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What fictional character, created by Margret and Hans Rey, allows his inquisitive nature to get him in trouble? | MyJewishBooks Online
Sep 11, 2005: 9/11 Interfaith Memorial Service, NY Jewish Healing Center, Stephen Wise Free Synagogue 7PM
Sep 13-25, 2005: 2005 NY Jewish Music and Heritage Fesrival, NYC. See OyHoo.com
Sep 14, 2005: NOVEL JEWS - Richard Stern reads from ALMONDS TO ZHOOF and Daniel Stolar reads from THE MIDDLE OF THE NIGHT. KGB Bar 7:00
Sep 14, 2005: BRUCE FEILER reads from WHERE GOD WAS BORN, B&N Lincoln Center NYC 7:00
Sep 15, 2005: BRUCE FEILER reads from WHERE GOD WAS BORN, The Temple, 1589 Peachtree St., NE, Atlanta, GA 7:30pm
Sep 17, 2005: BRUCE FEILER reads from WHERE GOD WAS BORN, B&N Savannah GA 2:00
Sep 19, 2005: Heeb Presents a Jewish Music Awards program. Musee Jewish Heritage, NYC
Sep 20, 2005: JENNIFER WEINER reads from GOODNIGHT NOBODY, B&N Lincoln Center NYC 7:00
Sep 20, 2005: BRUCE FEILER reads from WHERE GOD WAS BORN, Quail Ridge Books RALEIGH NC 7:30pm
Sep 21, 2005: PEARL ABRAHAM reads from THE SEVENTH BEGGAR, B&N GV NYC 7:30
Sep 21, 2005: ROBERT PINSKY reads from THE LIFE OF DAVID, B&N Union Sq NYC 7:00
Sep 22, 2005: LAURIE GUNST reads from OFF-WHITE, Library of Virginia, Richmond, VA 12 Noon
Sep 22, 2005: Njop.org Finals for the National Great Shofar Blast Off
Sep 25, 2005: JewzaPalooza. NYC Riverside Park. See OyHoo.com. 11AM - 9PM
Sep 26, 2005: BRUCE FEILER reads from WHERE GOD WAS BORN, Borders in Framingham MA, 7pm
Sep 28, 2005: MYLA GOLDBERG reads from WICKETT's REMEDY, B&N Astor NYC 7:00
Sep 28, 2005: BRUCE FEILER reads from WHERE GOD WAS BORN, Politics and Prose, DC, 7pm
Sep 28, 2005: PHILIP ROTH. A retrospective at the Museum of Jewish Heritage NYC. With David Remnick, Judith Thurman, Ed RothStein, and ROSS MILLER. 7PM
Oct 02, 2005: BRUCE FEILER reads from WHERE GOD WAS BORN, Bryant Park, NYC, NYT Great Reads
Oct 10, 2005: DAVID RAKOFF reads from DON'T GET TOO COMFORTABLE, B&N Chelsea NYC 7:00
Oct 17, 2005: JOSHUA BRAFF reads from THE UNTHINKABLE THOUGHTS OF JACOB GREEN, B&N GV NYC 7:30
Oct 18, 2005: JENNIFER WEINER reads from GOODNIGHT NOBODY, B&N San Mateo Hillsdale 7:00
Oct 18, 2005: JOSHUA BRAFF reads from THE UNTHINKABLE THOUGHTS OF... , B&N Menlo Park NJ 7:00
Oct 19, 2005: JENNIFER WEINER reads from GOODNIGHT NOBODY, B&N Santa Monica 7:30
Oct 19, 2005: MICHAEL CHABON hosts Selected Shorts. Symphony Space, NYC 6:30
Oct 25, 2005. AARON HAMBURGER reads from his novel FAITH FOR BEGINNERS. B&N NYC Chelsea.
Oct 26, 2005. JACK KLUGMAN reads from TONY AND ME. B&N Scottsdale AZ.
Oct 27, 2005: A private View of Highlights from the New York Sale of Important Hebrew Manuscripts from the Salman Schocken Collection . Christie's, 8 King Street, St James London SW1. 6:30 PM
Oct 28, 2005: Opening at the Brooklyn Museum of TREE OF PARADISE. Jewish Mosaics from the Roman Period. To June 4, 2006
Oct 28-31, 2005: ReJewVenation Conference in Toronto. The Future of Jewish Culture. See rejewvenation2005.com
Nov 01, 2005. JIMMY CARTER, former U.S. President reads from his new book. B&N NYC Union Square.
Nov 01, 2005. Premier of Bee Season, the film, NYC at Makor.
Nov 02, 2005: Writer's Beit Midrash with Daniel Septimus, featuring Melvin Jules Bukiet, Johanna Kaplan, and Binnie Kirschenbaum. Nov 2-Dec 21, Skirball Center for Adult Jewish Learning, NYC
Nov 03, 2005. Premier of Go For Zucker, the film, NYC at Makor.
Nov 04, 2005. JAMES SIEGEL reads from DETOUR, a novel. B&N Carle Place LI NY.
Nov 06, 2005. Jews and Medicine. Symposium. YIVO, NYC
Nov 08, 2005. TAB HUNTER reads from his memoirs. B&N Danbury CT.
Nov 09, 2005: NOVEL JEWS - Henry Roth Tribute. KGB Bar 7:00
Nov 10, 2005. ELIE WIESEL at the 92nd St Y, NYC 8pm.
Nov 12-14, 2005: Jewish LA-Then and Now. UCLA
Nov 13-17, 2005. NY Arab American Comedy Festival, NYC.
Nov 14, 2005: SUAD AMIRY reads from SHARON AND MY MOTEHR IN LAW. Columbia University. 12:30 PM
Nov 15, 2005: CHRISTIE's Auction in NYC of Important Hebrew Manuscripts 10 AM
Nov 11-14, 2005: CHRISTIE's Viewing of Important Hebrew Manuscripts 10-5
Nov 16, 2005. Jason Alexander, Leonard Nimoy and Kyra Sedgwick discuss WHAT BEING JEWISH MEANS TO ME. 92nd St Y, NYC.
Nov 17, 2005. ROCHELLE KRICH reads from NOW YOU SE ME. B&N Encino.
Nov 17-19, 2005. The Comedy Festival, Las Vagas.
Nov 18, 2005. JACK KLUGMAN reads from TONY AND ME. B&N NYC Dallas.
Nov 19, 2005. Doing Likewise. Conference on mimicry at NYU. Free. Featuring Oliver Sacks, Ricky Jay, Anne Hollander, Jonathan Miller and others.
Nov 20, 2005: Omer Bartov on the Last Jews of Buczacz. UCLA Faculty Club (LA)
Nov 20, 2005: 92nd St Y, NYC, Seminar for Children's Books Authors
Nov 21, 2005: ROGER BENNETT etc read from BAR MITZVAH DISCO. B&N 82nd Bway NYC 7PM
Nov 22, 2005: Leon Wieseltier (KADDISH) speaks on Messianism at NYU Law School. 6:30
Nov 27-29, 2005. Sothebys Auction House NYC. Important Judaica and Books. Preview.
Nov 28-12/2, 2005. Conference on Humanism and the Rabbinic Tradition in Italy and Beyond. CJH, NYC. PrimoLeviCenter.org
Nov 30, 2005. MACK FRIEDMAN reads from SETTING THE LAWN ON FIRE. B&N NYC Chelsea.
Nov 30, 2005: Chief Rabbi Sir Jonathan Sacks speaks in Virtue, KJ NYC 8PM
November 2005: National Adoption Day. Nationaladoptionday.org
Dec 07, 2005: Freeing The Captive. The Jewish Response to Human Trafficking. HUC NYC 6:30
Dec 07, 2005: NAOMI ROSENBLATT reads from AFTER THE APPLE. B&N Rockville MD
Dec 09, 2005: Abigail Pogrebin reads from STARS OF DAVID. B&N Skokie IL
Dec 14, 2005: NOVEL JEWS - DARA HORN reads from THE WORLD TO COME and AVIVA KUSHNER reads from FOR A PLACE IN THE NEXT WORLD. KGB Bar 7:00
Dec 25-30: KLEZKAMP. Check LivingTraditions.ORG They best Winter camp, featuring top musicians and chef Anne Rosenzweig, and authors Henry Sapoznick and Michael Wex.
Jan 05, 2006: Abigail Pogrebin reads from STARS OF DAVID. B&N NYC 82nd Bway
Jan 15, 2006: Jewish Writers Conferences, Sinai Temple, Los Angeles, wioth Ayelet Waldman and her man, Michael Chabon, Adam Langer, Josh Braff, Dara Horn and Jonathan Rosen
Jan 16, 2006: Elliot Perlman reads from REASONS I WON'T BE COMING. B&N NYC Linc Sq.
Jan 20, 2006: SchmoozeDance 2006 Film Festival. Park City UTAH. Temple Har Shalom
Jan 21, 2006: KidzDance 2006 Children's Film Festival, Park City, UT.
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by BRUCE FEILER
William Morrow (September 2005)
Bruce Feiler is the Indiana Jones of Biblical locations or assumed locations. He travels through Iraw, Iran, Israel, and the Middle East. The reader gets to visit places incluiding Eden (Nassariya?), Babylon, Ur, and David's Jerusalem. While the NYT review criticized Feiler for not being politically correct (he dares to open the book with a helicopter trip over Jerusalem and the West Bank with Yoram "Yaya" Yair, one of Israel's most decorated generals), for being too pro-Israel and too pro-US policy in Iraq, I personally did not feel that way while reading the book.
FYI: Two years ago, I happened to see the Nineveh tablets at the British Museum right before Yom Kippur, and this year, coincidentally, I made it to page 154 on the eve of Yom Kippur. How fitting. Since in this portion of the book, Feiler gets to Nineveh and the story of Jonah, Yonah, Yunus, the exact story of exile, professional responsibility, whining more over a plant than 120,000 people, that God is willing to accept the repentance of a illiterate population in a city that historically destroyed Israel, and the repentance of an entire city that is read on the afternoon of Yom Kippur. I asked Feiler if, when he was in Nineveh, whether he saw a gourd or giant shade plant. No, he didn't.
Where God Was Born combines the adventure of a wartime chronicle, the excitement of an archaeological detective story, and the insight of personal spiritual exploration. Taking readers to biblical sites not seen by Westerners for decades, Feiler's journey uncovers little-known details about the common roots of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and affirms the importance of the Bible in today's world. In his intimate, accessible style, Feiler invites readers on a never-in-a-lifetime experience: In Israel, Feiler takes a perilous helicopter dive over Jerusalem, treks through secret underground tunnels, and locates the spot where David toppled Goliath; In Iraq, after being airlifted into Baghdad, Feiler visits the Garden of Eden and the birthplace of Abraham, and makes a life-threatening trip to the rivers of Babylon; in Iran, Feiler explores the home of the Bible's first messiah and uncovers the secret burial place of Queen Esther. In Where God Was Born, Feiler discovers that at the birth of Western religion, all faiths drew from one another and were open to coexistence. Feiler's bold realization is that the Bible argues for interfaith harmony. It cannot be ceded to one side in the debate over values. Feiler urges moderates to take back the Bible and use its powerful voice as a beacon of shared ideals. Bruce Feiler has written a brave, uplifting story that stirs the deepest chords of our time. Where God Was Born offers a rare, universal vision of God that can inspire different faiths to an allegiance of hope.
From Publishers Weekly: The third of Feiler's books on the Bible and the Middle East, this is another absorbing blend of travelogue, history, Bible commentary, memoir, current events and passionate preaching. In Walking the Bible (2001), Feiler surveyed the Torah. This sequel picks up with Joshua, first of the prophetic books, and follows Israel's story through the Hebrew scriptures: from the invasion of Canaan through the reigns of David and Solomon to the Babylonian captivity and the Diaspora. What differentiates Feiler from most other Bible commentators is that he actually visits the places he describes, despite Palestinian suicide bombers, Iraqi insurgents, Iranian fundamentalists and his very worried family back home. Readers will almost effortlessly learn a lot about antiquity-thanks again to his travel companion, archeologist Avner Goren-and also about recent history, today's headlines and Feiler's own spiritual journey. Enlarging on his vision of unity in Abraham (2002), he contends that the Bible's moral vision transcends land, power and nationality. "The only force strong enough to take on religious extremism," he concludes, "is religious moderation." For Feiler, now ready to affirm his Jewishness, this means "willingly asserting your faith in public, not with raging fire but with a single, quiet flame." Click the book cover above to read more.
by Michael Wex
September 2005. St martins press
From Publishers Weekly: Fortunately, despite its title and cover photo, this is not a kitschy book about a folksy language spoken by quaint, elderly Jews. It is, rather, an earthy romp through the lingua franca of Jews, which has roots reaching back to the Hebrew Bible and which continues to thrive in 21st-century America. Canadian professor, translator and performer Wex has an academic's breadth of knowledge, and while he doesn't ignore your bubbe's tsimmes, he gives equal time to the semantic nuances of putz, schmuck, shlong and shvants. Wex organizes his material around broad, idiosyncratic categories, but like the authors of the Talmud (the source for a large number of Yiddish idioms), he strays irrepressibly beyond the confines of any given topic. His lively wit roams freely, and Rabbi Akiva and Sholem Aleichem collide happily with Chaucer, Elvis and Robert Petrie. Academics, and others, will be disappointed at the lack of source notes, and a few errors have crept in (the fifth day of Sukkot is not Hoshana Rabba, for instance). Overall, however, this treasure trove of linguistics, sociology, history and folklore offers a fascinating look at how, through the centuries, a unique and enduring language has reflected an equally unique and enduring culture. Click the book cover above to read more.
Excerpt from Chapter Six: You Should Grow Like An Onion: THE YIDDISH CURSE: "You should own a thousand houses... with a thousand rooms in each house... and a thousand beds in every room. And you should sleep each night in a different bed... in a different room... in a different house... and get up every morning... and go down a different staircase... and get into a different car... driven by a different chauffeur... who should drive you to a different doctor -- and he shouldn't know what's wrong with you, either." Think of it as a kvetch with a mission, a bellyache that knows where it's going; it's a classic example of the klole, the Yiddish curse. It might be formulaic--you have to wonder if it's subtlety or an oversight that every room in every house seems to be a bedroom--but it shows how much you care. This kind of elaborate curse--delivered in a Talmudic sing-song--isn't an imprecation, it's a pastime, a form of recreation that lets standard Yiddish thought and speech run wild
http://hometown.aol.ca/myveksl/wex/page3.html
by NANCY REISMAN
Anchor (Summer 2005)
Now in paperback. 1929. Buffalo, New York. A beautiful July day, the kind one waits for through the long, cold winters. Sadie Feldstein, n�e Cohen, looks out her window at the unexpected sight of her brother, Irving. His news is even more unexpected, and unsettling: their elder sister, Goldie, has vanished without a trace. With Goldie's disappearance as the catalyst, The First Desire takes us deep into the life of the Cohen family and an American city, from the Great Depression to the years immediately following World War II. The story of the Cohens is seamlessly told from the various perspectives of siblings Sadie, Jo, Goldie, and Irving-each of whose worlds is upended over the course of the novel, the smooth veneer of their lives giving way to the vulnerabilities and secrets they've managed to keep hidden-and through the eyes of Lillian, the beautiful woman their father, Abe, took as a lover as his wife was dying. But while Abe's affair with Lillian stuns his children, they are even more shocked by his cold anger in the wake of Goldie's disappearance. The First Desire is a book of great emotional power that brings to life the weave of love, grief, tradition, and desire that binds a family together, even through the tumultuous times that threaten to tear it apart. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Fiona Rosenbloom
Hyperion (September 7, 2005)
Stacy Friedman is getting ready for one of the most important events of her young life� -- her bat mitzvah! All she wants is the perfect BCBG dress to wear, her friends by her side, and her biggest crush ever, Andy Goldfarb, to dance with her (and maybe even make out with her on the dance floor). But Stacy's plans soon start to fall apart. . . . Her stressed-out mother forces her to buy a hideous beaded sequined dress that she wouldn't be caught dead in. Her mitzvahs are not going at all well. And then the worst thing in the entire world happens -- Stacy catches her best friend, Lydia, making out with Andy! And thus she utters the words that will wreak complete havoc on her social life . . . You are so not invited to my bat mitzvah! Fiona Rosenbloom was born and bred in Rye, New York. When she is not writing, Fiona likes to design and sew her own clothes. If she had her own line, she would call it Fabloom. Unlike the protagonist in this novel, Fiona had little-to-no say about her bat mitzvah dress. Regardless, she still speaks to her mother. Click the book cover above to read more.
By Rabbi Abraham J. Twerski, M.D.
Fall 2005. Artscroll
Denial is more than a river in Egypt. It can be a root to many problems and issues. Rabbi Twerski is an esteemed rabbi and Pittsburgh-based psychiatrist who is called upon the world over for his opinions. I was so addicted (a good addiction) to this book, I had to buy two more copies, because I kept loaning out my other copies to friends. There are over 200 questions and answers in this book covering issues including marriage, medicine, anxiety, 9/11 trauma, child rearing, chronic discontent, causeless hatred (sinas chinam), jealousy, pettiness, shalom bayit, retirement woes, depression, bi-polarity, addiction, an immature spouse, a paranoid shulmate, emotional dependecies, issues with parents and in-laws (who goes for help, the person with the headache or the person who causes the headache?), issues of self esteem, issues of hashkafah (perspective/ideology), dyselxia, and shidduchim. You learn a lot; it is a tiny bit voyeuristic; and if you are like me, you will find yourself disagreeing with him in some cases, and finding him Solomonic in other cases.
Some of my favorite questions were: One "BT" asks why he is being discriminated against for a shidduch even though he is a great student (is it his perception, or something different?) An educated questioner is frustrated that no one listens to him/her (is it the ideas, or the way they are presented). May a shul move from a deteriorated neighborhood to a new suburb if it will leave older congregants without a house of worship? Can a rabbi recuse himself of giving advice to a nudnick if he has a vested emotional interest in the outcome? What if a teen crosses the street rather than walk quickly past an older slower walker so as not to embarrass them, but actually cuase them to feel ostracized? Why would Rabbi Twerski discourage the use of tranquilizers by a widow or widower to overcome shiva grief? What should one do if their husband is beloved in the community, but a tyrant at home? What if one's father abandoned the family and now wants to come to the daughter's wedding since she is marrying into a prestigious family? How can one overcome exam anxiety? Is marriage a hospital (will a shidduch solve emotional issues)? Must you honor a parent who calls you derogatory names? If a wife likes nail polish and her husband does not (due to religious reasons) , but the wife feels pretty with it on, but her husband doesn't, what should they do? If you act like a doormat, will people (or your daughter in law) wipe their feet on you all the time? It is a treasure trove of tsurris and intelligent answers
From the cover: If you could spend a day with Rabbi Abraham J. Twerski M.D., and ask about every problem that plagues you, your friends, or your family - wouldn't you take that opportunity? It wouldn't matter if your questions were about "small" things that fray your nerves daily or about larger, life-changing struggles. He would listen patiently, carefully consider your situation, and help you build a bridge over your predicament. Even better � how to make your predicament disappear! That day has come! Flip through the table of contents of this amazingly insightful book and find that your question has already been asked - and answered! Ever since Rabbi Twerski began writing his weekly question-and-answer column "Seeking Solutions," he has been flooded with thousands of letters. This book contains new letters and answers that have not been printed before, as well as some of the classic questions and solutions from his column. This book contains nearly 200 letters, reflecting real problems faced by real people. You deserve the peace of mind Dear Rabbi, Dear Doctor can bring. Rabbi Twerski's advice is always down-to-earth, rooted in Torah and drawn from his long experience as a nationally known mental health professional. He believes that every individual and every family is entitled to a happy, healthy outlook. As he says in his introduction, "A Jewish home should be an oasis of stability, decency, and righteousness in a toxic world." This book is an important step in that direction. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Simms Taback
Viking (September 2005)
Ages 4-8. A saying: It pays to have a little chutzpah (nerve). With Old World charm, universal humor, and just a bit of chutzpah, Simms Taback offers this lively spin on thirteen playful tales-as only he could. Paired with his trademark vibrant and hilarious artwork, these stories illustrate ultimate universal truths and important life lessons, from the difference between a shlemiel and a shlimazel to the idea that just because you can talk doesn't mean you make sense.Taback delivers the perfect combination of wisdom and humor-just the way your zayda (grandpa) would. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Joel ben Izzy
September 2005. Algonquin
From Publishers Weekly: First-time author ben Izzy's vocation as a professional storyteller may fill his life with heady myth and poetry, but as he acknowledges early on in this slim but memorable recollection of personal tragedy, "the absence of magic" in his childhood is the very thing "that sent me looking for it." He found it in the unlikeliest and most cruelly ironic way. After undergoing surgery to remove thyroid cancer, ben Izzy lost his voice-the instrument of not only his art, but also his livelihood. Telling himself that a return to the routine of performance would spark a recovery, ben Izzy accepted an offer to perform at a bar mitzvah, but only "whispers and gasps" emerged.
Retreating into self-pity, anger, hopelessness and sullen solitude, the author searched, like the protagonists in the stories he used to tell, for a spiritual explanation of the loss. He reconnected with his estranged, cantankerous mentor, who offered support by telling dizzyingly enigmatic stories hinting at the idea that ben Izzy had been given a magical gift by losing his voice. When a doctor suggested he might be able to help ben Izzy speak again in a risky procedure, ben Izzy's wife told him she liked him better without it, an incident the author does not satisfyingly explain. But ben Izzy successfully translates the best elements of oral storytelling to the page; his memoir shines with brisk suspense as well as his unerring, precise eye for including only the elements of his hard-won wisdom that matter the most Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jill Soloway
September 2005. Free Press
I just want you to know that I bought this book since the original title was WHY DO JEWS GO TO THE BATHROOM WITH THE DOOR OPEN? She is quite hilarious.
From Publishers Weekly: There's one joke that Soloway, writer and co-executive producer of Six Feet Under, keeps coming back to, about a little girl who tells her mom a boy has paid her to climb a telephone pole. Her mom keeps telling her he just wants to see her panties... so the girl says she's "fooled" him, by taking them off. It's an apt metaphor for Soloway's view of women's situation today, which, she says, is ruled by the "Porno-ization of America," with younger women wanting breast implants and white boys thinking pimps are the height of cool. Soloway's rants are right-on and entertaining, too, probably because she includes herself among the occasionally deluded. She recounts her own 1970s upbringing as a liberated child who thought she might become president, only by seventh grade she'd "forgotten what Bella Abzug looked like" and gotten her "Ophelia card stamped." Fortunately, she recovered to become a delightfully sex-positive "Jewess" ("a word invented by others to conjure someone bossy... that I have reappropriated as prideful") who can joke about her cute "Jewish bush," her fun lesbian sister and her own unaccountable attraction to "Toolbelts" (hunky construction worker kind of guys). Soloway's book is an amusing work of feminist humor. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Azriela Jaffe
Schocken (September 2005)
Here is a book of workable, sensible solutions to the everyday problems faced by newly observant Jews as they try to explain the parameters of their new lives to the people who love them-but think they've gone around the bend. For the formerly nonobservant Jew who has decided to live an observant life, the most daunting task can be dealing with less-observant loved ones. How can you explain to them what you now feel and believe? How can you continue to be part of the lives of your parents, your siblings and their families, and your in-laws, given how differently you now live your life? In this book, Azriela Jaffe-the observant daughter of less-observant parents-answers these and other pressing questions. Jaffe discusses how to eat kosher and observe the Sabbath and Jewish holidays in the home of a non-observant relative, and how to host nonobservant relatives in your own home; how to explain the laws of modesty and courtship practices; how to attend family life-cycle events-or explain why you sometimes can't; and how to help your relatives understand the decision to put secular education temporarily aside to attend yeshivah and further your knowledge of Jewish law, rituals, and customs. Insightful, helpful, and readable, What Do You Mean, You Can't Eat in My Home? will be an invaluable tool in the lives of an ever-increasing number of Jewish families. Click the book cover above to read more.
See Azriela.com
by JENNIFER MILLER
Ballantine (September 2005)
Ms. Miller is the daughter of U.S. diplomat Aaron D. Miller. Her father is the President of Seeds of Peace (one of several recipients of revenue from this website). She was able to use contacts to meet both Barak and Arafat. But her interviews with her fellow Seeds of Peace alums are the best, since they are blunt and honest. They are the future leaders.
From Publishers Weekly: Though only 24, Miller, the daughter of a U.S. State Department negotiator and a mother active in the leadership program Seeds for Peace, is something of a veteran of Middle Eastern matters. Her own involvement with Seeds for Peace, which primarily helps Arab and Israeli students learn the delicate arts of negotiation and conflict resolution, begins in 1996, and it is the intensity of her first experiences with the group-which took place in the hopeful period between the Oslo accords and the rise of the second intifada-that inform her fundamentally optimistic point of view. But the past half-decade has been hard for such optimists, and Miller's ambitious, personal exploration of the conflict (especially its ruinous effect on the youth of the region) is often conflicted and raw, angry and impatient. Her best diplomatic instincts don't preserve her from disgust at much of what she hears and sees from everyone from Arafat to Powell, from a settlement mayor to the denizens of a Ramallah pizza joint; she is even prepared to condemn her own father's "watery evasions." Miller's passionate advocacy of fairness and clarity can seem at times na�ve, but her commitment to the process of peace comes through at every point
Jay Freeman wrote: "...Miller is a 24-year-old alumnus of Seeds, a youth program that brings students from the Middle East to the U.S. in an effort to build trust between them and to stress the value of compromise and negotiation. Miller places her hopes for peace upon the young Israelis and Palestinians whom she lives with and interviewed. There are fascinating and surprising vignettes here that provide interesting perspectives. Omri, a Jew of Yemenite ancestry, is torn between his desire that Palestinians would "disappear" and his basic sense of decency. There is an interesting but frustrating look at Israeli and Palestinian history textbooks and their seemingly irreconcilable views of the past. Perhaps most touching is the story of Yara, a 15-year-old Israeli Arab girl who attends a Jewish high school and seems "assimilated" but cannot feel fully Israeli in a self-proclaimed Jewish state. Miller also interviewed key political figures, including Arafat, Barak, Abbas, and Dahlan...." Click the book cover above to read more.
by Leone Adelson, Naomi Howland (Illustrator)
Clarion (September 2005)
Ages 4-8. Grade 1-3-When Little Bear wakes up early from hibernation, he is hungry. He follows his nose to where a family is celebrating Purim with a lively parade outside their home. He is invited to join them, and they all marvel at his clever costume. Everyone has an idea of which villager might be disguised beneath the fur-except a boy named Itzik. He is wearing a bear suit, and repeatedly insists that their guest is a real animal, but no one believes him. Hours of food, drink, and dancing later, Little Bear nods off just before the Purim play is to start. Various people prod him to join in until finally he wakens with a loud roar and shows his big teeth. All of the partygoers flee, including Little Bear, who stumbles home for the rest of his long nap. With a muted palette and folksy touches, Howland's appealing gouache paintings perfectly capture the flavor of the Jewish festivities that signal the end of winter. A note explains the history of the festival of Purim. Children will appreciate the fun of a family gathering with an uninvited and unexpected guest and will enjoy learning more about the holiday. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jennifer Weiner
Atria (September 2005)
New York Times bestselling author Jennifer Weiner's newest novel tells the story of a young mother's move to a postcard-perfect Connecticut town and the secrets she uncovers there. For Kate Klein, a semi-accidental mother of three, suburbia's been full of unpleasant surprises. Her once-loving husband is hardly ever home. The supermommies on the playground routinely snub her. Her days are spent carpooling and enduring endless games of Candy Land, and at night, most of her orgasms are of the do-it-yourself variety. When a fellow mother is murdered, Kate finds that the unsolved mystery is one of the most interesting things to happen in Upchurch since her neighbors broke ground for a guesthouse and cracked their septic tank. Even though Kate's husband and the police chief warn her that crime-fighting's a job best left to professionals, she can't let it go. So Kate launches an unofficial investigation -- from 8:45 to 11:30 on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, when her kids are in nursery school -- with the help of her hilarious best friend, carpet heiress Janie Segal, and Evan McKenna, a former flame she thought she'd left behind in New York City. As the search for the killer progresses, Kate is drawn deeper into the murdered woman's double life. She discovers the secrets and lies behind Upchurch's placid picket-fence facade -- and the choices and compromises all modern women make as they navigate between independence and obligation, small towns and big cities, being a mother and having a life of one's own. Engrossing, suspenseful, and laugh-out-loud funny, Goodnight Nobody is another unputdownable, timely tale; an insightful mystery with a great heart and a narrator you'll never forget. Click the book cover above to read more.
by ROBERT PINSKY (former U.S. Poet Laureate
Schocken (September 2005)
PW writes: Emphasizing biographies of Jewish luminaries but also including books on Jewish themes, the new Jewish Encounters series aims to satisfy the interest in popular and intelligent books on Jewish subjects. The inaugural book in this commendable venture is a well-executed biography of David, written by Pinsky, former poet laureate of the United States. His poetic language is singularly appropriate for recounting the life of the king who is traditionally accepted as the author of the poetic psalms, some of which are included in the narrative. Pinsky's broad scope is reflected in his references to Greek literature, Shakespeare, Dante, Simone Weil, Talmudists and Robert Frost, among others. He acknowledges his indebtedness to Robert Alter, whose definitive book The David Story appeared in 1999, but fails to mention recent biographies by Steven McKenzie, Baruch Halpern and Gary Greenberg. His primary sources are the actual biblical texts that recount David's life. Pinsky dispels the conventional image of David as a simple shepherd who slew Goliath and became Israel's greatest king, depicting him realistically with all his failings as an adulterer, assassin and predator. Pinsky also portrays David's stellar achievements, presenting him as a complex character who deserves to be seen in shades of gray.
Writing in the SF Chronicle, Daniel Schifrin wrote, "..fascinating, lyrical... [david] is both Homer and Odysseus" "Pinsky saves his awe and ecstasy for the artistry of the Psalms and their putative creator... Pinksy's language and insights are gorgeous..." Click the book cover above to read more.
by Giles Coren
September 2005, J. Cape
BRIT LIT. A comic account of a man's search for meaning, identity and a suitable response to the burden of history; Coren's examination of the nature of Jewishness (and, incidentally, of Englishness), of the lies we tell to survive and the stresses of urban life, is irreverent, funny, provocative and brave. Click the book cover above to read more.
I thought this was party in the BLINTZ ! Oops... it is the Blitz
by Elias Canetti
September 2005, New Directions Publishing Corporation
"It is time for me to turn to England again, for I sense how these memories gradually fade, and it would be a pity if nothing remained of forty years in that country" Exceedingly perceptive, at times amusing and always unpredictable, this autobiography of Nobel Prize winner Elias Canetti is a fascinating and enjoyable read. Canetti spent many years in London, beginning in 1939, and during which time he moved in elite circles, numbering the great writers, artists, thinkers and politicians of the time among his friends and acquaintances. In this beautifully written and often sensational collection of portraits of those who were meaningful in his life, Canetti is an honest observer of the personalities of those around him: of T.S. Eliot (whom he detested); of Iris Murdoch (with whom he had a torrid affair) and of the English themselves (whose stiff upper lip he both admired and disparaged). His style is at times staccato, at times elaborately philosophical, but always displays the author's sharp-tongued wit and intelligence. A challenging and rewarding read from the man John Bayley called "the godmonster of Hampstead", this is bound to cause a stir.
