target for criticism. Other areas were named in reports alleging that quantities of clothing had to be burnt, that no change of cloyhing had been brought by the children, that footwear was cheap and shoddy, and even that some children arrived sewn into a piece of calico with a coat on top and no other clothes at all.10
It is highly probable that most of the children were sent away in the best that their parents could provide. Apart from the question of pride—and the clothing of children plays an important role today in matters of social status—it is unlikely that the childern were sent to safety while their best clothes were kept at home. Much depends on the criterion by which the adequacy of a child's clothing id judged. It turns not only suych matters as town and country and summer and winter wear, but quality, durability and fit. The question of standards in relation to the economics of children's clothing was curiously neglected in all the social surveys of the nineteen-thirties. Little is known, for instances, about the number and cost of different sizes in shoes that a child needs during its years of rapid growth.11
Yet this appears to be one of the most burdensome items in a family budget, as the records of relieving officers and case-work agencies such as the Family Welfare Association amply testify. It is not wholly surprising, therefore, that full employment and regular incomes from about 1942 to the end of the war presented the Board of Trade with one of its most baffling problems—an immense, unsatisfied demand for children's shoes even though production increased.12
The wartime experience of the Board of Trade suggests that a large number of parents would have preferred, in 1939, to have sent their children away better equipped. They may be criticised for not doing so; but their failure may also serve as a reminder that evacuation followed a long period of widespread unemployment. During 1939 the average number of insured persons unemployed in the United Kingdom was 1,480,324, and there were 1,049,718 persons in receipt of poor relief in England and Wales. These figures did not represent a standard army of permanently poor, long-unemployed persons. The number who experience some spell of unemployment in a year was not generally known. But it was probably very considerable. If, therefore, the above figure is multiplied several times, and account is also taken of the dependants and relatives who shared in the consequences of this unemployment, then it may reasonably be assumed that a high proportion of the fathers of the evacuated children had experienced unemployment during 1937–9. This unemployment bore much more heavily on the cities than on the rural areas. One city alone, whcih was severely criticised for the condition of its children's clothing, spent over £5,000,000 on pulbic assistance during the three years preceding the war.13
It has been estimated that before the war there were about 4,000,000 families in Britain living from hand-to-mouth or from pay-day to pay-day.14 Of this number, one-half were continually in and out of debt. For all these families, the purchase of boots and clothing often meant a capital outlay beyond their immediate resources. Many of them therefore had to buy cheap and generally shoddy equipment. Besides a widespread useof pawnbrokers, secondhand dealers and jumble sales, there grew up, partly in response to demand and partly because the housewives were easy to exploit, a vast instalment purchase organisation—the clothing clubs of the poor.15 Apart, however, from the question of poor quality and high costs—got clothes bought by hire purchase were often expensive—these clubs and check traders represented an important material bond which tied
mother to their homes in the cities. They were therefore one in a multitude of influences which led many mothers to return home.
When all these factors are considered—the problem of capital outlay for clothes when income is low, irregular and insecure, the different needs of town and country life, the close relationaship between poverty and large families, and the complexities of varying social standards—it is not surprusing that the clothing of a considerable proportion of the evacuated children was found to be inadequate.16 The commonest complaints were that some of the children had no spare underclothing and nightclothes, that mackintoshes and overcoats were unknown to a proportion, that some boys were no underclothing at all and that boots and shows were generally defective. A typical report to the Ministry of Health stated: 'The town standard and requirements are much lower than that of the reception areas—especially in the small county towns—many Manchester and Liverpool little girls have never worn knickers, a fact that distresses and horrifies the foster-parents. A large percentage have never possessed sleeping suits, but take off the outer clothing and sleep in their underwear (the latter frequently being father's old shirt pinned and/or stitched to fits its new purpose). Few have ever possessed a "best" outfit'.
Shortly before the outbreak of war, the Ministry of Helath realised that something would have to be done to provide extrea clothing for children from very poor families.17 But it was thought that there would be only 'a relatively small number of necessitous cases'.18 The annual reports of those local authorities who, in the course of school inspections, classified the condition of children's clothing supported this belief; but the worship of the statistical average made the classifications meaningless. Thus, in 1938, the London County Council's school nurses found that the clothing and footwear of elementary schoolchildren was 54.6 percent good, 45.1 percent fair and 0.3 percent poot. A study of the returns for individual metropolitain boroughs discloses a very low proportion of 'good' ratings in certain areas, notably, Bethnal Green seven percent, Poplar thirteen percent and Stepney thirteen percent.19 These individual returns were not published.
Among other large cities, only Glasgow appears to have referred to the subject in its annual reports. In the last pre-war statements of the pbulic health department,20 it was reported that out of 46,325 children examined only fourteen had insufficient clothing, while thirty-five were 'ragged' and another thirty-five 'dirty'. In addition, twenty-two children had not footwear nad in sixty instances boots or shoes were judged to be in an unsatisfactory state. Although these assessments only applied to conditions considered inimical to health, they seem surprisingly few in number when compared with the reports on clothing from the areas to which Glasgow children were evacuated, and with the fact that the same department supplied boots or clothing, or both, to 32,842 children during the year ended July 1939. Moreover, when evacuation took place a month later, Glasgow education authority spent £6,500 alone on the provision of overcoats for evacuated children.
In Scotland, local education authorities had received statutory powers, as early as 19089, to provide boots and clotyhing for necessitous schoolchildren.21 But no such powers were given to local authorities in England and Wales. The Ministry of Health, conscious of the need to make some provision in the event of evacuation, approached the Treasury in the spring of 1939. But a request for 'a concelaed subvention' of £40,000 for any necessitous cases among some 2,000,000 children was turned wodn. 'On present evidence', it was said, there as no justification for spending Government money in this way, 'except inso far as the Board of Education giave a grant in respect of the material used in needlework lessons'.22 This grant was, howvever, very small and, moreover, sum of ½d. a week or thereabouts were recovered by some local authoritiesw from the children who wnated the garments they had made. The usual policy of most authorities was that needlework and cookery should pay their way, and they any outlay on materials should be recovered from sales. In practice, this meant in some poor areas that girls were not given material for needlework because they were not capable of making garments which could be sold. Ordinary domestic articles—such as aprons—could be sold only with great difficulty 'even at cost price'.
The Ministry of Health continued to press the case for a clothing grant and at the end of august 1939 assent was given. On the 25th, a confidential letter was sent to evacuating authorities authorising the purchase locally of boots and clothing up to a limit of £1 for every 200 children. A condition was attached to the grant: the use of Government money for thus purpose was not to be made known.
When evacuation took place the number of 'necessitous cases' proved to be exceptionally large.23 Much of the burden of cost therefore fell onto the shoulders of the foster-parents, who felt that it was not possible—or desirable—for two standards of dress to exist side by side under the same roof. This is precisely what had not been appreciated by the Health Departments. If the children were to be assimilated into their temporary homes then they would have to eat the same food and wear the same kind of clothes as the rest of the household. In many ways, evacuation spelt a compulsory levelling-up in standards. As neither the parents nor the Government had provided for this in a large number of cases, the foster-parents had to do so.
The result was an outburst of scrubbing, washing, mending and re-clothing in the reception areas. At their own expense, many foster-parents reequipped their guests. In addition, charitable schems were organised in a large number of districts to raise funds and receive gifts of clothing, the Minister of Health broadcast an appeal on 8th September (which produced a few thousand secondhand garments of varying quality), the National Union of Teachers voted £1,000 and many other voluntary gifts helped to ease the problem for a time.24 The contribution made by charity towards clothing the needy children of Britain did not end with the first evacuation. Gifts of clothing from America and other countries continued to arrive in large quantities, while the Maharajah of Gondal presented a lakh of rupees (£7,500) and other individuals and institutions gave financial help.
Eventually, however, it became evident that the problem was too large for charity. It was also, as the winter of 1939 approached, too urgent to be left to the piecemeal efforts of voluntary agencies. If the parents of a considerable children could not—or would not—provide adequate equipment then the Government could not leave the responsibility with the foster-parents.25 What then was to happen to the town children, with outworn shoes and flimsy clothing, who would have to spend the winter in the mud and wet of the country if the Government's evacuation policy was to be maintained? This question was typical of many which continually arose in the administration of the evacuation scheme. Nearly all of them threw up some threw up some issue of fundamental public importance. The Government
wanted the children to stay in the country, yet it did not want to do anything which might undermine parental responsibility. At the same time the Government itself had accepted certain responisibilities, and had given undertakings about the welfare of the children to both the parents and foster-parents. If the health of the children suffered through lack of clothing, the Government would not avoid criticism by blaming the parents.
The first step towards finding a solution to the problem was taken by the Ministry of Health in November 1939, when it issued a circular to local authorities on the provision of clothing and footwear.26 While emphasising the principle of parental responisibility, attention was drawn to the help available from the poor law, the unemployment assistance board and voluntary agencies, and the suggestion was made that in cases where the necessary provision could not be obtained from one or other of these sources, the matter should be reported by tyhe head teacher in the reception area to the director of education for the evacuating area. On the understanding that nothing was said in public, a sum of about £15,000 was distributed to directors of education to enable them to deal with 'necessitous cases'. This was, in effect, the beginning of a new social service. It arose from the shock experieneced by the country in September 1939 in discovering the condition of the clothing of a large number of children. Its further development is traced in later chapters.27
While the Ministry of Health had expected, from thewarnings given to it by local authorities, that a proportion of the children to be evacuated would be deficient in clothing and footwear, it had not foreseen the seriousness of the problem of enuresis. The term 'enuresis' means failure to control urination and is not synonymous with bed-wetting. The latter is generally applied to the habits of infants under the age of two to three years until they are trained to keep dry.
Although enuresis as a social and medical problem had been neglected before the war, nevertheless, there existed a good deal of scattered evidence regarding its incidence among the older children and adults. It was (and still is) an embaressing problem for the Army28 and the Navy, public schools, poor law homes, charitable institutions, Home Office approved schools, holidary camps, Ministry of Labour training centres and shipping companies.29 At the end of the First World War, the London County Council, for instance, in a report for the years 1915–19, referred to the trbouel caused by enuretics in
residential and camp schools.30 Again, in 1945, a study was made for the Council on the incidence in various schools and homes.31 It was found that the percentage of enuretics in the Council's residential schools and homes was:
In certified Roman Catholic schools the figures were higher in each age group, namely 27.5 percent, 18.4 percent and 8.4 percent.
These lessons were not heeded. The Health and Education Departments did not gather the available evidence, and the public were not told that just as the Navy might have trouble for a short while with a young lad joining a training ship or college, so foster-parents might expect some temporary enuretics among the unaccompanied schoolchildren. Nor did the medical profession (notably the psychiatrists who were much preoccupied at the time with the question of morale and bombing) help to prepare the lay public or the Government for what was certain to happen.
In May 1939 the Ministry of Health ordered mackintosh overlays for the young bed-wetters—estimated at sixty percent of the children under the age of five to be evacuated. But only a small number of these overlays had been delivered to local authorities by the outbreak of war. No provision was made for older children.
As soon as the children arrived in the country the trouble bega. 'Somewhat unexpectedly', remarked the Lancet, 'enuresishas proved to be one of the major menaces to the comfortable disposition of evacuated urban children … every morning every window is filled with bedding, hung out to air in the sunshine. The scene is cheerful, but the householders are depressed'.32 The estimates that were made of the frequency of the trouble during the first week ro two of evacuation ranged from about one percent to thirty-three percent at different ages from five to sixteen.33 The country was undoubtedly shocked: no other aspect of the social results of evaucation received so much pbulicity or lent itself so easily to exaggeration and misunderstanding.
It was misunderstood because hitherto it had not been discussed, and it was exagerrated, partly because it had not been expected, and
partly because it represented, along with all the other sacrifices involved in accepting strangers into the house, a burden on country people out of all proportion to the war effort then being made by the nation.
Enuresis, like other psychoneurotic symptoms, is an expression of mental protest.34 It is primarily a symptom of emotional disturbance, although in a few habitual cases it may be the result of acquired lesions, or of congenital abnormality of the urinary tract.35 Among a majority of the children who were troublesom in the first week or two of September 1939 it was caused by an acute sense of insecurity.36 The loss ostability and protection led these children to revert—temporarily—to irresponsible babyhood. The interruption of the relationship with the individual who had steered the child from helpless dirtiness to controlled behaviour caused the regression. Like other observers, Professor Burt, who noted a greate increase in incontinence, especially nocturnal enuresis, believed that the emotional effect of evacuation on the children had been underestimated.37 In most cases the trouble cleared up quickly, as the children settled down and got to know their foster-parents, the dark and silence of the countryside and their way to oudoor (and often primitive) lavatories.
In a minority of children the trouble was deep-seated. It was these cases which got mixed up with the majority of temporary ones, and gave so many evacuated children a bad name. Among the minority, there were some who were chronic enuretics; some who had never used toilet paper, and some who deliverately fould curtains and furniture and who used corners of a room for defaecation. 'No words can descrbie', said one report to the Ministry of Helath, 'the terrible state of the room. Every scrap of bedding, clothing and even the blinds and curtains had to be burnt immediately'.38 'You dirty thing, messing the lady's carpet', expostulated one Glasgow mother to her six-year-old child. 'Go and do it in the corner.'39
Some observers attributed these cases to faulty training, and to a deplorably low standard of cleanliness and behaviour in the parents.40 Many of the most undisciplined children appear to have come from the kind of broken home which produces, in Bowlby's words, 'affectionless thieves'.41 'What is true of enuresis', said another observer, 'is more dramatically so in the case of faecal incontinence. The child psychiatrist has long since ceased to regard faecal incontinenence as a symptom of great rarity, or indicating a severe regression, since it is met with sporadically in a large number of emotionally disturbed children. This has been quite clearly brought out by evacuation, where a number of children, many of them over five, and normally trained in clean habits, have shown this symptom. It seems likely that all cases are not due to an identical mechanism. In ordinary peacetime practice, a high proportion of these cases occur in step and foster children, suggesting an uncertainty in their emotional relationships. In other cases, the aggressive elements seem to predominate, the child using this as a final and desperate demonstration of anger or despair'.42
The state of things in broken homes, and in homes which had meant much emotional stress in early life and mother-child separation, produced children who were a constant source of trouble and expense, not only to the evacuation scheme and to those administering the social services, but, in later life, to their fellows in any group activity. An investigation of Army enuretics showed, for instance, that a large number came from such homes and revealed evidence of what the psychiatrists call 'love deprivation' in childhood.43
The great characteristic of man is his capacity to learn; but he can do little without training. And this the child does not get, during the all-important first five years of life, in the broken home; the home without stability or harmony. The children too become unstable, aggressive, lazy, cynical and untrustworthy. They are, in Paneth's words, 'hurt people'.44 'At home', wrote Paneth, 'they suffer from vermin, dirt and bad nourishment; from parents who have neither time nor patience for them, who often drink and always swear and of whom they are afraid; parents who represent their ideals, but ideals
in conflict with the rest of the world around them; parents whom they know are looked down upon and who are often prosecuted, cheating and being cheated. There the children live in an atmosphere which, though outspoken and tough in many ways, is secretive and untruthful on essential points'. It was some of the children from the cities who, although proportionately few in number, shocked the countryside in September 1939.
In other cases, among which Merseyside and Glasgow children figured prominently, the occurence of insanitary and anti-social behaviour was closely linked to the physical environment from which the children came. Slum mores are consistent with a slum home. Indeed, it is optimistic to expect anything else. When one broken-down water-closet has to be shared by anything up to thirty people,45 and there is no bath and no indoor supply of water; when there is incessant conflict between the need to keep order and the child's natural demand for space; when privacy is impossible and everyone's quarrels, love-making and sexual life are heard or witnessed by children, and when the day-to-day drudgery of the mother is accompaned by a trial of ulcerated legs, carious teeth, haemorrhoids and backache,46 the training of children in self-control and in the identification of truth becomes difficult—if not impossible.
Here, then, were many reasons to explain both the frequency and the cause of enuresis among a proportion of the million or so children who left the cities on the outbreak of war. The majority ofcases, which were largely due to emtional stress, cleared up quickly with sympathetic handling by foster-parents. Other cases, particularly some of the more complicated and difficult ones, were solved—so far as the evacuation scheme was concerned—by the return of the children to their homes.
The problem recurred in 1940 and after other evacuation movements during the war. But it never again aroused the same accusations and bitterness with which it was attended in 1939. For one thing, the Government abandoned, after the first attempt, the principle of mass evacuation; in the later periods of exodus, when place and time were planned in advance, most of the children were medically reviewed before they went away and more carefully billeted when they arrived. Secondly, the establishment of hostels in 1940 meant that enuretic
children could be removed from harassed or unsympathetic householders. Thirdly, and perhaps most important of all, the reception areas knew what to expect. During 1940–41 the Health Departments arragned a better distribution of mackintosh overlays to local authorities and, in addition, sanction was given for the payment of an extra allowance to some householders who were caring for children suffering from enuresis.47 These measures did not touch—nor were they designed to cope with—the core of difficult cases; but they prevented them from again becoming a source of public embaressment.
In addition to the complaints about clothing conditions and enuresis, protests were made in September 1939 that a large number of the children—and some of the mothers—were heavily infested with head lice. This accusation is worth examing closely, for not only are many of the published statistics slovenly in themselves, but chronic head infestation is often regarded as an index of general dirtiness.
Graphic descriptions of verminous conditions began to reach the Health Departments as soon as the mothers and children arrived in the country. 'There were scenes of horror in the village street.' 'The heads of some children could be seen crawling with vermin.' Commentaries of this kind were followed by reports of the number of infested mothers and children. No overall survey was made, btu many local inspections were carried out—too many to discuss in detail here48—and these showed that the experience of different districts varied greatly. In parts of Wales, and in districts of Cheshire, Herefordshire and Shropshire receiving evacuees from Merseyside, the proportion of infested children ranged between twenty-two to fifty percent. Areas receiving children from London were more fortunate, for the range of proportions was lower at about eight to thirty-five percent.49 In Scotland, reports from seventeen out of twenty-eight reception areas returned an average figure of thirty percent, though in many districts it was around fifty percent.
No generalisation from these scattered surveys can be applied to
all reception districts in the country. There were some local authorities, mainly in the south of England, who did not complain at all. There were others, like Atcham in Shropshire which received Catholic children from Bishop Goss school in Liverpool, and Wigtown county which took mothers and children from Glasgow, who survived a horrifying experience. In one part of Wigtown, which received a large number of mothers and children, conditions were so bad that the medical officer sent messengers out at once in all directions to but hair-clippers. With the aid of many helpers (including three detachments of v.a.d's) all heads were shorn. The thing was done without formality and without permission.
Evacuation came at the end of the summer holidays and the children had not, therefore, been under the eye of the school medical service for some weeks. Moreover, on the journey itself, the louse had many opportunities to pass from child to child, particularly as no medical examinations were carried out before the evacuees were sent away. This was unfortunate, in view of the reassuring statements that had been made publicly earlier in the year about the condition of the children. The Minister of Health had told the House of Commons in March 1939, '… these are not scrofolous and verminous children … they are the bud of the nation'.50
The Government did not consider the possibility of the children thoroughly examined before they went away. The expectation of what conditions would be like in the event of war was partly responsible for this. As Chapters I and II made clear, the detailed organisation of the evacatuion scheme was shaped by the kind of war that was expected. Inevitably, therefore, the consequences of a policy which placed all the emphasis on the speed of the exodus were experienced by the reception areas. The Government's defence was a good one: to search for lice and nits while bombs were falling would not have been possible. Nevertheless, an opportunity of inspecting the children was missed when evacuation rehearsals were held at the end of August.
Only a few of the reception authorities made arrangements for inspecting the children when they arrived. For some, conditions—such as the time of arrival—made the work impossible or else the staff were not available, while most authorities either did not know what to expect or else they assumed that the job had already been done. Neither the Health and Education Departments nor the evacuating authorities had warned the countryside of the troubles that
might arise. Liverpool, for instance, whose school medical service had been known to be inadequate,51 had informed some Welsh authorities that the children would arrive 'clean, under medical supervision and free from infectious disease'.52
Travelling conditions, and the fact that the exodus took place at the end of school holidays, probably led to an increase in the number of infested children. But the evidence of later surveys makes it doubtful whether the state of affairs before the war was greatly exaggerated in September 1939. Infestation is much more a family, than a school, disease, and its incidence in September 1939 reflected home conditions rather than school environment. Foster-mothers in reception areas did not full understand that many children living in bad home conditions cannot easily escape harbouring a few nits, and that if a child's head is left uncombed for some nights, infestation can rapidly become serious.
One result of the reports received by the Government in the early months of the war was that the Board of Education and the Ministry of Health arranged with Dr. Kenneth Mellanby to continue, on their behalf, investigations he had already begun into the incidence of head infestation. In March 1941 a note on Dr. Melolanby's work was sent to local authorities, who were urged to attack the problem.53 Their attention had previously been drawn to the need for intensive action when the Ministry of Health issued, in January 1940, a memorandum on methods of dealing with the louse, and on the powers already possessed by local authorities for preventing and curing the spread of head infestation.54
Although Mellanby's inquiry, which dealt mainly with the situation before the war, was to some extent biased as it was principally concerned with patients admitted to infectious disease hospitals, and therefore included a preponderance of poorer people, its results nevertheless broadly substantiated the reports from many of the reception areas. Mellanby found that about fifty percent of girsl under fourteen years of age living in industrial areas had lousy heads; that boys returned a lower rate, declining from forty-five percent at age two to twenty percent at age fourteen, and that pre-school children of both sexes had the highest rates of infestation—up to fifty-two percent. The percentage of children in rural areas found
infested was very low, while over the whole of the country body infestation was reported to be rare.
Mellanby repeated his inquiry during the years 1940–3.55 Despite the effects of bombing, shelter life, bad housing conditions and other wartime difficulties, some evidence was found of a slight decline in infestation among children. On the other hand, the percentage of girls aged fourteen to eighteen with lousy heads rose from approximately twenty-two percent in 1939 to around thirty percent in 1943. A high and increasing incidence of infestation among young women was also observed by the War Office. This was one of the results of an inquiry into the rate of infestat9ion among women entering A.T.S. training centres. It was found that during 1942–3 twenty percent of recruits were infested; that in 1944 and the first half of 1945 the proportion rose to approximately twenty-six percent, and that in different parts of the United Kingdom the figures varied very widely. Northern Ireland led the way with about sixty percent (or three out of every five girls), followed by Scotland (just over thirty percent), Western Command (twenty-three percent to twenty-nine percent), Northern Command (sixteen percent to twenty-six percent), while the Eastern, Southern and South-Eastern Commands came out best with a range of eight percent to sixteen percent.
It is time now to gather together this statistical material, and to consider one or two question swhich have been needing attention since this chapter on social conditions began. The first is: why did the evacuation reports shock the Government and public opinion? And the second:: what was the cause of these unexpectedly high rates of infestation?
Both these questions inevitably raise some big issues affecting the administration and work of the public social services. To understand why, it is necessary to look briefly at the pre-awr figures from the schools, and to compare them with the reports from the receptioon areas and with the other statistics quoted above.
To put the matter simply, what is required as evidence of the frequency of infestation before the war is the ratio between the number of individual children found with head infestation in a given year and the mean number of children attending school during the same period. The first figure—the number of children with infested heads—can only be obtained with accurancy as a result of unannounced inspections by school nurses. But this figure was not usually provided before the war either by the central departments or by the vast majority of local authorities.56 Instead, most authorities presented and
published the results of announced routine medical inspections,57 and in doing so related the number of infested children to the number of examinations carried out during the year. Or else the total of nurses' ascertainments during the year were given without any indication as to the number of individual children involved. The figures that were obtained and published on such bases as these were meaningless as well as misleading. This, Table VIII of the last pre-war report of the Board of education58 provided (a) the total number of examinations by nurses and (b) the number of individual children found unclean. Although the Board did not calculate a percentage, the unsuspecting reader might easily fall into the error of assuming that the two figures could be related to each other.
To discover the true incidence of head infestation among schoolchildren before 1939 was made even harder because of the use, by the Board of Education and other authorities, of the euphemistic 'found unclean'. This term crept into use many year before the war; it was part of a growing tendency in public life to avoid calling a spade a spade. Some local authorities found the ambiguity handy, for it enabled them to include in one figure not only head and body infestation but any condition of general bodily dirtiness. Other authorities did not so. But the figures of all authorities were, nevertheless, added together although they were sometimes composed of dissimilar elements. The results were then publicy presented by the Board of Education in the form already described.
In their annual reports on the work of the school medical service the London County Council (and many other authorities) gave prominence to the results of the routine inspections. Thus, in 1938, under the heading of 'cleanliness', the Council announced that 97.7 percent of children were found free of nits or pediculi in the hair.59 Although they were available, the Council did not publish the statistics for the individual metropolitain boroughs. These showed a range—even for routine inspections—of from 0.2 percent in Lambeth and Hampstead to 18.6 percent in Shoreditch.60 Likewise, Liverpool gave no figures for individual areas when reported that 4.5 percent of boys and 13.1 percent of girls were found unclean at
routine inspections.61 Lower figures were reported from Glasgow, where only 0.6 percent of boys and 9.5 percent of girls were found with nits or lice in their heads at routine inspections.62
Such figures as these cannot be reconciled with the results of Mellanby's inquiries or the reports from the evacuation areas. Without exceptoin, so far as the writer is aware, the reports of local authorities for the large cities underestimated the incidence and drew a self-satisfied and optimistic picture. Mellanby reached the same conclusion. He also observed that whereas he had found no deterioration among children during the first four years of war, the published reports of many school medical officers showed higher figures of head infestation/63 It was thus erroneously assumed by many people that children had become lousier because of lack of parental control, the absence of mothers on war-work and other factors, whereas the likely explanation was that ascertainment had improved as a result of the lessons of evacuation in 1939.
The contradictions between the official facts that were published before the war and the evidence on social conditions that came to lights in September 1939 and subsequently were not confined to the matter of head infestation. The cheerful prominence given to the report that only about two percent of the men called up under the Military Training Act in 1939 were unfit for services was later found (and admitted) by the Government to have been unwarranted.64 In this matter, as in many others, everything depended on the quality of the medical exmination and the criteria adopted to determine fitness for service or for anything else. If these things were not stated and discussed, the figures by themselves not only meant very little but were also dangerous, inasmuch as their dissemination opened the way to complacency and their continued used deadened criticism.
That these understandable influences could infiltrate and affect the work of local authorities was particularly true of the assessment of the nutritional state of schoolchildren. 'Cheerfulness is a cardinal virtue', remarked one observer, 'but an unreasonable optimism is the most damning, as it is the commonest fault in a nutrition return'. This was the comment of a medical officer of the Board of Education who, in analysing these returns for 1939, found that no less than seventy-two local authorities did not report a single child as having been classed as having undernourished.65
When the returns for individual towns are compared with the reports from the reception areas on the frequency of lousiness, scabies and other skin diseases among the children from these towns, it becomes clear that optimism (if that is the world to use) had bitten deep. The disparities between what Liverpool said about its children, and what other people said about the, have already been remarked. To this may be added the conclusion of the Board of Education's medical officer that the Liverpool returns on the nutritional state of its children 'show an optimism which is frankly incredible'.
One further reason, which helps to exaplin why public opinion was shocked by the experiences of evacuation in 1939, was the absence, for some years before the war, of adequate public information by central and local authorities about their activities in the field of the social services. Statistical intelligence and annual reports on work done had still not recovered from the curtailment of published facts in 1915, in the early nineteen-twenties and again in 1931. How serious this was can be demonstrated by a simple sum. Despite retrenchment in 1915, caused by financial economies and staff shortages, the five annual reports of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education during 1915–19 totaled 1,164 pages, whereas during 1934–8 inclusive the corresponding reports were no longer than 651 pages in all.66 Quanity is not, of course, a good index of value, but a critical survey of the content and spirit of the ten reports does not lead to any higher appreciation of these public documents for the pre-war years.
The deterioration in the standard and output of social facts partly explains why it was that many people were ignorant of the conditions of life in a large number of town-dwellers. It was these conditions, the insanitary homes,67 the lack of baths and lavatories,68 the crowded
rooms and congested streets which, along with poverty, helped to generate the dirt, fashion the behaviour, and dull the mind of a people long inured to drudgery and disease yet, withal, resistant to any force which threatened the solidarity of the family circle.
Many people realised the folly of balming the children; but most were unsparing in their criticism of the adult evacuees. This too was often thoughtless. Corrupt manners naturally provoke censure, but they are usually the product of a corrupting environment. Such an environment signifies slovenliness and dirt, bad language69 and moral delinquency. Broken homes and undisciplined days reflect uneasy levels of livings. Garish lights and noise, decrepit public houses,70 pin-table saloones, fun-fairs, chain cinemas and fish-and-chip shops are the natural acccessories to such a culture. Trees and woods, country lanes and quiet fields are not. An environment which produces a higher infant mortality rate than Tokyo does not generally rear children who can come to terms with life in an Ayrshire village.71
This brief incursion into the condition-of-the-people question has concentrated chiefly on three problems: clothing deficiencies, enuresis and head infestation. The study that has been made of these problems does not pretend to be comprehensive, nor must it be assumed that they cover the whole range of questions which arose from the first evacuation. They were selceted, and they are put forward, not as exhaustive accounts of social conditions, but as illustrations of a particularly important episode in social history of the war. To have added a discussion of other questions such as the feeding and sleeping habits of evacuated mothers and children in relation to the standards of other social groups, would have made this chapter disproportionately long.
Nor can much be said here, for no adequate records exist, of what the househgolders and the local authorities in the reception areas did, during the first few weeks of September 1939, to cope with these problems. Although services were quickly improvised to deal with the most troublesome skin diseases and other ailments and to delouse the infested mothers and children, the major burden of cleansing children, cutting their hair and re-clothing them, was shouldered by the foster-parents. The contribution made by all these unnamed householders to the welfare of evacuated children, and the growth of new forms of social care in the reception areas, are examined in later chapters.
Because the shock to public opinion over the condition of some of the evacuees rivalled the outcry after the Boer War with its disclosures of sickness and low physical standards, it should not be assumed that all the evacuated mothers and children had been lving in squalor reiminscent of the eighteen-nineties. Nor did the presense of lice or nits in the hair necessairly mean that bodies were dirty, homes filthy or parents feckless.72 Had there been so much parental neglect, it is unlikely that eighty to ninety percent of London parents and seventy-four percent of Glasgow parents would have taken the trouble to attend during the school medical inspection of their children before the war.
If the revelations of evacuation are to be seen in the right perspective, and not simply against the unfavourable background of the early, unexpectedly quiet, months of war, it will be helpful to make one final point before this chapter ends. It is one which, in all the book and all the controversy which accompanied and followed the first evacuation, was never mentioned.
Practically all the mothers who went to the reception areas in September 1939 had spent part of their childhood and youth during the war years of 1914–18. For many, it was not well spent. 'There has been', said one report of 1917, 'a great increase in the wage-earning employment of children out of school hours'.73 Young children were employed for thirty to forty hours in addition to their schooling. Another report of 1917 emphasissed the 'premature and abnormal curtialment of school life for a large number of other children'.74 By 1918 it was estimated that the war had imposed a reduction of over one-third on the medical inspections of schoolchildren.75 Doctors and nurses had more imperative tasks to perform. Such drastic reductions in the work of the school medical service were not made without misgivings, for a survey in 1917 of school-leavers showed that seven to ten percent were absent from school on grounds of more or less chronic ill-health, and twenty-one percent were suffering from serious defects which 'will pervent them from playing their fair and proper part as citizens'.76
It was not only education and medical aid which many of the children missed during these war years. At a critical period of their lives they had missed their fathers and, in many homes, their mothers. An inquiry into the parental condition of 400 juvenile offenders showed that in a high proportion of homes the father was serving in the Army or Navy.77 Nor did the irremediable effects of the First World War end with the Armistice. There were over 750,000 war dead and as late as 1930, some 1,664,000 war disabled.78 How many lives were harmed in childhood and adolesence by the death of disablement of fathers? These children also suffered, as some children will always suffer, from economic inequalities, and from failure on the part of society to distribute fairly goods and services in short supply. Throughout the First World War there were never less than one-quarter of a millon children on poor relief in England and Wales.79
The Chief Medical Office of the Board of Education in drawing attention–as early as 1916—to the premature employment of 'a very large number' of young children, asked a question which is of particular importance in summing up this chatper. He first said that physical injuries in childhood are often insidious and inconspicuous. They do not catch the eye, or arrest the observer, but they may undermine the growth of the child at a critical point in its life. He
then asked: what will be the condition of these children in five, ten or twenty years?80
The long-term consequences of modern war cannot be disclaimed or disparaged just because they are not easily and quickly apparent. The bills of war contain both tangiable and intangiable items; when the first have ben paid, the second may still be accumlating. The social accounts of the First World War were not audited or inspected, partly because they were not obviosuly susceptible to measurement, and partly because they were obscured at the time by the distractions of balance sheets of a material kind.
It is well that these things should be recalled if any judgement is to be passed on the pattern of town life which was exposed in September 1939. Nor must it be forgotten that the evacuate dpopulation was, to a large extent, slsected by its inability to arrange—or but—safety in the country as 2,000,000 other people had done. All the spotlights were trinaed on those who travelled under the Government's scheme; nothing was said of those who remained behind or of the 2,000,000 who evacuated independently. The behaviour of some of these unofficial evacuees, who were not all aged and infirm, may have been as anti-social—in different ways—as that if the dirty and feckless mothers from the slums. The Times observed: 'The hotels are fillied with well-to-do refugees, who too often have fled from notyhing. They sit and read and knit and eat and drink, and get no nearer the war than the news they read in the newspapers …'81
At the other end of the social scale, large numbers of children—five percent in some areas and fifty percent in others—and a proportion of mothers had lousy heads. But it did not follow that itwas just to stigmatise them all as 'problem families'. Perhaps two percent, perhaps five percent, were 'problem' children from 'problem' homes. They were undoubtedly lousy, as well as generally dirty, and their behaviour reflected the community's failure before the war to cope with the condition of this particular group in society. The remaining ninety-five percent or ninety-eight percent, or whatever the figure may be, were not the neglected children of irresponsible parents. Their clothes may have been inadequate for country were, they may have preferred chips to green vegetables, they may have suffered from skin troubles and they may have had dirty heads, but such things do not mean that they beloned to the 'social proble' group. The facts do not sustain more than that. But just as it is necessary to distinguish between infested heads and bodily squalor, so it was silly for some M.P.s to protest violently at any mention of lice. In the post-mortem debate in the House of Commons some M.P.s
attacked other for casting slurs on 'the working-class'.82 Such emotional protests were not helpful. The decencies of health and sanitation are moreeasily achieved by the rich than the poor, but they are no sufficient measure of personal virtue or political principle. The louse is not a political creature; it cannot distinguish between the salt of the earth and the scum of the earth.
Contents * Previous Chapter (VII) * Next Chapter (IX)
1 See Chapter V, pp. 91–2.
2 Ministry of Health circular G.E.S.10, 25th August 1939.
3 Ministry of Health regional office reports; local authority reports and letters to the Ministry of Health and the Department of Health for Scotland; Boyd, W., (edited by) Evacuation in Scotland, 1944; Padley, R., and Cole, M., Evacuation Survey, 1940, and memorandum 'Evacuation 1939' prepared by the Charity Organisation Society for the War History.
4 Monograph by G. M. Lindsay, deputy evacuation officer to the West Hartlepool local education authority, 'The Physical, Social and Education Effects of Evacuation upon West Hartlepool Evacuated Schoolchildren', 1942.
5 Boyd, W., (edited by) Evacuation in Scotland, 1944.
6 This was written in connection with the activites of the Patriotic Fund of the Crimean War period. It was part of a voluntary scheme whereby the wives and relations of officers gave help to soldiers' families (Mitford, N. (edited by), The Ladies of Alderly, 1938).
7 In the Roman Catholic families evacuated from Clydebank, fifty-six percent had four or more children. (Boyd, W., (edited by) Evacuation in Scotland, 1944).
8 'May a school party was discoved to be dispersed in half-a-dozen to a dozen village scattered over many miles of countryside. "One headmaster", wrote a correspondent to The Times Educational Supplmenent, "has about 100 children billeted in six small village in the south of the county, while 70 more are in a county town 20 miles to the north". One half of a girls' senior school was spread over thirteen villages. Such cases were frequent—one had almost said typical.' (Dent, H. C., Education in Transit, 1944.) A mass of reports to the Board of Education and to local education authorities gave similar instances of the breakdown of school organisation and the loss of identity of evacuated schools. The chief inspector to the London County Council, in reviewing these educational problems in a report in December 1939, quoted many examples; thus, one London school in Norfolk was spred out in villages over an areas of about 400 square miles, and anoter was distributed over no less than 23 villages. The effect of all this disorganisation, central to a study of the educational system during the war, is the concern of Dr. Weitzman's educational volume in this series of histories. [Weitzman's volume was never published]
9 Letter from Treasury to the Ministry of Health, 8th August 1939.
10 See, for instance, Women's Group on Public Welfare, Our Towns, 1943.
11 In this connection it is interesting to note that a new national cost of living index, introduced in June 1947, allows for more expenditure by working-class families on wines and spirits (excluding beer) than on children's shoes, (Industrial Relations Handbook 1944, Suppl. No. 2, 1948).
12 For details see Chapter XX.
13 Report of the Public Assistance Committee, Liverpool, 1939.
14 Hilton, J, Rich Man, Poor Man, 1944.
15 Exact data on the ramifications and turnover of clotuhing clubs and check traders are not available. These institutions have not been studied by economists or sociologists. For a general description of the methods employed by the clubs, see Our Towns, (1943), pp. 54–65 and 124–6.
16 Further information on the matter of familiy economics is available from the results of an analysis of the recovery of billeting charges from the parents of evacuated schoolchildren—see Chapter X, pp. 159–61.
17 Ministry of Health Memo. E.V.4, July 1939. The proposal to supply clothing only applied to unaccompanied children. Children evacuated with their mothers were excluded. Families on public assitance and unemployment pay were eligible to apply for help. The Ministry of Health hoped that the needs of others would be met by charitable agencies.
18 Ministry of Health circular 1871, 12th September 1939.
19 These figuires were supplied to the historian by the Public Health Department of the London County Council.
20 Education Health Service Report for year ended 31st July 1939.
21 Section 6 of the Education (Scotland) Act, 1908.
22 Letters from the Treasury to the Ministry of Health, 2nd May 1939 and 28th July 1939.
23 Liverpool, allowed £502, spent £2,715—a sum approved by the Regional Commissioner.
24 A few evacuating authorities had attempted before the war to organise charitable schemes. In London a press appeal was made in July 1939, and gifts of clothing were distributed among the poorer schools.
25 It was repeatedly stated by the Ministry of Health that billeting allowances did not include the cost of clothing or footwear, '… no obligation is imposed on the householder to remedy deficiencies of this kind'. (Ministry of Health Memo. E.V.4, July 1939.)
26 Ministry of Health circular 1907, 7th November 1939.
27 Chapter X, pp. 165–6 and Chapter XIX.
28 See, for example: 'Investigation and Treatment of Enuresis in the Army.' Backus, P.L. and Mansell, G. S., British Medical Journal, 7th October 1944, ii, 462.
29 Women's Group on Public Welfare, Our Towns, 1943.
30 London County Council Annual Report, 1915–19. Vol. III, p. 95.
31 London County Council memorandum, 'Enuresis in Residential Schools', 28th November 1934, supplied to the writer for the purposes of this narrative.
32 Leader on the Lancet, 7th October 1939, ii, 794.
33 A figure of four to five percent was report from Brighton (Gill, S. E., British Medical Journal, 10th August 1940, ii, 199) and Boyd tabulated various Scottish figures ranging up to thirty-three percent (Boyd, W., (edited by) Evacuation in Scotland, 1944). Many reports to the Ministry of Health spoke of 'very large numbers' or cited figures between ten and twenty percent.
34 It is a significant fact that the Care of Children Committee (the Curtis Committee), appointed by the Governmnet in 1945 to inquire into the provision for children deprived of a normal home life, found that enresis was one of the most frequent complaints in voluntary and public assistance homes. One matron of a local authority home said that when children were ill they did not wet their beds, and she thought this was because they were getting the extra attention they needed. In many homes, however, the trouble seems to have been made worse by bad treatment and a system of punishments. In a number of charitable homes the enuretic children were distinguished from the rest in their sleeping arrangements, and in one such home they had a red light by their beds, (Report of the Care of Children Committee, Cmd. 6922, 1946, pp. 66–7 and 84–5).
35 Annotation in the Lancet, 9th June 1945, i, 728.
36 In a proportion of the sodlers evacuated from Dunkirk in 1940, enuresis was noted as a response to feelings of stress and insecurity. (Anderson, C., Jeffrey, M. and Pai, M. N., Lancet, 12th August 1944, ii, 218.)
37 Burt, C., British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1940, x, 8–15, and Burt, C. and Simmins, C. .A., British Journal of Educational Psychology, 1942, xii, 71–5.
38 Billeting officer's report to Lleyn Rural District Counil, 8th September 1939.
39 Report by medical officer of helath of the Stewarty of Kirkcudbright.
40 F. D. M. Livingstone emphasised the influence of past mismangement (The Practitioner, March 1940); J. Fergueson considered that in a large number of children enuresis was the result of bad training (Proceedings Royal Society of Medicine, May 1940); R. C. Webster referred to the admissions by older children or parents that enuresis was of long standing (Public Health, November 1939); and D. M. Odlum laid stress on the importance of training in habits of cleanliness infancy and early childhood (British Medical Journal, 6th January 1940).
41 Bowlby, J., Int. J. Psycho-anal., (1944), xxv, 1.
42 Creak, E. M., Proceedings Royal Society of Medicine, vol XXXIII, no. 7, May 1940.
43 Backus, P. L., and Mansell, G. S., British Medical Journal, 7th October 1944, ii, 462.
44 Paneth, M., Branch Street: A Sociological Study, 1944.
45 An enquiry into the lives of children in Shoreditch showed that about one-quarter had an indoor closet, while in over half the cases the closet was shared by a number of other individuals ranging from about eight to thirty. One-third had no indoor water supply, sixty-eight percent had no facilities for bathing at home, and in fifteen percent of the cases available supply of water was shared by three of more families (Shoreditch Housing Association, Growing Up in Shoreditch, 1938). Further details about the lack of baths, lavatories and water supplies in London and other cities and areas of England and Scotland are given on p. 131–2.
46 For a general description of these conditions see Spring-Rice, M. Working-Class Wives, 1939. For some figures on the high incidence of, for example, varicose veins see Foote, R. R., Lancet, 1947, i, 84.
47 The Provisional National Council for Mental Health first suggested the payment of additional allowances, and the Ministry of Health, with some misgivings agreed in June 1940. The fears expressed by the Department were substantiated in one case, where an extra 3s. 6d. a week was authorised on October 1940 for a householder in a Welsh rural area. This soon became known in the district. Although a doctor's certificate had to be obtained as evidence that the child was suffering from enuresis, the sum of about £350 was paid out to the villagers by the local council for th year ended 31st March 1942, notwithstanding a considerable reduction in the number of billeted children.
48 The conclusions of some of these surveys were published, e.g. Public Health, November 1939, no. 2, vol. LIII, and others were referred to in the annual reports for 1939 of medical officers. The results quoted here have been taken from these sources and from departmental files.
49 A survey made by the National Federation of Women's Institues showed a range of four to forty-five percent among children evacuated from the metropolitain boroughs.
50 H. of C. Deb., 2nd March 1939, vol. 344, col. 1524. The Ministry, in its 'Suggestions for Authorised Visitors' (circular E.V.2, 5th January 1939), had stated: 'Any householder who raises a question as to the cleanliness of the children may be assured that schoolchildren are subject to regular medical inspection, that there is no greater danger of dirt or infection from these children than from any other representative group in the country, and that the best possible arrangements will be made for their medical supervision'.
51 The service was inspected by the Board of Education in December 1939 when the arrangements for ascertaining verminous children were found to be inadequate. No further inspections were made before the war.
52 For instance, at a conference with Caernarvonshire County Council on 8th May 1939.
53 Ministry of Health circular 2306 and Board of Education circular 1544, 17th March 1941. A full report of the inquiry was published in the Medical Officer, 1st February 1941, i, 39.
54 Ministry of Helath Memo. 230/Med., January 1940.
55 Medical Officer, 25th December 1943, ii, 205.
56 As examples of the difficulty of understanding the statistics of head infestation among boys and girls attending elementary schools, see the figures given in the Annual Reports for 1938 by Liverpool and Manchester on the school medical service.
57 Announced inspections meant that the parents had an opportunity to clean the children before they were seen. In the majority of schools about six minutes were allowed for the inspection of each child. The form that had to be completed generally asked about 24 questions, head infestations being only one item. In practice, however, these 'medical' inspections appear to have occupied only one or two minutes per child in most cases (see Mellanby, K., Medical Officer, 1st February 1941, i, 39).
58 The Health of the School Child, 1938, p. 64.
59 Report of the School Medical Officer, 1938, p. 9.
60 These figures were supplied to the historian by the Public Health Department of the London County Council.
61 Report of the School Medical Officer, 1938.
62 Education Health Service Report for year ended 31st July 1939.
63 Mellanby, K., Medical Officer, 25th December 1943, ii, 205. See also appendix of Our Towns (Women's Group on Public Welfare, 1943), which contains the only thorough analysis know to the writer of the statistical problems involved in calculating rates of head infestation.
64 Army Appropriation Account, 1939 (para. 15, 'Acceptances for Army Service of Unfit Men') H.M.S.O., 1941.
65 Including the authorities for such areas as Ebbw Vale, Aberdare, Bradford and Doncaster.
66 During 1939–45 no reports at all were published.
67 In London, refuse had to be carried through sixty-three percent of all houses (and often through living rooms as well), (Statement of the President of the Institue of Public Cleansing, Public Health, October 1943, vol. LVII, 2).
68 No comprehensive national records exist to show the proportion of urban houses before the war which were without baths, piped water supplies and indoor lavatories. The Ministry of Health even lacked complete information about the number of public baths and wash-houses.1 Various surveys and inquiries instituted after 1939 provide sufficient data to show, however, that the number of inadequately equipped houses in urban areas was much higher than was generally recognised (some facts on conditions in rural areas are given in Chapter X, p. 177). In Hull, forty percent of the houses were without baths in 1943.2 In Bootle, the proportion was the same for 1939.3 In York, about sixty-six percent of working class houses were without baths in 1939.4 In Stepney, ninety percent of families had no bathroom in 1939.5 In Salford, fifty-two percent of the houses were without baths in 1943, and sixty-six percent had no proper food store.6 About one-half of the population of Glasgow had no baths in 1944, and one-third had to share lavatory accomodation with anything up to six families.7 One-third of all houses in the burghs and cities of Scotland had no independent water-closet in 1944.8 Water-closets or earth-closets had to be shared in common by the people lving in 405,000 out of the 1,319,570 dwelling houses in Scotland in 1946.9 In Birmingham, nearly one-quarter of the city's 283,611 dwellings had no bathroom in 1946, nearly one-third had nobath, twelve percent had no separate lavatory accomodation, two percent had no internal water supply and ten percent were 'back-to-back' houses.10 A national inquiry by the British Institue of Public Opinion in 1944 showed that fourteen percent of the poorer classes had no indoor sanitation.11 An investigation carried out by the Social Survey for the Ministry of Works in March 1947 showed that thirteen percent of households in urban areas of Britain had no baths and a further twenty-niine percent had only portable baths. In London, the proportions were fourteen percent and twenty-two percent respectively, and in urban areas of Scotland, eighteen percent and thirty-five percent respectively. In the poorest of five economic groups in urban areas of Britain, twenty-nine percent had no baths, and a further forty-one percent had only portable baths. The respective proportions and in the highest economic group were one percent and three percent. Approximately fifty-four percent of the poorest group could only obtain hot water for washing clothes by using kettles and pans on stoves. about three percent of all households in urban areas of Britain had no piped water supply.
1 H. of C. Deb., 9th March 1944, vol. 397, col. 2183, and 10th May 1944, vol. 399, cols 1930–1.
2 Hull Regional Survey, Civic Diagnosis, 1943.
3 Letter from the Town Clerk of Bootle to the writer, 29th April 1947.
4 Rowntree, Seebohm, Poverty and Progress, 1941.
5 Stepney Reconstruction Group, Living in Stepney, 1945.
6 Blease, J. E., Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institue, January 1946.
7 H. of C. Deb., 8th March 1944, vol. 397, col. 2094.
8 Scottish Housing Advisory Committee, Planning our New Homes, 1944.
9 Scottish Housing Advisory Committee, Modernising our Homes, 1947.
10 Birmingham Public Health Department, Report by the Medical Officer of Health on the Housing Survey, 1946.
11 News Chronicle, 9th November 1944 and 24th January 1945.
69 A story which is related in Our Towns (Women's Group on Public Welfare, 1943) shows that swearing often begins at a very early age. A child of some three years with a dummy in her mouth, was seen sitting in a field of stripping hops. She ran short of hops, removed the dummy, gave a piercing yell of 'More bleedin', bloody 'ops' and put the dummy back again.
70 Some of the evacuees, who caused much distress in the reception areas, came from a particular district in Liverpool where public houses can be found on the average every 50 yards or less (Jones, D. C., Survey of Merseyside, 1934).
71 Glasgow, with infant death rates of 98, 99, 109 and 104 per 1,000 births in 1934–7. The corresponding rates for Tokyo were 120, 88, 90 and 86 (League of Nations, Annual Epidemiological Report for 1937).
72 'The abundance of the head louse among the schoolchildren in cities in Britain and its rarity in adults is remarkable. I cannot put that down to negligent schoolchildren or negligent mothers. I suggest that there may be some difference in resistance to the parasite, a resistance that increase as the host grows older.' (Buxton, P. A., Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine, 16h January 1941, vol. XXXIV (1), 193).
73 Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, 1917.
74 Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, 1917.
75 Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, 1918.
76 Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, 1917.
77 Leeson, C., The Child and the War, 1917.
78 Approximately forty percent of all the men wh oserved in the Forces were either killed or disabled (Official History of the Great War, Medical Services, Statistics volume, 19031, p. 315).
79 Return of Persons in Receipt of Poor Law Relief, 15th December 1919.
80 Annual Report of the Chief Medical Officer of the Board of Education, 1916.
81 10th January 1941.
82 H. of C. Deb., 14th September 1939, vol. 351.
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After reading the review of Syntropic Farming Guide in EDN 145, Roger Gietzen had some further thoughts to share on the topic of syntropic farming.
He began by sharing more about what he hopes to achieve with his design in Haiti. He commented, “One important advantage of the design I'm using in Haiti, is that it will produce an abundance of small pieces of wood that can be used for making charcoal or for building. And since it's coming from trees that can be pollarded, the yield will return every year without killing the trees. I got this idea from the Inga Foundation and integrated their alley cropping method into the design, [allowing for] more varieties of trees. I think this will be one of the most popular aspects of the design in Haiti and other tropical developing countries where wood is greatly needed. It is my biggest selling point to the farmers.”
Gietzen also told us about some literature that expands on what was presented in EDN 145. First, he mentioned a book from World Agroforestry, Agroforestry Systems for Ecological Restoration, which was just recently translated from Portuguese (available online in English and in Portuguese). He wrote, “[This book] talks about the challenges of bringing the technology of agroforestry to developing countries.” Gietzen highlighted a table in the book with a portion on page 38 (of the PDF file) that presents encouraging economic returns for successional agroforestry systems.
He added, “You might enjoy reading this article, too, written by one of Ernst's long-term students who has been doing research.” The article explains experiments underway to grow grain crops between tree lines in a syntropic agriculture system. When asked for further perspective, Gietzen commented, “To continually grow cash crops or market garden crops is important to a lot of farmers. The people I first consulted with on syntropic systems [told me] that they need to evolve into forest systems to really get into that strong, self-sustaining abundant phase. That means the farm eventually becomes shaded and is not fitting for growing many annuals or market garden crops. You only get about four years of good sun exposure in the food forest and then it’s shaded. That has bothered me from the beginning, because I know the annuals are the favorite crops for the farmers to grow in Haiti. I have been really wishing I can find some sort of compromise where I can use trees for soil regeneration, but prune them all so the farm stays sunny. That way the farmers can grow corn, beans, wheat, rice or whatever. I know it's possible, because I'm familiar with the inga alley cropping system. In fact, I started a couple inga systems this year in Haiti.” The syntropic agriculture model offers an advantage to the inga alley cropping system in the sense that it incorporates many different kinds of trees rather than just one.
Syntropic agriculture is often advertised as needing no outside inputs. The article referred to above (and referenced below) mentioned some inputs. Gietzen commented, “I noticed that they do sometimes use manure or rock dust or other inputs. So depending on the soil condition, it may make sense to amend the soil, so you don't have to wait years for the fertility to improve. I may emphasize that when I revise my guidebook. It's great you can grow a system without inputs, but each case is different and farmers shouldn't limit themselves when they are capable of using organic fertilizers to give the system a boost.”
Gietzen also responded to questions from our network about syntropic agriculture. That forum conversation can be found here.
Miccolis, A., F.M. Peneireiro, H.R. Marques, D.L.M. Vieira, M.F. Arcoverde, M.R. Hoffmann, T. Rehder, A.V.B. Pereira. 2016. Agroforestry Systems for Ecological Restoration: How to reconcile conservation and production. Options for Brazil’s Cerrado and Caatinga biomes. Brasília: Instituto Sociedade, População e Natureza – ISPN/World Agroforestry Centre – ICRAF.
Rebello, J.F.d.S. and D.G. Sakamoto. 2019. Large-scale syntropic farming: results and challenges. CEPEAS (Center for Research in Syntropic Farming).
Gietzen, R. 2020. Roger Gietzen on the topic of syntropic farming. ECHO Development Notes no. 146
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Grade 2 is the time to consolidate and extend our learning from the essential basic skills taught in Kindergarten and 1st grade. In grade 2 we focus on acquiring skills and strategies that will enable us to gather, analyze and comprehend information about the world in which we live, and prepare us for further inquiries in 3rd, 4th and 5th grade. We will continue to develop social, emotional and individual academic abilities essential in shaping future responsible citizens of the global community.
Our strategies arise from a firm belief in differentiated teaching and the necessity for meeting individual learner needs in the best possible manner. We focus on reading, writing, listening and speaking skills daily, as well as, emphasizing these language areas in our Units of Exploration. We include the needs for enrichment students, as well as, English as an additional language and special needs learners.
Grade 2 students will have the opportunity to identify and reflect upon “big ideas” by making connections between the questions asked and the concepts that drive our inquiries. They will become aware of the relevance these concepts have to all of their learning. Mathematical studies at ISB are tied to real world experiences by exploring the five strands of mathematics within the PYP framework: Data Handling Shape and Space, Numeracy, Measurement, and Pattern and Function.
The power of mathematics for describing and analyzing the world around us is such that it has become a highly effective tool for solving problems. It is also recognized that students can appreciate the intrinsic fascination of mathematics and explore the world through its unique perceptions. In the same way that students describe themselves as “authors” or “artists”, ISB’s programme also provides students with the opportunity to see themselves as “mathematicians”, where they enjoy and are enthusiastic when exploring and learning about mathematics.
In the IB Primary Years Programme (PYP), mathematics is also viewed as a vehicle to support inquiry, providing a global language through which we make sense of the world around us. It is intended that students become competent users of the language of mathematics, and can begin to use it as a way of thinking, as opposed to seeing it as a series of facts and equations to be memorized.
You can find the details of each grade level in our Mathematics scope and sequence document.
In order to encourage a quality connection between home and school learning we communicate and share information with parents on a regular basis.
We are glad that you are joining us in Belgrade, a great place to live and learn!
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Tennis can be a demanding, injury-inducing sport. You throw your elbows and shoulders into serves and strokes. You stop and go constantly, and most recreational players pound their legs on hard surfaces instead of clay or grass. If you incur a tennis injury, you risk more than losing a few games. You could be sidelined from tennis and other sports for months. Luckily, recreational players who do not hit the ball as hard or as often as advanced and elite players have a lower risk of injury. But, some tennis players, no matter what their skill level, are prone to injury. So, whether you head out to the local courts occasionally or you are heading for the pro tour, here is what you need to know about the most common tennis injuries.