Elias Canetti arrived in England in 1939, fleeing Hitler, with his wife and (soon) two mistresses. He was known in his adoptive Vienna for a single novel Auto-da-F�, a black comedy of justified paranoia and misogyny. In England he boasted one reader only, sinologist Arthur Waley. His first three autobiographies - which helped win him the 1981 Nobel prize for literature - chronicle Viennese literary life between the wars. Now, 11 years after his death in Z�rich, here are his memoirs of the war years in England. Despite carelessnesses - Herzog von Northumberland stays in German; Margaret Gardiner and JD Bernal were unmarried; it was not Churchill who lost India - they are splendidly entertaining. Canetti's method is to string together small scenes, like beads, into a continuing story. Here are vignettes of London in 1940, of life among Amersham and Hampstead expatriates, of awful war-time parties. Downshire Hill was a street to delight in. His mistress Friedl's lodgings at number 35 had a private gallery of Ben Nicolsons and Hepworths; Mountbatten visited; Lee Miller and Roland Penrose, who had organised the International Surrealist Exhibition, lived diagonally opposite at number 21. And Canetti, unencumbered by any war work, was free to survey the battle of Britain from the Heath...
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BY DAVID RAKOFF
DOUBLEDAY, September 2005
Whether contrasting the elegance of one of the last flights of the supersonic Concorde with the good times and chicken wings of Hooters Air, working as a pool boy at a South Beach hotel, or traveling to a private island off the coast of Belize to watch a soft-core Playboy TV shoot, where he is provided with his very own personal manservant, David Rakoff takes us on a bitingly funny grand tour of our culture of excess, delving into the manic getting and spending celebrated as moral virtues in David Brooks's Bobos in Paradise. He comes away from his explorations hilariously horrified. Somewhere along the line, our healthy self-regard has exploded into obliterating narcissism, and Rakoff is there to map that frontier, blasting off into the rarified universe of Paris fashion shows, where an evening dress can cost as much as four years of college. He sits through the grotesqueries of filthy vaudeville in Times Square immediately following 9/11. Twenty days without food allows him to experience firsthand the wonders of "detoxification," and the frozen world of cryonics, whose promise of eternal life is the ultimate status symbol, leaves him very cold indeed (much to our good fortune). At once a Wildean satire of our ridiculous culture of overconsumption and a plea for a little human decency, DON'T GET TOO COMFORTABLE shows that far from being bobos in paradise, we're in a special circle of gilded-age hell. Click the book cover above to read more.
BY ART BUCHWALD
SEVEN STORIES, September 2005
Pulitzer Prize-winning Washington Post columnist Art Buchwald returns undaunted to examine the ridiculous people and preposterous events that we call our daily reality. Collected from his recent columns, with a foreword by Garry Trudeau, Buchwald's satirical voice darts at politicians, power, corporations and the media without pause. A self-described troublemaker Buchwald continues to represent the great American traits of skepticism, humor, and a refusal to compromise in the face of absurdity. A better title would have been BETWEEN IRAQ And A HARD PLACE. What a great read it is. He takes on Wal-Mart and Larry Summers at Harvard. He dissects "compassionate conservatism." He takes on all the American patriotic products, all made in Asian sweat shops, and compains about all the shows that cater only to 18-39 year olds. Each essay is under 3 pages, which makes for an easy but entertaining read.Click the book cover above to read more.
by Aaron Bushkowsky
Cormorant Books, Summer 2005
The Vanishing Man is a collection of linked short stories about a man trying to come to terms with his past, a religious upbringing, in an ever-changing personal world that constantly throws him into self-doubt. He marries, finds happiness, only to go through a terrible divorce. He recovers, finds true love, marries, and goes through another terrible divorce and family death. He goes into therapy and tries to make sense of his failures and unhappiness by attempting to reclaim his past life. But this only partly succeeds. It's not until the man discovers his true self that he is finally able to find hope, and his love of life again. This is a book about faith, families, and the meaning of love, told from a distinctly masculine point of view. The men in these stories are often defined by what they don't say, what they do instead, and how they react to each other between the lies and between the lines. They are often right about everything except themselves and it's within this hazy, poetic world of self-doubt that the narrator of the stories lives and breathes. Aaron lives in Vancouver, where he teaches playwriting and filmwriting at Langara College, Studio 58, Playwrights Theatre Centre, and at the Vancouver Film Centre. The Vanishing Man is Aaron's first book of prose Click the book cover above to read more.
Schwartz Henry Holt, September 2005
Ages 9 - 12
Nine-year-old Claudine doesn't want to leave her much-loved home in France to go live in America, not without her parents. But she knows about the shortages, about the yellow stars Jews must wear, and about Adolf Hitler. And she knows that there are some things she needs to do even when she doesn't want to. It's wartime, and there is much that is different now. There are more things that Claudine will lose to this terrible war. But not everything that is lost must be lost forever. Here is a moving story about lost and found lives, and the healing power of love. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Steve Hindy, Tom Potter
WILEY, SEPTEMBER 2005
Entertaining and informative, Beer School is the true story of two neighbors-a banker and a journalist-who decided to quit their jobs and open the Brooklyn Brewery. Starting with no knowledge of commercial brewing, cofounders Steve Hindy and Tom Potter quickly learned that their four combined Ivy League degrees would only take them so far in this competitive business. Nevertheless, they were determined to tackle one of the hardest challenges imaginable: building a sales-driven manufacturing company from scratch in the heart of New York City. Through the firsthand experiences of Hindy and Potter, Beer School takes readers on a long brewing journey (more than 15 years in the making), from the kitchen of a Brooklyn brownstone (where the beer was initially brewed) to the shelves of stores around the world. More than just an interesting read about barley and hops, Beer School looks at the business side of this lucrative industry. It contains practical lessons on starting a business under difficult circumstances and important insights on managing expectations and growth. Beer School is an exciting read-for both seasoned business owners and those dreaming to strike out on their own-that proves hard work and determination still pays off. Click the book cover above to read more.
(Paperback) by Jake Steinfeld. Intro by Steven Spielberg
AMACOM, SEPTEMBER 2005
I always look forward to the Fall offering of AMACOM. This year has a book that combines a Jewish persona with a business guide. I missed out on meeting Jake in NYC in June 2005, but I did pick up an advance copy. T fitness trainer and Body by Jake founder really has seen a lot of famous in gym clothes including Steven Spielberg (Jewish) and Harrison Ford (half Jewish). Steinfeld worked his way up from bodybuilder to businessman, and so can you. In the second half of the book, Steinfeld talks about branding and marketing. Steinfeld's goofy sense of humor also adds a down-to-earth honesty to the book and makes it a worthwhile read for those who need to get pumped up about starting a business. Click the book cover above to read more.
By Akhil Reed Amar
RANDOM, September 2005
You can read the U.S. Constitution, including its 27 amendments, in about a half-hour, but it takes decades of study to understand how this blueprint for our nation's government came into existence. Amar, a 20-year veteran of the Yale Law School faculty, has that understanding, steeped in the political history of the 1780s, when dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confederation led to a constitutional convention in Philadelphia, which produced a document of wonderful compression and balance creating an indissoluble union.Amar examines in turn each article of the Constitution, explaining how the framers drew on English models, existing state constitutions and other sources in structuring the three branches of the federal government and defining the relationship of the that government to the states.Amar takes on each of the amendments, from the original Bill of Rights to changes in the rules for presidential succession. The book squarely confronts America's involvement with slavery, which the original Constitution facilitated in ways the author carefully explains.Scholarly, reflective and brimming with ideas, this book is miles removed from an arid, academic exercise in textual analysis. Amar evokes the passions and tumult that marked the Constitution's birth and its subsequent revisions. Only rarely do you find a book that embodies scholarship at its most solid and invigorating; this is such a book. (PW) Click the book cover above to read more.
by Gabriel Brownstein
Norton (September 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: Inspired by the complex relationship between Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the celebrated author and champion of spiritualism, and Harry Houdini, the famed magician and escape artist, Brownstein's uneven first novel reimagines the consequences of the s�ance, held in 1922 after a chance meeting on the New Jersey shore, in which the spirit-writing Lady Doyle delivered a message from Houdini's late mother to her skeptical son. While the author does a good job of getting inside the heads of his two historical protagonists with their opposing philosophies, much of the story focuses on the admirable but less interesting 22-year-old Molly Goodman, an intrepid reporter who follows the two great men's activities. In a vivid scene, after Houdini barely escapes from a locked box under the Hudson far down river from where he was supposed to emerge, he realizes that, like Sherlock Holmes after surviving his struggle with Professor Moriarty at the Reichenbach Falls, everyone believes he's dead. After this delicious twist, however, the story rushes to a hasty climax involving an insufficiently developed villain. Brownstein's story collection, The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, Apt. 3W (2002), won the PEN/Hemingway Award. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Cynthia Ozick
Mariner, September 2005
Cynthia Ozick has been known for decades as one of America's most gifted and extraordinary storytellers; her remarkable new novel has established her as one of the most entertaining as well. Set in the New York of the 1930s, Heir to the Glimmering World is a spellbinding, richly plotted novel brimming with intriguing characters. Orphaned at eighteen, with few possessions, Rose Meadows finds steady employment with the Mitwisser clan. Recently arrived from Berlin, the Mitwissers rely on the auspices of a generous benefactor, James A'Bair, the discontented heir to a fortune his father, a famous childen's author, made from a series of books called The Bear Boy. Against the vivid backdrop of a world in tumult, Rose learns the refugee family's secrets as she watches their fortunes rise and fall in Ozick's wholly engrossing novel. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Rabbi Judith Z. Abrams
Ben Yehuda Press (September 30, 2005)
Enlighten your Sabbath table "Torah and Company," a new Torah portion discussion guide by Rabbi Judith Abrams. In "Torah & Company", Rabbi Abrams, who teaches Talmud online at Maqom.com, supplements a key passage on the weekly Torah portion with related passages of Mishnah and Gemara -- and then provides background information and discussion questions for each text. Taken together, "Torah and Company" provides the ingredients for thoughtful, open-ended, illuminating discussion of Jewish themes and beliefs, as reflected in the Torah, the Talmud, and our own lives today. With clear, accessible translations and explanations and introspective questions, "Torah and Company" is perfect for anyone who wants to bring Torah study and religious discussion to their dinner table, class room or synagogue. The breadth of Rabbi Abrams' selections ensure that everyone -- including those who have studied extensively in seminaries and yeshivas -- will find new, enlightening texts and interpretations. Serve up a rich feast of spiritual discussion from an age-old recipe:One part Torah. Two parts classic Jewish texts. Add conversation. Stir... and enjoy! "Offers readers easy access and guided questions which lead to thought-provoking discussion. A valuable guide for the Shabbat table of every Jew."- Rabbi Burton L. Visotzky, Appleman Professor of Midrash and Interreligious Studies, Jewish Theological Seminary. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Samuel Moyn
Brandeis University Press (September 2005)
A provocative study of a French Holocaust controversy of the 1960s and the dynamics of postwar memory. How has the world come to focus on the Holocaust and why has it invariably done so in the heat of controversy, scandal, and polemics about the past? These questions are at the heart of this unique investigation of the Treblinka affair that occurred in France in 1966 when Jean-Francois Steiner, a young Jewish journalist, published Treblinka: The Revolt of an Extermination Camp. A cross between a history and a novel, Steiner's book narrated the 1943 revolt at one of the major Nazi death camps. Abetted by a scandalous interview he gave, as well as Simone de Beauvoir's glowing preface, the book shot to the top of the Parisian bestseller list and prompted a wide-ranging controversy in which both the well-known and the obscure were embroiled. Few had heard of Treblinka, or other death camps, before the affair. The validity of the difference between those killing centers and the larger network of concentration camps making up the universe of Nazi crime had to be fought out in public. The affair also bore on the frequently raised question of the Jews' response to their dire straits. Moyn delves into events surrounding the publication of Steiner's book and the subsequent furor. In the process, he sheds light on a few forgotten but thought-provoking months in French cultural history. Reconstructing the affair in detail, Moyn studies it as a paradigm-shifting controversy that helped change perceptions of the Holocaust in the French public and among French Jews in particular. Then Moyn follows the controversy beyond French borders to the other countries-especially Israel and the United State-where it resonated powerfully. Based on a complete reconstruction of the debate in the press (including Yiddish dailies) and on archives on three continents, Moyn's study concludes with the response of the survivors of Treblinka to the controversy and reflects on its place in the longer history of Holocaust memory. Finally, Moyn revisits, in the context of a detailed case study, some of the theoretical controversies the genocide has provoked, including whether it is appropriate to draw universalistic lessons from the victimhood of particular groups. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Nancy L. Segal
Harvard University Press, September 2005
An anecdotal study of fraternal and identical twins, including a set in which one grew up in Hitler Youth, and the other grew up Jewish in Trinidad. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Yitzhak Buxbaum
Continuum International Publishing Group (September 1, 2005)
This is a life, in stories, of Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov (1700-1760), the founder of Hasidism. The Baal Shem Tov, or the Besht, as he is commonly called, led a revival in Judaism that put love and joy at the center of religious life and championed the piety of the common folk against the rabbinic establishment. He has been recognized as one of the greatest teachers in Jewish history, and much of what is alive and vibrant in Judaism today, in all denominations, derives from his inspiration. Abraham Joshua Heschel, who was descended from several illustrious Hasidic dynasties, wrote: "The Baal Shem Tov brought heaven to earth. He and his disciples, the Hasidim, banished melancholy from the soul and uncovered the ineffable delight of being a Jew."
"Yitzhak Buxbaum's book is the scripture that should have been written about the Baal Shem Tov two-hundred-and-fifty years ago, but wasn't....No one who wants to draw from the wellsprings of Hasidism should be without this book. If you don't have enough money to buy it, pawn your shoes and run to the bookstore barefoot." -Zalman Schachter-Shalomi
"Buxbaum has put his finger on the pulse of the values that lie at the heart of the Baal Shem Tov's message and conveys them in words that speak to the heart of our generation."-Arthur Green
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By SUSAN NATHAN
Harvard University Press, September 2005
From the Washington Post Book World review: ".... Nathan, a British-born Jew, came to Israel in 1999. Three years later, she moved from Tel Aviv to the Arab town of Tamra, choosing to live within and identify with Israel's Arab minority -- so much so that she uses "we" when describing the daily life of the Tamra clan with which she took up residence. An incident from her childhood, retold without irony, foreshadows what's wrong with Nathan's writing here. When she was 2, her family spent six months in South Africa, where a black servant taught her how to carry her doll strapped to her back, the way local black women carried their babies. Back in England, "I would see other little girls in the street holding their dolls in their arms and tell them off, showing them how to do it properly." Alas, she is still telling off anyone who dares hold her doll in a politically incorrect fashion.... Nathan describes her Jewish identity, prior to coming to Israel, as built on the Holocaust and British anti-Semitism. In her "romantic notions of Zionism," taken from Leon Uris's tub-thumping novel Exodus , "the Jews had reclaimed an empty, barren land." In short, her version of the Israeli narrative was a crude caricature of the country's history. Only after immigrating did she discover that the country has Arab citizens, discrimination and ultra-nationalist settlers. Her fantasy -- that Jews could simultaneously exercise power and enjoy the righteousness of victimhood -- shattered.
So Nathan concludes that the Palestinians are the true righteous victims and embraces an equally crude version of their narrative. Palestinian nationalism is legitimate, Zionism a "damaging ideology" of colonialism. Israeli doves who seek a two-state solution are insufficiently radical. Nathan condemns Jews interested in coexistence as hypocrites and blasts like-minded Arabs as cowed. Facts mix with canards (her repeated equating of the Israeli occupation to apartheid in South Africa, rather than seeing it as part of a fight between two legitimate nationalisms over one shared land, is particularly simple-minded) as she persistently reads people's motives as good or evil based on their nationality. Unintentionally, Nathan demonstrates the potential power of the collective stories, Israeli and Palestinian alike, to shape and deepen the conflict -- at least when told without humor, nuance or doubt...."
From Publishers Weekly: "When she was 16, Nathan, a British Jew living in South Africa, had sex with her aunt's black servant. "Sex between a black man and a white woman in apartheid South Africa," Nathan writes, "was not just a physical act, it was an act of powerful political dissent." Decades later, Nathan would again make a striking political statement with a simple physical gesture: she moved from her home in Tel Aviv and settled in a small Arab town in northern Israel, quietly but clearly renouncing the Zionist philosophy that had facilitated her citizenship in Israel through the Right of Return. Nathan matter-of-factly describes the impossibility of getting furniture delivered or an airline reservation made with an address that doesn't appear in any of the state's databases, although 25,000 Muslims live there. These quotidian details nicely illustrate her critique of Israel as a state that "enforces a system of land apartheid between... two populations," just as South Africa had. It is a shocking comparison, but Nathan goes further, drawing a parallel between the Holocaust and Israel's practices toward its own Arab citizens. Yet, even when throwing down a gauntlet, Nathan's writing is poised, emotionally candid and ultimately empathic to the plight of both groups. The Arabs' displacement mirrors the Jews' wandering, Nathan observes, and before the two groups can coexist peacefully, each must recognize itself in the other." Click the book cover above to read more.
Norman JEWISON is not JEWISH
But he made several Jewish films.
From Publishers Weekly: Jewison's movies have received 12 Academy Awards and 46 nominations, a remarkable record for a filmography that numbers only 25 films. His autobiography's unassuming style offers a clear, accessible portrait of the man and overflows with revealing anecdotes about such luminaries as Steve McQueen, Doris Day, Al Pacino, Sidney Poitier and Denzel Washington. After finding success in live television working with Judy Garland, Jackie Gleason and Danny Kaye, Jewison began his motion picture career with 40 Pounds of Trouble (1962); survived a bomb, The Art of Love (1965); and eventually turned out a series of classics: The Cincinnati Kid (1965), The Thomas Crown Affair (1968), Fiddler on the Roof (1971) and Moonstruck (1987). He defines Doris Day (The Thrill of It All, 1963) as a consummate comedian who lacked confidence in her appearance; and Sylvester Stallone (F.I.S.T., 1978) as someone who "behaved like he believed his own publicity." Jewison also describes his approach to filmmaking, explaining his actions at the all-important pitch meeting, and demonstrates how focused a director must be. Honest without becoming a tell-all or an airing of personal problems, the book is a successful study of what it takes to triumph in Hollywood and achieve artistic satisfaction. Click the book cover above to read more.
THE PUBLISHER IS REPRINTING 100,000 COPIES OF THIS NEW CLASSIC BOOK, since the film is being released on September 16, 2005. ELIJAH WOOD APPEARS ON THE COVER
by Jonathan Safran Foer
2005, Perrenial tie in to the film
With only a yellowing photograph in hand, a young man - also named Jonathan Safran Foer - sets out to find the woman who might or might not have saved his grandfather from the Nazis. Accompanied by an old man haunted by memories of the war, an amorous dog named Sammy Davis, Junior, Junior, and the unforgettable Alex, a young Ukrainian translator who speaks in a sublimely butchered English, Jonathan is led on a quixotic journey over a devastated landscape and into an unexpected past. As their adventure unfolds, Jonathan imagines the history of his grandfather's village, conjuring a magical fable of startling symmetries that unite generations across time. Lit by passion, fear, guilt, memory, and hope, the characters in Everything Is Illuminated mine the black holes of history. As the search moves back in time, the fantastical history moves forward, until reality collides with fiction in a heart-stopping scene of extraordinary power.
by Mack Friedman
University of Wisconsin Press, September 30, 2005
Setting the Lawn on Fire, the first novel by critically acclaimed writer Mack Friedman, trails its narrator through his obsessions with sex, drugs, art, and poison. Ivan, a young Jewish boy from Milwaukee, embarks on a journey of sexual discovery that leads him from Wisconsin to Alaska, Philadelphia, and Mexico through stints as a fishery worker, artist, and finally a hustler who learns to provide the blank canvas for other people's dreams. The result is a new kind of coming-of-age story that sees passion from every angle because its protagonist is every kind of lover: the seducer and the seduced, the pornographer and the model, the hunter and the prey, the trick and the john. In the end, Setting the Lawn on Fire is also something rare-a fully realized, contemporary romance that illuminates the power of desire and the rituals of the body, the brain, and the heart that attempt to contain our passions. Click the book cover above to read more.
September 30, 2005. Holiday House
Ages 9 - 12
Sender, the richest man in town, only wants the best for his daughter, Leah. Her husband-to-be must be extremely wealthy. But when Leah and Konin, an orphaned scholar, fall in love, Sender recalls a pact he made long ago with his best friend: If one man had a daughter and the other a son, the two would be married. Though Konin is the son of his beloved friend, Sender cannot bear to permit the poor scholar to wed Leah. Konin dies of a broken heart once he hears Leah has been promised to another. Konin has his revenge, though, on Leah's wedding day when his spirit inhabits her body and refuses to leave. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Mack Friedman
University of Wisconsin Press, September 30, 2005
Setting the Lawn on Fire, the first novel by critically acclaimed writer Mack Friedman, trails its narrator through his obsessions with sex, drugs, art, and poison. Ivan, a young Jewish boy from Milwaukee, embarks on a journey of sexual discovery that leads him from Wisconsin to Alaska, Philadelphia, and Mexico through stints as a fishery worker, artist, and finally a hustler who learns to provide the blank canvas for other people's dreams. The result is a new kind of coming-of-age story that sees passion from every angle because its protagonist is every kind of lover: the seducer and the seduced, the pornographer and the model, the hunter and the prey, the trick and the john. In the end, Setting the Lawn on Fire is also something rare-a fully realized, contemporary romance that illuminates the power of desire and the rituals of the body, the brain, and the heart that attempt to contain our passions. Click the book cover above to read more.
September 30, 2005. Holiday House
Ages 9 - 12
Sender, the richest man in town, only wants the best for his daughter, Leah. Her husband-to-be must be extremely wealthy. But when Leah and Konin, an orphaned scholar, fall in love, Sender recalls a pact he made long ago with his best friend: If one man had a daughter and the other a son, the two would be married. Though Konin is the son of his beloved friend, Sender cannot bear to permit the poor scholar to wed Leah. Konin dies of a broken heart once he hears Leah has been promised to another. Konin has his revenge, though, on Leah's wedding day when his spirit inhabits her body and refuses to leave. Click the book cover above to read more.
September 2005. Houghton Mifflin
Ages 9 - 12 or more
In 1906, Hans Augusto Reyersbach was a boy growing up in Hamburg, Germany, a port city with canals and a thousand bridges . . . and the River Elbe that ran to the North Sea ...
In 1940, Hans and Margret Rey fled their Paris home as the German army advanced. They began their harrowing journey on bicycles, pedaling to Southern France with children's book manuscripts among their few possessions. Louise Borden combed primary resources, including Hans Rey's pocket diaries, to tell this dramatic true story. Archival materials introduce readers to the world of Hans and Margret Rey while Allan Drummond dramatically and colorfully illustrates their wartime trek to a new home. Follow the Rey's amazing story in this unique large format book that resembles a travel journal and includes full-color illustrations, original photos, actual ticket stubs and more. A perfect book for Curious George fans of all ages. Click the book cover above to read more.
From the NYTimes... "Curious George is every 2-year-old sticking his finger into the light socket, pouring milk onto the floor to watch it pool, creating chaos everywhere. One reason the mischievous monkey is such a popular children's book character is that he makes 4- to 6-year-olds feel superior: fond memories, but we've given all that up now. In the years since the first book was published in the United States in 1941, "George" has become an industry. The books have sold more than 27 million copies. There have been several "Curious George" films, including an animated one featuring the voice of Will Ferrell that is scheduled for release this February, and theater productions, not to mention the ubiquitous toy figure... . But in truth, "Curious George" almost didn't make it onto the page. A new book, "The Journey That Saved Curious George: The True Wartime Escape of Margret and H. A. Rey" (Houghton Mifflin), tells of how George's creators, both German-born Jews, fled from Paris by bicycle in June 1940, carrying the manuscript of what would become "Curious George" as Nazis prepared to invade. ... For her research, Ms. Borden combed the Rey archives of the de Grummond Children's Literature Collection at the University of Southern Mississippi, interviewed people who knew them and traced their journey through letters and postmarks. Hans Reyersbach was born in Hamburg in 1898 into an educated family, and lived near the Hagenbeck Zoo, where he learned to imitate animal sounds, as well as to draw and paint. During World War I, Mr. Reyersbach served in the German Army; afterward, he painted circus posters for a living. After studying at two German universities, he went to Rio de Janeiro in the mid-1920's, looking for a job. He wound up selling bathtubs on the Amazon. Margarete Waldstein, who was born in 1906, also in Hamburg, had a more fiery personality. After Hitler began his rise, she left Hamburg to become a photographer in London. In 1935, she too went to Rio. Mr. Reyersbach had first seen her as a little girl sliding down the banister of her family's Hamburg home, and now they met again. They eventually married, and founded an advertising agency. Margarete changed her name to "Margret" and Hans changed his surname to "Rey," reasoning that Reyersbach was difficult for Brazilians to pronounce. Crucially, the two became Brazilian citizens.... The Reys ended up in the Parisian neighborhood of Montmartre, where they began writing and illustrating children's books. In 1939, they published "Raffy and the 9 Monkeys." Mr. Rey drew the illustrations, and his wife helped to write the stories. Hans initially had sole credit for the books, but eventually Margret's name was added. "We worked very closely together and it was hard to pull the thing apart," she later said. ... The Reys found shelter in a farmhouse, then a stable, working their way by rail to Bayonne, and then to Biarritz by bicycle again. They were Jews, but because they were Brazilian citizens, it was easier to get visas. One official, perhaps thinking that because of their German accents they were spies, searched Mr. Rey's satchel. Finding "Fifi," and, seeing it was only a children's story, he released them. They journeyed to Spain, then to Portugal, eventually finding their way back to Rio. "Have had a very narrow escape," Mr. Rey wrote in a telegram to his bank. "Baggage all lost have not sufficient money in hand." The couple sailed to New York in October 1940, and "Curious George," as Fifi was renamed - the publisher thought "Fifi" was an odd name for a male monkey - made his first appearance the following year. The Reys wrote a total of eight "Curious George" books; Hans died in 1977, Margret in 1996. The ensuing "George" books were created by writers and illustrators imitating the Reys' style and art....
BY Daniel Waintrup
September 2005.
Stuck in a dead-end career - divorced - beaten and battered - this rabbi's son wasn't down for the count. He was just warming up. Country club tennis pro Dan Waintrup never played the US Open. He never made it onto the World Tour or emulated tennis greats like John McEnroe, Bjorn Borg or Jimmy Conners. His career flourished in high school and college, but dwindled into playing lessons with young studs of Fortune 500 companies and couples' tournaments where divorces capped a weekend ending in defeat. But his tennis-teaching exploits did provide the backdrop for this humorous memoir that reveals how a rabbi's son from Philadelphia with a hankering for Tastykakes chose his unconventional line of work. He also tells all - how he ruined his parents' dreams, met The Donald, ran his car into a tree and lived to tell about it, and enrolled in business school without ever having used a computer. Committing these ups and downs to paper has been a form of therapy for Dan, who's happy to be the butt of any joke. Have a laugh at his expense, bubby. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Alan Alda
September 2005. Random House.
Alan Alda is not Jewish. But his surname is Alda, so who knows... 500 years ago he might have been in an Italian Jewish famiglia. HeHe.
A star on Broadway, an Oscar nominee for The Aviator, and the only person to ever win Emmys for acting, writing, and directing, during his eleven years on M*A*S*H. (Did you see him rip up his speech in September 2005's Emmy telecast when he lost?) Now Alan Alda has written a memoir as elegant, funny, and affecting as his greatest performances. "My mother didn't try to stab my father until I was six," begins Alda's irresistible story. The son of a popular actor and a loving but mentally ill mother, he spent his early childhood backstage in the erotic and comic world of burlesque and went on, after early struggles, to achieve extraordinary success in his profession. He overcame polio. Yet Never Have Your Dog Stuffed is not a memoir of show-business ups and downs. It is a moving and funny story of a boy growing into a man who then realizes he has only just begun to grow. Click the book cover above to read more.
September 2005. Wisconsin Press.
Also in paperback
Rarely has the old saw about war making strange bedfellows been more appropriate than in this story of a small 16-year-old Jewish boy and one of rural Poland's most notorious criminals, Jan Kopec. Stillman has found a very different kind of Holocaust story, full of drama and adventure. When Hitler's army invaded Poland in 1939, Goldner and his rural Jewish family were spared from immediate roundup. But by 1943, he had witnessed his mother and sister being herded onto a train and been left for dead beneath his father's body, both of them shot and bayoneted by a collaborator who had been one of his father's childhood friends. After Kopec, Goldner's unlikely rescuer, nursed him back to health, the pair began an 18-month partnership in which Kopec received money from partisans for having Goldner carry out acts of sabotage against the Nazis. His small size, courage and ability to learn-Kopec trained his young charge in marksmanship, a renegade German soldier taught him fluent German and a Gypsy trained him in hand-to-hand combat-resulted in impressive victories for area partisans. Goldner blew up trains and bridges used by the Nazi army and photographed Jews arriving at Auschwitz-Birkenau. Stillman has done a remarkable job tracking down what little documentation exists in order to corroborate Goldner's unique story, making a trip to the region, meeting with former neighbors and with the children and grandchildren of Jan Kopec. . Click the book cover above to read more.
by Abner Weiss
September 2005. Bell Tower Press.
South African born scholar and former YU teacher, Abner Weiss, focuses on the spiritual genome in his latest book. Armed with advance degrees in Jewish philosophy and psychology, as well as decades of work as both a licensed therapist and a congregational rabbi, Weiss merges psychological analysis with a keen awareness of kabbalistic relationships as illustrated by the 10 sefirot (or spiritual roots) of the Tree of Life. (he has studied kabbalah since 1965) Weiss tempers his academic approach with dozens of examples (taken from 28 patients and congregants, as well as the Bible) that illustrate the links between common and rare psychological disorders and imbalances within the development of what he has termed the "spiritual genomes" within all of us. As PW writes, this is NOT for the RED-STRING, POP CULTURE SET, this serious examination of psychology and spirituality includes references to and discussions of the ancient and contemporary Jewish sages-including Rabbi Akiva, Rabbi Elijah, the Vilna Gaon, Maimonides, Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan and Rabbi Schneur Zalman-and a wide array of luminaries in philosophy and psychology, such as Hegel and Jung. Those looking for a more intellectually rigorous approach to spiritual self-help and those in the fields of philosophy and psychology will find this a valuable read. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Aharon Megged
September 2005. Toby Press.
Israeli novelist Megged sets his historically rich epistolary and diary-based novel (after Foiglman) in turn-of-the-century Palestine, then mostly a backwater of small Arab villages and start-up Jewish farming settlements. In 1906, Englishwoman Beatrice Campbell-Bennett, a devout Christian and frustrated lesbian, travels to the Holy Land ostensibly to paint biblical flowers, but her true goal is to "purify" herself. The child of a prosperous but unhappy family, she fraternized with the famous Bloomsbury group of intellectuals, falling in love with Vanessa Stephen, Virginia Woolf's sister. In her quest to explore what she calls "this land of wonders," the fiercely independent Beatrice hires a young Arab guide named Aziz, with whom she develops an increasingly tense relationship. She also spends time with the famous Zionist pioneer Aaron Aaronsohn and his attractive younger sister, Sarah, until her conflicting emotions-and ecstatic religiosity-threaten to completely overwhelm her. Megged annotates the letters and diary entries with notes by a Dr. P.D. Morrison, a psychologist hired by Beatrice's parents to examine her mental state, and his rather hilarious Freudian commentary adds a sharp satirical edge. This, plus Megged's graceful use of biblical history and evocation of early Zionist culture makes for a learned, compelling book. Click the book cover above to read more.
By Aharon Megged
September 2005. Toby Press.
The Living on the Dead is the history of a book that has not been written. Its central theme is the debt of the living to the dead, and in particular the effects on the heirs of Israel of their new and dearly bought nationality. Jonas is a writer, on trial for breach of contract. Commissioned to write the biography of a national hero, Davidov, he has after eighteen months and thousands of pounds of payment produced not a word. Despite the mountains of research and testimonies, he is oppressed and even rebuked by his subject's sanctity... even when he perceives that the idol's feet are of clay. He simply cannot write the book of the legend of Davidov. Translated from the Hebrew Ha Chai Al Ha Met by Misha Louvish. Click the book cover above to read more.
By Jeffrey S. Gurock (Yeshiva University)
September 2005. Indiana University Press.
Judaism's Encounter with American Sports examines how sports entered the lives of American Jewish men and women and how the secular values of sports threatened religious identification and observance. What do Jews do when a society-in this case, a team-"chooses them in," but demands commitments that clash with ancestral ties and practices? Jeffrey S. Gurock, author, teacher, and NYC Marathon runner, uses the experience of sports to illuminate an important mode of modern Jewish religious conflict and accommodation to America. He considers the defensive strategies American Jewish leaders have employed in response to sports' challenges to identity, such as using temple and synagogue centers, complete with gymnasiums and swimming pools, to attract the athletically inclined to Jewish life. Within the suburban frontiers of post-World War II America, sports-minded modern Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform rabbis competed against one another for the allegiances of Jewish athletes and all other Americanized Jews. In the present day, tensions among Jewish movements are still played out in the sports arena. Today, in a mostly accepting American society, it is easy for sports-minded Jews to assimilate completely, losing all regard for Jewish ties. At the same time, a very tolerant America has enabled Jews to succeed in the sports world, while keeping faith with Jewish traditions. Gurock foregrounds his engaging book against his own experiences as a basketball player, coach, and marathon runner. By using the metaphor of sports, Judaism's Encounter with American Sports underscores the basic religious dilemmas of our day. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Sheryll Bellman
September 2005. Collectors Press
Whether it's a pastrami on rye or a bagel with a schmear, America's Great Delis, by Sheryll Bellman, explores the history and recipes of the country's most beloved delis. From New York's Lower East Side to Detroit and all points west, the delicatessen remains a quintessential part of the American landscape. In New York, as in much of America, lunch is synonymous with deli. Perfected in the early twentieth century by Eastern European Jewish immigrants, the deli, short for delicatessen, quickly won our hearts - and stomachs! From Barney Greengrass "The Sturgeon King" to Katz's Deli, with their beloved slogan "Send a Salami to Your Boy in the Army," and the renowned Carnegie Deli, celebrity hotspot for generations, America's Great Delis is the authoritative answer to all your noshing needs. Vintage photographs, menus, and signs complement the mouth-watering recipes made famous in delis across the country. Matzo ball soup, classic coleslaw, and cheesecake are just a few of the classic made-to-order tastes included for deli aficionados everywhere. Features: More than one hundred nostalgic deli photographs, historical food and deli details, and a guide to "deli speak." Recipes including Ben's Kosher Noodle Kugel, Zingerman's Hamentaschen, Ratner's Potato Pancakes, Nate 'n Al's Corned Beef Hash, and many more. Famous delis such as 2nd Avenue Deli, Ratner's, and The Stage Deli in New York, and Canter's and Langers in Los Angeles, among others across the country. Click the book cover above to read more.
Henry Holt and Co. (September 1, 2005).
Ages 8 - 12
From Booklist Gr. 4-6. Chaikin, author of many books about Judaism and Jewish myths, turns her attention to angels in this compendium that draws on Midrash and other Jewish writings. She takes readers to heaven and earth, where angels of all orders serve the Holy One and link above and below. The first story is a reshaping of a familiar one in which God sends angels to make an indentation in the spot above a baby's lips so the baby will forget all the knowledge he or she had before birth. In Chaikin's telling, one of Satan's minions is determined that one child will retain that knowledge. In another story, Chaikin uses the idea that each letter of the Hebrew alphabet is ruled by an angel to show how angelic presence affects earthly happenings. The parables sometimes raise more questions than they answer, but this increases their worth, as readers ponder their meanings. The lively writing style is enhanced by evocative, full-page paintings that begin each story. The subtle incorporations of angels and Hebrew letters make the pictures as worthy of study as the tales. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Laurent Murawiec (Hudson Institute, Rand)
September 2005. Rowman and Littlefield
Princes of Darkness is the English translation of La guerre d'apres (The Next War), originally published by Albin Michel Publishers in Paris in 2003. This book is a highly critical expose of Saudi Arabia and attacks the elite inside that country as enemies of the western world. By extension this is also a criticism of the US foreign policy that has supported the royal family. It should be noted that the genesis of this book comes from the author's intensely controversial and subsequently leaked Defense Department briefing in July 2002, while serving as a senior international policy analyst at RAND. According to the author, The Saudis are active in the terror chain; that the U.S. should threaten the Saudis with reducing oil imports and focusing on Iraq's oil supplies instead; Saudi Arabia is not a state, but a family business; and their Wahhabism and anti Zionist are used to support that family's power. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jeffrey S. Gurock
September 2005. Indiana University Press
Jeffrey S. Gurock, Libby M. Klaperman Professor of Jewish History at Yeshiva University, is author or editor of 13 books. Judaism's Encounter with American Sports examines how sports entered the lives of American Jewish men and women and how the secular values of sports threatened religious identification and observance. What do Jews do when a society-in this case, a team-"chooses them in," but demands commitments that clash with ancestral ties and practices? Jeffrey S. Gurock uses the experience of sports to illuminate an important mode of modern Jewish religious conflict and accommodation to America. He considers the defensive strategies American Jewish leaders have employed in response to sports' challenges to identity, such as using temple and synagogue centers, complete with gymnasiums and swimming pools, to attract the athletically inclined to Jewish life. Within the suburban frontiers of post-World War II America, sports-minded modern Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform rabbis competed against one another for the allegiances of Jewish athletes and all other Americanized Jews. In the present day, tensions among Jewish movements are still played out in the sports arena. Today, in a mostly accepting American society, it is easy for sports-minded Jews to assimilate completely, losing all regard for Jewish ties. At the same time, a very tolerant America has enabled Jews to succeed in the sports world, while keeping faith with Jewish traditions. Gurock foregrounds his engaging book against his own experiences as a basketball player, coach, and marathon runner. By using the metaphor of sports, Judaism's Encounter with American Sports underscores the basic religious dilemmas of our day.
Click the book cover above to read more.
by David Margolick
September 2005. Knopf
From Publishers Weekly: Fought with thunderclouds of war on the horizon, the 1938 heavyweight rematch between Detroit's Joe Louis and Germany's Max Schmeling qualifies as the sort of sporting event that coalesces into a symbolic moment with much larger themes. The African-American Louis's success and demeanor were an unsubtle rebuke to the Aryan theories of race; the affable Schmeling, for his part, would be shoehorned into the role of "Nazi Max," despite the uneasiness of the fit-later that year, on Kristallnacht, he would courageously protect two German Jews. Vanity Fair contributor Margolick (Strange Fruit) keeps his bold, colorful focus squarely on the hubbub leading up to the bout; the all-consuming welter of hype-almost every utterance in the book is tinged by race or geopolitics-makes for compelling reading. The fight pitted talent against tactics: Schmeling's previous defeat of the hitherto "unbeatable" Louis depended on Schmeling's shrewd perception of a flaw in Louis's technique. Louis was a critical transitional figure between the controversial first African-American champ, Jack Johnson, and the equally polarizing Muhammad Ali. Schmeling, in turn, was truly the antithesis of the thugs who were running his country. Every chapter in the company of such estimable and likable stalwarts is an unalloyed pleasure."
INCLUDES GREAT INFO of Schmeling and Hitler, Schmeling's "Jewish" boxing manager, the Jewish boxing promoters, and how Max Baer and other boxers always tried to be "jewish" even though they were not. Click the book cover above to read more.
A novel by Harry Freund
September 2005.
Stockbroker Dan Gelder (60) has a posh Fifth Avenue address, is two years a widower, and remains faithful to his deceased wife. Numbed by grief, he is annoyed-not flattered-by the attentions of the women introduced to him by friends. Then he meets Violet Finkel. And Susan Klein. And Myra Cox. And Tatiana Andrevsky. Violet tempts him with limitless luxury and then with truly profound affection, which he discovers on a journey with her to Jerusalem. But plumpish, pretty Susan offers him cookies in her kitchen, while Myra, an activist dedicated to the cause - and jewelry - of Native Americans, tests the strength of his lower back. Exotic Tatiana weds beauty to mystery, and grace to pride, as she strives to overcome a Russian immigrant's poverty for herself and her young son. Dan's son, Eric, meanwhile, is facing bankruptcy, which Dan can handle more readily than Eric's marriage proposal to the non-Jewish Carol Hoffman. Forced to examine this unexpected crisis in terms of his own faith and his Jewish heritage, Dan at sixty finds that more than his libido has been renewed. This comic, yet wise, delightful novel views the follies and fallibilities of romance at a certain age-serving up love deliciously, with noodles. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Robert A. Rosenstone (Professor Cal Tech)
September 2005. University of Texas Press
The story begins with a grandfather who heroically escaped from Russia by swimming the Pruth River to Romania-or did he? Then there are stories of another grandfather who kept a lifelong mistress; grandmothers who were ignored except in the kitchen; migrations legal and illegal from Eastern Europe to Canada to California; racketeers on one side of the family and Communists on the other; and a West Coast adolescence in the McCarthy years. All of these (mostly true) stories form a Jewish family's history, a tale of dislocation and assimilation. But in the hands of award-winning historian Robert Rosenstone, they become much more. The fragments of memory so beautifully preserved in The Man Who Swam into History add unforgettable, human characters to the now familiar story of the Jewish diaspora in the twentieth century. This combination memoir/short story collection recounts the Rosenstone family's passage from Romania to America. Robert Rosenstone tells the story not as a single, linear narrative, but through "tales, sequences, windows, moments, and fragments resurrected from the lives of three generations in my two parental families, set in five countries on two continents over the period of almost a century." This more literary and personal approach allows Rosenstone's relatives to emerge as distinct personalities, voices who quarrel and gossip, share their dreams and fears, and maintain the ties of a loving, if eccentric, family. Among the genre of "coming to America" tales, The Man Who Swam into History is a work of unique vision, one that both records and reconstructs the past even as it continuously-and humorously-questions the truth of its own assertions. Click the book cover above to read more.
by David Harris Ebenbach
University of Pittsburgh Press (September 30, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: Ebenbach captures the anxious musings of characters in transition in this debut collection of 15 stories, many focusing on younger male protagonists who find themselves adrift in the wake of romantic failures. In the title story, a lonely young man whose nights are marked by "masturbation, sighing journal entries, and then... bed" goes to a party hoping to meet a particular girl, but instead encounters a pretzel-noshing pseudo-philosopher who posits that in life, one is always moving from one false Camelot to the next, and that only fools keep seeking interpersonal bonds. The recently dumped, morose Oberlin grad of "Getting Back onto Solid Foods" returns to his college town for a vegetarian Thanksgiving with old friends, while the confused narrator of "Rebbetzin" feels awkward at a memorial service for his wife's former art professor. Ebenbach does a fine job of exploring his characters' longing for connection-between brother and troubled sister in "Pointing Up"; between a young teacher and his students (and his brand-new girlfriend) in "Social Games"-but his emphasis on interior monologue dampens the stories' power. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Rabbi Alan Lew
Little Brown - Summer 2005
From Publishers Weekly: Once again Rabbi Lew (One God Clapping; This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared) beautifully marries the ancient traditions, history and lore of the Torah and Talmud with the serene meditative practices of Zen Buddhism. His singular distinction of founding and leading a meditation center, Makor Or (in San Francisco), the first of its kind connected to a Conservative synagogue, gives him a unique perspective. He says that Jews have had the written treasures, rich discussions and the sacred Sabbath right in front of them for 3,000 years, but have often overlooked them. Using selected Torah passages, Talmudic musings and contemporary stories of friends and congregants, Lew illustrates the intrinsic spiritual path within Judaism and suggests ways to incorporate that path into an everyday spiritual practice. Like any good teacher unafraid to address big, broad issues-suffering, fear, conflict-and agile enough to make sense of the more elusive ones-listening for and finding God, connecting to and appreciating sacred emptiness-Lew follows each lesson with a summation of "practice points." Seekers need not be Jewish to engage the ancient wisdom of these meditations that offer a rich, multileveled path to everyday spirituality. Click the book cover above to read more.
OCTOBER 2005
By Sherwin Nuland
Schocken, OCTOBER 4, 2005
From Publishers Weekly: Maimonides, one of the preeminent personalities of medieval Jewish history, was a jurist, philosopher, expert in Jewish law, physician at the court of Saladin and a respected and dedicated communal leader. Given all that, it's difficult to understand the decision to present Maimonides's legacy primarily through the lens of his work as a physician. The 12th century was a time of stagnation in the history of medicine, and the author himself concedes that Maimonides contributed very little that was new or innovative to the field. By contrast, his jurisprudential magnum opus, the Mishne Torah, constituted a groundbreaking work in its own day and continues to be authoritative almost a millennium later. Although Nuland acknowledges this in a chapter on Maimonides's religious scholarship, it is dwarfed by the overarching concern with medicine-which seems the primary interest of Nuland, a clinical professor of surgery at Yale. The author does a serviceable job of stitching together this slight, popular biography of the larger-than-life Maimonides, but his writing is marred by an overwrought prologue and some glib generalizations. Click the book cover above to read more.
Also.. Part of the Jewish Encounter Series will be books on Moses, Barney Ross, Military Jews, Spinoza, Hillel Halkin on Halevi, ben katchor on dairy restaurants, jewish bodies, the Song of Songs, Seth Lipsky on Abraham Cahan, the Rebbe, David Mamet will write about self hatred; Gluckel of Hameln; The Altalena; Emma Lazarus; messianism; Chagall; and Jewish-and-power.
by Aaron Hamburger
Random House, OCTOBER 4, 2005
From Publishers Weekly: A woman hopes a family trip to Israel will help her reclaim her confused, rebellious son in Hamburger's entertaining, irreverent first novel (after the collection: THE VIEW FROM STALIN'S HEAD). Jeremy's been at NYU for five years, but he's still just a junior, and Helen Michaelson, 58, thinks he might have a much-needed spiritual awakening on the "Michigan Miracle 2000" tour. But while Jeremy's more interested in cruising Jerusalem's gay parks, Helen herself is primed for revelation, as she finds that her connection to Judaism and her family is more complicated than she'd thought. Hamburger has an exacting eye for mundane detail and suburban conventions, and in Jeremy he's created the classic green-haired, pierced college student ranting about social injustice. But beneath Jeremy's sarcastic, moralizing banter, there's a convincing critique of Americans' way of being in the world. In Israel in 2000, the Michaelsons are like Pixar creations trapped in a movie filmed in Super 8-the Middle East may be fraught with political tension, but their biggest problem is the heat outside their air-conditioned bus. Hamburger goes further than witty satire, though, and when the plot takes a dark turn he demonstrates that he's capable of taking on global issues, even if his characters aren't."
Mrs. Michaelson just doesn't seem to get it. Why cant good manners lead to Middle East peace. But what is up with son calling her by her first name. It seems to be just the beginning crack of all that is sacred. If you let him call her Helen, will everything collapse? Also, what the author shows so beautifully, is the state of people who arrive in Israel awaiting epiphanies and idealism, but reality nastily doesn't comply. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Alan Kaufman
October 23, 2005
I have been attracted to Kaufman's writing since he did TattooJew, and JewBoy. I always think of how he would make minyans for a collection of some very unique older Jewish San Franciscans. I am therefore looking forward to reading Matches. I have it in my hand.. but just have to place it in the pile of next books to read,
From Publishers Weekly: The title is an Israeli army term for a soldier, or one who "strikes, burns, and dies." Nathan Falk, an American-born Jew and the son of a Holocaust survivor, arrives in Israel seeking "for once, to be generally human, immersed in a kinky-haired majority"-and to do the three years of regular military service and subsequent one-month-a-year reserve duty required of every Israeli male. The narrative falls into 13 Israel Defense Forces patrol vignettes, centered by one novella-size chapter that follows Falk's affair with his best friend's alcoholic girlfriend, along with the honor killing of a 17-year-old Bedouin girl by a man in Falk's (very multi-culti) unit. Throughout, Kaufman (Jew Boy), an American Jew who did multiple IDF tours and now lives in San Francisco, sketches the fault lines of Israeli society as heightened by the highly charged, often violent patrols in the West Bank and Gaza: Sephardic vs. Ashkenazi; native vs. emigr�; Arab vs. Jew. The political turmoil, ruined relationships, coiled anger and psychological damage the patrols leave in their wake is made vivid-and personal-at every turn, as are IDF procedures and moments of unexpected cooperation across borders. As a novel, it's baggy, but the result gives readers a fascinating look at the story behind the numbing newspaper tallies. Click the book cover above to read more.
Cinco Puntos Press (October, 2005)
Age 9 - 12
Hazel Rochman for Booklist wrote: *Starred Review* Gr. 7-10. Based on the experience of the author's grandfather at the turn of the twentieth century, this novel starts off as the archetypal Jewish coming-to-America story. Raizel, 12, leaves the Ukraine with her father, a devout peddler who flees pogroms and conscription into the czar's army, intending to send for the rest of his family later. The separation, the trauma, the dream of golden America, the journey across Europe, the ocean voyage, the inspections and arrival at Ellis Island--the historical detail is dense. But Raizel's lively first-person narrative is anything but reverential. She misses her brother, but she is jealous because he gets to go to school, and she resents her father's keeping kosher, which means they stay hungry during the journey in the crowded ship. Her view of adults and kids, family and strangers, back home and on the perilous adventure, brings the people on the journey very close. Best of all is the shocking surprise that changes everything, even Papa--a haunting aspect of the immigrant story left too long untold. Click the book cover above to read more.
Jewish Publication Society of America
Age 9 - 12
From Booklist: *Starred Review* Grade 4-7. "Now boys, I want you to understand, a coward I am not." In a chatty, immediate idiom, Zayda (Yiddish for grandfather tells his grandkids his immigration story from the turn of the twentieth century: how, as a teenager anxious to avoid lifelong conscription into the czar's army, he left his family in a shtetl, traveled across Europe, and came to America on a hellishly crowded boat. But, surprisingly, the ship lands not at Ellis Island, but at Galveston, Texas, where he takes an American name and gets a job as a cowboy on a ranch. He's a lonely Jewish boy who misses his mama and hisshul, but he is also a hard worker, on the ranch and on the trail driving cattle. The facts of cowboy work will fascinate kids, as will the seldom-told immigration story, which took place before the time of immigration quotas, when America needed hard workers no matter where they came from. Zayda is frank about the people displaced, and aghast about the treatment of the Indians, who were relocated in a "shocking chapter of American history." An epilogue fills in more history about bringing Jews out west, and a bibliography and a glossary conclude. This will make a great read-aloud; the story will interest kids no matter what their religious background. Click the book cover above to read more.
Jewish Publication Society of America
Age 9 - 12
Sara, a Jewish 12-year-old in 1919 Russia, has spunk, independence, and a deep commitment to her heritage. Suddenly orphaned under mysterious circumstances, her home and shtetl destroyed, Sara begins a daring journey toward Budapest and her eventual destination, Palestine. On this amazing odyssey, Sara meets fascinating people of all sorts. Set against a backdrop of stormy historical events -- pogroms, the influenza epidemic, the Bolshevik Revolution, and the struggle to create the State of Israel -- this riveting young-adult novel is told with warmth, grace, and subtlety. Through the heart and mind of Sara, young readers will experience a world of connections between generations, genders, cultures, religions, and nationalities. Sara grows into a true follower of her father's wise advice: "Be bold and brave, but not foolhardy." Click the book cover above to read more.
by Tab Hunter, Eddie Muller
Algonquin, OCTOBER 4, 2005
He became an instant star and a #1 box office attraction, recorded a #1 hit song, and survived a major sex scandal-all by the time he was twenty-five. Five years later, new stars had been developed to meet the demands of fickle fans, and Tab Hunter found himself scrambling to find work, struggling just to survive. Yet survive he did, re-creating himself as a cult star and film producer in a career that spans five decades and more than fifty films, from Island of Desire to Lust in the Dust. But first, he was Art Gelien, an introverted and extremely attractive young boy who was discovered by a Hollywood agent and transformed-with the help of studio publicity hacks-into Tab Hunter, Movie Star. This book tells how it all happened, and what it felt like to be created, packaged, and sold to the American public. How it felt to appear on-screen, off-screen, and on every newsstand in America with the biggest leading ladies of the day-Linda Darnell, Natalie Wood, Debbie Reynolds, Lana Turner, and Rita Hayworth-while dealing with the reality of being gay in a time when the word didn't exist. It's his story of how he kept his bearings when he was suddenly no longer the boy-next-door heartthrob, no longer under the protective wing of the Warner Bros. publicity department, no longer in demand as a "star." It is his story of how he soldiered on-with perseverance, determination, and faith. And, like the best-loved Hollywood movies, it has a happy ending.
SO... WHY IS THIS BOOK ON MyJEWISHbooks.COM ??
Hmmm Guess?
Guess Again... cuz near the back of the book, after over 400 pages... you find out that Art Gelien... aka Tab Hunter... was born in a Jewish family. His longterm partner is Alan Glasser... Member of the tribe? Be sure to get them a horse doll for Hanukkah
Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jonathan Sacks, Chief Rabbi of Great Britain
October 2005. Schocken
Sir Jonathan Sacks, the Chief Rabbi of GB for nearly the past 15 years, is one of the most respected religious thinkers and makes an impassioned plea for the return of religion to its true purpose-as a partnership with God in the work of ethical and moral living. (I have forgiven him for not attending the funeral of GB's top Reform Rabbi and leader.) What are our duties to others, to society, and to humanity? How do we live a meaningful life in an age of global uncertainty and instability? In To Heal a Fractured World, Rabbi Jonathan Sacks offers answers to these questions by looking at the ethics of responsibility. In his signature plainspoken, accessible style, Rabbi Sacks shares with us traditional interpretations of the Bible, Jewish law, and theology, as well as the works of philosophers and ethicists from other cultures, to examine what constitutes morality and moral behavior. "We are here to make a difference," he writes, "a day at a time, an act at a time, for as long as it takes to make the world a place of justice and compassion." He argues that in today's religious and political climate, it is more important than ever to return to the essential understanding that "it is by our deeds that we express our faith and make it real in the lives of others and the world."
Sacks's wide-ranging scholarship is evident in the authorities he cites, including Plato, Karl Marx, Victor Frankl, Joseph B. Soloveitchik, William Wordsworth, Rashi, Maimonides, Jean-Paul Sartre, John Donne, Erich Fromm, Sigmund Freud and many others including Talmudic and rabbinical sources. Sacks claims that he "tried to make the book as simple and readable" as possible, but it is at times somewhat heavy-footed. Patient readers will be rewarded by exposure to a great intellect who demonstrates how his knowledge and experiences have led him to the conclusion that each individual has responsibility "to heal where others harm, mend where others destroy, [and] to redeem evil by turning its negative energies to good." Click the book cover above to read more.
October 2005. Goodhill Press
Published by Jack Klugman, 83, and his youngest son, a newly started book publisher, Adam Klugman.
From Publishers Weekly Klugman's brief (160 pages) memoir of his friendship with Tony Randall stays true to the promise the author made to himself if he ever wrote such a book: "I would never do two things: kiss and tell, and bore people with long histories of things." Boring this work isn't, as one would expect from a kid who grew up as the only Jew in a tough 1920s Italian South Philadelphia neighborhood, entered a college acting program to get away from his bookie and was cast by Garry Marshall in TV's The Odd Couple because Marshall had been impressed by seeing Klugman on Broadway in Gypsy getting spit on by Ethel Merman and not flinching. Although lacking in panache, the book does stay true to its stated intention of paying tribute to Randall, who founded the National Actors Theatre. The most endearing anecdote is that of how Randall cast Klugman in a 1991 benefit Odd Couple production, three years after Klugman had undergone throat cancer surgery and lost almost all his voice. The chapter titled "How Tony Gave My Life Back" recounts how Klugman retrained his throat and regained his career. Though amateurish, Klugman's writing possesses rare conviction and humility. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Matthue Roth
Cleis Press (October 11, 2005)
Yom Kippur A Go-Go is a mind-blowing meeting of pop culture, Orthodox faith, and hipster poetics. Matthue Roth is an American original: an Orthodox Jew who cites Outkast and Michelle Tea among his influences, who won't touch a light switch on Shabbos but mimics a screaming orgasm onstage while reading his paean to Orthodox girls. From the World Bank riots (what can you do when the revolution starts on Shabbos?) to Thursday night tranny basketball in San Francisco's Dolores Park, Matthue takes readers on a journey among the queer and hip streets of urban America in his exuberant memoir, Yom Kippur a Go-Go. With humor and insight, Roth describes the tension between contemporary life and the demands of faith. He falls in love and in lust with a panoply of girls, both strictly kosher and determinedly secular, to the accompaniment of MP3 rabbinical lectures on modesty ("Boys are nothing but perverts and filthy animals!").
He is the author of NEVER MIND THE GOLDBERGS. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jerome Charyn
Random House (October 18, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: This portrait of Babel by the prolific Charyn (The Green Lantern, etc.) is confounding for reasons he himself elaborates on: it's difficult to know much for certain about the life of the great Russian Jewish short-story writer (1894-1940), whom Charyn emphasizes was a self-mythologizer. Charyn begins the book by seeming to appropriate Babel's qualities for himself by describing how an editor said Charyn's first book called Babel's writings to mind.
Ellipses at the end of paragraphs to indicate uncertainty in the narrative underscore the lack of hard facts; using the word "some" as a modifier, as in "Mandelstam would die in some transit camp," has the effect of lessening the horror being described. Babel's death at Stalin's hand remains legendary for the reported sighting of the writer that followed his murder, but Charyn gets so caught up in such myths that he forgets to give us the man. "Even as he bares himself, it's hard to figure Babel out," Charyn notes. Click the book cover above to read more.
BY SUAD AMIRY
PANTHEON, OCTOBER 2005
The diary of one woman and her life in Ramallah from the early 1980's to the present. The first part of the book details Amiry's life in the 1980s and 1990s, as she worked as an architect. On her wedding day, an Israeli soldier tore up her visitor's permit, and she had her groceries confiscated once for being out 10 minutes after curfew. At the same time, however, she also fell in love with the man she eventually marries. The second half of the book covers 2001-2004, including the siege of Arafat's compound, the destruction of the historic part of Nablus (her architectural opinions are poignant here), the rescuing of her mother, the commute from the Jericho Resthouse, and relations with Jordan. The London Sunday Times called it: extremely funny...it provides insights into life under occupation.
Gershom Gorenberg (THE ACCIDENTAL EMPIRE) writing in the Washington Post Book World states: "...She might describe how, rather than take her terrier pup to the sexist Ramallah vet who did not like vaccinating female dogs, she ended up in the clinic of Dr. Tamar at the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in what she refers to as an Israeli settlement on the Jerusalem-Ramallah road -- a spot the Israeli government has long considered part of Jerusalem proper. The pup, Nura, ended up with a "dog passport" listing her residency as Jerusalem, filling her mistress with awe and jealousy: A Palestinian architect who grew up in Amman and elsewhere, Amiry spent years after her marriage to a Ramallah man before getting an Israeli permit to reside legally in the West Bank, and friends who married East Jerusalem Palestinians waited even longer for their prized Jerusalem papers. ... she soon used Nura's papers to ease her way into Jerusalem. "I am the dog's driver," she tells an Israeli soldier at the checkpoint. "As you can see, she is from Jerusalem." The Israeli laughs, pats Nura's head and lets them drive on through. "All it takes is a bit of humor," Amiry concludes. The dog tale is a variation on Amiry's theme: The occupation is irrational, perhaps intentionally so. The only reasonable response is to be unreasonable in kind yourself, as when Amiry storms into Capt. Yossi's room at the Israeli army's Ramallah headquarters, screams, cries, demands her residency permit -- and gets it. The captain can cope with terrorists, fighter planes and submarines, she thinks, but "NOT A WOMAN FREAKING OUT.".... Amiry says nothing of the Palestinian terrorist attacks that took more than 100 Israeli lives in the month before the tanks rolled back in. Her story does not include a hint that, this time, Israel's leaders were responding to something that appeared senseless, even if they did so irrationally..... Historians can aspire to break the bounds of those narratives and approach an objective telling; a memoir aims instead at making the collective story personal and particular. Amiry does that with subtlety and complexity. I would invite her to my table because Israelis need to hear what it was like to risk being shot to collect one's 92-year-old mother-in-law from a home near Yasser Arafat's besieged Ramallah headquarters during a brief break in a curfew -- and because I'd like to discuss with her the Israeli miseries that are left out of this tale. And if my depressed guests concluded that these two angry nations will never make peace, I'd ask Amiry to tell her anecdote about driving with her niece in East Jerusalem, where she was flagged down by an Israeli man who was sure he was having a heart attack; Amiry expected him to have another when he realized he'd been picked up by Ramallah Muslims but she dropped him off at Hadassah Hospital. Driving off, she thought of her father, who died alone in a hotel room of a heart attack. "I always felt terrible that he must have sought help but none arrived," she writes. The labels of Palestinian and Israeli evaporate, leaving a mortal human being."
Click the book cover above to read more.
BY MARION ELIZABETH RODGERS
Oxford, OCTOBER 2005
For much of the early 20th century, H.L. Mencken (1880-1956), aka the Baron of Baltimore, was the country's most famous pundit, inspiring both love and fear and sometimes an equal measure of both. As novelist Richard Wright noted, "He was using words as a weapon." His targets were only the biggest issues of his day: Prohibition, puritanism and censorship. Even now, almost 50 years after his death, many of Mencken's political insights hold true, such as this gem: "Nations get on with one another, not by telling the truth, but by lying gracefully." Yet as Rodgers shows in this thorough work, Mencken was more than a newspaperman and prolific author; in 1924, he founded-and continued to edit-the highbrow (and popular) monthly magazine The American Mercury, which printed pieces by F. Scott Fitzgerald and Langston Hughes (at a time when most white editors would have nothing to do with black writers). But Rodgers, editor of Mencken and Sara: A Life in Letters and The Impossible H.L. Mencken, doesn't shy away from her subject's faults;
she examines Mencken's anti-Semitism and his unsettling devotion to Germany (the land of his ancestors) even as the shadow of the Nazi Wehrmacht fell on Europe.