Tennis elbow is an overuse injury of the wrist extensor tendons that attach at the outside of the forearm near the elbow. The injury is painful and may or may not be accompanied by swelling. You may also be limited in how you can move your forearm.
Follow some of these tips to avoid tennis elbow:
Tennis players have more than just their elbow to worry about. Tennis can often affect several parts of the moving body.
Shoulder pain can be caused by a number of ailments, but the most common is rotator cuff injury. Serving is largely responsible for shoulder pain. Using the correct service motion is less likely to cause shoulder problems. Learning proper serving mechanics from a qualified instructor can help you avoid doing any damage to your shoulder. Also, before you sign up for tennis lessons, strengthen your rotator cuff muscles off the court. A few simple exercises with light weights, cords, or resistance bands will go a long way in helping you protect your shoulder.
Tennis players often experience low back pain. Back injury can come from twisting and rotating when trying to hit the ball. The hyperextension of the back during a serve is also a time when the back can be injured. The repetitive action can put considerable stress on the muscles, ligaments, and tendons around the spine. Also, the discs in the back can be damaged.
During your serve, it is important to keep your stomach muscle flexed while bending at the knees. Do not arch your back very much during the serve. Proper form will help prevent your back from injury. While you workout your rotator cuff muscles, add some exercises to strengthen your core and back.
Ankle sprains are common in sports and occur when you injure your ankle ligaments. This can happen when you accidently twist or turn your ankle.
The key to avoiding ankle sprain is to keep the muscles well-balanced, strong, and flexible. Balance exercises can also help. Take some time to warm up before playing tennis. Look around the surface to see if it is even and there are not any places where you can trip or twist your ankle. Wearing proper footwear is important. Make sure you have sneakers that are approriate for tennis and fit you well. If you feel pain or fatigue, slow down your pace, or stop completely. Remember to gradually build intensity to prevent overuse.
Many athletes experience hamstring problems, and tennis players are no exception. Hamstring muscles need to be flexible and strong. Warm up first with brisk walking or a slow jog. When you get your blood flowing, gently and slowy stretch. Keep your hamstring muscles strong by doing exercises.
A common knee injury in tennis is a meniscal tear. Basically, it is torn cartilage in your knee resulting in pain. You can reduce your chances of knee injury by taking the time to strengthen and stretch the muscles around the knee, like the quadriceps or hamstrings. Exercises that focus on the hips and knee joint will also help.
Playing tennis could lead to either a strain or tear of the Achilles tendon. Good flexibility is the best preventive measure you can take. Always warm up first before you start playing hard. When you land, try to avoid the ball of the foot. Work on increasing flexibility in that area on off-court days, too.
Perhaps the most important actions you can take to prevent injury in tennis—as in many sports—is being in good condition and engaging in a good warm-up before playing. Take several minutes to ramp up your heart rate with a slow jog or some jumping jacks. When you are ready, start to slowly stretch your muscles. Hold each stretch for 30 seconds. Take your time and do not rush the process.
Start playing slowly by hitting the ball with your opponent. Serve several times until the shoulder feels loose and ready for hard play. When the match is over, cool down your muscles with more stretching.
Good habits start before you hit the court. Make sure you are properly fitted for a racquet. This will help prevent wrist or elbow injuries. Support your ankle with the correct athletic shoes and supportive padded socks.
Take some lessons and learn the proper way to hit a forehand, backhand, or serve. Technique is the most important component of playing tennis and it goes a long way in helping you stay safe.
American Council on Exercise
American Orthopedic Society for Sports Medicine
Canadian Orthopaedic Association
Ankle sprain. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. Updated September 19, 2014. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Basic knee injury prevention. American College of Sports Medicine website. Available at: http://www.acsm.org/access-public-information/articles/2012/01/10/basic-knee-injury-prevention. Updated January 10, 2012. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Kerkhoffs GM, Rowe BH, Assendelft WJ, et al. Immobilisation for acute ankle sprain. A systematic review. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2001;121(8):462-471.
Lateral epicondylitis. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. Updated December 5, 2014. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Sprained ankle. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons website. Available at: http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00150. Updated September 2012. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Tennis and back pain. Spine Health website. Available at: http://www.spine-health.com/conditions/sports-and-spine-injuries/tennis-and-back-pain. Updated October 2, 2012. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Tennis elbow. American College of Sports Medicine website. Available at: http://www.acsm.org/docs/current-comments/tenniselbow.pdf. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Tennis exercises for beginners. Optimum Tennis website. Available at: http://www.optimumtennis.net/tennis-exercises-for-beginners.htm. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Tennis injury prevention. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Ortho Info website. Available at: http://orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=A00186. Updated September 2009. Accessed January 2, 2015.
Last reviewed January 2015 by Michael Woods, MD
Please be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.
Copyright © 2012 EBSCO Publishing All rights reserved.
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Reducing climate impact is the second – and probably most significant aspect – of the UN’s Sport for Climate Action Framework. The Sustainability Report investigates the steps sports organisations need to take
At COP24, the UNFCCC unveiled its Sport for Climate Action Framework – a five-step policy to help the sports sector achieve climate leadership status. Over the first five months of 2019, The Sustainability Report will look at each step (or principle, as described by the UNFCCC) in more detail, continuing with Principle Two: ‘Reduce Overall Climate Impact.’
For an individual, reducing overall climate impact can seem a daunting task given that almost any action taken in our daily lives produces a negative environmental effect. For sports organisations, this is amplified to an even greater extent since the principal goal of any event is always to attract the greatest amount of spectators, requiring larger stadiums and more energy.
How, then, can sports organisations reduce their overall climate impact without altering the very nature of their existence and losing fans? The UNFCCC’s message builds upon the first principle in its framework, being systematic about climate action, by encouraging those who have signed up to the policy to accurately measure impact and act on the conclusions drawn from data, all while moving on from unfocused, ad-hoc methods.
Measure and Understand
The first element of principle two has so far proved challenging for sports organisations as they attempt to understand their role in relation to sustainability. It is difficult to accept and disclose that your organisation is intrinsically linked to climate impact, but it is a step for sports organisations committed to achieving climate neutrality.
But with so many aspects of hosting an event tied to negative environmental impact, how can governing bodies know what to measure? One solution is to have a central set of standards that all sports organisations should use to measure their impact.
“It’s important that there are standards that are agreed to at an international or industry level so that everyone is working from the same song sheet,” said Matt Dolf, director of strategic support at UBC Wellbeing. “That way, they can’t simply move the goalposts to focus on areas they think are important. In my research, I’ve found that if you can at least measure travel, energy use in venues, accommodation, and food, you will get a clear sense of the key areas.”
Though all-encompassing standards hold many benefits, it has proved complicated for any one organisation to provide a set of measures that are relevant to all sports. The variety of sports organisations with regards to size, location, and event type alone means that everyone has their own preferred focus and unique impact on climate, while the widest reaching standards are simply too large for most medium or small organisations.
Given the lack of centrality, there are now many smaller standards and reporting outlines appearing, though this proliferation renders it all the more difficult to compare the impact between sports and makes accountability far more elusive.
With a vast amount of data collected regarding sustainability and environmental impact, it is imperative that organisations extensively analyse the findings and consequently understand the areas in which they have the biggest impact. This is fundamental in avoiding an ad-hoc based approach. With the statistics evaluated, the conclusions drawn should then guide all future decision making within the organisation to establish sustainability as a central pillar rather than an afterthought. By using data in this manner, organisations can focus on activities that have the highest contribution to their climate footprint and implement the most cost-effective policies.
Once the appropriate measurements have been collected and correctly understood, sports organisations can then effectively take action to reduce their climate impact. One governing body that is setting benchmarks in its proactive approach to and execution of sustainability programmes is World Sailing.
Indeed, the governing body’s own set of targets had been issued through its Sustainability Agenda 2030 before the Sports for Climate Action Framework came into effect. A 12-year plan comprised of 56 targets, the blueprint aims to reduce World Sailing’s impact across many of the Sustainable Development Goals defined by the UN, with four specifically focused on climate measures.
According to Dan Reading, sustainability manager at World Sailing, the ideas put forward by the UNFCCC align perfectly with its own. “When the opportunity to participate in the Sports for Action Framework arose, we felt it was very important to do so because, as part of our corporate strategy, there’s an emphasis on being leaders in the sport, and we certainly see sustainability as an area we can lead in.”
Embedding sustainability as a key tenet of World Sailing’s philosophy as opposed to including it as an add-on has enabled the governing body to make concerted and, more importantly, coordinated efforts to reduce its footprint.
Having committed itself to carbon neutrality, World Sailing has taken a data-driven approach to managing its impact. “It’s an ongoing process, but we prioritise the areas where we can have the greatest impact and focus on those first. It’s very strategic and there’s a clear methodology in place rather than just random ad-hoc targets,” states Reading.
One of the clearest examples of this applied by World Sailing is linked to the very essence of the sport – boats. In accordance with its pledge to not only become carbon neutral by 2022 – but to also reduce its carbon output by 50% just two years later – the governing body has moved to phase out combustion engine-powered support boats, one of the biggest carbon emitters for World Sailing. This approach encompasses the preferred strategies outlined in the Take Action segment of the Sport for Climate Framework – Avoid, Reduce, and Substitute.
“Firstly, we are trying to reduce the number of support boats, which include both coach and broadcast vessels, though, eventually we are looking to phase in the use of electric coach boats. Another method implemented at our World Cup event in Miami was the use of drones and GPS tracking, which could mean that in years to come there may not be a need for officials to be on the water in person.”
World Sailing tackling one of its biggest direct sources of carbon emission demonstrates a clear adherence to the measure and understand principle, and it is this adherence that allows it to take effective action.
Furthermore, with sustainability deeply embedded in World Sailing policy, its sanctioned events also follow the same methodical principles before implementing any programme. The winner of the inaugural World Sailing 11th Hour Sustainability Award, Corpus Christi Yacht Club, organised the 2018 Youth Sailing World Championships in Texas, which became the first event to completely ban single-use plastic, avoiding the use of 65,000 non-biodegradable items.
The organisers were also able to redirect 3.28 tonnes of waste from landfill, or 89.8% of total waste created, instead recycling or composting and preventing 22 tonnes of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere. Such an approach remains central to World Sailing, and as such, its recent event in Miami became the first in the Hempel World Cup Series to go single-use plastic free.
Although ad-hoc schemes can have short-term value, they should never provide the foundation on which sustainability policy is built. Only through a systematic approach can organisations truly have a significant impact on their climate footprint. Accurately measuring and understanding data should underpin any action taken, and if the findings are used to guide policy from the outset, organisations will truly be able to reduce their climate impact and move towards carbon neutrality.
Check out the first part of this series – How sport can become ‘systematic’ about climate action – here.
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Headaches are very common in children, but usually are not dangerous and do not disrupt their lives. However, in some children, headaches become severe or frequent. On rare occasion, they may be the symptom of an underlying disease. The Headache Clinic at the University of Michigan is designed to provide consultation services to help pediatricians and family practitioners in diagnosing and managing headaches. Our team of experts provides comprehensive, compassionate care for children of all ages. The Headache Clinic is part of the Pediatric Neurology service.
Children can have two categories of headaches:
- A primary headache is diagnosed when the headache is the primary problem, and once the headache is controlled, the problem has been solved. Most primary headaches in children are migraines or tension-type headaches (which many believe to be mild migraines).
- A secondary headache is diagnosed when the headache is due to an underlying condition. Both the headache and the other condition need to be addressed and treated. Some of these conditions are dangerous (such as brain tumors, bleeding in the brain, or meningitis), but these are very rare. Other common problems that can result in secondary headaches include viral illnesses, depression, sleep deprivation, and caffeine withdrawal.
Migraines can affect both sides of the head or just one side, sometimes going from one side to the other. Most are located in the forehead area, but they can also occur on the sides or back of the head. The severity of a migraine ranges widely and varies from headache to headache. A headache need not be severe to be a migraine. Many children with migraines have loss of appetite, nausea, and sometimes vomiting. Many are very sensitive to light and sound. In 80 to 90 percent of children with migraines, one or both parents also have or had migraines, though they often do not realize that their headaches are in fact migraines.
Some children have an aura associated with their migraine. An aura occurs when part of the brain does not function correctly on a temporary basis. This can occur before, during, or after the headache. Vision changes such as blurred vision, loss of vision (either seeing holes or completely losing vision), or seeing things that are not real (spots, sparkles, zigzag lines) are most common, but many children develop numbness or tingling, a sense of spinning, loss of balance, ringing in the ears, double vision, and even fainting as part of a migraine aura.
Some symptoms can be warnings of more dangerous conditions. If your child has any of these symptoms, contact your primary care provider right away:
- A headache that happens with a high fever or stiff neck
- Headaches that consistently wake your child up at night
- Headaches that most frequently happen immediately upon waking up in the morning
- A severe headache that happens extremely suddenly
- A headache that happens after a head injury
- A headache associated with difficulties in walking, balance problems, double vision, severe confusion, or fainting
If your child needs urgent evaluation and treatment, your primary care provider may evaluate your child, send you to an emergency room, or refer you to us, as appropriate.
Even if the symptoms above are not present, if your child’s headaches are worrisome to you or disrupting his or her life, discuss the headaches with your child’s primary care provider.
A first visit to our Headache Clinic includes a comprehensive evaluation, including a thorough patient history. Keeping a diary or calendar of the headaches and noting the dates of their occurrence and associated features is helpful. We will perform a physical examination on your child and review any prior medical records that you or the primary care doctor provides. We will discuss any other testing that may be needed to diagnose the cause of your child’s headaches. For the vast majority of children with migraines, CTs and MRIs are not needed. Finally, we will discuss individualized treatment options and follow-up plans.
Treatment of migraines can consist of:
- Avoiding things that provoke migraines (including inadequate sleep)
- Lifestyle changes
- Pain medications given to stop a migraine
- When appropriate, medications to be taken every day to prevent the migraines from occurring
- When appropriate, behavioral management of the headaches, including relaxation therapy and a technique known as biofeedback (by which children learn how to control body responses to reduce pain). For these treatments, we work closely with the pediatric psychologists in our department.
Scheduling Your Appointment
The Headache Clinic is a referral subspecialty clinic. This means that all new patients must have a referral from their primary physician. Depending on your insurance, you may need a referral for return visits as well. Fax your referral to 734-615-2298. Once we receive the referral, we will mail you a headache calendar and headache questionnaire. The questionnaire needs to be completed and returned to us before we can schedule your appointment. The calendar need not be mailed back; it should be filled out and brought to the appointment.
To make your visit as useful and productive as possible, we would like you to gather the following information in advance and bring it to the clinic appointment:
- For all scans of the brain (CT, MRI scans): Please bring actual copies on computer disk (if the tests were not done at the University of Michigan). You will need to contact the radiology department of the hospital or clinic where the test was done to obtain these copies.
- We also need to review medical records (related to neurological issues including headaches) before we schedule the appointment. Please ask your child’s doctor’s office to mail or fax them to us.
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What did Jesus mean when He uttered the words "It is finished!" in John 19:30?
The phrase actually translates one word in Greek, tetelestai, from the root teleō, which means "to finish, fulfill."
Significantly, this specific form of the verb, tetelestai, is only found twice in the entire New Testament, both times in John 19.
In fact, the two occurrences of tetelestai are found within three verses of each other: "After this, Jesus, knowing that all was now finished, said (to fulfill the Scripture), 'I thirst.' ... When Jesus had received the sour wine, he said, 'It is finished,' and he bowed his head and gave up his spirit" (John 19:28, 30).
Do you see that? Although the verb teleō occurs 28 times in the New Testament, the form tetelestai is found only twice, and those two occurrences are in the same context, right next to each other, making the meaning perfectly clear.
Jesus was saying, "Mission accomplished! Everything that had to be done has been done! It is finished!"
Similarly, leading New Testament scholar D.A. Carson writes,
The verb teleō from which this form derives denotes the carrying out of a task, and in religious contexts bears the overtone of fulfilling one's religious obligations. Accordingly, in the light of the impending cross, Jesus could earlier cry, 'I have brought you glory on earth by completing (teleiōsas; i.e. by accomplishing) the work you gave me to do' (17:4). 'Having loved his own who were in the world, he loved them eis telos—not only 'to the end' but to the full extent mandated by his mission. And so, on the brink of death, Jesus cries out, It is accomplished!
According to another great New Testament and Greek scholar, B. F. Westcott:
The earthly life had been carried to its issue. Every essential point in the prophetic portraiture of Messiah had been realized (Acts 13:29). The last suffering for sin had been endured. The "end" of all had been gained. Nothing was left undone or unborne. The absence of a definite subject forces the reader to call up each work which was now brought to an end.
Similarly, M. Dods wrote:
The cry, tetelestai, "it is finished," was not the gasp of a worn-out life, but the deliberate utterance of a clear consciousness that His work was finished, and all God's purpose accomplished (17:4), that all had now been done that could be done to make God known to men, and to identify Him with men.
Yes, the divine mission has been accomplished. Jesus has done it!
Every sin has been paid for, every evil deed judged, and the full and total price of our redemption purchased at the cross.
That is the power of the blood of Jesus.
That is the glory of the Son of God.
That is the depth of the Father's love—and it was all for you and for me so that forever, we could be with Him and even share in His nature.
Who could imagine such a story of love?
There's really no need to read other meanings into "It is finished," such as: "When Christ died, He said 'it is finished', meaning the old covenant was now fulfilled and done away with." Or, Jesus spoke in Hebrew on the cross, and when He said, "It is finished," it was actually the Hebrew word nishlam, which means 'Paid in full.'"
Regardless of whether there is any truth to these claims (Jesus certainly spoke in either Aramaic or Hebrew on the cross, not Greek), neither of them convey what John intended to convey.
Jesus perfectly lived the life He had to live and perfectly died the death He had to die. It is finished!
All we have to do is to put our faith in that finished work of the cross and follow that Lord who died and rose for us.
Our own works cannot save us, but the work Jesus did for us on the cross can save us perfectly and forever.
It is with good reason that John G. Lake (1870-1935) said, "In all of your preaching and teaching you must always leave people with the consciousness of the triumph of Christ."
(Excerpted and adopted from Michael L. Brown, Hyper-Grace: Exposing the Dangers of the Modern Grace Message.)
Dr. Michael Brown (www.askdrbrown.org) is the host of the nationally syndicated Line of Fire radio program. His latest book is Revival Or We Die: A Great Awakening Is Our Only Hope. Connect with him on Facebook or Twitter, or YouTube.
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Bible object lessons offer a simple tool to help us relate God's Word to our everyday surroundings. We can think of them as short, simple parables. They provide excellent Bible lessons for all ages - kids, teens, & adults.
Jesus used parables at all times of the day and in a variety of circumstances and locations. His teaching was ongoing. Let's be like Him as we share God's truth with those around us!
If you're in a hurry though, try using our quick Object Lesson Index.
Everywhere we turn, God has a lesson for us - whether it's from a butterfly in nature, a cell phone in our hand, or even a piece of silver. They can help us understand difficult concepts such as the Trinity.
A toolbox can be used to show how God uses a variety of unique people and gifts to build His Church and do His work alongside Him - "God's Toolbox."
I've even used my digital camera and a mirror to share a children's object talk teaching on our being created in the image of God.
Many Christian object talks take very little preparation; try these easy Bible object lessons that teach about prayer, relationships, and our worth in God's eyes.
Other object lessons for children use objects such as M&Ms, sponges, ping pong balls, and more!
A chocolate cake can also teach a wonderful Bible object lesson on the truth of Romans 8:28. Yum!!! Or another "cooking" Bible object lesson uses a recipe to teach that we can know what we believe to be true because "the proof is in the pudding!"
Brownies sound yummy until you find out cat food was mixed into the batter, but it makes a memorable Bible lesson on sin and how even just a little can make life yucky!
Use a sponge to teach how to respond when the "squeeze" is on...a lesson on dealing with tough times.
Simple objects such as an apple or water both can help children better (although not completely) understand the concept of the Trinity.
Hunting and fishing are topics that can teach children about Satan's schemes and the dangers of temptation.
Most of our kids play or at least watch different types of sports. What every time they went to football practice or saw a football game come on TV, it reminded them of how they can put on the armor of God?!
A variety of sports equipment can be used to demonstrate how you need the right equipment to play a certain sport correctly. You can't hit a basketball with a golf club and expect to win a game of golf! Use this to teach how Solomon tried a lot of wrong things to find purpose in life or how we each need to use the spiritual gifts and talents God has given us in the places of service He wants us to be.
Every season of the year brings new objects such as a pumpkin,
football uniform, Christmas ornaments, snowflakes, or even a
Valentine's Day Tootsie pop for new opportunities to teach
seasonal Christian object lessons!
Amazing math problems can be used to teach on
God's amazing love
or how our God is a
God of order!
To teach a Bible lesson on sin, use a misspelled word, chalkboard, and an eraser. This one is a lot of fun with kids!
You've probably seen the Sharpie permanent marker commercial that says to "Write Out Loud"; use the same idea to challenge students to "Live Out Loud" for Jesus by following Paul's example of Galatians 2:20!
Also try these fun science experiment object lessons from the "Mad Scientist" @ MadAboutJesus.net! Lessons include how dangerous even one sin can be, little people can do BIG things with God's help, and the importance of faith and believing God's Word. They are continuing to add new ones too!
Sometimes you may need Bible object lessons for specific age groups - children including
as well as
There are other times you may just need a short children's devotion to be used during children's church or for a
Using simple objects as visuals will make these times even more memorable and effective.
You can also use popular children's books for unique and creative Christian book talks.
Still others have learned to use Gospel Illusions to present visual illustrations for Biblical truths. Don't let the word "magic" scare you; these are only illusions used to capture students' attention and help them remember the truth of God's Word. There is no "magic" involved.
When we owned and operated our Christian bookstores, we were able to become familiar with many of the top Christian publishers.
Group Publishing is one of the top publishers in creative teaching materials for children, youth and adults. A preview of one of their youth Christian object lesson books is available online with eleven great object talks that are free for your use. They are copyrighted though; so please don't reproduce them. You may, however, want to purchase the book from them. It contains a total of 50 innovative and interactive Bible lessons for youth (or really any age).
Faith Metaphors: 50 Interactive Object Lessons for Youth Ministry
preview offers the following Bible lessons: Binoculars/Failure, Jump rope/Faith, Rubber ball/Family, Sidewalk chalk/Feelings, Cell phone/Following God, Canned goods/Forgiveness, Clothespins/Friendship, Super glue/God's love, Popcorn/God's power, Cookie cutters/God's will, & Tin foil/Holiness.
In Deuteronomy 4:6-9, God says:
"Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one. Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength. These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts. Impress them on your children. Talk about them when you sit at home and when you walk along the road, when you lie down and when you get up. Tie them as symbols on your hands and bind them on your foreheads. Write them on the doorframes of your houses and on your gates." (NIV)
Simple everyday objects can be used to teach amazing Bible study lessons. Use a Swiss army knife to teach the importance of every believer in the Church. A balloon can help illustrate the story of the rich young ruler in Luke 12, or a broken pen & clock can be used to teach how God can turn failure into success! Simple but memorable Christian lessons to teach powerful Bible truths that will have lasting and practical effects.
Christian object lessons are meant to be tools to assist you in sharing God's Word in everyday life. It will be like putting feet to your Bible Study!
A few more great Bible lessons from object talks...
If you still need more ideas, Christianbook.com offers several great Bible object lesson books.
Object Talks from Sports Kids Love
By Verna Kokmeyer / Standard Publishing
Kids love sports, and can easily draw metaphors from certain rules or even athletes. This book builds upon such familiarity, providing biblically sound object lessons taught from sports. Each lesson begins with a piece of sports equipment that most kids will recognize, and builds on a Scripture-based theme to lead kids to deeper spiritual application. In addition, each lesson also provides a send-home project suggestion. Ideal for bible school classes, mid-week programs and children's worship services. 48 pages, ages 6-12.
Science & the Bible: 30 Scientific Demonstrations Illustrating Scriptural Truths
By Donald DeYoung / Baker
Use everyday household objects to illustrate natural laws, teach biblical principles, and affirm God as the Creator of all things! Perfect for homeschool lessons, sermon illustrations, or family devotions, each of these 30 simple object lessons features a hands-on science experiment with a straightforward explanation and a related Scripture verse (NIV). For students of all ages.
Edible Object Talks That Teach About Jesus
By Susan Lingo / Standard Publishing
Perfect for Sunday School, VBS, children's church, or anytime you want to offer your kids a change of taste! Edible Object Talks that Teach about Jesus is a delicious collection of 25 life-changing messages that are as attention-grabbing and Bible-based as they are fun to make and eat. These are solid Bible messages with clever concoctions kids whip up then can eat. From Banana Splits to crunchy treats, kids will learn life-changing Bible truths and how to apply them in their lives today. Children Ages 6-12.
You can search for more Bible Object Lessons here:
Scriptures unless otherwise indicated are taken from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION. Copyright C 1973,1978,1984 International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan Publishers.
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Artistic Pursuits High School 9-12 Color and Composition
High School 9 - 12, Book Two
This edition offers students the opportunity to discover their own creative strengths in the arts. Color theory and composition are explored through beautiful color reproductions of European Art. This is a comprehensive art program designed to involve the student in the creative process while developing observational skills.
- The text is written in conversational manner which means the student can work independently
- Full year course in one book includes 68 lessons with projects
- Four unique projects in each unit include an exercise in creativity, art history and appreciation, techniques, and exploration of various subject matter
- Special assignments broaden student's experiences with art materialsSample PageSample Page
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Alexander Fleming was a Scottish botanist, biologist, and pharmacologist. Fleming was famed for being the pioneer in the production of an antibiotic after he discovered the world-famous penicillin in 1928. Fleming became renowned in the field of bacteriology after the discovery of penicillin led to him receiving the Nobel Prize in Physiology/Medicine along with Ernst Boris Chan and Howard Florey in 1945.
5. Early Life
Alexander Fleming was born on August 6th, 1881 at a farm near Darvel, a small town in Ayrshire, Scotland. Fleming was born to Hugh Fleming, a farmer, and his second wife, Grace Stirling Morton and was the third born of four children. Alexander Fleming attended the local Darvel School and the Loudoun Moor School in his childhood and later studied at the Kilmarnock Academy after receiving a two-year scholarship. In his late teen years, Fleming worked in a shipping office until he inherited some cash from his uncle, John Fleming in 1901. Using the inheritance, he enrolled at the St Mary’s Hospital Medical School in 1903 where he later received an MBBS degree in 1906. After receiving his degree, Alexander worked in the school’s research department under Sir Almroth Wright and was his assistant bacteriologist.
While at St. Mary’s School, Alexander Fleming gained a Bachelor of Science degree in Bacteriology and soon after that became a lecturer at the institution. During the First World War, Alexander was enlisted as a Royal Army Medical Corps captain and worked in several battlefield hospitals in France. During his time in the war, Alexander witnessed sepsis killing many soldiers despite the use of antiseptic when treating wounds and began his research on this cause of infection and later submitted his findings to “The Lancet,” a medical journal. After the war had ended, Alexander went back to St Mary’s Hospital and in 1928 became the Professor of Bacteriology at the University of London.
3. Major Contributions
After returning to St. Mary’s Hospital after the First World War, Alexander continued to conduct his research on the cause of deep tissue infection despite the use of antiseptic and focused his research on looking for alternative antibacterial substances. While doing his research, Alexander discovered an enzyme known as lysozyme (present in nasal mucus of a patient) inhibited the growth of bacteria. However, Fleming later discovered that the enzyme did not have the potential to be administered in wounds as it had little effect on the bacteria. On September 1928, Alexander discovered a fungus in his laboratory which effectively killed a wide range of disease-causing bacteria. The fungus was of the Penicillium genus, and after several tests, Alexander released an extraction from the fungus and named it “penicillin.” The discovery of penicillin is said to mark the start of modern antibiotics with penicillin saving millions of lives all over the world.
After Alexander Fleming had made his remarkable discovery, he published it in the Journal of Experimental Pathology. However, little attention was paid to his discovery and meant that Fleming received no support to conduct further research on penicillin. Despite the lack support, Fleming continued conducting his research in his laboratory, but after suffering few setbacks, he abandoned his research.
1. Death and Legacy
Alexander Fleming died of a heart attack on March 11th, 1955 in his country home in Barton Mill, Suffolk. Due to his tireless research which resulted in the discovery of penicillin, Alexander Fleming became one of the greatest medical researchers of all time. The laboratory in which the discovery was made was converted into a museum named “The Fleming Museum.” In 1944 Alexander became a Knight Bachelor after being knighted by King George VI. In 1999 the Time Magazine named Fleming was named among the 100 most important people in the 20th Century
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The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is the central statistic the federal government uses to calculate inflation. The CPI is a statistic used by the government to track the cost of goods and services. Beginning with the Jimmy "I will never lie to you" Carter administration, food and energy were removed from the CPI because of the volatility in pricing of these items, but that has since been extended to include anything that reflects unstable or volatile pricing. This was done because this volatility in pricing interfered with long-range projections concerning inflation.
Since we went off the gold standard, which demanded we don't spend more than we make, it made it too hard for the Federal Reserve - a private, for-profit banking institution - to manipulate the markets to its benefit and to create inflation, recession, or depression when it felt it was necessary. John Williams, a veteran economist who has specialized in breaking down figures and investigating any moves the government makes concerning economic factors, said that if the government reported inflation accurately, the inflation rate would be at 11 or 12 percent, meaning cost-of-living adjustments would have to be paid to seniors and others receiving incomes from the government.
It was imperative to remove from the index, for example, expensive items, including food and energy, because that would push the index higher. Of course the reasoning behind including these items meant people on fixed incomes such as Social Security would have to be paid according to law a cost-of-living adjustment. I reckon we seniors need to consider quitting eating when food prices go up and stay home when gas prices go up if we are to satisfy these corporate businesses, government economists, and politicians.
It seems that is the only way food and energy cost can be included in the CPI. Although not publicly, we are classified as dead weight the same way non-production costs are to a business. Although we are human beings and not commodity items such as paper and pencils, we are nothing more to these people than overhead cost. To these corporate reprobates, politicians, and economists, our past contributions to society mean nothing because they feel the best thing we could do for our country is to die. So when you hear that famous quote as it has been used recently - "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country" - you can now read between the lines to accurately translate the new meaning as it applies to we seniors today.
Already there are some that demand we have outlived our usefulness and have a duty to die. I must admit this comes from a close advisor to Hillary Clinton, Richard Lamm. In 1984, he said: "Old people have a duty to die and get out of the way." I reckon we are following the example of the EU, which has euthanasia laws intact in case national tragedies occur.
Manipulation of this sort has become commonplace in Washington these days. Employment figures are used to score big points for candidates for office. When we hear low unemployment figures, we are certainly glad to hear it, but when one learns how deceptively manipulated these figures are, it is not so nice. For one example, part-time jobs are figured into the equation to make politicians look good. What about the people who are trying to scratch out a living on a part-time/no-benefit wage job? At least they did do something about this by extending welfare benefits to these people.
As far as the fixed-income Social Security recipient goes, they haven't done anything for them in the here and now except for the socialized medical system of Medicare. They keep telling us Social Security is going broke, and maybe it is, but out of the other side of their mouths they are pushing as hard and fast as they can go to give Social Security benefits to reward people that have violated our sovereign laws by coming into our country illegally.
Seniors: Unless we get our collective heads out of the sand and stand united to throw all incumbents out of office, it is only going to get worse. After all, we make up 70 or better percent of the population. Never mind that many of us fought to retain the freedoms Americans enjoy today or contributed to making America the most sought-after country in the world today. With steak prices going up, we seniors must do our part to help the CPI by eating hamburger, and when that goes up, we must eat Kibbles 'n Bits until pricing for these items goes back down. We have to admit we are somewhere in between a rock and a hard place, and must do something about it.
David L. Lamon
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Do you know that you can use network bridge to connect 2 or more network at home without using network router?
Network bridging provides an easy way to connect 2 or more network to become a single big network without using router in order to share file, printer or Internet connection. Please note that all computers in different network that needs to be bridged must sit in same logical IP network.
Windows XP does provide the software bridging to bridge different network, so you don’t have to purchase hardware bridge for doing it. You cannot create a bridge connection on a computer running Windows 2000 or earlier versions of Windows. Please note also only one network bridge can be created on a computer.
As an example, this is my home network with 2 network, one is Ethernet network and the other one is wireless network. You can do network bridging on a computer that have physical connection to both network, so that they will become one big network.
Here is the way to do network bridging in Windows XP:
1) Go to Start, click Control Panel.
2) Control Panel window will appear. Double click on Network Connections.
3) Network Connections window will appear. Select each of the home network connections that you want to be part of the bridge. Right-click one of the highlighted network connections, and then click Bridge Connections.
Note: Only Ethernet, IEEE-1394 adapters, or Ethernet compatible
adapters such as wireless and home phoneline adapters (HPNA), can be part of the
Note: If you do not have Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) or Windows Firewall enabled, don’t create a bridge between the shared Internet connection and the other home network connections, or add the shared Internet connection to an existing network bridge. You will create an unprotected link between your home network and the Internet, and your home network will be vulnerable to intrusions if you do so.
4) You need to wait for a while to finish network bridging.
5) After bridging the network, you will see a Network Bridge icon created together with other bridged network.
6) Right click the Network Bridge and click Properties. It’s properties window will appear. You will see the bridged network connections here and also can assign IP and modify other network information.
Note: The network bridge will still work if no IP address is assigned to the bridge itself.
7) If you check the properties of those bridged network connections, they lost the TCP/IP attributes. No IP or other network information can be modified. The TCP/IP attributes will be recovered after deleting the bridge.
Note: If you want to delete the bridge, right click the bridge properties and click delete.
8) At last, you should be able to access all computers in bridged network. In this case, I will be able to access computers in wireless network from Ethernet network.
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LOW-NOISE AMPLIFIERS (LNAs) are critical components in most receivers, helping to boost sensitivity by adding signal gain with minimal noise. Although wireless infrastructure equipment, such as base stations, is often associated with large-signal power amplifiers, it can also benefit from small-signal LNAs.
The SKY67100-396LF and SKY67101-396LF LNAs from Skyworks Solutions incorporate advanced GaAs pseudomorphic high-electron-mobility-transistor (pHEMT) technology with active bias circuitry. Thus, they are able to achieve the high gain, low noise figure, and outstanding linearity. These new LNA improve the performance of wireless infrastructure receivers, especially in frequency bands of 700 to 1000 MHz and 1700 to 2000 MHz. Forthcoming LNAs within this product family will optimize performance at even higher frequencies. All of the amplifiers use a common package and layout.
These amplifiers are based on an enhancement-mode process for excellent linearity with a single positive supply voltage. With their internal active bias circuitry, circuit designers can adjust the supply current to fine-tune small-signal gain without affecting the noise figure. The LNAs are useful in a growing number of wireless infrastructure applications over their frequency ranges, from highly visible base stations near cellular towers to less-visible repeaters and smaller nanocells that are used to extend wireless service inside public buildings (such as in shopping malls).
Both amplifiers are supplied in miniature 2 x 2 mm, 8-pin dual-flat-no-lead (DFN), pin-compatible packages (Fig. 1). The lower-frequency SKY67101-396LF can be used over a full range of frequencies from 0.4 to 1.2 GHz, but provides optimum performance from 0.7 to 1.0 GHz with a single matching circuit. The amplifier provides usable broadband gain (Fig. 2), although with better gain flatness over the typical bandwidths found in wireless communications channels (Fig. 3).
With optimum performance in the 800-MHz band for cellular systems operating in that range, it features 0.63 dB typical noise figure at 0.80 GHz, 0.59 dB typical noise figure at 0.85 GHz, and 0.57 dB typical noise figure at 0.90 GHz (Fig. 4). The typical small-signal gain is 18.7 dB at 0.80 GHz, 18.0 dB at 0.85 GHz, and 17.6 dB at 0.90 GHz.
It exhibits input return loss of better than 17.2 dB at 0.80 GHz, 18.8 dB at 0.85 GHz, and 18.2 dB at 0.90 GHz. The output return loss is typically better than 19.8 dB at 0.80 GHz, better than 33 dB at 0.85 GHz, and better than 20 dB at 0.90 GHz. The reverse isolation is typically better than 30 dB from 800 to 900 MHz. Judging by a Rollet's stability factor of greater than 1 through 18 GHz, the SKY67101-396LF is extremely stable under a wide range of load conditions. It consumes typically 56 mA current from a +4-VDC supply, but can run at +5 VDC with higher current for improved linearity.
Amplifier linearity is vital to newer communications systems, especially those built around some form of amplitude or phase modulation, such as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). Because information is carried in the form of the amplitude and/or phase of a modulated signal's envelope, signal variations induced by component nonlinearitieseven the passive intermodulation (PIM) distortion of cables and connectorscan result in the loss of the information carried by the modulation.
In an ideal amplifier, a x-y plot of input power on the x axis versus output power on the y axis would show a straight line, with the slope of the line equal to the gain of the amplifier. That is, for every increase of input power, the relationship of the signal at the output of the amplifier would always increase by the same amount, with the gain being constant for all input power levels.
In practical amplifiers, however, some amount of nonlinearity exists due to active device variations, process variations, temperature-dependent variations, and other factors. The nonlinearity of an amplifier is typically judged in terms of the input and output power levels at where the gain starts to deviate from that ideal straight line, and where a given increase in input power yields somewhat less of a proportional increase in output power. At this point, the gain is said to compress.
One of the common figures of merit to compare amplifiers in terms of gain compression is the 1-dB compression point, which can be measured for both input and output signal levels. The SKY67101-396LF LNA has an input 1-dB compression point of +2.6 dBm at 0.9 GHz and an output 1-dB compression point of +19.2 dBm at 0.9 GHz.
Another measure of amplifier linearity is a parameter known as the third-order intercept point, which is essentially a measure of intermodulation distortion (IMD). Transistors in amplifiers are not ideal, and can generate harmonically related tones as well as IMD, which are the sum and difference products of two or more tones mixing in a transistor or transistor amplifier. The IMD for an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the output power at a given intercept point, such as the third-order intercept point.
For the SKY67101-396LF LNA, the input third-order intercept point is +16.2 dBm measured at 900 MHz, with two test tones each at -20 dBm and set 5 MHz apart. The output third-order intercept point is typically +33.8 dBm at 900 MHz under the same test tone conditions. The test conditions for third-order intercept point can vary widely from manufacturer to manufacturer, so it is important to note the test conditions (number of test tones, frequencies, power levels, and separation between tones) when comparing amplifiers from different suppliers.
The higher-frequency amplifier of the pair, SKY67100-396LF, can be used over a total frequency range of 1.2 to 3.0 GHz but provides optimum performance from 1.7 to 2.0 GHz. It delivers 18.3 dB typical small-signal gain at 1.75 GHz, 18.0 dB typical small-signal gain at 1.85 GHz, and 17.6 dB typical small-signal gain at 1.95 GHz. The typical noise figure is 0.62 dB at 1.75 GHz, 0.65 dB at 1.85 GHz, and 0.71 dB at 1.95 GHz (Fig. 5).
The LNA features better than 30 dB input return loss at 1.75 GHz, better than 25 dB input return loss at 1.85 GHz, and better than 20 dB input return loss at 1.95 GHz. The output return loss is typically better than 11 dB at 1.75 GHz, better than 12 dB at 1.85 GHz, and better than 12 dB at 1.95 GHz. At test frequencies of 1.75, 1.85, and 1.95 GHz, reverse isolation is typically 43 dB or better.
Like its lower-frequency counterpart, this LNA is designed for linear operation, but with low-level input signals. It has a 1-dB input compression point of +0.47 dBm at 1.75 GHz, +0.65 dBm at 1.85 GHz, and +0.80 dBm at 1.95 GHz. The 1-dB output compression-point performance is what one would expect from a small-signal linear LNA, with output levels of +18.7 dBm at 1.75 GHz, +18.4 dBm at 1.85 GHz, and +18.4 dBm at 1.95 GHz.
The input third-order intercept point performance levels are typically +15.7 dBm at 1.75 GHz, +16.1 dBm at 1.85 GHz, and +16.4 dBm at 1.95 GHz with two -20-dBm tones spaced 5 MHz apart. The typical output third-order output intercept-point performance levels are +34.0 dBm at 1.75 GHz, +34.3 dBm at 1.85 GHz, and +34.0 dBm at 1.95 GHz.
Both amplifiers are rated for maximum input levels to +20 dBm and offer active bias circuitry that allows supply current to be varied for gain adjustments without adversely affecting noise figure. Both are suitable for all parts of a wireless infrastructure.
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Learn to take shortcuts. This might take a little practice, but it's worth it. For instance, in puzzles that talk about butterflies, they have some pretty long and obnoxious words. These can slow you down. A lot of the time, the four or five long words in one category will each start with a different letter or syllable.
When you read a clue that says - The Lepidopterous who collects Hesperidae doesn't like chocolate - let your brain take a shortcut. If you have to read the whole thing, read it as - The Lep who collects Hesp doesn't like choc -. You can make this even shorter. The word Lepidopterous doesn't help us to solve any clues. You can skip the word, and learn to spot only the ones that really matter. So the clue becomes - Hesp...doesn't...choc.
The same thing works for phone numbers and license plates. Don't read the whole thing, only enough to identify the clue. UAJ-461 might be the only plate that starts with U. If there's more than one that begins that way, take it only as far as you need to. UAJ-461 and UHU-893 can be separated by the first 2 letters. Skip the rest, it'll only bog you down in unnecessary details.
Finally, if you find yourself getting confused, say it out loud. It solidifies the clue in your mind. I mutter to myself a lot when I'm solving, and it helps. I say things like "Hesp is chocolate" and "You-who (UHU pronounced) isn't first". These things have greatly reduced my solving time, and I make a lot less mistakes now.
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http://www.logic-puzzles.org/forum/showpost.php?p=236&postcount=15
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en
| 0.957085 | 356 | 2.578125 | 3 |
The attached file describes a chopper circuit that has the provision of precisely measuring power. It is based on the fact that a low resistance (~2 Ohm) heating resistor has a <1 uH inductance and therefore appears resistive at a~20 Khz switching frequency. Since the chopper is powered from a DC supply, it is straightforward to measure both voltage and current (and therefore power) to a high degree of accuracy. I have built this circuit, and it functions as designed.
It has advantages over triac or phase control circuits in that both the supply voltage and duty cycle can be precisely controlled. Power output can be controlled either by varying the duty cycle or by adjusting the power supply voltage. I have configured it to do the latter because supply voltage is more easily measured and controlled than duty cycle. As designed, the circuit generates 75% duty cycle, 21 KHz pulses at any voltage up to the limit of the supply which is 40V.
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<urn:uuid:29710639-99c8-4b82-96ed-b887335acc31>
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CC-MAIN-2020-34
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https://www.lenr-forum.com/forum/thread/3185-precision-chopper-circuit/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439740343.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200814215931-20200815005931-00186.warc.gz
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en
| 0.962712 | 195 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Fruit bodies erect, tough, pliant, clavarioid in shape, usually branched near the top, occasionally simple, up to 8 cm tall by 3-5 mm broad, often flattened in cross section above, rounded below; the base dark brown to black, often tomentose, branch tips white from asexual spores (conidia) or concolorous with the base and minutely pimpled with perithecial pores.
Ascospores 10-14 X 4-6 µm, black, smooth, kidney shaped. Asexual spores hyaline, smooth, elliptical to elongated.
Scattered to gregarious to clustered on rotting wood.
Xylaria hypoxylon can be found year round in California on downed wood. Fruiting bodies are blackish, thin, wiry and branched with white tips. The white tips consist of masses of asexual spores (conidia). As the fruiting body matures, it thickens, becomes all black, and sexual (ascospores) are produced in embedded perithecia. The latter form tiny pores on the surface of the fruiting body. Critical study of this species is needed in California, as there may be a number of species of Xylaria masquerading under this name, or the species may be extremely variable.
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<urn:uuid:59833f4c-3d6c-4e33-9c5c-99e97050fc74>
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CC-MAIN-2020-16
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http://bib.ge/soko/open.php?id=1000
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585371660550.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200406200320-20200406230820-00168.warc.gz
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en
| 0.883997 | 274 | 3.015625 | 3 |
All key components of every living cell are made of macromolecules. The four kinds of macromolecules are lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins. Most macromolecules are polymers constructed of many organic molecules called monomers.
Students start with images of living organisms, from bacteria to plants and animals. They zoom into cells and tissues to discover that they are made of different macromolecules. Students observe that these macromolecules are polymers. They zoom into polymers to find that some are made from almost identical monomers, while others, such as proteins, are made from a set of different monomers. They discover that all monomers making up biological macromolecules are composed of just a few types of chemical elements: C, H, O, N, P and S.
Students will be able to:
Identify typical molecular building blocks (monomers) that form biological macromolecules.
Determine the types of atoms that make up most biopolymers.
Reason about the uniformity on the atomic level of life's molecular building blocks
Macro to Micro Connection
Students connect living organisms to their atomic and molecular composition.
Life's Macromolecules All cells, organs and tissues of a living organism are made of atoms and molecules. A special class of very large molecules that determine the structural and functional properties of living cells are called biologically - active macromolecules. They are called "macro" for their very large size relative to other organic molecules.
Commonality in life's macromolecules The monomers that link together to form polymers are made of very few elements. Some of them, such as C, H, O, N, P and S (also called macro elements) make up biomolecules and are therefore the largest dry weight of all living organisms. Other elements are present in very small quantities, but can still play important roles (e.g. the iron in hemoglobin, which helps to carry oxygen, or the sodium and potassium ions that are responsible for nerve impulses.)
Here is one way to think of the commonalities in atomic composition: All carbohydrates such as wood or starch in every plant are made of just three chemical elements: C, H and O. All proteins of all organisms on earth are made of five chemical elements: C,H,O,N,S. All nucleic acids of all organisms on earth are made of C,H,O,N,P. Here we see a uniformity of living organisms at the most elemental level.
The uniformity continues at the level of monomers as well. In this activity students trace a number of biological structures from their appearance in our macro world to their monomers. When they compare proteins of different organisms (e.g. human hair, silk) , students discover that they are all made of a small diversity (about 20) of amino acids. They discover that there is even less diversity in carbohydrates, most of which are made from just one monomer, glucose. That is why all cellulose fibers tend close-up to look alike (whether taken from carrot or baobab tree), while proteins can be different.
A special rule: Only one family of monomers is used to make a specific class of polymers; there are no polymer chains in which amino acids and nucleotides are interlinked.
Types of Polymers Polymers can be divided into those in which the building blocks are all the same (homopolymers), and those in which there is a variety of building blocks (heteropolymers). Some biological polymers such as cellulose are made of a large number of identical connected glucose molecules, monomers, and are considered homopolymers. Nucleic acids and proteins are both heteropolymers: DNA and RNA are made of four different monomers called nucleotides, while proteins are made of 20 plus** different monomers called amino acids. In heteropolymers, the variety in charge, polarity and other properties of their monomers leads to a variety of shapes, and therefore to a variety of their possible functions in living cells.
Activity Design and Execution:
Major Science Concepts Monomer, polymer, macromolecule Assumed Previous Knowledge: Chemical elements, molecules, living cell Time: One 50-minute classes Technology Requirement: Web access Supportive Materials Macromolecule Work Page, Tree of Life Worksheet (Student) [PDF version] Advanced preparation (if any) *Have web pages available on computer.
*Print student worksheets, if they cannot fill them out on computer.
Investigative Question: What are the similarities and differences among molecular building blocks of living organisms?
1. Give the Prepost-Test.
2. Open or distribute the Monomers of Macromolecule Work Page. If your students are not used to chemical notation, you might want to review the key atomic notation, but then encourage them to treat it as a straightforward puzzle. The molecules of life belong to four chemical groups, e.g. , such as sugars, organic acids, aromatic compounds etc. Ask students to scan the picture and see if they can find any characteristics useful for such a division. (They might notice the presence of rings, the large number of oxygen atoms in sugars, the long C-H tails of lipids, the presence of several nitrogens in the nucleotides etc.)
Ask students to describe the different methods they used for dividing the biomolecules. Explain to them that they will be returning to these molecules later to identify the functional molecular groups that determine the individuality of the monomers.
If students are unfamiliar with the variety of molecular representations, you might want to review them.
3. Zoom down theTree of Life The following can be done either serially by all students, or as teams that reconvene to teach each other what they have discovered. Explain to your students that they will zoom into organs and tissues of plants and animals in order to discover life's essential building blocks. The exercise they will do includes just a few of the many possible "zooms" into the structures of living organisms.
Record the Investigative Question on the board: What can you find out about macromolecules building blocks of our organs and tissues ? How different are these building blocks from one another? Are there similarities between them?
Open and Distribute the Tree of Life Worksheet and have students begin their investigations.
Tree of Life Worksheet (Student)
4. Discussion: Work with your students to summarize that in the molecules of life a limited number of atoms (C, H, O, N, P and S) are organized into four groups of molecules (nucleotides, amino acids, sugars and fatty acids) from which key macromolecules (DNA, RNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) are built. Polymers, in turn, can make fibers or other associations that form the structural components of living cells. Ask them what makes living tissues, such as wood or skin so strong and flexible? They may discuss the structure of cellulose fibers that are major structural components of plant cells, or fibers of keratin in animal skin or hair.
Transition to next activity: How are the building blocks assembled?
Extensions and Connections
Go through zooms, determining whether a particular polymer is a heteropolymer or homopolymer. See Homopolymer/heteropolymer worksheet. Teacher version.
Develop new "zooms" from macro organisms to their atomic components.
Monomers to Polymers Index
*Photosynthesis provides plants with a broad spectrum of different sugars such as glucose or fructose. Then plants convert those sugars to amino acids or nucleotides using minerals from the soil (Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphate).
**There are a few additional amino acids present in some unique proteins.
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<urn:uuid:e08baf3b-dcf4-4cf5-ac8a-cc725c8a86ad>
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CC-MAIN-2013-20
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http://www.concord.org/~btinker/molecular_workbench/unitIV_revised/act1.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368710115542/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516131515-00091-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.934777 | 1,617 | 4.125 | 4 |
Due to the extensive smuggling of Afghan rubies into Pakistan, many do not realize that Pakistan has its own wealth of gems that are underexploited. The ruby deposits here are primary deposits, initially discovered in the 1980s. Like the Afghanistan material, these rubies are mostly cabochan and carving grade. There is small, transparent material under a carat produced too.
Most mining occurs in the north of Pakistan, with the government leasing out land for mining to promote interest and expansion in this industry.
Sadly an earthquake in 2005 made getting to and from various mines exceedingly difficult to borderline impossible. There is still limited production, though lack of infrastructure rebuilding makes for inconsistent production. Especially when coupled with the difficult terrain, with some deposits located above 15,000 feet.
Given the political and economical upheaval that frequently plagues the country, for the near future ruby mining in the country is limited.
The biggest physical limitation of Pakistan’s mining is that the gems are collected from a primary deposit instead of a secondary deposit. The difference between these types is that primary gem deposits are embedded in the rocks they form in. Secondary gem deposits are already removed from the host rocks through weathering, and are loose.
By definition, primary deposits are much harder and costly to mine than secondary ones. The necessity of equipment to retrieve rubies forces miners to utilize older and less efficient methods such as using explosives on the bedrock. This even damages and lowers the value of the rubies upon retrieval, reducing the overall production.
The quality of the rubies could be on par with Myanmar (better known as Burma), but little investment in mining equipment and infrastructure (roads, reinforced mining shafts, employee training, etc) prevents developments on this front.
Secondary (Alluvial) Deposit
An ancient country, parts of it are administered by Pakistan to-date and will be briefly reviewed here. It is worth noting that the country is home to a variety of rich gem deposits including the fabled Kashmir sapphires (mined in the north-eastern part of the country). The term fabled is used because this deposit was worked for as little as five years in the late 1800s. Despite this brief window, the sapphires were such high quality that the industry still places a high premium on even the much lower quality “New Kashmir” sapphires. Sapphires from this source command upwards of ten times the price of comparable quality from other sources such as Madagascar purely due to the name.
While Pakistan holds a great deal of potential as a world ruby source, there is little investment between the country itself and foreign investment. The country itself has very little money to invest, and foreign investors are apprehensive about the lack of regulations regarding mining in the area, including who is supposed to be paid for mining rights. Another major issue is the Line-of-Control between India and Kashmir, which constantly sees conflict between the two countries.
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<urn:uuid:03f1553e-30a6-4cf5-baad-4c6f0a7a7e6c>
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CC-MAIN-2023-14
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https://thenaturalrubycompany.com/education/mining-locations-rubies/pakistan-ruby-mines/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-14/segments/1679296949025.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20230329182643-20230329212643-00293.warc.gz
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en
| 0.964678 | 607 | 3.171875 | 3 |
We all know that communication is the most essential part of any relationship, with anyone: spouse, parent, sibling friend, child, especially if the child is a teenager.
A teenager, as we all know, is growing into his independence, and resents any interference into his activities.
How do you cope with this situation? How do you make sure he is safe, and make sure that the channel of communication remains open between you even though you know he does not confide in you as much as he used to?
Your teenager is normal! First and foremost, remember that a teenager will confide less in a parent than he used to when he was younger: this is completely normal.
Listen to him! Next, listen to your child when he talks to you, and make sure that he is not simply talking to a newspaper or to your back.
Stay positive! Are you making positive remarks along with the negative when you talk to him, or is everything you say negative? Try not to dwell on his mistakes, faults and deficiencies, and instead, concentrate on looking at his positive factors like what a bright and cheerful child he is, and how much he is achieving.
Involvement is the key: Get more involved in his activities, and discuss things that interest him, even if they may seem boring to you. Have a conversation, instead of merely trying to make a point constantly.
Never lecture! Do not lecture when you can talk: lectures are too long and boring, and teenagers tend to tune out when they sense the beginning of one.
Understanding brings gains! Try to be a more understanding parent, whether you agree or disagree with him. A child needs a strong shoulder to cry on and it is your duty to provide one when it is needed.
Avoid power struggles, and do not say ‘NO’ automatically, without even considering why the child wants whatever he does, and even when your child says things like: “You live in another time and age, you do not understand!”
It is up to you! Make and create opportunities for communication, like when you drive him to an appointment, or when you are sitting together reading.
Above all, respect your child and his opinions, while at the same time setting limits on his behavior. Although he may appear to resent you for this, he will actually respect you for the guidelines you have given him.
Show your teenager at every opportunity that you love him and respect him for what he is, and not for what he has achieved or hopes to achieve.
Communicate with your teenager! Keep open the channels of communication with your teenager. It will be worth it eventually, and your teenager will thank you for it some day.
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<urn:uuid:0d7fd24a-37f8-4102-9279-d2382afd83d4>
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CC-MAIN-2017-43
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http://www.theparentszone.com/teens/how-to-communicate-with-your-teen/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187826642.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20171023202120-20171023222120-00385.warc.gz
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en
| 0.974079 | 556 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Submitted to: Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: October 1, 2010
Publication Date: December 15, 2010
Citation: Haney, R.L., Kiniry, J.R., Johnson, M. 2010. Soil microbial activity under different grass species: Underground impacts of biofuel cropping. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 139(4):754-758. Interpretive Summary: This paper shows that native grasses incorporate a great deal more carbon into soil than conventional farming. The study was primarily focused on the effect of different grass species and conventional corn on soil microbes. The study found that soil microbes are much more active under native grass species than conventional farming practices. Increased soil microbial activity is a healthy sign in terms of increased soil quality. This research has broad implications on our ability to manage climate change by using native grass species when and where appropriate. In addition it provides baseline data for conversion of cropping systems to native grass biofuel production for Blackland soils in central Texas.