Drawing on research in more than 60 archives (including previously unseen private collections in the U.S. and in Germany), exclusive interviews with Mencken's friends and his love letters, this is a meticulous portrait of one of the most original and complicated men in American letters (PW) Click the book cover above to read more.
by James Reston
OCTOBER 2005, Doubleday
In 1492, Columbus sailed to America, The Jews were kicked out of Spain under the country's Catholic monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, and Spain's Catholics defeated Moorish Islam. James Reston's Dogs of God attempts to draw together these apparently disparate strands, arguing that Columbus's voyage to the New World was inextricably linked to the victory of Christianity over Islam in the Iberian peninsula. It's an interesting thesis, and his research has led him into a rich and fascinating period of European history. The last quarter of the 15th century was turbulent, violent and characterized by religious bigotry. Ferdinand and Isabella are the principal protagonists in Dogs of God, yet the lesser characters are no less colorful and grotesque. There's a lovely vignette about the effeminate King Enrique IV of Castile, known as El Impotente, and his attempt to artificially inseminate his wife. And the outlandish Pope Alexander VI makes several appearances, often in the company of one or another of his beautiful mistresses. Reston's narrative begins in the 13th century, when Islamic rule in Spain was in its twilight. Reston argues that some of the greatest achievements of the early Renaissance, including the discoveries of Columbus, were conceived in medieval Islamic Al Andalus. Islamic scholars translated Arabic science and mathematics into Latin and enriched the language with new words -- "zero," "algebra" and "elixir" all come from Arabic. The Catholics captured Granada in 1492. King Ferdinand's Dominican advisers (the dogs of God in the title) argued that Spanish Christianity was imperiled by the presence of conversos, or Jewish converts. They persuaded the monarchs to establish an inquisition, with Tomas de Torquemada as its chief architect. The mechanics of the infamous auto-da-f�, or test of faith, are told with grisly relish. Water torture, death by fire and dismemberment were all in a day's work for Torquemada, whose diabolical goal was to utterly destroy Spain's thriving Jewish community. He maneuvered with Machiavellian adroitness, convincing Isabella that the enforced exit of the Jews was a necessary adjunct to the defeat of the Moors. In March 1492, the monarchs issued their Edict of Expulsion. With a stroke, Spain's Jews were forced into exile. It took Columbus six years to persuade the Ferd and Isab to sponsor him Dogs of God is engaging and highly readable. Click the book cover above to read more.
OCTOBER 2005, Stewart Tabori and Chang
THE TOP DIET IN ISRAEL... WHERE BREaD IS GReAT
Sick of South Beach? Anti Atkins? Desperate for toast with your eggs? Then the Bread for Life Diet is your dream diet. The first new diet to buck the high-protein, low-carb craze, this revolutionary program not only allows you to indulge in the bread you've been denying yourself but actually requires you to: up to 16 slices a day! Israeli nutritionist Olga Raz developed the diet as a result of her research on serotonin, a chemical that controls the hunger and satiety centers of the brain. While high-protein meals cause serotonin to drop, a bread-based meal raises the serotonin level. Raz also discovered that her diet can correct the chemical imbalances in the body that make it difficult for many people to lose weight. Divided into two meal plans-the first lasts up to two weeks and is designed to promote fast weight loss-the diet is so healthy that it helps reduce cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and alleviate diabetic symptoms. Thousands of people have already experienced amazing results with the Bread for Life Diet in Israel, where Raz has become a household name and her book a huge best-seller. Now Americans, too, can benefit from this extraordinary new approach to weight loss. The diet is healthy, nutritionally sound, and proven to work. Includes a wide range of foods: pasta, grains, fruits, vegetables, dairy, and meat. Simple to follow: no counting calories, carbohydrates, or fat grams. Features easy-to-prepare foods, plus 25 tasty recipes.
The 12 Principles of the Bread for Life Diet are:
Eat plenty of bread
by A. K. Crump, K. Reed, G. Mart
OCTOBER 2005
Conceived and written by a trio of marketing alumni with over 50 years cumulative dating experience, Everything I Know About Dating I Learned in Business School puts a humorous - but effective - spin on the dating scene. In a series of lessons, the book adapts to relationships concepts familiar to any good entrepreneur, such as "Effective Advertising" and "Managed Finances and Alluring Promotions." Featuring "investment tips" like "Promote Customer Loyalty: Buy flowers at least once a month" and real-life examples, the book shows how planning and thinking like a businessperson can lead to a happy, fulfilling relationship. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Abraham Rabinovich
OCTOBER 2005, Schocken. now in paperback
In this galvanizing account of the most dramatic of the Arab-Israeli hostilities, Abraham Rabinovich, who reported the conflict for the Jerusalem Post, transports us into the midst of the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Rabinovich's masterly narrative begins as Israel convinces itself there will be no war, while Egypt and Syria plot the two-front conflict. Then, on Yom Kippur, Saturday, October 6, 1973, we see Arab armies pouring across the shattered Bar-Lev Line in the Sinai and through the Golan defenses. Even the famed Israeli air force could not stop them. On the Golan alone, Syria sent 1,460 tanks against Israel's 177, and 115 artillery batteries against Israel's 11. And for the first time, footsoldiers wielding anti-tank weapons were able to stop tank charges, while surface-to-air missiles protected those troops from air attack. Rabinovich takes us into this inferno and into the inner sanctums of military and political decision making. He allows us to witness the dramatic turnaround that had the Syrians on the run by the following Wednesday and the great counterattack across the Suez Canal that, once begun, took international intervention to halt. Using extensive interviews with both participants and observers, and with access to recently declassified materials, Rabinovich shows that the drama of the war lay not only in the battles but also in the apocalyptic visions it triggered in Israel, the hopes and fears it inspired in the Arab world, the heated conflicts on both sides about the conduct of the war, and the concurrent American face-off with the Soviets in Washington, D.C., Moscow, and the Mediterranean. A comprehensive account of one of the pivotal conflicts of the twentieth century. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Uri Bar-Joseph (Haifa Univ)
OCTOBER 2005, SUNY PRESS
Based on many formerly undisclosed intelligence and military documents, the secret protocols of discussions on the eve of the war, and interviews with relevant figures, The Watchman Fell Asleep is a compelling account of Israel's intelligence failure before the 1973 Arab attack known as the Yom Kippur War. The Hebrew version of this book was awarded the Tshetshik Prize for Strategic Studies on Israel's Security in 2001, and the Israeli Political Science Association's Best Book Award in 2002. Available here in English for the first time, Uri Bar-Joseph has crafted an authoritative explanation of the most traumatic event in Israel's stormy history and one of the biggest strategic military surprises of the twentieth century. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Alice Mattison
William Morrow (October 1, 2005)
From Booklist: It's the secrets kept from each other and for each other that unite families, forming bonds stronger than any double helix of DNA. For Bobbie Kaplowitz and her sisters, Sylvia and Fanny, as well as their parents, grandparents, and children, such secrets are drawn from a nearly bottomless well of anxiety and despair. Suicide, adultery, homosexuality, and even their very identity--all are committed to a rich, cavernous reservoir from which Mattison, in spite of their somber nature, coaxes tales that gracefully radiate understanding and acceptance. Inspired by the double sessina form of poetry, Mattison mimics the genre's echoes and calls as characters and themes emerge and retreat from dominance in one story to mere background in another. Reminiscent of Michael Cunningham's superlative The Hours (1998), Mattison's use of this cyclical device is equally masterful, for while she allows us to glimpse exactly what we need to know about each family member and no more, that glimpse is strong enough to leave an indelible impression . Click the book cover above to read more.
by Paul Kriwaczek
Knopf (October 18, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: Kriwaczek's charming but frustratingly rambling history places Yiddish in a very broad historical context. Admitting that he is neither "a learned Jew nor a professional historian," Kriwaczek (In Search of Zarathustra) cuts a broad swath through history as he moves, in the opening chapters, from the forum in Rome to the emergence of a distinct "Yiddish civilization" in medieval eastern Europe. Kriwaczek's insistence on defining Yiddish as a culture, or civilization, rather than a language is smart and useful-it allows him to capture the intricacies of a very complicated history and to avoid a simple "black-and-white clash between gentiles and Jews"-but it also means that his tapestry is sometimes too large. When he does narrow his focus-on, say, the autobiography of Glikl of Hamlin, born 1646, whose memoir is the first major Yiddish work by a woman-he is evocative and precise. While there is an endless amount of fascinating detail (Slavic fashions in shoes became trendy in 14th-century Europe), and all is presented in an enjoyable narrative, the book becomes more of a rumination on a number of related issues than a concise examination of a culture and a language. Click the book cover above to read more.
Second Edition
YALE University Press, July 2005
The origins and development of the synagogue from Hellenistic Period to Late Antiquity. Levine's monumental work weighs several pounds and runs to more than 700 densely packed pages. It is not a book for the casual reader, but it belongs on your pastor's or rabbi's bookshelf (why not give it as a gift of encouragement) and on your nightstand, if as a Christian or a Jew you want to understand more about the roots of your faith. ....In the interaction between the Jewish and early Christian communities, influence went in both directions. Despite the early Christians' disdain for the notion of "sacred places," church buildings became sacred places in part as a result of Jewish influence. With the collapse of the Roman imperium and the destruction of the social world it fostered, the divide between Judaism and Christianity grew wider and was more rigidly enforced, leading to the pogroms of the Middle Ages and the subsequent history we know all too well. It is not possible to change that past. But hope for the future lies in the possibility that Jews and Christians take up the opportunity to understand and rethink their shared history. To such an enterprise, Lee Levine's book makes a splendid contribution. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Alan King
OCTOBER 2005, Paperback Free Press
From Publishers Weekly Fans of Alan King (Name-Dropping: The Life & Lies of Alan King), who died in May, will welcome this collection of over 75 reminiscences by Jews in the arts, politics, religion and sports, which Larry King conceived and organized. Although Alan doesn't contribute a piece, he does provide a succinct and perceptive introduction to each section. While some selections, such as those by Gene Wilder, Sid Caesar and Don Rickles, are too brief, the vast majority offer humorous, touching, informed and engaging perspectives on what it means to be born a Jew. Jerusalem Report contributor David Margolis laments the failure of his parents' generation to pass on a real knowledge of Judaism to their children. Faye Moskowitz (Her Face in the Mirror: Jewish Women on Mothers and Daughters) contributes a funny and moving portrait of her grandmother's magical powers as she kneaded challah or stirred a witch's brew of beets, sugar, garlic, salt, allspice and bay leaves into delicious sweet and sour borscht once a year. Jan Schakowsky, an Illinois congresswoman, explores how becoming an elected official made her more conscious of her Jewish identity.
Appended are three eulogies given at King's funeral by Billy Crystal, Rick Moranis and Barbara Walters. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Barbara Boxer (U.S. Senator, D, CA) with Mary-Rose Hayes
PANTHEON, OCTOBER 2005
Written with a true insider's perspective, A Time to Run is the remarkable literary debut of United States Senator Barbara Boxer, one of the most admired and respected figures on the political scene. Senator Boxer, writing with Mary-Rose Hayes, tells an exciting tale of friendship and betrayal, idealism and pragmatism, in-fighting and public spin. The novel follows Ellen Fines from her days as a college student through romantic entanglements and a difficult marriage to a rising political star. When her husband is killed in a car accident during his campaign for the Senate, Ellen assumes his candidacy and achieves an upset victory over a political machine. On the eve of a crucial vote, past and public worlds collide when Ellen's former lover, now a journalist with strong right-wing connections, gives her sensitive documents that could either make or break her career. From hideaways deep under the U.S. Capitol to wealthy southern California ranches to the political unrest on the streets of Berkeley, lA Time to Run is a great read, and a fascinating, up-close story of power and trust. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jerry Lewis (Comedian)
OCTOBER 2005, DOUBLEDAY
They were the unlikeliest of pairs-a handsome crooner and a skinny monkey, an Italian from Steubenville, Ohio, and a Jew from Newark, N.J.. Before they teamed up, Dean Martin seemed destined for a mediocre career as a nightclub singer, and Jerry Lewis was dressing up as Carmen Miranda and miming records on stage. But the moment they got together, something clicked-something miraculous-and audiences saw it at once. Before long, they were as big as Elvis or the Beatles would be after them, creating hysteria wherever they went and grabbing an unprecedented hold over every entertainment outlet of the era: radio, television, movies, stage shows, and nightclubs. Martin and Lewis were a national craze, an American institution. The millions (and the women) flowed in, seemingly without end-and then, on July 24, 1956, ten years from the day when the two men joined forces, it all ended. After that traumatic day, the two wouldn't speak again for twenty years. And while both went on to forge triumphant individual careers-Martin as a movie and television star, recording artist, and nightclub luminary (and charter member of the Rat Pack); Lewis as the groundbreaking writer, producer, director, and star of a series of hugely successful movie comedies-their parting left a hole in the national psyche, as well as in each man's heart. In a memoir by turns moving, tragic, and hilarious, Jerry Lewis recounts with crystal clarity every step of a fifty-year friendship, from the springtime, 1945 afternoon when the two vibrant young performers destined to conquer the world together met on Broadway and Fifty-fourth Street, to their tragic final encounter in the 1990s, when Lewis and his wife ran into Dean Martin, a broken and haunted old man.In Dean & Me, Jerry Lewis makes a convincing case for Dean Martin as one of the great-and most underrated-comic talents of our era. But what comes across most powerfully in this definitive memoir is the depth of love Lewis felt, and still feels, for his partner, and which his partner felt for him: truly a love to last for all time. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Eric Konigsberg
HarperCollins (October 1, 2005)
From Booklist: In 1985, while writing an article for his school newspaper, the author learned something extraordinary. His granduncle, his grandfather's brother, was an infamous criminal. Harold "Kayo" Konigsberg was in prison for murder, and, as a Mob hit man, he was suspected of committing as many as 20 murders for hire. So began a quest to learn all about the relative he never knew he had and about the family who had disowned its black sheep. There are two Kayo Konigsbergs in this book: the young, tough, hardened criminal the author learned about from interviews and historical records, and the elderly man who was like "an apparition of Harold Konigsberg," whom the author got to know during his prison visits. True-crime memoirs are a dime a dozen, but this one is different: a chronicle of criminal behavior, yes, but also a moving story of coming to terms with one's roots. Click the book cover above to read more.
Edited by Kevin M. Takakuwa, Nick Rubashkin, and Karen E. Herzig
UC Press
Like many an exclusive club, the medical profession subjects its prospective members to rigorous indoctrination: medical students are overloaded with work, deprived of sleep and normal human contact, drilled and tested and scheduled down to the last minute. Difficult as the regimen may be, for those who don't fit the traditional mold--white, male, middle-to-upper class, and heterosexual--medical school can be that much more harrowing. This riveting book tells the tales of a new generation of medical students--students whose varied backgrounds are far from traditional. Their stories will forever alter the way we see tomorrow's doctors. In these pages, a black teenage mother overcomes seemingly insurmountable odds, an observant Muslim dons the hijab during training, an alcoholic hides her addiction. We hear the stories of an Asian refugee, a Mexican immigrant, a closeted Christian, an oversized woman--these once unlikely students are among those who describe their medical school experiences with uncommon candor, giving a close-up look at the inflexible curriculum, the pervasive competitive culture, and the daunting obstacles that come with being "different" in medical school. Their tales of courage are by turns poignant, amusing, eye-opening--and altogether unforgettable. Includes essays by Melanie M. Watkins, Nick Rubashkin (Brandeis, Stanford on the pplication process and getting rejected by 11 schools perhaps for being an activist), Paul M. Lantos (Paul contemplates his existence, life path, and career choice as the grandson of four Jewish holocaust survivors), Marcia Casas, Heather Goff (overcoming OCD), Nusheen Ameenuddin (wearing a hijab at school and in life), Tresa Muir McNeal, Karen C. Kim, "Linda Palafox", Rachel Umi Lee, Kevin M. Takakuwa (alienation), Lainie Holman, Anita Ramsetty, Akilesh Palanisamy, Hoka Hey, Robert "Lame Bull" McDonald, David Marcus, Tista Ghosh, Ugo A. Ezenkwele, Katherine M. Erdwinn (being fat), Simone C. Eastman-Uwan, and Thao Nguyen (former boat refugee). Click the book cover above to read more.
by Thomas Kelley, Jonathan Littman
OCTOBER 2005, Currency
The role of the devil's advocate is nearly universal in business today. It allows individuals to step outside themselves and raise questions and concerns that effectively kill new projects and ideas, while claiming no personal responsibility. Nothing is more potent in stifling innovation, Kelley claims. Over the years, IDEO has developed ten roles people can play in an organization to foster innovation and new ideas while offering an effective counter to naysayers. Among these approaches are the Anthropologist-the person who goes into the field to see how customers use and respond to products, to come up with new innovations; the Cross-pollinator who mixes and matches ideas, people, and technology to create new ideas that can drive growth; and the Hurdler, who instantly looks for ways to overcome the limits and challenges to any situation. Filled with engaging stories of how Kraft, Procter and Gamble, Safeway and the Mayo Clinic have incorporated IDEO's thinking to transform the customer experience, THE TEN FACES OF INNOVATION is an extraordinary guide to nurturing and sustaining a culture of continuous innovation and renewal. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Julie Galambush (College of William and Mary)
HarperSanFrancisco (October 2005)
This Baptist Paster (M Div, Yale) writes that the Christian writings can be viewed as Jewish books. She reveals the anguish of the writers as they left behind their Jewish communities. She illuminates the hidden Jewishness of these texts. From Publishers Weekly: Christianity did not exist as a self-defined religious movement until well into the second century, when it began to distinguish itself from its Judaic roots. How and why did such an evolution occur? In a study that is by turns fascinating and unoriginal, Galambush, a religion professor at William and Mary, performs a close reading of the texts of the New Testament. From Matthew to Revelation, she shows how their authors-Jews themselves-addressed the conflict between their audience's Judaism and this new movement within Judaism. Thus, for example, Matthew, which was written to Jewish Christians, is the most anti-Jewish of the Synoptic Gospels. At the center of the conflicts in the New Testament is the question about whether and how to allow Gentiles to hear the message of this movement. One of Paul's letters, 1 Thessalonians, has long been interpreted to support the Jews' responsibility for the death of Jesus. Galambush observes, however, that Paul is angry at his fellow Jews for hindering him from speaking to the Gentiles. Galambush demonstrates that the development of the religion that became Christianity was a slow and torturous journey, but her tedious summaries of each of the New Testament writings and her often uninventive readings diminish the promise of this otherwise important book. Click the book cover above to read more.
by James Yee, with Aimee Molloy
PublicAffairs, OCTOBER 2005
James Yee (Yusuf Yee) graduated West Point in 1990 and over 14 years was promoted to the rank of Captain. After graduation from the USMA, he converted to Islam and studied in Syria for four years. He made the Haj to Mecca in Saudi Arabia twice. He later became a chaplain in the US Army and was based in Guantanamo where he interacted with detainees from Afghanistan who were being held there. He predecessor, Captain Hamza, warned him to watch his back. Muslim personnel were scrutinized there and the environment, even for officers, was anti-Muslim. After complaining through official channels about what he viewed as the jailers' mishandling of the Koran and their harsh treatment of detainees, Yee himself was investigated, thrown into solitary confinement and threatened with the death penalty in 2003 for mutiny, sedition, espionage and aiding the enemy. Later, he was charged with lesser but still largely trumped-up offenses of adultery and having porn on his had drive; even these allegations were dropped, and he ultimately left the military he loved. For God and Country is an indictment of the sloppy assumptions and religious and cultural blindness that he charges U.S. officials frequently reveal in their struggle with the jihadists. All Muslims are assumed guilty. It also sheds light on Koran Abuse. Yee writes that it was commonplace for testosterone-charged MPs to goad detainees by poking or kicking the Muslim holy book, and he even names a Connecticut Army Reserve unit that he says took particular relish in doing so. Hundreds of detainees ended up demanding that their Korans be removed from their cells to reduce the chances of desecration, but officials declared the books must remain; inmates who refused to grasp the Korans when they were returned through slots in cell doors were physically attacked, he writes.
From the book flap: What do you believe in? James Yee believed in God and America and one of those got him thrown in jail. In 2001, Captain James "Yusuf" Yee was commissioned as one of the first Muslim chaplains in the United States Army. After the tragic attacks of September 11, 2001, he became a frequent government spokesman, helping to educate soldiers about Islam and build understanding throughout the military. Subsequently, Chaplain Yee was selected to serve as the Muslim Chaplain at Guantanamo Bay, where nearly 700 detainees captured in the war on terror were being held as "unlawful combatants." In September 2003, after serving at Guantanamo for ten months in a role that gave him unrestricted access to the detainees--and after receiving numerous awards for his service there--Chaplain Yee was secretly arrested on his way to meet his wife and daughter for a routine two-week leave. He was locked away in a navy prison, subject to much of the same treatment that had been imposed on the Guantanamo detainees. Wrongfully accused of spying, and aiding the Taliban and Al Qaeda, Yee spent 76 excruciating days in solitary confinement and was threatened with the death penalty. After the U.S. government determined it had made a grave mistake in its original allegations, it vindictively charged him with adultery and computer pornography. In the end all criminal charges were dropped and Chaplain Yee's record wiped clean. But his reputation was tarnished, and what has been a promising military career was left in ruins. Depicting a journey of faith and service, Chaplain Yee's For God and Country is the story of a pioneering officer in the U.S. Army, who became a victim of the post-September 11 paranoia that gripped a starkly fearful nation. And it poses a fundamental question: If our country cannot be loyal to even the most patriotic Americans, can it remain loyal to itself? Click the book cover above to read more.
by James Kakalios
gotham, OCTOBER 2005
If superheroes stepped off the comic book page or silver screen and into reality, could they actually work their wonders in a world constrained by the laws of physics? How strong would Superman have to be to "leap tall buildings in a single bound"? Could Storm of the X-Men possibly control the weather? And how many cheeseburgers would the Flash need to eat to be able to run at supersonic speeds? Face front, True Believer, and wonder no more! Because in The Physics of Superheroes acclaimed university professor James Kakalios shows that comic book heroes and villains get their physics right more often than you think. In this scintillating scientific survey of super powers you'll learn what the physics of forces and motion can reveal about Superman's strength and the true cause of the destruction of his home planet Krypton, what villains Magneto and Electro can teach us about the nature of electricity-and finally get the definitive answer about whether it was the Green Goblin or Spider-Man's webbing that killed the Wall Crawler's girlfriend Gwen Stacy in that fateful plunge from the George Washington Bridge! This is the book you need to read if you ever wondered how the Invisible Woman of the Fantastic Four can see when she turns transparent, if the Atom could travel on an electron through a phone line, or if electromagnetic theory can explain how Professor X reads minds. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Abigail Pogrebin
broadway, OCTOBER 2005
Sixty-one of the most accomplished Jews in America speak intimately-most for the first time-about how they feel about being Jewish, the influence of their heritage, the weight and pride of their history, the burdens and pleasures of observance, the moments they've felt most Jewish (or not). In unusually candid interviews conducted by former 60 Minutes producer Abigail Pogrebin over the course of eighteen months, celebrities ranging from Sarah Jessica Parker to Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, from Larry King to Mike Nichols, reveal how being Jewish fits into their public and most private lives. This book of vivid, personal portraits reveals how the experience of being Jewish is amplified by fame and also how the author's evolving Jewish identity was changed by what she heard. Dustin Hoffman, Gene Wilder, Joan Rivers, and Leonard Nimoy talk about their most startling encounters with anti-Semitism. The challenges of intermarriage are explored by Kenneth Cole, Steven Spielberg, Eliot Spitzer, and Ronald Perelman. Attitudes toward Israel range from unquestioned loyalty to complicated ambivalence in the musings of Mike Wallace, Richard Dreyfuss, Natalie Portman, and Ruth Reichl. William Kristol scoffs at the notion that Jewish values are incompatible with Conservative politics. Alan Dershowitz talks about why, despite his Orthodox upbringing, he gave up morning prayer. Shawn Green, baseball's Jewish star, describes the burden of that label. Tony Kushner finds parallels in being Jewish and being gay. Leon Wieseltier throws down the gauntlet to Jews who haven't taken the trouble to study Judaism. These are just a few snapshots from many poignant, often hilarious conversations -- with public figures whom many of us felt we already knew. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Nicolle Rosen
Arcade Publishing (October 10, 2005)
From Booklist: *Starred Review* In this compelling and painstakingly researched novel, Rosen, a psychiatrist herself, delivers an intimate and telling fictional portrait of Sigmund Freud, as seen through the eyes of his wife, Martha. Rosen allows Freud's aging widow to turn the tables on her famous husband by retrospectively analyzing the twists in the psyche that dominated her life for more than five decades. Through private recollection and through increasingly revelatory letters to an American correspondent, Martha begins to piece together the scattered memories of a marital life often made difficult by the unacknowledged dark spots in her husband's powerful mind. Bit by bit, this long-overawed wife starts to discern the evidence of an irrational mysticism lacing her husband's science; of a curious vulnerability to superstition permeating his hostility to all religion, especially his inherited Judaism; and of a gargantuan ego that resented the slightest show of autonomy by colleagues or family members. But as Martha gropes her way through cloudy memories--innocent of any of the psychoanalytic theories incubated under her roof--it is not finally her husband but herself who comes into focus: a woman whose real talent and intellect were denied any expression by a tyrant who styled himself a revolutionary. A historical novel of exceptional power. Click the book cover above to read more.
October 2005, Houghton Mifflin
711 Pages... makes a good doorstop
Some highlights: In 1923, Yale cuts its Jewish enrollment from 13% to 10%; At the same time, Harvard was 25% (and under J3, 27%) Jewish and having difficulty enrolling prep school grads since the school was "too Jewish" and Hebrewized (and worse, the were middle class Jews and not upper class ones); In 1922, it was suggested that the Harvard focus on Character and not intelligence in admissions decisions (to limit Jews); In a 1948 story in the Nation, Carey McWilliams accused Princeton of keeping their Jewish student under a 4% quota; In the 1950's, a study of magnas and dropouts found that Jews were held to higher standards and they came from public high schools. So that 40% of dropouts came from New England prep schools, while public high school grads performed much better; In 1960, Harvard admitted 30% of students from the Middle Atlantic but offered less than 20% of its scholarships to that area (in order to limit Jews).
From Booklist: When gifted high-school students apply to the nation's most elite universities, they often have no idea just how admissions officers will determine their fate. But after poring over countless applicant files and institutional memos, one relentless Berkeley sociologist has unraveled the mystery. Focusing on America's Big Three (Harvard, Yale, and Princeton), Karabel recounts how the admissions office first emerged in the 1920s as an academic innovation designed to protect WASP privilege against the claims of the bright but socially marginal children of Jewish immigrants. By the time these anti-Semitic admissions policies ended, administrators had discovered the institutional utility of nonacademic admissions standards: Karabel shows in provocative detail how for decades the very university executives who have preached equal opportunity have extended special advantages to the offspring of wealthy alumni. He also addresses the first significant attempts to diversify student bodies in the 1960s and assesses the complex effects of affirmative-action policies. A useful overview of a still-controversial subject. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Peter Bearman (Columbia)
University of Chicago Press, OCTOBER 2005
Eer wonder what lurks in the hearts and minds of those stoic, unflappable, dapperly uniformed men (yes, they're nearly always men) who man the doors of your city's apartment buildings? Provoked by his own awkward interaction with his friend's doorman, Bearman, a sociologist at Columbia University, embarked on this exhaustive study of New York City doormen and the often complex dynamics between them and their buildings' tenants. Though any urban dweller will find something of interest, this isn't really a layman's book, and Bearman's prosaic handling dries out a potentially fruitful subject. He tends to spend too much time examining the obvious questions (e.g., why do doormen find their jobs at once "boring and stressful"?), while barely touching upon others that seem deeper and more fertile, such as the ways in which tenants tend to see their doormen as "socially dead." Because Bearman refuses for the most part to engage in any real cultural observations beyond some obvious extrapolations from his data, much of the meat of the book resides in the many short interviews with doormen speaking their (normally unspoken) minds. But what they reveal is well worth the price of admission
Chapters include: 1. Interpersonal Closeness and Social Distance 2. A Foot in the Door 3. Serving Time 4. Crossing the Line 5. Status Displays 6. The Bonus 7. The Union 8. Conclusion. Click the book cover above to read more.