Technical Abstract: Microbial and plant communities interact to determine local nutrient cycling rates. As lands are converted to bioenergy crops, including corn and cellulosic grasses, focus has been on changes in soil carbon sequestration. Little attention has been paid to impacts of such land conversion on the activity of belowground communities. We hypothesized that in addition to affecting soil organic carbon (SOC), monoculture species establishments have appreciable effects on microbial community activity, as evidenced by N and C mineralization rates. We compared soil microbial response in soils under long-term corn (Zea mays L.) production to soils under ten-year old monocultures of four warm-season perennial grasses (switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), coastal bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L) Pers.], sideoats grama [Bouteloua curtipendula (Michaux) Torrey] and buffalo grass [Bouteloua dactyloides (Nutt.) Columbus]). All assayed perennial systems had higher SOC and water extractable organic C (WEOC) than the annual corn system. However, of all the perennial grasses, switchgrass soils had the lowest SOC and WEOC values, the highest 28 day mineralization C: N ratio, and the lowest 28 day C and N mineralization rates. This study indicates that microbial communities under switchgrass stands are more active than those under sideoats grama, buffalograss, coastal bermudagrass, or corn.
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<urn:uuid:e874ab50-7377-4dfb-b858-63f5b89be674>
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CC-MAIN-2015-06
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http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?seq_no_115=256361
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-06/segments/1422115900471.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20150124161140-00039-ip-10-180-212-252.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.910914 | 542 | 2.71875 | 3 |
GERD is More Than Simple Heartburn
Tips on When to See a Doctor
For Immediate Release
Media Contact Form
MILWAUKEE, WI (November 15, 2016) - Occasional heartburn is quite common, especially after eating large meals during the holiday season. But, not all heartburn is the same. It is important to distinguish simple, occasional heartburn from long-standing heartburn that keeps recurring. Frequent, worsening, or persistent heartburn signals that it's time to see your doctor or healthcare provider to receive an accurate diagnosis and the right treatment. An underlying condition such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) could be the cause.
GERD affects one if five or more adult men and women in the US. While the disease usually can be treated effectively, its symptoms often are unrecognized or misunderstood.
GERD occurs when stomach contents flow back (reflux) into the food pipe (esophagus). Repeated reflux can irritate the lining of the esophagus, cause uncomfortable symptoms, and possibly lead to complications such as tissue damage in the esophagus or difficulty swallowing. Most people with GERD have mild symptoms, with no visible evidence of tissue damage and little risk of developing complications.
Chronic heartburn is the most frequently reported symptom. But, because heartburn is so common, it may be self-treated or ignored. But, self-treatment may delay effective treatment.
It is time to see your doctor if your heartburn:
- persists or becomes more severe
- happens at night and wakes you from sleep
- occurs two or more times a week
- has been occurring for five years or more, or
- creates pain that interferes with daily activities.
Regurgitation (refluxed material into the mouth) is another common symptom of GERD. Other symptoms may occur, such as trouble swallowing, sore throat, or hoarseness in the morning. Sometimes there are no apparent symptoms, and the presence of GERD is not revealed until complications appear.
A diagnosis of GERD should be made by a doctor. Symptoms usually can be reduced through lifestyle changes, medicines, surgery, or a combination of methods.
"Once diagnosed, GERD can be treated and, in most cases, people can begin to lead far more comfortable lives," said Nancy Norton, President of the International Foundation for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders (IFFGD). Often treatment involves dietary and other lifestyle changes. A doctor may also recommend medications, which can reduce the amount of acid the stomach produces. Other treatments may include surgery or endoscopic procedures to help prevent reflux.
Most people with GERD have a form of the disease that can be controlled. But, GERD may lead to complications if left untreated. See a doctor to have symptoms checked and to develop an effective treatment plan for GERD.
November 20–26, 2016 is National GERD Awareness Week. Learn more about GERD by visiting the IFFGD GERD website at : aboutGERD.org.
The International Foundation for Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders (IFFGD) is a nonprofit education and research organization dedicated to improving the quality of life for people affected by chronic digestive conditions. Founded in 1991, IFFGD helps improve care by enhancing awareness, educating individuals, and supporting research into treatments and cures for GI disorders. Additional information about GERD and other chronic digestive disorders is available on IFFGD's website at iffgd.org.
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<urn:uuid:25761e57-ad80-490f-a481-b2c31585647f>
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CC-MAIN-2019-51
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https://iffgd.org/press-releases/2016-1115-gerd-is-more-than-simple-heartburn.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-51/segments/1575540544696.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20191212153724-20191212181724-00240.warc.gz
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en
| 0.935416 | 716 | 3.0625 | 3 |
STARGAZERS have spotted an “interplanetary shock” caused by a huge eruption on the surface of the sun.
Early this morning, the American Space Weather Prediction Centre published a space weather warning indicating that a “minor solar storm” was headed our way.
It warned about “an interplanetary shock, likely associated with the arrival of a coronal mass ejection”, a phenomenon in which vasts amounts of radioactive materials blasts off the solar surface and into space.
This can cause disturbances to satellites or possibly cause fluctuations in the power grid.
But its biggest effect will be to cause beautiful auroras in the skies of northern parts of the planet.
Sadly, the northern lights will probably not be visible in the UK.
Auroras were visible in the sky over the weekend, although British skygazers were disappointed.
Dr Nathan Case or Aurora Watch wrote: “We had such high hopes.
“Predictions were good, the best we’d seen for a while, and the early stats were promising but the aurora fizzled out before we had a chance to see it.”
MOST READ IN TECH AND SCIENCE
Minor or moderate solar storms are generally nothing to worry about.
However, severe blasts of radiation could knock out communication satellites and potentially bring down power grids.
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<urn:uuid:f0b1429e-82cc-46df-b1d9-21dbfe5112e6>
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CC-MAIN-2018-17
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https://www.thesun.ie/tech/1278748/nasa-warns-of-interplanetary-shock-as-solar-storm-sends-radioactive-particles-hurtling-towards-earth/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-17/segments/1524125936969.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20180419130550-20180419150550-00439.warc.gz
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en
| 0.954112 | 282 | 3.109375 | 3 |
A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in the 1670s by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. Robert Hooke coined the term "cell" after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases.
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<urn:uuid:ad83ecd9-132f-42e5-a90c-611c93eb6923>
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CC-MAIN-2019-13
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https://waag.org/nl/tags/microorganisms
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-13/segments/1552912201996.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20190319143502-20190319165502-00475.warc.gz
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en
| 0.909686 | 116 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Abstract. We compile a worldwide database of about 2,300 shallow intracontinental earthquakes (1900-1994) from original publications and other recent compilations. Information on earlier historical earthquakes from these existing compilations are also included. We consider earthquakes in both the active and stable continental regions. Within active regions we distinguish the earthquakes on the few faults known to have high-long term slip rate >= 10 mm/yr. Besides the basic information about date, origin time, magnitudes, epicentral coordinates, and depth, we include the following source parameters wherever possible: strike, dip, rake of the two nodal planes, seismic moment, source-time function, and dimensions of the rupture zone. We also give a classification of the mechanism type, references and a ranking of the quality for various parameters. The catalog is presented as a flat table in an ASCII file format. The resulting database is suitable for seismotectonic studies and calculations of empirical relationships among the different parameters.
Our goal is to analyze intracontinental shallow earthquakes (depth <= 45 km) on a global basis. In this study we refer to intracontinental earthquakes the ones not related to subduction zones. Thus, we exclude events at subduction zones that are at the plate interface or in close proximity to it in the continental upper plate and those in the down going oceanic lithosphere. Since worldwide catalogs of earthquakes are dominated by subduction zones events, then, on average, relationships among its parameters mainly reflect the characteristics of subduction events. Earthquake catalogs that compile intracontinental seismotectonic information alone on a worldwide basis have been lacking until recently, although detailed seismological studies and compilations existed in several continental areas of the world. In part what has been missing is a simple selection of the boundaries that individualize and separate different intracontinental regions of the world from subduction zones.
On the other hand, for seismotectonic studies there has been a need to incorporate revised locations, magnitudes, seismic moment, and others focal mechanism parameters available in the literature into existing catalogs. The Centroid Moment Tensor Catalog (CMT) of Harvard University includes the determination of the seismic moment and focal mechanism parameters for worldwide earthquakes of Mw >= 5.0 from 1977 to the present. Therefore, it was desirable to compile similar information for earthquakes in earlier years wherever it was available. The CMT solutions are in general good determinations of various earthquake parameters. In many cases they are the only available source. In some cases, however, other specific studies about particular earthquakes lead to better or at least alternative determinations. The CMT-depth of earthquakes is often a fixed parameter in the inversion, and therefore in those cases it is not entirely reliable. This occurs particularly for shallow earthquakes, which are the most common events in intracontinental areas. Then, even for the period where the CMT solutions are available a revision of its parameters and cross-checking with the ones existing in the literature is needed.
The two recent compilations of intracontinental earthquakes by the Electric Power Research Institute , which we hereafter refer as EPRI or the EPRI report, and by Wells and Coppersmith are very important contributions.
The EPRI report includes nearly 1,000 shallow earthquakes (Mw >= 4.5) from 1900 through 1990 and also information on large earlier historical earthquakes in so- called Stable Continental Regions (SCR). Their compilation includes focal mechanism parameters and dimensions of the rupture wherever possible. The EPRI definition of SCR regions is a restriction to the continental crust of having no significant tectonism, volcanism, or anorogenic intrusions younger than early Cretaceous, and no rifting or major extension or transtension younger than Paleogene. Thus, their definition is based on geology, not on rates of seismicity. Because of uncertainties in the earthquake locations and/or in the SCR boundaries, less than 5% of the earthquakes in the EPRI data set is categorized as "transitional", meaning that the possibility exists that they might have occurred in oceanic or active continental crust.
Wells and Coppersmith compiled a worldwide database of source parameters for 244 intracontinental earthquakes (depth < 40 km, Mw > 4.5, from 1857 through May, 1993) from which they developed empirical relationships among magnitude, rupture dimensions (length, width, area), and surface displacement. They also gave an additional list of 187 earthquakes with insufficient information or poor- quality data. The earthquake mechanism is indicated only by a classification of the slip type, but strike, dip, and rake of the nodal planes or assumed fault plane are not given. The catalog does not list coordinates, depths, and origin times of the earthquakes but instead, the location by region, locality and/or name of each earthquake is given. The Wells and Coppersmith compilation is complementary to that of EPRI in the sense that it provides information on earthquakes in Active Continental Regions (ACR).
Another source of information is the Pacheco and Sykes compilation of shallow Mw >= 7.0 earthquakes from 1900 through 1989, which includes about 120 intracontinental earthquakes. The catalog is homogeneous in the surface wave magnitude and includes seismic moment determinations and classification of the slip type when available although no criterium was given for this classification.
Since our purpose is to examine the ACR and SCR intracontinental earthquakes, a unique database with earthquake in both regions was needed. We also believed that more information could be added or revisions could be made to the above mentioned sources particularly in the ACR regions. This belief was based on the fact that at the time of the EPRI and Wells and Coppersmith publications we already had started a compilation from primary sources on intracontinental earthquakes.
In this study we compile information from seven large continental areas that include most of the continental regions of the world and organize a database that includes about 1,300 and 950 Mw >= 5.0 earthquakes (1900-1994) in active and stable continental regions respectively (Figure 1). Triep and Sykes use data from the catalog for the period 1978-1994 for Mw >= 5.0 and 1990-1994 for Mw >= 7.0. They describe some additional aspects of data for those two periods, including a map of active and stable continental areas and epicenters in them for those two intervals.
The main data sources are as follows: a) publications on earthquakes in intracontinental regions; b) the EPRI catalog of earthquakes; c) the Wells and Coppersmith compilation; d) the CMT catalog [Harvard University, 1995]; e) the Pacheco and Sykes catalog . Information from these sources was combined to produce an unique and improved listing, i.e. we chose what we believe are the best estimates of the source parameters for each event. A large percentage of a) corresponds to the seismological instrumental era which is from 1964 to the present. We did not search for information on earthquakes in previous centuries, but we included the existing information of those earthquakes in the sources b) and c).
Continental Areas Included
We mainly consider the following seven large continental regions: Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, Middle East, North and South America. The dividing lines between the areas we refer to as Asia, Middle East, and Europe are somewhat arbitrary. We refer to Middle East the Eurasian region with longitudes greater than or equal to 25 E and smaller than 64.5 E (includes Turkey and the Arabian peninsula). The latter longitude is taken as the dividing line from Asia.
We did not compile information from primary sources (i.e., from original information in the literature) for Europe and Antarctica, or small areas of known or questionable continental crust in Indonesia, New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, Sakhalin, New Zealand, and Central America as well as backarc basins (e.g. the Aegean). However, for the earthquakes in Antarctica and SCR of Europe we included the existing information in the EPRI report, and for the mentioned small areas and ACR of Europe the information in the Wells and Coppersmith catalog.
Stable and Active Continental Regions
We follow the EPRI report in defining the Stable Continental Regions. Our boundaries for these regions are polygons extracted from the original boundaries on the EPRI's maps (Figure 1). We refer to Active Continental Regions the areas that do not satisfy at least one of the restrictions imposed in the definition of Stable Continental regions (see Introduction). The boundaries of the Active Continental Regions are defined somewhat more arbitrarily (Figure 1). We approximately follow the outer edge of the continental margin or in some cases we follow the lines that separate the seismicity related to subduction from the intracontinental seismicity as is the case in the western boundary of South America.
In a few cases, the boundaries of the active regions are arbitrary lines which exclude the small intracontinental regions mentioned above for which we did not compile information from primary sources. However, these areas do not have stable continental crust. Thus, all of them should be categorized as active, except for part of the New Zeland crust for which the category of "submerged continental crust" may be more appropriate [EPRI, 1994]. For simplicity in our catalog, we refer to these areas by abbreviations of their names without specifying that they are active areas. The areas explicitly catagorized as active in our catalog refer to the areas defined by the corresponding polygons in Figure 1.
Within active areas we do distinguish a few faults that are known to have high long-term slip rates (equal or greater than 10 mm/yr) and call them either Type 1 [Scholz et al., 1986] or interplate faults (and events on them Type 1 earthquakes). These include the San Andreas, San Jacinto, Queen Charlotte, Fairweather, North Anatolian faults, and the most active faults of the Himalayan region. Earthquakes that occur on these faults are categorized separately in our catalog.
Description of the Catalog
The database is organized in an ASCII table with 38 columns or "fields" with only one entry for each earthquake and can be accessed by both this text file and ftp URL: ftp://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/pub/triep/intra.cat The fields are as follows:
2 origin time
3 continental region
5 source of information
6 active, stable or Type 1 ("a", "s", or "i" respectively)
7 latitude (deg. north and south of equator)
8 longitude (deg. east and west of Greenwhich)
9 reference for coordinates
10 mb (body wave magnitude)
11 Ms (surface wave magnitude)
12 Ms reference (or mb reference if there is no Ms)
13 Mw (moment magnitude)
14 Mw reference
15 depth (km)
16 depth reference
17 depth quality (A, B, C, D, or "-")
18 a (factor a of the seismic moment expression: Mo = a x 10**b N m)
19 b (exponent b of the seismic moment expression: Mo = a x 10**b N m)
20 Mo reference
21 Mo quality (A, B, C, D, or "-")
22 strike of nodal plane 1 (deg)
23 dip of nodal plane 1 (deg)
24 rake of nodal plane 1 (deg)
25 strike of nodal plane 2 (deg)
26 dip of nodal plane 2 (deg)
27 rake of nodal plane 2 (deg)
28 mechanism reference
29 mechanism quality (A, B, C, D, or "-")
30 mechanism type
31 source time duration (sec)
32 reference to source time duration
33 source time duration quality (A, B, C, D, or "-")
34 surface rupture length (km)
35 subsurface rupture length (km)
36 rupture width (km)
37 reference to rupture dimentions
38 rupture dimentions quality (see explanation below)
Field 2 is one of the following:
CE Central America
ME Middle East
NZ New Zealand
NG New Guinea, New Britain, and New Ireland
NA North America
SA South America
Field 5 indicates data from the following sources:
trsy Triep and Sykes- a compilation from sources in the literature given in
Table1 plus information from USGS, ISC and ISS catalogs.
epri EPRI
weco Wells and Coppersmith
trep Triep-Sykes and EPRI
trwe Triep-Sykes and Wells-Coppersmith
epwe EPRI and Wells-Coppersmith
tew Triep-Sykes, EPRI , and Wells-Coppersmith
PS Pacheco and Sykes
cmt Centroid Moment Tensor catalog (CMT) [Harvard University, 1995]
The classification of mechanism type (field 30) is obtained with the same procedure as EPRI :
Faulting Type B-plunge P-plunge T-plunge
TH 0-25 < 45 (always) > 45 (always)
NO 0-25 > 45 (always) < 45 (always)
SS 65-90 < 45 (always) < 45 (always)
TS 26-44 < 45 (always) T > P (always)
NS 26-44 > 45 (usually) T < 45 (always)
ST 45-64 < 45 (always) P <= T (always)
SN 45-64 < 45 (always) P >= T (always)
where B, P, and T are the null, pressure and tensional axes. The abbreviations are TH, thrust; NO, normal; SS, strike-slip; TS, thrust with a strike-slip component; NS, normal with a strike-slip component; ST, strike-slip with a thrust component; SN, strike-slip with a normal component.
With this classification, it is possible to know if the faulting occurred in a compressional or extensional stress regime if we use the standard convention that the orientation of the maximum compressive stress (inferred from the P-axis) characterizes the stress state. A compressional regime is one in which the P-axis is more horizontal than vertical (P < 45). Hence, TH, SS, TS, and ST are types of faulting that occur in compressional regime, while NO and NS occur in extensional regimes.
When RL or LL is added to the abbreviation of the mechanism type, it means that the fault associated with the earthquake is known to be right-lateral or left-lateral respectively (e.g., STRL implies mechanism with a right-lateral strike-slip motion with a thrust component).
The ranking of the quality of depth determination, seismic moment, mechanism type, and source time function (fields 17, 21, 28 and 33) is a result of the evaluation of the type, quality and quantity of data and method used for the respective determination. For example, we considered parameters obtained from waveform modeling or moment tensor inversion better constrained than those from P-wave first motion alone, and in the cases that SH-waves are included in the analysis we assign a higher quality than those where only the P-waveform is used. The symbol "-" means no qualification. In many cases the assignment of quality A, B, C, D is a highly subjective process, and therefore, the classification has a large uncertainty. This should be kept in mind by the users of the catalog.
The quality of the rupture dimensions (field 38) is given by three letters; the first letter corresponds to the quality of the surface rupture length (field 34), the second to subsurface rupture length (field 35), and the third to the rupture width (field 36). Each letter can be A, U, or N, meaning that the determination is reliable, unreliable, or no data was compiled for the corresponding rupture dimension. For example, UAN means surface rupture length is unreliable, subsurface reliable, and no data were compiled for rupture width. Other possible combinations are AAA, AUA, NAA, etc. The categories of reliable or unreliable depend on the type and quality of data and the method used in the analysis (rupture dimensions based on field observations, aftershock distribution, geodetic modeling, or teleseismic inversion). Here, we also warn the user of the catalog about the subjectivity of the assignment of quality.
Some other useful information for the user of the catalog is as follows: a) When the source of information (field 5) is trsy, epri, weco, or PS, the references for the different parameters if any (fields 9, 12, 14, 16, 20, 28, 32, and 37) are given with the notation of the original source(*). The references for Triep and Sykes (this study) are given below. When the source is from two or three catalogs (e.g., trep and tew respectively) the references for each parameter correspond to the catalog from which it came.
(*)[Note that when the field 5 is weco and the field 12 is PS, these two letters are related to the reference in Wells and Coppersmith and not to Pacheco and Sykes . In all the other cases PS denotes this last reference].
b) If the field 5 is not epri the reference numbers smaller or equal to 142 correspond to the references given in this study. When the field 5 is epri, those numbers correspond to the references in EPRI . Reference numbers larger than 142 always correspond to EPRI .
c) The moment magnitude, Mw (field 13), does not necessarily correspond to the seismic moment Mo on fields 17 and 18. That is, since Mw can be obtained from Mo through the Eqn. Mw = (2/3)log(Mo) - 6.06 [Hanks and Kanamori, 1979] ( Mo in N m), we do not add a field for the result of this calculation. The field 13 for Mw is reserved for other determinations of Mw, typically the Mw from the EPRI , Wells and Coppersmith , or Pacheco and Sykes catalog.
d) When the reference of the depth determination (field 16) is "weco", it means that it comes from an unpublished compilation of Donald L. Wells (D.L. Wells, personal communication, 1995). These depths do not have original references and/or quality specifications.
e) The Wells and Coppersmith and Pacheco and Sykes catalogs did not include strike, dip, and rake of the nodal planes. We added those types of information wherever possible. We also added the date, origin time, epicentral coordinates, and depth to the former catalog .
f) The catalog is a space separated text. An example of a typical C-shell or perl "printf" sentence is:
printf OUT "%8s %-9s %2s %-25s %4s %1s %7s %8s %4s %3s %3s %4s %6s %4s %4s %4s %1s %6s %2s %4s %1s %5s %4s %6s %5s %4s %6s %5s %1s %4s %4s %4s %1s %6s %6s %6s %5s %3s/n"
An example of a typical line of the catalog is (wrapped because of its length):
19910429 091248.1 ME Caucasus trsy a 42.424 43.664 127 6.2 7.0 109 - - 4.4 127 A 2.25 19 127 B 292.9 24.2 97.7 104.5 66.0 86.6 127 A TH 25 127 B - 70 24 127 NAA
The cut-off magnitude was Mw ~ 5.0-5.3 from 1964 through 1994 (instrumental seismological era), but from 1900 through 1963 most of the compiled earthquakes have larger magnitudes.
Three subsets of the earthquakes in our catalog can be considered to be complete: 1) the Mw >= 7.0 earthquakes from 1900 through 1994, 2) the earthquakes from 1978- 1994 with Mw larger than 5.3 or 5.5 depending on the region under consideration, and 3) the Mw >= 5.0 earthquakes of the SCR regions from 1964 to 1994. Since the SCR earthquakes in our catalog are dominated by the information from EPRI , we accept their statement of completeness for the period 1964-1990 for that range of magnitudes. However, the EPRI report excludes two regions from that statement; a) South America with a magnitude completeness threshold of 5.5 from 1964 through 1968, and 5.0 thereafter, and b) Indochina has a threshold of 5.0 only from 1980 to the present as a consequence of the information gap related to the Vietnam War.
We thank Arch C. Johnston for sending us a preprint of his paper on earthquakes in stable continental regions. We appreciate unpublished compilation that Donald L. Wells provided us for depths of intracontinental earthquakes. This research was supported by National Science Foundation grant EAR-91- 04158 and the Air Force Phillips Lab contract F19628-90-K0059.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), The Earthquakes of Stable Continental Regions, EPRI vol. 1, edited by J.F. Schneider, California, 1-1 to 6-21, 1994.
Hanks, T. C., and H. Kanamori, A moment magnitude scale, J. Geophys. Res., 84, 2348-2350, 1979.
Johnston, A.C., Seismic Moment Assessment of Earthquakes in Stable Continental Regions, Part 1: Instrumental Seismicity, Geophys. J. Int., (in Press 1996).
Pacheco, J. F., and L. R. Sykes, Seismic moment catalog of large shallow earthquakes, 1900 to 1989, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 82, 1306-1349, 1992.
Scholz, C. H., C. A. Avilles, and S. G. Wesnousky, Scaling differences between large interplate and intraplate earthquakes, Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 76, 65-70, 1986.
Triep, E.G., and L.R. Sykes, Frequence of Occurrence of Moderate to Great Earthquakes in Intracontinental Regions, submitted to J. Geophys. Res., 1996.
Wells, D. L., and K. J. Coppersmith, New Empirical Relationships among Magnitude, Rupture Length, Rupture Width, Rupture Area, and Surface Displacement, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am., 84, 974-1002, 1994.
References for the Catalog
Figure 1. Intracontinental earthquakes. Light and dark gray areas are Stable (SCR) and Active (ACR) continental regions respectively as defined in text. Circles denote epicenters of earthquakes from 1900 through 1994 with moment magnitudes, Mw, greater than or equal to 5.0. Squares indicate epicenters from 1900 through 1994 with Mw >= 7.0; solid squares the seven of those earthquakes in SCR. Open triangles are Type 1 earthquakes (as defined in text) from 1900 to 1994. Geographical boundaries of the Stable continental regions closely follow those of Electric Power Research Institute . The area referred to as the Middle East extends from 25 E to 64.5 E. The area referred to as Asia extends to the east of 64.5.
Figure 1A. Color version of Figure 1.
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How can we create more effective education systems that provide access and highquality education for all students; capitalizing on emerging technologies for learning anywhere, anytime; and responsive to the 21st century context of an interconnected global economy and rapidly emerging global society?
That was an organizing question for more than a thousand people who gathered in Doha, Qatar, for the inaugural World Innovation Summit for Education (WISE) last November. Organized by the Qatar Foundation for Education, Science, and Community Development, the summit brought together key individuals from more than 120 countries on every contintent. The summit’s goal was to examine the key challenges facing education around the globe and to promote visionary thinking about new education models.
The summit was opened by Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser al-Missned, chair of the foundation, who said, “Today, we place great faith in the power of education to prepare world citizens for a peaceful and cooperative future and to prepare citizens of our individual nations for the cultural transformations that result from globalization.” The WISE Summit was designed to be a multidisciplinary platform to promote international dialogue about best practices, to recognize exceptional impact through an annual WISE awards program, and to promote innovation and educational engagement on a global scale.
The summit builds on and extends the Qatar Foundation’s domestic efforts to modernize Qatar’s own education system, including its flagship Education City, where more than eight top-flight American universities offer degree courses to students from a host of countries.
This article cannot deal with every issue on the summit agenda. What follows are a few examples of the challenges and innovations under discussion.
Access to Education
At the most fundamental level, the world has still not achieved the commitment made by the world’s governments to provide basic education for all children. While there has been remarkable progress worldwide in giving millions of children, including girls, access to primary education, 75 million children never receive any schooling, primarily girls and children in conflict zones. Governments usually provide basic education, but since many of these children are in “weak states,” much of the discussion focused on the role of nongovernmental schools and organizations in reaching the hardest to reach and on the need for schools to be declared “protected zones” in times of conflict.
Quality of Education
Although the size of education systems has increased enormously in recent decades, the quality has not. Therefore, in higher education, summit participants addressed the role of accreditation systems in improving quality in higher education, making education more relevant in the dynamic global knowledge economy, and moving from measuring inputs to outputs. In elementary and secondary education, the growth of international assessments has increasingly led countries to compare themselves to emerging global standards of excellence and to examine how their education systems can emulate the effectiveness of the highest performing education systems.
In keeping with the summit’s emphasis on innovation, central themes included using technology to increase access, improve performance, and promote a new conceptualization of education. For example, in Brazil, a distance learning initiative transmits live classes via videoconference to 25,000 students in 700 secondary school classrooms throughout the remote reaches of the Amazon forest. In sub-Saharan Africa, a consortium of 15 universities in nine countries delivers open educational resources to almost one quarter million teachers, many of whom are not formally trained.
And in India, the provocative “hole in the wall” experiments, in which computers are installed in walls in slum areas and left for children to use unsupervised, show just how much children can learn on their own, without teachers, in “self-organized learning environments.” There was also lively debate about the potential educational uses of Twitter, videogames, and, especially, mobile phones, which now have four billion customers around the world (compared with 1.5 billion e-mail accounts).
Given this huge penetration of mobile phones, could strong educational applications be developed so that poorer countries can leapfrog the lack of Internet access?
Finally, there was widespread recognition that the content of education itself needs to change--that a global world requires a global education. Echoing Confucius’ sentiment that “It is better to take a journey of 10,000 li than to read 10,000 books,” there was agreement that more students need to study outside their own countries. Currently, only about 2% of higher education students do so. Migration and increasing diversity within countries also require that schools, from kindergarten on, teach tolerance and respect for other cultures and faiths.
And the rapid pace of globalization is causing countries everywhere to recognize that their young people need to be more globally minded and to ask: What should all education systems teach their young people about other cultures, languages, and global challenges? How can education bring the world to students and students to the world? Overall, the summit made a convincing case that significant rethinking of education is needed. All nations share an interest in creating more effective education systems that provide access and high-quality education for all students, that capitalize on emerging technologies for learning anywhere and anytime, and that are responsive to the 21st-century context of an interconnected global economy and rapidly emerging global society. The WISE Initiative and annual summit were attempts to provoke some answers to the questions that concern all nations.
Author: Vivien Stewart
Originally published on pdkintl.org.
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From your child’s first birthday to the time they turn four years old, there is a lot they will learn. They will be developing new skills, continue to improve upon the ones they already have, and taking in the world around them. Young children learn by observing the world around them and testing their skills. But parents can also help with their toddler’s development.
At Yellow Brick Road Early Childhood Development Center, we work hard to ensure that our programs help your child learn and develop as much as possible. We create stimulating environments and provide fun activities that allow your child to reach important developmental milestones. While our child care center is still open with more precautions put in place, we know that some families are choosing to stay home.
We wanted to provide some tips for helping your toddler with their learning and development. If you are choosing to keep your children home at this time, these tips can help you keep your little one learning and growing, while reaching those milestones. Even if your children are still coming into our classrooms to learn, you can use these tips at home to help improve their development and learning.
In this blog, we are going to talk about some ways you can help your toddler learn and develop. Read on to learn more!
Toddlers can learn and develop a lot through different types of play. From games to imaginary play, there are many lessons that your little one can learn from simply playing. While you may think they are just having a tea party with the queen, their little brains are developing and they are learning new skills. Play with your toddler to help boost their learning and development. You can find age-appropriate learning games for even more help. Allowing them to play pretend can help stimulate their imagination.
Allow your toddler to work on art projects, crafts, and build with blocks or LEGOs. When you give your little one the tools they need to create, you can help boost creativity and allow them to develop new skills as well. Arts and crafts are great activities for toddlers to help them develop their fine motor skills. Crafts can also help your child explore different ideas, develop problem-solving skills, and more! Plus, you will be able to hang their artwork on your fridge.
Read and Talk
As your little one begins to learn and develop their language skills, one of the best things parents can do is read and talk to them. Even talking to your infant as if they understand what you are saying can help them develop language skills. Your toddler will understand more of what you are saying and will be able to respond. Talk to them regularly throughout the day. Tell them about your day and ask them about theirs. You can teach them proper responses and help them learn more about language.
Reading is another great activity that can teach your children and develop their language skills. Reading to them daily can help them develop their vocabulary, teach them about conversation and communication, develop their social-emotional skills, and so much more. This is also a great way to help them learn how to read on their own!
As your child grows older, they will need to develop some independence at one point or another. Allowing your child to try things themselves helps them learn how to be more independent and gives them an opportunity to fail, which is important for a toddler’s development as well. If your little one wants to try getting dresses on without your help, let them. They will likely come out of their room wearing the craziest outfit possible, but this is a great way to help them develop a sense of independence and learn how to do things on their own.
Have them clean up their toys on their own, put their plate in the sink, and do other tasks. When you allow your child to do things without jumping in to help them when they are doing it wrong allows them to build confidence as well.
Toddlers learn a lot through trial and error and you can help them learn by encouraging this. Set up activities for your toddler that allows them to experiment and try different things for different outcomes. Get them toys that allow them to experiment and problem solve. These types of toys and activities can allow your child to begin to understand cause and effect.
It might be really hard allowing your child to do what they need to do to learn and develop sometimes. From continuously throwing their toys off their high chair to hear what sound it makes to trying to put their dish in the sink only to spill it everywhere, it can be easier to take the toy away or clean up yourself, but this doesn’t help their learning. Sometimes you just need to be a little patient and let them work things out on their own. Even allowing them to dress themselves can take longer than you had hoped, but it allows them to learn independence and helps them develop new skills.
These are a few of the many things you can do to help your toddler learn and develop. Whether you are choosing to stay home at this time or your little one is still attending our programs, doing these things can help your toddler as they grow.
Be sure to contact Yellow Brick Road Early Childhood Development Center to learn more about our programs. We have locations in Plymouth, Minnetonka, Maple Grove, and Eden Prairie.
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Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Leon Max Lederman
Leon Max Lederman, (born July 15, 1922, New York, New York, U.S.—died October 3, 2018, Rexburg, Idaho), American physicist who, along with Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger, received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1988 for their joint research on neutrinos.
Lederman was educated at the City College of New York (B.S., 1943) and received a Ph.D. in physics from Columbia University, New York City, in 1951. He joined the faculty at Columbia that same year and became a full professor there in 1958. He was director of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois, from 1979 to 1989.
From 1960 to 1962, Lederman, together with his fellow Columbia University researchers Schwartz and Steinberger, collaborated in an important experiment at the Brookhaven National Laboratory on Long Island, New York. There they used a particle accelerator to produce the first laboratory-made beam of neutrinos—elusive subatomic particles that have no detectable mass and no electric charge and that travel at the speed of light. It was already known that when neutrinos interact with matter, either electrons or electron-like particles known as muons (mu mesons) are created. It was not known, however, whether this indicated the existence of two distinct types of neutrinos. The three scientists’ work at Brookhaven established that the neutrinos that produced muons were indeed a distinct (and previously unknown) type of neutrino, one which the scientists named muon neutrinos. The discovery of muon neutrinos subsequently led to the recognition of a number of different “families” of subatomic particles, and this eventually resulted in the standard model, a scheme that has been used to classify all known elementary particles.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
neutrinoThe American physicists Leon Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, and Jack Steinberger received the 1988 Nobel Prize for Physics for having established the identity of muon-neutrinos.…
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory…team led by American physicist Leon Lederman, studying the results of 400-GeV proton-nucleus collisions in the original main ring, discovered the first evidence for the upsilon meson, which revealed the existence of the bottom quark. The bottom quark, the fifth quark to be detected, is a member of the third…
Higgs boson…the title of Nobel physicist Leon Lederman’s
The God Particle: If the Universe Is the Answer, What Is the Question?(1993), which contained the author’s assertion that the discovery of the particle is crucial to a final understanding of the structure of matter.…
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The Maths and Science CoP’s first session for 2018 explored the exciting possibility of using Virtual Reality (VR) in the classroom.
The talk and demonstration by Richard McAdam of The Virtual Space brought a new dimension to the CoP’s continuing exploration of technology in education, and gave participants an opportunity to experience VR applications that are already available, or are soon to become available.
Richard believes that VR and education are a natural fit, and that VR has great potential to improve education in Africa. VR offers highly engaging and interactive experiences that make learning accessible, effective, and fun. It merges technology and creativity to create illusions that offer a range of experiences and learning that learners would not be able to get in any other way. Imagine being inside a three-dimensional beating heart, or watching the planets revolve around the sun in the centre of the classroom!
Two apps with great educational content that are currently available are Discover South Africa and Google Expeditions.
Discover South Africa, on Google StreetView, is a collection of panoramas of the country’s national parks. Some provide 360 degree views around a central point, while others allow one to follow hiking trails. Discover South Africa can be viewed using a smartphone based headset (for high resolution) or simply on a computer at https://www.google.com/streetview/#discover-south-africa
Google Expeditions is a library of high-quality content designed to be used in the classroom. It contains over 700 panoramas of a wide variety of subjects such as space, history, science, the ocean, nature and the human body. While the app is free, learners need smartphone-based headsets to view the panoramas and the teacher needs an Android tablet. The teacher downloads the panorama before the lesson and controls the experience. The teacher sees the panorama on the tablet, as well as ‘smiley faces’ which show where the learners are looking, and uses arrows to direct their attention to points of interest. The tablet view includes notes on the topic of the panorama, as well as questions and answers.
Google Expeditions can be used in classrooms without internet, with up to 8 learners at a time. With external wifi in the classroom and a router, up to 30 connections are possible.
More information can be found on Richard’s website: https://virtualrealitysystems.co.za. Richard can also be contacted for advice or to arrange demonstrations.
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Implications of CladisticsUNDERSTANDING BRANCHING DIAGRAMS
The output from a phylogenetic analysis is a hypothesis of relationship of different taxa. This hypothesis can be represented as a cladogram, a branching diagram. Cladograms bear a lot in common with the notion of family trees. In a family tree we trace back our ancestry. For example, in the family tree on the right, the ancestors of all the rest of the family are the initial black dot and yellow square. These ancestors give rise to three children, one of which mates and has two children. We can all trace our lineages back to one set of ancestors.
All species have ancestors too. So, for example, sometime in the past an ancestral species (father) of Homo sapiens walked the earth. This ancestor went extinct (died), but left descendent species (children).
In family trees, we can talk coherently about real ancestors. In biology, the ancestors are often gone sometimes without a trace. All we have left are the children. Reading cladograms is much like reading a family tree. Both are rich in information. Cladograms, like family trees, tell the pattern of ancestry and descent. Unlike family trees, ancestors in cladistics ideally give rise to only two descendent species. Also unlike family trees, new species form from splitting of old species. In speciation, it does not take two to tango. The formation of the two descendent species is called a splitting event. The ancestor is usually assumed to "die" after the splitting event.
In the first tree, labelled Cladogram A, notice the small circles. These mark the nodes of the tree. The stems of the tree end with the taxa under consideration. At each node a splitting event occurs. The node therefore represents the end of the ancestral taxon, and the stems, the species that split from the ancestor. The two taxa that split from the node are called sister taxa. They are called sister taxa because they are like the siblings from the parent or ancestor. The sister taxa must each be more closely related to one another than to any other group because they share a close common ancestor. In the same way, you are most closely related to your siblings than to anyone else since you share common parents. Lets focus on node C in Cladogram A. At the node, the ancestor goes extinct but leaves two siblings hypothesized to be humans and gorillas. Humans and gorillas are sister taxa and are more closely related to one another than either is to chimpanzees or baboons.
Working down the tree we come to node B. At this node the ancestor of the humans and gorillas split from the chimpanzees. Therefore the chimpanzees sister taxon is the human/gorilla ancestor. A sister taxon can be an ancestor and all its descedents. We call an ancestor plus all its descendents a clade. A cladogram shows us hypothesized clades.
Finally we come to node A. Here, we find the splitting event that led to the baboons and the ancestor to the chimpanzees, humans and gorillas. By working our way down the cladogram we have learned the pattern of splitting. We have found out that chimpanzees, humans and gorillas are more closely related to each other than to baboons. In this example, baboons are the outgroup.
Now, how in the world did we manufacture Cladogram A? We mentioned that it was a hypothesis. What if it we chose another hypothesis like Cladogram B or Cladogram C? We would change the pattern of speciation events. In Cladogram B, humans and chimpanzees are sister taxa and in Cladogram C, chimps and gorillas are sister taxa.
Which of the three cladograms presented above is correct? None of the cladograms can be proved correct, but Cladogram B is the best supported of the three based on character data and is therefore hypothesized to best reflect the true branching pattern.
Manufacturing cladograms which show hypotheses of ancestry and descent requires that we analyze characters and find those characters that unite clades.
Continue your journey by selecting one of the topics below.
Implications of Cladistics
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Raisins are one of the most popular food products among all age groups in the kitchen. The raisins are also considered highly beneficial for your health. Raisins are packed with important nutrients which are helpful for the body such as vitamins, minerals as well as electrolytes. It is also considered as an amazing source of energy. There are also a lot of raisins benefits which will be discussed later in the article.
Here we have tried to provide all the information about the raisins benefits along with its ideal consumption. Read on to get full details about how to make your own raisins naturally.
How to Make Raisins?
Raisins are the seedless grapes which go through the process of oxidation as well as caramelization of the sugars and gets its brown colour. Even though the raisins are sun-dried, they can be dehydrated artificially as well as water-dipped.
Raisins are very high in nutrition and contains various important nutrients. 1.5 ounce of raisins contains.
- Carbohydrates, 34 grams
- Calories, 129
- Protein, 1.3 grams
- Fat, 0.2 gram
- Sugar, 25.4 grams
- Fiber, 1.6 grams
- Potassium, 322 milligrams
- Iron, 0.8 milligram
- Vitamin B6, 0.08
- Magnesium, 14 milligrams
- Calcium, 22 milligrams
- Vitamin K, 1.5 micrograms
You can also make your own raisins.
- Baking tray
- Kitchen roll, baking paper or pillowcase
- Fresh seedless grapes
- Wash and dry the grapes gently.
- Spread the dried grapes on the baking tray and make sure that they are not touching each other.
- Cover the tray with the help of pillow case or baking paper.
- Ensure that it will not get blown away. You can also put some weight on it.
- Put the tray outside for the period of three days under the sunlight.
- You can bring the tray back at home of the nights are damp.
- Covering it with cloth prevents the bugs from entering in the grapes.
- The grapes will get dried and turn into raisins after drying.
- If there is any rotten grapes pull it out from the tray.
- The grapes will turn into the raisins due to the heat of the sun, which evaporates all the water from the grapes.
- It also triggers caramelization by heating up the sugar. ○ Raisins will be smaller as well as lighter than grapes due to the lack of water.
5 Health Benefits Of Raisins
Raisins are filled with important polyphenols, antioxidants, nutrients as well as flavonoids which are helpful in the improvement of overall health. Some of the major raisin benefits are listed below.
1. Reduces The Risk of Gum Diseases And Cavities
Even though raisins are filled with sugar, it is helpful in improving the health of teeth. Raisins are also helpful in reversing the cavities or tooth decay naturally. According to the study, it has been found that raisins are helpful in improving the oral health as it contains antimicrobial phytochemicals which help in eliminating the oral bacteria linked with dental cavities as well as gum diseases.
Some of these phytochemicals are filled with oleanolic acid which helps in killing the bacteria which causes cavities as well as gum diseases.
2. Aids Digestion
Raisins are high in fiber and act as a great food which helps in preventing digestive problems. As it helps in digestion, it also helps in reducing the risk of diarrhea as well as constipation. Soluble, as well as insoluble fiber in raisins, helps in keeping the things moving in the intestinal tract which is helpful in preventing constipation and also helps in eliminating the loose stools also.
Adding raisin in your diet also helps in the consumption of fiber, which is highly useful in weight loss. Thus, raisins also help in providing effective weight loss to the body.
3. Reduces Stroke Risks And Lowers Blood Pressure
The regular consumption of raisins helpful in lowering the blood pressure, according to a study done by a group of researchers. It is recommended to consume raisins to reduce the blood pressure significantly.
Along with the this, raisins are also helpful in preventing the potassium deficiency. Potassium is the vital mineral which is helpful in functioning of all cells, organs as well as tissues in the body. Enough potassium in the body helps in reducing the risk of stroke.
4. Manages Diabetes
Regular eating of dark raisins is helpful in the people who are suffering with type 2 diabetes for various reasons. It has been found in a study that raisin consumption reduces the glucose level in the patients with diabetes by 23 percent. Thus, raisins are considered as one of the best choice of snacks for the people with diabetes.
Also Read: Common Signs Of Diabetes You Should Know
5. Prevents Cancer
According to the studies, dried fruits such as dates, prunes as well as raisins contains high phenolic components as well as antioxidants which are helpful for overall body growth as well as development. These antioxidants are helpful are important as they prevent the free radicals which may cause damage inside the body.
Free radicals may also cause the sudden growth of cells which may result in cancer and thus the high-antioxidants foods are necessary for the body to provide natural cancer preventing treatment. It is also highly helpful in decreasing the cellular damage and prevents the growth of cancer.
How Much Raisins To Eat Per Day?
One of the most important reasons to consume raisins it is is highly helpful in getting recommended nutrients for the body. According to the experts, women are recommended to consume at least 1.5 cups of fruit daily and men should consume 2 cups of raisins each day.
As mentioned earlier, consumption of a box of raisins is helpful getting around 129 calories for the body.
Side Effects Of Raisins Consumption?
It is important not to go beyond the recommended intake of raisins as it contains sugar which may increase the sugar level in your body. Along with this, raisins are also helpful in increasing the level of carbohydrates in the body.
You may suffer from asthma as well as various other allergic reactions if you have sulfur sensitivities due to the raisins treated with sulfur dioxide. It is recommended to read the information on the packaging carefully. You should always use natural sun-dried raisins to eliminate sulfur.
You should also not give raisins to your dog as although it is unclear, according to the experts, raisins consumption causes kidney failure in dogs.
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Gabriola’s parks and reserves
Gabriola has several different types of parkland: BC provincial parks, Regional District of Nanaimo (RDN) parks (ranging from large community parks to tiny neighbourhood “pocket” parks), and Nature Reserves managed by the Islands Trust Conservancy.
What’s the difference between a park and a reserve?
In answer to GaLTT’s query about the difference between a park and a reserve, Kate Emming (an Ecosystem Protection Specialist for the Islands Trust Conservancy, then called Islands Trust Fund) wrote:
“The philosophy behind the distinction is in the intended primary use of the land. The Islands Trust Fund Nature Reserves are intended to be for the conservation of the natural values of the land rather than for public recreation and use. A good comparison comes from the BC Parks system which has “parks” and “Ecological Reserves.” Our Nature Reserves are closer to an “Ecological Reserve.”
Whether nature reserves are open to the public is variable. The ITC recognizes the importance of human access to nature, so many reserves do not restrict access, though they are not promoted as destinations because there is a desire to keep usage light for ecological reasons. Other reserves are closed to the public and managed solely for their ecological values.
Click the link boxes below to go to specific park categories…
Visit our Trails and Maps page for details on walks in parks and elsewhere, and our Landscape pages for information on the ecology and geology represented in our parks.
Gabriola has three provincial parks, all with beaches. None of them allow overnight camping, but they all have picnic areas.
At the southeast end of the island is 20-hectare (49-acre) Drumbeg Provincial Park, established in 1971. The Government website describes it as “a favorite spot for diving, hiking, nature viewing, and picnicking”. Much of the park is forested, but one end of the park overlooks Gabriola Passage, which has extremely strong tidal currents, and there are picnic tables and pit toilets close to a swimmable sandstone beach not far from the parking lot.
The park has a Garry Oak meadow system with camas lilies, which became badly invaded by Scotch broom and Himalayan blackberry. GaLTT volunteers have been working hard with provincial staff to rid the park of these invasive plants over the last few years and are now working to restore the meadow. The edges of the forest have also become infested with periwinkle and toxic Giant Hogweed.
Gabriola Sands (Xwcumi:lucun)
Gabriola Sands is locally called Twin Beaches, because it fronts onto both Taylor Bay (facing Nanaimo) and Pilot Bay (facing the Georgia Strait and mainland mountains). This 6-hectare (15-acre) park is in an area long used by Gabriolans and visitors for picnics. The government website describes it as “an ideal place to relax and enjoy a picnic or swim“. The isthmus with its sandy beaches is unusual in the Gulf Islands, and provides an important ecosystem for migratory birds.
It became a park in 1960, before the Twin Beaches subdivision was developed, but it has been a gathering place for time immemorial because it is on the site of a significant Snuneymuxw First Nations village. Pilot Bay is where the Spanish explorers’ ships arrived in 1791 and 1792.
The park has safe, sandy beaches, picnic tables, a grass playing field, and pit toilets. GaLTT and Lions Club volunteers upgraded the parking lot, trail surfaces, picnic table, and outhouse on the Pilot Bay side in 2021 to make them wheelchair (and stroller!) accessible.
In 12-hectare (29-acre) Sandwell Provincial Park, a steep forested trail leads down to a long sandy beach on Lock Bay, looking out across the Strait of Georgia. The park was established in 1988 to protect a shell midden and a petroglyph that can be approached only at low tide. There are picnic tables and pit toilets near the lovely swimmable (no lifeguards!) beach.
Please note that the saltmarsh behind the beach, which provides important bird habitat, is on private land.
RDN Parks Services administers regional and community parks and reserves on Gabriola Island for the Regional District of Nanaimo. Our electoral area is Area B, which includes Gabriola, Mudge, and De Courcy Islands. Our area’s Parks and Open Spaces Advisory Committee (POSAC) includes community representatives, and has a program of park development and maintenance.
Regional Parks are created and designated to serve the whole region within which they reside. Coats Marsh and Descanso Bay are the only Regional Parks on Gabriola.
Community parks are acquired through land development, purchases, donation, or transfer of crown land from the province. Each electoral area in the RDN can have community parks, but their park budgets vary. Gabriola currently has 27 community parks, six of which are waterfront parks. Two (Cox and 707 Park) are significantly large, but most are very small “pocket parks“—the smallest being only 0.1 hectare (0.25 acre).
Most often, pocket parks result from agreements to provide some green space when subdivisions are built. Usually they are left in a wild state, but sometimes neighbours “adopt” them, keeping them trimmed and free of nuisance plants. In 2020/21 a great deal of work was done by neighbours and GaLTT volunteers to remove a huge infestation of Daphne laurel from the several small, well-used community parks along Whalebone Drive.
In 2002, after a successful referendum, the RDN borrowed $500,000 to purchase from the Coastal Community Credit Union the land now called Cox Community Park. At the same time, they spent another $500,000 of regional park funds to buy what became Descanso Bay Regional Park. The two parks occupy the same roughly rectangular block of land although they are administered differently within the RDN.
707 Community Park
This wilderness recreation park is Gabriola’s largest at over 425 hectares (1052 acres). It is situated at the highest part of our island. It became possible when the Islands Trust and the RDN negotiated a density-transfer rezoning agreement in 2005 with three property owners, Glenna Borzuk, Don Gately, and Mike Jenks. The agreement transferred to the community approximately 707 acres (hence the name) of previously logged forest land in the centre of the island.
In 2018, another 138 hectares (341 acres) of adjacent land was added to the park through a density transfer agreement with land-owners Dr Bob Rooks and Brian Henning. In 2020, GaLTT contributed $57,000 to RDN’s acquisition of the small remainder parcel from the 2018 deal, which included the east end of Coats Marsh and much of its water catchment area, as well as more key connector trails.
Logged in the 1990s and early 2000s, the forest is being left to regenerate naturally while allowing safe trail access to walkers, cyclers, and horseriders. In 2019, RDN (with GaLTT volunteers’ help) installed 89 new numbered signposts at trail intersections to aid navigation in the complex trail system. The enlarged park has over 40 km of interconnected trails.
Note: There are no washroom facilities in this large park.
Coats Marsh Regional Park
This 45-hectare (111-acre) parcel of forest and wetland is situated south of 707 Community Park, connecting directly to it. It was acquired from the Coats family in 2008 through a partnership between the Nature Trust of BC, the RDN, and the BC Trust for Public Lands. It has a significant wetland and a rare stand of coastal Douglas Fir. There is a substantial beaver dam near the west end of the marsh pond. Access points to the marsh are shown in the map below of 707 Community Park. Gabriolan Nick Doe studied the area closely and regularly between 2015 and 2020. Click the following links to download his findings about the park’s flora, fauna, and geology.
MANAGEMENT PLAN: The management plan developed by the RDN says the following about the park’s historical and ecological significance:
“Prior to its designation as a Regional Park, Coats Marsh RP was a parcel of farmland owned by the Coats family and known locally as the Stump Farm. Recognizing the significant conservation value of the property, Clyde Coats donated half the value of the current Coats Marsh RP parcel to The Nature Trust of BC (TNT) through the Environment Canada Ecological Gift’s program.
Although Coats Marsh Regional Park is largely undeveloped with a limited formal trail system and signage close to the water, evidence of the park’s history and former uses are found throughout the site. An old, abandoned barn and a small log cabin* located in the northeast corner of the park (the ‘Stump Farm’) remembered by local residents as the site of a commune in the 1960s and 1970s.”
*Note: In 2016/8 the RDN demolished the Stump Farm barn and cabin to allow the site to reforest naturally.
HISTORY: Aula Bell and Neil Aitkin wrote in “Gabriola Placenames” that John Olsen cut poles along the Akenhead Trail before buying the Gabriola land that became Stump Farm, and cutting poles there. In the early 1940s, a major forest fire destroyed his pole pile and he sold the land to Bill Coats who blasted a slot to drain the marsh.
Coats Marsh is slowly recovering from human activities including logging, burning, drainage, and flooding, and is again a peaceful place where indigenous plants and widlife thrive. In September 2021 the RDN Parks Department (with the approval of the Nature Trust of BC) installed syphons to bring down the water level following several years of successful beaver dam-building.
Cox Community Park
Community involvement in Cox Community Park’s development was formalized in June 2003 with the inauguration of Electoral Area B’s Parks and Open Spaces Committee (POSAC). This was the year before GaLTT’s formation. Community members (many of whom became founder members of GaLTT) worked with the RDN to create a new 400-metre section of trail connecting a new park entrance at River Place with the existing main park trail to Taylor Bay Road. Read here a more detailed history of Cox Park’s early days.
In the Fall of 2004, newly formed GaLTT worked with community volunteers and the RDN to clear a new “YOGI Trail” parallel to Taylor Bay Road, and it opened the following spring. (“YOGI” stands for Youth of Gabriola Island and they were responsible for the boulder-built figure overlooking Taylor Bay Road in that area.)
In 2014, GaLTT opened a new trail loop at the south side of the park giving a view of the man-made lake on an adjoining property and following the upper part of Mallett Creek. GaLTT continues to help maintain trails and build boardwalks throughout the park, and provide signage. In recent years they have also installed a couple of resting benches on Mallet Creek and Yogi trail loops.
Descanso Bay Regional Park and Campground
This 16-hectare (40-acre) oceanside park has Gabriola’s only public campground with forested tent and RV sites. There are gently sloped sandstone beaches in three coves that are sandy at low tide, offering abundant oysters. There are good trails through its forests, and because it is adjacent to Cox Community Park, the trail system extends inland. In recent years the day-use beach area has had accessibility improvements made to the parking, outhouses, and picnic tables. Beach accessibility remains problematic because of large seasonal driftwood logs.
Huxley Recreational Community Park
RDN Parks website reports: “Huxley Park was created in 1987, as a result of the development of Folklife Village. The Gabriola Recreation Commission Association (which ultimately became the Gabriola Island Parks and Recreation Commission and then the Huxley Park Sports Association) leased the green space from Brenda Huxley and coordinated the construction of the tennis courts in 1989. The sport court was built by volunteers and completed in 1994. The Huxley Park Sports Association, with help from the Ball Hockey club continued to monitor and maintain the Park until it was donated to the Regional District of Nanaimo as a community park in 2011. …A new playground space with equipment for both the 2-5 and 5-12 age groups was completed in November 2017. This initiative was made possible through contributions from the Gabriola Lions Club and by the Community Fund for Canada’s 150th, a collaboration between the Nanaimo Foundation, the Government of Canada, and extraordinary leaders from coast to coast to coast.”
A long-awaited skateboard facility was opened at Huxley Park in the summer of 2022 and immediately became a beloved and much-used amenity.
Joyce Lockwood Community Park
“Whalebone Beach” at Joyce Lockwood is a favourite destination for locals and visitors alike. Cobblestone at high tide with rocky areas, it has a large sandy beach that is excellent for swimming at low tide. Access is by rough trails leading down from the trail running above the beach. At low tide you can walk back along the shoreline to connect to other Whalebone area pocket park accesses—look for yellow markers.
Rollo McClay Recreational Community Park
The Rollo McClay Community Park was created in 1990 as part of a residential subdivision. It is on the north side of Gabriola and is accessed from McClay Way. Trails in the park connect the parking lot to Horseshoe Way, McClay Way, and Ritchie Road. Its ball-field and concession stand were operated and maintained by Gabriola Island residents until the Regional District acquired the 7.8-ha (19-ac) park later in the 1990s. Potable water is supplied to park users in the concession building. For information on booking the park, please contact RDN Parks at 1-888-828-2069.
There are also numerous “pocket parks” all around Gabriola Island. Some, like the one near the school-bus shelter on South Road downhill from the Community Hall, are quite tiny. Paisley Park is close to the village centre and connects the school grounds via a “linear park” trail north to the new park west of the clinic. Most often, pocket parks result from agreements to provide some green space when subdivisions are built. Usually they are left in a wild state, but sometimes neighbours “adopt” them, keeping them trimmed and free of nuisance plants. In 2020/21 a great deal of work was done by neighbours and GaLTT volunteers to remove a huge infestation of Daphne laurel from the several small, well-used community parks along Whalebone Drive.
Nature Reserves are managed with conservation as the primary goal, which means that some recreational uses may be limited and in some cases they may be closed to the public. There are three Nature Reserves on or near Gabriola, all managed by the Islands Trust Conservancy. Only one of them is open to the public.
Link Island Nature Reserve is located between Mudge and DeCourcy Islands. It is closed to the public so that it can provide sanctuary to the rare and threatened ecosystems and species that reside here. It was Betty Swift’s wish that on her death the island then owned by her family be donated to ITC, but that Betty’s children and grandchildren may continue to use the cabin and island during their lifetimes.