BY DANIEL DOR (Tel Aviv University)
FALL 2005, PLUTO PRESS
Well..it is from the Pluto Press, and Amira Hess give the book jacket blurb... so.. some of the readers here may not love what they read in this book. In the three years that have passed since Operation Defensive Shield - three years marked by denial, deceit, rage and resentment - one fact remains uncontroversial: never, until the operation, had there been such a wide breach between the Israeli collective consciousness and international public opinion. Israeli scholar Daniel Dor measures this gap and concludes that Israeli society has withdrawn into an unprecedented sense of isolation and victimization - largely because of the role played by the Israeli media. Different media outlets provided their readers and viewers with significantly different perspectives on the operation, but they all shared a certain emotional attitude, not vis-�-vis the operation itself, but in relations to the global discourse of blame against Israel: they all projected an urgent, desperate, almost obsessive urge to suppress, to dismiss, to fend off guilt. Dor shows how analyzing this type of reporting as an attempt to manufacture consent with the government and the military fails to capture its essential nature. He argues that, at its core, the coverage proposed alternatives for the construction of an Israeli identity. During the operation, all the different media converged around one assertion: being Israeli at this point in time feels like being accused by the entire world of something we are not guilty of. Basing his arguments on detailed analyses of media reports, Dor explores how the Israeli media work within the context of the global media and world opinion, rather than within the classic context of the nation-state -- and what it means for the future of the country. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Milton Stern
LuLu, 2005
For two decades, Michael Bern, a gay television writer in Hollywood, has stared at an unfinished screenplay sitting on his desk. After attending a friend's funeral in his hometown of Newport News, Virginia, Michael returns to Hollywood and finds there is more than a screenplay that is unfinished in his life. He finally confronts what the screenplay represents - memories and stories of the sometimes sad, often hilarious characters of his past, especially his mother and her four closest friends. Florence, Hannah, Rona, Arlene and Doreen - five more fascinating, menopausal, Jewish women one would never meet. They were friends for more than forty years and saw each other through life's triumphs, tragedies and multiple spouses. Yet, there was only one constant in their lives. On Tuesdays, they played Mah Jongg. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Riz Khan
William Morrow (October 1, 2005)
Khan, independent broadcaster and journalist, offers a unique window into the life and times of His Royal Highness Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (known as Alwaleed), who is described by the Wall Street Journal as the "Arab Warren Buffet." Age 50 and U.S.-educated, Alwaleed is currently the fifth wealthiest man in the world. His prominent family ties in Saudi Arabia as well as in Lebanon lead him, a Muslim who identifies with Western ways and champions reform, to serve as a bridge between the Middle East and the West. The most successful investor outside the U.S., he owns vast investment portfolios that include such brand names as Citibank, EuroDisney, and Apple. This is a fascinating tale of a financial giant who gave the author unprecedented access to himself and those who surround him, resulting in a treasure trove of information. However, like all biographies written with the support of the subject, many could question its objectivity. Alaweed is a former or current MAJOR investor in Citicorp / Citibank. Saks 5th Avenue, Planet Hollywood (he lost on that), DKNY (he sold his shares in Donna Karan when it was acquired by LVMH which makes liquor, a no-no), Disney, News Corp (5%), Geroges V Hotels of Paris, AOL Time Warner (held $1 billion in 2001-2002). After 9/11, Alaweed donated $10 million to NYC, but Mayor Giuliani rejected his donation. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Harold Bloom
Riverhead Hardcover (October 6, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: Prolific literary critic, Yale professor and professional provocateur Bloom (The Book of J) here tackles the characters of the Jewish and Christian gods: what god do we meet in Hebrew Scripture? Who is the Jesus of the New Testament, and does he bear any relation to the Jesus most Americans worship? Does, for that matter, the Hebrew Yahweh resemble the first person of contemporary Christians' Trinity? Bloom, as usual, skewers quite a few sacred cows-for example, he dismisses the quest for the historical Jesus as a waste of time, and says that Jewish-Christian dialogue is a "farce." But in fact Bloom's major points are somewhat commonplace, including his assertion that the Christian reading of Hebrew Scripture laid the groundwork for Christian anti-Semitism. A fair enough charge, but hardly a new one; theologians have observed, and debated, this point for centuries. Bloom's real brilliance lies in his smaller, subtler claims, such as his nuanced discussion of the different ways Matthew, Mark and Luke present Jesus, his assertion that Bible translator William Tyndale anticipated Shakespeare, and his observation that, contra Marx, religion is not the opiate of the people but their "poetry, both bad and good." The book is learned, even erudite, and sure to be controversial. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Leon Goldensohn
Riverhead Hardcover (October 6, 2005)
The Nuremberg Interviews reveals the chilling innermost thoughts of the former Nazi officials under indictment at the famous postwar trial. The architects of one of history's greatest atrocities speak out about their lives, their careers in the Nazi Party, and their views on the Holocaust. Their reflections are recorded in a set of interviews conducted by a U.S. Army psychiatrist. Dr. Leon Goldensohn was entrusted with monitoring the mental health of the two dozen German leaders charged with carrying out genocide, as well as that of many of the defense and prosecution witnesses. These recorded conversations have gone largely unexamined for more than fifty years. Now, Robert Gellately-one of the premier historians of Nazi Germany-has transcribed, edited, and annotated the interviews, and makes them available to the public for the first time in this volume. Here are interviews with the highest-ranking Nazi officials in the Nuremberg jails, including Hans Frank, Hermann Goering, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, and Joachim von Ribbentrop. Here, too, are interviews with the lesser-known officials who were, nonetheless, essential to the workings of the Third Reich. Goldensohn was a particularly astute interviewer, his training as a psychiatrist leading him to probe the motives, the rationales, and the skewing of morality that allowed these men to enact an unfathomable evil. Candid and often shockingly truthful, these interviews are deeply disturbing in their illumination of an ideology gone mad. Each interview is annotated with biographical information that places the man and his actions in their historical context. These interviews are a profoundly important addition to our understanding of the Nazi mind and mission. . Click the book cover above to read more.
by Nathaniel Fick
OCTOBER 3, 2005, Houghton Mifflin
Mr. Fick graduated from Dartmouth. He is now a dual degree candidate at Harvard Biz School and the JFK School. If the Marines are "the few, the proud," Recon Marines are the fewest and the proudest. Only one Marine in a hundred qualifies for the Reconnaissance Battalion, charged with working clandestinely, often behind enemy lines. Fick"s training begins with a hellish summer at Quantico, after his junior year at Dartmouth, and advances to the pinnacle-Recon-four years later, on the eve of war with Iraq. Along the way, he learns to shoot a man a mile away, stays awake for seventy-two hours straight, endures interrogation and torture at the secretive SERE course, learns to swim with Navy SEALs, masters the Eleven Principles of Leadership, and much more. His vast skill set puts him in front of the front lines, leading 22 Marines into the deadlist conflict since Vietnam. He vows he will bring all his men home safely, and to do so he"ll need more than his top-flight education. He"ll need luck and an increasingly clear vision of the limitations of his superiors and the missions they assign him. Fick unveils the process that makes Marine officers such legendary leaders and shares his hard-won insights into the differences between the military ideals he learned and military practice, which can mock those ideals.
From Publishers Weekly: The global war on terrorism has spawned some excellent combat narratives-mostly by journalists. Warriors, like Marine Corps officer Fick, bring a different and essential perspective to the story. A classics major at Dartmouth, Fick joined the Marines in 1998 because he "wanted to go on a great adventure... to do something so hard that no one could ever talk shit to me." Thus begins his odyssey through the grueling regimen of Marine training and wartime deployments-an odyssey that he recounts in vivid detail in this candid and fast-paced memoir. Fick was first deployed to Afghanistan, where he saw little combat, but his Operation [Iraqi] Freedom unit, the elite 1st Reconnaissance Battalion, helped spearhead the invasion of Iraq and "battled through every town on Highway 7" from Nasiriyah to al Kut. (Rolling Stone writer Evan Wright's provocative Generation Kill is based on his travels with Fick's unit.) Like the best combat memoirs, Fick's focuses on the men doing the fighting and avoids hyperbole and sensationalism. He does not shrink from the truth-however personal or unpleasant. "I was aware enough," he admits after a firefight, "to be concerned that I was starting to enjoy it." Click the book cover above to read more.
It will be published in Hebrew, but for the most talked about chapter, you can read it below (follow the URL), in English. From The Seventh War (Milchama HaShivit); By Amos Harel and Avi Isacharoff; Yediot Achronot Books; 383pp., 88 NIS in Hebrew. Harel, Haaretz's military correspondent and Isacharoff, Israel Radio's reporter on Palestinian affairs, belong to a small group who still go out into the field every day. If both weren't in their early 30s, one could say that they are reporters of the old school
http://www.miftah.org/Doc/Reports/2005/The_final_days_of_Yasser_Arafat.pdf
by Roger Bennett, Nick Kroll, Jules Shell
November 2005, Crown
From Publishers Weekly: The Jewish rite of passage into adulthood is more than simply a ritual, according to Bennett, Shell and Kroll. The bar and bat mitzvahs of their youth evoke reminiscences that had been "left to languish in suburban rec rooms and the darker recesses of our memories-the unmistakable smell of the smoke machine... and the sound of Lionel Richie." This collection of essays and photos is the offshoot of their Web site of the same name, on which they solicited photos from the late 1960s through the 1980s displaying the peculiarities of their times. The book is structured as a professionally photographed bar mitzvah album, starting with awkward portraits and ending with the requisite "waving good-bye" shot. In between, the authors give short, humorous recollections of each aspect of the event, from the elaborately designed sign-in board to the chair-lift tradition.
Well-known contributors, such as author Jonathan Safran Foer, comedian Sarah Silverman and Will & Grace creator David Kohan, add what seem to be hastily crafted but amusing short commentaries. While deeper observations would've made this more sustaining fare, the photographs alone make it a delicious bite of pop culture.
Mr. Bennett, 30, was the director of special projects at the Andrea and Charles Bronfman Philanthropies in New York. He hails from Leeds University and Liverpool and St. Helen's, England. He was sitting around one day with two friends and they were bored on Manhattan's West Side. One friend suggested they look through their bar mitzvah photo albums. The rest is history. He is now working on a book of Catskills photos and resurrecting the unique fashions of adler pants (see Adlerpants.com)
Click the book cover above to read more.
Dr. Constance H. Buchanan (Introduction), Rabbi Margaret Wenig (Editor)
November 2005, CBST Books
Two of the best classes we ever took were at CBST (Jewish Law and Tattoos was one of them, hehe). And while some people go to shuls to pray or for the honey cake, we at MyJewishBooks.com have been attracted by the inspiring and humor filled sermons and drashot by Rabbi Kleinbaum (who can forget the poingnat Kol Nidre one, in which she also added that congregants were welcome to fall to sleep since Manhattanites are so sleep deprived it would be a miotzvah if she could grant them some needed rest, or that the Loew's Cinema 8:30 films were about to start across from the shul). And now, Congregation Beth Simchat Torah in Manhattan has published Listening for the Oboe, a collection of drashot by Rabbi Sharon Kleinbaum from her first ten years as spiritual leader of CBST. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jonathan Orr-Stav
November 2005, YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Learn to Write the Hebrew Script presents a new and innovative approach to learning the Hebrew script. Drawing on the common ancestry of European and Hebrew alphabets and the natural inclinations of the writing hand, Orr-Stav shows how the Hebrew script may be understood and acquired almost intuitively through a three-step transformation of ordinary Roman-script cursive. Thoroughly researched but written with a light touch and the empathy of someone who's been there, Learn to Write the Hebrew Script uncovers several surprises and dispels much of the mystique of what is often an intimidating subject, making the script of the Old Testament much more accessible to millions of non-Hebrew speakers worldwide.
"What sets this book apart is its novel approach to the subject, which offers the Western reader a far more accessible and less intimidating approach to the subject."-J.P. Kang, Princeton Theological Seminary
"This quirky, unexpected, and utterly charming book offers a three-step method for learning to write Hebrew script, and the author has a gift for presenting the technical and abstract clearly and disarmingly."-The Jerusalem Report
Click the book cover above to read more.
November 1, 2005, Warner Books
I saw the show on Bway in 2004. Now it is in hardcover.
From Publishers Weekly: Reading the book version of comedian Crystal's Broadway solo show can be initially off-putting. The jokes he uses to warm up his audience (on why Jews eat Chinese food on Sunday nights, his complaints about his circumcision, the nasal pronunciation of Jewish names, etc.) are distinctly unfunny on the page. But once Crystal is finished with shtick and on to the story of his marvelous Long Island family, readers will be glad they can savor it at their own pace. There's the story of Crystal's uncle Milt Gabler, who started the Commodore music label and recorded Billie Holiday singing "Strange Fruit" when no one else would. Then there's the Sunday afternoon when Holiday takes young Crystal to see his first movie at what later became the Fillmore East. There's even Louis Armstrong at the Crystal family seder, with Crystal's grandma telling the gravelly-voiced singer, "Louis, have you tried just coughing it up?" At the heart of these tales is Crystal's father, the man who bought his little boy a tape recorder when he announced he wanted to be a comedian and didn't scold when he recycled off-color borscht belt routines for family gatherings. Crystal's dad worked two jobs and died young, so they had maybe 700 Sundays together-but how dear they were. Click the book cover above to read more.
Edited by Ellen Schiff and Michael Posnick with Intro by Theodore Bikel
November 2005. University of Texas Press
Jewish theatre--plays about and usually by Jews--enters the twenty-first century with a long and distinguished history. To keep this vibrant tradition alive, the National Foundation for Jewish Culture established the New Play Commissions in Jewish Theatre in 1994. The commissions are awarded in an annual competition. Their goal is to help emerging and established dramatists develop new works in collaboration with a wide variety of theatres. Since its inception, the New Play Commissions has contributed support to more than seventy-five professional productions, staged readings, and workshops. This anthology brings together nine commissioned plays that have gone on to full production. Ellen Schiff and Michael Posnick have selected works that reflect many of the historical and social forces that have shaped contemporary Jewish experience and defined Jewish identity-among them, surviving the Holocaust, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and the lives of newcomers in America, Israel, and Argentina. Following a foreword by Theodore Bikel, the editors provide introductory explanations of the New Play Commissions and an overview of Jewish theatre. The playwrights comment on the genesis of their work and its production history. Click the book cover above to read more.
Fall 2005, FSG
Ages 10 and up
Meet Sasha Abramowitz: smart, funny, resourceful. Aspiring writer and pastry chef. Good listener (usually), good talker (when she feels like it), good friend (most of the time). Good sister? Well, that's more complicated. You see, her brother has Tourette's syndrome, which is really his problem, but in a way it's Sasha's, too (he can be pretty embarrassing at times). Let's just say she's working on it. Anyway, he's away at a special school (until a fire sends the students home, unexpectedly). But with her baseball-loving professor dad, a mom who teaches neuroscience, a babysitter who's the star shortstop for the Krieger Cats and doubles as a magician and card trickster, an ex-babysitter who becomes her substitute teacher, and an onagain-off-again best friend, Sasha is not alone. As she struggles with changing friendships and feelings about her older brother, learns her lines for her part in Cheaper by the Dozen, gets to know James, the quiet boy who plays opposite her, and helps the doctors solve a medical mystery, she comes to see herselfand her life in a different light. Click the book cover above to read more.
Three challahs, two maccabees, and a present waiting for me.....
Why three challahs?...
Incorporating the popular music of 12 Days of Christmas into a Chanukah book, this is perfect for children of any religious orientation. "On the first night of Chanukah..." begins the familiar tune in a book that sees the wondrous days of Chanukah through the eyes of shy young child. The child's family grows bigger and bigger as the holiday gets closer and closer. Each night, one new item or person is added to the celebration-and there is always a present for every child in the room! The accumulating text makes this book fun to read (and sing!) aloud while the bright and cheerful illustrations allow a young reader to count each object added. Educational and a joy for adults and children, The Eight Nights of Chanukah is a wonderful book for the whole family to share. Leslea Newman is the author of fifty books for both adults and children. Click the book cover above to read more.
by David A. Adler
JPS
What fun! A Hanukkah book chock full of history, stories, activities, music, riddles, games, mazes, cartoons, puzzles, recipes, crafts, songs, and so much more. In this activity-packed, fact-filled new title in the enormously successful JPS Kids' Catalog Series, Adler provides just the right balance of education and entertainment. This is a book that children and their families will enjoy again and again, year after year. The opening section of the book explains the history and customs of Hanukkah, along with details on the traditional way to light the candles and celebrate the holiday. This is followed by a selection of wonderful stories written by such classic writers as I.L. Peretz and Sadie Rose Weilerstein, and modern tales by Johanna Hurwitz, Malka Penn, and other contemporary storytellers. Part Three is pure Hanukkah fun. A glossary, index, and annotated list of recommended books about Hanukkah are also included. Click the book cover above to read more.
did you hear about the kid who thought his grandfather owned a sweet shop. Oops.. it was a sweat shop.
Fall 2005, Hyperion
Ages 5 and up
Old Scroogemacher is as sour as a pickle and has a tongue like horseradish. He's a tyrant to the poor workers in his waistcoat factory (sweatshop), and even on the last night of Hanukkah, he has the nerve to set the clocks back. When his nephew Moshe protests, Scroogemacher shrugs. "Hanukkah, shmanukkah," he says. "It's just another night to me." Oy vey, was he wrong! Who would have thought that not one, not two, but THREE mysterious rabbis would visit him that night? As Scroogemacher travels back and forth with his wise guides from the time of the Maccabees to present-day tenements, and then on to the wonders and horrors of the future, he begins to understand that good things can happen from a little remembering. Especially on Hanukkah, shmanukkah. But do the rabbis manage to turn Scroogemacher into a mensch? What do you think, can a leopard change its spots? Click the book cover above to read more.
Fall 2005, Roaring Brook Press
Ages 5 and up
Four sides of a toy, eight nights of celebration, forty-four candles burning in honor of an ancient miracle, two-thousand-one-hundred-seventy-some years of Hanukkah -- everything you ever wanted to know about the Hanukkah holiday, centered of the children's game of dreidel (a spinning top). Jokes, history, customs, trivia, science facts (just how fast does a dreidel spin?) come to life with wacky and informative illustrations throughout. Rebecca Tova Ben-Zvi makes her latkes with sweet potatoes and plays dreidel year-round. Writing as Rebecca O'Connell, she is the author of The Baby Goes Beep. A librarian and storyteller, she lives in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Click the book cover above to read more.
Fall 2005, Tricycle
Ages 3 - 8
In the much-anticipated follow-up to Pretend Soup, celebrity chef Mollie Katzen cooks up 20 new vegetarian recipes that kids six and under can prepare themselves (with a little help from their adult assistant). The last decade has seen unprecedented demand in healthy eating for kids. Taking this interest one step further, Mollie Katzen presents kid-friendly recipes that will inspire joyful kitchen adventures and food appreciation. With Salad People, children will enjoy a lifelong love and playful respect for nutritious food from Tiny Tacos, Counting Soup, Salad People, and beyond. Complete with kitchen tips, safety and behavior rules compiled by actual kids, and thoughtful observations on what children gain from cooking, Salad People is the model children's kitchen guide for a new decade. All-new recipes make the perfect companions to Pretend Soup recipes. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Marcie Cohen Ferris
Fall 2005, Univ of North Carolina
Since early colonial times in America, Jewish southerners have been tempted by delectable regional foods. Because some of these foods--including pork and shellfish--have been traditionally forbidden to Jews by religious dietary laws, southern Jews face a special predicament. In a culinary journey through the Jewish South, Arkansas native Marcie Cohen Ferris explores how southern Jews embraced, avoided, and adapted southern food and, in the process, have found themselves at home. From colonial Savannah and Charleston to Civil War era New Orleans and Natchez, from New South Atlanta to contemporary Memphis and across the Mississippi and Arkansas Deltas, Ferris examines the expressive power of food throughout southern Jewish history. She demonstrates how southern Jews reinvented traditions as they adjusted to living in a largely Christian world where they were bound by regional rules of race, class, and gender. Featuring a trove of photographs, Matzoh Ball Gumbo also includes anecdotes, oral histories, and more than thirty recipes to try at home. Ferris's rich tour of southern Jewish foodways shows that, at the dining table, Jewish southerners created a distinctive religious expression that reflects the evolution of southern Jewish life. From the colonial era to the present, Ferris examines the expressive power of food throughout Southern Jewish history. She demonstrates how Southern Jews reinvented culinary traditions as they adjusted to living in a largely Christian region where forbidden foods such as pork, shrimp, oysters, and crab are intensely popular. Richly illustrated, this culinary tour of the Jewish South includes anecdotes, oral histories, and more than thirty recipes to try at home. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Isabel Vincent
William Morrow. November 2005
The acclaimed journalist and author of Hitler's Silent Partners reveals for the first time one of the most shameful and secret chapters in history -- the forced slavery and prostitution of thousands of young Jewish women from the 1860s to the beginning of World War II. Sophia Chamys, Rachel Liberman, Rebecca Freedman. Young and poor, these Jewish women and thousands of others like them were sold or duped into slavery, forced to become prostitutes by the Zwi Migdal, a notorious criminal gang comprised entirely of Jewish mobsters. From the late 1860s until the beginning of World War II in 1939, the women left behind the grinding poverty and anti-Semitism of Eastern Europe's teeming urban ghettos and rural shtetls to find themselves working in brothels in South America, Latin America, South Africa, India, and New York. Though these women were forced into this terrible life, the Jewish community deemed them unclean and refused to accept them. Barred from synagogues and shunned by their coreligionists, they were also forbidden from partaking in the sacred Jewish burial ritual. Eventually they formed The Society of Truth, a religious order of love, honor to God, and faith in one another that established women-only synagogues, kosher kitchens, and cemeteries. Culled from archival documents, academic studies, and interviews, Bodies and Souls illuminates the tragic plight of these long-forgotten women and elevates them to their rightful place in history.
From Publishers Weekly: One of the saddest and most shameful stories in Jewish history has been suppressed for generations: between 1860 and 1939, thousands of poor young women from Eastern European shtetls were sold into sexual slavery by the Jewish-run Zwi Migdal crime syndicate, which controlled brothels on several continents. Focusing on three women, Vincent reconstructs the miserable lives of many of these women. One, sent to New York, saw 273 men in a two-week period. Many, unable to find support in the Jewish community-which ostracized them-committed suicide. And one, Sally Knopf, whose own uncle was a trafficker, escaped by disguising herself as a man. There is some triumph here: the Jewish prostitutes of Rio de Janeiro purchased their own cemetery in 1916 and ran their own burial society. By the time they bought their own synagogue in 1942, they had seen the demise of the Zwi Migdal gang. Unanswered questions, many raised by Vincent herself, abound. Clearly, poverty and lack of opportunity in Europe drove women into the trade, but why did they stay? Canadian journalist Vincent (Hitler's Silent Partners: Swiss Banks, Nazi Gold and the Pursuit of Justice) demonstrates her strength as a writer and storyteller, which enables her to at least partially retrieve this all-but-lost world. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Rabbi Elliot N. Dorff
November 2005, AVIV
By Rabbi Elliot Dorff, a Professor at Univ of Judaism in Los Angeles and at UCLA School of Law. This is his twelfth book on Jewish law and thought. This volume analyzes the biblical and rabbinic roots of Jewish law, as interpreted by leading rabbis of the Conservative movement and beyond. This long-awaited work is essential reading for anyone seeking to understand the roots, development and interpretation of Jewish law in general, and for those who wish to know how Conservative Judaism evolved and what it represents. Rabbi Dorff also explains some fascinating differences between American and Jewish law. The book includes texts and selections by rabbis on the left and right of the Conservative movement (as well as Orthodox writers), including Rabbis Jacob Agus, Ray Scheindlin, Gordon Tucker, Yeshayahu Leibowitz, David Hartman, Euguene Borowitz, Mordecai Kaplan, Abraham Joshua Heschel, Z. Frankel, Solomon Schechter, Louis Jacobs, David Gordis, Joel Roth, Neil Gillman, and Alana Suskind. Includes samples of Conservative legal theories, such as the ordination of women, a response to miscarriaged pregnancies, intimate relations, poverty, and the end of life. . Click the book cover above to read more.
by WILL EISNER (1917-2005)
NORTON, NOVEMBER 2005
The legendary graphic novel and the sequels that launched an art form. With graphic narrative that "was closer to the writing of Bernard Malamud or Isaac Bashevis Singer than any comic art which had preceded it" (The Economist), A Contract with God, originally published in 1978, was the first graphic novel: the prototype-along with A Life Force and Dropsie Avenue-for such seminal works as Maus and Persepolis. Set during the Great Depression, this literary trilogy, assembled in one volume for the first time, presents a treasure house of now near-mythic stories that fictionally illustrate the bittersweet tenement life of Eisner's youth. With nearly one dozen new illustrations and a revealing brand-new foreword, this book ultimately tells the epic story of life, death, and resurrection while exploring man's fractious relationship with an all-too-vengeful God. This mesmerizing, fictional chronicle of the universal American immigrant experience is Eisner's most poignant and enduring legacy. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Icchokas Meras, Jonas Zdanys (Translator)
NYU OTHER PRESS, NOVEMBER 2005
From Publishers Weekly: SS Commandant Adolf Schroger, overseeing the Vilna Jewish ghetto, challenges 171/2-year-old Isaac Lipman to a chess match with tauntingly barbarous stakes: if Isaac wins, Schroger will kill him, but all of the children in the ghetto will live; if he loses, the children will die, except for Isaac. A stalemate is thus the only desirable outcome. Isaac is his father Abraham's last surviving son; the two show love, strength and composure in the face of fear. Isaac's 16-year-old love interest, Esther, is lovely and sweet, but carrying her own already tragic past. There are many other stories, sometimes extraneous, of fathers and mothers, the missing and the dead, close friends and siblings. Born in Lithuania in 1934, Meras was hidden by a rural family during WWII; his family was murdered by the SS. In 1972, Meras emigrated to Israel, and most of his many novels center on WWII. The plot of Stalemate, out of print for 20 years, may seem hokey, but it's precisely the sort of random, ham-fisted horror that the Nazis routinely came up with, and Isaac's quest to merge cleverness and humility in all aspects of his life, under extreme duress, is winning. Icchokas Meras was born in 1934 in Kelme, a town in northwestern Lithuania. Meras has been the recipient of many literary awards. He currently lives in Holon, Israel. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Vikram Seth
HarperCollins (November 1, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: (Starred Review) In 1969, [Vikram] Seth, 17, came from Calcutta to London to continue his education and to stay with his Shanti Uncle and Aunty Henny. Their relationship became warm, and it is their stories (as well as his own) that Seth (A Suitable Boy) tells in this wide-ranging, unpredictable and moving account. Shanti was Seth's grandfather's brother, a dentist who studied in Berlin, lodging with Frau Caro, whose daughter, Henny, was in love with someone else. He left for Britain in 1936 because he couldn't practice in Germany, but in 1940, as war broke out, he enlisted, served throughout and lost his right arm in combat, a calamity for a dentist. Meanwhile, Henny, a German Jew, arrived in Britain weeks before war was declared, leaving her beloved mother and sister behind to death camp murder. "Vicky" interviewed his great-uncle at length, and part two of his narrative focuses on Shanti. Part three, Henny's story, even more unusual, is based on a trove of remarkable letters she received and wrote (she often kept carbons), many to friends in Germany during the war. Part four examines their marriage (they didn't marry until seven years after the war), and part five details a family mystery about Shanti's will and Seth's complex but beautifully lucid summation of his research into these lives. This lovely book, "memoir as well as biography," examines great and fearful events seen through extraordinary lives. In clear and elegant writing, Seth explores the macrocosm through the microcosm, resulting in a most unusual, worthwhile book. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Jerome Charyn
Thunder's Mouth Press (November 9, 2005)
When compiler Jerome Charyn first read Saul Bellow's The Adventures of Augie March, a world of letters opened up to him. It was his first exposure to the full potential of language, rendered breathlessly. In those pages he felt the terror and delight and buzz and ceaseless clatter of the inside of a hornet's head. Here, he shares with us nineteen stories, including one from Augie March, that evoke similar feelings of passion and pain and joy. Selected from some of America's most celebrated Jewish writers, as well as a few lesser known ones, Inside the Hornet's Head is a moving, daring, appealing, and indispensable work. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Diana Friedman
Clarkson Potter (November 22, 2005)
From Archie Bunker's Barcalounger to the framed peephole on Friends, sitcom decor sets the tone of our favorite shows-and defines the lives of its characters. Now Sitcom Style brings you a behind-the-scenes peek inside more than two dozen of the most recognizable homes in American pop culture: the sets of our favorite TV shows from the past half-century. The sets of situation comedies aren't just a collection of random props that surround the actors; they're statements of style. They're designed to convey a particular mood, to both reflect and enhance the personalities of the people who live in them-just like anyone's home. So Sitcom Style is more than a glimpse into a make-believe world; it's also a fascinating exploration of how to bring personal style into your own living room. Set designers share their secrets and strategies for creating some of the most thought-out homes in America, and you can learn how to recreate these styles in your own home, complete with shopping resources! What's more, Sitcom Style is also a nostalgic stroll through the most beloved locations in the American consciousness. From the early days of I Love Lucy, The Addams Family, and I Dream of Jeannie through seventies' favorites like Three's Company and Happy Days to the eighties' The Cosby Show and Roseanne and recent megahits like Friends, Sex and the City, and Will & Grace, Sitcom Style is an at-a-glance look at how America has lived for the past fifty years. And for true TV buffs, each chapter includes information on the set designers, years of production, favorite quotes, and trivia. A completely unique combination of pop culture and interior design, Sitcom Style is a must whether you love the TV world or want to spice up your own decor at home. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Robert Fisk
NOVEMBER 2005, Knopf
From Publishers Weekly: Combining a novelist's talent for atmosphere with a scholar's grasp of historical sweep, foreign correspondent Fisk (Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon) has written one of the most dense and compelling accounts of recent Middle Eastern history yet. The book opens with a deftly juxtaposed account of Fisk's two interviews with Osama bin Laden. In the first, held in Sudan in 1993, bin Laden declared himself "a construction engineer and an agriculturist." He had no time to train mujahideen, he said; he was busy constructing a highway. In the second, held four years later in Afghanistan, he declared war on the Saudi royal family and America.Fisk, who has lived in and reported on the Middle East since 1976, first for the (London) Times and now for the Independent, possesses deep knowledge of the broader history of the region, which allows him to discuss the Armenian genocide 90 years ago, the 2002 destruction of Jenin, and the battlefields of Iraq with equal aplomb. But it is his stunning capacity for visceral description-he has seen, or tracked down firsthand accounts of, all the major events of the past 25 years-that makes this volume unique. Some of the chapters contain detailed accounts of torture and murder, which more squeamish readers may be inclined to skip, but such scenes are not gratuitous. They are designed to drive home Fisk's belief that "war is primarily not about victory or defeat but about death and the infliction of death." Though Fisk's political stances may sometimes be controversial, no one can deny that this volume is a stunning achievement. Click the book cover above to read more.
A Novel by Michael Lavigne
November 2005, Random House
Donna Seaman, writing in Booklist, states: "*Starred Review* Lavigne carves a new portal into the depthless mystery of the Holocaust, writing insightfully and imaginatively about the survival instinct and the thorny love between fathers and sons in a debut even more accomplished than Nicole Krauss' much-hailed Holocaust novel The History of Love (2005). Michael Rosenheim, a smart and endearingly self-deprecating stand-up comic, hides within a fortress of jokes in the wake of the early deaths of his sister and mother and his divorce. Now Heshel, his father, is in a Florida nursing home suffering from Alzheimer's. Holed up in his father's Judaica-festooned apartment, Michael feels as though he has gone through the looking glass as he starts reading a set of old journals. Lavigne alternates with increasing drama between the ruefully funny "live" scenes and the utter hell the blunt diarist describes in chronicling the life of Heinrich Mueller, an SS death camp accountant. As the Allies approach, he steals the identity of a dead Jewish inmate named Heshel Rosenheim and ends up in Israel, where Holocaust survivors fight heroically for a homeland. Performing a phenomenal balancing act between light and dark, past and present, guilt and forgiveness, Lavigne sets in motion profoundly complex moral dilemmas in a vivid, all-consuming, paradoxical, and quintessentially human story."
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by Sidney Sheldon
NOVEMBER 2005,
Sheldon was born in Chicago, Illinois to a German Jewish father and a Russian Jewish mother. His career began in 1937 in Hollywood, California, where he reviewed scripts and collaborated on a number of B-movies. Over the years, Sheldon has written for television, film, and stage, winning an Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay (1947) for The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer, a Tony Award (1959) for his musical Redhead, and earned Emmy nominations for his work on I Dream of Jeannie, an NBC sitcom. As well as the Patty Duke Show.
His eagerly-anticipated memoir opens as Sheldon is contemplating suicide as a teen, the vistim of bi polar disorder. America's premier storyteller shares the story of his own life in a frank and revealing book that rivals any of his fictional tales.Sidney Sheldon is truly an entertainment legend: Author of over a dozen bestsellers, Academy Award�-winning screenwriter, and creator of some of television's greatest hits, he has lived a singularly fascinating life. Sheldon has seen and done it all, and now in this candid memoir, he shares his story for the first time-talking about the personalities, highs, and lows that have made his career and life so captivating. From a depression-era childhood in Chicago to an Air Corps stint in WW II to the bright lights and hot parties of New York and Los Angeles, Sidney Sheldon has lived the kind of life most people could never imagine...until now. Click the book cover above to read more.