ITC took ownership early in April 2022 and NALT invited GaLTT to join them as co-covenant holders. ITC is currently developing a Link Island management plan, which includes First Nations engagement.
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Benefits of strength training
Most of the medical recommendations regarding exercise refer mainly to aerobic exercise, what we call cardio: walking, running, cycling or even swimming have shown again and again to have a beneficial effect on cardiovascular health, mainly, but also about health in general, and with it about our life expectancy.
In comparison, strength training has received much less scientific attention so far, and less was known about its effect on our life expectancy.
So far: a recent study by the University of Sydney conducted on 8,000 adult volunteers reveals that doing simple strength exercises such as push-ups or squats without added weight reduces the risk of premature death from any cause by 23% and the risk of death by 31% for causes related to cancer.
No gym needed: train at home with your weight
“This study shows that exercise that promotes muscle strength can be as important to health as aerobic activities such as running or riding a bike,” explains one of the researchers. “And if we assume that our results show a cause-effect relationship, they can be even more important if we want to reduce the risk of death from cancer.”
The study also shows that strength exercises done with our own body weight, such as push-ups, sit-ups and squats, without the need for more equipment, are as effective as those that can be done in a gym.
This is important for people who feel intimidated by the idea of going to the gym or have no possibility to pay for them, because it shows that you can get the same benefits by training at home or in the park.
Cardio and strength are better than just cardio abdominal-strength training
This is the summary of the main conclusions of this study:
- Participating in any activity that enhances muscle strength is associated with a 23% reduction in mortality from any cause and 31% from cancer mortality.
- Exercises done with one’s own body weight and done in any flirt without special equipment has effects comparable to those performed in the gym.
- Following WHO recommendations on strength exercises is only associated with a reduction in the risk of death from cancer. Follow only the recommendations on aerobic exercise, no.
- Following WHO recommendations on both strength training and aerobic exercise is associated with an even greater reduction in mortality than following only recommendations on physical activity.
- No evidence of a relationship between strength exercises and mortality due to cardiovascular diseases has been found.
Our 30 days strength workout plan
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One photographer wants to show that the face of coal country might not be as white as you think.
The conventional portrayal of people who live in Appalachian coal country, a part of the United States that has ballooned in the national consciousness after its support for Donald Trump in the 2016 election, has generally focused on a few key characteristics: Rural, mostly poor and mostly white. Lynch, Kentucky, might fit the bill for the first two—but its racial diversity stands in stark contrast to the popular perception of Appalachia.
In the early 20th century, when the coal industry was booming across Appalachia, coal companies used labor agents to recruit a racially and ethnically diverse labor supply for the mines. Those efforts weren’t exactly progressive: For the companies, a demographically diverse workforce and the racism that likely followed hindered the formation of strong unions. So labor agents looked abroad to southern Europe and southward to Alabama, where they made arrangements to sneak poor black sharecroppers off their land and ferry them to the heart of coal country. Now, after a decades-long decline in the coal industry, many of those black families have left for urban centers on the coasts, leaving behind shells of former coal towns. Lynch, Kentucky, with its mere 800 residents left behind from the collapse of coal and the resulting out-migration, is one such community.
A scholar who focuses on Lynch, Kentucky, and other communities like it invited Sarah Hoskins, a photographer with experience documenting black communities in Kentucky, to visit the town of Lynch last year, and Hoskins came away with a picture of Appalachia that was much more complicated than what she had heard and read about the region. “I’ve had people come up to me and say, ‘Oh, I didn’t know there were black people in Appalachia,’” she says.
All photos by Sarah Hoskins.
Lynch is located in far southeastern Kentucky on the border with Virginia and was founded in 1917 by the U.S. Coal and Steel company. The company bought 19,000 acres for the town and built everything from houses and stores to a hospital and baseball field. At its peak, Lynch had about 10,000 residents, but is down to below 1,000 today. Above is a side road in Lynch.
Ever since Trump put on a hard hat and pretended to mine coal at one West Virginia rally, his promises to coal miners became a proxy for his promises to the newly scrutinized white working class. But coal miners have never been a racially homogeneous group. The Eastern Kentucky Social Club has long been at the center of African-American life in Lynch, and since 1970, it has hosted meetings for former and current black residents of the town to reunite and honor the contributions of black coal miners. As many as 1,500 people come to the annual meetings, held in Lexington. Above, a sign hangs outside of the club in Lynch.
Lynch's schools and entertainment venues were segregated until the late 1960s. Black and white miners worked together, but until a 1970 lawsuit, only white miners could be promoted to managerial positions.
Morning in Lynch, Kentucky.
Karida Brown, a sociologist at UCLA and descendant of black coal miners from Lynch, Kentucky, has spent years conducting oral history interviews with black residents and former residents of Lynch and the surrounding area. Her father Richard Brown attended the Lynch Colored Public School, pictured above, up until 10th grade, when the Lynch schools integrated. Two years later, in 1966, he graduated from Lynch High School.
When Hoskins was there, the church was celebrating the anniversary of the pastor at the Greater Mt. Sinai Baptist Church, and she shot the celebrations that took place.
"There’s been so much talk about—oh is everyone jumping in here and showing all these disparaging places and people," Hoskins says about national press coverage of Appalachia. "The people I met—the former miners—they were pumped up with pride when they talked about their work."
Above, Deacon Benny Massey and others pray for Rev. Hampton before the reverend's knee surgery. Hoskins was struck by the pride of the former coal miners like Massey she met while she was visiting for her project. "The first thing he said was he'd worked in the mine for 28 years and only two people had died in the mines," she says.
Lynch is located near Black Mountain, the highest point in Kentucky. The view from that mountain is pictured above.
Between 1950 and 1970, the population of Lynch dropped by about half as the biggest coal companies left town and jobs declined. Today, there are no working coal mines; the only mines still there are used as exhibitions. Like many coal towns across the region, Lynch and the two former coal towns nearby, Cumberland and Benham, is trying to chart a path forward that might include tourism.
Trump has made repeated promises to bring coal mining communities like Lynch back to their former glory. After signing legislation earlier this year that repealed regulations that protected waterways from coal mine waste, Trump promised the miners assembled around him that it would save thousands of jobs, "especially in the mines." While she was there, Hoskins got the impression that no one in Lynch actually believes coal mining jobs are coming back, despite those promises. "I mean, has Trump ever visited Lynch, Kentucky?" she asks.
Sarah Hoskins is an independent photographer based in Chicago and Lexington.
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A: There are 10 bat species that are said to be common in Colorado with almost 1,000 species found worldwide. The Big Brown, Hoary, and Little Brown bats are probably the most abundant in Colorado. Bats are the only mammals capable of flight. They make up a quarter of all mammal species, and have the second highest number of species of all mammal families - the rodent family is the largest.Little Brown bats, while hibernating, can reduce their heart rate to 20 beats per minute and can stop breathing for 48 minutes at a time. They can hibernate for more than seven months if left undisturbed. Some bats can lower their body temperature to just a few degrees above freezing while hibernating.A single Little Brown bat can catch hundreds of mosquitoes in an evening. A nursing Little Brown bat mother can eat more than her body weight nightly (up to 4,500 insects). As the primary predators of night-flying insects, bats play a vital role in maintaining the balance of nature. Bats species that will live in bat houses often eat insects that could damage crops.Providing bat houses can help build the populations of many valuable bat species including Little Brown and Big Brown bats. Bat houses provide places for bats to roost, hibernate and raise their young. The majority of bats that use bat houses are females who utilize them as nurseries for their young. Bats find houses by sight. If a house in the proper location, meets the requirements, and is needed, the bats will move in on their own.Bats are not carriers of rabies, and thus do not survive the disease nor harbor or spread it around for years like a true carrier would. Only about 0.5% of bats ever contract rabies, and usually only bite people in self-defense. Rabies in humans is very rare in the U.S. There are usually only one to two human cases per year. In the northern two-thirds of the U.S. and Canada, most bats migrate south in the winter. Most bats that inhabit bat houses will spend the winter in caves or mines.Fruit bats, like the Flying Fox, are responsible for scattering up to 95% of the seeds needed for new trees in tropical rain forests. Plants that are pollinated by bats only bloom at night. Bats are the main pollinator throughout most of the tropics and in many desert habitats. Many of the plants found in these areas would not survive without bats. Plants that are dependent upon the fruit bats include bananas, breadfruit, carob, avocados, dates, figs, peaches, cloves, mangos, cashew nuts and agaves.Bats have existed for almost 50 million years and the fossil remains of the earliest bats differ little from the skeletons of modern bats. Bracken Cave in Texas contains the largest bat colony in the world. This cave is home to as many as 20 million Mexican Free-tailed bats each summer. The largest urban bat colony is under the Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas. The bridge is home to about 1.5 million Mexican Free-tail bats...roughly one bat for every human resident of the city.Bats are not blind and have decent eyesight, but they rely mostly on their incredible sonar ability to find their way. By listening to the echoes of the high-pitched sounds that they make, bats are able to judge the size, distance and movements of everything in their path.Local bird expert Larry Collins owns Wild Birds Unlimited, 2454 Hwy. 6&50, which caters to folks who want the best backyard birdfeeding experience possible. Email your birdfeeding and birding questions to [email protected] and he'll answer them in his bi-weekly Q&A column in the Free Press.
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The Science Fiction of IPCC Climate Models
The human race has prospered by relying on forecasts that the seasons will follow their usual course, while knowing they will sometimes be better or worse. Are things different now?
For the fifth time now, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change claims they are. The difference, the IPCC asserts, is increased human emissions of carbon dioxide: a colorless, odorless, nontoxic gas that is a byproduct of growing prosperity. It is also a product of all animal respiration and is essential for most life on Earth, yet in total it makes up only 0.0004 of the atmosphere.
The IPCC assumes the relatively small human contribution of this gas to the atmosphere will cause global warming, and it insists the warming will be dangerous.
Other scientists contest the IPCC assumptions, on the grounds the climatological effect of increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide is trivial and the climate is so complex and insufficiently understood that the net effect of human emissions on global temperatures cannot be forecasted.
Climate Model Flaws
The computer models the authors of the IPCC reports rely on are complicated representations of the assumption that human carbon dioxide emissions are now the primary factor driving climate change and will substantially overheat the Earth. The models include many assumptions that mainstream scientists question.
The modelers have correctly stated they produce scenarios, not forecasts. Scenarios are stories constructed from a collection of assumptions. Well-constructed scenarios can be very convincing, in the same way a well-crafted fictional book or film can be.
The IPCC and its supporters promote these scary scenarios as if they were forecasts. However, scenarios are neither forecasts nor the product of a validated forecasting method.
The IPCC modelers were apparently unaware of decades of forecasting research. Our audit of the procedures used to create their apocalyptic scenarios found they violated 72 of 89 relevant scientific forecasting principles. Would you go ahead with your flight if you overheard two of the ground crew discussing how the pilot had skipped 80 percent of the preflight safety checklist?
Misleading Claims of Consensus
Thirty-nine forecasting experts from many disciplines from around the world developed the forecasting principles from published experimental research. A further 123 forecasting experts reviewed the work. The principles were published in 2001. They are freely available on the Internet, to help forecasters produce the best forecasts they can and help forecast users determine the validity of forecasts. These principles are the only published set of evidence-based standards for forecasting.
Global warming alarmists nevertheless claim “nearly all” climate scientists believe dangerous global warming will occur. This is a strange claim, in view of the fact more than 30,000 American scientists signed the Oregon Petition stating there is no basis for dangerous manmade global warming forecasts and “no convincing evidence” carbon dioxide is dangerously warming the planet or disrupting its climate.
Most importantly, computer models and scenarios are not evidence, and validation does not consist of adding up votes. Such an approach can only be detrimental to the advancement of scientific knowledge. Validation requires comparing predictions to actual observations, and the IPCC models have failed in that regard.
An Alternative Model
Given the expensive policies proposed and implemented in the name of preventing dangerous manmade global warming, we are astonished that there is only one published peer-reviewed paper that claims to provide scientific forecasts of long-range global mean temperatures. The paper is our own 2009 article in the International Journal of Forecasting.
Our paper examined the state of knowledge and available empirical (that is, actually measured) data, in order to select appropriate evidence-based procedures for long-range forecasting of global mean temperatures. Given the complexity and uncertainty of the situation, we concluded the “no-trend” model is the proper method to use. The conclusion is based on a substantial body of research that found complex models do not work well in complex and uncertain situations.
This finding might be puzzling to people who are unfamiliar with the research on forecasting. So we tested the no-trend model, using the same data the IPCC uses, since forecasting principles require models be validated by comparing them to actual observations.
To do this, we produced annual forecasts from one to 100 years ahead, starting from 1851 and stepping forward year-by-year until 1975, the year before the current warming alarm was raised. (This is also the year when Newsweek and other magazines reported scientists were “almost unanimous” in believing the Earth faced a new period of global cooling.) We conducted the same analysis for the IPCC scenario of temperatures increasing at a rate of 0.03 degrees Celsius (0.05 degrees Fahrenheit) per year in response to increasing human carbon dioxide emissions.
More Accurate Results
This procedure yielded 7,550 forecasts for each method. The findings?
Overall, the no-trend forecast error was one-seventh the error of the IPCC scenario’s projection. They were as accurate as or more accurate than the IPCC temperatures for all forecast horizons. Most important, the relative accuracy of the no-trend forecasts increased for longer time horizons. For example, the no-trend forecast error was one-twelfth that of the IPCC temperature scenarios for forecasts 91 to 100 years ahead.
Our research in progress scrutinizes more forecasting methods, uses more and better data, and extends our validation tests. The findings strengthen the conclusion there are no scientific forecasts that predict dangerous global warming.
Government Agendas Contradict Science
Is it surprising the government would support an alarm lacking scientific support? Not really. In our study of situations analogous to the current alarm over global warming, we identified 26 earlier movements based on scenarios of manmade disaster, including the global cooling alarm in the 1960s to 1970s. None of them was based on scientific forecasts. And yet, governments imposed costly policies in response to 23 of them. In no case did the forecast of major harm come true.
There is no support from scientific forecasting for an upward trend in temperatures, or a downward trend. Without support from scientific forecasts, the global warming alarm is baseless and should be ignored.
Government programs, subsidies, taxes, and regulations proposed as responses to the global warming alarm result in misallocations of valuable resources. They lead to inflated energy prices, declining international competitiveness, disappearing industries and jobs, and threats to health and welfare.
Humanity can do better with the old, simple, tried-and-true no-trend climate forecasting model. This traditional method is also consistent with scientific forecasting principles.
Kesten C. Green is a senior lecturer at the University of South Australia in Adelaide and is director of the major website on forecasting methods, www.ForecastingPrinciples.com. J. Scott Armstrong teaches at the University of Pennsylvania and has published 12 peer-reviewed articles on forecasting. Willie Soon of Salem, Massachusetts is a solar and climate scientist who has been frequently published in the peer-reviewed literature. Copies of the authors’ climate forecasting papers are available at www.PublicPolicyForecasting.com.
“Validity of climate change forecasting for public policy decision making,” International Journal of Forecasting, 2009, http://www.kestencgreen.com/gas-2009-validity.pdf
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Bend is rapidly becoming known as a national bike Mecca. Our mountain biking trails and COTA’s collaborative work with the Forest Service have received recognition as a national model. The city hosts dozens of road & cyclocross races. Oregon is the first state to begin designating state-recognized scenic bikeways, several of which are in Deschutes County. Bend residents value active lifestyles and see it as a part of the regional character. Yet, despite this emerging world class reputation for biking, few people use bikes as a regular method of commuting, running errands, or going out to see friends.
We believe that this is in part because of a lack of quality urban bike infrastructure and in part because of a lack of strong urban bike culture.
New innovations in bike friendly urban infrastructure have emerged in the past few years. Recent research has shown that some of these ideas are having a significant effect on increasing the use of bikes for urban transportation. Cities like Portland, and Minneapolis, with far less native reason to be the top bike cities of the nation are taking the lead in implementing these ideas. Given our existing bike culture, small size, relatively flat topography, and dry climate, Bend is ideally positioned to be as much of a national leader in urban biking as it is in all the other forms of biking.
Becoming a world class leader in urban biking would provide important economic, social and environmental benefits to our citizens.
Economic Benefits: High quality urban biking infrastructure would encourage more tourism and give the tourists who are already coming a better experience. Visitors to Bend are often attracted by the active lifestyles and would have a better experience if they felt they could comfortably ride throughout town. As Bend grows in reputation as a bike-Mecca, the share of visitors bringing bikes to town is growing.
Service workers, who make the Bend visitor experience, would also be benefited. Being able to forgo a car could save workers up to $8,000 per year most of which would go back into our local economy benefiting local business owners. Because Bend is home to no car manufacturers, oil companies, or insurance companies, none of the money paid to these institutions benefits our local economy.
Long term road maintenance costs would be reduced. Miles traveled by bike have a much smaller impact on roads than miles traveled by car. Every car we take off the road extends the life time of our roads.
Social Benefits: America is currently experiencing an epidemic of diseases related sedentary lifestyles. Diseases such as obesity, diabetes and heart disease are putting a huge burden on federal, state and local healthcare systems as well as private insurance premiums. The fewer people with these diseases the less health care will cost all of us. Active transportation is an easy way to get exercise into a busy lifestyle, and exercise has been shown to be the most effective way of avoiding these devastating diseases. Although active transportation options may not cure people who are already sick, creating a culture of active transportation is likely to reduce their incidence in the future.
Further, making car-free living a pragmatically viable option for commuting and errands would be a huge benefit to all our citizens living at or below the median income. Cars can be extremely expensive to maintain. Providing people with few financial means an option for self-reliance is an important investment in social equity.
Environmental Benefits: Miles traveled by bike have fewer environmental impacts than miles traveled by car. Bikes create virtually no greenhouse gases, smog or other air pollution. Bikes release virtually no oil, anti-freeze or other chemicals into our waterways. Because bikes require no fuel (except a hearty breakfast) they are responsible for virtually none of the environmental impacts of mining petroleum like the BP oil spill, or the open pit mines removing the Canadian tar sands. Finally, the natural resources required to make or dispose of bike parts, especially tires, is substantially smaller.
We have a two-pronged strategy.
- Policy & Funding Advocacy at the state and local government levels: Although local and state funding sources all agree in theory that more funding should be allocated to active transportation, we believe that active transportation is chronically underfunded because of a lack of strong advocacy at the key decision making points. We plan to identify key decision makers and key decision points in state and local funding cycles, and ensure that we send well educated, politically effective individuals to advocate on behalf of better bike infrastructure at all key opportunities.We also plan to help decision makers, especially elected officials, understand the high level of the political support for better bike infrastructure in Bend. We plan to become a high-profile membership organization that speaks on behalf of a large coalition of Bend citizens. We hope that creating clear vocal, political support for better bike infrastructure will lead to greater funding.One possible avenue for raising this level of awareness would be creating a visionary Citizen’s Bike Transportation Plan, which would replace the existing chapter on bike lanes in the current Bend Transportation Plan.
- Making Urban Bike Culture Fun: Creating a culture of fun. We plan to hold several events encouraging a vibrant urban cycling community.
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UEN Security Office
Technical Services Support Center (TSSC)
Eccles Broadcast Center
101 Wasatch Drive
Salt Lake City, UT 84112
(801) 585-6105 (fax)
Social Studies - Kindergarten
Standard 2 Objective 1
Students will learn what the characteristics of a hero are.
The teacher needs to have an understanding of the characteristics of a true hero. When choosing books for this lesson make a conscious effort to include people from culturally diverse backgrounds.
Demonstrate a positive learning attitude.
Begin the lesson activity by asking the students if they know what a hero is. List the different traits of what the children on the board.
After brainstorming ideas of what a hero is, read the story Maxi, The Hero. Throughout the story, ask the children if Maxi (the main character in the story) has any of the traits they listed on the board.
Upon finishing the story, talk about the true traits of a hero that were described in the story about Maxi. Assess if the children's idea of what a hero is has changed. Add new ideas (or take some away) from the list previously developed.
Share with the students who your hero is by sharing a picture and/or other artifacts that you have that show the true heroic traits your hero possesses.
Give the students time to look through books with true American hero's (use books from the provided list, or others you are aware of) to learn about the different American hero's.
As a homework assignment, have the students decide who their hero is. They can bring a picture or other artifacts to school to share with their classroom and add to the class "Hero Hall of Fame" (a bulletin board in the classroom or hallway).
Help student who may not have home support create a display for the "Hero Hall of Fame" at school rather than as a homework assignment.
To use other genres of literature, the teacher can introduce heroes from fairy tales or folklore.
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An ileostomy is a surgery to create an opening in your abdomen through which waste can be passed. The word “ileostomy” is formed from the words “ileum” and “stoma.” The ileum is the terminal segment of the small intestine, while a stoma is an opening. In an ileostomy procedure, the surgeon makes an incision in your skin and abdominal wall and pulls a segment of your ileum through, attaching it to your skin to create a new opening. After an ileostomy, you will need to wear a small ostomy bag (also referred to as a pouch or appliance) under your clothes to collect waste, and change the bag several times a day. Approximately 1.5 million Americans have ileostomies.
An ileostomy may be temporary or permanent. Ileostomy is performed when the colon or rectum is not working properly due to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or surgery, or after a small bowel resection. An ileostomy may be created temporarily to allow healing after proctocolectomy with ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA) surgery. A permanent ileostomy may be created after total proctocolectomy with end ileostomy.
What does it involve?
Sometimes people with Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis require emergency surgery. Emergency surgery may become necessary if you experience a severe attack or bleeding that cannot be controlled with medication; if your bowel becomes perforated; or if you develop an intestinal stricture (blockage) or a condition known as toxic megacolon.
In less severe cases, people with IBD may choose elective surgery. One benefit of elective surgery is that it may be performed while you are in remission, which reduces the risk of complications and helps ensure that you are in the best condition to heal quickly. Elective surgery may be recommended for people whose symptoms are poorly controlled by medication, when there is increased risk for colorectal cancer, or if you have developed a fistula or abscess.
If your surgery is elective, take time choosing your surgeon and hospital. Ask your doctor for details about how long you will have the ileostomy and how to care for it. Make sure you understand all of your surgical options, and the risks and benefits associated with each. You may be able to decide with your surgeon where the ileostomy opening should be located on your abdomen.
Prepare yourself mentally and psychologically for the changes in your body after surgery by learning as much as you can. You can prepare physically by being in the best condition possible before surgery. Eat nutritiously and get plenty of sleep and exercise in the weeks leading up to the surgery. Finally, you can make plans with friends, family or church groups to get help with rides to and from the hospital and help with shopping, housework and childcare while you are recovering. Do everything you can in advance to reduce stress in the period after the surgery.
Depending on the extent of your surgery, you may stay in the hospital for as long as two weeks. After ileostomy surgery, a specialist nurse will teach you how to care for your wound and change the bags that collect your waste. Bags are small and light, and should not show through clothes. Most are fitted with filters to prevent smell.
While you finish your recovery at home, get plenty of rest. Take pain medications as needed. Carefully monitor for signs of complications. Call your doctor immediately if you experience swelling or redness in the surgical area. Avoid showers and baths and take sponge baths until your doctor has said you can resume your regular bathing routine.
You should be able to resume all of your normal activities after your doctor says healing is complete. The ileostomy bag will not become dislodged during exercise or sexual contact.
Eat regular meals to avoid excessive gas. You may decide to adapt your diet after ileostomy surgery. A low-fiber diet may be recommended for the first few weeks after surgery. Some foods, such as beans or eggs, may cause unwanted gas or smell. Foods such as popcorn, seeds, dried fruit, and raw cabbage may obstruct your stoma. Other foods including buttermilk, tomato juice, parsley and yogurt may help control smell. Foods high in pectin such as bananas, applesauce and peanut butter may help thicken your stool and prevent diarrhea.
You may need to change the format of your medications after ileostomy. Coated tablets and capsules may not be digested. Liquids and liquid gels are more easily absorbed.
If you have an ileostomy, always be sure to drink plenty of water. Since water is not removed from waste by the colon, your stools will be more watery, and it is easier to become dehydrated as a result.
An ileostomy may be a lifesaving procedure, or one that significantly increases your quality of life by sparing you many symptoms of IBD. A temporary ileostomy can allow your lower gut to heal between surgeries. A permanent ileostomy can allow you to lead a very normal life after major bowel surgery.
A 2012 survey asked 24 people with ileostomies and 35 people with IPAA surgeries for ulcerative colitis detailed questions about their quality of life. After completing a comprehensive study of their answers, researchers concluded that the quality of life between the two groups was virtually identical, although scores were slightly higher for people with IPAA in the areas of sexuality, body image, and work and social functions.
Any surgery carries risks including blood clots, blood loss, infection, breathing problems, reactions to medication, and heart attack or stroke during the surgery.
Possible complications of ileostomy surgery include infection, small bowel obstruction, problems with the stoma, and additional surgery to correct the stoma. Rarely, during surgery, abdominal bleeding or damage to nearby organs may occur. After surgery, some people experience poor healing of the wound, difficulty absorbing nutrients from food, and increased chances of dehydration.
Call your doctor if you have severe bleeding from the stoma or in the ostomy bag; if you have severe skin irritation, a deep cut or ulcers around the stoma; if you experience watery discharge from the stoma that lasts five or six hours; or if there is a sudden change in the color or shape of the stoma. Contact your doctor if you do produce waste, or produce only liquid, from your stoma for four to six hours and are also experiencing nausea and cramps. You may have an intestinal blockage.
Many people go through a period of adjustment as they adapt to changes in body image after receiving an ileostomy.
Some men may experience erectile dysfunction, and some women may experience pain during intercourse after an ileostomy, but these effects are temporary in nearly all cases. Most people are able to resume normal sexual activity.
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Take a self-guided tour from quantum to cosmos!
There is a pattern printed on the fabric of spacetime.
Each piece of the pattern looks, in two dimensions, like a circle surrounded by a ring – as if some cosmic hand had thrown pebbles into the dense early universe, creating splash-points and ripples – then suddenly froze the pond.
The pattern isn’t easy to spot. The circles and rings are subtle, and they overlap in complex ways. But, crucially, they are all the same size. That’s because the “freezing of the pond” – the change in state when the early universe went from a plasma of charged particles to a neutral soup of mostly hydrogen – happened everywhere at once. The light known as the cosmic microwave background was released in that instant, and without the light to scramble it, the circle-and-ring pattern of mass was frozen in place.
Since then, the circle-and-ring pattern has stretched out because spacetime itself is stretching – the way a pattern printed on a balloon will stretch as the balloon inflates.
This pattern is called the Baryon Acoustic Oscillation. A new project is setting out to map it – and in so doing, creating a powerful new tool for understanding the expansion of spacetime, and the mysterious dark energy that drives it.
The new project is called DESI, the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument – an international collaboration managed by the US Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. DESI’s five-year quest to understand the history and evolution of spacetime officially got underway May 17 at Kitt Peak National Observatory, near Tucson, Arizona, in the United States.
“DESI is a new scientific instrument, on a retrofitted telescope, that measures the distances to galaxies,” says Perimeter computational scientist Dustin Lang, who is one of the researchers who did the intense software work and data collection required to make DESI’s observations possible. There have been surveys of galaxies before – most recently the Sloan Digital Sky Survey – but DESI is more powerful than Sloan by a factor of 20.
“All the elements of DESI’s design are pushed toward doing a lot of measurements, fast,” says Lang. “We mass-produce galactic data.”
The instrument captures light from the telescope like a digital camera – but with two crucial differences. First, the camera is only interested in a few of the pixels in the image plane: the ones exactly corresponding to distant galaxies and quasars. To isolate them, tiny motors, guided by sophisticated software, position 5,000 fibre optic cables so that each one is aligned with a single galaxy.
Second, the instrument doesn’t simply capture light, it breaks light down like a prism breaking down a sunbeam, into a rainbow called a spectrum. “On a good night, we can get 5,000 spectra every 20 minutes,” says Lang. “Previous sky surveys collected about four million spectra in total – and we can get more than 100,000 a night.”
Adding depth to a billion-galaxy map
DESI’s official launch follows a truly staggering piece of prep work: the largest ever map of the sky, combining 1,400 nights of observation from three telescopes, and containing two billion stars and galaxies.
The map, called the Legacy Sky Survey, debuted at the January 2021 meeting of the American Astronomical Society, but if you missed it, you can browse it online. Allow some time: the massive map contains trillions of pixels.
It might seem reasonable to ask: if that’s the prep work, what’s left for DESI to do? The answer: the Legacy Sky Survey maps the angular position of its billion galaxies – that is, where they are on the sky in two dimensions. It’s this map that allows researchers to precisely point all 5,000 of those fibre optics. But as DESI surveys a subset of these galaxies in more detail, it will literally add a new dimension to the map: depth. It will measure how far away each targeted galaxy is.
Specifically, the DESI researchers will take a detailed spectral measurement of each galaxy. That data will let them assign each galaxy a redshift.
Redshift is a kind of doppler effect for light: when an object is moving toward you, the waves bunch up, creating higher frequency, bluer light. When an object is moving away from you, the waves stretch out, shifting the spectrum toward the red. Since the 1920s, it’s been known that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is receding. Distant galaxies are very red-shifted, nearer ones less so.
It’s also well understood that distant galaxies are distant not just in space, but in time. If the light from a distant galaxy takes, say, five billion years to reach Earth, then what we see is that galaxy as it appeared five billion years ago. By studying very red-shifted galaxies, we study the early universe.
In other words: DESI is a time machine.
Using spectra to slice the sky
DESI will collect data for five years. “We aim to observe on the order of 30 million galaxies,” says Will Percival, a Perimeter associate faculty member who is cross-appointed as a Distinguished Research Chair in Astrophysics at the University of Waterloo, where he is the director of the Waterloo Centre for Astrophysics.
Thirty million is only a subset of the one billion galaxies in the Legacy Sky Survey map, but it will be a tenfold improvement on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, which has collected about 3 million galaxy spectra in over 10 years of observations.
Also targeted are about 2.5 million quasars, which are bright objects found at the centre of some galaxies, powered by gas spiraling at high velocity into an extremely large black hole. Quasars are so bright that they outshine all the stars in their host galaxies, and they’re important in this context because they are the most distant objects DESI can image. Studying quasars will let DESI take a snapshot of the universe as it existed 11 billion years ago.
The big dataset of galaxies and quasars, each with redshifts assigned, will let researchers slice the sky into layers. Each layer represents a different moment in the universe’s history.
Circling back to the circles-and-rings
Once DESI has sliced the sky into layers of time, they can begin the tricky process of looking for the circle-and-ring pattern of the Baryon Acoustic Oscillation.
That’s the moment Percival and his team start looking to extract the cosmological signal from the galactic clustering. The signal will be subtle – looking out from one galaxy, you’re less than one percent more likely to find another galaxy on the ring pattern around it, rather than at slightly smaller or larger separations – so the big dataset is necessary. But on the bright side, Percival says, the technique they use is robust: “That means it’s insensitive to systematic errors – so that it’s very difficult to do the experiment wrongly.”
Researchers will look for the circle-and-ring pattern appearing at various points in the universe’s evolution, from 11 billion years ago to nearly the present day. They predict that they will see the pattern stretch out as spacetime itself stretches out: again, think of a pattern printed on a balloon.
Their ultimate goal is to study the history of that stretching. We know that spacetime stretches outward from the explosion of the big bang. We know that is it is pulled inward by its own gravity. Based on those two factors alone, one would expect the universe to either expand at a fairly constant rate, or for the expansion to be gradually slowing. But in 1998, scientists discovered that the expansion of spacetime is actually speeding up. Something extra is spreading out spacetime itself. Scientists named that extra something “dark energy.”
“This dark energy question is one of the most exciting questions in physics at the moment,” says Percival. “An analogy would be seeing the effects of electricity – the sparks and shocks – but not knowing the physics required to explain them. Without the physics, it would just seem like magic.”
DESI scientists will study how the circle-and-ring pattern stretches over time. It’s a new window into the history of dark energy.
The possibility of discovery doesn’t end there. It’s perhaps worth remembering that dark energy itself was discovered in a survey of distant galaxies. No one was looking for it – it emerged from the dataset as a complete surprise.
“Any time you undertake an experiment that is 10 or 20 times more powerful than you had before, you open up a huge amount of potential for new discoveries,” says Percival. “We might find something unknown, something that doesn’t follow our model of cosmology. Or a new kind of object, a new feature, something we haven’t seen before.
“We’re scientists – it’s the unknown that excites us.”
The DESI collaboration is honoured to be permitted to conduct scientific research on Iolkam Du’ag (Kitt Peak), a mountain with particular significance to the Tohono O’odham Nation.
The Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI), an international collaboration including Perimeter researchers, has broken all previous records of galaxy mapping — and it is just getting started.
An alum from the Perimeter Scholars International Class of 2013, Nicole Yunger Halpern is a young leader in the quest to reinvent thermodynamics for the quantum age.
Congratulations to Sonia Castro of Colombia, whose video on a “rave of hot particles” earned the most viewer votes in Perimeter’s inaugural Kitchen Wars contest.
Perimeter researchers looking deep into simulations of quantum computers have found something startling: new physics. Specifically, they found a new kind of phase transition, and a new tool for exploring dynamical phases of matter.
In this special webcast on Wednesday, Nov. 3 at 7 pm ET, physicist Manuel Calderón de la Barca Sánchez will share and discuss excerpts from Secrets of the Universe, an IMAX documentary co-produced by Perimeter.
Perimeter researcher Estelle Inack has developed a neural network that can help pick the best solution when problems are complex and many solutions are possible. Her paper was just published – and her start-up is just launching.
A new approach has made a quantum gravity tool called “spin foams” easier to work with. Calculations that once took weeks now take seconds, and simulations that can test the theory of loop quantum gravity are in reach for the first time.
Perimeter students and postdoctoral researchers had an opportunity to explore options and ask questions during two Trajectories events focused on academia and machine learning.
Physicist Naoko Kurahashi Neilson will share her experiences researching fundamental particles at the remote IceCube Neutrino Observatory in Antarctica.
When passionate science teachers get creative, they’ll use any tool at their disposal to share ideas — including the kitchen sink.
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English Courses at Museum School
At the NYC Museum School, students take a 4-year sequence in English Language Arts.
The theme for 9th grade English is, “Who am I?” Students read The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-In-The-Moon Marigolds, Things Fall Apart, Romeo & Juliet, Annie John, Great Expectations, and more.
The theme for 10th grade English is, “The Individual’s Place in Society.” Students read The Catcher in the Rye, Medea, Death of a Salesman, The Metamorphosis, The Stranger, Miguel Street, and more.
The theme for 11th grade English is “American Literature.” Among many samples of American literature of many genres, students read The Great Gatsby, Their Eyes Were Watching God, The Scarlet Letter, and more.
The theme for 12th grade English is “World Literature.” Students read Wuthering Heights, Macbeth, Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf, Beloved, The Picture of Dorian Gray, Dinner at the Homesick Restaurant, and more.
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What is Advaita philosophy?
Advaita is the clearest and most systematic expression we have found of the common philosophy that lies at the heart of many of the world’s great religions and philosophies. Meaning ‘one without a second’, it is a universal philosophy of great breadth. Its most central tenet is that everyone and everything are in essence the expression of one consciousness, irrespective of geography, race, religion or creed.
A true appreciation of Advaita allows life to be led more fully and happily, conferring greater freedom on the individual and those around him or her. It is designed to bring out the best in everyone, whatever the part they are playing.
Is it a religion?
No. Advaita does not stand in the place of religion. Rather, as many students in the School of a religious disposition have found, it has the capacity to expand and deepen an understanding of their own religion, whatever it may be. It is equally valuable for, and applicable to, those who practise no religion.
What is its history?
Advaita was first taught by Shankara, one of the greatest figures in Indian philosophy, who lived in the eighth century AD. He never claimed it as his own, rather proclaiming it as an eternal tradition.
The School was introduced to Advaita by a leading modern exponent in India, Shri Shantananda Saraswati.
Is Advaita effectively the main subject taught in the School?
Yes, for students who decide they wish to continue their studies in the School for more than 2-3 years. It has been found to be an inspiration and reference point for other studies. For example, one result of studying it can be an increase in clarity of mind and observation. As a result, it has helped to promote a flowering of interest among some of the School’s longer term students in other subjects, including art, architecture, astronomy, dance, education, medicine, music, poetry, renaissance studies, Shakespeare, business ethics, Plato, Sanskrit and Vedic mathematics. These are generally carried out in specially formed study groups, or are offered as lectures and workshops to the general public.
These studies, together with economics and other philosophical lines of enquiry such as Plato, are continually related back to the study and practice of Advaita philosophy as the source of the underlying guiding principles.
Does Advaita form the basis of the Introductory practical philosophy course?
The introductory course is inspired by the principles of Advaita, but the course is quite general, covering a wide range of philosophical ideas throughout the ages. It is designed primarily to arouse and foster a love of wisdom.
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How To Avoid The Flu and Boost Your Immune System
When cold-and-flu season arrives, it can seem challenging to stay healthy.
But don’t give up so easily, it doesn’t have to be impossible!
This article is actually a slightly updated version of an article posted way back in November 2015! Yes, that’s long before the outbreak and spread of the terrible Covid-19 virus. However, it’s interesting to see that even back then the number one of the tips to avoid the flu was: Wash your hands!
Now with the outbreak of Covid-19 that’s what we hear all the time, “wash your hands”, along with “social distancing” and “wear a face mask”.
I believe those 3 things can make a difference, additionally it’s important to boost your immune system with vitamins, antioxidants, other nutrients – and healthy habits.
Implementing healthy habits can go a long way to improve your chances to beat a cold or flu and stay healthy.
Here are 12 tips of healthy habits that can help to avoid the flu and boost a STRONG immune system:
1. Proper hand washing
Proper hand washing is the most effective way to avoid the flu and colds , Covid-19 included, and other infectious diseases as well. It’s the best habit you can do to avoid the flu, other viruses and keep germs at bay.
Wash your hands often: always before meals, always after going to the restroom (of course!!!), after coming home from shopping, school or from work and whenever you touch things that might be full of germs, for example door knobs, stair railings, magazines in waiting rooms, pets…
Proper hand washing means you should do it for at least 20 seconds, and “rub” all your fingers with soap and rinse!
You may not be aware that the common flu virus and also the Covid-19 can enter the body not only through your mouth and nose, but also the eyes. The best way to avoid this is therefore to steer clear of touching your face.
Quit meddling with your eyes, nose, ears, and putting your hands near your mouth. Just put simply, leave your hands down!
2. Get enough sleep
When you get a good night’s sleep, melatonin levels rise and that improves immunity.
To learn more, click here =>Melantonin
The best way to get a good night’s sleep is to go to bed at approximately the same time every night, and don’t look at blue screens (laptops, mobile phones, iPads etc) before going to sleep.
Also: keep your room cool and remove all artificial light sources from your bedroom to ensure the room is completely dark.
Most people need 6-8 hours a night of restful sleep.
=>>Interesting side note: Melatonin has in some cases been found to be useful for patients with COVID-19-related pneumonia, because of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Please note though that you should always consult with a doctor before testing any new supplements.
“…If you have acute respiratory distress, you want to boost your overall endogenous antioxidant systems, and the best way to do that is through Nrf2 activators, particularly melatonin.” Source: articles.mercola.com
3. Don’t share personal items
Don’t share personal items like lip balm, mascara, drinks, and other things that touch your face. If you don’t share your stuff, you don’t share germs.
Also: remember to regularly clean surfaces you touch often, like your phone, iPad, laptop keyboard and remote controls.
4. Stress and worry less
Don’t let stress and worrying get the better of you. Stress taxes the adrenals, the heart, and the entire immune system.
Constant worrying causes the stress hormones cortisol and epinephrine levels to rise, which can weaken the body’s overall immunity.
There is a risk that the immune system plummets when cortisol levels are chronically high.
When you feel stressed, take a brief, fast paced walk around your neighborhood. Meditation and other exercises can also help to manage stress and a worrying mind.
5. Eat an apple a day
I’m sure you’ve heard as a kid: “An apple a day keeps the doctor away”.
There is actually some truth in it. Red apples contain the natural antioxidant quercetin, which is known to strengthen the immune system.
If you don’t like or tolerate apples, you can also get it from e.g. red grapes, onions and green tea. You can also get it from high-quality nutritional supplements.
>>This is a special supplement with powerful, targeted ingredients providing massive support to supercharge and fortify your immune system: =>Influence
6. Drink plenty of water
Our bodies depend on water to survive. It’s is one of the key elements in sustaining life.
The human body consists of 60% water, so it only makes sense that staying hydrated properly can minimize your risk of becoming ill.
When you stay hydrated you assist your body in maintaining the proper harmony in cellular functioning. Water serves many functions, like removal of waste, cellular hydration, transportation of nutrients, flushing of toxins, regulate temperature and much more.
The average adult needs at a minimum approximately 64 ounces (approx. 2 litres) of water a day to avoid becoming dehydrated.
You may also find this interesting: =>Benefits of Hydrogen Water
7. Limit your alcohol intake
Some people believe that a shot of Whiskey after dinner supports their heart or can help fight a cold or a virus.
And red wine offers, according to some research, heart and other health beneficial properties such as antioxidants and resveratrol. It’s still important though to remember that alcohol also depletes nutrients and stresses the liver when enjoyed TOO much.
Therefore, make drinking an occasional pleasure and limit your total alcohol intake. =>Potential Benefits of Red Wine
8. Avoid sugar
This is easier said than done…. But do your best to limit your sugar consumption.
Eating or drinking too much sugar curbs immune system cells that attack bacteria. This effect lasts for at least a few hours after downing a couple of sugary drinks.
When you crave something sweet – try a healthier snack, a handful of nuts, sunflower seeds, almonds or a fruit.
Sugar messes with your blood sugar balance and it makes you want more. It adds empty calories, leads to weight gain and can cause inflammation.
9. Eat healthy fat
Your health and immune system depends on healthy fats. Like for example the omega fatty acids Omega-3 and Omega-6.
Moreover, healthy fat is needed to absorb the fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K. It’s also needed for the adequate use of protein, it slows the absorption of food, manages inflammation, and of course it makes food taste good and give you a feeling of fullness after meals.
Extra Virgin Olive Oil, Coconut Oil, organic butter from grass fed cows, wild-caught salmon and avocado are some examples of healthy fat.
10. Up your C and D vitamin intake plus some more key nutrients
Colorful fruits and vegetables are full of great nutrients for the body. They are rich in nutrients like vitamins C and E, plus beta-carotene and zinc. Having an appropriate amount of vitamin C from fruits and vegetables can boost your immunity.
Go for a wide variety of brightly colored fruits and vegetables: berries, citrus fruits, kiwi, apples, red grapes, kale, onions, spinach, sweet potatoes and carrots.
Vitamin D is also super important for many things, one of them is your immune system. It helps your body produce powerful antimicrobial and antiviral peptides. The best way to get it: from the sun!
It can also be found in foods like fish oils, fatty fish, beef liver, cheese and egg yolks. Some doctors even consider that optimizing your vitamin D level is a more potent a preventive strategy than getting a seasonal flu vaccine and that people with significant vitamin D levels may reduce their risk of respiratory infections such as influenza by 50 percent. And now with Covid-19, some studies show that most people with high levels of vitamin D do not get as sick as people who are deficient in vitamin D.
You must also make sure you have enough magnesium, because in order to convert the vitamin D into its active form, you need magnesium. Zinc and selenium are also important for a strong immune system.
If you think you need to boost your supply of vitamins and minerals you’ll find powerful natural supplements of premium quality here => Vitamin Supplements
Other foods and herbs particularly good for your immune system include Coconut Oil, fresh garlic and ginger, ginseng and astragalus, which help fight viruses and bacteria.
Check out this smart, natural immune booster spray => Astragalus
Exercise boosts your body’s feel-good chemicals, which is good for your immune system, it also helps you sleep better.
Find an exercise that you enjoy and that suits you and try to do it regularly. A daily 30-minute walk is good for everyone.
12. Seize the day
Your mindset and emotions affect your immune system.
Therefore, work on taking control of your mind. Live in the present, smile and laugh more often!
Regrets about your past or worries about the future will only take away from living today to the fullest…
Find a purpose in your life. It doesn’t have to be a job. It can be something you’re good at, something you love and feel passionate about. People who fill their free time with purposeful activities are often happier and healthier.
Follow these healthy habits, they may help you to supercharge your immune system and avoid the flu!
Moreover, healthy habits may even prevent chronic lifestyle diseases from taking hold as well. So take control of your health, and encourage your family to do the same.
Should you be unfortunate and get the flu – or Covid, try to get as much C- and D-vitamins, magnesium and zinc you can to help your body fight it.
Old-fashioned chicken broth soup is also worth mentioning, it’s very nutritious, and should you get sick it boosts healing.
My personal favorite health- and immune system boosting “Elixir”
If you’re like me and want to boost your immune system and health with powerful nutritional supplements – as a preventive strategy to avoid the flu, other viruses and diseases – this is my personal favorite health and immune boosting “Elixir”.
Click here to learn more!
=>> Boost Your Immune-System Now!
I hope you’ve found the tips in this article useful, and that they can help you stay safe and healthy. I’d love to see in the comments if there was something particular you found interesting – and if you learned something new!
Do you think Healthy Habits like those mentioned in this post can boost your immune system and help avoid the flu?
Please comment below, LIKE and SHARE this post with your family and friends!
Published 2015. Updated Nov 2020.
LIKE my Facebook page and get useful updates about health, wellness and staying fit!
Please note: Be aware of that there may be a link between influenza and sepsis (blood poisoning), which is very dangerous and must be treated correctly immediately.
“Inflammatory response triggered by a severe influenza infection is a double-edged sword. It can effectively eliminate the infection, but a prolonged and excessive inflammatory response may result in poor outcomes. Influenza virus, like other viruses, displays significant interaction with the immune system, which can directly lead to severe sepsis or to a secondary bacterial infection.” www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
“While influenza can indeed be deadly in rare cases, what most health experts fail to tell you is that these deaths are typically the result of secondary infections, not the flu virus itself. Importantly, research has highlighted the link between influenza and severe sepsis — a progressive disease process initiated by an aggressive, dysfunctional immune response to an infection in the bloodstream (which is why it’s sometimes referred to as blood poisoning). Symptoms of sepsis are often overlooked, even by health professionals, and without prompt treatment, the condition can be deadly. Unfortunately, conventional treatments often fail, and most hospitals have yet to embrace the use of intravenous (IV) vitamin C, hydrocortisone and thiamine,2 which has been shown to reduce sepsis mortality from 40 to a mere 8.5 percent.” Dr. Mercola “How Influenza Can Lead To Sepsis”
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We are constantly bombarded with extreme diet fads and the newest unpronounceable superfood, so it feels like a huge relief when we realize that traditional ways of eating, which have been around for centuries, are getting rediscovered.
Used as a simple preservation method by cultures around the globe, fermented foods have experienced a renaissance in the world of foodies and health enthusiasts for their unique taste and incredible health benefits.
So what exactly makes them so beneficial?
When we ferment cabbage into kraut or kimchi, milk into cheese, yogurt or kefir, soybeans into miso or tempeh and vegetables, fruits into pickles, we create lactic acid bacteria, which are more commonly referred to as probiotics. These “good” bacteria help us restore a healthy digestive system by replenishing beneficial bacteria in our gut that fight off the bad bacteria, boost our immune system and prevent inflammation, to name just a few benefits.
But before you run to the closest supermarket to buy every product with a “probiotic” claim on it, check out these tips on how to choose the right probiotic foods first:
Large food manufacturing practices, such as heat processing and pasteurization destroy the beneficial bacteria. Therefore, choose products from small-scale productions, which you can find at your local gourmet stores, farmers markets, and Asian shops.
If they are not stored in the fridge, they are most likely pasteurized and lost their beneficial live organisms.
“Pickled” doesn’t mean it has been fermented. A fermented food should not contain vinegar or brine.
Buy organic, non-GMO. Look for fermented foods, which come from the best source possible. Your gut will thank you for it!
Besides our gut flora, did you know that we also have a skin flora?
If you think about the 100 million microbes that live on and in our body, it shouldn’t be surprising that our largest organ of the body is dealing with its own set of bacteria, the good and the bad. Normally in a healthy, balanced state, our skin flora’s “army” should be able to fight off bad microbes, but when our immune system is weakened, it can lead to inflammatory diseases, such as dermatitis, acne, rosacea, and psoriasis, to name a few.
Our digestive system and skin are very closely connected. When one system is out of balance, it usually is an indicator that the other area is affected as well. Therefore, the best approach for a healthy skin and gut is to provide your body with probiotics both internally—via supplementation or your diet—as well as externally, with probiotic enriched skincare. Knowing the unlimited healing benefits of beneficial bacteria for our skin’s health, it made perfect sense that certain skincare brands, such as my favorite Tata Harper, incorporate probiotics in their products.
By boosting the beneficial flora on the surface of the skin with probiotic extracts, you ensure that your protective barrier is intact and therefore strong enough to keep those inflammatory bacteria at bay.
The bottom line is that our body is constantly exposed to millions of different bacteria on a daily basis and fortunately, most of the time we don’t even realize when our army of good bacteria is fighting for our overall health. So let’s not wait until an imbalance in our gut and skin flora are visible! Rather, let’s support it with probiotic-enriched foods, skincare and supplements.
If you are not sure and overwhelmed with the choice of probiotic supplements out there, then check out this great review on the best supplements, done by Reviews.com. It is a website dedicated to conducting unbiased reviews of products and industries, with the goal of helping people make better-informed decisions.
Here is the link: http://www.reviews.com/probiotic-supplement/
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The “Battle Hymn of the Republic“…..which is also known as “Mine Eyes Have Seen the Glory“ outside of the United States….is a lyric by the abolitionist writer Julia Ward Howe using the music from the song “John Brown’s Body”…..as Howe’s famous lyrics were written in November 1861….and first published in The Atlantic Monthly in February 1862. The song links the judgment of the wicked at the end of the age….through allusions to biblical passages such as Isaiah 63 and Revelation 19….with the American Civil War.
The “Glory, Hallelujah” tune was a folk hymn developed in the oral hymn tradition of camp meetings in the southern United States….which was first documented in the early 1800’s…..when in the first known version, “Canaan’s Happy Shore”…..the text includes the verse “Oh! Brothers will you meet me On Canaan’s happy shore?”….and then the chorus “There we’ll shout and give him glory….for glory is his own”….as this developed into the familiar “Glory, glory, hallelujah” chorus by the 1850’s. The tune and variants of these words spread across both the southern and northern United States…..and today is an extremely popular and well-known American patriotic song.
As seen in this video herewith….legendary country singer Johnny Cash joins conductor John Williams & The Boston Pops at the July 4, 1986 Lady Liberty Concert in New York Harbor to sing a rousing rendition of “Battle Hymn of the Republic“.
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By: Jean S. Beaton
Parental conflict is toxic for children. Studies have demonstrated that when exposed to conflict our brains release stress hormones that over time can actually change brain functioning. This exposure to conflict can manifest as anti-social behaviour, problems at school, problems interacting with others, impaired problem solving and delinquency. No parent wants to interfere with their child’s ability to live a healthy, well-adjusted life, and that is why it is important to insulate your children from parental conflict just as you would insulate them from any other “bad” thing that can cause them harm.
For many people, ending a relationship leads to a profound sense of loss. It is normal to experience many emotions during separation, such as loss, anger, betrayal, bargaining and sadness. The process of separation usually takes places in stages and you and your former partner might not be at the same place at the same time emotionally. It is important to understand that children experience their parents’ separation differently than their parents do. As parents, your own response to the separation and your behaviour to the other parent will have a tremendous impact on how your child adjusts.
The most powerful thing separating parents can do is pledge not to expose the children to adult conflict. Children are aware of their parents’ feelings and needs and your behaviour may affect them. Children need the support of both parents when their parents’ relationship ends. Think about it – the most significant relationship they have ever been a part of is dissolving in front of their eyes. Children experiencing the separation of their parents are in a state of turmoil and need to be reassured that everything will be ok. It is important to remember that your children love both of you and unless there are very serious safety concerns, your child is entitled to have a relationship with both parents.
Even though you may never want to see your former partner again, your child has the right to an ongoing, positive relationship with both parents. In the words of Justice Harvey Brownstone, “It’s called acting, and it’s not that hard to do! Parents, even those who live together – act in front of their children all the time. It is even more important to do after separation, because children need to be reassured that their lives will be happy and stable even though their parents live apart.” In other words, it is important to play nice with the other parent for the sake of your children. Therefore, do your best to resolve conflict, find a way to communicate, and do not speak badly about the other parent in front of your children. It is not the separation that is most harmful to children, but rather the ongoing conflict between parents. Children see themselves as “like” both parents, so if you criticize the other parent you are also criticizing them.
One of the biggest hurdles people face after separation is learning how to move forward in a cooperative way with a person they harbour negative feelings towards. There are many resources available online and in the community to help you and/or your former spouse learn how to communicate and co-parent in a healthy way after separation. Pathstone Mental Health offers a workshop called “New Beginnings: “Let’s Do it Right” to teach parents how to talk to children about separation, how to cope with separation and cooperative parenting strategies. Pathstone also offers counselling to assist children or families to cope with the stresses of separation and divorce. Connect Family Solutions in Welland offers a range of services during divorce and separation to assist individuals and families, including therapy for individuals, therapy for children and adolescents, parent coaching and education for parents. I also recommend the book Tug of War: A Judge’s Verdict on Separation, Custody Battles, and the Bitter Realities of Family Court by Justice Harvey Brownstone as a starting point for understanding why it is important to shield your children from conflict.
People need to understand that it is important to deal with your negative emotions and remove them from issues affecting their children. Legal issues stemming from separation will be addressed and resolved in time, but if you have children the primary piece of advice I would offer is it to find a way to protect your children from conflict, and do not put them in the middle of the adult issues. To learn more about how to insulate your children from conflict during separation or divorce, please feel free to contact me.
Jean Beaton is an Associate within the Family Law department of Lancaster Brooks & Welch LLP and she may be contacted for a consultation to discuss your separation or divorce. She is also certified to offer Collaborative Practice should both parties wish to avoid court. Jean may be reached at 905-641-1551.
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What does your child learn at school each day? Find information about our curriculum subjects here.
More information about the curriculum can be found in the Prospectus on the Welcome page.
Key Stage One follow the National Curriculum. For full details of the objectives covered in years one and two please see the National Curriculum document at the end of this section.
Mathematics is taught daily. Children are taught using a concrete-pictorial-abstract approach and they are encouraged to physically represent mathematical concepts. Objects and pictures are used to demonstrate and visualise abstract ideas, alongside numbers and symbols.
Concrete – children have the opportunity to use concrete objects and manipulatives to help them to understand and explain what they are doing. These include everyday objects, counters, cubes, ten frames, numicon and base 10 apparatus.
Pictorial – Children build on this concrete approach by using pictures to represent objects. These representations can then be used to reason and solve problems.
Abstract – Children can then move on to an abstract approach using numbers and key concepts with confidence.
There are daily English lessons. Themes for writing are often from the topics below. Children read regularly in guided groups with an adult. There are also opportunities for children to read individually. Phonics lessons are taught at least four times a week.
Our phonics teaching follows the phases in the Primary National Strategy document called Letters and Sounds. We use a very active approach to the teaching of phonics. The lessons use the good practice from the Knowledge Transfer Centre (KTC) Leicester.
Our reading books are levelled according to the Reading Recovery Levels. This means that the selection of books can be finely tuned following assessment of the child’s stage of reading. The books come from a number of schemes and sources including Reading Recovery, Oxford Reading Tree, Engage Literacy and Read Write Inc.
We aim to provide a stimulating and exciting curriculum, to challenge and develop the children’s knowledge and skills, building on their previous learning. Much of the Year One and Year Two curriculum is taught under the following topic headings:
|2017 - 2018||2018-2019|
|The Environment||Amazing Animals|
For more information about any aspect of the curriculum and resources, please ask your child’s teacher (if your child is already in the school) or contact the school office.
Early Years Foundation Stage ( Nursery and Reception)
The Foundation Stage classes follow the curriculum guidelines in Development Matters.
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Blue periwinkle is an example of a garden plant that has ‘jumped the garden fence’. It is now considered an invasive species, not just in wetter areas of Australia, but in New Zealand and North America (USA and Canada).
It is a trailing herb with a woody crown and runners up to 1 m long. The stems sometimes develop roots where they come into contact with the soil, and creeping underground stems are also produced. It has blue to purple tubular flowers (3-6 cm across) which are usually borne singly in the upper leaf forks.
Blue periwinkle’s broad-leaved runners form a dense mat, shading out native plants and competing for moisture and nutrients. Its growth is particularly vigorous in riparian and other moist habitats.
It is spread into bushland mostly by dumping of garden waste, but can also spread by broken stem bits being washed into a new area. It occasionally spreads by seed.
Digging every little bit out is the most effective way of removing it. Follow up will be required for some time.
Grow Me Instead
Scaevola species, fan flower: An Australian native groundcover with prolific flowering of mauve, purple or white flowers.
Hardenbergia violacea, Native sarsaparilla: The pea shape flowers appear in winter and spring and are usually violet in colour.
Convolvulus sabatius, Moroccan glory vine: An attractive evergreen perennial with a spreading prostrate habit with blue to violet flowers.
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*Updated on 5 Feb, 2014*
When we’re feeling ill, vitamin and mineral deficiencies are probably among the farthest things from our minds to be the culprit. After all, when was the last time your doctor asked or advised you about your nutrition, other than perhaps telling you that it would be beneficial to drop a few pounds? Anyone can suffer from nutrient deficiencies, not just people with MTHFR gene mutations. And anyone experiencing health problems can gain an advantage by learning her nutritional status.
Many factors can cause a person to become deficient in vitamins, minerals, amino acids and antioxidants. These include improper diet, absorption issues, metabolism, hormones, disease, environment, lifestyle, parasites, medications and age. Genetics also come into play, as we know from the MTHFR genetic variant, which prevents the enzyme from making key nutrients like methylfolate and methylcobalamin. Another example is in the case of vitamin D, where mutations in DHCR7/NADSYN1, CYP2R1 and GC genes can affect transport of the vitamin. And as genes impact other genes, a deficiency can have widespread effects throughout the body: vitamin D influences more than 200 genes. This article presents an interesting view on how magnesium deficiency can affect MTHFR. So proper nutrition is more important than we may think. What our parents ate (or didn’t) can also affect us.
Nutrient deficiency symptoms vary and often match symptoms of other conditions. Check out the linked chart in the last sentence to learn which nutrients do what and the symptoms associated with a lack of each one. Deficiencies in calcium, magnesium, zinc, N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), glutathione, iron and vitamins B1, B2, B12, D and folate are very common. Current public nutritional guidelines are generally presented as “one size fits all.” Of course we now know that this isn’t appropriate, but processing the big data from the Human Genome Project is taking a long time. It takes many years for studies to be conducted and for their results to be verified and then trickle down to a policy level. The hope is that enough information will be gathered from nutritional genomic studies to allow a wider understanding of how certain groups of people may be harmed by fortification policies. This information is currently available to many individuals through personal genomic testing, but most of us are on our own to decipher it properly and take the appropriate steps.
In the meantime you can’t just start guessing where you’re deficient and taking supplements randomly. The best approach is to learn exactly what nutrients you lack by doing the appropriate testing. Some forms of testing can be misleading though. Take, for example, the serum tests for folate and B12. It’s possible to have high numbers and still be functionally deficient. Luckily there are at least two specialized test panels that can look beyond simple serum levels of nutrients, giving patients the ability to check on their nutrient levels annually. The first is the Spectracell MicroNutrient assessment, which is the one I’ll be discussing here (as it’s the only one I have experience with). The second is Genova Diagnostics’ NutrEval test. They are a bit different from each other, but I found Spectracell to be pretty comprehensive and it’s the one my doctor recommended. Unfortunately these tests are expensive and not all insurance carriers/plans will cover the cost. But if you have the means to do at least one of them, I highly recommend that you do so.
The Spectracell MicroNutrient test looks at how the micronutrients are functioning within the white blood cells, making it a very different type of test than the serum RBC tests many doctors order. You want to know your long-term intracellular status for each of the nutrients, rather than the short-term extracellular status that a RBC test provides. What you’ll get back is a report that looks like this. My husband and I both had ours done and were really happy to be able to pinpoint exactly where we needed to supplement. Causes of deficiency aren’t always well-known and your results will probably surprise you. I never thought about the way that medications can deplete your nutrients, for example. Antacids deplete B12, folate, vitamin D, calcium, iron and zinc. Cholesterol drugs exhaust Coenzyme Q10 (important for MTHFR people). Female hormones like birth control pills drain your magnesium, selenium, zinc and vitamins B1, B2, B3, B6, B12 and folate. Even diabetic and antiviral medications cause problems.
Once you’re ready to supplement, it’s important to remember a few things. First, you need to supplement in balance. Certain vitamins and minerals work together, like B12 and folate, and copper and zinc. If you take one without the other, you can end up with an imbalance or, in the case of the first example, an impaired ability for a vitamin to be utilized by the body. Folate is dependent on B12, which explains why I couldn’t tolerate much methylfolate until I started getting enough methylcobalamin. So research each supplement carefully before implementing it. Other famous partners include sodium/potassium and magnesium/vitamin D/vitamin K2/manganese (be sure you’re taking enough co-factors if you go for high dose vitamin D supplements).
You also need to know about the interactions of each supplement and what time is best to take them. Some vitamins and minerals should be taken together or far apart from each other. Be sure to note which ones interact with your prescription medications. I can’t take many things within four hours of my thyroid medication, for example.
Supplement quality is also important. Pharmaceutical grade supplements are the best, followed by medical grade, then nutritional grade, which are the ones you get at your local grocery store (even the specialty ones). The better the grade, the purer and more bioavailable the nutrient, with pharmaceutical grade supplements being independently accredited. Obviously cost will become a factor, especially if you are taking many supplements to achieve certain goals. Purchase the best quality that you can afford, always checking the ingredients for additives and other ingredients to ensure that you aren’t getting anything that you don’t want. I search for the best deals online and often use suppliers who provide frequent discounts.
It’s important to know what you’re buying as well. Most vitamins and minerals will have a few different versions. For the B vitamins, this will usually mean the active forms versus the cheaper, synthetic forms (like cyanocobalamin, which you don’t want). Another example is vitamin E, which I just learned about recently. Did you know that there are eight different types of vitamin E? And taking the wrong one can actually inhibit your body’s ability to absorb the good ones? These are the kinds of mistakes you want to avoid and, unfortunately, cost does become a factor here. The good news is that high doses of supplements are usually only needed for a relatively short period of time while a deficiency is being addressed. In the long run you may be able to switch to a high-quality multivitamin supplement. If you have a serious deficiency you’re better off just biting the bullet and purchasing the expensive supplements now when you need them. The cost of deteriorating health becomes much higher in the long run.
Finally, taking supplements (especially expensive supplements) is pretty useless if your body can’t absorb them. As always, work on your gut health first and ensure that your digestive system (and hence your mind and immune system) are in the best shape they can be. This will go a long way to preventing nutritional deficiencies in the first place.
If you have a comment that is related to your own health or have questions that require an answer, please leave these in the community discussion forums and not in the comments below. Thanks! =)
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As a public policy student who has always been interested in the field of “social” policy and fighting for those who have given the most to society but have received the least, I always think about the underlying causes of the system that has not only created inequality at all levels, but managed to exacerbate it.
What are the systemic mechanisms paving the way for unequal distribution of wealth that leave millions of Americans no choice but to grapple with poverty? What would happen if policymakers put “communities” at the center of policy design, identified the needs of each region in a meticulous manner, and used innovative tailored solutions to kickstart bottom-up development? These were some of the questions I had been thinking about when I came across Blue Access. The community-oriented approach to one of the most important issues people face enticed me to join other change-makers at Blue Access.
The implications of increased access to water include economic empowerment through the emergence of new industries, expanded opportunities in the job market, and the creation of a sustainable future for upcoming generations. I am thrilled to be a part of something bigger than I am. Coming from a country (Turkey) where drinking water is only sold in bottles, but not accessible from the tap, water equity transcends borders and I am personally committed to this important pursuit—equitable access to water—in the realm of public policy, to ensure that policymakers pay more attention to water accessibility issues.
Every aspect of our lives depends on water. People need water to survive, businesses need water to operate, and communities need access to water to flourish. Yet, current research shows that poverty and inequality are inextricably linked to water insecurity. A World Bank report demonstrates the severity of water inequality by emphasizing the fact that there are 2.2 billion people around the world who do not have access to safe drinking water and water services, and 4.2 billion people are living without sanitations services.
The disparities between water accessibility and growing populations are halting development and economic progress globally. During these poignant times, it is apparent that water policy has never mattered more. To address these complex problems, Blue Access is amplifying voices in local communities, and forming alliances with regional organizations to identify and implement sustainable solutions to achieve water equity.
Image: Sunset over the Potomac River
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"My throat hurts!" "I'm hot!" "I can't breathe!"
It's winter, which brings, along with the cold weather, the onset of some dreaded childhood illnesses. It can be hard to figure out exactly which one your child may have, because the most common conditions share many symptoms. We've outlined them all to help you quickly determine the one most likely affecting your child. Please note that this information is not meant to make a definitive diagnosis; you should always consult your pediatrician with questions about your child's health.
Children usually get six to 10 colds every year, primarily during winter. Colds are caused by a virus that infects the nose, sinuses, throat, and airways, and they're often spread through contact with mucus. Symptoms include sneezing, a stuffy and/or runny nose, coughing, scratchy sore throat, and red, watery eyes. Other signs: chills, aches, a mild fever, and swollen lymph glands. Colds can be tough to spot in infants, so look for changes in breathing, eating, and sleeping patterns. Since colds are viral infections, there's no ideal treatment, but fluids and rest, plus decongestants, cough syrups, and antihistamines, can help ease symptoms. See your pediatrician if your child has difficulty breathing or develops a high fever, severe headache, chest pain, or ear pain. Always check with your doctor before giving over-the-counter medications; she can suggest the best choice and proper dosage.
Between 10% and 20% of the population contracts the flu, or influenza, each year. Children are two to three times more likely to get the illness than healthy adults. The flu is caused by a virus that infects the lungs and airways and can be spread through direct contact or airborne droplets from an infected person's cough or sneeze. Symptoms include a sudden fever, usually above 101°, accompanied by chills and shakes, extreme fatigue, muscle aches, a hacking cough, nausea, and vomiting. Treatment includes rest, fluids, and acetaminophen or ibuprofen to reduce fever and aches (ask your doctor which one and how much to give). See your pediatrician if you suspect your infant has the flu; kids under 2 are the most vulnerable to the illness. Also see the doctor if your child's cough worsens, he has trouble breathing or a persistent high fever, or he produces bloody mucus -- all signs of pneumonia. And never give your child cold medicine without checking with your doctor first.
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Ocular motor cranial nerves
It is often said, “the eyes are the windows to the soul.” This beautiful literary quote is not exactly a scientifically provable statement... but science has shown us over the years that, our eyes are certainly the windows of our body, allowing us to view the world in which we live and everyone and everything contained within it.
The ability to see is accomplished using a combination of both sensory input from the eye (more specifically from the specialized cells of the retina), and motor output from the brain to the muscles around and attached to the eyes.
The muscles surrounding the eye are aptly named the extraocular muscles, and they allow the eyes to move, giving more control over what is seen and where. Without these muscles and the nerves that innervate them, the process of observation would be completely different: rather than just shifting one’s gaze, one would have to turn the whole head to look in any direction. Instead, these muscles allow us to quickly adapt without the necessity of having to engage in significantly effortful, obvious movements.
The following article focuses on these muscles, their functions, and the nerves that innervate them.
- Cranial nerves
- Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
- Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
- Abducens nerve (CN VI)
- Ocular motor nerves as parts of the corticobulbar tract
- Clinical notes
- Lesions of the MLF and/or PPRF
The nerves that innervate the extraocular muscles are among a group of nerves called the cranial nerves, which are so called because they arise in the brain and supply structures of the head and neck. There are a total of 12 cranial nerves (CN):
- the olfactory nerve (CN I)
- the optic nerve (CN II)
- the oculomotor nerve (CN III)
- the trochlear nerve (CN IV)
- the trigeminal nerve (CN V)
- the abducens nerve (CN VI)
- the facial nerve (CN VII)
- the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
- the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)
- the vagus nerve (CN X)
- the spinal accessory nerve (CN XI)
- the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
Of these, CN I, CN II, CN VII, CN VIII, CN IX and CN X play roles in special sensory functions (i.e. olfaction, vision, gustation, audition, and balance); CN V (all three branches, the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular) and CN IX play roles in somatic sensory functions; and CN III, CN IV, CN V (the mandibular branch, V3, only), CN VI, CN VII, CN IX, CN X, CN XI, and CN XII are responsible for motor functions.
Of the cranial nerves with motor functions, CN III, CN IV, and CN VI are the ocular motor nerves, which provide innervation to the extraocular muscles.
Oculomotor nerve (CN III)
The oculomotor nerve originates in the midbrain, in the oculomotor nuclear complex. This complex is located at the level of superior colliculus near the midline. The oculomotor nerve fibers contain both somatic efferent fibers and special visceral efferent fibers, specifically autonomic parasympathetic fibers. These parasympathetic fibers originate from a group of neuron cell bodies in the midbrain called the Edinger-Westphal nucleus.
Somatic efferent component
Trajectory and innervation
These axons pass through the red nucleus and emerge from the ventral midbrain medial to the crus cerebri. The nerve fibers travel through the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus and split into small superior and large inferior divisions; then enter the orbit via the superior orbital fissure along with the trochlear nerve, the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1), and the abducens nerve.
The oculomotor nerve innervates the majority of extraocular muscles: the superior rectus and levator palpebrae superioris are innervated by superior division while inferior division innervate , medial, and inferior recti and the inferior oblique.
The superior rectus muscle originates at the superior part of the common tendinous ring above and lateral to the optic canal, and inserts on the superior surface of sclera approximately 8 mm from the limbus. Contraction of the superior rectus elevates, adducts, and medially rotates the eye, and as such is the main muscle responsible for upward gaze.
The inferior rectus muscle originates at the inferior part of the common tendinous ring below the optic canal, and inserts on the inferior surface of the sclera approximately 6 mm from limbus. Contraction of the inferior rectus depresses, adducts, and laterally rotates the eye, and as such it is the main muscle responsible for downward gaze.
The medial rectus muscle originates at the medial part of the common tendinous ring, medial to and below the optic canal, and inserts on the medial surface of the sclera. Contraction of the medial rectus adducts the eye, both medial recti act together for convergence.
The inferior oblique muscle originates on the medial floor of the orbit just behind the orbital rim, and attaches on the orbital surface of the maxilla lateral to the nasolacrimal groove. It inserts on the outer inferior surface of the eye. Contraction of the inferior oblique elevates, abducts, and laterally rotates the eye, allowing for upward, outward gaze.
The levator palpebrae superioris originates on the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone anterior to the optic canal and inserts on the anterior surface of the tarsal plate, with a few fibers attaching to the skin and superior conjunctival fornix. Contraction of the levator palpebrae superioris elevates the upper eyelid, opening the eye.
Visceral efferent component (parasympathetic)
The parasympathetic fibers originate from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus which is located in the midbrain. Preganglionic visceral motor axons leave the nucleus and course through the midbrain with somatic efferents both of which constitutes CNIII. Parasympathetic axons branch from the nerve to inferior oblique and terminate in the ciliary ganglion. Postganglionic axons leave the ciliary ganglion in the form of 6-10 short ciliary nerves which perforate the sclera and supply the cornea, choroid, iris, ciliary body and sclera.
Pupillary light reflex
The pretectal region of midbrain contributes to the circuit for the pupillary light reflex. This reflex has two main components, an afferent (sensory) component involving the optic nerve and an efferent (motor) component involving the oculomotor nerve.
The sequence begins with light-induced activation of retinal fibers (the afferent component of the reflex). These fibers synapse with neurons in pretectal region, which in turn project to the oculomotor nucleus. The preganglionic parasympathetic neurons from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus send axons via the oculomotor nerve to synapse with postganglionic neurons in the ciliary ganglion, which innervates the sphincter pupillae, constricting the pupil (the efferent component of the reflex).
Accommodation is adaptation of the eyes for near vision. It is obtained by increase in the curvature of the lens, pupillary constriction and convergence of eyes.
The parasympathetic fibers originating from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus also innervate the ciliary muscle. When this muscle contracts, it releases the suspensory ligament of the lens, which allows the lens to relax and increase its degree of curvature. The signals of Edinger-Westphal nucleus to sphincter like pupillary muscles result in the smaller pupil to sharpen the image on retina. Convergence of the eyes is brought about by both medial recti muscles supplied by somatic efferent component of the oculomotor nerve.
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
The trochlear nerve originates from the trochlear nucleus which lies at the level of inferior colliculus in the tegmentum of the midbrain. It has only a somatic efferent component.
Axons arising from the nucleus course dorsally around the periaqueductal grey matter and cerebral aqueduct and cross the midline. The trochlear nerve is unique in that the axons of the cells within this nucleus cross over to the contralateral side before emerging from the dorsal surface of the caudal midbrain, just below the inferior colliculi. The nerve fibers travel through the cavernous sinus along with CN III,V1,V2 & VI. Within the sinus the trochlear nerve is lateral to the internal carotid artery. It leaves the sinus and enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure, along with the oculomotor nerve, the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve, and the abducens nerve. The nerve courses medially close to the roof of the orbit and reaches the superior oblique muscle to innervate it.
The superior oblique muscle originates on the body of the sphenoid superior and medial to the optic canal, follows the medial border of the roof of the orbit, and passes through a fibrocartilaginous structure called the trochlea. It inserts on the outer superior surface of the eye. Contraction of the superior oblique depresses, abducts, and medially rotates the eye, allowing for downward, outward gaze.
Abducens nerve (CN VI)
Abducens nerve contains only somatic efferent fibers to innervate only one muscle of the orbit, lateral rectus. The abducens nerve originates from cells in the abducens nucleus, which is located in the dorsomedial part of the posterior pons, pontine tegmentum, just ventral to the fourth ventricle.
The axons of the facial nerve loop around the abducens nucleus and form bulge in the floor of fourth ventricle called facial colliculus. The axons of the cells within this nucleus travel ventrally and emerge from the brainstem at the pontine-medullary border (junction of the pons & pyramid of medulla). It runs ventro-laterally in the subarachnoid space of posterior cranial fossa and penetrates the dura lateral to dorsum sellae of sphenoid bone. The nerve fibers travel forward between the dura and apex of the petrous temporal bone to enter he cavernous sinus. The nerve enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure along with the oculomotor nerve, the trochlear nerve, and the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve. The abducens nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle.
The lateral rectus muscle originates at the lateral part of the common tendinous ring where it bridges the superior orbital fissure, and inserts on the lateral surface of the anterior aspect of the sclera. Contraction of the lateral rectus abducts the eye.
Ocular motor nerves as parts of the corticobulbar tract
The corticobulbar tract (otherwise known as the corticonulcear tract) is responsible for influencing the motor nuclei of a number of cranial nerves, including the:
- oculomotor (III)
- trochlear (IV)
- mandibular component of the trigeminal (V3)
- abducens (VI)
- facial (VII)
- glossopharyngeal (IX)
- vagus (X)
- spinal accessory (XI)
- hypoglossal (XII) nerves
The tract operates as a two-neuron sequence: upper motor neurons (UMNs) descending from the cortex to the CN nuclei are considered part of the corticobulbar tract, and synapse on the cell bodies of lower motor neurons (LMNs) which are located in the CN nuclei. The axons of LMNs are considered as part of the cranial nerves themselves, with their axons projecting via the cranial nerves to the muscles of the face, head, and neck.
Corticobulbar motor fibers arise from the frontal eye fields (a region in the caudal portion of middle frontal gyrus), motor cortex (the precentral gyrus), and somatosensory cortex (the postcentral gyrus) where they travel from the cortex through the internal capsule and to the CN nuclei in the brainstem.
Fibers originating from the frontal eye fields project to two regions: the rostral interstitial nucleus of the MLF (riMLF), known as the vertical gaze center; and in the paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF), the pontine horizontal gaze center. Fibers from these two gaze centers then project to the motor nuclei of the oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens cranial nerves. The frontal eye fields and parietal eye field also provide cortical input to the superior colliculus, which also provides input to the riMLF and PPRF. The riMLF is part of the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), a bundle fibers that originate from the medial vestibular nucleus, reticular formation, and superior colliculus.
An important function of the MLF is to connect the abducens nucleus on one side of the brain with the oculomotor nucleus on the opposite side of the brain. This connection allows it to play a crucial role in synchronizing horizontal gaze. When the right abducens nucleus sends signals to the right lateral rectus muscle to contract, which pulls the right eye laterally to look right, it also sends signals via the MLF to the left oculomotor nucleus. These signals instruct the left oculomotor nucleus to innervate and thus simultaneously contract the left medial rectus muscle, which pulls the left eye medially so that it also points right at the same time the right eye does.
Oculomotor nerve palsy
Damage to the oculomotor nerve interrupts motor input to the majority of extraocular muscles, including most of the recti and the inferior oblique, as well as the levator palpebrae superioris, the sphincter pupillae, and the ciliary muscles. If the abducens and trochlear nerves are unaffected, the actions of the lateral rectus and superior oblique muscles respectively will be unopposed. As such, an isolated oculomotor nerve palsy presents as a “down-and-out” shifted eye, an eye directed inferiorly and laterally. An affected individual will also present with eyelid ptosis, or drooping of the eyelid. A fixed, dilated pupil (mydriasis) may also be present if the lesion affects the parasympathetic fibers within the oculomotor nerve.
Weber syndrome, otherwise known as medial midbrain syndrome, presents with a constellation of symptoms referred to as a superior alternating hemiplegia. It tends to result from a vascular lesion, typically of the paramedian branches of the posterior cerebral artery (PCA), and affects the medial region of the cerebral peduncle at the level of the superior colliculus and oculomotor nerve in the midbrain. Because of this, patients present with oculomotor paralysis on the same side of the lesion due to damage to the ipsilateral oculomotor nerve, and contralateral hemiplegia due to damage to the upper motor neuron fibers of the corticospinal tract within the crus cerebri.
Oculomotor deficits may include:
- dilation of the pupil
- lack of pupillary constriction in response to light (a fixed pupil)
- drooping of the eyelid(ptosis)
- deviation of the eye in the down and out direction.
Claude syndrome, otherwise known as a central midbrain lesion, is characterized by damage to the oculomotor nerve, the red nucleus, and cerebellothalamic fibers in the midbrain.
Damage to oculomotor nerve leads to ipsilateral paralysis of eye movement: this presents with the eye directed in the down and out eye position, with a dilated, fixed pupil and drooping lid.
Damage to the red nucleus and cerebellothalamic tract fibers is associated with contralateral ataxia and a cerebellar-associated tremor.
If the lesion extends to affect medial lemniscus and trigeminothalamic fibers, an affected individual may also present with a loss or reduction in position, vibration, and fine touch sensation in the contralateral arm and parts of the contralateral face respectively.
Benedikt syndrome describes a constellation of symptoms resulting from the presence of a large midbrain lesion that encompasses the regions damaged in both Weber syndrome and Claude syndrome. As such, deficits include contralateral hemiplegia due to damage to corticospinal fibers; ipsilateral eye movement paralysis with a fixed, dilated pupil and drooping lid due to oculomotor nerve damage; and cerebellar tremor and rubral ataxia due to damage to cerebellothalamic fibers and the red nucleus.
The presence of large or rapidly expanding supratentorial lesion (i.e. a lesion above the tentorium cerebelli), medial portion of the temporal lobe especially the uncal portion herniate across the tentorium. Herniating tissue puts pressure on the ipsilateral oculomotor nerve and crus cerebri. When this occurs, parasympathetic fibers within the oculomotor nerve are typically affected first: as such, an affected person may initially present with pupils that constrict uncharacteristically slowly in response to light. As herniation becomes more severe, however, ocular symptoms can progress to include fixed dilation of pupils and weakness and eventual paralysis of the oculomotor nerve and eye movement, resulting in deviation of the ipsilateral eye in the lateral and downward direction.
Weakness or even paralysis on the contralateral side of the body may also be observed due to compression of the corticospinal fibers within the ipsilateral crus cerebri. Combination of ipsilateral eye paralysis and contralateral hemiplegia makes this a superior alternating hemiplegia. Again, the contralateral hemiplegia is due to fact that the corticospinal fibers have not yet decussated to the side of the body that they are intended to innervate, so compression of corticospinal tract fibers prior to their decussation in the medulla leads to loss of motor innervation to the opposite side of the body.
Kernohan syndrome, or Kernohan phenomenon, occurs when uncal herniation results in a shift of the midbrain to the opposite side. Rather than affecting the oculomotor nerve and crus cerebri on the same side of the brain, shifting of the midbrain leads to stretching of the ipsilateral oculomotor nerve (i.e. on the side of the herniation) and compression of the contralateral crus cerebri against the opposing edge of the tentorium cerebelli, damaging the corticospinal fibers within. This situation presents with ipsilateral paralysis of the oculomotor nerve and ipsilateral hemiplegia.
Trochlear nerve palsy
Damage to the trochlear nerve interrupts motor input to the superior oblique muscle. If the oculomotor and abducens nerves are unaffected, the actions of the recti and inferior oblique muscles will be unopposed. Characteristic finding is a hypertropia due to superior oblique palsy and patient may have a head tilt towards the opposite shoulder to minimize the vertical diplopia which is a hallmark of an isolated trochlear nerve palsy. .
Abducens nerve palsy
Damage to the abducens nerve interrupts motor input to the lateral rectus muscle. If the oculomotor and trochlear nerves are unaffected, the actions of the medial, superior, and inferior recti and superior and inferior oblique muscles will be unopposed. Isolated nerve palsy presents with horizontal binocular diplopia with ipsilateral impaired abduction and esotropia (inward turning of eye).
Medial pontine syndrome
Median pontine syndrome typically occurs when there is occlusion of the paramedian branches of the basilar artery and subsequent ischemia of the medial aspect of the pons. This can result in damage to a number of structures, including: the corticospinal fibers, resulting in contralateral hemiplegia; the medial lemniscus, resulting in contralateral diminution or potential loss of vibration, proprioception, and fine touch sensation; abducens nucleus, or abducens nerve, resulting in ipsilateral paralysis of the lateral rectus muscle and subsequently diplopia, or a potential loss of conjugate gaze toward the side of the lesion via interruption of communication between the abducens nucleus of one side of the brain with the oculomotor nucleus on the opposite side. The involvement of medial longitudinal fasciculus may cause anterior internuclear ophthalmoplegia.
Lesions of the MLF and/or PPRF
If the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) is lesioned between the motor nuclei of the abducens and oculomotor nerves in the midbrain, internuclear ophthalmoplegia—the inability to adduct the medial rectus muscle of one eye when the lateral rectus of the other eye is abducted for lateral gaze—can occur. This occurs due to the intricacies of connectivity between the abducens and oculomotor nuclei.
For example: the right abducens nerve innervates the right lateral rectus muscle. When the right abducens is activated, the right lateral rectus contracts and pulls the right eye so that it is abducted, with the pupil facing laterally (i.e. to the right). The abducens nucleus on the right side sends fibers across the midline to the left oculomotor nucleus via the MLF, instructing the left oculomotor nerve to innervate the medial rectus muscle in the left eye, facilitating synchronous movement of these muscles for rightward gaze. As such, an interruption in the MLF between the right abducens nucleus and the left oculomotor nucleus will block signals to the left eye to look right when the right eye looks right: in a patient with this lesion, the right eye will abduct to the right, but the left eye will be stationary, continuing to gaze forward.
Internuclear ophthalmoplegia is one of the characteristic signs associated with multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Other associated signs and symptoms include:
- hemisensory symptoms
- optic neuritis
- scanning speech
- intention tremor
These symptoms tend to be relapsing and remitting. The wide variability of symptoms reflects the potential of the disease at any time to damage any part of the brain or spinal cord. As such, the lesions are considered to have both temporal and spatial heterogeneity.
Lesions to the abducens nucleus and the paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF) can result not only in horizontal gaze palsies, but can also contribute to a condition called one-and-a-half syndrome. One-and-a-half syndrome is a combination of internuclear ophthalmoplegia with CN VI palsy. This occurs when a lesion affecting the abducens nucleus or PPRF also interrupts MLF fibers en route to the oculomotor nucleus on the same side (i.e. after they have crossed over from the opposite abducens nucleus).
For example: when the left abducens nucleus sends signals to the left lateral rectus to abduct, it also sends signals to the right oculomotor nucleus via the MLF. These signals instruct the oculomotor nucleus to send signals to medial rectus of the right eye to adduct simultaneously (so that both eyes look in the same direction). Damage to the MLF, connecting the abducens nucleus to the opposite oculomotor nucleus, can result in failure of this synchronous gaze. Thus, damage to the MLF between the left abducens nucleus and right oculomotor nucleus will present with loss of adduction in the right eye. When the PPRF or abducens nucleus is also damaged, this results in loss of lateral deviation of the ipsilateral eye as well as loss of communication with the opposite oculomotor nucleus. This means the ipsilateral eye cannot abduct, and the contralateral eye cannot adduct.
As such, a lesion that damages the right PPRF or right abducens nucleus along with the MLF on that side as it connects the left abducens nucleus to the right oculomotor nucleus will result in an inability to abduct (lateral rectus palsy) and adduct (medial rectus palsy) the right eye (the “one”), and an inability to adduct the left eye (the “half”).
Lateral pontine syndrome
Lateral pontine syndrome may be observed when there is occlusion of the long circumferential branches of the basilar artery and subsequent ischemia of the lateral aspect of the pons. This can result in damage to a number of structures, including:
- the middle and superior cerebellar peduncles, resulting in ataxia and gait instabilities, with a tendency to fall toward the side of the lesion
- the vestibular and cochlear nuclei and nerves, resulting in vertigo, nausea or vomiting, nystagmus, deafness, or tinnitus
- the facial motor nucleus, resulting in ipsilateral paralysis of the muscles of facial expression
- the trigeminal motor nucleus, resulting in ipsilateral paralysis of the muscles of mastication
- descending hypothalamospinal fibers, resulting in ptosis, miosis, and anhydrosis (a.k.a. Horner syndrome)
- the anterolateral system and parts of the spinal trigeminal tract and nucleus, resulting in contralateral loss of pain and temperature sensation in the body and ipsilateral loss of pain and temperature sensation in the face, respectively
- the PPRF, resulting in loss of conjugate gaze toward the side of the lesion
It should be noted that the exact constellation of symptoms observed will depend significantly on whether the lesion occurs in the rostral or caudal regions of the pons. Lesions of the lateral pons and their associated clinical presentations are often referred to as Gubler syndrome, or Miller-Gubler syndrome; but basilar pontine lesions specifically involving the trigeminal root may also be referred to as midpontine base syndrome.
Parinaud syndrome, otherwise known as gaze palsy, typically results from the presence of a tumor in the region of the pineal gland. A tumor in this location may arise from a variety of different types of cells, and as such may be a germinoma, astrocytoma, pineocytoma, or pineoblastoma.
As the tumor grows, it has the potential to occlude the cerebral aqueduct and put pressure on the superior colliculi. Occlusion of the cerebral aqueduct can lead to enlargement of the third ventricle and eventually hydrocephalus. Damage to superior colliculi is associated with upward gaze paralysis: this means an affected person cannot move the eyes up or down, a presentation sometimes referred to as sunset eye sign, setting-sun sign, or sunsetting of the eyes. Eventual impingement of the oculomotor and trochlear nuclei by the tumor can result in a more severe paralysis of eye movement; and if the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) becomes involved, an affected person may also present with nystagmus.
A patient appears at your clinic complaining of diplopia, periorbital pain, and headache. The patient is an overweight, 64 year-old male with a medical history significant for hypertension and type II diabetes mellitus. Although he has been prescribed the antihypertensive medication lisinopril–an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor, a drug frequently prescribed to treat patients with co-occurring hypertension and diabetes–and antidiabetic medications including metformin (a drug which acts to decrease glucose production by the liver, decrease intestinal glucose absorption, and increase insulin sensitivity) and canagliflozin (an inhibitor of SGLT-2, a transporter otherwise responsible for reabsorbing glucose in the proximal tubule of the kidney), finger-stick testing quickly reveals that his disease is poorly controlled: the patient’s hemoglobin A1C (glycosylated hemoglobin) is revealed to be 8.0. Consistent with this finding, the patient reveals upon questioning that he lives alone and often misplaces or forgets to take his medications. Upon physical examination, you note that his left eyelid is drooping and his left eye points in the down and out direction. Pupillary light reflex testing reveals a symmetrical response of pupillary constriction.
This patient is presenting with a pupil-sparing oculomotor nerve palsy, characterized by the loss of somatic motor function (i.e. loss of function of the levator palpebrae superioris; medial, superior, and inferior recti; and inferior oblique muscles) with retention of special visceral afferent function of the constrictor pupillae muscle.
CN III palsy with sparing of the pupil is associated with ischemic neuropathy, which typically occurs secondary to microvascular disease. As such, it is frequently associated with hypertension, diabetes, or hyperlipidemia. Pupil-sparing CN III palsy, however, may also be associated with a compressive lesion, such as an aneurysm; although it should be noted that such space-occupying lesions can potentially progress to eventually affect the pupil as well. The presence of an aneurysm should be suspected when the patient does not have a history of diabetes, vascular disease, or other associated risk factors. Vasculitis, such as temporal (i.e. giant cell) arteritis, should also be considered as a potential etiology in older adults.
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"A bully is fearful, and fear is always the enemy of goodness, and so it is the enemy of love and peace."
Pope Francis has addressed the problem of bullying several times during his pontificate. He sees it as yet another example of using a type of power to diminish the dignity of a “smaller” one, and speaks out against it forcefully, even calling it the work of the devil, “because it is the devil’s work to attack the weak.”
Last November, during his trip to Tokyo, he had the chance to speak at length about bullying, during his meeting with young people. Francis responded to the issue presented by a young man who recounted his own experience of bullying, when he moved to Japan from the Philippines as a fourth grader, and was bullied for being different, for his weight, and other issues.
The Holy Father pointed out that in fact, it is the bully who is trying to escape his own fear. He urged young people themselves to stand up to each other when they see bullying occur.
Here’s what he said:
Thank you, Leonardo, for sharing the experience of bullying and discrimination. More and more young people are finding the courage to speak up about experiences like yours. In my time, when I was young, we never spoke about things like the ones Leonardo spoke about.
The cruelest thing about bullying is that it attacks our self-confidence at the very time when we most need the ability to accept ourselves and to confront new challenges in life. Sometimes, victims of bullying even blame themselves for being “easy” targets. They can feel like failures, weak and worthless, and end up in very tragic situations: “If only I were different…”
Yet paradoxically, it is the bullies – those who carry out bullying – who are the truly weak ones, for they think that they can affirm their own identity by hurting others. Sometimes they strike out at anyone they think is different, who represents something they find threatening. Deep down, bullies are afraid, and they cover their fear by a show of strength. And in so doing, take note, when you sense, when you see that someone “needs” to hurt another person, to bully another, to harrass them: he is the weak one. The victim is not the weak one; it is the one who bullies someone weaker because he needs to feel like a big boy, the powerful one, in order to feel that he is a human being. I said this to Leonardo a little while ago: “When they say you are fat, tell them: ‘It’s worse to be skinny like you!'”
We must all unite against this culture of bullying, all of us together against this culture of bullying, and learn to say “Enough!” It is an epidemic, and together you can find the best medicine to treat it. It is not sufficient that educational institutions or adults use all the resources at their disposal to prevent this tragedy; it is necessary that among yourselves, among friends and among colleagues, you join in saying: “No! No to bullying, no to attacking another. That’s wrong.” There is no greater weapon against these actions than standing up in the midst of our classmates and friends and saying: “What you are doing – bullying – is wrong.”
A bully is fearful, and fear is always the enemy of goodness, and so it is the enemy of love and peace. The great religions, all the religions that we practice, teach tolerance, teach harmony, teach mercy; religions do not teach fear, division and conflict.
For us Christians, we hear Jesus constantly telling his followers not to be afraid. Why? Because if I stand with God and we love God and our brothers and sisters, this love casts out fear (cf. 1Jn 4:18). For many of us, as Leonardo reminded us, looking to the life of Jesus gives us consolation, for Jesus himself knew what it was to be despised and rejected – even to the point of being crucified. He knew too what it was to be a stranger, a migrant, someone who was “different.”
In a sense – and here I am speaking to Christians and non-Christians who can see him as a religious model – Jesus was the ultimate “outsider,” an outsider who was full of life to give.
Leonardo, we can always look at all the things we don’t have, but we can also come to see all the life that we can give and share with others. The world needs you. Never forget that! The Lord needs you, he needs you so that you can encourage all those people around us who are looking for a helping hand to lift them up. I would like to tell you something which will stand you in good stead for your lives: to look at someone with contempt, with scorn, is to look down on them, that is to say: “I am superior and you are inferior”; but there is only one fair and right way to look down on a person: to help them to get up. If one of us, and that includes me, looks down at a person, with contempt, it doesn’t amount to much. But if one of us looks down at a person to give them a hand, to help them get up, that man or that woman is truly great. So, when you look down to someone, ask yourselves: “Where is my hand? It is hidden or is it helping this person to get up?” and you will be happy. Okay?
Now this involves developing a very important but underestimated quality: the ability to learn to make time for others, to listen to them, to share with them, to understand them. Only then can we open our experiences and our problems to a love that can change us and start to change the world around us. Unless we are generous in spending time with others, in “wasting” time with them, we will waste time on many things that, at the end of the day, leave us empty and confused; “stuffed,” as they would say in my home country.
So please make time for your family, dedicate time to your friends, and also make time for God through meditation and prayer, each one of us according to his or her own belief. And if you find it hard to pray, don’t give up. A wise spiritual guide once said: prayer is mostly just a matter of being there. Be still; make space for God to come in; let him look at you and he will fill you with his peace.
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To be assessed as having a fit body, you need to achieve all 5 factors as follows.
This criterion is measured based on the body’s endurance and cardiovascular health during exercise. The goal of these exercises is to help the practitioner have a healthy circulatory system, an effective respiratory system, stabilize the heart rate, avoid breathing problems while exercising, and increase tolerance limits.
Popular Cardio exercises are running, cycling, dancing, in addition to other sports such as swimming, ball sports.
Muscle strength is measured by how much weight a person can carry. Endurance is the number of times an exercise is repeated. Muscle strength is the amount of internal force that can be produced in one exercise. All of these can be measured by the parameters displayed on the treadmill screen.
This is a fundamental element of exercise that any bodybuilder will experience, helping to improve muscle strength and improve body movement. Muscle exercises you can refer to weights for groups of abs, back, thigh, shoulder…
Ability to keep balance, toughness
This criterion is measured by the ability of a person to maintain balance and lengthen muscles and joints. These exercises aim to coordinate the central muscle groups (abdomen, waist, back, thighs) with other muscle groups to help control the body flexibility, stabilize joints, increase blood circulation to the muscle. The popular exercises of this group of exercises include yoga, stretching exercises, balance exercises…
This criterion is assessed by the speed at which a person moves within a specific distance. These exercises are aimed at the flexibility and agility of the body. Speed training means that you have to apply reason and correct exercises to develop the speed of the whole body or for a specific muscle group.
Exercises are encouraged to do more are running exercises, jumping exercises and you can do them at home.
Body Composition is known to be the ratio of fat to other tissues (muscles, bones, skin) present in the body. To be able to achieve Body Fitness, in addition to the factor of exercise, you need to have a reasonable diet, stay away from harmful substances, stimulants, drink enough water, provide enough protein, getting enough sleep, sleeping on time, and having a healthy lifestyle.
Above are 5 factors to evaluate the fitness status of a body.
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Classified data often manifest a salt-and-pepper appearance due to the inherent spectral variability encountered by a classification when applied on a pixel-by pixel basis (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994). It is often desirable to “smooth” the classified output to show only the dominant (presumably correct) classification.
One means of classification smoothing involves the application of a majority filter. In such operations a moving windows is pass through the classified pixel in the window is not the majority class, its identity is changed to the majority class. If there is no majority class in the window, the identity of the center pixel is not changed. As the windows progresses through the data set, the original class code are continually used, not the labels as modified from the previous window position. (Eastman, 1995)
Majority filters can also incorporate some from of class and/or spatial weighting function. Data may also be smoothed mote than once. Certain algorithms can preserve the boundaries between land cover regions and also involve a user-specified minimum area for any given land cover type that will be maintained in the smooth output (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994).
Ground truth or field survey is done in order to observe and collect information about the actual condition on the ground at a test site and determine the relationship between remotely sensed data and the object to be observed. It is recommended to have a ground truth at the same time of data acquisition, or at least within the time that the environmental condition does not change.
Classification accuracy assessment is a general term for comparing the classification to geographical data that are assumed to be true to determine the accuracy of the classification process. Usually, the assumed true data are derived from ground truth. It is usually not practical to ground truth or otherwise test every pixel of a classified image. Therefore a set of reference pixels is usually used. Reference pixels are points on the classified image for which actual data are(will be) known. The reference pixel are randomly select.(Congalton , 1991)
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Which type of exercise is right for me? Is lifting weights going to give me the best result? Maybe I should concentrate on running - that will really help to strengthen my heart. What about yoga - everyone says yoga is good for flexibility. All of us, at one point or another, have had these conversations with ourselves. We're continually bombarded with exercise-related stories on television, in magazines, and in our electronic newsreaders. But many of us don't know how to put the information we're receiving to good use. We don't have a context or framework with which to assess the potential value in these media communications.
For most of us, a very good answer to the exercise conundrum is to do a variety of activities on a weekly basis. We know this intuitively. Concentrating on one type of exercise will usually lead to the loss of other important benefits. Again for most of us, across-the-board benefits are required. We need to maintain or increase a healthful amount of lean muscle mass. We gain this benefit from strength training. We need to maintain or improve cardiovascular strength and health. These are obtained from aerobic-type exercise such as brisk walking, running, swimming, or bicycling.1 We need to maintain or improve flexibility and stretchability. These benefits are gained from yoga. Each category of physical fitness is necessary for ongoing health and well-being. Thus, each of the three main categories of exercise is needed to ensure we obtain the full range of benefits.
It's important to be aware that each exercise category provides a distinct benefit, and as such no individual category is a "better" than the others. Doing exercise consistently is what counts. Going further, consistently doing a range of types of exercise provides lasting health benefits. There might be times when a person chooses to focus on one specific category. That's fine, provided that the other two categories continue to be incorporated on a temporarily reduced basis. After a while, the person will usually choose to return to a broader approach.
Finally, most people are familiar with strength training and the various types of cardiovascular exercise. Not everyone is familiar with yoga. There are numerous other activities that promote flexibility and stretchability, and yoga is not the only means of obtaining these benefits. But many people have discovered that yoga in itself is complete exercise. Regular yoga practice provides strength training, cardiovascular training, and deep training of the proprioceptive system (the body's awareness of position in 3-dimensional space) which leads to improved agility and balance.2,3 Regular yoga practice adds lean muscle mass and lowers the heart rate (as a result of improved cardiovascular capacity). Those who do yoga are "light on their feet". Yoga is a remarkable exercise system and could be sufficient in itself for long-lasting health and wellness. But when a person adds a weight lifting program and specific cardiovascular training, the remarkable benefits of cross-training kick in. The overall gains achieved are noticeably enhanced. Thus, a broad program of strength training, cardiovascular training, and yoga can lead to the best results.
1Snel M, et al: Effects of Adding Exercise to a 16-Week Very Low-Calorie Diet in Obese, Insulin-Dependent Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012 May 8 (Epub ahead of print)
2Galantino ML, et al: Impact of Yoga on Functional Outcomes in Breast Cancer Survivors With Aromatase Inhibitor-Associated Arthralgias. Integr Cancer Ther 2011 July 6 (DOI: 10.1177/1534735411413270)
3Kiecolt-Glaser JK, et al: Adiponectin, leptin, and yoga practice. Physiol Behav 2012 Jan 27 (Epub ahead of print)
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Many studies have strongly suggested that the trillions of micro-organisms that inhabit the human body influence our current and future health and may account for the rising incidence of several serious medical conditions now plaguing Americans, young and old.
The research indicates that cesarean deliveries and limited breast-feeding can distort the population of micro-organisms in a baby’s gut and may explain the unchecked rise of worrisome health problems in children and adults, including asthma, allergies, celiac disease, Type 1 diabetes and obesity. These conditions, among others, are more likely to occur when an infant’s gut has been inadequately populated by health-promoting bacteria.
A growing number of researchers and consumers are now paying more attention to where it all begins, especially how this huge population of microbes in our bodies, called the microbiome, is affected, for good or bad, by how babies are born and nourished.
As this still-evolving information trickles down to prospective mothers, it could — and perhaps should — lead to profound changes in obstetrics, pediatrics and parenting. The two most important would be fewer scheduled cesarean deliveries and more mothers breast-feeding exclusively for six months to enhance the kinds and amounts of bacteria that inhabit an infant’s gut.
These organisms perform important functions that include digesting unused nutrients, producing vitamins, stimulating normal immune development, countering harmful bacteria and fostering maturation of the gut.
A disruption in one or more of these functions can lead to serious, sometimes lifelong, health problems. If, for example, gut maturation is impaired or delayed, some experts believe undigested proteins could leak into the bloodstream and trigger an allergy or gluten intolerance, or an impaired immune system could result in an autoimmune disorder like Type 1 diabetes, juvenile arthritis or multiple sclerosis.
Babies are exposed to some organisms in utero, but the organisms encountered during birth and the first months of life have the greatest influence on those that become permanent residents in their guts. Recent studies have shown that both a vaginal birth and exclusive breast-feeding can significantly affect the kinds and numbers of their gut microbes and the risk of developing various health problems.
For example, a Danish study of two million children born between 1977 and 2012 found that those born by cesarean delivery were significantly more likely than those born vaginally to develop asthma, systemic connective tissue disorders, juvenile arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, immune deficiencies and leukemia.
Babies born vaginally primarily acquire the microbes that inhabit their mother’s vagina and bowel. However, those delivered surgically before membranes rupture and labor begins acquire microbes mainly from the mother’s skin and the personnel and environment in the newborn nursery.
When an emergency cesarean is performed after membranes rupture and labor has begun, the baby acquires fewer of the mother’s microbes than it would during a vaginal birth but many more than from a scheduled cesarean.
These differences in the gut microbiota were found to persist in children until at least 7 years of age, according to a study in Finland published in 2004.
Currently, about one baby in three in the United States is delivered by cesarean section, up from about one in five in the 1990s. Certainly, a surgical delivery can be lifesaving when, for example, the fetus or the mother is at risk of a serious or fatal complication from a vaginal delivery.
But other reasons for the rise in cesarean deliveries, including the readings from a fetal monitor, are less clear-cut. Even though many babies with borderline readings would be likely to be fine with a vaginal birth, women and their doctors are usually unwilling to take a chance when the monitor suggests that the fetus may be in trouble. And women who have one cesarean, which weakens the uterine wall, are more likely to have a second or third rather than risk a uterine rupture during subsequent labor and delivery.
To counter the effects of a surgical birth on the infant’s microbiome, a growing number of women whose babies are delivered by cesarean are requesting that medical staff transfer microbes from the mother’s vagina to their infants soon after birth. Some are administering the microbe exchanges themselves. However, an expert committee of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recently warned that the practice, known as vaginal seeding, was premature and possibly hazardous.
“At this time, vaginal seeding should not be performed outside the context of an institutional review board-approved research protocol until adequate data regarding the safety and benefit of the process become available,” the committee concluded. The committee cited a potential risk of transferring pathogenic organisms from the woman to the neonate.
If vaginal seeding is being considered, women should be informed of the risks and tested for infectious diseases and potentially pathogenic bacteria, including group B streptococci, herpes simplex virus, chlamydia and gonorrhea, the committee stated.
Dr. Suchitra Hourigan, a pediatric gastroenterologist and director of the Inova Translational Medicine Institute in Falls Church, Va., is planning a three-year study of 800 babies delivered by a scheduled cesarean, half of whom will get vaginal seeding, to help determine if the technique is safe and beneficial.
Dr. Hourigan said in an interview, “Women shouldn’t do vaginal seeding until trials show it’s safe and offers health benefits to infants. I’m worried about mothers doing this without screening and sometimes without supervision by a physician who says it’s O.K.”
She added that at the moment, breast-feeding is the best and safest way to expose babies born by cesarean to their mother’s bacteria. Breast milk contains many of the same beneficial bacteria found in a woman’s vagina, and breast-feeding infants are less likely than those consuming formula to develop respiratory and gastrointestinal infections and allergies as well as chronic diseases like diabetes, obesity and inflammatory bowel disease.
In a study published online last May in JAMA Pediatrics, researchers reported that babies who got all or most of their milk from the breast had microbiota most like their mothers’.
Dr. Grace M. Aldrovandi of the University of California, Los Angeles, and co-authors noted that “breast milk bacteria that seed the gut first influence and select for bacteria that follow, leaving a footprint that can be detected even in adulthood.” These organisms are associated with a reduced risk of developing asthma, they wrote.
However, infants in the study who were not primarily breast-fed acquired an abundance of bacteria linked to a risk of becoming obese. Some studies have found that “even small amounts of formula supplementation” can shift the microbiota away from a breast-fed pattern.
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The Data About School Reopening Is Still Mixed — But One Thing Is Consistent
While the United States grapples with decision about whether to reopen schools, and how, other nations have already done so, with apparent success. The measures implemented and the results vary, but one thing is consistent: a positive outcome seems linked to compliance with safety measures, and with declining cases and spread overall.
Science covered the results as schools around the world worked to reopen. Some have even been able to relax their distancing measures since kids have returned to classes.
Much of the data is hopeful — for instance, in Crépy-en-Valois, in France, cases dropped off in the middle and high school around winter break, but stayed at their steady (relatively low) rate in elementary schoolers, suggesting that smaller children transmit the virus less as well as showing fewer and less severe symptoms.
Schools are experimenting with a variety of safety procedures, ranging from masks, to forbidding contact with other students, to creating small ‘pods’ of a few students who are allowed contact only within their group.
In fact, data so far makes the older children the greater concern.
Other outbreaks also suggest that elementary school pupils pose a smaller threat than older students. Among the worst schoolwide outbreaks was at Gymnasium Rehavia, a middle and high school in Jerusalem, where 153 students and 25 staff were infected in late May and early June. An outbreak at a New Zealand high school before that country’s shutdown infected 96 people, including students, teachers, staff, and parents. In contrast, a neighboring elementary school saw few cases.
However, compliance and decreased community spread seems to be another key:
In China, South Korea, Japan, and Vietnam—where masks are already widely accepted and worn by many during flu season—schools require them for almost all students and their teachers. China allows students to remove masks only for lunch, when children are separated by glass or plastic partitions. Israel requires masks for children older than age 7 outside the classroom, and for children in fourth grade and above all day—and they comply.
The data led researchers to conclude that when infection rates are low overall, school reopening does not appear to cause significant new outbreaks.
In much of the U.S., infection rates are not low, or on the decline. The Orlando Sentinal reported Sunday that Florida, for instance, broke several records, including the most new cases in a day in any state (a record that New York, then a hotspot, formerly held), and the largest number of cases, deaths, and tests in a week. Notably, there was also a record set for lowest positivity rate for tests, which defies the claim that more tests equal more cases.
Still, in many hotspots across the U.S., cases — and deaths — are still on the rise. The Trump administration’s testing chief has said deaths are expected to continue rising, and that unless mask compliance hits around 90% in hotspots, the virus spread will not be controlled.
As schools do open, Arnaud Fontanet, the Pasteur Institute epidemiologist who studied the spread in Crépy-en-Valois cited above, warns that high school students may have to be particularly cautious. “It’s still a bit speculative, [but older students] have to be very careful. They have mild disease, but they are contagious.”
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|scientific name Euxoa auxiliaris |
common name Army Cutworm
Grasslands, croplands, meadows and other open habitats, including alpine.
In Alberta, adults are on the wing from mid May through September, with the peak flight in July and
A fairly large (4.0-4.5 cm wingspan) grey-brown moth, one of the largest Euxoa. There are several forms of adults; the most common with a black basal dash, black between the orbicular and reniform spot, a contrasting paler grey or yellow costa and a pale streak beyond the claviform spot. A less common form has an evenly-colored pale grey or pale brown forewing. Yet another form has dark brown forewings with white outlined reniform and orbicular spots.
Auxiliaris belongs to the subgenus Chorizagrotis, characterized by long, apically spatulate saccular extension and short harpes. The only other member of the subgenus in Alberta is E. adumbrata, which can be separated by it's longer harpes (more than 5 times as long as wide vs 3 times in auxiliaris).
After emerging in late spring or early summer, the adults migrate to higher, cooler elevation for the summer, returning in late summer and early fall to lay eggs, which hatch after a suitable rain. Eggs are laid directly onto the soil, with bare soils such as cultivated or overgrazed areas being preferred. The eggs hatch after a suitable rain, and they overwinter as partly grown larvae. The larvae resume feeding in the spring, pupate, and the adults emerge in late spring early summer. The larvae feed above ground at night and on cool days, hiding in the soil or under clods during the day. Many of the adults which emerge in spring migrate to high elevations to aestivate, returning to the lowland to lay eggs in late summer and fall. There is but a single brood of long-lived adults each year. Auxiliaris make up a large portion of the masses of moths that aestivate in rockslides in the mountains in Wyoming and Montana, and which are an important seasonal food for grizzly bears.
A common widespread pest species; no concerns.
A wide variety of plants and nearly all field crops including wheat, alfalfa, barley, potato, sugarbeets, other vegetables and grasses (Hein et al, undated). They have been found to prefer broad-leaved weeds over wheat in wheat fields (Peairs, 1999)
Widespread in western North America, north to the Northwest Territories and south to Northern Mexico, east on occasion to Michigan, Illinois and Missouri and Texas.
Comments are published according to our submission guidelines. The EH Strickland Entomological Museum does not necessarily endorse the views expressed.
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27 Jul Leaving Paris: Implications of the US withdrawal for Climate Leadership
Has commitment to the Paris Agreement been weakened or strengthened by US President Donald Trump’s decision to pull America out of the deal? What does the US withdrawal actually mean in technical terms, considering that the US can only formally leave in 2020?
We held a talk on “Leaving Paris: Implications of the US withdrawal for Climate Leadership” on 27 July 2017, featuring views from Mr. Cheah Sin Liang, Lead Coordinator for Climate Negotiations and Deputy Director, International Policy, National Climate Change Secretariat, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore, Ms. Melissa Low, Research Fellow, Energy Studies Institute, National University of Singapore (NUS), and Ms. Maggie Lee, Sustainability Lead, Procter & Gamble. The session was moderated by SIIA Executive Director Nicholas Fang, with discussions under the Chatham House Rule.
More photos from the session will be available on our Facebook page.
What does the US withdrawal actually mean?
The Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was deliberately designed so that countries cannot pull out immediately. There is a total four-year waiting period, meaning the United States can only formally leave in 2020, after the next US Presidential Election. If Mr Trump is not re-elected, it is possible the next US President could reverse Mr Trump’s decision.
Strictly speaking, it is not entirely clear how the US will enact its withdrawal from the Paris Agreement. Mr Trump has said that the US might negotiate to re-enter the deal, but the international community remains unclear on what this means – for example, does the US seek to submit a new nationally determined contribution (NDC) to the UNFCCC? There is a possibility that the world may find out more on what the US plans to do at this year’s UN climate change conference in November (COP 23).
What will be the impact on the fight against climate change?
Even with the US government sending mixed signals, the world is moving forward with action against climate change. For instance, France has pledged to ban the sale of all petrol and diesel cars by 2040 – all vehicles sold in France will have to be electric, hybrid, or use other green technologies. Within the US, there has been a strong groundswell of support with individual states and cities pledging to fulfil targets set under the Obama administration in line with the Paris Agreement, even without federal assistance.