By PHILIPPE BURRIN
NOVEMBER 2005, NE WPRESS
One of the continuing puzzles of twentieth-century history is how Germany moved from a kind of anti-Semitism that was despicable, but did not seem exceedingly dangerous, to the Final Solution. This question has been much debated in recent years, and historians have arrived at very different answers. In Nazi Anti-Semitism, Philippe Burrin, one of the leading historians of Nazi Germany, offers a new understanding of the evolution of Nazi thought and policy. Disagreeing with those such as Daniel Goldhagen (author of Hitler's Willing Executioners) who would condemn the German population as a whole for being inherently anti-Jewish, Burrin presents a more nuanced picture and shows how Nazi policy evolved gradually. How the Germans proceeded from seemingly unthinkable premises to the actual horror of the Holocaust is the story that he tells in this essential book. Burrin's France Under the Germans, published by The New Press in 1997, received widespread praise and has become a seminal work. Already published to great acclaim in France, Nazi Anti-Semitism opens new perspectives in a vital historical debate with continuing relevance. . Click the book cover above to read more.
by Michael Sorkin
NOVEMBER 2005, New Press
Voices from Israel and the Occupied Territories, as well as around the world, explore the intersection of architecture and politics. Called a "security fence" by the Israeli government and the "apartheid wall" by Palestinians, the barrier currently under construction in the West Bank has been the subject of intense controversy since the first olive tree was uprooted in its path. In violation of a ruling by the International Court of Justice and a resolution by the United Nations General Assembly, the structure juts deep inside Palestinian territory, altering not only the geographical landscape, but the political one as well. A collection of original pieces, along with photographs and maps, that offer a critique of the wall from a range of perspectives-legal, historical, architectural, and philosophical. Architect Michael Sorkin has assembled commentary from various international experts, including both Israeli and Palestinian voices. (Of course, only those people who criticize the wall).. including Suad Amiry, Ariella Azoulay, Terry Boullata, Mike Davis, Sari Hanafi, Stephanie Koury, Dean MacCannell, Ruchama Marton, Adi Ophir, Rebecca Solnit, Anita Vitullo, and Eyal Weizmann. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Isabel Kershner (Jerusalem Report magazine)
Palgrave Macmillan (November 29, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: One of the effects of the highly controversial barrier being erected by Israel between itself and Occupied Palestine has been the creation of a weird nether-world dubbed "the Seam Zone," which Jerusalem Report editor Kerchner describes with both compassion and coherence. Using numerous interviews and impressive legwork, Kerchner conveys both the tragic necessity of a physical separation to shield Israelis from terrorism, as well as the bureaucratic nightmare of Kafkaesque proportions the arbitrary divide represents for the Palestinians caught on the wrong side as they are subjected to a barrage of hardships, humiliations and expropriations. Kerchner follows a plethora of protagonists, including academics, military fence planners, disillusioned kibbutzniks, Arab farmers cut off from their olive groves, Israeli antiwall activists and the parents of Arab "martyrs" who applaud their murderous progeny but crave peace with their Jewish neighbors. Her diligence pays off, and the rigorous in-the-field reporting and simple human empathy of this engrossing study more than makes up for a few easy generalizations on one or two contentious issues. Her volume provides stunning insights into the latest, and perhaps most potent, symbol of the impasse the Arab-Israeli peace process has lumbered into since the promising Oslo Accords over a decade ago.
The Washington Post wrote: "... The wall may be a sign of things to come: a partition without process, a territorial divisional produced not by peace talks but by bombs and barracades..." Click the book cover above to read more.
by Dena Ordan, Judith Tydor Baumel (Translator) (BAR ILAN UNIV)
Syracuse University Press (November 2005)
Tells the remarkable story of six young men and the organizations they founded between 1939 and 1948 that would set the stage for the militant Zionist activism of today. During and shortly after the Second World War, six young men-emissaries of the revisionist-Zionist "Irgun" military movement in Palestine - revolutionized the American - Jewish and Zionist scene. Judith Tydor Baumel provides the complete story of the role the Bergson group played in raising American public consciousness of Jewish and Zionist concerns. After founding a series of pro-Zionist and rescue organizations, they initiated a new form of fundraising that used the media to turn the spotlight on their activities, gaining adherents and supporters from both ends of the political and social spectrum. Long before the protest movements of the 1950s and 1960s, members of this group learned the art of courting the media in order to bring word of their existence to every part of the United States. Having energized politicians, gangsters, Hollywood moguls, and ultra- Orthodox rabbis, the handful of young men taught other Zionist and American- Jewish groups not only how the media was the message but how it could and should be used. A guiding force behind the creation of the War Refugee Board, the group served as a beacon for contemporary Zionist militancy while ultimately laying the groundwork for other organizations to utilize the media in future political campaigns. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Paul Krassner
NOVEMBER 2005, Seven Stories Press
Counterculture legend Paul Krassner gazes on the fires of pop culture, politics and celebrity and returns unscathed to help us make sense of our senseless world, with an introduction by Lewis Black (The Daily Show) and a foreword by Harry Shearer (The Simpsons, Le Show). From cults to pornography, from Charles Manson to Homer Simpson, from the war on drugs to the invasion of Iraq, from Dolly Parton to Lenny Bruce, from circumcision to propaganda, this collection epitomizes Krassner's credo, "Irreverence is our only sacred cow." Click the book cover above to read more.
by Ben Shephard
Schocken (November 15, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: Why did 14,000 inmates of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp die after its liberation and under British control? Shephard, creator of the Emmy-winning documentary series The World at War, casts a critical but judicious eye on British management of the camp. Drawing on letters and diaries by British military and medical personnel, he paints a textured picture of the camp's desperate state, rife with starvation and typhus. Shephard acknowledges the enormity of the problems the British faced and the logistical difficulties of wartime. Yet he makes clear that many deaths could have been prevented. Some died from food that was too rich and heavy for starving people, and the evacuation of both the sick and fit was delayed. At the same time, he commends some people, often outside the military structure, who saved lives through individual initiative and heroic measures. Shephard draws lessons for today in, for instance, the difficulty the military has in dealing with a humanitarian disaster, and the basic reality that there's only so much that can be done when confronting a den of disease. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Mike Wallace, Gary Paul Gates
Hyperion (November 2005)
From Booklist From the perspective of 60 years of reporting, most notably with 60 Minutes respected newsman Wallace, in his second memoir, shares interviews with the famous and the infamous, including personal observations on the friends and enemies he's made along the way. Interspersing clips from interviews with commentary, Wallace also provides the historical context and backstory. In 1971, talking to President Lyndon B. Johnson two years after leaving office, Wallace goads the desolate and compulsively controlling Johnson to speak about the legacy of the Vietnam War. Wallace relates his own personal struggles with depression, a malady he publicly shared with William Styron and Art Buchwald. He relates his respect for the penetrating intelligence and political savvy of Richard Nixon, his admiration for the public service spirit of Jimmy and Rosalyn Carter, and his long friendship with Nancy Reagan, including a public falling out and a public patching up on Larry King Live. He includes a chapter featuring interviews with con artists and crooks, which 60 Minutes is famous for unveiling, and a chapter featuring beloved celebrities Shirley MacLaine, Vanessa Redgrave, Barbra Streisand, and others. The book also includes a 90-minute DVD of clips from Wallace's more famous interviews. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Gerd Korman, Professor Emeritus Cornell Univ
University of Wisconsin Press, November 2005
Fleeing the Nazis in the months before World War II, the Korman family scattered from a Polish refugee camp with the hope of reuniting in America. The father sailed to Cuba on the ill-fated St. Louis; the mother left for the United States after sending her two sons on a Kindertransport. One of the sons was Gerd Korman, whose memoir follows his own path-from the family's deportation from Hamburg, through his time with an Anglican family in rural England, to the family's reunited life in New York City. His memoir plumbs the depths of twentieth-century history to rescue the remarkable life story of one of its survivors. Click the book cover above to read more.
2005, Harvest Books
Congratulations to Jenna Blum, recipeint of the Ribalow Prize from Hadassah Magazine for this book
From Publishers Weekly: Blum, who worked for Steven Spielberg's Shoah Foundation, takes a direct, unsentimental look at the Holocaust in her first novel. The narrative alternates between the present-day story of Trudy, a history professor at a Minneapolis university collecting oral histories of WWII survivors (both German and Jewish), and that of her aged but once beautiful German mother, Anna, who left her country when she married an American soldier. Interspersed with Trudy's interviews with German immigrants, many of whom reveal unabashed anti-Semitism, Anna's story flashes back to her hometown of Weimar. As Nazi anti-Jewish edicts intensify in the 1930s, Anna hides her love affair with a Jewish doctor, Max Stern. When Max is interned at nearby Buchenwald and Anna's father dies, Anna, carrying Max's child, goes to live with a baker who smuggles bread to prisoners at the camp. Anna assists with the smuggling after Trudy's birth until the baker is caught and executed. Then Anna catches the eye of the Obersturmf�hrer, a high-ranking Nazi officer at Buchenwald, who suspects her of also supplying the inmates with bread. He coerces her into a torrid, abusive affair, in which she remains complicit to ensure her survival and that of her baby daughter. Blum paints a subtle, nuanced portrait of the Obersturmf�hrer, complicating his sordid cruelty with more delicate facets of his personality. Ultimately, present and past overlap with a shocking yet believable coincidence. Blum's spare imagery is nightmarish and intimate, imbuing familiar panoramas of Nazi atrocity with stark new power. This is a poised, hair-raising debut. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Hella Winston
Beacon Press (November 16, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: Starred Review. While other excellent studies by Sue Fishkoff, Stephanie Wellen-Levine and Lis Harris have examined the inner lives of Lubavitcher Hasidim in a mostly positive way, this account distinguishes itself by focusing on the "rebels," not just among the Lubavitch but in other Hasidic communities as well, including the insular and right-wing Satmar sect. Winston, a doctoral candidate in sociology at CUNY, unfolds a world-within-a-world, where some young Hasidim sneak televisions into their apartments in garbage bags, change clothes on the subway to frequent bars in Manhattan and blog about their double lives online. She builds fascinating case studies, inviting readers into her interviewees' conflicted, and often painful, lives. One chapter profiles a famous Hasidic teacher who in fact no longer believes; another offers a walking tour of a Hasidic 'chood (slang for neighborhood); and another chronicles the hopeful and inspiring story of Malkie, a college-age woman who is building a sort of halfway house for others, like her, who have chosen to leave Hasidism. Winston shows us a Hasidic underworld where large families and a lack of secular education have resulted in extreme poverty and some serious at-risk behavior among youth. Her story of courage and intellectual rebellion will inspire anyone who has ever felt like a religious outcast. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Naomi Harris Rosenblatt
November 2005 MirAMax
Booklist writes: Psychotherapist Rosenblatt, author of Wrestling with Angels (1995), retells the stories of 15 women from the Bible and offers the text of and commentary on the Song of Songs. All stories in the book examine the role that gender played in the lives of these women as well as how they affected the actions and motivations of husbands and sons. The complex style and structure of the book require a patient reader. Although Rosenblatt's digressions and asides demand attentive reading, they do provide insight into the original Hebrew origins of the Bible and the importance of ancient customs that remain in current practice today. Her knowledge of Hebrew and of biblical scholarship adds depth and clarity to obscurities that arise from the difficulties inherent in the process of translation. In addition to her early study of Judaism, Rosenblatt has a psychological background that flavors many of the commentaries and observations. Click the book cover above to read more.
JERUSALEM
NOVEMBER 2005, ABRAMS
Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Israel Museum, with four sections: Art, Judaica, Archeaology - Youth Wing, and Jewish Ethnography. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Michael Novak (Foreword), Ronald J. Rychlak
Spence Publishing Company (September, 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: In this often tedious follow-up to Hitler, the War, and the Pope, law professor Rychlak, at the University of Mississippi. defends Pius XII against critics, from James Carroll to Daniel Goldhagen and Susan Zuccotti, who accuse the pope of inaction against the Holocaust. Given access to closed Vatican archives, Rychlak amasses evidence to exonerate Pius, uncovering instances where the pope not only spoke out against Hitler but also acted in various ways to save Jews. For example, he wrote a letter that allowed 700 Jews safe passage in 1942 as they immigrated to the United States. In October 1943, the Vatican "vigorously protested the arrest of Jews, requesting the interruption of such action." The targets of Rychlak's criticism will surely have more to say in this ongoing exchange, and they're as likely to focus on his occasional manipulation of the evidence as he does on theirs. For instance, while Pius XII condemned the Germans' use of "asphyxiating and poison gases" in WWI, Rychlak reads it as a condemnation of the gas chambers. He presents evidence systematically and thoroughly, but much of it relates only indirectly to Pius himself and fails to fully convince. Click the book cover above to read more.
by JOANNA SCOTT
Little Brown (November 2005)
From Publishers Weekly: The morning after her 70th birthday party, attended by her dutiful husband and children, Adriana Rundel takes a commuter train from suburban New Jersey to Manhattan, and becomes lost in memories of her WWII girlhood as a Jew in hiding on the Italian isle of Elba. Stealing glances from her hideout in the cupboard, she finds her first love, a young AWOL Senegalese soldier named Amdu Diop, who takes refuge in her family's home during the Allied push toward liberation. He is 17; she is 10. Theirs is an innocent infatuation rather than an intense affair, but that seems to be precisely what Scott (The Manikin) is after: "The truth was she liked Amdu because he was perfectly alive.... She just felt it, the way she felt the warmth of the sun." Their attachment is lovely, but doesn't provide much dramatic lift. And the heart attack Adriana suffers on the train ride into the city, which intermingles her childhood panic with her later-life mortal fear, is less a plot device than a means for integrating the vivid past with the dull present. Still, Scott accomplishes large shifts in time and perspective with grace, and delivers an affecting, unsentimental portrait of a survivor taking stock of her life and loves. Click the book cover above to read more.
Bruce Chilton, Bard
NOVEMBER 2005, Paperback
A biography of Saint Paul, whose interpretations of the life and teachings of Jesus transformed a loosely organized, grassroots peasant movement into the structured religion we know today Without Paul, there would be no Christianity. His letters to various churches scattered throughout the Roman Empire articulated, for the first time, the beliefs that make up the heart of Christian practice and faith. In this extraordinary biography, Bruce Chilton explains the changing images of Paul, from the early Church period when he was regarded as the premiere apostle
who separated Christianity from Judaism
to more recent liberal evaluations, which paint him as an antifeminist, homophobic figure more dedicated to doctrine than to spiritual freedom. By illuminating Paul's thoughts and contributions within the context of his time, Chilton restores him to his place as the founding architect of the Church and one of the most important figures in Western history. Click the book cover above to read more.
BY ERIC J. SUNDQUIST (UCLA)
NOVEMBER 2005, Harvard
PW writes: Sundquist's mammoth study is a deeply researched and illuminating hard look at how the often positive, often fraught relationship between American Jews and blacks has manifested itself in literature, historical writing, sociology and popular entertainment over the past 60 years. Sundquist's wide-ranging erudition is evident on every page; he's as apt at finding points of dialogue among Harlem Renaissance writings, popular sociology of the 1930s and the later fiction of Ralph Ellison, James Baldwin and Bruce Jay Friedman as he is at discussing "black responses to Nazism" in the writings of Zora Neale Hurston. His interpretations of this complicated material are nuanced and necessarily tentative. A professor of literature at UCLA, Sundquist is most engrossing when delving into a specific work, such as Bernard Malamud's The Tenants or Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird (where he expands his discussion to include the Leo Frank case as well as the Nazi attack on jazz); the author is also compelling when he carefully elucidates his themes and arguments. Still, while this material will be of great interest to scholars of Jewish and African-American history and culture, the sheer mass of information, ideas and theoretical constructs may be overwhelming for the general reader. Click the book cover above to read more.
Edited by Mark Krupnick, Jean K. Carney and Mark Shechner
Wisconsin. November 2005.
When he learned he had ALS and roughly two years to live, literary critic Mark Krupnick returned to the writers who had been his lifelong conversation partners and asked with renewed intensity: how do you live as a Jew, when, mostly, you live in your head? The evocative and sinuous essays collected here are the products of this inquiry. In his search for durable principles, Krupnick follows Lionel Trilling, Cynthia Ozick, Geoffrey Hartman, Philip Roth, Saul Bellow, and others into the elemental matters of life and death, sex and gender, power and vulnerability. Click to read more.
a novel by Larry Collins, Dominque Lapierre
NOVEMBER 2005, Phoenix Books
PW writes: A master Palestinian terrorist seeking retribution against Israel hooks up first with Saddam and then, after Saddam's capture, with Osama; through the latter, he acquires a nuclear bomb from Pakistan, ships it to New York and, with a crew babysitting it, threatens to detonate the bomb unless Israel withdraws to the pre-1967 borders-within five days. The rest of this novel from the late Collins (The Road to Armageddon), who died this past June, and collaborator Lapierre, is basically a procedural: what does the U.S. government do, and how does it do it, as the hours tick by. All of the characterizations are cardboard, but they're convincing enough to sustain the book: there are fictionalizations of everyone from Saddam and bin Laden to Bush, Ariel Sharon, Pervez Musharraf and New York mayor Mike Bloomberg. There's a particularly touching interaction between Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and the rogue Pakistani nuclear scientist A.Q. Khan. The FBI and police work is reasonably realized. Early chapters patiently and sympathetically render the logic of and reasoning behind the Islamist nuclear threat, but the real twist comes on day four, when the U.S. government begins mobilizing for possible military action against Israel to force a withdrawal from the West Bank. The publisher claims 350,000 hardcover copies already in print in Arabic, Chinese, Dutch, French and Polish; one imagines it has little to do with the quality of the writing. Click the book cover above to read more.
A novel by Anne Rice
NOVEMBER 2005, Knopf Books
A Jewish book?? Well.. it sure will be a best seller, and no vampires are contained in the pages.
PW writes: "Rice departs from her usual subject matter to pen this curious portrait of a seven-year-old Jesus, who departs Egypt with his family to return home to Nazareth. Rice's painstaking historical research is obvious throughout, whether she's showing the differences among first-century Jewish groups (Pharisees, Essenes and Sadducees all play a part), imagining a Passover pilgrimage to Jerusalem or depicting the regular but violent rebellions by Jews chafing under Roman rule. The book succeeds in capturing Jesus' profound Jewishness, with some of the best scenes reflecting his Torah education and immersion in the oral traditions of the Hebrew Bible. As fiction, though, the book's first half is slow going. Since it is told from Jesus' perspective, the childlike language can be simplistic, though as readers persevere they will discover the riches of the sparse prose Rice adopts. The emotional heart of the story-Jesus' gradual discovery of the miraculous birth his parents have never discussed with him-picks up steam as well, as he begins to understand why he can heal the sick and raise the dead. Rice provides a moving afterword, in which she describes her recent return to the Catholic faith and evaluates, often in an amusingly strident fashion, the state of biblical studies today." Click the book cover above to read more.
BY DEBORAH MARTINSON
NOVEMBER 2005, Counterpoint
The first biography of Lillian Hellman-the notorious literary star of Broadway and Hollywood-written with the full cooperation of her executors and her most intimate circle Few literary celebrities have lived with more abandon and under a brighter spotlight than Lillian Hellman. Yet even fewer have been doubted as absolutely as Hellman, famously denounced by rival Mary McCarthy as a writer for whom "every word was a lie, including 'and' and 'the.'" The details of Hellman's life have been hotly contested for decades. She was the author of such Broadway hits as The Children's Hour and The Little Foxes; a Hollywood screenplay writer until she was blacklisted; a writer of best-selling memoirs such as An Unfinished Woman and Pentimento; and the volatile companion of writer Dashiell Hammett, foreign service officer John Melby, and a myriad of other high-profile men. Hellman refused to cooperate with biographers-most notably William Wright-and, up until her death, ordered those close to her to do the same. Now, in this compelling biography Deborah Martinson moves beyond the myths that drift around Hellman and finds the sassy, outrageous woman committed to writing, to politics, and to having her say. Martinson's exhaustive research-through interviews, archives, and recently declassified CIA files-and her unprecedented access to Hellman's confidantes paints the most complete and surprisingly admiring portrait of Hellman that we've ever had. Click the book cover above to read more.
by David E. Fishman
NOVEMBER 2005, University of Pittsburgh Press
The Rise of Modern Yiddish Culture explores the transformation of Yiddish from a low-status vernacular to the medium of a complex modern culture. David Fishman examines the efforts of east European Jews to establish their linguistic distinctiveness as part of their struggle for national survival in the diaspora. Fishman considers the roots of modern Yiddish culture in social and political conditions in Imperial Tsarist and inter-war Poland, and its relationship to Zionism and Bundism. In so doing, Fishman argues that Yiddish culture enveloped all socioeconomic classes, not just the proletarian base, and considers the emergence, at the turn of the century, of a pro-Yiddish intelligentsia and a Yiddishist movement. As Fishman points out, the rise of Yiddishism was not without controversy. Some believed that the rise of Yiddish represented a shift away from a religious-dominated culture to a completely secular, European one; a Jewish nation held together by language, rather than by land or religious content. Others hoped that Yiddish culture would inherit the moral and national values of the Jewish religious tradition, and that to achieve this result, the Bible and Midrash would need to exist in modern Yiddish translation. Modern Yiddish culture developed in the midst of these opposing concepts. Fishman follows the rise of the culture to its apex, the founding of the Yiddish Scientific Institute (YIVO) in Vilna in 1925, and concludes with the dramatic story of the individual efforts that preserved the books and papers of YIVO during the destruction and annihilation of World War II and in postwar Soviet Lithuania. The Rise of Modern Yiddish Culture, like those efforts, preserves the cultural heritage of east European Jews with thorough research and fresh insights. Click the book cover above to read more.
DECEMBER 2005
Edited by Ruth Fredman Cernea
DECEMBER 2005, University of Chicago Press
Forget the bibles, zohar, kabbalah books.. forget ragen, roth and ozick... this is the most important book in the past few months and I have waited over 25 years for its release. I first became an addict of the Great Latke-Hamantash debates in the 1970's when I read about them in the now defunct Israel Magazine (or was it a 1970s issue of Moment). This is the sort of event that makes you want to become a Hillel Program Director.
In 1946, a debate was started each November at the University of Chicago as a way to foster a sense of community among Jewish students and faculty members. The debates were farces; they attracted the top Jewish professors and students, Nobel laureates, university presidents, and notable scholars together to debate whether the potato pancake or the triangular Purim pastry is in fact the worthier food. They applied their fields of study to these symbolic Jewish foods. Professor Marvin Mirsky observed the roundness of the latke which clearly suggested Plato's circle of perfection and its flatness emphasized Plato's ultimate truth. Professor Lawrence Sherman reminded his audience that in Romeo and Juliet, "Juliet was a Capulatke, Romeo a Hamantashague." In poetry, essays, jokes, and revisionist histories, members of elite American academies attack the latke-versus-hamantash question with intellectual panache and an unerring sense of humor, if not chutzpah.
The Great Latke-Hamantash Debate is the first collection of the best of these performances, from Martha Nussbaum's paean to both foods-in the style of Hecuba's Lament-to Nobel laureate Leon Lederman's proclamation on the union of the celebrated dyad. The latke and the hamantash are here revealed as playing a critical role in everything from Chinese history to the Renaissance, the works of Jane Austen to constitutional law. Eminent philosopher and humorist Ted Cohen, who has moderated many debates, supplies a wry foreword, and anthropologist Ruth Fredman Cernea provides a larger context with her overview of the Jewish holidays, recipes, and a glossary of Yiddish and Hebrew terms, making the book accessible even to the uninitiated. The University of Chicago may have split the atom in 1942, but it's still working on the equally significant issue of the latke versus the hamantash. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Aaron J. Klein
DECEMBER 2005, Random House
Spielberg's film, MUNICH, will be released in December 2005. If you want the real story, buy this book and consume it. This is the full account, based on access to key players who have never before spoken, of the Munich Massacre and the Israeli response-a lethal, top secret, 30 year long antiterrorism campaign to track down the killers. In 1972, Black September murdered 11 Israeli athletes. Nine hundred million people watched the crisis unfold on television. Back in Israel, Prime Minister Golda Meir vowed to track down those responsible and, in Menachem Begin's words, "run these criminals and murderers off the face of the earth." A secret Mossad unit, code named CAESAREA, was mobilized, a list of targets was drawn up. Thus began the Israeli response-a mission that unfolded over decades. The Mossad has never spoken about this operation. No one has known the real story. Until now. Aaron J. Klein is Time magazine's Military and Intelligence Affairs correspondent in the Jerusalem Bureau. He was the recipient of 2002 Henry Luce Award and has been a consultant for CNN. Klein was the military/security correspondent and analyst for Hadashot and Al-Hamishmar, two of Israel's leading national newspapers. He is a contributor to Malam, the journal for former IDF Intelligence, Mossad and Internal Security Agency officers. He teaches at Hebrew University and is a Captain in the IDF's Intelligence. Klein shows that the Israeli response to Munich was not simply about revenge, as is popularly believed. By illuminating the tactical and strategic purposes of the Israeli operation, Striking Back allows us to draw profoundly relevant lessons from one of the most important counterterrorism campaigns in history. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Gregory Mobley
DECEMBER 2005, Doubleday
Gregory Mobley (a Baptist Minister, and past teacher at Harvard, Union Theo and currently at Andover Newton Theo) brings a highly original eye to the familiar stories found in Judges, which depicts Israel's frontier era, and the First and Second Books of Samuel, which portray the ragged and violent emergence of kingship in Judah and Israel. From Ehud's mission into an inaccessible Moabite palace to the triumph of Gideon and his elite squadron against a Midianite swarm, from the gangland epic of the warlord Abimelech's rise and fall to the narrative of Samson, Israel's great outlaw-hero, Mobley rescues these stories from their theologically minded biblical editors and traditional interpreters. Mobley draws upon Semitic and European heroic traditions about warriors and wild men, and upon Celtic, Anglo-American, and African-American balladry about borderers and outlaws, to dig out the heroic themes submerged in biblical adventure stories. THE EMPTY MEN describes the process by which adventure stories-replete with foolish love, warfare, assassinations, ritual slaughter, and grim masculine codes-were transformed into sermons and history lessons. Mobley also offers reflections on the Iron Age theology of these narratives, with their emphasis on poetic justice, and on the mythic dimensions of landscape in these stories. Mobley is sure to attract a lot of attention in the scholarly community for his raw portrayals of biblical heroes, for his unblinking attention to the martial codes and the warrior subculture of ancient Israel, and for his bittersweet reflections on the theological and ethical significance of this corpus of adventure stories which are under the surface-but close to the bedrock-of the many mansions that Judaism and Christianity have built in subsequent centuries on these foundational texts Click the book cover above to read more.
by Tony Michels (Wisconsin)
DECEMBER 2005, Doubleday
Did infighting and rising economic incomes of Jewish immigrants put the nail in the coffin of Jewish socialism?
Nothing is harder to envision today than the burning passion for knowledge, self-improvement, and social justice that once united working-class immigrants and fiery intellectuals under the banner of socialism. A Fire in Their Hearts is an illuminating and exceptionally well-researched account of the early decades of the Jewish left, the immigrant cauldron in New York, and secular Yiddish culture in America. Michels's book has much to tell us about this still fascinating era. The Yiddish socialist movement shaped Jewish communities across the United States well into the twentieth century and left an important political legacy that extends to the rise of neoconservatism. A story of hopeful successes and bitter disappointments, A Fire in Their Hearts brings to vivid life this formative period for American Jews and the American left. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Elliot Perlman
DECEMBER 2005
The nine smart, thoughtful stories in this collection explore the complex worlds of lovers, poets, lawyers, immigrants, students, and murderers. They tell of corporate betrayals and lost opportunities, and the hopes, fears, and vagaries of desire. Witty, vulnerable, and honest, they display the same preoccupations that made Perlman's novel, Seven Types of Ambiguity, one of the most notable literary publications of 2004. "A Tale in Two Cities," the final novella charting the limits of Jewish emigr� resilience, is Perlman in full: mystery, tight dialogue, layers of irony. At his best, Perlman makes false reasoning testify eloquently Click the book cover above to read more.
by Rav Michael Laitman
December 2005, Jewish Lights
Publishers Weekly wrote: By the author's own admission, this book may seem "dry, schematic... unemotional," more instruction manual than heart-moving guide. Laitman comes from a very specific school of thought regarding Kabbalah, originating from a belief that his mentor, Baruch Ashlag, carried a reincarnated soul that originated with the biblical patriarchs, passed to the rabbi known as the Ari and finally to Ashlag's father, Baal HaSulam. Kabbalah, as Laitman sees it, requires one to "rise to the spiritual world while living in this world," but this "can only be achieved through the right study, with the real books" written by rabbis in this particular lineage. Unfortunately, his efforts to make Baal HaSulam relevant to our current times result in thin and sometimes contradictory arguments. In discussing the importance of the numbers seven and 70, for example, he refers to 70 nations in the world today (there are nearly 200) and an average life span of 70 years, which is too low both in fact and for his schema of the Messiah's return to make mathematical sense. More revealing of the exclusive, myopic nature of interpretation than of the world of Kabbalah, this guide will serve few readers other the followers of Baal HaSulam . Click the book cover above to read more.
by Liel Leibovitz (Columbia J School)
DECEMBER 2005. St Martin's Press
As a 10-year-old Israeli, Leibovitz thought his American cousins had it all: freedom, prosperity and McDonald's. So he was shocked to learn that his cousins were abandoning their New Jersey "oasis" for the blood-soaked land of Israel. The question of why anyone would make such a move haunted his journey to adulthood, and now he attempts to explain this phenomenon, known in Hebrew as aliya, of diaspora Jews leaving comfortable homes to immigrate to Israel. He concludes that the answer "simply isn't available to the cognitive faculties. Why would American Jews-not just materially successful but, perhaps unique among the Jewish diaspora, truly socially accepted-choose to leave material comfort and safety in the United States for uncertainty and violence in Israel? This is a fundamental question for American Jewry, and one that Liel Leibovitz answers with resounding success in Aliya.Leibovitz focuses on three sets of immigrants, from Israel+s chaotic birth through its equally turbulent present. One couple came to Palestine before Israel was even created, and were present through its violent birth. One man was involved in the Yom Kippur War. And one family of four made aliya in 2001, during the most recent unsettled phase of Israel+s existence. Aliya is the powerful story of the relationship of American Jews to Israel, both those who make the journey and those who stay behind. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Paul Auster
DECEMBER 2005, Henry Holt
Nathan Glass has come to Brooklyn to die. Divorced, estranged from his only daughter, the retired life insurance salesman seeks only solitude and anonymity. Then Nathan finds his long-lost nephew, Tom Wood, working in a local bookstore-a far cry from the brilliant academic career he'd begun when Nathan saw him last. Tom's boss is the charismatic Harry Brightman, whom fate has also brought to the "ancient kingdom of Brooklyn, New York." Through Tom and Harry, Nathan's world gradually broadens to include a new set of acquaintances-not to mention a stray relative or two-and leads him to a reckoning with his past. Among the many twists in the delicious plot are a scam involving a forgery of the first page of The Scarlet Letter, a disturbing revelation that takes place in a sperm bank, and an impossible, utopian dream of a rural refuge. Meanwhile, the wry and acerbic Nathan has undertaken something he calls The Book of Human Folly, in which he proposes "to set down in the simplest, clearest language possible an account of every blunder, every pratfall, every embarrassment, every idiocy, every foible, and every inane act I had committed during my long and checkered career as a man." But life takes over instead, and Nathan's despair is swept away as he finds himself more and more implicated in the joys and sorrows of others. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Marc Zvi Brettler
DECEMBER 2005, JPS Jewish Publication Society
In his new book, master Bible scholar and teacher Marc Brettler argues that today's contemporary readers can only understand the ancient Hebrew Scripture by knowing more about the culture that produced it. And so Brettler unpacks the literary conventions, ideological assumptions, and historical conditions that inform the biblical text and demonstrates how modern critical scholarship and archaeological discoveries shed light on this fascinating and complex literature. Brettler surveys representative biblical texts from different genres to illustrate how modern scholars have taught us to "read" these texts. Using the "historical-critical method" long popular in academia, he guides us in reading the Bible as it was read in the biblical period, independent of later religious norms and interpretive traditions. Understanding the Bible this way lets us appreciate it as an interesting text that speaks in multiple voices on profound issues. This book is the first "Jewishly sensitive" introduction to the historical-critical method. Unlike other introductory texts, the Bible that this book speaks about is the Jewish one -- with the three-part TaNaKH arrangement, the sequence of books found in modern printed Hebrew editions, and the chapter and verse enumerations used in most modern Jewish versions of the Bible. In an afterword, the author discusses how the historical-critical method can help contemporary Jews relate to the Bible as a religious text in a more meaningful way. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Yaron Z. Eliav
DECEMBER 2005, John Hopkins Press
From Publishers Weekly: Previous works on Jerusalem's Temple Mount, such as Gershom Gorenberg's The End of Days, have mostly been journalistic and nationalistic explorations of the claims and counterclaims to this disputed area. By contrast, Eliav, a faculty member in the University of Michigan's Department of Near Eastern Studies, has written an academic treatise based on extensive research during the last 12 years. Beginning with his doctoral dissertation at Hebrew University, he expanded his investigation at libraries in Princeton, Oxford and New York. Eliav uses his impressive knowledge of Talmud, the Bible, archeology, languages, rabbinic texts, the classics and patristic literature to debunk the notion that the Temple Mount was a sacred space for ancient Jews and Christians. According to him, it did not achieve this status until long after the Second Temple was destroyed. In a dazzling display of erudition, he supports his thesis by providing new readings of familiar sources and by citing many little-known references. Defying conventional wisdom, Eliav also claims that there were several Temple Mounts. Unfortunately, most nonspecialists will have neither the patience nor the knowledge to follow his closely reasoned argument, since the book is densely written in often impenetrable language. . Click the book cover above to read more.
by MAX EGREMONT
December 2005, FS&G.
Siegfried Sassoon was born in 1886 in Kent, and began writing verses as a boy. While a brave young officer, he confronted the terrible realities of the First World War on the battlefield, in verse, and, finally, by announcing his opposition to the war in 1917, showing that physical courage could exist alongside humanity and sensibility. In 1918, Sassoon found himself one of the most famous young writers of the time, a mentor to Wilfred Owen, and admired by Winston Churchill and T.E. Lawrence. He joined the Labour Party, became literary editor of the socialist Daily Herald, and began close friendships with Thomas Hardy and E.M. Forster, while trying to adapt his poetry to peacetime. Then Sassoon fell in love with the artistocratic aesthete Stephen Tennant, who led him into his group of Bright Young Things who inspired the early novels of Evelyn Waugh. At the demise of his passionate and fraught relationship with Tennant, Sassoon suddenly married the beautiful Hester Gatty in 1933 and retreated to a quiet country life until their eventual estrangement and Sassoon's subsequent conversion to Catholicism [from Judaism]. Click to read more.
By Daniel Hillel, Univ Mass Professor Emeritus
Winter 2006, Columbia University Press
From Publishers Weekly: "That environmental factors affect our daily lives is disputed by no one. But can environment, climate and topology play a part in the development of a religious community? Hillel, professor emeritus of environmental studies at the University of Massachusetts and senior research scientist at Columbia University's Center for Climate Systems Research, says yes. He comes to the subject immersed in the lore of ancient Israel, from his grandfather's instruction to his own years living in modern Israel. He sees the Jewish belief system as an amalgam of ideas emerging from an interplay of human beings with both the land and its peoples, "absorb[ing] all the cultural strands... from all the ecological domains of the ancient Near East... and assimilat[ing] them into their own culture." He divides sacred history into seven "domains," dispensations based not on some theological construct but rather on the terrain in which the Israelites lived. What emerges is a largely naturalistic explanation of Israel's beliefs and laws, with a strong emphasis on the impact of culture and environment on the evolving Jewish religion. Hillel recounts, in a richly detailed and beautifully told manner, the origins of the Hebrew Bible in a new and satisfying way."
Hillel, who resides in Sde Boker in the Negev, shows us how we can better understand and experience the Torah through an understanding of the land itself. Always the academic, the book includes lots of notes, charts, and statistics. What more can a Yekkie ask for? Click the book cover above to read more.
by Haim Zafrani
DECEMBER 2005, Ktav
A collection of notes, observations and statistics, some of them enlightening, a few fascinating, but all presented as a m�lange .... Zafrani assumes a familiarity with his subject matter that renders much of the book inaccessible to readers with only a passing familiarity with Moroccan Jews.... Click the book cover above to read more.
by Suzanne Hansen
DECEMBER 2005, CROWN
From Publishers Weekly: Misadventures in nannyhood" is how Hansen, an Oregon teen who'd trained at the Northwest Nannies Institute, characterizes her amusing account of several years as live-in drudge to the stars. Readers of James B. Stewart's DisneyWar are already acquainted with her first employer, Michael Ovitz, then still the superagent commander of the CAA talent agency, and parent, with his wife, of three children. Hansen isn't a flippant writer; she doesn't try to score easy shots; and she cites her own inexperience and shyness, but it becomes increasingly clear through her account (backed up by the diary she kept) that the portraits drawn by other writers-of a cold, shrewd, controlling man-are accurate. Still, there was glamour, which at first made up for the grueling 24/7 workload and a curious chintziness. However, Hansen lasted just over six months. She later found work with the charming Debra Winger and left only because it became clear that the doting Winger didn't really need a full-time nanny. Her next and last nanny job was with the wonderful and thoughtful Rhea Perlman and Danny DeVito and their three kids. Hardly backstabbing, this entertaining book possesses a sincerity other nannying tomes lack.. Click the book cover above to read more.
by David Albahari, Ellen Elias-Bursac (Translator)
DECEMBER 2005, Harcourt
From Booklist "What would I have done?" is a fundamental question in Holocaust literature. Translated from the Serbian, this stirring novel draws on a wealth of archival materials, maps, and Nazi bureaucratic records about the concentration camp at the Belgrade Fairgrounds, from where, over five months in 1942, 5,000 Jews were loaded into a truck and gassed. A Serbian Jewish college professor looks back now and obsessively imagines himself as perpetrator, victim, and bystander. Who were the two drivers who connected the exhaust pipe each time so that the fumes killed the passengers? How did it become just a routine job? Who buried the heaped corpses? What if one kid tried to resist? How could Belgrade citizens not know? There are no chapters or even paragraphs, but the spacious text is simple and eloquent, and readers will be drawn into the professor's obsessive first-person narrative in which the horror is in the facts of bureaucratic efficiency and the unimaginable evil in ordinary life. Click the book cover above to read more.
by Wlodzimierz Borodziej, Barbara Harshav
Wisconsin. December 2005.
The Warsaw Uprising of 1944 dramatically tells the largely unknown story of the Warsaw resistance movement during World War II. Desperate to free themselves from German military oppression but also hoping to show the advancing Soviets that they could not impose easy rule upon the citizens of Warsaw, the Poles launched an almost hopeless attack against the Germans on August 1, 1944. Wlodzimierz Borodziej presents an evenhanded account of what is commonly considered the darkest chapter in Polish history during World War II. In only sixty-three days, the Germans razed Warsaw to the ground and 200,000 people, mostly civilians, lost their lives. The result-a heroic and historically pivotal turning point-meant that the Poles would lose both their capital and an entire generation. This concise account of the trauma-little known to English-speaking readers-will appeal to anyone interested in the history of World War II in general and is a must-read for students of Polish history in particular. Wlodzimierz Borodziej is professor of history at Warsaw University and the author of a number of books dealing with German-Polish topics. The Warsaw Uprising of 1944 is his first book available in English. Click to read more.
by Janet Handler Burstein
Wisconsin. December 2005.
Janet Burstein argues that American Jewish writers since the 1980s have created a significant literature by wrestling with the troubled legacy of trauma, loss, and exile. Their ranks include Cynthia Ozick, Todd Gitlin, Art Spiegelman, Pearl Abraham, Aryeh Lev Stollman, Jonathan Rosen, and Gerda Lerner. Whether confronting the massive losses of the Holocaust, the sense of "home" in exile, or the continuing power of Jewish memory, these Jewish writers search for understanding within "the little secrets" of their dark, complicated, and richly furnished past. Janet Handler Burstein is professor of English at Drew University and chair of the Modern Literature section of the Association for Jewish Studies. She is the author of Writing Mothers, Writing Daughters: Tracing the Maternal in Stories by American Jewish Women. Click to read more.
by Daniel C. Matt (Translator)
Stanford University Press, December 26, 2005
The first two volumes sold over 15,000 copies. This is the third volume of a planned 15 volume set. This third volume of "The Zohar: Pritzker Edition" completes the "Zohar"'s commentary on the book of Genesis. Here we find spiritual explorations of numerous biblical narratives, including Jacob's wrestling with the angel, Joseph's kidnapping by his brothers, his near seduction by Potiphar's wife, his interpretation of Pharaoh's dreams, and his reunion with his brothers and father. Throughout, the "Zohar" probes the biblical text and seeks deeper meaning-for example, the divine intention behind Joseph's disappearance, or the profound significance of human sexuality. Divine and human realities intertwine, affecting one another. Toward the end of Genesis, the Bible states: "Jacob's days drew near to die"-an idiomatic expression that the "Zohar" insists on reading hyperliterally. Each human being is challenged to live his days virtuously. If he does, those days themselves are woven into a garment of splendor; at death, they "draw near," enveloping him, escorting him to the beyond. "Sefer ha-Zohar" (The Book of Radiance) has amazed and overwhelmed readers ever since it emerged mysteriously in medieval Spain toward the end of the thirteenth century. Written in a unique Aramaic, this masterpiece of Kabbalah exceeds the dimensions of a normal book; it is virtually a body of literature, comprising over twenty discrete sections. The bulk of the "Zohar" consists of a running commentary on the Torah, from Genesis through Deuteronomy. Click the book cover above to read more.
BY C S MONACO
DECEMBER 2005, LSU PRESS
It is only recently that the importance of Moses Elias Levy (1782-1854) as a Jewish social activist has come to be appreciated. C. S. Monaco's discovery of Levy's Plan for the Abolition of Slavery in the late 1990s began the transformation of historians' understanding of this man's life and work. Now, in the first full-scale biography of Levy, Monaco completes the picture of one of the antebellum South's most influential and interesting Jewish citizens. Long known only as the father of David L. Yulee, the first Jew elected to the U.S. Senate, Levy appears here in all his many, sometimes contradictory roles: abolitionist and slave owner, utopian colonizer and former arms-dealer, religious reformer and biblical conservative. Each aspect of Levy's life and character comes into sharp relief as Monaco follows him from his affluent upbringing in a Sephardic Jewish household in Morocco-where his father was a courtier to the sultan-through his career as a successful merchant shipper, to his radical reform activities in Florida. With his many residences abroad-in Morocco, Gibraltar, Danish Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Curacao, England-Levy virtually epitomized the Atlantic world, and Monaco escorts readers from country to country, considering Levy's accomplishments in each. The sole Jewish voice during the British abolitionist crusade... Click the book cover above to read more.
JANUARY 2006
by Dara Horn
January 2006, WW Norton
In 2005, a million-dollar painting, a sketch for "Over Vitebsk" by Marc Chagall, is stolen from a museum - during a singles' cocktail hour. The unlikely thief is Benjamin Ziskind, a lonely former child-prodigy who writes questions for quiz shows, and who believes the painting belongs to his family. Ben tries to evade the police while he seeks out the truth of how the painting got to the museum - whether the "original" is really a forgery - and whether his twin sister, an artist, can create a successful forgery to take its place. As the story unfolds - with the delicacy and complexity of origami - we are brought back to the 1920s in Soviet Russia, where Marc Chagall taught art to orphaned Jewish boys. There, Chagall befriended the great Yiddish novelist known by the pseudonym "Der Nister," the Hidden One. And there the story of the painting begins, carrying with it not only a hidden fable by the Hidden One, but also the story of the Ziskind family - from Russia to New Jersey and Vietnam. Dara Horn interweaves mystery, romance, folklore, theology, history, and scripture into a spellbinding modern tale. She brings us on a breathtaking collision course of past, present, and future - revealing both the ordinariness and the beauty of "the world to come." Nestling stories within stories, this is a novel of remarkable clarity and deep inner meaning. Click the book cover above to read more.
| Curious George |
What are the 2 snack foods mentioned in that classic baseball song Take Me Out to the Ball Game? | Curious George by H.A. Rey — Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists
Shelves: reviewed-with-emma
* Read and reviewed by me and my niece Emma *
What is it about this monkey that so enthralls readers? This introductory story by Rey is not terribly memorable or particularly exciting, yet the kids are drawn to it, I absolutely love it and my niece - a first time reader/listener - was mesmerized.
For those who forget what happens in this first Curious George book,
a poacher
the Man With The Big Yellow Hat captures George in the wild, illegally keeps him in his city apartment, smokes a pipe with * Read and reviewed by me and my niece Emma *
What is it about this monkey that so enthralls readers? This introductory story by Rey is not terribly memorable or particularly exciting, yet the kids are drawn to it, I absolutely love it and my niece - a first time reader/listener - was mesmerized.
For those who forget what happens in this first Curious George book,
a poacher
the Man With The Big Yellow Hat captures George in the wild, illegally keeps him in his city apartment, smokes a pipe with him, neglects to give him proper care so that George goes bad and ends up in prison, and then gets transported to the zoo, a slightly less dreary internment.
As you see, it's a mean streets existence for our little simian friend.
He's taken from one jungle and forced into another. The society he inhabits changes, but his habits within society do not. George, you see, is curious. Some would call it his one great failing. He likes to check things out and that gets him into trouble. If it weren't for his curiosity he never would've been captured in the first place. And that right there is why we become entranced by Curious George.
But why the fascination in the first place? Why did my niece see the cover of this book and decide "this one!"? My guess is that, well, who doesn't love a monkey? In the past, when Emma has done something silly and flopped about all crazy like kids do, I would occasionally call her a monkey. So I think she just was curious to see what her brethren were up to. These days she also has a strong interest in chickenbutt and getting people people to answer "what" to her question "Guess what?!". Rest assured, I am doing yoeman's work in the uncle department. But I digress...
Other than that she liked it, Emma didn't have much to say about Curious George when we finished, yet she was riveted the whole way through. Heck, I didn't even do funny voices and her eyes were still glued to the pages. I have no doubt she'll want to return to the adventures of Curious George in the future and I will be happy to! George is my dawg! He was my favorite stuffed animal as a child. I carried him all the way up a mountain in a tiny backpack as boy no older than 4-year-old Emma, because I couldn't bare to leave him behind. George and I were inseparable and I wouldn't be surprised if he found a new bestie in my niece.
Shelves: literature
Here's a book I hadn't thought about for several decades, recently brought to my attention by Jack, a three-year-old friend who met me at his door, book in hand, wanting to be read to. "Ah! Curious George," I said, immediately remembering and wanting very much to be reminded of the times it had been read to me in early childhood.
As it happens, the book is dreadful by any adult, twenty-first century standards. The story is horrific for what it accepts: a jungle monkey is tricked by a white man, k Here's a book I hadn't thought about for several decades, recently brought to my attention by Jack, a three-year-old friend who met me at his door, book in hand, wanting to be read to. "Ah! Curious George," I said, immediately remembering and wanting very much to be reminded of the times it had been read to me in early childhood.
As it happens, the book is dreadful by any adult, twenty-first century standards. The story is horrific for what it accepts: a jungle monkey is tricked by a white man, kidnapped and taken across the sea, destined for a zoo. By misadventure he escapes into the foreign city, has dangerous adventures, then is "rescued" to spend the rest of his days in happy captivity. --Just about as politically incorrect as one can imagine and, besides, the art is poor...
Still, Jack, working by his own standards, liked the story, identifying presumably with the curious monkey, with the trouble such curiousity can lead to and with the resolution of all the excitement in the confines of a safe home.
--All of which makes me wonder if many studies have been done of the books children prefer as opposed to the books parents prefer to give to their children... ...more
Shelves: childrens
My 5 yr old is really loving Curious George books right now. And for all the Curious George books out there, they actually have pretty good story lines. What I mean is, sometimes when a character has been commercialized, the books change in tone. I'm guessing these were written before the T.V. show. I did a little reading on Rey and it turns out they came up with Curious George many years ago, while escaping Nazi's in Paris. After their death, Curious George was taken over by the Curious George My 5 yr old is really loving Curious George books right now. And for all the Curious George books out there, they actually have pretty good story lines. What I mean is, sometimes when a character has been commercialized, the books change in tone. I'm guessing these were written before the T.V. show. I did a little reading on Rey and it turns out they came up with Curious George many years ago, while escaping Nazi's in Paris. After their death, Curious George was taken over by the Curious George Foundation, so that's what I mean by character integrity. Sometimes when taken over by someone else, especially after they get so commercialized with T.V. and products, they change. From all of these I've seen so far, these are still pretty good.
I've been making my son read on his own more and more, to give me some time to have lessons with the twins, and it's been working wonderfully. I don't care so much as what the book is about than the reading level. And this one is probably a good level 2 book. He enjoyed it a lot, and was able to answer all my questions, so I know he read the whole thing. ...more
Shelves: childrens , long_ago_but_fondly_remembered , library_lessons
According to old family tales, I requested that my parents read this one to me so many times that they resorted to accidentally on-purpose "misplacing" it for a while--just long enough to get a chance to read something else to me. :D That said, as an adult, I struggle with rating this classic. As a kid, I loved all the craziness George gets into and how the man in the yellow hat loves him regardless. Now, I find myself cringing at so many things-George being stuffed into a bag and taken from his According to old family tales, I requested that my parents read this one to me so many times that they resorted to accidentally on-purpose "misplacing" it for a while--just long enough to get a chance to read something else to me. :D That said, as an adult, I struggle with rating this classic. As a kid, I loved all the craziness George gets into and how the man in the yellow hat loves him regardless. Now, I find myself cringing at so many things-George being stuffed into a bag and taken from his home, George smoking a pipe, George being put "in prison" for "fooling" the firemen. That said, I'm finding that many of my students (so far, the K-2 ones) love this story. There are usually giggles when George thinks he can fly, gasps when George goes to prison, and big grins when George shares his balloons with the other animals at the zoo. So, what I now do is this.
I introduce the concept of copyright date as a book's birthday and where to find it (verso), and how to tell how old a book is. Then, to put it into perspective, I tell them the story of my parents hiding the book, and we talk about what it was like 70+ years ago. Did people dress the same? Did cars look the same? Telephones? The kids seem to be fascinated with the idea of a dial-phone (need to find one and bring it in). As we read, we spend some time discussing some of the things in the pictures that might not be familiar to the kids now. Other things that we end up discussing? Why the words say they row out to the big ship when the row boat looks bigger than the ship (they love pointing out that it only LOOKS small "cuz it's far away"). Good chance to introduce a new vocabulary word--perspective--and appeal to my visual learners. Then we talk about whether this story is "made up" or "informational" to lead in to reading a non-fiction story. I've been paring this with "Chimpanzees" or "Jane Goodall." Gotta say, I'm having fun all over again with this story. :D
May 29, 2013 Mary Soderstrom rated it liked it
Reading and the love of books can't encouraged too soon. The Curious George books by H.A. and Margaret Rey were great favourites of our kids and Jeanne has delighted in them ever since Elin brought a jumbo book containing six tales back from a trip to New York last fall. She went looking for our old copies shortly thereafter so ever since Jeanne's been read the old ones--now in tatters--when she visits here.
The stories are still charming, but one of the things that goes over Jeanne's head is the Reading and the love of books can't encouraged too soon. The Curious George books by H.A. and Margaret Rey were great favourites of our kids and Jeanne has delighted in them ever since Elin brought a jumbo book containing six tales back from a trip to New York last fall. She went looking for our old copies shortly thereafter so ever since Jeanne's been read the old ones--now in tatters--when she visits here.
The stories are still charming, but one of the things that goes over Jeanne's head is the way that the city George lives in changes between books. In the first one it's quite clearly Paris, and the zoo where he goes to live is the Ménagerie in the Jardin des plantes, but the next one is just as clearly New York.
The reason why came clear this morning when the quality French language daily here Le Devoir had an article about an exhibit on George's creators. The Reys were German Jews who met in Brazil where each had gone separately as young people. Rey (born Hans Augusto Reyersbach) and the former Margarete Elisabeth Waldstein founded the first advertising agency in Rio in the 1930s, but decided to go back to Europe, setting up shop in Paris. The curious little monkey appears to have been just one of their projects.
In 1939 the French publisher Gallimard was ready to bring out the first book about the monkey, then called Fifi, but the Reys' studio was searched by the French police on a tip that there might be material for making bombs there. The sketches of George convinced the flics that wasn't the case, but the Reys took the hint the following spring. They decamped for Portugal, taking with them only their Brazilian passports, their sketches and what was left of their advance from Gallimard. At the Spanish border their German accents raised eyebrows with Franco's Fascists, but the innocuous drawings of George and their Brazilian nationality allowed them to continue. Their journeyed back to Brazil and then on to New York, where they started over again.
George once again came to their rescue. Within a month they had a contract with Houghton Mifflin and the first Curious George book was published in 1941. Since then 17 million copies of the various Curious George stories (the Reyes produced seven, and a series has been spun off, written and drawn by others which are not nearly as good.)
The Reyes adventures are highlighted in a exhibit at the Montreal Holocaust Museum from now until June 22. The show was created by Omaha, Nebraska, Institue for Holocaust Education, and is touring North America. Definitely worth the detour if it comes your way. ...more
Mar 02, 2012 Christine rated it did not like it · review of another edition
I will never understand why this book and its progeny have been so well loved for over seventy years. (H.A. and Margaret Rey apparently escaped Nazi-occupied France on homemade bicycles with the manuscript for Curious George.)
The Man with the Yellow Hat travels to Africa, entices George with his hat, catches him, "pop[s] him into a bag," and ultimately takes him to live in a zoo. Despite capturing him from the wild to take him to a zoo, the Man with the Yellow Hat is referred to as George's "fr I will never understand why this book and its progeny have been so well loved for over seventy years. (H.A. and Margaret Rey apparently escaped Nazi-occupied France on homemade bicycles with the manuscript for Curious George.)
The Man with the Yellow Hat travels to Africa, entices George with his hat, catches him, "pop[s] him into a bag," and ultimately takes him to live in a zoo. Despite capturing him from the wild to take him to a zoo, the Man with the Yellow Hat is referred to as George's "friend."
Before arriving at the zoo, George smokes a pipe and does a stint in prison. After George inadvertently calls the fire department, the firefighters catch him and say, "You fooled the fire department...We will have to shut you up where you can't do any more harm." Then they take him away to prison.
While I am horrified by this book, I am also bored by it, as I am by all of the Curious George books that I have read. I just don't find George or the Man with the Yellow Hat to be very compelling characters. ...more
Shelves: tutoring-books
This book is the origins of Curious George.
He was 'taken' from Africa (more like captured) by the yellow haired man. As an adult, we all know about animal trafficking and how disturbing it can be, but my student is too young to know about things like that.
The story then goes on to change settings with the boat ride and then arriving at the city. Curious George being Curious proceeds to cause trouble and this time he does indeed get punishment.
He ends up in jail. Yeah. I know. Kind of harsh but This book is the origins of Curious George.
He was 'taken' from Africa (more like captured) by the yellow haired man. As an adult, we all know about animal trafficking and how disturbing it can be, but my student is too young to know about things like that.
The story then goes on to change settings with the boat ride and then arriving at the city. Curious George being Curious proceeds to cause trouble and this time he does indeed get punishment.
He ends up in jail. Yeah. I know. Kind of harsh but not really for fooling the fire department anyone can get in trouble.
George being George get out and gets into more trouble and the next thing you know is he's at the zoo.
This book was good-ish. I like that I finally got to see where the monkey came from but the undertone of animal trafficking left me kind of cringing.
What irks me was that we still got no name for the yellow hatted male. -_- ...more
Dec 11, 2014 Wade rated it really liked it
This book is mainly about a young monkey, who's entire life was with the outdoors and he has been taken from the jungle. He is whisked away to NY with a mysterious man in a yellow suit, he spends his days exploring and look at things, as the name implies,and normally end up coming home. I liked this book mainly for the fact that, as a child I had always dreamed of living in the City, after seeing TV shows like NY med and others, and i would recommended this book to others, if they are the Childi This book is mainly about a young monkey, who's entire life was with the outdoors and he has been taken from the jungle. He is whisked away to NY with a mysterious man in a yellow suit, he spends his days exploring and look at things, as the name implies,and normally end up coming home. I liked this book mainly for the fact that, as a child I had always dreamed of living in the City, after seeing TV shows like NY med and others, and i would recommended this book to others, if they are the Childish type.
SPOILERS FOLLOW:
The protagonist of this story would seem to be Curious George,the monkey token to from NY,NY, and his owner. A reoccurring theme throughout this book is his constant adventuring with the city and the environment he is introduced to (NY).A few changes that occur to George during the story is his outlook on the world, he begins his first day, with thoughts of going home, and going back right then and there, and this happens a few times in the beginning of the book, another memorable one would be when he is lost in NY, being that this is his only time being here, other than a few others he encounters such as himself, the mysterious man in yellow, and a young animal. The near end of the his entire book is him enjoying his surrounding, but still being scared, i believe this is a good book for kids. ...more
Shelves: kids-preschool
We are avid Curious George fans at our house. But... this first book of the series was a disappointment when we checked it out from the library.
(If you haven't seen it, check out the Curious George television show on PBS. So cool. The narration, jazz music background and teaching about math/ science is captivating).
This book is a study in cultural change! First, George is captured and removed from his natural habitat in Africa by the man with the yellow hat. George smokes a pipe. George is put We are avid Curious George fans at our house. But... this first book of the series was a disappointment when we checked it out from the library.
(If you haven't seen it, check out the Curious George television show on PBS. So cool. The narration, jazz music background and teaching about math/ science is captivating).
This book is a study in cultural change! First, George is captured and removed from his natural habitat in Africa by the man with the yellow hat. George smokes a pipe. George is put in prison for errantly calling the "fire department" (a reference to 911). George escapes from prison by walking along electric lines after a fat watchman is incapacitated because his weight tips a piece of furniture. George steals balloons from a man selling them. The book ends with George, happy, in the zoo.
There is also throughout the book the usual curious good humor one would expect, and those parts are all in good fun. And, the man with the yellow hat fixes up things a bit, paying off the balloon man, for instance.
But, I think the bad, in this particular book of the series, outweighs the good. Other books in the series have all the charm of Curious George, without the objectionable content, or at least not as much of it! :) ...more
Shelves: my-favorites
As the introduction explains, the watercolor paintings that accompany this special edition of the very first Curious George story made their way out of Paris on the back of Hans Rey's bicycle, as he and his wife, Margaret, narrowly escaped the German occupation. By way of Spain and Brazil, Rey and his work came to the United States, where cash-strapped children's publishers always required "color separation" art--i.e., a different drawing for each color. So Rey's watercolors were not used, and f As the introduction explains, the watercolor paintings that accompany this special edition of the very first Curious George story made their way out of Paris on the back of Hans Rey's bicycle, as he and his wife, Margaret, narrowly escaped the German occupation. By way of Spain and Brazil, Rey and his work came to the United States, where cash-strapped children's publishers always required "color separation" art--i.e., a different drawing for each color. So Rey's watercolors were not used, and for subsequent books he never even did them; only now, for the first time, has that first set been used directly. Otherwise, it's the story you probably already know, though a bit more luxuriously produced, about how Curious George came to make life a lot more interesting for the Man in the Yellow Hat ...more
Shelves: the-food-bank , picture-books
Curious George was living in Africa, swinging from trees and eating bananas, when one day a man with a yellow hat appeared. The man with the yellow hat decided that he would like to have a nice little monkey to bring home with him, so he put his hat down on the ground and scuttled off into the bushes.
Of course, George – being the curious monkey that he is – simply had to get his paws on the mysterious object! What he didn’t know was that the hat was a trap and that now he will be whisked across Curious George was living in Africa, swinging from trees and eating bananas, when one day a man with a yellow hat appeared. The man with the yellow hat decided that he would like to have a nice little monkey to bring home with him, so he put his hat down on the ground and scuttled off into the bushes.
Of course, George – being the curious monkey that he is – simply had to get his paws on the mysterious object! What he didn’t know was that the hat was a trap and that now he will be whisked across the ocean and put into a zoo! New adventures are afoot for Curious George!
Conclusion. The adorable beginning to an adorable series.
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Shelves: fiction , reviewed , picture-books , childrens
This is one of those books that reminds me how much I've changed my world outlook over the years. It's not just a question of going from childhood to adulthood. the Curious George books were never my favorites as a kid but I did like them; my guess is I would have given this 3 stars. Now, I'm actually appalled. I’m not really impressed by the book in general but Curious George ending up at the zoo at the end just makes me sad, and I wouldn’t encourage today’s kids to read this book. Debated betw This is one of those books that reminds me how much I've changed my world outlook over the years. It's not just a question of going from childhood to adulthood. the Curious George books were never my favorites as a kid but I did like them; my guess is I would have given this 3 stars. Now, I'm actually appalled. I’m not really impressed by the book in general but Curious George ending up at the zoo at the end just makes me sad, and I wouldn’t encourage today’s kids to read this book. Debated between 1 and 2 and 3 stars on this one, but there's a zillion better books for kids out there! But I would probably have given it a 4 when I read it as a child. ...more
Shelves: read-aloud , baby-s-books
Well, this one is pretty messed up....
Curious George, by H.A. Rey, is the classic tale of a poacher who visits...um...Africa..., captures a monkey on a whim, then brings the monkey to a big city and negligently looks the other way while the monkey runs amok. He lets the monkey roam free on a ship, much to the dismay of the crew. He gives the monkey wine and a pipe, then leaves it unsupervised. Chaos and hilarity ensue, then the poacher casually shows up at the end and hands him over to the zoo.
T Well, this one is pretty messed up....
Curious George, by H.A. Rey, is the classic tale of a poacher who visits...um...Africa..., captures a monkey on a whim, then brings the monkey to a big city and negligently looks the other way while the monkey runs amok. He lets the monkey roam free on a ship, much to the dismay of the crew. He gives the monkey wine and a pipe, then leaves it unsupervised. Chaos and hilarity ensue, then the poacher casually shows up at the end and hands him over to the zoo.
This book is a lot of fun, even if the story is a bit ridiculous. George, we are assured, is a good monkey, all evidence to the contrary. And we are expected to be completely cool with the idea that the poacher just brought him into the United States (?) without any sort of examination or approval from a vet.