Steps taken by the Trump administration to roll back Obama-era climate pledges will dent America’s ability to reach its previously-agreed emissions reduction targets under the Paris Agreement. But we also need to bear in mind that, for example, the US power industry is already two-thirds of the way towards the goals set by the Obama administration’s Clean Power Plan. It is not merely government regulation that is driving the shift, but also market forces, with green energy becoming increasingly viable and profitable.
Many major US companies are also committed to going green. Prior to Mr Trump’s announcement that the US would leave the Paris Agreement, the CEOs of 30 major American firms, including Proctor & Gamble, sent a public letter to Mr Trump urging him to reconsider his decision. Private sector firms like P&G are shifting to run factories with renewable energy, making products from recycled or recyclable materials, and aiming to send zero waste to landfills.
Thus while the US may not meet its full Paris Agreement commitments in the coming years, its actual emissions may not be as bad as some fear.
But one broader concern is whether the US government’s stance will serve as a negative example to other countries, encouraging some to rethink their Paris Agreement pledges, or harm further talks on the deal. The Paris Agreement is essentially architecture, but many of the details on implementation by countries still need to be hammered out.
That said, thus far, the international community has rallied behind the Paris Agreement and support for the deal has not wavered.
Singapore remains committed to the Paris Agreement. As a low-lying small island state, Singapore is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and is pushing forward with national climate plans, including the implementation of a carbon tax from 2019.
Original Event Synopsis
The Paris Agreement is now once again in the global spotlight, following US President Donald Trump’s decision to pull America out of the climate accord. While the decision has drawn opposition from several other countries, it also seems to have prompted a sense of renewed commitment on sustainability from other major economies like China, France and Germany. In the US, several states and cities have also pledged to stand with the global community and stick with their emissions targets.
This evening talk at the Singapore Institute of International Affairs looks at what the US decision means for the current Paris Agreement, the impact on future climate change negotiations, as well as the long-term implications for global leadership on environment issues.
Date: Thursday, 27th July 2017
Time: 5:30pm – 7:00pm (Registration starts at 5:30pm; Talk begins at 6pm)
Venue: Singapore Institute of International Affairs
60A Orchard Road #04-03 (Level 4M) Tower 1,
The Atrium @Orchard, International Involvement Hub,
*Event is by invitation only. Should you wish to register your interest, please kindly email [email protected].
Ms. Melissa Low
Research Fellow, Energy Studies Institute, National University of Singapore (NUS)
Mr. Cheah Sin Liang
Lead Coordinator for Climate Negotiations and Deputy Director, International Policy, National Climate Change Secretariat, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore
Ms. Maggie Lee
Sustainability Lead, Procter & Gamble
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Archibald Geikie was born in Edinburgh, Scotland on the 28th December 1835. He was a reknowned geologist of the Victorian era and served as President of both the Royal Society and the Geological Society. He strove to bring geology to a wider audience through his written work and lectures.
- Geographical Evolution (1910)
- A Lecture delivered at the Evening Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, 24th March, 1879.
FCIT. (2013, May 19). Archibald Geikie author page. Retrieved May 19, 2013, from
FCIT. "Archibald Geikie author page." Lit2Go ETC. Web. 19 May 2013. <>.
FCIT, "Archibald Geikie author page." Accessed May 19, 2013..
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| 0.943738 | 171 | 2.640625 | 3 |
In Part 2 of the Programming ArcGIS with Python Workshop you will learn intermediate level programming ArcGIS with Python skills. This class is based on the book Programming ArcGIS with Python Cookbook (2nd Edition), written by our owner, Eric Pimpler. The course materials are applicable to ArcGIS Desktop 10.5 through 10.1.
This course is offered in a variety of formats including live-classroom, live-online, instructor guided-online, and self-paced. This is a hands-on style workshop with lots of exercises designed to teach you how to automate your ArcGIS geoprocessing tasks with Python. The workshop is designed around the content of the book. In addition to all the workshop materials, each student will also receive a copy of the book and lifetime access to all the course content over the web.
- Module 1: Using the Arcpy Data Access Module with Feature Classes and Tables
- Module 2: Listing and Describing GIS Data
- Module 3: Customizing the ArcGIS Desktop Interface with AddIns
- Module 4: Error Handling and Trouble Shooting
- Module 5: Using the ArcGIS REST API with Python to Access ArcGIS Server and ArcGIS Online
- Module 6: 5 Things Every GIS Programmer Should Know
Course exercises include:
- Using cursors to select, insert, update and delete data from feature classes and tables
- Retrieving features from a feature class with a SearchCursor
- Filtering records with a where clause
- Improving cursor performance with geometry tokens
- Inserting rows with an InsertCursor (feature classes and tables)
- Updating rows with an UpdateCursor (feature classes and tables)
- Deleting rows with an UpdateCursor (feature classes and tables)
- Using edit sessions to insert and update rows
- Reading geometry from a feature class
- Using Walk() to navigate directories
- Downloading and installing the Python Add-In wizard
- Creating a button add-in
- Creating a tool add-in
- Using the Python addins module
- Installing and testing an add-in
- Getting started with the ArcGIS REST API
- Making HTTP requests and parsing the response with Python
- Exporting a map with the ArcGIS REST API and Python
- Querying a map service with the REST API
- Getting layer information with the ArcGIS REST API
- Geocoding with the Esri World Geocoding Service
- Populating a feature class with data using InsertCursor and the ArcGIS REST API
- Retrieving files from an ftp server
- Creating ZIP files
- Reading JSON and XML files
8 GISP Credit Hours
Course Formats and Pricing – Programming ArcGIS with Python Workshop Intermediate
Class will be held each day from 8:30 – 4:00 at the location provided above.
Our self-paced classes are delivered through our online training platform. You will be emailed instructions for creating a login and activating your course. All lectures are pre-recorded so you can progress through the course at your own pace. The same applies to the exercise. The course does not have an expiration date.
You can also register for classes using our registration form.
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Impulsive emanations are signals emitted from an information processing device that are being compromised or can be intercepted. This is a type of compromised emanation (CE) and is considered a part of Telecommunications Electronics Material Protected from Emanating Spurious Transmissions (TEMPEST). Impulsive emanations are found in most equipment that processes digital data.
Techopedia explains Impulsive Emanations
Impulsive emanations are generally formed with electrical equipment that is being tested. It demonstrates that whatever an individual is doing on a computer can be seen on another computer as the emanated signals are broadcast into the air and can be easily intercepted. Impulsive emanations are caused when the equipment under test (EUT) processes digital signals very quickly.
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The key to an effective and smoothly run business is the efficiency and cohesive integration of its business processes. A business process describes the steps taken to complete any objective, task or service within a business. Processes can be divided into three distinct categories:
- Management processes - processes that describe business strategy and organizational structure.
- Operational processes - interaction between business and customer, core business activity.
- Supporting processes - e.g. health and safety, accounting, recruitment.
Business processes are born from business process management (BPM) strategy, which is the overall strategy for all company operations. BPM is responsible for a business process from its design, through to modeling, to execution. It also covers optimization or re-engineering of current processes.
The most effective method of creating or analyzing a business process is to visually interpret the steps using a business process diagram, flowchart or workflow. This is known as business process modeling, and will be performed within a company by a team who have detailed knowledge of company process, and analysts with expertise in the modeling discipline. The objective is often to increase production or lower costs - by modeling the process initially using a flowchart, inefficiencies and problems can be spotted before committing to a decision or strategy.
Example 1. BPMN 2.0 - Booking
Given the fluid, global nature of business at present, it is perhaps a necessity to have a standardized notation system with which to describe the steps that make up different business processes. Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) v2.0 is a method for visualizing information in a way that's intuitive for business analysts, and also allows existing processes within a business to be compared and integrated effectively.
The aim of BPMN is assist in creating a diagram that is immediately understandable to all business stakeholders, with graphic elements that can be adapted to represent any form of function, decision, work or data flow. The symbols and structure it uses to do this can be divided into a number of categories:
- Flow objects - includes Events, which are parts of a process that happen automatically, denoted by a circle; Activities show work that needs to be done, shown as a round-cornered rectangle; Gateways show a splitting or merging of paths, using a diamond shape.
- Connecting objects - used to connect flow objects, either as Sequence Flow, which indicated the order of activities; Message Flow, a dashed line that shows interaction between organizational boundaries, shown on diagrams as 'Pools'; Association is a dotted line used to connect an 'Artifact' or text to an activity.
- Swim lanes - the widest possible overview of a process involving different organizations is known as a Pool. Different organizations each have their own Lane within the Pool, and are connected using Message Flow connecting objects.
- Artifacts - Artifacts are pieces of information added to certain Activity flow objects to giver better understanding to those viewing the process diagram. They can be data required or produces, extra activities, or simply explanatory text.
- Choreographies - These symbols allow the opportunity to show an activity or step that describes the behavior between business participants.
- Expanded objects - these symbols can be used to expand one area of a process, and see an activity or function at a higher level of detail.
ConceptDraw have designed a solution that combines BPMN v2.0 methodology and graphical notification into one powerful package. The Business Process Diagrams solution from ConceptDraw Solution Park provides a comprehensive collection of vector stencil libraries that contain pre-designed, standardized BPMN v2.0 symbols, as well as a number of templates that help you map out business processes and strategy in a variety of styles.
ConceptDraw DIAGRAM v12 is the ideal software solution when working with process diagrams or flowcharts. Thanks to the intuitive and powerful RapidDraw interface, activity and workflow shapes and symbols can be generated on the page with a single click of a button, allowing you to map your process as quick as it comes to mind. If you get stuck at any stage, help is at hand from our tutorial videos, that can be found in our help section.
To create professional looking, informative workflow diagrams, and obtain a full library of BPMN v2.0 graphics, download and use the Business Process Diagrams solution from ConceptDraw.
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Little Boy Blue is stuck on a little island in Storybrook Pond and can't get back to shore. Super Why and his friends head into the story of The Swiss Family Robinson to meet a family who is just as stranded as Little Boy Blue. They'll need to use what's around them to survive in this do-it-yourself island adventure! Educational Objectives: To learn to think creatively in tricky situations. Preschoolers will catch the alphabet using Alpha Pig's Alphabet Net, rhyme with ING words, and use the power to read to change the story.
Visit the Website: http://pbskids.org/superwhy/
Episode #154 / Length: 28 minutes
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| 0.950958 | 141 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Obesity and diabetes are our nation’s twin epidemics. There are over 100 million American adults that are overweight or obese, and that’s enough people to wrap around the world. Moreover, about 20 million American adults have diabetes, of which 80 percent are also obese.
Two noteworthy clinical trials were conducted within the last year. One, in Italy, and one in the United States, both showed a significant improvement in the blood sugar control and significantly greater weight loss in obese patients with Type 2 diabetes who underwent bariatric surgery. Both studies examined patients who had undergone one of three bariatric surgery procedures: biliopancreatic diversion, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass or Sleeve Gastrectomy and compared them to patients using conventional treatment for diabetes such as medication combined with diet and exercise.
The Researchers from the University of Rome in Italy conducted a study that included 60 morbidly obese patients with Type 2 diabetes. The 60 patients were divided into three groups; conventional diabetic care including medications; the second group underwent Roux-en-Y bypass; and the third had a biliopancreatic diversion.
Within two years after the surgery, 95 percent of those in the biliopancreatic diversion group experienced a remission of their diabetes, as did 75 percent of those in the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass group. Though blood sugar control improved in the group using diabetes medication, there was no evidence of remission in those test subjects.
The U.S. study examined 150 people, 50 had Sleeve Gastrectomy, 50 had Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, and 50 people received intensive medication, monitoring, and diet and exercise counseling.
After one year, 78 percent of those who had gastric bypass and 51 percent of those who had Sleeve Gastrectomy were off of all diabetic medications. The proportion of subjects taking lipid-lowering medications dropped from 86 percent to 27 percent among those who had gastric bypass and was cut in half among those who had Sleeve Gastrectomy.
“’The most effective treatment right now for diabetes is surgery’- you can use that as a sentence,” said Dr. Daniel Bessesen, chief of endocrinology at the University of Colorado Hospital in Denver. It is far too soon to say that this could be a ‘cure all’ for diabetes because long-term effects are still unknown, but this is a positive step in the right direction. (Source: LA times; Weight-loss surgery effective against diabetes, studies show)
- Insurance Companies: Insurance companies impose their own requirements before they will cover bariatric surgery, such as consultations with dieticians or pre-surgery weight loss target goals the patient must meet to demonstrate that they can follow a diet and exercise plan, which is a key for success post-surgery weight loss.
- Patient Safety: Currently 220,000 people undergo bariatric surgery a year in the U.S. and that number has been growing with the increasing percentage of obesity; patient safety has been a growing concern with the explosion of facilities providing bariatric surgeries. There are over 110,000 hospitals in the country that perform bariatric surgeries. (Source: JAMA; Characteristics of hospitals performing bariatric surgery) While the complications for bariatric surgery in the U.S. are relatively low, estimated at approximately 4 out of 100, according to HealthGrades, which produced a comprehensive look at bariatric surgery and its costs and quality, of the 468 hospitals that it evaluated, 107 ranked “best performers” and 100 were rated poor. (Source: LA Times; Questions remain about weight-loss surgery for diabetes)
Since it is unrealistic that every diabetic can receive surgery, it is important for primary care physicians, endocrinologists and surgeons to work together to decide which Type 2 diabetes patients would benefit most from the surgeries. It is also important for primary care physicians to understand the needs of a bariatric surgery patient. Special guidance is needed to maintain their bone health and nutritional needs, since critical vitamins and minerals will not be readily absorbed due to the surgery.
Diabetes and obesity are very serious health risks. FirstHealth has the resources you need to turn your health around. They have diabetes nutrition and education and self-management resources. They even offer mobile health screenings for cholesterol, diabetes and blood pressure.
FirstHealth Moore Regional Hospital in partnership with Pinehurst Surgical also offers comprehensive care when it comes to weight loss and weight-loss surgery. Our comprehensive Bariatric Surgical Program serves patients in the Pinehurst, Sanford, Raeford, Laurinburg, Lumberton, Troy and Rockingham regions of North Carolina and beyond. Call (800) 213-3284 with questions or for more information.
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Sailing - Terms
Sailing is a water sport that requires techniques and practice over physical power. So it is important to learn the various techniques to have a great start but before learning the playing techniques, we should be aware of some important parts and terminology of boats and rigs that we are going to face most frequently.
Parts of a Boat
Following are some of the important parts of a sailing boat −
Deck − It is the flat surface area that is present on top of the boat.
Bow − The front of the boat having a narrow shape is often termed as bow.
Cabin Trunk − On the boat, there is a cabin house. The side and roof of this is known as Cabin Trunk.
Port − The part of the boat on the left hand side that faces forward is known as port.
Starboard − The part of the boat on the right hand side facing forward is termed as starboard.
Cockpit − Cockpit is situated at lower side at which tiller is located and also at that position crew positions itself.
Stem − The back-side of the boat is known as the stem.
Hull − The part of the boat that floats on the water is termed as the hull.
Parts of a Rig
Let us now try to figure out some important parts of the rig −
Jib − An attachment to the forestay that gives forward sail is termed as jib.
Mast − It is a vertical spar to which all sails are attached.
Boom − From the mast, a horizontal bar is extended to which foot of the main sail is attached which is known as Boom.
Mainsail − Between the boom and the backside of the mast, a horizontal sail is attached which is called mainsail.
Batten − Inside the pocket of the sail, a fiber glass or wood type structure is given to hold its shape. That piece of structure is known as batten.
Telltales − It is a piece of cloth that is used to show the direction of the wind.
Backstay − To protect the mast from falling, a rigging is connected from the top of the mast to the stem. This is known as backstay.
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Starting the conversation
It's never easy to start a serious conversation with a child. Do it too forcefully and they may well clam up straight away. But if you take a more subtle approach you can find the chat gets derailed and you're soon talking about something entirely different.
So it can be a good idea to try to make the conversation relevant in some way. For example, if you're watching TV together and the on-screen action has something to do with the subject you want to talk about – say a character is being bullied – you could kick things off by asking your child what they'd do in the same situation.
If you think this sounds a bit random and that you could be waiting a long time for the right topic to come up on the box then there's another method that's very useful, especially for younger children:
There are lots of story books written specially to help when you don't know quite how to talk to children about serious subjects like death, abuse and bullying. There are different titles for different age groups and they make great starting points for you to broach a subject.
After you've read the story together a couple of times just ask some gentle questions about their understanding of what it was about and what they would do if they were the character in the story.
Another very good way to get your child's immediate interest could be to say that a friend of yours needs some advice about a particular issue and to ask if they have any ideas. It's a really nice way to show that you value their opinions while also finding out just how much they know about a subject – like how to stay safe on the internet.
It could be that your child has been learning about the subject you want to talk about at school as part of their Personal, Social and Health Education (PSHE). Talk to them about it and see what everyone in the class thought about what they were being taught.
Keeping the conversation going
However you try to start your conversation, try to have realistic expectations. It might not go as well as you're hoping, but give it time. Your child might not be ready to talk straight away but could actually re-start the conversation with you a few days later.
It's also best to think about having a few "bite-sized" conversations over a period of time. It gives your child the time to process what you've discussed and avoids the whole thing sounding like a heavy lecture.
Listening is important too
When you want to have a serious conversation with a child it can be easy to forget that it should be a two-way thing. For them to feel truly involved it's very important to show that you are listening to them and really value what they're telling you.
Start by asking questions that don't just have "yes" and "no" answers. This is going to give your child the chance to tell you what they really think. Then give them as long as they need to answer without interrupting. They may be nervous or still working out what they really think and that could take a little time.
Don't be afraid to let your child ask you questions too. Be honest with them about how you feel about certain subjects and let them know about things that have happened to you in the past.
It's also really important to let them know that they can trust you to keep their confidence and that you want them to always feel they can talk to you, other people they trust or organisations like Childline, when anything is worrying them.
Sometimes your child might actually come to you to talk about a concern.
It's probably taken a lot of courage to even mention it to you so you need to make them feel as comfortable as possible about continuing the conversation.
If it's not the right time or place, agree when and where you're going to talk. And when you do get together begin by reassuring your child that they can tell you anything they need to and you won't blame them in any way.
Listen carefully to what they have to say and if you don't understand anything be honest and ask them to explain. Above all, let them say everything they want to say before you give any opinions or advice.
It's OK to ask your child what they'd like you to do about the situation but it could be something where you can't do anything at all; for example, if they're grieving over a death. What you can always do is reassure and support – starting with a big hug.
If there is anything you can do, and if you plan to do it, let your child know. Otherwise they may feel like you're going behind their back and they should never have told you in the first place.
Talking about life-changing topics
Unfortunately things do happen that can turn young lives upside down. Separation, illness and death obviously have a huge effect and talking about them needs to be treated very carefully. You should also be ready for things to get very emotional and perhaps distressing too.
So, before starting the conversation, there's a great deal to get straight in your own mind:
- when and where to have the conversation – choose somewhere that will be comfortable for you both with no interruptions
- if you have children of different ages, will you speak to them together or separately
- who else should you tell before your child, so they can be ready to give emotional support
- think about the sorts of questions your child's likely to ask you, so you can have the answers ready
When the time comes to break the news, remember to explain everything slowly, in words that your child will easily understand. It's also very important to make sure they know that they're not responsible or to blame in any way for what you are telling them.
Having difficult conversations is hard, but if you handle it well it can bring you and your child closer together and help you to understand each other a bit more. So put a little time and thought into the planning and it won't just help to resolve or explain an issue, it could make your relationship even better too.
Talking about suicidal feelings
Many children tell Childline they feel suicidal. But there's still a stigma around boys expressing these feelings. Our #ToughToTalk campaign encourages boys speak out.
Books to help with conversations
Books can help you talk to children and young people about sensitive subjects and explore ways to start the conversation.
How to talk so kids will listen and listen so kids will talk.
By Adele Faber and Elaine Mazlish
Explains how to cope with children's negative feelings, how to express anger without being hurtful, how to engage a child's willing cooperation, how to set firm limits and maintain goodwill, and, how to resolve family conflicts. It also outlines alternatives to punishment.
Kid-friendly parenting with deaf and hard of hearing children.
By Daria J. Medwid and Denise Chapman Weston
For the parents of deaf and hard-of-hearing children, this step-by-step guide offers hundreds of ideas and methods that work with children aged 3 to 12. It provides play activities to help parents enhance communication, solve problems and strengthen relationships in skilful, fun ways.
The huge bag of worries.
By Virginia Ironside and Frank Rodgers
An illustrated book which encourages children to share their anxieties and fears. Tells the story of a little girl who carries around an increasingly huge bag filled with worries. She doesn't feel she can tell anyone but once she opens up the bag and shares the worries with someone else, the worries no longer seem so big.
The incredible years: a trouble-shooting guide for parents of children aged 3-8.
By Carolyn Webster-Stratton
Advice for parents on managing anger and frustrations, coping with specific problem behaviours such as bed-wetting, how to play, using praise and rewards to promote good behaviour, and communicating with children.
The Parentalk guide to your child and sex.
By Steve Chalke
A father of four children, the author takes an honest and humorous look at how to overcome the embarrassment factor and offers practical information and advice for parents on talking to children about sex.
How to talk so teens will listen and listen so teens will talk.
By Adele Faber, Elaine Mazlish and Kimberly Ann Coe
This book is designed as a light-hearted guide to help support parents through the teenage years. Written in a practical and accessible style it offers suggestions and guidance on dealing with common sources of conflict. It focuses on effective communication as a means of resolving difficult situations and challenging behaviour.
Queen bees and wannabes: helping your daughter survive cliques, gossip, boyfriends and other realities of adolescence.
By Rosalind Wiseman
Examines the experiences of teenage girls and their relationships with other girls. The author has worked extensively with teenage girls and uses her experiences to show parents how to understand the different cliques and roles girls adopt. Issues covered include sex, alcohol, drug and teasing.
The connected father: understanding your unique role and responsibility during your child's adolescence.
By Carl E. Pickhardt
Describes how fathers can learn to become better listeners. Shows the different emotional changes for teenagers, how to encourage independence while setting limits, and how fathers can talk to teenagers about drugs, sex, the internet, and relationships.
What are they thinking?!: the straight facts about the risk-taking, social-networking, still-developing teen brain.
By Aaron M. White
A guide to understanding, and dealing with, teenage behaviour. Explores adolescent brain development, looking at a range of issues including mental health, diet and eating disorders, internet, online pornography and social networking, sex and sexuality, drugs, alcohol and addiction, and bullying.
What can the parent of a teenager do?
By Michael Quinn and Terri Quinn
Practical skills to help parents find ways to support their teenagers' development with an emphasis on improving communication skills. Stresses the importance of managing conflict respectfully, finding ways of coping with pop culture and supporting the work of fathers in parenting.
Communication skills for working with children and young people: introducing social pedagogy.
By Pat Petrie
Practical handbook on communicating with children and young people, illustrated with case studies throughout. Shows how to build relationships by communicating effectively with children and other adults using the ideas of social pedagogy. Covers verbal and non-verbal communication, empathy, working with conflict and in groups. Aimed at any practitioner working with children, young people and their families regardless of the setting.
Listening to children: a practitioner's guide.
By Alison McLeod
Presents an introduction to the ideas behind listening to children and young people and how to do it. Offers a range of techniques for effective listening, encompassing observation and communication, explaining difficult issues, helping young people to talk about their experiences and involving them in decision-making. Includes checklists, reflective exercises and quotations from children.
Listening to children: talking with children about difficult issues.
By Nancy Close
Aimed at making nursery teachers, parents, doctors, nurses and therapists feel comfortable when talking with young children about uncomfortable issues. Encourages adults to have faith in what children are saying, and to encourage them to communicate. Discusses children's fears, anger and aggression, reactions to death and loss, and conceptual knowledge. Other topics examined include sibling relations, child development and self-esteem.
Working with children and teenagers using solution focused approaches: enabling children to overcome challenges and achieve their potential.
By Judith Milner and Jackie Bateman
Based on solution focused practice principles, illustrates communication skills and playful techniques for working with children and young people regardless of health, learning or development needs. Will be of interest to social workers, youth workers, counsellors, teachers, nurses and other practitioners.
Let's talk PANTS!
Read about mindfulness
Help your family be calm and happy with our Mindful Family Guide.
Help protect children online
We fixed the Flaw in the Law, but there's still more work to do. Join us to demand a safer online world for children and call for more support after abuse.
Make a donation today
A child will contact Childline every 25 seconds. Donate now and help us be there for every child.
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"A Bedfordshire woman was telling me the other day," says a writer in a Northern daily paper, "how her son had been stung all over by bees. 'And no wonder,' she said, 'he never told them he was going to put them in a new 'ome, and everybody knows that before you goes to put bees in a new 'ome, you must knock three times on the top of the 'ive and tell 'em, same as you must tell 'em when anyone dies in the 'ouse. Ef you don't, they'll be spiteful, for bees is understanding creatures, an' knows what you say to them."
Yes, in secluded villages, among old people, the bee superstition still exists, but the modern apiarist will have none of it. To him it is a bit of poetry from out of the past. And it has some poetry in it; in fact it is one of the most picturesque of all rural superstitions, and some of them are neither picturesque nor decent. Whittier's "Telling the Bees" is so good a description of the idea that it is worth quoting in part:--
"Just the same as a month before,--
The house and the trees,
The barn's brown gable, the vine by the door,--
Nothing changed but the hives of bees.
Before them, under the garden wall,
Forward and back,
Went drearily singing the chore-girl small,
Draping each hive with a shred of black.
Trembling, I listened: The summer sun
Had the chill of snow;
For I knew she was telling the bees of one
Gone on the journey we all must go!
Then I said to myself, 'My Mary weeps
For the dead to-day;
Haply her blind old grandsire sleeps
The fret and the pain of his age away.'
But her dog whined low; on the doorway sill,
With his cane to his chin,
The old man sat; and the chore-girl still
Sung to the bees stealing out and in.
And the song she was singing ever since
In my ear sounds on:
'Stay at home, pretty bees, fly not hence!
Mistress Mary is dead and gone!'"
Brand does not mention "telling the bees," nor does Sir Henry Ellis, but the latter has some notes which apparently go further back than the origin of the "telling." In Molle's Living Libraries (1621) we read:--"Who would beleeve without superstition (if experience did not make it credible), that most commonly all the bees die in their hives, if the master or mistresse of the house chance to die, except the hives be presently removed into some other place? And yet I know this hath hapned to folke no way stained with superstition."
Here the bees are not to be told of a death in the house: they die themselves if the hives are not removed. In a later century they do not die, but the hives must be turned round.
I found the following in the "Argus," a London newspaper, Sept. 13, 1790; "A superstitious custom prevails at every funeral in Devonshire, of turning round the bee-hives that belonged to the deceased, if he had any, and that at the moment the corpse is carrying out of the house. At a funeral some time since, at Collumpton, of a rich old farmer, a laughable circumstance of this sort occurred: for, just as the corpse was placed in the hearse, and the horsemen, to a large number, were drawn up in order for the procession of the funeral, a person called out, 'Turn the bees,' when a servant who had no knowledge of such a custom, instead of turning the hives about, lifted them up, and then laid them down on their sides. The bees, thus hastily invaded, instantly attacked and fastened on the horses and their riders. It was in vain they galloped off, the bees as precipitately followed, and left their stings as marks of their indignation. A general confusion took place, attended with loss of hats, wigs, etc., and the corpse during the conflict was left unattended; nor was it till after a considerable time that the funeral attendants could be rallied, in order to proceed to the interment of their deceased friend."
If one must find a suitable source for all these varying ideas about bees and bee hives, it can only be in the mysteries surrounding the activities and habits of bees, now much better understood than they used to be; and in the manner in which signs of a religious nature were sought and found in daily phenomena. To the intelligence of the peasant a bee could not but provide marvels sufficient to win his respect, if not something more; for the bee worked industriously and cleverly on behalf of the peasant, and asked no wages. In other words, the peasant was a debtor to the bee, and his attitude was one of gratitude. Out of this feeling, no doubt, arose a sense of identity in interests--a fellow-feeling which prompted him to "tell the bees" of a death, and to turn the hive at a burial.
The religious element is seen in a letter, dated 1811, contributed to The Gentleman's Magazine. The writer says: "There is in this part of Yorkshire a custom which has been by the country-people more or less revived, ever since the alteration in the style and calendar: namely, the watching in the midnight of the new and old 'Xmas Eve by bee-hives, to determine upon the right 'Xmas from the humming noise which they suppose the bees will make when the birth of our Saviour took place. Disliking innovations, the utility of which they understand not, the oracle, they affirm, always prefers the most antient custom." This is a good instance of using bees as a means of divination, and when once a people start divining, a crowd of omens is sure to follow in their train.
The theory that when the bees in a farmer's hives die, he will soon be compelled to move from the farm, is easily accounted for by Mr Gibson. "A hive of bees rarely dies unless the season is so bad that it is disastrous to farming; consequently, where a farmer holds his farm on a yearly tenancy, it may follow that he will find it necessary to go elsewhere to build up his fortune."
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Life is a gamble. If you don’t place your bets, then you don’t stand a chance to win. You need to constantly place bets on various aspects of your life such as your finances through investing, your relationships through loving someone, your creativity through working on your art, your career through applying for that job, scholarship or starting a new business. Whether you are afraid or not, the only way to win at life as we’ve learnt from ultra successful people is to constantly take risks.
What does taking risks mean?
Taking risks means taking action on activities that might bring you undesirable results. It also means taking action while disregarding the possibility of a dangerous outcome or result. Have you ever done something and you were unsure what the outcome of the activity would bring? This could be anything; for example, you took up a job or project and you were not sure you would succeed or stood up for yourself and were unsure of the end results. If yes, then you have experienced a moment of taking a risk.
Taking risks is also known as taking chances. Whether you consider yourself a chance taker or a risk-averse person, the fact that you are here and living, you are a risk taker.
Absolutely everything that you do in life involves taking risks. Everything. We take risks every day of our lives without realizing it. You wake up and prepare your morning coffee which could lead to death from electric shock or being burnt by the water. In fact, the very fact that you went to bed the previous night means that you took a risk. You could die in your sleep for various reasons. Everything you do in life has a degree of risk tied to it. What this means is that each and every one of us is a risk taker. However, some people are bigger risk takers than others. This makes a big difference in how each of our lives unfolds.
When you decide to take up a risky activity, most of the time, you are never sure of the degree of the outcome. However, some people especially entrepreneurs argue that it is important to take up calculated risks. Calculated risks are acceptable. Acceptable risks are risks that can be tolerated by you as an individual, family, society, group or country. This concept came up due to the fact that it is not possible to have one hundred per cent safety. Therefore, it is important to learn to take acceptable risks to avoid irreversible disasters.
Taking risks in life
As agreed, each and every one of us is a risk taker. There is always a chance that you won’t be successful in everything you do. That’s life. It is however important for you to learn which risks to take and which ones to avoid – Your life is a combination of all your choices.
Here is a list of risks in life you should work towards taking if you haven’t already!
You have probably already been fed with the wrong illusion that being vulnerable means being weak. This myth has mostly been sold to men. This is a lie! Being vulnerable is a sign of strength. The only way to build strong relationships with your loved ones is by opening up to them and expressing your deepest feelings. Take the risk of opening up and show your true self. This will lead towards building trust within the relationship. Trust builds love 😉
Admitting that you don’t know.
Risk admitting that you do not understand everything. Let’s face it; you do not know everything. Nobody does. By admitting that you do not know everything, people around you will see that you are authentic. This makes people to willingly want to teach you stuff as it is common knowledge that people love sharing what they know. Go ahead and risk admitting that you don’t know. Ask a question, that is how to learn and grow!
The biggest prison that you and every one of us lives in is the prison of being scared about what other people think! Unfortunately, people are always judging you! You are always also judging people anyway. The best solution, risk being judged! Get out of your comfort zone and let people judge you. Those who matter to you don’t care about your weaknesses. They love you with all your flaws.
Asking for help
Have you ever been stuck in life and you were afraid of asking for help from people? Well, this is your cue to go ahead and risk it! What is the worst that could happen? Being told ‘No’ is the worst that could possibly happen. Most times, however, people will help. A lot of people are willing and loving. Go ahead and get over your fear.
Not being the best
You have judged yourself on this enough already. You have told yourself that you are not good enough several times. This is due to the fear of failure in you. Go out there and prove whether you are good enough. If you are not, you will learn. Better still, you will have overcome a fear.
Being the first to say ‘I love you’
This is a common fear among people. Most people fear not saying it first because they fear not being told they are loved back. What’s interesting is that the person you are thinking about right now is also experiencing the same fear right now. Go ahead, risk it! Say it! The beauty of being the first is that if the person does not say it back, you will know where things stand between the two of you. This will help you to move on anyway!
Quotes on taking risks
- The biggest risk is not taking any risk. In a world that is changing really quickly, the only strategy that is guaranteed to fail is not taking risks-Mark Zuckerberg
- He who is not courageous enough to take risks will accomplish nothing in life-Muhammad Ali
- Be brave. Take risks. Nothing can substitute experience-Paulo Coelho
- Life is too short to be scared and not take risks. I’d rather be the person that’s like ‘I messed up,’ than, ‘I wish I did that.’-Justine Skye
- You can’t get anywhere in life without taking risks-Esme Bianco
The joy of taking risks
Everyone you admire in life for having achieved great things got there because they pushed themselves out of their comfort zone and took risks. Risk takers inspire people just like you aspire to. They challenge the status quo just like you should be doing. They change the world! It’s your time to do the same!
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Recombinant DNA technology is another major DNA-based tool that has gained popular attention in the past decade. This technology allows scientists to find individual genes, cut them out, and insert them into the genome of another organism. Recombinant DNA technology has applications in health and nutrition. In medicine, it is used to create pharmaceutical products such as human insulin. In agriculture, it is used to impart favorable characteristics to plant to increase their yield and improve nutritional content.
Recombinant DNA technology requires the use of molecular scissors called restriction enzymes, which cut DNA at specific sequences. The cut-out gene is then inserted into a circular piece of bacterial DNA called a plasmid. The plasmid is then re-introduced into a bacterial cell. When the bacteria multiply, the plasmids multiplies as well, creating many copies of the gene. Since bacteria multiply very quickly, large numbers of the gene can be produced in the laboratory for further analysis and application.
Producing Human Insulin
Diabetics are unable to produce satisfactory amounts of insulin, which facilitates the processing of sugars from food into energy that the body can use. In the past, diabetics needed to take insulin purified from pigs and cows to fulfill their insulin requirement. However, non-human insulin causes allergic reactions in many diabetics. Recombinant DNA technology provided a way for scientists to produce human insulin in the laboratory.
The gene for human insulin is isolated from human cells and inserted into plasmids. These plasmids are then introduced into bacterial cells, which manufacture the insulin protein based on the human code. The purified product is identical in nature to human insulin and does not cause any allergies.
In addition to bacteria, other biotechnologists use yeast in recombinant DNA technology to make human insulin. Yeast can perform more of the complicated cellular processes that occur in human cells, making it a more useful organism for producing human substances.
Producing Genetically Modified Foods
A widely debated application of recombinant DNA technology is in the production of genetically modified foods. Genes can be derived from plants or even other organisms to give plants characteristics that are beneficial to both producers and consumers of agricultural products:
- Delayed fruit ripening for longer shelf life during transportation
- Resistance to insects and plant viruses
- Enhanced flavor and nutritional content
- Edible vaccines to prevent widespread diseases in developing countries
The technology behind genetic modification of foods is similar to the one used to produce human insulin, with an additional step. After the bacteria multiply the gene of interest, the gene is then introduced into plant cells so that the plant will manufacture the gene product: whether it is an insecticide, vaccine, or other plant substance.
Because agriculture is conducted on such a large scale, the use of genetically modified plants poses ecological implications that must be considered carefully. For a review of these issues and for more information about the use of recombinant DNA technology in agriculture, please visit the Genetically Engineered Organisms: Public Issues Education Project.
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By Jim Hopf
In last month’s post, I made the case that there is substantial prejudice against nuclear power among much of the public in most of the world. As a result, nuclear is held to requirements thousands of times as strict as other energy sources and industries, resulting in nuclear being rendered less competitive economically. This in turn results in the use of fossil generation instead of nuclear, despite the fact that the operational record, the data, and all scientific analyses show fossil-fueled generation to be orders of magnitude more dangerous and harmful.
But alas, this doesn’t seem to matter to the public, or policy-makers, or regulatory agencies. Their apparent view is that even small, or very rare, amounts of nuclear-related pollution are completely unacceptable, whereas continual pollution from other sources (most notably fossil fuels) is not a serious concern. They continue to just ignore what the numbers, and experts, are telling them, concerning relative risks/impacts.
The question is: What can possibly be done to change this unacceptable (in my view) situation? As it seems I cannot fit all my thoughts on this matter into a single article of reasonable length, I will begin this month by discussing a few ideas that are held by many in this industry as to what should be done. Next month, I will explore another idea that I have, which (it seems) hasn’t been considered.
Most of us who work in the nuclear industry are scientists and engineers, so there is a tendency for us to think the answer to the industry’s problems (reactor safety, waste, etc.) is the development of better technology (e.g., advanced reactors and fuel cycles). There is a tendency to believe that inadequate technology is the source of the problem, and that once better technology is developed, the problems will go away. The public will accept nuclear with open arms, it will be competitive economically, and it will capture increasing market share.
My belief is that this view is largely naive. As I said in last month’s post, it is an attempt to apply a technological solution to what is not a technological problem. It is mostly a political, regulatory, and public prejudice problem, as opposed to any lack of objective, technological merit of nuclear power.
The waste “issue” provides a clear example. Even a hypothetical, perfect, closed fuel cycle still involves at least one repository (for fission products) and a waste longevity of ~500–1000 years. Any real, practically achievable fuel cycle will fall short of that. Waste will still have to be shipped to the repository, and so the transport “issue” will not go away.
It is, frankly, naive to think that having a somewhat shorter (but still unfathomably long for the public) waste life will reduce public/political opposition to a repository one iota. It shows a complete misunderstanding of the source of opposition. Opposition is NOT about genuine concern for the well being of people living in what is currently Nevada from 10,000 to 100,000 years from now. It is about feeling singled out as the nation’s sole “waste dump” and the sense that a repository is being imposed, rather than being voluntarily agreed to. That, along with fears of transport accidents and various scares that may drive away tourism or reduce property values. None of these issues will be solved or even ameliorated by advanced/closed fuel cycles.
The real truth is that nuclear’s (tiny, contained, and well managed) waste stream has always been and always will be an orders of magnitude smaller risk (short term and long term) than the wastes and toxins of other industries. The real problem has always been the public not understanding that, as opposed to any lack of technology. No technology will solve that (real) problem.
It’s not as though the news is all bad on the waste front, however. It appears that local communities in both New Mexico and Texas have voluntarily expressed support for the idea of hosting a high level waste repository. Not only that, but their state governments (usually the real source of political resistance) have expressed a willingness to at least consider the idea. Both provide an example of the change in the public acceptance and political equation that occurs when the initiative is voluntary.
With respect to reactor accident risk, many advanced reactors and small modular reactors claim core damage or accident frequencies that are orders of magnitude lower than those of today’s reactors. But again, do you really think that talking to the public about probabilistic risk assessment analyses and 10-8 vs. 10-4 core damage frequencies will have any significant effect on public opposition? If they were numerate, and based their views on scientific, numerical analyses, they wouldn’t be opposed to nuclear (including today’s reactors) in the first place. For them, an accident is either “possible” or it’s not.
It could be plausibly argued that essentially precluding even one significant accident or release, any time this century, would reduce the risk of negative political reaction that could significantly set back the industry (like what’s happening in Japan). But I would argue that the probability is already quite low, especially given post-Fukushima improvements and lessons learned (along with the lack of tsunami and 9.0 earthquake potential in the United States).
In any event, the biggest issue for new reactors is not lack of public acceptance, but cost. This is especially true in the Southeast, where most new reactors would be built anyway. If nuclear isn’t cost effective, the possibility of the industry’s political rejection some decades from now due to a severe accident is moot, since the industry will have died off anyway. Some feel that advanced reactors will be far less expensive, but this is debatable and remains to be seen.
Many concepts, such as SMRs, give up size and power density in exchange for inherent safety advantages, resulting in the far lower accident probabilities discussed above. The lower power density and smaller size will tend to make SMRs more, not less, expensive. The hope is for volume production to reduce cost. However, what’s really needed is to use the SMR’s, or advanced reactor’s, fundamental advantages to reduce cost, as opposed to further reducing (already extremely low) accident risk. What needs to be discussed is what other (Nuclear Regulatory Commission/quality assurance) requirements can be relaxed so that accident risk is a little better than current plants, but costs are significantly reduced. However, any such discussion would be blasphemous, for both the public and the NRC. Never mind the fact that requiring reactor accident risk to be as low as possible simply means that fossil fuels will be used instead, resulting in a large increase in public health risk.
Also unclear is the real benefit of having a reactor with a smaller potential source term, such as an SMR. The current public and regulatory mindset strongly suggests that smaller releases will simply result in stricter dose criteria being applied, with little reduction in cleanup cost or response in general. It will be 100 mrem/year, or even 10 mrem/yr, vs. 1,000 or 2,000. The dynamic is that the industry will have to “give until it hurts.” “How much does it cost? How much you got?!” If you doubt this, note that many states have applied a criterion of 10 mrem/year to an ultra-hypothetical, most-exposed individual, for plant decommissioning projects. (The cost-per-life-saved on that criterion is incalculable….)
The real question is whether any technology can compete if there is such prejudice against it and if it is held to standards thousands of times as strict as competing sources. One approach is to develop some miracle technology that can compete even under a spectacularly unfair playing field. Another is to try and make the playing field more fair. Suffice it to say that I have strong views on which path is more likely to be successful.
Many in our industry believe that the answer lies in winning the scientific debate on the health effects of low-level radiation. The goal would be to obtain a formal rejection of the Linear No Threshold Theory (LNT) by the world scientific community. In its place, a dose rate threshold would be established, below which it would be recognized that there are no health impacts.
What this threshold would be is open for debate. One idea would be ~1 Rem/year, as that is roughly the top end of fairly common natural background levels, since no evidence of correlation between natural background level and disease rates have been found. Another often mentioned number is 10 Rem/year, the lowest dose rate for which clear statistical evidence of health impacts has been found. Some advocate even higher threshold values.
At that point, ostensibly, government policies would be changed in response to the new scientific consensus. That would include post-accident (release) evacuation policies, cleanup standards, and standards for radiation levels in food and water. Performance requirements for repositories would also be (dramatically) changed.
While all of this will definitely help, I have doubts as to whether it will be sufficient to achieve the needed changes. The problem with this idea, again, is that it assumes that public opposition, or even regulatory policy, is objective and rational in nature, and not subject to political influence and prejudices. As I’ve shown through numerous examples, the public, politicians, and even regulatory agencies are already ignoring science, and what the scientific community says.
Even assuming the LNT, nuclear’s public health risks and environmental impacts are orders of magnitude lower than those from fossil fuels. Even assuming the LNT, the total eventual impact of Fukushima (the only significant release of pollution in non-Soviet nuclear’s entire history) is less than that inflicted every day by fossil fuels. And yet, after Japan considered setting a reasonable (~1‑2 Rem/year or higher) threshold, below which dose reduction (cleanup) efforts would stop, they retreated and agreed to apply a 100 mrem/year threshold (i.e., a fraction of natural background) due to “public outcry”.
Here in the United States, where coal plant pollution continues to kill ~13,000 Americans every single year, and we have events like massive spills of toxic coal ash piles and other toxic chemicals directly into rivers and water supplies, the Environmental Protection Agency is considering regulating nuclear plant tritium releases, despite the fact that these have never had any health impact, with little potential to do so, even assuming LNT.
Also, as I discussed in this post, even the “improved” EPA Public Action Guideline applies a 10‑4 to 10-6 lifetime cancer risk criterion, but only for Superfund sites and nuclear accident scenarios, in a country in which ~25 percent of the population dies of cancer, while continual deaths of tens of thousands per year from fossil fuel pollution (overall) is tolerated. It is clear that political power and influence, as opposed to objective science, is influencing, if not governing, these decisions.
If one assumes a linear relationship between dose and cancer risk, it follows that total health impacts (cancers, deaths) scale directly with collective exposure, i.e., the integral of dose times the number of people exposed (in units of man-Rem). If government policy is ostensibly based on LNT today, you would think that said policy would treat all man-Rems the same. In a clear sign that policies and standards are not objective or science based, that is not true, by many orders of magnitude.
The fact of the matter is that, while LNT, along with a 10‑4 to 10-6 lifetime cancer risk criterion, will be applied to cleanup standards after any nuclear plant release, vastly larger sources of public collective exposure are simply ignored. These include all exposures from natural background (e.g., radon), air travel, and medical exposures to some extent. Exposures to naturally occurring radioactive materials from all other industries (such as coal plant emissions or old oil pipes off the California coast) are also generally ignored.
Radon is estimated to expose on the order of 100 million Americans to hundreds of millirem annually, resulting in an annual collective exposure on the order of 25 million man-Rem. According to the LNT, this results in on the order of ~10,000 annual deaths. Medical exposures are also a huge source of collective exposure (with CAT scans alone causing ~29,000 annual deaths, according to LNT), and the medical community is only starting to pay attention to the issue, with patients and many practitioners hardly thinking about it at all. Both of these sources of collective exposure are orders of magnitude larger than the collective exposure that would result from a worst-case nuclear accident, even if no cleanup efforts were made.
And yet, nothing is being done about them. Little to no money is being spent. People aren’t even being warned (not saying they should be). In all those areas (radon, medical), collective exposures could be reduced at a cost (in dollars per man-Rem avoided) that is many orders of magnitude lower than the amount we’re planning on spending cleaning up affected areas after a nuclear plant accident. If we really believed in the LNT, and really (and objectively) cared about reducing collective exposure, we would focus on those areas instead.
The LNT is not the problem. Its selective application is the problem. However, one might argue that, even though the LNT is now arbitrarily only being applied to the nuclear industry, if we get the scientific community to agree to a threshold, regulatory agencies would lose their justification for doing so. They would be compelled to respond by dramatically increasing allowable doses. Personally, I have my doubts, given the influence of politics and (prejudiced) public opinion on such decisions. Regulatory agencies respond to public opinion and political pressure, perhaps even more than they respond to scientific consensus or fact, as the examples I give above show.
Again, the biggest problem the nuclear industry faces is the high capital cost of new reactors, as well as high operating costs of existing reactors, due to extreme regulations. Does anyone really think that if the scientific community agrees to a threshold, the NRC will voluntarily drop most nuclear plant safety regulations, under the theory that having meltdowns is now okay? Those regulations, not accident liability, are the main source of high nuclear costs. On this front, I don’t see any impact at all.
One possible way for nuclear to succeed in the future is by improved policies that place some value on its non-polluting, non-CO2 emitting benefits. As I stated in my last post, nuclear’s problems competing in the marketplace are largely due to the fact that it is essentially required to be a clean energy source (i.e., to spend whatever it takes so that there is virtually no chance of ever polluting), while it is treated like a dirty source in the market. Other clean sources (renewables) receive tremendous subsidies and outright mandates for their use. Nuclear has to compete directly with dirty sources, especially coal, that get to emit pollution and CO2 for free. Their huge impacts on the environment, the climate, and public health are not weighed at all. If the cost of power from an old, dirty coal plant is so much as 0.1 cents/kW-hr more than that of a nuclear plant (or a gas plant), it is used instead.
There are some signs of hope on this front. Some states, as well as some large organizations, have been making reference to the concept of nuclear being grouped in as a clean, non-emitting source, as part of a climate change policy. The idea of a Clean Energy Standard that includes (and equally treats) all non-CO2-emitting sources has been considered by congress and the administration. A new proposal from (outgoing) Senator Max Baucus had similar ideas. Nuclear utilities such as Exelon are also starting to call for policies that support the continued operation of existing nuclear plants, where some type of credit for their environmental benefits is given. The administration has also expressed concern over the possibility of nuclear plant closures, and has acknowledged their benefits (without making any specific policy proposals). The European Union has also just revised its climate change policies to reduce renewables (only) mandates somewhat and to allow more flexibility in meeting CO2 emissions reductions targets (targets that were actually made more aggressive).
On the other hand, there are other signs of how far we have to go in terms of fair treatment of nuclear. The EU is making more noise about not allowing Britain to subsidize new nuclear, even if it wants to, because it would give nuclear an advantage over other “industries” (fossil fueled generation, that is). The EU has always held renewables subsidies exempt from this requirement, of course (despite the fact that they are/were far larger than the nuclear subsidies being considered). Among the reasons given for disallowing a nuclear subsidy is that nuclear might take market share away from (i.e., have the temerity to compete with) renewables. Again, the idea is that nuclear has to compete directly with dirty sources. No credit for its profound pollution and CO2-emissions benefits is to be given.
And then, of course, there’s always hope that a CO2 tax or cap-and-trade system will eventually come about. However, even if policies come about that make nuclear competitive, either by raising the cost of fossil-fueled generation or subsidizing nuclear generation, the fact remains that nuclear generation will be needlessly expensive; far more expensive than it should be. That by itself will be very unfortunate. And the only way to address that problem is to take on the excessive level of nuclear regulation, and the public prejudice that is the source of it.
Many believe that public outreach and education will go a long way toward ameliorating the public/policy prejudice issues I’ve been discussing. Many people (including some who’ve been reading these posts) agree with my contention that trying to use technological solutions to what is a non-technological problem will not work. I concur that public outreach and education efforts are indeed helpful. That is why I’m a member of the American Nuclear Society’s Public Information Committee. However, as reluctant as I am to disappoint, I have to confess that I’m not that sanguine that public outreach efforts will produce the necessary changes, for the foreseeable future.
Perhaps I’ve become cynical, but I’ve come to believe that policy, and even public opinion, is significantly influenced by rich and powerful industries. They have significant influence over both government and the media, through lobbying efforts and advertising. Not only do they often advertise directly in the media, but they also exert indirect influence on actual content (news reporting).
I don’t believe the situation is at the point where the media literally, and consciously, sets out to harm nuclear and give fossil fuels an advantage. However, if the fossil industry (and their ad buys) are a significant source of one’s revenue, one naturally becomes reluctant to do anything that will upset them. On top of that is the fact that the public is very scared of nuclear, and so hyped, scary stories about anything nuclear sells papers. This in turn increases nuclear fear, and so on and so on. These are the reasons why relatively small nuclear events (and risks) get an astonishing amount of coverage, while much larger fossil issues get almost no coverage at all. The media (particularly in Japan) has talked endlessly about what are really minor issues (and potential threats) at Fukushima, while saying nothing at all about the much larger public health impacts/risks from fossil generation, including that which Japan is using instead of nuclear.
The fact is that the nuclear industry, to the extent it even exists at all, is nowhere near as large or as powerful as the fossil industry, or the “environmental” groups that oppose nuclear. Most efforts on nuclear outreach are volunteer (unpaid), as the nuclear utilities or construction firms have shown little interest in a serious effort. It may even be that any significant effort in nuclear outreach (especially one that relies on bringing up the negative impacts of fossil fuels) may draw an opposing media (public “education”) effort by those much more rich and powerful industries. In fact, many argue that it’s precisely what they have been doing, for decades.
The fact of the matter is that we are hopelessly outgunned in this area. And as I’ve said, the public prejudice is persistent. It’s not likely to go anywhere, anytime soon. We have to ask ourselves if that is acceptable, or if there is a quicker, more direct, more effective approach to having nuclear be treated fairly, by the public, the government, and the market.
One more option?
This leads me to one final option that may possibly be worth exploring. There are other examples in history of persistent public prejudice, including the treatment of racial and ethnic minorities, as well as sexual orientation. In those cases, efforts were made to “win the hearts and minds” of the majority, but the fact was that the prejudice was not going anywhere, anytime soon. The pace of changes in attitudes was not sufficient. So, the victims (targets of prejudice) turned to the courts to address the problem. In many cases, they were successful. This leads to the question: Is it time for the nuclear industry to have its day in court? I will explore this possibility in next month’s post.
Jim Hopf is a senior nuclear engineer with more than 20 years of experience in shielding and criticality analysis and design for spent fuel dry storage and transportation systems. He has been involved in nuclear advocacy for 10+ years, and is a member of the ANS Public Information Committee. He is a regular contributor to the ANS Nuclear Cafe.
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At PMGHS the History Department prepares pupils for the future, equipping them with knowledge and skills that are prized in adult life, enhancing employability and developing an ability to take part in a democratic and multi-cultural society.
Why study History?
A high-quality history education will help pupils gain a coherent knowledge and understanding of Britain’s past and that of the wider world. It should inspire pupils’ curiosity to know more about the past. It challenges pupils to ask perceptive questions, think critically, weigh evidence, sift arguments, and develop perspective and judgement. History helps pupils to understand the complexity of people’s lives, the process of change, the diversity of societies and relationships between different groups, as well as their own identity and the challenges of their time.
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Amish rugs, either loomed, braided, or hooked, add a spark of color to stark rooms and have become an extremely common vehicle for artistic expression with their floral and nature designs.
These rugs became popular among the Pennsylvania Dutch of Lancaster County in the 19th Century. Among the Amish, there was the interest for coverings for their polished wooded floors of their homes.
In 1860, the Amish church permitted the use of loomed carpets in the home. A little later, braided and hooked rugs also were permitted. Initially, these rugs were of plain colors and without the the use of stripes which were then fashionable among the other Pennsylvania German communities of Lancaster County.
Over time however, as the Amish church loosened its restrictions towards artistic expression used to decorate utilitarian products such as rugs, quilts, and dishes, designs and motifs became more colorful and elaborate.
Today, Amish braided rugs have become a virtual canvas where artisans can create expressions representative of the community and its values. Popular, motifs are flowers, animals, and other scenes of nature.
Today, braided and hooked rugs are almost universally popular among the Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Without exception, Amish rugs are small in size, generally 24 x 42. Room-size rugs are virtually nonexistent. In rare case, miniature rugs are created to cover the treadle of a sewing machine or to serve as a chair or table mat.
Hooked rugs are made by stretching jute or burlap feed sacks on a wooden frame. A pattern is then drawn on the foundation. The pattern is then filled in with yarn or thread that is drawn through the burlap.
Making these small rugs is a slow and tedious process. It often takes as long as a quilt.
The rugs, like most Amish textile arts, reflect the values of the community. The majority of the materials tend to be salvaged from a previous usage. This reflects the Amish value of thriftiness. An example, is that worn garments and used feed sacks are usually converted into rugs.
The designs and patterns are shared among the community and reflect motifs and feelings that are deemed acceptable by the Ordnung and the code of the church.
Although overall designs tend to be similar among the community, individual express is manifest through color selections and variations in details of the basic pattern.
As mentioned before,
tends to feature motifs of nature. The most common designs found on rugs are of flowers and animals. The flowers pictured are almost always petunias, pansies, forget-me-nots and roses.
Common animals depicted on amish rugs include horses, deer, doves, and swans.
Learn More about Amish Art
Learn More about the Amish People of Lancaster County, PA
Return to Welcome To Lancaster County Home Page from learning about Amish Rugs
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An Introduction To Igneous Petrology
Rocks, whether sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous, tell a story. But before you can read the story you must first learn the syntax and meaning of the words that make up the language of rocks. In this article I will focus on the language of igneous rocks, and towards the end, I will talk a little about certain metamorphic rocks that are relevant to the discussion of igneous petrology.
You don’t need a background in geology to be able to understand this article. It is intended for the layperson. The first thing that you need to know about igneous rocks is that there are essentially two types of igneous rock: extrusive (volcanic) and intrusive (plutonic), which are characterized by both texture and composition. We will start off with a discussion of texture.
Phaneritic Texture: Intrusive igneous rocks produced from magma that has cooled and crystallized underground (e.g. granite) have a phaneritic texture, meaning a coarse-grained texture with crystals that are readily seen by the unaided eye. This is because intrusive igneous rocks cool and crystallize slowly underground, allowing them time to form larger crystals.
Extrusive igneous rocks that are produced by volcanic eruptions (e.g. rhyolite) can have one of four types of textures.
Aphanitic Texture: An aphanitic texture is the result of lava having been extruded out of a volcano cooling and crystallizing much faster than magma that has cooled and crystallized underground. The resulting crystals are extremely small–too small, in fact, to be seen with the unaided eye.
Porphyritic Texture: A porphyritic texture, results when some of the minerals have cooled and crystallized while the magma was still underground, thus producing larger crystals, while other minerals cooled and crystallized above ground after having been extruded from a volcano in the form of lava. The rock that crystallizes from lava above ground quickly cools into a surrounding matrix of rock with an aphanitic texture around the larger crystals, thus creating a texture of large crystals called phenocryst embedded in a matrix of tiny crystals, too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Porphyritic andesite or porphyritic diorite are examples of rocks with this kind of a texture. Also rhyolites and granites sometimes have a porphyritic texture.
Courtesy of Lynn S. Fichter, James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia
Glassy Texture: If an igneous rock solidifies so quickly that it does not have time to form crystals, then it is said to have a glassy texture. Obsidian is an example of an igneous rock with this type of texture.
- Photo courtesy yananine of Flickr.com under Creative Commons license
Vesicular Texture: If a rock has a felsic mineral composition with a lower melting point, it tends to be very viscous. As a result of the high viscosity of these types of rocks (e.g. rhyolite), gas bubbles can get trapped in them as they cool and crystallize. When this happens these rocks end up having what is called a vesicular texture. Pumice is such a rock and is the vesicular form of rhyolite. Scoria, the vesicular form of basalt or andesite or sometimes other rocks, is another example of this type of texture.
Pumice (Vesicular Rhyolite)
- From my own collection
Basaltic magma has a low viscosity, but it has a higher melting point than felsic magma such as rhyolite, which means it cools much faster than the more viscous rhyolite once it comes in contact with air. As a result, the gas escaping from the basalt gets trap as the lava cools producing the vesicular texture characteristic of scoria as seen below.
Scoria (Vesicular Basalt)
These are the four textures that you will see in volcanic igneous rock.
Bowen’s Reaction Series
So why do some minerals in the magma in a volcano crystallize underground while others don’t crystallize until they are released from the volcano in the form of lava? Well, the answer to that question lies in Bowen’s reaction series (above). Early in the 20th century the petrologist, Norman L. Bowen wondered how it was possible to get so many different kinds of rocks from essentially the same magma. Well, there were several things he realized.
One of the things that Bowen realized was that as magma cools, crystals that form in the magma react with the surrounding magma and change in composition as they react. He also realized that some of these reactions were continuous, while others were discontinuous. Those in the discontinuous series describe the formation of the mafic minerals olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica. The strange thing about the discontinuous series is that at higher temperatures the magma crystallizes into the mineral olivine, but below a certain temperature the olivine would react with the remaining magma and change into pyroxene. As the temperature of the magma lowered even further, at specific temperature cut-off points, pyroxene reacting with the remaining magma changes into amphibole, and at a still lower temperature, amphibole into biotite mica. These discontinuous minerals are what is known as the mafic minerals because of their high iron/magnesium content.
In the continuous side of the series you have the calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars (e.g. anorthite) slowly changing into the sodium-rich feldspars (e.g. albite) as it reacts with the cooling magma surrounding it.
At a certain temperature, as can be seen in the diagram, the two series converge into one. At this point what we know as the felsic minerals high in silicates, sodium and aluminum are formed, i.e., orthoclase feldspar, muscovite mica, and quartz.
Now you will notice from the diagram that various minerals form different kinds of rock. For example, the mafic minerals pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar make up the mafic igneous rocks, basalt and gabbro. The only difference between basalt and gabbro is that basalt is an extrusive (volcanic) igneous rock, whereas gabbro is an intrusive (plutonic) igneous rock. Mineralogically they are identical. In fact, all of the intrusive igneous rocks have an extrusive igneous rock counterpart, as illustrated in the table that I’ve created below (Fig. 1).
(Fig. 1) Extrusive Igneous Rocks and Their Intrusive Counterparts
My own illustration.
Flow Characteristics of Volcanic Rocks
When a rock type has a flow characteristic that is low in viscosity (e.g basalt from crystallized pahoehoe lava) then it is said to be ‘thin’ and ‘runny’. When a rock type has crystallized from a felsic lava which is very viscous (e.g. rhyolite), then it is said to be ‘thick and ‘sticky’. As a rule, the higher that the silica content of a particular lava is, the more viscous or “sticky” it is. The chart below (Fig.2) gives you an idea of the silica content and the flow characteristics (i.e. viscosity) of two of the igneous rock type (i.e. felsic and mafic rock types.)
(Fig.2) Classification&Flow Characteristics of Volcanic Rocks
Now that I have explained the difference between mafic and felsic igneous rocks, I would like to turn your attention to the process known as differentiation. Mafic igneous rocks are much denser than felsic igneous rocks. This is why oceanic plates, made primarily of the mafic igneous rocks basalt and gabbro, are subducted below the much lighter continental plates, made primarily of the the less dense felsic igneous rocks, granite and rhyolite. Now intrusive magma can lie underground in a variety of different ways. When magma intrudes into already existing rock, we call these intrusions plutons. Below is an illustration of each type of pluton–dikes, sills, lacoliths (lenticular in shape) and the largest of all, batholiths.
Various Types of Plutons
Courtesy of the USGS
Now, say we have magma contained in a pluton like, for example, a sill. Our magma in this example contains both mafic and felsic constituents, pretty much uniformly distributed throughout the magma. Since mafic magmas crystallize at higher temperatures, they will be the first to crystallize. And because mafic minerals are denser than felsic minerals, the crystallized mafic minerals are going to tend to sink to the bottom of the sill. For example, pyroxene, which is a mafic mineral, will do this. So what happens is that you get symmetrically shaped crystals floating down to the bottom and piling up, leaving the less dense and lighter felsic magma up at the top of the sill. As a result of this process, when all of the magma in the sill has cooled and solidified, you end up with a rock that has mostly mafic minerals at the bottom and felsic minerals with a high silica content at the top. This process is what is known as differentiation, and it is a significant part of Bowen’s reaction series.
Stoping and Xenoliths
Many times when magma intrudes into existing rock, it works its way into fractures and crevices in the surrounding rock. As a result, chunks–sometimes large and sometimes small–of the solid host or source rock break away. These chunks are what is referred to as Xenoliths–the name derived from the Greek, meaning ‘strange rock’. The process by which these Xenoliths are separated from the host or source rock is known as stoping, which is illustrated below.
Similar to the process of differentiation, the stoped blocks tend to sink to the bottom of the magma chamber, as seen in the illustration above. When all of the magma has solidified and is expose by erosion or mining, the rocks look like the image below.
Courtesy of Ane Engvik, Geological Survey of Norway.
The image above is of granitoid xenoliths of gneissic and magmatic origin in coarse-grained syenite. The dimension of the xenoliths is evident from the size of the person dressed in red in the lower part of the image.
A wonderful paper put out by The Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS) entitled Xenolith incorporation, distribution, and dissemination in a mid-crustal granodiorite, Vega pluton, central Norway can be found by going to this site: The Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS) This is only the abstract of the paper, but the paper, in it’s entirety, is available to the public or at least I think it is.
Eclogite, Kimberlite and Lamproite
Even though this essay is about igneous rocks, I would be remiss, especially after talking about xenoliths, if I did not discuss the metamorphic rock, eclogite. Eclogite is a metamorphic rock very similar in composition to basalt. But the group of eclogites also includes igneous members that rise up through the crust in the form of plumes of intrusive igneous magma from the upper mantle. The metamorphic rock is created at great depths under extremely high temperatures and pressures. Because eclogite is so very dense, it tends to sink into the less dense upper mantle at convergent plate boundaries where oceanic plates are being subducted. It is believed by many petrologist that when basaltic oceanic plates return to the upper mantle by means of subduction, that the basalt by means of high-presure/high-temperature metamorphism is converted into eclogite. But this is a point of some contention.
The basic composition of eclogite consists primarily of garnet and sodium rich pyroxene with quartz, kyanite, and rutile sometimes present. The chemistry is rather complicated, but it is from the eclogites groups that we get pyrope, almandine, and grossular garnets. From the pyroxene in the eclogite we get the inosilicate minerals, jadeite and diopside.
If you’re into the technical stuff, here’s a wonderful paper written by Don L. Anderson of Caltech on the subject of eclogite : Eclogite.
Below are images of eclogite as well as a chart showing where eclogite fits into the scheme of the various types of metamorphism–all obtained from this wonderful site, Metamorphic Rocks Home Page.
The Various Kinds of Metamorphism
Kimberlite and Lamproite
Even though the magma that solidifies into kimberlite and lamproite are not the source of diamonds, diamonds are perhaps the most well-known mineral associated with these igneous rocks. Diamonds, which are formed at depths greater than 150 km (93 mi) in the Earth’s upper mantle merely hitch a ride, along with other minerals, with the magma that forms kimberlite and lamproite as it makes its way up towards the surface. At one time it was thought that only kimberlite became embedded with and carried diamonds to the surface. But since 1979 diamonds have been found in olivine lamproite. Most diamonds found in lamproite are of industrial grade, but about 5% are of high quality gemstone grade.
Because the magmas that form kimberlite and lamproite have such large amounts of water and carbon dioxide dissolved in them, the volcanoes that they produce are consequently highly explosive. The magma, which solidifies into kimberlite, makes its way to the surface through cracks and dikes. Because of the way kimberlite exploits cracks and dikes in existing rock, it is one of the magmas responsible for the process of stoping, mentioned above, which creates xenoliths from the existing rock. When it cools, kimberlite is one of several types of igneous rock that can become the groundmass in which the xenoliths are embedded, as illustrated in the photo above.
Only when the kimberlite producing magma gets close to the Earth’s surface does it begin to carve out a carrot-shaped pipe. This is because the gases of water vapor and carbon dioxide begin to expand in a region of the carrot-shaped pipe known as the root (i.e. as in the root of a carrot) located towards the bottom of the pipe. This creates a build up in pressure which eventually exceeds the strength of the roof rock overhead and causes an explosive eruption–much the same way soda water shoots out of a bottle when it is shaken and the pressure is released–that creates the carrot-shape of the pipe. Lamproite, on the other hand, carves out a bowl-shaped pipe during an eruption. That is why diamond mines in South Africa have that same morphology as these two pipe shapes of the respective kimberlite and lamproite volcanic eruptions.
Below is a photograph of a specimen of kimberlite. Unfortunately, I was not able to find a photograph of lamproite.
Copyright owner could not be determined.
Copyright © 2010 Eric F. Diaz
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This article is one of several in this issue of BYU Studies about the Book of Commandments and Revelations (BCR), a foundational document of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The Book of Commandments and Revelations (BCR) is the manuscript collection of revelations Oliver Cowdery and John Whitmer took to Missouri in November 1831 from which the Book of Commandments was to be published. Additional revelations were entered into the volume as they were received, and the BCR was also used as one of the sources for the revelations printed in the 1835 edition of the Doctrine and Covenants (D&C). Hence, the BCR contains the earliest surviving manuscript versions of many of Joseph Smith’s revelations and the only prepublication manuscript copies of some of them. The BCR also contains seven revelations never published as part of the scriptural canon of the Church. This article traces the early history of the BCR, discusses the current state of the manuscript collection, and points to possible future research topics regarding the BCR.
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"Spores" is not a trademarked word in the United States at the time of publication, but several copyrighted materials bear the "Spores" name. These materials are different creations, despite having the same copyrighted name.
Trademarks vs. Copyrights
A word or phrase can be trademarked by more than one company or individual, as long as each application is for a different category or industry. One company can trademark "Spores" for clothing, while another can trademark it for a restaurant chain. Copyrights, by contrast, protect the creator's exclusive right to use her creative work as long as it's fixed in a tangible medium. Copyrights protect literature, poetry, music, lyrics, graphics, films and songs, among other things. Registering a copyright is optional, as a work is copyrighted as soon as it's created.
"Spores" has multiple active copyrights, including for songs and books. The most recent copyright, from 2011, was filed by Darryl Norman Layne for an electronic file. The oldest copyright, secured in 1978, is for the song "Spores" and is registered to Joe Joseph Bohnert. Six active copyrights protect the phrase "The Spores."
"Spores" is not trademarked in the U.S., but the "Spore" trademark actively applies to a video game, a buzzer board, switch plates and clothing. Many trademarks for "Spore" have not been renewed and are inactive. "Spores101" and "Spores Don't Lie" are trademarked at the time of publication. To research or claim a trademark, visit the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office website. To find the name of copyright holders, visit the U.S. Copyright Office website.
- Comstock/Comstock/Getty Images
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The South African rand (sign: R; code: ZAR) is the currency of South Africa. The rand is subdivided into 100 cents (sign: "c"). Unlike the US dollar, the decimal separator between a rand and cent is expressed by a comma. The ISO 4217 code is ZAR, from Dutch Zuid-Afrikaanse Rand (South African rand). The rand is the currency of the Common Monetary Area between South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Namibia. Historical users of the South African rand included South West Africa and the nominally independent bantustans under the apartheid system: Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Transkei and Venda.
r300 USD US Dollar exchange rates
The United States dollar (sign: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ and referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, or American dollar) is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent (¢) units. The circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars (12 U.S.C. § 418). The U.S. dollar is commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain (24.1 g) pure or 416 grain (27.0 g) standard silver. It is the currency most used in international transactions and is the world's primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their official currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is also used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean: the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries only use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U.S. coins that can be used as payment in U.S. dollars, such as the Susan B. Anthony dollar. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency.
The 1 ZAR to USD mid market rate, (a.k.a 1 South African Rand to US Dollar mid market rate) is derived from the mid-point between the "buy" and "sell" rates from global currency markets.
r300 ZAR South African Rand to USD US Dollar exchange rate chart analysis
A market-based r300 ZAR to USD exchange rate will change whenever the values of either of the two component currencies change (In this case, it's r300 South African Rand and US Dollar). South African Rand will tend to become more valuable whenever demand for it is greater than the available supply. South African Rand will become less valuable whenever demand is less than available supply (this does not mean people no longer want money, it just means they prefer holding their wealth in some other form, possibly another currency).
r300 ZAR South African Rand to USD US Dollar news trends analysis
South African Rand does not have news for trends analysis.
US Dollar does not have news for trends analysis.
r300 ZAR South African Rand to USD US Dollar Wikipedia trends analysis
South African Rand
Wikipedia trends analysis
Wikipedia trends analysis
r300 ZAR South African Rand to USD US Dollar Google trends analysis
South African Rand does not have a Google keyword for analysis.
US Dollar does not have a Google keyword for analysis.
r300 ZAR South African Rand to USD US Dollar converter
Disclamer: r300 ZAR South African Rand to USD US Dollar converter is provided to give you some guidence about how to convert r300 ZAR South African Rand to USD US Dollar into other currencies based on the exchange rates today. You might need to find local forex traders to do the actual conversion.
r300 ZAR South African Rand vs USD US Dollar ratings
Disclamer: r300 ZAR South African Rand vs USD US Dollar ratings are calculated by comparing ZAR South African Rand and USD US Dollar's influence on Google, Wikipedia, Youtube, Twitter, Instagram and Facebook with other currencies in the world. Generally speaking, the bigger the hexagon is, the higher ZAR South African Rand vs USD US Dollar ratings should be on the internet!
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Mammoth Cave National Park's Diversity To Be Celebrated In Scientific Conference
Celebrating the Diversity of Research in the Mammoth Cave Region is the theme of a research symposium coming February 14 and 15 to the Rotunda Room of the Mammoth Cave Hotel in Mammoth Cave National Park in Kentucky.
The symposium, the 10th in 22 years, will feature more than 60 presentations (posters and talks) covering a variety of natural resource, cultural, historical, archeological, educational and social science research activities from the Mammoth Cave area.
The event is sponsored by the Mammoth Cave International Center for Science and Learning, the Cave Research Foundation, and WKU’s Hoffman Environmental Research Institute, and is hosted at Mammoth Cave National Park. The event is free and open to the public.
“Twenty-four universities will be represented, and five federal agencies,” said Dr. Chris Groves of the Hoffman Institute. “Western Kentucky University faculty, staff and students contributed to 17 of the presentations.”
The Mammoth Cave International Center for Science and Learning is a partnership between Mammoth Cave National Park and WKU.
“We are very pleased to be able to host an event of this caliber,” said Sarah Craighead, the park's superintendent. “Mammoth Cave is thought to be the most studied karst area in the world, but there is still much more to learn.”
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Ants seem common
and ubiquitous, especially at summertime picnics. But the names and
types of ants crawling around city parks and streets are largely
unknown to researchers.
The School of
Ants project is recruiting ant-gathering citizen-scientists for help creating detailed lists and maps of
ants living in urban areas, particularly around homes and
"The diversity of ants, even around your home, is pretty high,"
said Andrea Lucky, project leader and ant specialist at North
Carolina State University.
"They're fairly charismatic, compared with other insects, and we
don't know that much about them."
The researchers behind School of Ants hope the project will help
students appreciate wildlife in their own backyards, while amassing
an enormous data set.
"As a scientist going out on expeditions, I can only collect so
much," Lucky said.
Entomologists estimate that 30,000 species of ants exist
However, only about 12,500 species have been named and
described. Even in the US, researchers are discovering new species.
Chances are good that some fortunate school kids will be credited
with finding new ants, said Lucky.
After signing up through the School of Ants website,
participants receive a collecting kit in the mail. The kits come
with collecting instructions and vials filled with Keebler Pecan
Sandies: cookies that are an ideal ant bait, with an irresistible
nutrient trifecta of fats, sugars and salts.
After collecting, participants preserve the ants by keeping them
overnight in the freezer. They then mail them to Lucky and her
colleagues, who identify the ants and let senders know what they
found. The project is also building interactive Google ant maps,
allowing people to search for and learn about the ants in their
Beyond simple documentation, the lists and maps will help
agriculturalists, ecologists and climate scientists keep an eye on
the movement of ant species and the changes in their diversity over
time, Lucky said.
"If we can get good coverage, and lots of people and schoolkids
collecting ants, we're going to have the best range maps of urban
ant species that have ever existed," Lucky said. "They just don't
exist right now."
The project began in mid-July and was overwhelmed by the number
of kit requests. After ramping up operations, the project will
start accepting new kit requests on 1 September, in time for the
start of the school year.
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| 0.941399 | 533 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Scuba Diving: Ear Pain
Ear Pain, Scuba Diving - Overview
Ear pain is the most common complaint from scuba divers and is experienced by almost every diver at some point. Some divers call it ear squeeze. The pain occurs because of differences in pressure between the middle ear and the outside environment.
Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 12/10/2014
- How to Diagnosis Appendicitis
- Tips for Preparing for Allergy Emergencies
- When ADHD Meds Have Scary Side Effects
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| 0.904794 | 110 | 2.578125 | 3 |
varve, in geology, pair of thin sedimentary layers formed annually by seasonal climatic changes. Usually found in glacial lake deposits, varves consist of a coarse-grained, light-colored summer deposit and a finer-grained, dark-colored winter deposit formed when fine sediment settles out from the water under the ice cover. Varves, and the pollen they contain, are useful for interpreting recent climatic history.
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
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| 0.888622 | 110 | 3.625 | 4 |
Coin collecting is often a hobby that people start when they are children, but coins can be valuable collectibles. There are a number of rare coins from the United States that are worth up to $10,000 or more.
Half-Cent Liberty Cap
The half-cent liberty cap was first made in 1793. The coin was worth 1/200th of a dollar. Today, the circulated half-cent liberty caps from 1793 through 1797 are worth between $500 and $10,000.
Flowing-Hair Large Cent
The 1793 flowing-hair large cent was made with a design of 15 interlocking links, representing the number of states that were in the union when it was created. This 1793 coin was one type of large cent that was designed during the 22 years that the coin was in circulation. The circulated coins now sell for between $5,000 and $30,000.
1943 Copper Penny
The 1943 copper penny is rare because during World War II, pennies were more often made with steel and zinc. During the war, copper was used for war materials. Circulated 1943 copper pennies are worth between $20,000 and $50,000.
The 1796 and 1797 draped-bust, half-dollar coins with the liberty small eagle reverse were made with a portrait of a more mature Statue of Liberty on them, with 15 or 16 stars beside her. The eagles on these coins were perched gracefully on a cloud. Circulated draped-bust, half-dollar coins are worth between $10,000 and $30,000.
Four-Dollar Gold Piece
The 1879 and 1880 $4 gold pieces, also known as the Stella, were made with two types of designs, one with a Statue of Liberty head with flowing hair and another with a Liberty head with coiled hair. Circulated $4 gold pieces are worth between $10,000 and $15,000.
- Photo Credit Laura Latzko
Coins That Are Worth a Lot of Money
The value of a collectible coin is based on a number of major factors. The most important of these are rarity and...
How to Find Out What Those Old Coins Are Worth
Coin collecting is a hobby that can also become an investment over time. Some old coins grow to be worth much more...
How Much Money Are Wheat Pennies Worth?
Many collectors seek the 1909 wheat penny with the designer's initials V.D.B. as a rare coin. The only rare version of this...
What Are Old USA Coins Worth?
Old coins and paper money can be worth more if they comes from a specific time period. ... Since the birth of...
What Are My Old Silver Coins Worth?
I have a 1935 quarter that I have been trying to find out the value of and alot more older coins ......
How Much Are Foreign Coins Worth?
How to Find Out How Much Rare Coins Are Worth; Coins That Are Worth a Lot of Money; How to Sell Foreign...
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In order to quantitatively study object perception, be it perception by biological systems or by machines, one needs to create objects and object categories with precisely definable, preferably naturalistic, properties1. Furthermore, for studies on perceptual learning, it is useful to create novel objects and object categories (or object classes) with such properties2.
Many innovative and useful methods currently exist for creating novel objects and object categories3-6 (also see refs. 7,8). However, generally speaking, the existing methods have three broad types of shortcomings.
First, shape variations are generally imposed by the experimenter5,9,10, and may therefore be different from the variability in natural categories, and optimized for a particular recognition algorithm. It would be desirable to have the variations arise independently of the externally imposed constraints.
Second, the existing methods have difficulty capturing the shape complexity of natural objects11-13. If the goal is to study natural object perception, it is desirable for objects and object categories to be naturalistic, so as to avoid possible confounds and special cases.
Third, it is generally hard to quantitatively measure the available information in the stimuli created by conventional methods. It would be desirable to create objects and object categories where the available information can be precisely measured and, where necessary, systematically manipulated (or 'tuned'). This allows one to formulate the underlying object recognition tasks in quantitative terms.
Here we describe a set of algorithms, or methods, that meet all three of the above criteria. Virtual morphogenesis (VM) creates novel, naturalistic virtual 3-D objects called 'digital embryos' by simulating the biological process of embryogenesis14. Virtual phylogenesis (VP) creates novel, naturalistic object categories by simulating the evolutionary process of natural selection9,12,13. Objects and object categories created by these simulations can be further manipulated by various morphing methods to generate systematic variations of shape characteristics15,16. The VP and morphing methods can also be applied, in principle, to novel virtual objects other than digital embryos, or to virtual versions of real-world objects9,13. Virtual objects created in this fashion can be rendered as visual images using a conventional graphical toolkit, with desired manipulations of surface texture, illumination, size, viewpoint and background. The virtual objects can also be 'printed' as haptic objects using a conventional 3-D prototyper.
We also describe some implementations of these computational algorithms to help illustrate the potential utility of the algorithms. It is important to distinguish the algorithms from their implementations. The implementations are demonstrations offered solely as a 'proof of principle' of the underlying algorithms. It is important to note that, in general, an implementation of a computational algorithm often has limitations that the algorithm itself does not have.
Together, these methods represent a set of powerful and flexible tools for studying object recognition and perceptual learning by biological and computational systems alike. With appropriate extensions, these methods may also prove useful in the study of morphogenesis and phylogenesis.
26 Related JoVE Articles!
Engineering Platform and Experimental Protocol for Design and Evaluation of a Neurally-controlled Powered Transfemoral Prosthesis
Institutions: North Carolina State University & University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Atlantic Prosthetics & Orthotics, LLC.
To enable intuitive operation of powered artificial legs, an interface between user and prosthesis that can recognize the user's movement intent is desired. A novel neural-machine interface (NMI) based on neuromuscular-mechanical fusion developed in our previous study has demonstrated a great potential to accurately identify the intended movement of transfemoral amputees. However, this interface has not yet been integrated with a powered prosthetic leg for true neural control. This study aimed to report (1) a flexible platform to implement and optimize neural control of powered lower limb prosthesis and (2) an experimental setup and protocol to evaluate neural prosthesis control on patients with lower limb amputations. First a platform based on a PC and a visual programming environment were developed to implement the prosthesis control algorithms, including NMI training algorithm, NMI online testing algorithm, and intrinsic control algorithm. To demonstrate the function of this platform, in this study the NMI based on neuromuscular-mechanical fusion was hierarchically integrated with intrinsic control of a prototypical transfemoral prosthesis. One patient with a unilateral transfemoral amputation was recruited to evaluate our implemented neural controller when performing activities, such as standing, level-ground walking, ramp ascent, and ramp descent continuously in the laboratory. A novel experimental setup and protocol were developed in order to test the new prosthesis control safely and efficiently. The presented proof-of-concept platform and experimental setup and protocol could aid the future development and application of neurally-controlled powered artificial legs.
Biomedical Engineering, Issue 89, neural control, powered transfemoral prosthesis, electromyography (EMG), neural-machine interface, experimental setup and protocol
A Novel Bayesian Change-point Algorithm for Genome-wide Analysis of Diverse ChIPseq Data Types
Institutions: Stony Brook University, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, University of Texas at Dallas.
ChIPseq is a widely used technique for investigating protein-DNA interactions. Read density profiles are generated by using next-sequencing of protein-bound DNA and aligning the short reads to a reference genome. Enriched regions are revealed as peaks, which often differ dramatically in shape, depending on the target protein1
. For example, transcription factors often bind in a site- and sequence-specific manner and tend to produce punctate peaks, while histone modifications are more pervasive and are characterized by broad, diffuse islands of enrichment2
. Reliably identifying these regions was the focus of our work.
Algorithms for analyzing ChIPseq data have employed various methodologies, from heuristics3-5
to more rigorous statistical models, e.g.
Hidden Markov Models (HMMs)6-8
. We sought a solution that minimized the necessity for difficult-to-define, ad hoc parameters that often compromise resolution and lessen the intuitive usability of the tool. With respect to HMM-based methods, we aimed to curtail parameter estimation procedures and simple, finite state classifications that are often utilized.
Additionally, conventional ChIPseq data analysis involves categorization of the expected read density profiles as either punctate or diffuse followed by subsequent application of the appropriate tool. We further aimed to replace the need for these two distinct models with a single, more versatile model, which can capably address the entire spectrum of data types.
To meet these objectives, we first constructed a statistical framework that naturally modeled ChIPseq data structures using a cutting edge advance in HMMs9
, which utilizes only explicit formulas-an innovation crucial to its performance advantages. More sophisticated then heuristic models, our HMM accommodates infinite hidden states through a Bayesian model. We applied it to identifying reasonable change points in read density, which further define segments of enrichment. Our analysis revealed how our Bayesian Change Point (BCP) algorithm had a reduced computational complexity-evidenced by an abridged run time and memory footprint. The BCP algorithm was successfully applied to both punctate peak and diffuse island identification with robust accuracy and limited user-defined parameters. This illustrated both its versatility and ease of use. Consequently, we believe it can be implemented readily across broad ranges of data types and end users in a manner that is easily compared and contrasted, making it a great tool for ChIPseq data analysis that can aid in collaboration and corroboration between research groups. Here, we demonstrate the application of BCP to existing transcription factor10,11
and epigenetic data12
to illustrate its usefulness.
Genetics, Issue 70, Bioinformatics, Genomics, Molecular Biology, Cellular Biology, Immunology, Chromatin immunoprecipitation, ChIP-Seq, histone modifications, segmentation, Bayesian, Hidden Markov Models, epigenetics
Quantitative Visualization and Detection of Skin Cancer Using Dynamic Thermal Imaging
Institutions: The Johns Hopkins University.
In 2010 approximately 68,720 melanomas will be diagnosed in the US alone, with around 8,650 resulting in death 1
. To date, the only effective treatment for melanoma remains surgical excision, therefore, the key to extended survival is early detection 2,3
. Considering the large numbers of patients diagnosed every year and the limitations in accessing specialized care quickly, the development of objective in vivo
diagnostic instruments to aid the diagnosis is essential. New techniques to detect skin cancer, especially non-invasive diagnostic tools, are being explored in numerous laboratories. Along with the surgical methods, techniques such as digital photography, dermoscopy, multispectral imaging systems (MelaFind), laser-based systems (confocal scanning laser microscopy, laser doppler perfusion imaging, optical coherence tomography), ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, are being tested. Each technique offers unique advantages and disadvantages, many of which pose a compromise between effectiveness and accuracy versus ease of use and cost considerations. Details about these techniques and comparisons are available in the literature 4
Infrared (IR) imaging was shown to be a useful method to diagnose the signs of certain diseases by measuring the local skin temperature. There is a large body of evidence showing that disease or deviation from normal functioning are accompanied by changes of the temperature of the body, which again affect the temperature of the skin 5,6
. Accurate data about the temperature of the human body and skin can provide a wealth of information on the processes responsible for heat generation and thermoregulation, in particular the deviation from normal conditions, often caused by disease. However, IR imaging has not been widely recognized in medicine due to the premature use of the technology 7,8
several decades ago, when temperature measurement accuracy and the spatial resolution were inadequate and sophisticated image processing tools were unavailable. This situation changed dramatically in the late 1990s-2000s. Advances in IR instrumentation, implementation of digital image processing algorithms and dynamic IR imaging, which enables scientists to analyze not only the spatial, but also the temporal thermal behavior of the skin 9
, allowed breakthroughs in the field.
In our research, we explore the feasibility of IR imaging, combined with theoretical and experimental studies, as a cost effective, non-invasive, in vivo optical measurement technique for tumor detection, with emphasis on the screening and early detection of melanoma 10-13
. In this study, we show data obtained in a patient study in which patients that possess a pigmented lesion with a clinical indication for biopsy are selected for imaging. We compared the difference in thermal responses between healthy and malignant tissue and compared our data with biopsy results. We concluded that the increased metabolic activity of the melanoma lesion can be detected by dynamic infrared imaging.
Medicine, Issue 51, Infrared imaging, quantitative thermal analysis, image processing, skin cancer, melanoma, transient thermal response, skin thermal models, skin phantom experiment, patient study
Viability Assays for Cells in Culture
Institutions: Duquesne University.
Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized viability assays are expensive in terms of equipment but can be faster and more objective than manual cell counts. The present report describes the use of three such viability assays. Two of these assays are infrared and one is luminescent. Both infrared assays rely on a 16 bit Odyssey Imager. One infrared assay uses the DRAQ5 stain for nuclei combined with the Sapphire stain for cytosol and is visualized in the 700 nm channel. The other infrared assay, an In-Cell Western, uses antibodies against cytoskeletal proteins (α-tubulin or microtubule associated protein 2) and labels them in the 800 nm channel. The third viability assay is a commonly used luminescent assay for ATP, but we use a quarter of the recommended volume to save on cost. These measurements are all linear and correlate with the number of cells plated, but vary in sensitivity. All three assays circumvent time-consuming microscopy and sample the entire well, thereby reducing sampling error. Finally, all of the assays can easily be completed within one day of the end of the experiment, allowing greater numbers of experiments to be performed within short timeframes. However, they all rely on the assumption that cell numbers remain in proportion to signal strength after treatments, an assumption that is sometimes not met, especially for cellular ATP. Furthermore, if cells increase or decrease in size after treatment, this might affect signal strength without affecting cell number. We conclude that all viability assays, including manual counts, suffer from a number of caveats, but that computerized viability assays are well worth the initial investment. Using all three assays together yields a comprehensive view of cellular structure and function.
Cellular Biology, Issue 83, In-cell Western, DRAQ5, Sapphire, Cell Titer Glo, ATP, primary cortical neurons, toxicity, protection, N-acetyl cysteine, hormesis
Monitoring Cell-autonomous Circadian Clock Rhythms of Gene Expression Using Luciferase Bioluminescence Reporters
Institutions: The University of Memphis.
In mammals, many aspects of behavior and physiology such as sleep-wake cycles and liver metabolism are regulated by endogenous circadian clocks (reviewed1,2
). The circadian time-keeping system is a hierarchical multi-oscillator network, with the central clock located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) synchronizing and coordinating extra-SCN and peripheral clocks elsewhere1,2
. Individual cells are the functional units for generation and maintenance of circadian rhythms3,4
, and these oscillators of different tissue types in the organism share a remarkably similar biochemical negative feedback mechanism. However, due to interactions at the neuronal network level in the SCN and through rhythmic, systemic cues at the organismal level, circadian rhythms at the organismal level are not necessarily cell-autonomous5-7
. Compared to traditional studies of locomotor activity in vivo
and SCN explants ex vivo
, cell-based in vitro
assays allow for discovery of cell-autonomous circadian defects5,8
. Strategically, cell-based models are more experimentally tractable for phenotypic characterization and rapid discovery of basic clock mechanisms5,8-13
Because circadian rhythms are dynamic, longitudinal measurements with high temporal resolution are needed to assess clock function. In recent years, real-time bioluminescence recording using firefly luciferase
as a reporter has become a common technique for studying circadian rhythms in mammals14,15
, as it allows for examination of the persistence and dynamics of molecular rhythms. To monitor cell-autonomous circadian rhythms of gene expression, luciferase reporters can be introduced into cells via transient transfection13,16,17
or stable transduction5,10,18,19
. Here we describe a stable transduction protocol using lentivirus-mediated gene delivery. The lentiviral vector system is superior to traditional methods such as transient transfection and germline transmission because of its efficiency and versatility: it permits efficient delivery and stable integration into the host genome of both dividing and non-dividing cells20
. Once a reporter cell line is established, the dynamics of clock function can be examined through bioluminescence recording. We first describe the generation of P(Per2
reporter lines, and then present data from this and other circadian reporters. In these assays, 3T3 mouse fibroblasts and U2OS human osteosarcoma cells are used as cellular models. We also discuss various ways of using these clock models in circadian studies. Methods described here can be applied to a great variety of cell types to study the cellular and molecular basis of circadian clocks, and may prove useful in tackling problems in other biological systems.
Genetics, Issue 67, Molecular Biology, Cellular Biology, Chemical Biology, Circadian clock, firefly luciferase, real-time bioluminescence technology, cell-autonomous model, lentiviral vector, RNA interference (RNAi), high-throughput screening (HTS)
The FlyBar: Administering Alcohol to Flies
Institutions: Florida State University, University of Houston.
Fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster
) are an established model for both alcohol research and circadian biology. Recently, we showed that the circadian clock modulates alcohol sensitivity, but not the formation of tolerance. Here, we describe our protocol in detail. Alcohol is administered to the flies using the FlyBar. In this setup, saturated alcohol vapor is mixed with humidified air in set proportions, and administered to the flies in four tubes simultaneously. Flies are reared under standardized conditions in order to minimize variation between the replicates. Three-day old flies of different genotypes or treatments are used for the experiments, preferably by matching flies of two different time points (e.g.
, CT 5 and CT 17) making direct comparisons possible. During the experiment, flies are exposed for 1 hr to the pre-determined percentage of alcohol vapor and the number of flies that exhibit the Loss of Righting reflex (LoRR) or sedation are counted every 5 min. The data can be analyzed using three different statistical approaches. The first is to determine the time at which 50% of the flies have lost their righting reflex and use an Analysis of the Variance (ANOVA) to determine whether significant differences exist between time points. The second is to determine the percentage flies that show LoRR after a specified number of minutes, followed by an ANOVA analysis. The last method is to analyze the whole times series using multivariate statistics. The protocol can also be used for non-circadian experiments or comparisons between genotypes.
Neuroscience, Issue 87, neuroscience, alcohol sensitivity, Drosophila, Circadian, sedation, biological rhythms, undergraduate research
Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Calcium Imaging of Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons
Institutions: Oregon Health & Science University, Oregon Health & Science University.
Simultaneous electrophysiological and fluorescent imaging recording methods were used to study the role of changes of membrane potential or current in regulating the intracellular calcium concentration. Changing environmental conditions, such as the light-dark cycle, can modify neuronal and neural network activity and the expression of a family of circadian clock genes within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the location of the master circadian clock in the mammalian brain. Excitatory synaptic transmission leads to an increase in the postsynaptic Ca2+
concentration that is believed to activate the signaling pathways that shifts the rhythmic expression of circadian clock genes. Hypothalamic slices containing the SCN were patch clamped using microelectrodes filled with an internal solution containing the calcium indicator bis-fura-2. After a seal was formed between the microelectrode and the SCN neuronal membrane, the membrane was ruptured using gentle suction and the calcium probe diffused into the neuron filling both the soma and dendrites. Quantitative ratiometric measurements of the intracellular calcium concentration were recorded simultaneously with membrane potential or current. Using these methods it is possible to study the role of changes of the intracellular calcium concentration produced by synaptic activity and action potential firing of individual neurons. In this presentation we demonstrate the methods to simultaneously record electrophysiological activity along with intracellular calcium from individual SCN neurons maintained in brain slices.
Neuroscience, Issue 82, Synaptic Transmission, Action Potentials, Circadian Rhythm, Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials, Life Sciences (General), circadian rhythm, suprachiasmatic nucleus, membrane potential, patch clamp recording, fluorescent probe, intracellular calcium
Assaying Locomotor Activity to Study Circadian Rhythms and Sleep Parameters in Drosophila
Institutions: Rutgers University, University of California, Davis, Rutgers University.
Most life forms exhibit daily rhythms in cellular, physiological and behavioral phenomena that are driven by endogenous circadian (≡24 hr) pacemakers or clocks. Malfunctions in the human circadian system are associated with numerous diseases or disorders. Much progress towards our understanding of the mechanisms underlying circadian rhythms has emerged from genetic screens whereby an easily measured behavioral rhythm is used as a read-out of clock function. Studies using Drosophila
have made seminal contributions to our understanding of the cellular and biochemical bases underlying circadian rhythms. The standard circadian behavioral read-out measured in Drosophila
is locomotor activity. In general, the monitoring system involves specially designed devices that can measure the locomotor movement of Drosophila
. These devices are housed in environmentally controlled incubators located in a darkroom and are based on using the interruption of a beam of infrared light to record the locomotor activity of individual flies contained inside small tubes. When measured over many days, Drosophila
exhibit daily cycles of activity and inactivity, a behavioral rhythm that is governed by the animal's endogenous circadian system. The overall procedure has been simplified with the advent of commercially available locomotor activity monitoring devices and the development of software programs for data analysis. We use the system from Trikinetics Inc., which is the procedure described here and is currently the most popular system used worldwide. More recently, the same monitoring devices have been used to study sleep behavior in Drosophila
. Because the daily wake-sleep cycles of many flies can be measured simultaneously and only 1 to 2 weeks worth of continuous locomotor activity data is usually sufficient, this system is ideal for large-scale screens to identify Drosophila
manifesting altered circadian or sleep properties.
Neuroscience, Issue 43, circadian rhythm, locomotor activity, Drosophila, period, sleep, Trikinetics
Oscillation and Reaction Board Techniques for Estimating Inertial Properties of a Below-knee Prosthesis
Institutions: University of Northern Colorado, Arizona State University, Iowa State University.
The purpose of this study was two-fold: 1) demonstrate a technique that can be used to directly estimate the inertial properties of a below-knee prosthesis, and 2) contrast the effects of the proposed technique and that of using intact limb inertial properties on joint kinetic estimates during walking in unilateral, transtibial amputees. An oscillation and reaction board system was validated and shown to be reliable when measuring inertial properties of known geometrical solids. When direct measurements of inertial properties of the prosthesis were used in inverse dynamics modeling of the lower extremity compared with inertial estimates based on an intact shank and foot, joint kinetics at the hip and knee were significantly lower during the swing phase of walking. Differences in joint kinetics during stance, however, were smaller than those observed during swing. Therefore, researchers focusing on the swing phase of walking should consider the impact of prosthesis inertia property estimates on study outcomes. For stance, either one of the two inertial models investigated in our study would likely lead to similar outcomes with an inverse dynamics assessment.
Bioengineering, Issue 87, prosthesis inertia, amputee locomotion, below-knee prosthesis, transtibial amputee
Recording and Analysis of Circadian Rhythms in Running-wheel Activity in Rodents
Institutions: McGill University , Concordia University.
When rodents have free access to a running wheel in their home cage, voluntary use of this wheel will depend on the time of day1-5
. Nocturnal rodents, including rats, hamsters, and mice, are active during the night and relatively inactive during the day. Many other behavioral and physiological measures also exhibit daily rhythms, but in rodents, running-wheel activity serves as a particularly reliable and convenient measure of the output of the master circadian clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. In general, through a process called entrainment, the daily pattern of running-wheel activity will naturally align with the environmental light-dark cycle (LD cycle; e.g.
12 hr-light:12 hr-dark). However circadian rhythms are endogenously generated patterns in behavior that exhibit a ~24 hr period, and persist in constant darkness. Thus, in the absence of an LD cycle, the recording and analysis of running-wheel activity can be used to determine the subjective time-of-day. Because these rhythms are directed by the circadian clock the subjective time-of-day is referred to as the circadian time (CT). In contrast, when an LD cycle is present, the time-of-day that is determined by the environmental LD cycle is called the zeitgeber time (ZT).
Although circadian rhythms in running-wheel activity are typically linked to the SCN clock6-8
, circadian oscillators in many other regions of the brain and body9-14
could also be involved in the regulation of daily activity rhythms. For instance, daily rhythms in food-anticipatory activity do not require the SCN15,16
and instead, are correlated with changes in the activity of extra-SCN oscillators17-20
. Thus, running-wheel activity recordings can provide important behavioral information not only about the output of the master SCN clock, but also on the activity of extra-SCN oscillators. Below we describe the equipment and methods used to record, analyze and display circadian locomotor activity rhythms in laboratory rodents.
Neuroscience, Issue 71, Medicine, Neurobiology, Physiology, Anatomy, Psychology, Psychiatry, Behavior, Suprachiasmatic nucleus, locomotor activity, mouse, rat, hamster, light-dark cycle, free-running activity, entrainment, circadian period, circadian rhythm, phase shift, animal model
Measuring Circadian and Acute Light Responses in Mice using Wheel Running Activity
Institutions: John Hopkins University.
Circadian rhythms are physiological functions that cycle over a period of approximately 24 hours (circadian- circa: approximate and diem: day)1, 2
. They are responsible for timing our sleep/wake cycles and hormone secretion. Since this timing is not precisely 24-hours, it is synchronized to the solar day by light input. This is accomplished via photic input from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) which serves as the master pacemaker synchronizing peripheral clocks in other regions of the brain and peripheral tissues to the environmental light dark cycle3-7
. The alignment of rhythms to this environmental light dark cycle organizes particular physiological events to the correct temporal niche, which is crucial for survival8
. For example, mice sleep during the day and are active at night. This ability to consolidate activity to either the light or dark portion of the day is referred to as circadian photoentrainment and requires light input to the circadian clock9
. Activity of mice at night is robust particularly in the presence of a running wheel. Measuring this behavior is a minimally invasive method that can be used to evaluate the functionality of the circadian system as well as light input to this system. Methods that will covered here are used to examine the circadian clock, light input to this system, as well as the direct influence of light on wheel running behavior.
Neuroscience, Issue 48, mouse, circadian, behavior, wheel running
Determining heat and mechanical pain threshold in inflamed skin of human subjects
Institutions: Stanford University School of Medicine.
In a previous article in the Journal of Visualized Experiments we have demonstrated skin microdialysis techniques for the collection of tissue-specific nociceptive and inflammatory biochemicals in humans. In this article we will show pain-testing paradigms that are often used in tandem with microdialysis procedures. Combining pain tests with microdialysis provides the critical link between behavioral and biochemical data that allows identifying key biochemicals responsible for generating and propagating pain.
Two models of evoking pain in inflamed skin of human study participants are shown. The first model evokes pain with aid of heat stimuli. Heat evoked pain as described here is predominantly mediated by small, non-myelinated peripheral nociceptive nerve fibers (C-fibers). The second model evokes pain via punctuated pressure stimuli. Punctuated pressure evoked pain is predominantly mediated by small, myelinated peripheral nociceptive nerve fibers (A-delta fibers). The two models are mechanistically distinct and independently examine nociceptive processing by the two major peripheral nerve fiber populations involved in pain signaling.
Heat pain is evoked with aid of the TSA II, a commercially available thermo-sensory analyzer (Medoc Advanced Medical Systems, Durham, NC). Stimulus configuration and delivery is handled with aid of specific software. Thermodes vary in size and shape but in principle consist of a metal plate that can be heated or cooled at various rates and for different periods of time. Algorithms assessing heat-evoked pain are manifold. In the experiments shown here, study participants are asked to indicate at what point they start experiencing pain while the thermode in contact with skin is heated at a predetermined rate starting at a temperature that does not evoke pain. The thermode temperature at which a subject starts experiencing pain constitutes the heat pain threshold.
Mechanical pain is evoked with punctuated probes. Such probes are commercially available from several manufacturers (von Frey hairs). However, the accuracy of von Frey hairs has been criticized and many investigators use custom made punctuated pressure probes. In the experiments shown here eight custom-made punctuated probes of different weights are applied in consecutive order, a procedure called up-down algorithm, to identify perceptional deflection points, i.e., a change from feeling no pain to feeling pain or vice versa. The average weight causing a perceptional deflection constitutes the mechanical pain threshold.
Medicine, Issue 23, Experimental pain, experimental inflammation, human, skin, heat stimuli, mechanical stimuli, pain threshold, psychophysics, non-myelinated nociceptive nerve fiber, small myelinated nociceptive nerve fiber
Detection of Architectural Distortion in Prior Mammograms via Analysis of Oriented Patterns
Institutions: University of Calgary , University of Calgary .
We demonstrate methods for the detection of architectural distortion in prior mammograms of interval-cancer cases based on analysis of the orientation of breast tissue patterns in mammograms. We hypothesize that architectural distortion modifies the normal orientation of breast tissue patterns in mammographic images before the formation of masses or tumors. In the initial steps of our methods, the oriented structures in a given mammogram are analyzed using Gabor filters and phase portraits to detect node-like sites of radiating or intersecting tissue patterns. Each detected site is then characterized using the node value, fractal dimension, and a measure of angular dispersion specifically designed to represent spiculating patterns associated with architectural distortion.
Our methods were tested with a database of 106 prior mammograms of 56 interval-cancer cases and 52 mammograms of 13 normal cases using the features developed for the characterization of architectural distortion, pattern classification via
quadratic discriminant analysis, and validation with the leave-one-patient out procedure. According to the results of free-response receiver operating characteristic analysis, our methods have demonstrated the capability to detect architectural distortion in prior mammograms, taken 15 months (on the average) before clinical diagnosis of breast cancer, with a sensitivity of 80% at about five false positives per patient.
Medicine, Issue 78, Anatomy, Physiology, Cancer Biology, angular spread, architectural distortion, breast cancer, Computer-Assisted Diagnosis, computer-aided diagnosis (CAD), entropy, fractional Brownian motion, fractal dimension, Gabor filters, Image Processing, Medical Informatics, node map, oriented texture, Pattern Recognition, phase portraits, prior mammograms, spectral analysis
Automated, Quantitative Cognitive/Behavioral Screening of Mice: For Genetics, Pharmacology, Animal Cognition and Undergraduate Instruction
Institutions: Rutgers University, Koç University, New York University, Fairfield University.
We describe a high-throughput, high-volume, fully automated, live-in 24/7 behavioral testing system for assessing the effects of genetic and pharmacological manipulations on basic mechanisms of cognition and learning in mice. A standard polypropylene mouse housing tub is connected through an acrylic tube to a standard commercial mouse test box. The test box has 3 hoppers, 2 of which are connected to pellet feeders. All are internally illuminable with an LED and monitored for head entries by infrared (IR) beams. Mice live in the environment, which eliminates handling during screening. They obtain their food during two or more daily feeding periods by performing in operant (instrumental) and Pavlovian (classical) protocols, for which we have written protocol-control software and quasi-real-time data analysis and graphing software. The data analysis and graphing routines are written in a MATLAB-based language created to simplify greatly the analysis of large time-stamped behavioral and physiological event records and to preserve a full data trail from raw data through all intermediate analyses to the published graphs and statistics within a single data structure. The data-analysis code harvests the data several times a day and subjects it to statistical and graphical analyses, which are automatically stored in the "cloud" and on in-lab computers. Thus, the progress of individual mice is visualized and quantified daily. The data-analysis code talks to the protocol-control code, permitting the automated advance from protocol to protocol of individual subjects. The behavioral protocols implemented are matching, autoshaping, timed hopper-switching, risk assessment in timed hopper-switching, impulsivity measurement, and the circadian anticipation of food availability. Open-source protocol-control and data-analysis code makes the addition of new protocols simple. Eight test environments fit in a 48 in x 24 in x 78 in cabinet; two such cabinets (16 environments) may be controlled by one computer.
Behavior, Issue 84, genetics, cognitive mechanisms, behavioral screening, learning, memory, timing
Cortical Source Analysis of High-Density EEG Recordings in Children
Institutions: UCL Institute of Child Health, University College London.
EEG is traditionally described as a neuroimaging technique with high temporal and low spatial resolution. Recent advances in biophysical modelling and signal processing make it possible to exploit information from other imaging modalities like structural MRI that provide high spatial resolution to overcome this constraint1
. This is especially useful for investigations that require high resolution in the temporal as well as spatial domain. In addition, due to the easy application and low cost of EEG recordings, EEG is often the method of choice when working with populations, such as young children, that do not tolerate functional MRI scans well. However, in order to investigate which neural substrates are involved, anatomical information from structural MRI is still needed. Most EEG analysis packages work with standard head models that are based on adult anatomy. The accuracy of these models when used for children is limited2
, because the composition and spatial configuration of head tissues changes dramatically over development3
In the present paper, we provide an overview of our recent work in utilizing head models based on individual structural MRI scans or age specific head models to reconstruct the cortical generators of high density EEG. This article describes how EEG recordings are acquired, processed, and analyzed with pediatric populations at the London Baby Lab, including laboratory setup, task design, EEG preprocessing, MRI processing, and EEG channel level and source analysis.
Behavior, Issue 88, EEG, electroencephalogram, development, source analysis, pediatric, minimum-norm estimation, cognitive neuroscience, event-related potentials
Acquiring Fluorescence Time-lapse Movies of Budding Yeast and Analyzing Single-cell Dynamics using GRAFTS
Institutions: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Fluorescence time-lapse microscopy has become a powerful tool in the study of many biological processes at the single-cell level. In particular, movies depicting the temporal dependence of gene expression provide insight into the dynamics of its regulation; however, there are many technical challenges to obtaining and analyzing fluorescence movies of single cells. We describe here a simple protocol using a commercially available microfluidic culture device to generate such data, and a MATLAB-based, graphical user interface (GUI) -based software package to quantify the fluorescence images. The software segments and tracks cells, enables the user to visually curate errors in the data, and automatically assigns lineage and division times. The GUI further analyzes the time series to produce whole cell traces as well as their first and second time derivatives. While the software was designed for S. cerevisiae
, its modularity and versatility should allow it to serve as a platform for studying other cell types with few modifications.
Microbiology, Issue 77, Cellular Biology, Molecular Biology, Genetics, Biophysics, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Microscopy, Fluorescence, Cell Biology, microscopy/fluorescence and time-lapse, budding yeast, gene expression dynamics, segmentation, lineage tracking, image tracking, software, yeast, cells, imaging
From Voxels to Knowledge: A Practical Guide to the Segmentation of Complex Electron Microscopy 3D-Data
Institutions: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
Modern 3D electron microscopy approaches have recently allowed unprecedented insight into the 3D ultrastructural organization of cells and tissues, enabling the visualization of large macromolecular machines, such as adhesion complexes, as well as higher-order structures, such as the cytoskeleton and cellular organelles in their respective cell and tissue context. Given the inherent complexity of cellular volumes, it is essential to first extract the features of interest in order to allow visualization, quantification, and therefore comprehension of their 3D organization. Each data set is defined by distinct characteristics, e.g.
, signal-to-noise ratio, crispness (sharpness) of the data, heterogeneity of its features, crowdedness of features, presence or absence of characteristic shapes that allow for easy identification, and the percentage of the entire volume that a specific region of interest occupies. All these characteristics need to be considered when deciding on which approach to take for segmentation.
The six different 3D ultrastructural data sets presented were obtained by three different imaging approaches: resin embedded stained electron tomography, focused ion beam- and serial block face- scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM, SBF-SEM) of mildly stained and heavily stained samples, respectively. For these data sets, four different segmentation approaches have been applied: (1) fully manual model building followed solely by visualization of the model, (2) manual tracing segmentation of the data followed by surface rendering, (3) semi-automated approaches followed by surface rendering, or (4) automated custom-designed segmentation algorithms followed by surface rendering and quantitative analysis. Depending on the combination of data set characteristics, it was found that typically one of these four categorical approaches outperforms the others, but depending on the exact sequence of criteria, more than one approach may be successful. Based on these data, we propose a triage scheme that categorizes both objective data set characteristics and subjective personal criteria for the analysis of the different data sets.
Bioengineering, Issue 90, 3D electron microscopy, feature extraction, segmentation, image analysis, reconstruction, manual tracing, thresholding
Diffusion Tensor Magnetic Resonance Imaging in the Analysis of Neurodegenerative Diseases
Institutions: University of Ulm.
Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) techniques provide information on the microstructural processes of the cerebral white matter (WM) in vivo
. The present applications are designed to investigate differences of WM involvement patterns in different brain diseases, especially neurodegenerative disorders, by use of different DTI analyses in comparison with matched controls.
DTI data analysis is performed in a variate fashion, i.e.
voxelwise comparison of regional diffusion direction-based metrics such as fractional anisotropy (FA), together with fiber tracking (FT) accompanied by tractwise fractional anisotropy statistics (TFAS) at the group level in order to identify differences in FA along WM structures, aiming at the definition of regional patterns of WM alterations at the group level. Transformation into a stereotaxic standard space is a prerequisite for group studies and requires thorough data processing to preserve directional inter-dependencies. The present applications show optimized technical approaches for this preservation of quantitative and directional information during spatial normalization in data analyses at the group level. On this basis, FT techniques can be applied to group averaged data in order to quantify metrics information as defined by FT. Additionally, application of DTI methods, i.e.
differences in FA-maps after stereotaxic alignment, in a longitudinal analysis at an individual subject basis reveal information about the progression of neurological disorders. Further quality improvement of DTI based results can be obtained during preprocessing by application of a controlled elimination of gradient directions with high noise levels.
In summary, DTI is used to define a distinct WM pathoanatomy of different brain diseases by the combination of whole brain-based and tract-based DTI analysis.
Medicine, Issue 77, Neuroscience, Neurobiology, Molecular Biology, Biomedical Engineering, Anatomy, Physiology, Neurodegenerative Diseases, nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR, MR, MRI, diffusion tensor imaging, fiber tracking, group level comparison, neurodegenerative diseases, brain, imaging, clinical techniques
Test Samples for Optimizing STORM Super-Resolution Microscopy
Institutions: National Physical Laboratory.
STORM is a recently developed super-resolution microscopy technique with up to 10 times better resolution than standard fluorescence microscopy techniques. However, as the image is acquired in a very different way than normal, by building up an image molecule-by-molecule, there are some significant challenges for users in trying to optimize their image acquisition. In order to aid this process and gain more insight into how STORM works we present the preparation of 3 test samples and the methodology of acquiring and processing STORM super-resolution images with typical resolutions of between 30-50 nm. By combining the test samples with the use of the freely available rainSTORM processing software it is possible to obtain a great deal of information about image quality and resolution. Using these metrics it is then possible to optimize the imaging procedure from the optics, to sample preparation, dye choice, buffer conditions, and image acquisition settings. We also show examples of some common problems that result in poor image quality, such as lateral drift, where the sample moves during image acquisition and density related problems resulting in the 'mislocalization' phenomenon.
Molecular Biology, Issue 79, Genetics, Bioengineering, Biomedical Engineering, Biophysics, Basic Protocols, HeLa Cells, Actin Cytoskeleton, Coated Vesicles, Receptor, Epidermal Growth Factor, Actins, Fluorescence, Endocytosis, Microscopy, STORM, super-resolution microscopy, nanoscopy, cell biology, fluorescence microscopy, test samples, resolution, actin filaments, fiducial markers, epidermal growth factor, cell, imaging
Protein WISDOM: A Workbench for In silico De novo Design of BioMolecules
Institutions: Princeton University.
The aim of de novo
protein design is to find the amino acid sequences that will fold into a desired 3-dimensional structure with improvements in specific properties, such as binding affinity, agonist or antagonist behavior, or stability, relative to the native sequence. Protein design lies at the center of current advances drug design and discovery. Not only does protein design provide predictions for potentially useful drug targets, but it also enhances our understanding of the protein folding process and protein-protein interactions. Experimental methods such as directed evolution have shown success in protein design. However, such methods are restricted by the limited sequence space that can be searched tractably. In contrast, computational design strategies allow for the screening of a much larger set of sequences covering a wide variety of properties and functionality. We have developed a range of computational de novo
protein design methods capable of tackling several important areas of protein design. These include the design of monomeric proteins for increased stability and complexes for increased binding affinity.
To disseminate these methods for broader use we present Protein WISDOM (http://www.proteinwisdom.org), a tool that provides automated methods for a variety of protein design problems. Structural templates are submitted to initialize the design process. The first stage of design is an optimization sequence selection stage that aims at improving stability through minimization of potential energy in the sequence space. Selected sequences are then run through a fold specificity stage and a binding affinity stage. A rank-ordered list of the sequences for each step of the process, along with relevant designed structures, provides the user with a comprehensive quantitative assessment of the design. Here we provide the details of each design method, as well as several notable experimental successes attained through the use of the methods.
Genetics, Issue 77, Molecular Biology, Bioengineering, Biochemistry, Biomedical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computational Biology, Genomics, Proteomics, Protein, Protein Binding, Computational Biology, Drug Design, optimization (mathematics), Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins, De novo protein and peptide design, Drug design, In silico sequence selection, Optimization, Fold specificity, Binding affinity, sequencing
Characterization of Complex Systems Using the Design of Experiments Approach: Transient Protein Expression in Tobacco as a Case Study
Institutions: RWTH Aachen University, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft.
Plants provide multiple benefits for the production of biopharmaceuticals including low costs, scalability, and safety. Transient expression offers the additional advantage of short development and production times, but expression levels can vary significantly between batches thus giving rise to regulatory concerns in the context of good manufacturing practice. We used a design of experiments (DoE) approach to determine the impact of major factors such as regulatory elements in the expression construct, plant growth and development parameters, and the incubation conditions during expression, on the variability of expression between batches. We tested plants expressing a model anti-HIV monoclonal antibody (2G12) and a fluorescent marker protein (DsRed). We discuss the rationale for selecting certain properties of the model and identify its potential limitations. The general approach can easily be transferred to other problems because the principles of the model are broadly applicable: knowledge-based parameter selection, complexity reduction by splitting the initial problem into smaller modules, software-guided setup of optimal experiment combinations and step-wise design augmentation. Therefore, the methodology is not only useful for characterizing protein expression in plants but also for the investigation of other complex systems lacking a mechanistic description. The predictive equations describing the interconnectivity between parameters can be used to establish mechanistic models for other complex systems.
Bioengineering, Issue 83, design of experiments (DoE), transient protein expression, plant-derived biopharmaceuticals, promoter, 5'UTR, fluorescent reporter protein, model building, incubation conditions, monoclonal antibody
Using SCOPE to Identify Potential Regulatory Motifs in Coregulated Genes
Institutions: Dartmouth College.
SCOPE is an ensemble motif finder that uses three component algorithms in parallel to identify potential regulatory motifs by over-representation and motif position preference1
. Each component algorithm is optimized to find a different kind of motif. By taking the best of these three approaches, SCOPE performs better than any single algorithm, even in the presence of noisy data1
. In this article, we utilize a web version of SCOPE2
to examine genes that are involved in telomere maintenance. SCOPE has been incorporated into at least two other motif finding programs3,4
and has been used in other studies5-8
The three algorithms that comprise SCOPE are BEAM9
, which finds non-degenerate motifs (ACCGGT), PRISM10
, which finds degenerate motifs (ASCGWT), and SPACER11
, which finds longer bipartite motifs (ACCnnnnnnnnGGT). These three algorithms have been optimized to find their corresponding type of motif. Together, they allow SCOPE to perform extremely well.
Once a gene set has been analyzed and candidate motifs identified, SCOPE can look for other genes that contain the motif which, when added to the original set, will improve the motif score. This can occur through over-representation or motif position preference. Working with partial gene sets that have biologically verified transcription factor binding sites, SCOPE was able to identify most of the rest of the genes also regulated by the given transcription factor.
Output from SCOPE shows candidate motifs, their significance, and other information both as a table and as a graphical motif map. FAQs and video tutorials are available at the SCOPE web site which also includes a "Sample Search" button that allows the user to perform a trial run.
Scope has a very friendly user interface that enables novice users to access the algorithm's full power without having to become an expert in the bioinformatics of motif finding. As input, SCOPE can take a list of genes, or FASTA sequences. These can be entered in browser text fields, or read from a file. The output from SCOPE contains a list of all identified motifs with their scores, number of occurrences, fraction of genes containing the motif, and the algorithm used to identify the motif. For each motif, result details include a consensus representation of the motif, a sequence logo, a position weight matrix, and a list of instances for every motif occurrence (with exact positions and "strand" indicated). Results are returned in a browser window and also optionally by email. Previous papers describe the SCOPE algorithms in detail1,2,9-11
Genetics, Issue 51, gene regulation, computational biology, algorithm, promoter sequence motif
Improving IV Insulin Administration in a Community Hospital
Institutions: Wyoming Medical Center.
Diabetes mellitus is a major independent risk factor for increased morbidity and mortality in the hospitalized patient, and elevated blood glucose concentrations, even in non-diabetic patients, predicts poor outcomes.1-4
The 2008 consensus statement by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE) and the American Diabetes Association (ADA) states that "hyperglycemia in hospitalized patients, irrespective of its cause, is unequivocally associated with adverse outcomes."5
It is important to recognize that hyperglycemia occurs in patients with known or undiagnosed diabetes as well as during acute illness in those with previously normal glucose tolerance.
The Normoglycemia in Intensive Care Evaluation-Survival Using Glucose Algorithm Regulation (NICE-SUGAR) study involved over six thousand adult intensive care unit (ICU) patients who were randomized to intensive glucose control or conventional glucose control.6
Surprisingly, this trial found that intensive glucose control increased the risk of mortality by 14% (odds ratio, 1.14; p=0.02). In addition, there was an increased prevalence of severe hypoglycemia in the intensive control group compared with the conventional control group (6.8% vs. 0.5%, respectively; p<0.001). From this pivotal trial and two others,7,8
Wyoming Medical Center (WMC) realized the importance of controlling hyperglycemia in the hospitalized patient while avoiding the negative impact of resultant hypoglycemia.
Despite multiple revisions of an IV insulin paper protocol, analysis of data from usage of the paper protocol at WMC shows that in terms of achieving normoglycemia while minimizing hypoglycemia, results were suboptimal. Therefore, through a systematical implementation plan, monitoring of patient blood glucose levels was switched from using a paper IV insulin protocol to a computerized glucose management system. By comparing blood glucose levels using the paper protocol to that of the computerized system, it was determined, that overall, the computerized glucose management system resulted in more rapid and tighter glucose control than the traditional paper protocol. Specifically, a substantial increase in the time spent within the target blood glucose concentration range, as well as a decrease in the prevalence of severe hypoglycemia (BG < 40 mg/dL), clinical hypoglycemia (BG < 70 mg/dL), and hyperglycemia (BG > 180 mg/dL), was witnessed in the first five months after implementation of the computerized glucose management system. The computerized system achieved target concentrations in greater than 75% of all readings while minimizing the risk of hypoglycemia. The prevalence of hypoglycemia (BG < 70 mg/dL) with the use of the computer glucose management system was well under 1%.
Medicine, Issue 64, Physiology, Computerized glucose management, Endotool, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, diabetes, IV insulin, paper protocol, glucose control
Determining 3D Flow Fields via Multi-camera Light Field Imaging
Institutions: Brigham Young University, Naval Undersea Warfare Center, Newport, RI.
In the field of fluid mechanics, the resolution of computational schemes has outpaced experimental methods and widened the gap between predicted and observed phenomena in fluid flows. Thus, a need exists for an accessible method capable of resolving three-dimensional (3D) data sets for a range of problems. We present a novel technique for performing quantitative 3D imaging of many types of flow fields. The 3D technique enables investigation of complicated velocity fields and bubbly flows. Measurements of these types present a variety of challenges to the instrument. For instance, optically dense bubbly multiphase flows cannot be readily imaged by traditional, non-invasive flow measurement techniques due to the bubbles occluding optical access to the interior regions of the volume of interest. By using Light Field Imaging we are able to reparameterize images captured by an array of cameras to reconstruct a 3D volumetric map for every time instance, despite partial occlusions in the volume. The technique makes use of an algorithm known as synthetic aperture (SA) refocusing, whereby a 3D focal stack is generated by combining images from several cameras post-capture 1
. Light Field Imaging allows for the capture of angular as well as spatial information about the light rays, and hence enables 3D scene reconstruction. Quantitative information can then be extracted from the 3D reconstructions using a variety of processing algorithms. In particular, we have developed measurement methods based on Light Field Imaging for performing 3D particle image velocimetry (PIV), extracting bubbles in a 3D field and tracking the boundary of a flickering flame. We present the fundamentals of the Light Field Imaging methodology in the context of our setup for performing 3DPIV of the airflow passing over a set of synthetic vocal folds, and show representative results from application of the technique to a bubble-entraining plunging jet.
Physics, Issue 73, Mechanical Engineering, Fluid Mechanics, Engineering, synthetic aperture imaging, light field, camera array, particle image velocimetry, three dimensional, vector fields, image processing, auto calibration, vocal chords, bubbles, flow, fluids
Automated Midline Shift and Intracranial Pressure Estimation based on Brain CT Images
Institutions: Virginia Commonwealth University, Virginia Commonwealth University Reanimation Engineering Science (VCURES) Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Virginia Commonwealth University, Virginia Commonwealth University.
In this paper we present an automated system based mainly on the computed tomography (CT) images consisting of two main components: the midline shift estimation and intracranial pressure (ICP) pre-screening system. To estimate the midline shift, first an estimation of the ideal midline is performed based on the symmetry of the skull and anatomical features in the brain CT scan. Then, segmentation of the ventricles from the CT scan is performed and used as a guide for the identification of the actual midline through shape matching. These processes mimic the measuring process by physicians and have shown promising results in the evaluation. In the second component, more features are extracted related to ICP, such as the texture information, blood amount from CT scans and other recorded features, such as age, injury severity score to estimate the ICP are also incorporated. Machine learning techniques including feature selection and classification, such as Support Vector Machines (SVMs), are employed to build the prediction model using RapidMiner. The evaluation of the prediction shows potential usefulness of the model. The estimated ideal midline shift and predicted ICP levels may be used as a fast pre-screening step for physicians to make decisions, so as to recommend for or against invasive ICP monitoring.
Medicine, Issue 74, Biomedical Engineering, Molecular Biology, Neurobiology, Biophysics, Physiology, Anatomy, Brain CT Image Processing, CT, Midline Shift, Intracranial Pressure Pre-screening, Gaussian Mixture Model, Shape Matching, Machine Learning, traumatic brain injury, TBI, imaging, clinical techniques
Semi-automated Optical Heartbeat Analysis of Small Hearts
Institutions: The Sanford Burnham Institute for Medical Research, The Sanford Burnham Institute for Medical Research, San Diego State University.
We have developed a method for analyzing high speed optical recordings from Drosophila
, zebrafish and embryonic mouse hearts (Fink, et. al., 2009). Our Semi-automatic Optical Heartbeat Analysis (SOHA) uses a novel movement detection algorithm that is able to detect cardiac movements associated with individual contractile and relaxation events. The program provides a host of physiologically relevant readouts including systolic and diastolic intervals, heart rate, as well as qualitative and quantitative measures of heartbeat arrhythmicity. The program also calculates heart diameter measurements during both diastole and systole from which fractional shortening and fractional area changes are calculated. Output is provided as a digital file compatible with most spreadsheet programs. Measurements are made for every heartbeat in a record increasing the statistical power of the output. We demonstrate each of the steps where user input is required and show the application of our methodology to the analysis of heart function in all three genetically tractable heart models.
Physiology, Issue 31, Drosophila, zebrafish, mouse, heart, myosin, dilated, restricted, cardiomyopathy, KCNQ, movement detection
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A new study has found that each step of the marine food chain is clearly controlled by the trophic level below it and the driving factor influencing that relationship is not the abundance of prey, but how that prey is distributed.
The importance of the spatial pattern of resources sometimes called "patchiness" is gaining new appreciation from ecologists, who are finding the overall abundance of food less important than its density and ease of access to it.
Results of the study are being published this week in the Royal Society journal Biology Letters.
Kelly Benoit-Bird, an Oregon State University oceanographer and lead author on the study, said patchiness is not a new concept, but one that has gained acceptance as sophisticated technologies have evolved to track relationships among marine species.
"The spatial patterns of the resource ultimately determine how the ecosystem functions," said Benoit-Bird, who received a prestigious MacArthur Fellowship in 2010. "In the past, ecologists primarily used biomass as the determining factor for understanding the food chain, and the story was always rather muddled. We used to think that the size and abundance of prey was what mattered most.
"But patchiness is not only ubiquitous in marine systems, it ultimately dictates the behavior of many animals and their relationships to the environment," she added.
Benoit-Bird specializes in the relationship of different species in marine ecosystems. In one study in the Bering Sea, she and her colleagues were estimating the abundance of krill, an important food resource for many species. Closer examination through the use of acoustics, however, found that the distribution of krill was not at all uniform which the researchers say explained why two colonies of fur seals and seabirds were faring poorly, but a third was healthy.
"The amount of food near the third colony was not abundant," she said, "but what was there was sufficiently dense and at the right depth that made it more accessible for predation than the krill near the other two colonies."
The ability to use acoustics to track animal behavior underwater is opening new avenues to researchers. During their study in the Bering Sea, Benoit-Bird and her colleagues discovered that they could also use sonar to plot the dives of thick-billed murres, which would plunge up to 200 meters below the surface in search of the krill.
Although the krill were spread throughout the water column, the murres ended up focusing on areas where the patches of krill were the densest.
"The murres are amazingly good at diving right down to the best patches," Benoit-Bird pointed out. "We don't know just how they are able to identify them, but 10 years ago, we wouldn't have known that they had that ability. Now we can use high-frequency sound waves to look at krill, different frequencies to look at murres, and still others to look at squid, dolphins and other animals.
"And everywhere we've looked the same pattern occurs," she added. "It is the distribution of food, not the biomass, which is important."
An associate professor in the College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences at Oregon State University, Benoit-Bird has received young investigator or early career awards from the Office of Naval Research, the White House and the American Geophysical Union. She also has received honors from the Acoustical Society of America, which has used her as a model scientist in publications aimed at middle school students.
Her work has taken her around the world, including Hawaii where she has used acoustics to study the sophisticated feeding behavior of spinner dolphins. Those studies, she says, helped lead to new revelations about the importance of patchiness.
Ocean physics in the region results in long, thin layers of phytoplankton that may stretch for miles, but are only a few inches thick and a few meters below the surface. Benoit-Bird and her colleagues discovered a layer of zooplankton tiny animals that feed on the plankton treading water a meter below to be near the food source. Next up in the food chain were micronekton, larger pelagic fish and crustaceans that would spend the day 600 to 1,000 meters beneath the surface, then come up to the continental shelf at night to target the zooplankton. And the spinner dolphins would emerge at night, where they could reach the depth of the micronekton.
"The phytoplankton were responding to ocean physics," Benoit-Bird said, "but all of the others in the food chain were targeting their prey by focusing on the densest patches. We got to the point where we could predict with 70 percent accuracy where the dolphins would show up based just on the phytoplankton density without even considering the zooplankton and micronekton distribution."
Ocean "patchiness" is not a new concept, Benoit-Bird says, but may have been under-appreciated in importance.
"If you're a murre that is diving a hundred meters below the surface to find food, you want to maximize the payoff for all of the energy you're expending," Benoit-Bird said. "Now we need more research to determine how different species are able to determine where the best patches are."
Provided by Oregon State University
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Adolescent scoliosis is also commonly known as idiopathic scoliosis and represents the most common type of side-to-side atypical spinal curvature condition. No one knows why some young people develop scoliosis, but the fact remains that most cases will not become symptomatic or problematic to any significant degree. In some particularly rare instances, scoliosis can become a major health crisis, but in most affected patients, the condition will not require anything more than ongoing medical monitoring.
This essay examines the most common variety of all abnormal side-to-side curvatures of the human backbone. These curvatures begin during the adolescent growth stage and rarely progress to severe or symptomatic degrees.
Idiopathic scoliosis is an atypical side-to-side curvature of the spine which typically commences when a young person begins their growth spurt, between the ages of 10 and 14. This form of scoliosis typically affects girls more commonly than boys and females also suffer more significant curvatures statistically.
The vast majority of cases will not progress to more than a 10% curvature. These mild curves are not considered grounds for any treatment and are highly unlikely to enact any painful symptoms or physical limitations.
Mild curvatures which require monitoring and possible conservative bracing will usually measure between 10 degrees to 20 degrees. Curvatures from 20 degrees to 50 degrees are moderate and will certainly require care and bracing.
Severe curves over 50 degrees can be problematic and often require surgery at some point to stabilize the spine.
Recently, the attitude towards scoliosis has begun to change, with more and more care providers treating minor forms of the condition as if nothing at all is wrong. This approach has proven to provide positive reinforcement for children affected by curvatures and certainly limits the nocebo effect of the diagnosis, and therefore, the possibility for psychosomatic back pain symptoms to develop.
However, some opportunistic doctors will still demonize even the most innocent cases of scoliosis, setting the ideal stage for worry, anxiety and the feeling of being different among affected youth. This is the main reason why some patients eventually suffer pain and related concerns blamed on their curvatures, rather than the physical implications of the curvatures themselves. Of course, moderate to severe curves can cause structural pain issues, but still, even drastic curvatures are not inherently painful.
Be very careful how you manage children who are diagnosed with scoliosis. Do your own research and discover that curvatures under 20 degrees are seldom the source of any health issues. Active treatment in these cases can do more damage than good, if it is handled poorly. Always remember that the child will need special emotional reassurance and should be supported to live as any other child would live. Prohibitions and warnings are the wrong way to go.
Read more about the psychology of scoliosis to better understand how to attend to the child's emotional needs once diagnosed.
To learn more about how to best treat scoliosis in teens and children, contact your doctor or consult with a scoliosis specialist for detailed advice.
Just be sure to research the condition first to prepare yourself to take an active role in their care at every stage of development.
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TROPED, PHILIP J.1; WIECHA, JEAN L.2; FRAGALA, MAREN S.3; MATTHEWS, CHARLES E.4; FINKELSTEIN, DANIEL M.5; KIM, JUHEE6; PETERSON, KAREN E.2,7
Increasing physical activity participation among youth is a priority public health objective in the United States (27,30). Healthy People 2010 objectives for high school youth are to increase the prevalence of participation in sufficient moderate (≥ 30 min·d−1, ≥ 5 d·wk−1) and vigorous physical activity (≥ 20 min·d−1, ≥ 3 d·wk−1) to 35 and 85%, respectively. Recommendations contained within the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans also emphasize that children and youth engage in 60 min of physical activity on most days of the week (29). Physiologic and health benefits of regular physical activity for youth, such as weight control, increases in lean muscle mass, and reductions in body fat, have been documented in the Surgeon General's Report on Physical Activity and Health (28). Physical inactivity is also recognized as playing a role in the growing epidemic of overweight and obesity among children and youth (24,25) and in the increase in pediatric type 2 diabetes (22).
Availability of valid, reliable physical activity surveillance measures that accurately characterize the population are key to monitoring the progress of local, state, and national efforts to promote physical activity among youth. Although objective measurement of physical activity with devices such as accelerometers seems less prone to bias and inaccuracies in free-living populations (8,31), some still consider self-reports more feasible for population surveillance (2). In the early 1990s, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) developed the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) to monitor physical activity and other health risk behaviors in high school students, grades 9-12 (13). The YRBS includes a national school-based survey conducted by the CDC and state, territorial, and local surveys conducted by health and education agencies (10). A middle school YRBS module is available from the CDC and has items adapted from the high school YRBS, including one item that assesses vigorous physical activity during the past 7 d. Although not endorsed by the CDC, the YRBS item for moderate physical activity also has been used with middle school youth in some states, such as Vermont (see http://www.healthyvermonters.info/adap/pubs/2003/yrbs2003report.pdf, p. 75) and Massachusetts (5-2-1 Go! project). It is critical to determine whether these items are reliable and valid, correctly identifying the proportions of youth obtaining recommended levels of moderate and vigorous physical activity.
To our knowledge, the YRBS physical activity items have not been tested in high school or middle school youth using objective measures. Two studies have assessed the test-retest reliability of select YRBS physical activity items among middle school and high school youth (3,4), yet neither evaluated the items for moderate and vigorous physical activity. Another study assessed reliability and validity of YRBS-based physical activity items among middle school and high school students and found a statistically significant correlation between accelerometer data and self-reported vigorous physical activity (21), but the wording of these items was different.
Other recent research suggests that compared with objective methods, the YRBS items produce very different surveillance estimates of youth meeting physical activity recommendations. Using accelerometers, Pate and colleagues (20) found that 93% of seventh- to ninth graders and 76% of 10th- to 12th graders from a Massachusetts sample met Healthy People 2010 guidelines for moderate physical activity (≥ 30 min·d−1, ≥ 5 d·wk−1), whereas only 1-3% met the guideline for sustained vigorous physical activity. In contrast, contemporaneous prevalence estimates for Massachusetts high school youth obtained from the YRBS show that 25% reported meeting the guideline for moderate physical activity, whereas 63% reported meeting the objective for vigorous activity (16).
The purposes of this study were twofold: 1) to assess the test-retest reliability of YRBS items for moderate and vigorous physical activity in a sample of middle school students, and 2) to evaluate the validity of these items by comparing self-report data against objective physical activity data obtained with an Actigraph accelerometer (formally known as Computer Science and Applications and Manufacturing Technology Inc.; now Actigraph, LLC, Fort Walton Beach, FL). Specifically, we determined how well YRBS items classified students as meeting the recommended levels of moderate and vigorous physical activity.
All study procedures were approved by the Massachusetts Department of Public Health (MDPH) Human Research Review Committee and the Human Subjects Committee at the Harvard School of Public Health. Sixth- and seventh-grade students from Massachusetts middle schools participating in a 2-yr nutrition and physical activity intervention (5-2-1 Go!) sponsored by MDPH were randomly selected to participate in the YRBS validation study, using a random-number generator in SAS (version 9.1., SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC).
Six of 13 schools participating in 5-2-1 Go! were selected to be in this validation study. The schools were located in urban and suburban communities in eastern and central Massachusetts. The recruitment goal was to enlist 25 students from each of the schools for a total sample of 150 students. Additional student names selected at random were added to the recruitment list when students declined to participate or did not return a consent form. Contacts with students and parents were coordinated by a staff member at each school (in most cases a school nurse).
In total, recruitment letters and informed consent documents were sent to the parents or guardians of 293 students either by mail or student delivery. Overall, 144 students (49%) returned a signed consent form to participate in the study, 45 (15%) returned a signed form declining to participate, and 104 (36%) students did not return a form. Five students with consent either were absent on days when accelerometers were distributed or they chose not to participate. Thus, 139 students (47.4% of those recruited) ultimately participated in the study.
Accelerometer and survey data used in this study were collected during spring 2003. Research staff met with students at their schools and instructed them to wear an Actigraph accelerometer for 7 d. On the day monitors were collected, students completed a brief survey, which included moderate and vigorous physical activity items from the middle school and high school YRBS (survey test 1). Data from this post-monitoring period survey were used to assess the validity of the two YRBS items.
In addition to the short survey, students completed a longer survey including the two YRBS items (survey test 2) as part of their participation in the 5-2-1 Go! study. The protocol specified an interval of 1-2 wk between the two survey administrations. Because of logistical constraints of some participating schools, the actual interval between surveys ranged from 1 to 40 d. Forty-seven students (35.9%) completed surveys 1-6 d apart, and 47 (35.9%) completed surveys 10-15 d apart. The remaining 37 students (28.2%) from two schools completed the two surveys 26 and 40 d apart, respectively. Data from the two survey administrations were used to assess test-retest reliability of the YRBS items.
To compare accelerometer study participants with other students in 5-2-1 Go!, we used additional data from the baseline 5-2-1 Go! survey and anthropometry measurements collected during fall 2002. Besides the YRBS items for moderate and vigorous activity, students answered questions about participation in physical education during the past 7 d and the number of sports teams they had been on during the previous year. Each subject's height and weight were measured by school personnel. The proportion of students that were a healthy weight or underweight (BMI < 85th percentile), at risk for overweight (BMI ≥ 85th percentile and < 95th percentile), and overweight (≥ 95th percentile) was calculated using an age- and sex-based algorithm developed by the CDC (available at http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/growthcharts/sas.htm).
For objective monitoring of physical activity, we used an Actigraph accelerometer (model 7164), a lightweight (1.5 ounces) uniaxial monitor designed to measure accelerations in the vertical plane. Although accelerometers cannot necessarily be considered the "gold standard" method for measuring physical activity (2), they seem to be the best available objective measure of free-living activity. Previous laboratory- and field-based studies have shown that the Actigraph accurately measures the volume, intensity, and temporal patterns of dynamic activities such as walking and running when worn on the hip (7,18,19). Activity monitors were set to sample at 60-s time intervals. Therefore, activity count data were obtained as counts per minute. The Actigraph monitors were secured on an adjustable nylon belt that minimized extraneous movement of the monitor. Students were instructed to wear the monitor on the right hip for seven consecutive days. They were asked to wear the monitor at all times, except when sleeping, bathing, or swimming, and they were given daily log sheets to record times they put their monitors on and removed them. Activity monitors and log sheets were collected at each school after 1 wk, and students were given a small cash stipend for their participation. All monitors were checked for calibration before data collection using the manufacturer's calibration device, and the monitors were checked after each deployment using a brief walk-test protocol.
Actigraph data reduction.
Accelerometer data were downloaded and processed using a SAS data-reduction program with built-in quality-assurance checks as described previously (17). Minute-by-minute accelerometer counts were classified as light-intensity activity (< 3 METs), moderate-intensity activity (3-6 METs), and vigorous-intensity activity (> 6 METs), using an age-based equation (METs = 2.757 + (0.0015 × counts per minute) − (0.0896 × age [yr]) − (0.000038 × counts per minute × age [yr]) developed by Freedson and colleagues (9).
Because the YRBS questions do not specify whether bout length is important in accumulating minutes of vigorous and moderate physical activity, we varied the operational definition for our objective Actigraph measures. Daily total minutes of moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity were computed four ways for each intensity: total accumulated minutes above the moderate or vigorous threshold, and minutes estimated from bouts ≥ 5 min, ≥ 10 min, ≥ 30 min (moderate physical activity only), and ≥ 20 min (vigorous physical activity only). A bout started when a minimum intensity threshold for moderate or vigorous activity was exceeded. Bout duration was estimated by extracting the number of subsequent minutes that were spent in bouts of activity above specific intensity levels. We allowed bouts to include interruptions of 1 or 2 min, during which activity intensity was below the threshold. A bout ended whenever there were three consecutive minutes below the threshold. In these cases, the last 3 min were not included in the bout duration.
The SAS program noted above created dichotomous bout variables, which detected any occurrences of the following bouts: 5-9, 10-19, 20-29, 30-44, and ≥ 45 min. To estimate daily duration of moderate and vigorous physical activity, and to determine whether someone met the activity recommendation for a given day (30 min for moderate and 20 min for vigorous), we did the following. For the 5- to 9-min- and the 10- to 19-min-bout measures, we estimated minutes in bouts using the midpoint of the bout range (e.g., 7min for 5- to 9-min bouts) multiplied by the number of bout occurrences. For bouts longer than 19 min, we used the lower endpoint of the bout range. It is important to note that when we estimated daily minutes from bouts ≥ 5 min, we included minutes obtained through 5- to 9-min bouts as well as longer bouts (e.g., 10-19 min); similarly, physical activity accumulated in bouts ≥ 10 min in duration included 10- to 19-min bouts as well as longer ones.
As an example, subject A had two 5- to 9-min bouts of moderate activity, two bouts of 10-19 min, no bouts of 30-44 min, and no bouts ≥ 45 min on a given day. Thus, this subject's 5-min-bout measure was two (7 min) plus two (14.5 min) = 43 min of moderate activity obtained in bouts ≥ 5 min.
Data were summarized using an automated scoring algorithm, which assumed that periods of monitor inactivity (0 counts per minute) for 20 consecutive minutes indicated that the monitor was not being worn by the participant. Except for day 1, valid days of monitoring were defined as days during which the monitor was worn for at least 600 min·d−1 (71% of 14 waking hours), using wear estimates from the algorithm. We included day 1 if a student had at least 383 min of data on that day (71% of nine waking hours, with the monitor initialized to start recording at 12:00 p.m.). Our analytic sample for the validation analyses comprised 125 students who had at least 4 d of valid Actigraph monitoring and who completed the brief post-monitoring period survey. The overall average number of valid days per assessment period in this sample was 6.1 ± 1.0, and the estimated mean daily duration of wear was 803.9 ± 63.3 min·d−1 (about 13.4 h). Average daily minutes of moderate and vigorous physical activity also were obtained using estimates of total minutes each day divided by the number of valid days of monitoring.
Survey physical activity measures.
Both the short and longer survey administered to students included YRBS items for moderate and vigorous physical activity (available at http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm). The moderate physical activity item was worded: "On how many of the past 7 d did you participate in physical activity for at least 30 min that did not make you sweat or breathe hard, such as fast walking, slow bicycling, skating, pushing a lawn mower, or mopping floors?" The vigorous physical activity item was worded: "On how many of the past 7 d did you exercise or participate in physical activity for at least 20 min that made you sweat and breathe hard, such as basketball, soccer, running, swimming laps, fast bicycling, fast dancing, or similar aerobic activities?" Response categories for both items were 0 to 7 d.
For test-retest reliability analyses, we used the number of days reported by students on the two surveys. For the assessment of YRBS item validity, we created a dichotomous (yes/no) measure for moderate (≥ 30 min, ≥ 5d·wk−1) and vigorous physical activity (≥ 20 min, ≥ 3 d·wk−1). These cut points are consistent with current recommendations for moderate and vigorous physical activity and recently published YRBS data (5).
Actigraph data were used to create four frequency variables for both moderate and vigorous physical activity to enable comparisons with the YRBS items for moderate and vigorous activity. Frequency was defined as the number of days a student obtained 30min ofmoderate and 20 min of vigorous physical activity, respectively. As noted, we used four different methods for estimating daily duration from the accelerometer: 1) accumulated minutes (total minutes during the day), 2) minutes per day obtained through bouts at least 5 min in duration (bouts ≥ 5-9 min), 3) minutes per day obtained through bouts at least 10 min in duration (bouts ≥ 10-19min), and 4) minutes obtained through bouts of sustained activity during a day (≥ 30 min for moderate and ≥20 min for vigorous).
These duration data were used to estimate the numbers of days per week of moderate and vigorous physical activity meeting recommendations for daily duration from valid days of monitoring. The purpose was to derive a frequency estimate for the past 7 d comparable with what is derived from the YRBS questions. Finally, we created eight dichotomous Actigraph outcomes for moderate (≥ 30 min, ≥5d·wk−1) and vigorous physical activity (≥ 20 min, ≥3d·wk−1), comparable with the two derived YRBS measures.
To assess test-retest reliability of the two YRBS items, we estimated intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for the overall sample and then for subgroups stratified by sex and time between survey administrations (≤ 15 d and > 15 d). The 15-d cut point is consistent with the time frame used in previous YRBS reliability assessments (3,4).
We used three statistical procedures to assess the validity of the YRBS items. First, we cross-tabulated the YRBS and Actigraph measures to assess the prevalence of concordant classification for meeting moderate and vigorous physical activity recommendations, for the overall sample and separately for girls and boys. Second, we estimated kappa coefficients for each comparison between the YRBS and Actigraph classification. Third, using data from these 2 × 2 tables, we calculated the sensitivity and specificity of the YRBS items for the four different Actigraph measures of moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity. Sensitivity was the probability of the YRBS items correctly classifying students as meeting recommendations, where the Actigraph data was considered the true prevalence (i.e., the criterion measure). Specificity was the probability of YRBS correctly classifying students as not meeting the recommended level of physical activity. All analyses were conducted with SAS.
As shown in Table 1, study participants were comparable with other sixth- and seventh-grade students participating in the 5-2-1 Go! intervention at the six schools. A slightly higher percentage of Asian students participated in the accelerometer study (P = 0.03), and a higher proportion of students in the validation study reported lower levels of participation in physical education classes (i.e., 1-2 d). No differences were seen in other demographic characteristics, weight status, self-reported moderate and vigorous physical activity derived from YRBS questions, or sports team participation.
Students accumulated an average of 77.7 ± 28.1 min·d−1 of moderate and 10.8 ± 10.5 min·d−1 of vigorous physical activity according to their Actigraph data (data not shown). Values for the 25th, 50th, 75th, and 100th percentiles were 58.3, 76.0, 96.4, and 156.1 min for moderate physical activity and 4.1, 8.3, 14.0, and 69.0 min for vigorous physical activity. For the 122 returned log sheets that were reviewed, 38 students reported a total of 75 instances where they removed the Actigraph before a specific moderate- or vigorous-intensity activity (e.g., swimming, soccer, baseball, cheerleading).
Test-retest reliability for YRBS items.
The overall ICC for the YRBS moderate and vigorous physical activity items were in the moderate range at 0.51 and 0.46, respectively (Table 2). Test-retest reliability tended to be higher for girls than boys. For both moderate and vigorous physical activity items, ICC were higher when the time between survey administrations was ≤ 15 d, compared with > 15 d. The reduction in magnitude of the ICC with a longer test-retest interval was more pronounced for moderate physical activity.
Validity of YRBS moderate physical activity item.
Overall, 21.6% of students met the recommended level of moderate physical activity according to the YRBS item (Fig. 1). On the basis of the four Actigraph measures, the proportion of students performing moderate physical activity for 30 min, ≥ 5 d·wk−1 was 90.4% (accumulated minutes), 66.4% (5-min bouts), 25.6% (10-min bouts), and 2.4% (sustained). The one statistically significant difference between boys and girls was found for the Actigraph 10-min-bout measure, where 36.7% of boys met the recommended level of physical activity compared with only 15.4% of girls (χ2 = 7.4, P = 0.007).
FIGURE 1-Proportion ...Image Tools
As shown in Table 3, the highest level of concordance (20.8%), but also discordance (69.6%), in terms of identifying students who performed moderate physical activity ≥ 5 d·wk−1, was achieved when the accumulated time definition was used to create the Actigraph measure. Overall, the percentage of discordant pairs ranged from 24.0% for the sustained Actigraph measure to 70.4% for the measure of accumulated minutes. Concordance for meeting the recommendation for moderate physical activity declined in a consistent fashion from accumulated (20.8%) to a 5-min bout (12.8%) to a 10-min bout (5.6%) to a sustained definition (0.0%) of activity. No students met the recommended level of moderate physical activity according to their Actigraph data when the criterion was a sustained 30 min of activity. Kappa coefficients between the four Actigraph measures and the YRBS measure ranged from −0.05 to 0.03 (data not shown). All of these values are considered poor according to Landis and Koch's adjectival rating system (14). The percent concordance differed for girls and boys, and the decline in percent concordance for meeting activity recommendations across Actigraph measures was steeper for girls than for boys.
In all cases, sensitivity of the YRBS moderate physical activity item was low (Table 3). Specificity ranged between 0.74 and 0.92 for the four Actigraph measures and was highest for the measure of accumulated minutes.
Validity of YRBS vigorous activity item.
As shown in Figure 2, about 85% of boys and 69% of girls reported engaging in vigorous physical activity ≥ 3 d·wk−1 (χ2 = 4.4, P = 0.04). A significantly higher proportion of girls (6.2%) than boys (0.0%) met the recommended level of vigorous activity on the basis of a sustained (≥ 20) definition of Actigraph minutes [χ2 = 3.81, P = 0.05]. There were no statistically significant differences between boys and girls in the prevalence of vigorous physical activity on the basis of the other three Actigraph outcomes. Among the overall study sample, the prevalence of vigorous physical activity for the Actigraph measures ranged from a high of 22.4% (accumulated minutes criterion) to a low of 3.2% (20-min sustained criterion).
FIGURE 2-Proportion ...Image Tools
The highest level of concordance between the YRBS and Actigraph measures in terms of classifying students as meeting recommendations for vigorous physical activity occurred using the Actigraph measure of accumulated minutes (19.2%) (Table 4). The percentage of discordant pairs for the overall sample ranged from 60.8 to 75.2% for the four Actigraph measures. This primarily comprised students who reported performing vigorous activity ≥ 3 d·wk−1 on the YRBS item, but this group did not attain this level of activity according to their accelerometer data. Similar to results for moderate physical activity, the k values for the vigorous physical activity measures were all low, ranging from −0.002 to 0.06 (data not shown). Overall, there were slight differences between girls and boys for concordance between the YRBS and Actigraph measures.
In contrast to the moderate physical activity item, sensitivity of the YRBS vigorous item was relatively high (above 0.80 for three Actigraph measures and 0.75 for the fourth). Conversely, specificity was low (ranging between 0.23 and 0.26). Sensitivity of the YRBS vigorous physical activity item was higher for boys than for girls on three of the four Actigraph measures.
We assessed the test-retest reliability and validity of two YRBS items for moderate and vigorous physical activity in a sample of middle school students. The purpose was to examine the utility of the YRBS items for determining prevalence of physical activity in this population. Overall, these items demonstrate moderate reliability but poor validity for male and female students in the sixth and seventh grades.
Key findings were that the YRBS moderate physical activity item grossly underestimated the proportion of students who performed moderate activity ≥ 30 min·d−1, ≥ 5 d·wk−1, as indicated by students' accelerometer data; that is, the item has poor sensitivity. Sensitivity of the YRBS moderate item was not improved by varying how the objective Actigraph measure was defined. In contrast, the YRBS vigorous physical activity question overestimated the proportion of students performing vigorous activity ≥ 20 min·d−1, > 3 d·wk−1. This was reflected in the relatively high sensitivity and low specificity of the item, irrespective of whether the Actigraph outcome was defined as accumulated minutes in a day or duration obtained through bouts. A higher proportion of boys versus girls self-reported engaging in vigorous physical activity at recommended levels (by about 16%), whereas the Actigraph data only indicated a statistically significant gender difference in vigorous activity when a sustained definition of activity was used, and, in this case, girls met the recommendation, not boys.
The present study's estimates of daily moderate and vigorous physical activity from accelerometry (e.g., about 78 and 11 min, respectively) are somewhat consistent with two other recent studies reporting on samples of MA youth (6,20) using objective data. For example, Cradock and colleagues found that middle school students monitored with TriTrac accelerometers had daily estimates of moderate and vigorous physical activity of approximately 59 and 7 min, respectively (6). Also, the overall proportions of students in this study meeting recommendations for moderate physical activity on the basis of accumulated minutes of Actigraph data (about 88%) and for vigorous activity on the basis of bouts ≥ 20 min (about 3%) are quite similar to estimates Pate et al. (20) reported for seventh- to ninth-grade students in MA on the basis of Actigraph measurement (93% and 1-3%, respectively).
Among youth, validation studies of self-report measures using accelerometer data are limited. In a recent review, Kohl and colleagues (12) have identified one physical activity self-report validation study in youth (11) that used the Actigraph accelerometer as a criterion measure. In that study, investigators found low to moderate correlations (r = 0.03-0.51) with different questionnaire measures of physical activity and Actigraph data among 7- to 15-yr-old youth. We are aware of only one published study that has assessed the validity of items similar to the YRBS physical activity items using Actigraph data as the validation measure (21). The authors of that study found a modest but statistically significant correlation (r = 0.36) between Actigraph data and self-reported vigorous physical activity for the previous 7 d, but they did not find a significant correlation for a moderate physical activity item (r = 0.26). Meaningful comparisons between our findings and these studies are difficult to make because we did not use a correlational approach to assessing validity. However, one consistent conclusion for all of these studies, including ours, is that self-reported physical activity items that assess intensity and duration have, at best, modest validity among youth.
Comparable assessments of the relative validity of self-report items in adults have indicated that brief physical activity surveillance items can be used to classify activity levels at the population level. Using Actigraph data as one criterion measure, Marshall and colleagues (15) have found that percentage agreement (between criterion and self-report) was 67 and 74%, respectively, for items that measured moderate and vigorous activity-levels of agreement substantially higher than those found in the present study. Matthews et al. (17) have found similar correct classification for two close-ended surveillance items measuring moderate and vigorous physical activity (70 and 81%, respectively).
Overall, we found moderate test-retest reliability for both the moderate- and vigorous-intensity YRBS items. Kohl and colleagues (12) have reviewed a number of studies that assessed test-retest reliability of physical activity self-report measures in youth. Studies with comparable age groups and test-retest time periods generally had higher intraclass and Pearson correlation coefficients (ranging from 0.70 to 0.96) than we found. Prochaska and colleagues (21) also found test-retest ICC for items that assessed vigorous and moderate physical activity during 7d that were higher (0.66 and 0.64, respectively) than those reported here. However, subjects in that study were, on average, about 2 yr older than our study population. Recently, in an Australian study assessing test-retest reliability of an adolescent physical activity survey among eighth graders, ICC were in the range of 0.30-0.64 for calculated energy expenditure, with most below 0.50 (1).
Our study has several limitations that may have affected our results. First, because of logistic constraints of participating schools, the interval between surveys exceed a 2-wk protocol in 28% of students. Thus, our test-retest reliability findings could reflect modest item reliability or an underestimate of reliability attributable to actual changes in moderate or vigorous physical activity from the first survey administration to the second (12). In fact, the latter explanation is relevant to all subjects in this study, even those with retest periods under 2 wk, because they were reporting on physical activity for two different time periods (because the YRBS question asks about the previous 7 d), and activity patterns could change. Data were collected during the spring in Massachusetts, when both temperature and precipitation can be quite variable from day to day. Both of these environmental factors could affect the amount of moderate and vigorous physical activity being performed by students from 1 wk to the next.
Several factors could affect the accuracy of accelerometer estimates of moderate and vigorous physical activity. In both adult and youth populations, there continues to be active research (23) and a lack of consensus as to which accelerometer regression equation to use to predict time spent at different intensities of activity. We used a formula developed by Freedson and colleagues (9), consistent with the methods recently employed by other researchers (26). Nevertheless, an overestimation of moderate-intensity physical activity or an underestimation of vigorous activity (e.g., occurring if count levels representing vigorous activity were classified as moderate intensity because of a faulty algorithm) from the Actigraph would have resulted in a less favorable assessment of YRBS item validity. Although use of a 1-min epoch in the present study was consistent with other studies in youth, use of a shorter sampling interval (e.g., 30 s) likely would have resulted in higher estimates of accumulated moderate and vigorous activity. We do not believe that this increase in Actigraph estimates would have changed the overall conclusion that the YRBS moderate and vigorous items underestimate and overestimate activity, respectively. We conclude this because, according to self-reports, the prevalence of students meeting recommendations was very low for moderate activity (22%) and high for vigorous activity (77%).
Systematic bias introduced by variable subject compliance during different types of physical activities is another potential concern. Overall, compliance with wearing the accelerometers in our study seemed acceptable. However, as noted earlier, a review of log sheets indicated that 38 students (30% of our sample) reported 75 instances where they removed the monitor before playing sports or some other activity of mostly moderate or vigorous intensity. Preferential Actigraph removal during vigorous physical activity would erroneously reduce the concordance between Actigraph and YRBS vigorous activity measures. However, given that only a third of the students reported removing the monitor an average of fewer than two times during the monitoring period (which averaged 6 d), it is reasonable to assume that removal of monitors did not substantially bias our findings. Another recent study using TriTrac accelerometers in similarly aged youth did not find that missing accelerometer data biased overall physical activity estimates (6).
Finally, certain moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activities such as walking on an incline, stair climbing, or carrying/pushing objects may be underestimated by uniaxial monitors mounted at the hip (23), leading to a possible underestimation of the prevalence of these activities by the Actigraph. In our study, self-reported measures of moderate-intensity activities from the YRBS were consistently lower than those measured by the Actigraph, whereas self-reported vigorous activities were substantially higher than those measured by the Actigraph. Given the magnitude of the differences between self-report and objective measures for vigorous activity, we do not believe an upward adjustment in the vigorous physical activity estimates from the Actigraphs would have substantially changed our findings, because the overall levels of objectively measured vigorous physical activity were extremely low (e.g., averaging only 10 min·d−1). In summary, we would agree with the conclusion of Brener and colleagues (2) that accelerometers may not provide a "gold standard" validation measure for self-reported physical activity and might miss certain activities in which youth engage. Nevertheless, despite their limitations, we believe that accelerometers provide useful objective information about important elements of the free-living activity patterns in youth and, therefore, can provide valuable insight into the measurement properties of physical activity self-reports.
The YRBS items for moderate and vigorous physical activity that we tested have moderate reliability and poor validity among middle school students when compared with data obtained from accelerometry. Neither item demonstrated validity in terms of its ability to correctly classify middle school students with respect to meeting current physical activity recommendations.
For surveillance among this population of preadolescent youth, objective monitoring with accelerometers seems to be the more ideal measurement methodology. At a minimum, improved self-report items are needed for middle school youth. In this age group, items may perform better if they are limited to asking youth about frequency of specific physical activities; this should be examined in further studies. The CDC has continued to update the YRBS self-report physical activity measures for middle school youth. The 2007 middle school YRBS includes one item tailored to the current 60-min physical activity recommendation (29) that asks students to "add up all the time" they spend in moderate to vigorous physical activity during each of the past 7 d.
The YRBS items we evaluated in middle school youth had the potential to result in misguided allocation of public health resources and physical activity promotion efforts. For example, objective data from this study and others indicate that middle school youth typically obtain insufficient amounts of vigorous-intensity physical activity but that they are engaged in levels of moderate activity that meet the Healthy People 2010 recommendations. Therefore, it is likely that public health messages and intervention strategies need to concentrate on creating opportunities for middle school youth to include more vigorous-intensity physical activity in their daily lives. Validation of the new YRBS question for middle school youth is still needed, but it has the potential to improve the accuracy of surveillance estimates.
The authors acknowledge Maria Bettencourt, Vanessa Cavallaro, Kathleen Grattan, Solomon Mezgebu, Wee Lock Ooi, and Julie Robarts at the Massachusetts Department of Public Health for their participation in the design and implementation of the 5-2-1 Go! study. This research was supported through a subcontract from the Massachusetts Department of Public Health under a CDC cooperative agreement with MDPH, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Prevention Research Centers Cooperative Agreement U48/CCU115807). The authors are not employees of the Massachusetts Department of Public Health, which is not responsible for the accuracy of the reported results or the views expressed by the authors.
1. Booth, M. L., A. D. Okely, T. N. Chey, and A. Bauman. The reliability and validity of the Adolescent Physical Activity Recall Questionnaire. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
2. Brener, N. D., J. O. Billy, and W. R. Grady. Assessment of factors affecting the validity of self-reported health-risk behavior among adolescents: evidence from the scientific literature. J. Adolesc. Health
3. Brener, N. D., J. L. Collins, L. Kann, C. W. Warren, and B. I. Williams. Reliability of the youth risk behavior survey questionnaire. Am. J. Epidemiol.
4. Brener, N. D., L. Kann, T. McManus, S. A. Kinchen, E. C. Sundberg, and J. G. Ross. Reliability of the 1999 youth risk behavior survey questionnaire. J. Adolesc. Health
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance Summaries,
May 21, 2004. MMWR 2004:53(No. SS-2).
6. Cradock, A. L., J. L. Wiecha, K. E. Peterson, A. M. Sobol, G. A. Colditz, and S. L. Gortmaker. Youth recall and TriTrac accelerometer estimates of physical activity levels. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
7. Freedson, P. S., E. Melanson, and J. Sirard. Calibration of the Computer Science and Applications, Inc. accelerometer. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
8. Freedson, P. S., and K. Miller. Objective monitoring of physical activity using motion sensors and heart rate. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport
9. Freedson, P. S., J. Sirard, E. Debold, et al. Calibration of the Computer Science and applications, Inc. (CSA) accelerometer. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
10. Grunbaum, J. A., L. Kann, S. A. Kinchen, et al. Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2001. MMWR Surveill. Summ.
11. Janz, K. F., J. Witt, and L. T. Mahoney. The stability of children's physical activity as measured by accelerometry and self-report. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
12. Kohl, H. W. III, J. E. Fulton, and C. J. Caspersen. Assessment of physical activity among children and adolescents: a review and synthesis. Prev. Med.
13. Kolbe, L. J., L. Kann, and J. L. Collins. Overview of the youth risk behavior surveillance system. Public Health Rep.
108(Suppl 1): 2-10, 1993.
14. Landis, J. R., and G. G. Koch. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics
15. Marshall, A. L., B. J. Smith, A. E. Bauman, and S. Kaur. Reliability and validity of a brief physical activity assessment for use by family doctors. Br. J. Sports Med.
16. Massachusetts Department of Education. 2001 Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey Results. Boston, MA: Massachusetts Department of Education, pp. 1-126, 2002.
17. Matthews, C. E., B. E. Ainsworth, C. Hanby, et al. Development and testing of a short physical activity recall questionnaire. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
18. Melanson, E. L., Jr., and P. S. Freedson. Validity of the Computer Science and Applications, Inc. (CSA) activity monitor. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
19. Nichols, J. F., C. G. Morgan, L. E. Chabot, J. F. Sallis, and K.J. Calfas. Assessment of physical activity with the Computer Science and Applications, Inc., accelerometer: laboratory versus field validation. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport
20. Pate, R. R., P. S. Freedson, J. F. Sallis, et al. Compliance with physical activity guidelines: prevalence in a population of children and youth. Ann. Epidemiol.
21. Prochaska, J. J., J. F. Sallis, and B. Long. A physical activity screening measure for use with adolescents in primary care. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med.
22. Rosenbloom, A. L., J. R. Joe, R. S. Young, and W. E. Winter. Emerging epidemic of type 2 diabetes in youth. Diabetes Care
23. Strath, S. J., D. R. Bassett Jr., and A. M. Swartz. Comparison of MTI accelerometer cut-points for predicting time spent in physical activity. Int. J. Sports Med.
24. Strauss, R. S., and H. A. Pollack. Epidemic increase in childhood overweight, 1986-1998. JAMA
25. Troiano, R. P., K. M. Flegal, R. J. Kuczmarski, S. M. Campbell, and C. L. Johnson. Overweight prevalence and trends for children and adolescents. The National Health and Nutrition ExaminationSurveys, 1963 to 1991. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med.
149: 1085-1091, 1995.
26. Trost, S. G., R. R. Pate, J. F. Sallis, et al. Age and gender differences in objectively measured physical activity in youth. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
27. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy People 2010. Understanding and Improving Health
. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, pp. 22-3-22-32, 2000.
28. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General
, Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, pp. 61-172, 1996.
29. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2005
, 6th Ed. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, pp. 19-22, 2005.
30. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of Education. Promoting better health for young people through physical activity and sports, a report to the President from the Secretary of Health and Human Services and the Secretary of Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of Education, pp. 1-38, 2000.
31. Westerterp, K. R. Physical activity assessment with accelerometers. Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.
23(Suppl 3):S45-S49, 1999.
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- Go straight to the recommendations
- Evidence used to create this guideline (full guideline)
- Constipation is common in childhood. It affects around 5-30% of the child population, depending on the criteria used for diagnosis.
- Symptoms become chronic in more than one third of patients, and constipation is a common reason for referral to secondary care.
November 2011: There has been a change to the text of the full guideline in the introduction on Psychological Interventions (Section 5.5). The deleted sentences were not supported by the references cited and so it was felt best to remove them. This has not impacted on any of the recommendations within the guideline.
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| 0.952356 | 135 | 2.78125 | 3 |
• montage •
mahn-tazh • Hear it!
Part of Speech: Noun
Meaning: 1. An artistic composition created from bits and pieces of other objects, such as a picture made up of pieces from other pictures. 2. (Motion pictures) The selecting and arranging of scenes and transitions in putting together a motion picture.
Notes: No doubt because it mostly haunts the world of arts, today's Good Word has not wandered far from its original French pronunciation. The sequence GE in French is pronounced [zh]. However, the pronunciation often converts to English [j] in borrowed words like garage, and the suffix -age we see in mileage and footage. It can only be pronounced [zh] in today's word, though.
In Play: Today's Good Word probably is used most often to refer to a work of art: "The mural on the wall of the dormitory was a montage created from objects students left behind after graduation." The second sense of today's word is used figuratively to refer to a series of diverse objects or events: "Montague's life was a montage of colorful adventures encircling the globe."
Word History: The Proto-Indo-European word mont-/ment- seems to have referred to prominences, objects jutting out. It obviously went on to become the mount in mountain, and the verb meaning to get up on something high (mount a horse). In Latin it turns up as mentum "chin" and in Germanic languages it came to mean "mouth", as in German Mund, something located near the chin. Projections and prominences can be threatening, so Latin minax (minac-s) took on that meaning before English borrowed the Old French version of it, as menace. (The montage of information about today's Good Word was brought to prominence by a suggestion from Loren Baldwin.)
Come visit our website at <http://www.alphadictionary.com> for more Good Words and other language resources!
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| 0.96542 | 417 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Scientists devise a test to see if the universe is real or the computer simulation of future-people
Good news guys: Scientists at the University of Washington have finally devised a way to see if the universe actually exists or is all just a computer simulation devised by a race of future-people a long, long time from now.
No, this idea is not the product of a freshman astronomy term-paper written high as a kite last-minute at 3 a.m. It was first floated by a certified egghead philosophy professor at the University of Oxford in 2003 and has sparked the interest of the scientific community.
Scientists are currently creating crude universe simulations of their own, though they are decades away from modeling anything like even a primitive version of the universe. According to a new paper from UW, “The supercomputers performing lattice quantum chromodynamics calculations essentially divide space-time into a four-dimensional grid.” Based on their own primitive simulations they’ve created so far, they’re not ruling out that the universe as we perceive it isn’t just another way more advanced computer simulation by people gagillions of years in the future.
In case your mind wasn’t fully blown yet, here’s the kicker: Based on what they’ve seen in their own simulations, the scientists now think they know what to look for in the universe to detect sings that it’s not real but a simulation—glitches in the matrix, so to speak.
“It would be a matter of looking for a ‘signature’ in our universe that has an analog in the current small-scale simulations,” says the UW team, and continues, “the signature could show up as a limitation in the energy of cosmic rays.”
At the end of “Vanilla Sky” Kurt Russel has an existential meltdown as he realizes he’s not real, but part of Tom Cruise’s simulated reality. Depending on what these scientists at UW find, that could be all of us.
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| 0.947736 | 425 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Plant analysis has been used to evaluate the nutritional status of many crops for diagnostic and corrective purposes. This study was initiated to establish critical N plant tissue levels using midrib NO3-N concentration for broccoli (Brassica oleracea L., Botrytis group) during the growing season. Tissue samples for nitrate analysis were taken from broccoli plants over a period of three growing seasons beginning at the 4 to 6 leaf stage of growth and biweekly through pre-harvest. The midrib from the most recently matured leaf was sampled for NO3-N concentration determination.
ASJC Scopus subject areas
- Agronomy and Crop Science
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| 0.950683 | 133 | 2.546875 | 3 |
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