The illustrations are great, as well, and the best parts are the details - George barfing out fish and seawater; the sad little monkey in the jail cell, with the mice stealing his food; the bottle of wine with George's meal; the fact that the balloon-salesman operates right outside of the prison.
There are a lot of details that would never get published today, which I found amusing. The so-called Man in the Yellow Hat is clearly a poacher. And he carries a gun. Pretty much everyone smokes (including George). George is from, vaguely, "Africa."
Good stuff.
Shelves: 1001-children-s-books-ages-3 , childrens , read-in-2016
This review has been hidden because it contains spoilers. To view it, click here. I found this book in a pile of other old books I grew up with in my childhood home. My daughter loves Curious George, so I was excited to find such an old version to share with her. Even better when it was also listed on the 1001 books to read before you grow up list.
I really wanted to love this, but looking at it with adult eyes, the story isn't as wonderful as I remembered. Hopefully my daughter is too young to pick up on some of the not so subtle messages here, as she keeps asking me to read I found this book in a pile of other old books I grew up with in my childhood home. My daughter loves Curious George, so I was excited to find such an old version to share with her. Even better when it was also listed on the 1001 books to read before you grow up list.
I really wanted to love this, but looking at it with adult eyes, the story isn't as wonderful as I remembered. Hopefully my daughter is too young to pick up on some of the not so subtle messages here, as she keeps asking me to read this book. Thankfully the later Curious George books are not as terrible.
For starters, how did I forget that the Man with the Yellow Hat was actually a poacher in Africa who kidnapped George by "popping him in a bag"? He carries his gun with him in several scenes.
Then George almost drowns, and there is a picture of him vomiting water and fish. But hey, he appears to be smiling at the same time.
When he arrives in the city, he smokes a pipe. Then he accidentally calls the fire department and gets thrown into PRISON for his mistake. And he winds up where every wild monkey would love to be - in a zoo.
These are some serious themes for a three year old! I'll stick to the later George books where the Man with the Yellow Hat really is his friend. ...more
Nov 25, 2016 Paul Large rated it it was amazing
Oh, Curious George, what happened! Curious George is a character that every young child can get used to because they know what its like to want to do things and then mess things up. Curious George tries to do things because he is curious, but sometimes things just don't go like he had planned them. With everything that a child has to do, they would get a laugh out of the things that this monkey does. I believe this would be a good book to read to students because it would allow them to laugh and Oh, Curious George, what happened! Curious George is a character that every young child can get used to because they know what its like to want to do things and then mess things up. Curious George tries to do things because he is curious, but sometimes things just don't go like he had planned them. With everything that a child has to do, they would get a laugh out of the things that this monkey does. I believe this would be a good book to read to students because it would allow them to laugh and have a good time. They would be able to forget about all of the things that they have to learn for a little bit and be able to just be a kid and have fun. I believe that this book can also teach some important lessons about not doing too much, and not to be afraid to ask for help. H. A. Rey did a good job explaining the situations that Curious George gets involved with, and he makes them come to live for the reader. ...more
Dec 06, 2016 Max Hicks rated it really liked it
In Curious George there is a monkey that is brought from the wild back to New York City by the man in the yellow hat. George is a very curious monkey and is constantly on the move as there is a ton of new and exciting things in his new home. Unfortunately for George his curiosity gets him into trouble from time to time. The book is very well illustrated and actually is very relatable to young readers as children tend to be curious of the world around them as well. Although George is in danger at In Curious George there is a monkey that is brought from the wild back to New York City by the man in the yellow hat. George is a very curious monkey and is constantly on the move as there is a ton of new and exciting things in his new home. Unfortunately for George his curiosity gets him into trouble from time to time. The book is very well illustrated and actually is very relatable to young readers as children tend to be curious of the world around them as well. Although George is in danger at certain times of this book the way that the illustrations are done keeps the book very light hearted and fun for the young readers. It teaches them not to push the boundaries with their curiosity as they might get themselves into danger. That being said the pictures are tons of fun which keep the kids entertained as the text is very simple for the most part. ...more
Shelves: 2016
Although George is adorably cute and his adventures make way to some fun throughout the pages, this is not a book I would ever condone nor read to any child. Right from the beginning, the little monkey is taken from his home, habitat, costumes and very possibly family, to go to the city live amongst humans in a zoo. No children’s book should portray this as something light nor natural let alone fun. It is really upsetting how trivial something so cruel is treated in this. Young minds should be n Although George is adorably cute and his adventures make way to some fun throughout the pages, this is not a book I would ever condone nor read to any child. Right from the beginning, the little monkey is taken from his home, habitat, costumes and very possibly family, to go to the city live amongst humans in a zoo. No children’s book should portray this as something light nor natural let alone fun. It is really upsetting how trivial something so cruel is treated in this. Young minds should be nurtured to learn about important things in life such as respect for all forms of life. I am aware that this is fiction and make believe, but some things just don’t work together in my point of view. ...more
| i don't know |
What world famous architect designed Seattle’s Experience Music Project to look somewhat like a “smashed guitar”? | The cool kids and the nerds will both love Seattle’s EMP Museum | canada.com
The cool kids and the nerds will both love Seattle’s EMP Museum
The EMP Museum sits adjacent to Seattle's iconic Space Needle. Photo: Mark Stachiew, Postmedia News
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Published: December 2, 2013, 2:27 pm
Updated: 3 years ago
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As a lover of both popular music and science fiction, my visit to the EMP Museum in Seattle was like a trip to heaven.
If VI was IX is the name of a towering sculpture of more than 500 guitars at the EMP Museum in Seattle.
The non-profit, popular culture museum is the brainchild of Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen who used some of his spare millions and items from his personal collection to create what has become one of the Emerald City’s best attractions.
The museum is easy to find as it sits adjacent to Seattle’s iconic Space Needle and the Seattle Art Museum. It even has its own monorail stop. It’s also easy to recognize as its unearthly curves and shiny metal surface could only be the work of renowned Canadian-born architect Frank Gehry. The building is supposed to be designed to resemble a smashed electric guitar, which is certainly not evident from ground level, but you might be able to see it from up high if you take a ride up the Space Needle..
As you enter the museum, you walk past a towering sculpture of guitars that reaches to the top of the building like a musical beanstalk. You then enter the Sky Church, an open space the size of an aircraft hanger. On the wall is a soaring screen showing an endless barrage of larger-than-life concert footage. A few benches are scattered around the space for those who want to sit and watch, but most visitors just stand there, awed by the spectacle.
From there, you can go one direction for the music displays or the other direction for the science fiction, fantasy and horror exhibits.
I chose to first explore the sci-fi section,entitled Icons of Science Fiction, where I was tickled to see the original command chair of Star Trek’s Captain Kirk as well as a Dalek from the long-running Doctor Who series. There are plenty of other instantly-recognizable props and costumes from famous films and TV shows that would delight any fan of the genre.
The original command chair of Captain James Kirk is on display at Seattle’s EMP Museum.
The museum is also home to the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame where grandmasters from the field are honoured. This year’s inductees are Canada’s own Judith Merril, J.R.R. Tolkien, H.R. Giger, Joanna Russ and David Bowie.
My next stop was the fantasy exhibit, Worlds of Myth and Magic, which has artifacts from Harry Potter, The Princess Bride, The Wizard of Oz and other popular movies, but the highlight for me was the display of original manuscript pages from Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings. Seeing them in person was probably the geek equivalent of seeing the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The horror section, which goes by the title Can’t Look Away: The Lure of Horror Film, is suitably dark and scary, with displays of gory costumes and props and multiple screens where you can watch the genre’s most famous movie moments. There is an interactive component where you can sit in a booth and record yourself making your most ear-splitting scream of a slasher movie victim.
So if one side of the museum is for the nerds, the other side must be for the cool kids. That’s where the music fans visit first. In case you were wondering, the EMP in the museum’s name stands for Experience Music Project. Since Seattle is home to Jimi Hendrix, Nirvana and Pearl Jam, the museum has extensive displays of memorabilia of their careers, including guitars, clothing, concert posters and much more.
More interesting to me was the Guitar Gallery which is a circular room lined with guitars, tracing a chronological history of the instrument, complete with examples of famous models from music’s most accomplished axemen including Leo Fender, Les Paul, Bo Diddley and many others. As you admire the collection, music fills the room from overhead monitors that show a parade of famous guitarists playing their most famous riffs.
For kids and aspiring musicians of all ages, the SoundLab is an exhibit that gives people the opportunity to get their hands on all kinds of instruments, like guitars, drums and keyboards, to learn the rudiments of how they work. It also lets you play around with the technology to mix and make recordings and learn plenty of other aspects of how music production works. It’s so much fun that it’s hard to get a turn on some of the instruments as no one wants to stop playing with them.
To keep you coming back, the museum has special exhibitions that run for a limited time. During my visit, it was Women who Rock, an inspiring look at the women who have shaped pop music. That show ended recently and was replaced by a collection of Martin Schoeller’s large-scale photographic headshots of some of the world’s most famous figures from pop culture, sports and politics. I haven’t seen the show, but if it’s half as good as the Women Who Rock exhibit, it’s sure to be a hit.
IF YOU GO …
The EMP museum is open daily. Its winter hours are 10 a.m to 5 p.m. It is closed on Christmas Day. Admission is $20 U.S. for adults, $17 for seniors and students, $14 for children. Kids under 4 are admitted for free. There are discounts if you purchase your tickets online. www.empmuseum.org
Consider purchasing a CityPASS as it gives you access to the EMP Museum, the nearby Space Needle and Pacific Science Center as well as several other popular Seattle attraction, all for only $74 U.S.. It could save you as much as 43% off regular admissions if you usethem all. You have nine days to use the pass once you use your first ticket, but CityPASS has a special Christmas rate that lengthens the period to 74 days if you purchase after Dec. 15, 2013. www.citypass.com
| Frank Gehry |
Born April 4, 1973, what illusionists feats included such stunts as being buried alive for 7 days, 63 hours encased in ice, and 44 days spent suspended over the city of London? | Elsewhere: The Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary Architecture
The Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary Architecture
By the editors of Phaidon Press, 824 pages, 1,056 projects by 656 architects, 4,600 color photographs, 2,400 line drawings and 62 maps, 2004, $160
A Weighty and Mighty Tome
By Carter B. Horsley
The Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary Architecture, which was published in May, 2004, documents 1,052 buildings by 656 architects in 75 countries that were completed since January 1998 with 4,600 color photographs and 2,400 line drawings.
This is a giant book: it measures 20.8 by 16.1 by 3.9 inches and its shipping weight, with a transparent plastic briefcase, is 19.7 pounds. There are no more than two projects per page and there are numerous illustrations for each project. One project even has 12 color photographs.
Although many lovers of architecture will be familiar with some of the projects, most of the projects and architects will be unfamiliar to most. Rafael Moneo and Herzog & De Meuron have 9 projects each; Tadeo Ando has 8 and Frank Gehry 6.
The book showcases the selected projects with thousands of well-chosen color photographs plans, elevations, and cross-sections. Major elements of each project are described in elegantly succinct texts. Rather than simply pay lip service to the concept of "world" architecture, this book ranges throughout 75 countries on six continents. And although the big names in the field are here, the focus is on the ingenuity and diversity of contemporary architecture, regardless of the fame of its creator.
The text commentaries for each project are succinct but excellent and the book also provides economic, environmental, and demographic information for all the countries represented in the survey.
This is without question the architectural book of the year, indeed, of this millennium so far.
The selection of projects highlighted in this article is based solely on those that caused this reviewer to interrupt his page-turning on his first perusal. The overwhelming majority of the included projects are intriguing and interesting. Everytime, one reopens the book, however, one discovers other interesting projects.
The National Museum of Australia in Canberra, (see The City Review article on "Architects Now" ) shown above, is one of the more colorful projects. Designed by Ashton Raggart McDougal in association with Robert Peck von Hartel Trethowan and it won a competition for the project in 2001. The commentary notes that "the museum employs the metaphor of a Boolean string, a computer-generated mathematical precept." "The string represents a tangling of these formalized axes; its contortions embrace the land, water, space and building. the tangled canopies, pathways, landscape elements and the crescent-shaped footprint of the building, a reference to the convergence of cultures within Ausralia. The symbolism of the knot is also a commentary on the complexity of contemporary issue relating to indigenuous Australians. The Australiam Institute of Aborigimal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, incorporated in the Museum, is a black version of Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye, a sardonic reference to the notion of a white icon."
Another great Australian project is the Victoria University Online Training Cente in Melbourne that was designed by Lyons in 2000. It is notable for its stunning facade. The text notes that "Through techniques of scaling, the building seems to transform as the viewer changes distance and position. The facade combines a voncentional construction system with new digital technologies. Metal panels are imprinted with a pixelated graphic image, derived from colours and forms within the surrounding landscape. the intricate pattern of shimmering, distorted dots read as perforations, imbuing the thin layers of the facades with a sense of depth. From the south, the project emreges from and recedes into the grassland backdrop. Sequences of graphic cuts across the surface are folded out to form angled, hooded openings. These glazed punctuations gradually shift in legibility, and dissolve into the seamless, shimmering surface when seen from the opposite direction. Providing visual connections and controlled levels of natural light to the interior, these openings challenge assumptions that computer environments are hermetic. The building responds abstractly to its function as a and to the surrounding landscape, through the sale, colour and manifuplation of its suface." While the building is not beautiful, the ingenuity of its facade treatment is very exciting.
Federation Square in Melbourne, Lab Architecture Studio in association with Bates Smart, 2002
Perhaps the most spectacular project in the book is Federation Square in Melbourne, which was designed by Lab architecture studio in association with Bates Smart in 2002. A very complex low-rise project of jumbled geometries, the project contains the National Gallery of Victoria, the Australian Centre for the Moving Image and a national television broadcasting centre as well as retail and commercial spaces and restaurants. "The design for Federation Square, Melbourne's new cultural centre," the entry for this project notes, "responds to the need for visual and formal coherence with complex and contorted geometry. This has not produced a resolved iconic object that is either rigid or pure in form; it is rather an emergent form that can respond to the different needs of the diverse activities that take place there.....Cladding materials include sandstone, zinc and glass. The large high-volume atrium, which acts as a 24-hour public thoroughfare and covered meeting place, is enclosed and glass and paved in sandstone...."
The Imperial War Museum of the North, Manchester, England, by Daniel Liebeskind, 2002
Daniel Liebeskind's second most important commission before the World Trade Center was the Imperial War Museum of the North in Manchester, England, in 2002. "It continues," the entry notes, "his distinctive language of zigzags and clashing diagonals, originally presented in his Jewish Museum of Berlin, provoking devate about whether this translation of style to a new context dilutes the original potency of the work. This project provides a highly internalized visitor experience, with few views to the outside....Externally, the building is conceived as a composition of three shards: roof forms mimic shattered fragments of a sphere smashed on the ground, and present the elements of earth, air and water. ...for many observers, it is a textbook example of Deconstructivist architecture, realizing in built form the tortured story of the capacity of the human race for self-destruction."
Walch's Event Catering Administration Building, Lustenau, Austria, Dietrich Untertrifaller Architects, 2000
One of the wildest and most sensational projects in the book is Walch's Event Catering Administration Building in Lustenau, Austria that was designed and built in 2000 by Dietrich Untertrifaller Architects. The book entry for this project notes that "The building is constructed from prefabricated timber elements, and the interior and exterior walls clad with chipboard." "This, however," it continued, "is not visible from the outside, as the entire building is covered with a skin, thework of Austrian artist Peter Kogler, The net-like material can be looked through from inside, but no views into the building are possible when standing outside, even in darkness. The tubular forms printed on the translucent material diminish all sense of the dimensions and proportions of the building. Theatrically lit at night, it appears as a strange, alien object, with no reference to its context."
Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Tadao Ando Architect & Associates, 2000
The Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth was designed in 2000 by Tadao Ando Architect & Associates and it adjoins Louis Kahn's 1972 Kimball Art Museum. "Tadao Ando's design arranges the rectangular volumes in a row, surrounded by a large pool of reflective water and landscaped gardens. Each block is constructed of a concrete box within a glass box: the concrete, which protects the collection within from the harsh desert environment, exaggerates the transparency of the glass, while the glass, which provides monumental public circulation areas, mitigates the massiveness of the concrete....Huge, cantilevered concrete roofs shade the building from strong sunlight, with the roof slabs supported on Y-shaped concrete columns 12 meters (40 feet) high. a system of continuous linear skylights and clerestory windows allows diffused natural light to cascade down into the galleries."
The Aluminium Forest, Utrecht, Netherlands, Architectenbureau Micha de Haas, 2001
The Aluminium Forest in Utrecht, Netherlands was designed by Architectenbureau Micha de Haas in 2001 and sits on 368 piloti of varying dimensions and functions. "The variation in width of separation and angle of each column," the book entry observes, "animates the whole, giving he impression of an oversized and alien amphibious creature teetering on the edge of the water. The close proximity of the columns enables the building to defy expectations of the stength ad versatility of aluminium, displaying innovate aspects which partly result from the use of aerospace technology."
Sendai Mediath�que, Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan, Toyo Ito & Associates, 2001
Another very successful experiment with columns and one of the most elegant and striking designs is the Sendai Mediath�que in Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture in Japan. It was designed by Toyo Ito & Associates in 2001 and employs a remarkable structure system of large hollow tubes that are angled slightly and differently as they rise.
Simmons Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Steven Holl Architects, 2002
Simmons Hall at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was designed in 2002 by Steven Holl Architects and is a monumental structure that defies scale and creates its own colorful skyline. The dormitory was designed in association with Perry Dean Rogers Architects. The 10-story-high structure has five large openings that, the entry observes, "roughly correspond to main entrances, view corridors and outdoor activity terraces." "A tight grid of windows is connected by a shimmering exterior of anodized alumium, reflective during the day and glowing at night....Colour on the window heads and hambs defines the ten residential 'houses' within the building."
G�rald-Godin College, Montreal, Saucier + Perrotte, 2000
The angled geometry of the "black and stretched aluminium external skin" of the G�rald-Godin College in Montreal is stunning. It was designed by Saucier + Perrotte in 2000.
Giovanni and Marella Agnelli Art Gallery, Torino, Italy, Renzo Piano Building Workshop, 2002
The Giovanni and Marella Agnelli Art Gallery sites atop the Fiat Factory in Torino, Italy, that was designed in 1917 by Matt� Trucco. The art gallery was designed in 2002 by the Renzo Piano Building Workshop.
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UFA Cinema Center, Dresden, Germany, Coop Himmelb(l)au, 1998
One of the most famous works in the book is the UFA Cinema Center, designed by Coop Himmelb(l)au in 1998 in Dresden, Germany. The building contains eight cinemas with seating for a total of 2,600 seats. Half of the theaters are underground and the other four are "slotted together as a series of interlocking wedges, forming a six-storey block," the entry noted, adding that "Grafted on to the side of this block is a skewed crystalline volume that serves as the foyer to the complex. Fire-escape stairs run down the length of the cinema block behind a scaffolding-like grid. The raw concrete monolith of the cinema block provides an earth-bound foil for the dynamism and lightness of the glass foyer, in which ramps, stairs and bridges, some glazed, some enclosed by galvanized metal balustrades, carve irregular angular patterns through the space. A caf� housed in a double inverted cone is suspended over the foyer, providing cinema-goers with dramatic views through the foyer and over the square."
El Croquis Head Office, Richard Levene and Fernando Marquez Cecilia, Madrid, Spain, 1998
El Croquis is a major architecture publication published in Madrid Spain. Richard Levene and Fernando Marquez Cecilia, the editors and publishers of the magazine, designed its head office in 1998. The very handsome project consists of two tilted low-rise structures that sit on a Cor-ten steel platform. Street facades are travertine marble and the garden facades are Iroko wood.
Sondika Airport, Bilbao, Spain by Santiago Calatrava, 1999
Santiago Calatrava's Sondika Airport in Bilbao, Spain, was designed in 1999. The book entry for this project notes that "Ramps and passages peel off from the main hall, disappearing underground into the underbelly of the car-parks, or leading up to the airy viewing platform," adding that "The building is dynamic in its flows and creates an incredible sense of gravity, constituting an appropriate transition space between earth and sky."
The Gallery, Singapore, by William Lim Associates and Tang Guan-Bee Architects, 2000
William Lim Associates and Tang Guan-Bee Architects designed a three-dimensional Mondrianesque building called The Gallery in Singapore in 2000. The project is a hotel and in addition to its projecting windows with different colored frames, its facade is enlivened by rectilinear lights at night, a precursor to the Porter House apartment building facade in the Chelsea section of New York a few years later.
Colorium, Dusseldorf, Germany, Alsop Architects, 2001
Another superb example of the use of color, and another homage to Mondrian, is the Colorium in Dusseldorf, Germany. Designed by Alsop Architects in 2001, it is an office building that is part of a "Media Harbour" project that will include works by Frank Gehry, Fumihiko Maki, Steven Holl and David Chipperfield. "A patchwork of coloured panels made up of 17 distinct types of glass blurs the regularity of the floor divisions and allows entire elevations to be read as intricately patterned collages....The tower is capped by a projecting crimson plant instation which is transformed by lighting into a glowing light box."
North German Regional Clearing Bank, Hannover, Germany, Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner, 2002
One of the more complex projects is the North German Regional Clearing Bank in Hannover, Germany, which was designed in 2002 by Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner. "Despite being for a large commercial client," the project's entry maintained, "the building eschews monumentality, with the scale broken down to create a humane working environment. The tower and spaces around the courtyard are organized with an angular geometry. The erratic plan is exploited to provide a variety of office accommodation and open circulation spaces, with exterior views and plentiful daylight, avoiding the featureless corridors typical for countless modern office buildings. Mini-blocks of offices spectacularly busrt out at different angles from the tower itself - at one place steppping dramatically out floor by floor - again fragmenting the mass of the complex."
Experience Music Project, Seattle, Washington, Gehry Partners, 2000
Located next to the base of the Space Needle in Seattle, the Experience Musice Project was designed by Gehry Partners in 2000. "The fragmented and undulating forms of the building are inspired in part by the image of a shatter Fender statocaster guitar, an image that is reinfoced by looping steel cables which suggest broken guitar strings." This is one of Frank Gehry's most colorful projects. The Seattle Center Monorail passes through its interior.
Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, Gehry Partners, 2003
A far simpler and more graceful project by Gehry Partners is the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles that was built in 2003. The hall has 2,275 seats and an interior of timber with skylights to allow natural light to enhance daytime concerts.
Samsung Corporate Headquarters, Seoul, South Korea, designed by Rafael Vinoly, 1999
In 1994, Samsung stopped work on a new 20-story corporate headquarters building in Seoul, South Korea, and commissioned Rafael Vinoly to rethink the design. His solution was to enlarge the project and add a cultural and educational centre as well as retail spaces while tripling its height to create the tallest skyscraper in the city. "The new scheme centres on three architectural interventions. The first is the vertical extension of the three circulation towers to support 'the cloud,' a two-story volume containing a restaurant and nightclub at the top of the builidng. The second is a giant-scaled cornice, added to the top of the original building's volume and extending over a public plaza below. Finally, a separate volume was constructed above this cornice to accommodate the offices," the entry for the project observed. The result is an extremely handsome and interesting structure.
Donghu Financial Centre, Seoul, North Korea, Kohn Pedersen Fox, 2002
Another project in Seoul by an American architectural firm is the Donghu Financial Centre. Designed by Kohn Pedersen Fox, it was built in 2002 and is distinguished by its subtle use of diagonals. "The design concept of 'layering' was derived from traditional Korean handicrafts such as shik-tak-bo, in which pieces of cloth are randomly patched together. The building's services were layered vertically by means of an organizational core. To distinguish the building from its surrounding rectagular neighbours, an organic design approach was used rather than the predominating geometric idiom. A strong sculpture statement is made by the undulating, diagonal curtain walls. The resulting north-facing elevation is a collection of slightly canted surfaces, each reflecting a different part of the sky and surrounding cityscape...the curtain walls terminate in soaring vectors of stainless steel....," the project's entry noted.
131 Rue Pelleport, Paris, Fr�d�ric Borel Architecte, 1999
Another tower that interestingly employs diagonals vertically is 131 Rue Pelleport apartment house in Paris, which was designed in 1999 by Fr�d�ric Borel Architecte. "The angular form," the entry maintains, "creates a frozen moment on the crossroads in the manner of the Roman baroque, with excess and sheer dynamic movement....The 20 apartments are organized around an opaque core containing services, while the external surfaces, forming the facade, are used to define and divide the spaces of inhabitation. This allows the interiors to be fully orientated towards the light and the surprising views of Paris, with private exteiror spaces that can be transformed into winter gardens."
Transportation Centre, Inchon International Centre, Seoul, South Korea, Terry Farrell & Partners, 2002
One of the most spectacular projects is the Transportation Centre, Inchon International Airport, also in Seoul, South Korea. Designed by Terry Farrell & Partners in 2002, it is highlighted by its great hall. "A steel portal truss structure rises from the ground and vaults over the hall, its skeletal fluidity and spatial sweep recalling the form of a crane, a sacred bird to the Korean people, in take-off. It is an icon of dynamism, symbolising native culture, flight and the future. The biomorphic forms of the whole compostion evoke flight and dynamism. but the symbol of the future is the pod-lke flight control centre, with a glass belly that acts as an aerofoil in the natural ventilation of the hall below," the text notes.
Yokohama International Port Terminal, Japan, Foreign Office Architecture, 2002
Another great transportation project is the Yokohama International Port Terminal in Japan. It was designed in 2002 by Foreign Office Architecture. This project has a spectacular landscaped roof and even more spectacular interiors with slanted wood walls and floors.
Concert Hall, Le�n, Spain, Mansilla + Turlon, 2002
In 2002, Mansilla + Turlon designed a concert hall in Le�n, Spain that is distinguished by its stunning facade of rectangular windows in angleddeep inserts conjuring the modernity of Le Corbusier.
A windowless, curved exterior composed of about 15,000 aluminum disks, the Selfridges Department Store in Birmingham, West Midlands, England, (see The City Review article on "Architects Now" ) was designed in 2003 by Future Systems. Unquestionably distinctive, it is both high-tech and organic, an instant landmark of strange aesthetic. "The fluidity of the building's bubble-shaped form is matched inside with an organically-shaped atrium....Future Systems re-interpreted the notion of a department store," according to the book's entry for this project, "not only in its appearance, but also by analysing the social function such a building plays in contemporary society. The form of the building is soft and curvaceous in response to the nature curve of the site. It is expressive in a way that is aesthetically innovative but also clearly signifies its function as a department store, without the need for signage." To some observers, however, the signification is not so clear and perhaps the aluminum disks should have pricetags on them.
Guthrie Pavilion, Shah Alam, Malaysia, T. R. Hamzah & Yeang, 1998
The Guthrie Pavilion in Shah Alam, Malaysia, was designed by T. R. Hamzah & Yeang in 1998 and is a nautical-themed pavilion is a golf clubhouse with office space. Three masts hold five canopies that protect the building form the sun and aluminium louvres further help energy considerations.
Royal Library, Kobenjavn, Denmark, Schmidt, Hammer & Lassen, 1999
The Royal Library in Kobenjavn, Denmark was designed in 1999 by Schmidt, Hammer & Lassen and "the twisted shapes and inclined facades of this high-profile building, nicknamed the "Black Diamond," have made it a landmark," the entry notes. "The granite-clad diamond structure broadens the traditional concept of a library, accommodating a wide variety of cultural events,...This extension to the existing Royal Library appears to float on a ribbon of raised glass, which allows views into thefoyer from outside and panoramic views of the waterfront from inside."
Atrium of Festival Walk in Hong Kong, designed by Arquitectonica, 2003
Arquitectonica designed a very graceful shoppng center called "Festival Walk" in Hong Kong in 2003 that is notable for its handsome facades and spectacular atriums criss-crossed by stainless-steel escalators.
One of the stunning projects in China is the Library for Zhejiang University's Ningpo Campus in Zhejang Province. Designed by MADA s.p.a.m., it was completed in 2002. Each facade is different. The entry for this project observes that "Whereas the grid of windows and recesses in the facade somewhat tames the impact of the nine-storey cube, the sublime qualities of size are evoked on the inside, there the common facilities - conference centre, exhibition gallery, screening room, cyber lounge and reading deck - are suspended within a full-height atrium. The atrium is bounded on all sides by stacks, which in turn are surrounded by rows of four-seater study-tables, positioned against the external walls so that each receives natural light directly from its own window. Raised on an honirific podium and easily recognized from a distance by its coloured finishes and Corbusian, funnel-shaped skylgihts, the library's repetitive fenestration minics that of the the surrounding buildings, perhaps to camouflage its newness."
Another great Chinese project is the Nanning Gateway in Nanning, Guangxi designed by Denton Corker Marshall in 2002. The project has two huge metal red flowers on either side of the main road into the city, one is complete but the other is deconstructed into separated petals spread along a considerable length of the highway.
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What is the longest running TV game show? | 10 Longest Running Game Shows on US Television
10 Longest Running Game Shows on US Television
by Oendrila De
Television programmes are a part and parcel of our everyday lives. On one hand, they offer us entertainment with sitcoms, soap operas, chat shows and reality shows, and on the other hand, they give us knowledge about the entire world. Then there are the thrilling competitions on the television that we all seem to enjoy. From quiz shows to lucky draws, every kind of game shows has been on the American TV, whose concepts have been replicated in other countries in various languages. Game shows are vastly popular today, and since the beginning of television, numerous game shows have been conducted. Some of them have been short and ended quickly, while many have found the tricks to run on for a long time. Let us look at the countdown for the Longest Running Game Shows on Television in the US.
Ten Longest-Running Game Shows on American TVs.
10. To Tell the Truth
Created by Bob Stewart, several versions of the show have been aired over a total of 25 seasons, though the original version from 1956 to 1968 aired 12 seasons. The show featured celebrity panellists who were presented with the description of a contestant’s unique occupation or experience. There was a contestant and two impostors pretending to the central character. The panellists questioned these three people. While the impostors could lie, the original contestant was sworn to tell the truth. Based on the wrong guesses of the panellists, the contestant could win.
9. Let’s Make a Deal
The host of the show, Monty Hall, created it with Stefan Hatos as a game of luck and intuition. He selected members of the audience to whom he offered deals, and they had to weigh the value of a real prize or an undesirable item. One of the noticeable features of the game was the bizarre costumes that the contestants wore to grab attention of the producers and increase their chances of being picked as a trader. The show aired 3000+ episodes over 13 seasons from 1977 which were very popular. Though there are regular attempts of revival including in 2013-14, its demand has dipped.
8. Concentration
Producers Jack Barry and Dan Enright created the show with Robert Noah and Buddy Piper based on children’s Memory game. In the show, matching pairs of cards, which represented the prizes, were gradually removed from the board to eventually reveal the elements of a rebus puzzle which the contestants had to solve to win a match. The show was aired on and off between 1958 and 1991, with Classic Concentration being the final edition. It survived for almost 4000 episodes over 15 seasons, due to a solid format, even amidst general implication about 50’s game shows being rigged.
7. Hollywood Squares
This panel game show was created by Merrill Heatter and Bob Quigley and was aired from 1966 to 1980. It revolves around a game of tic-tac-toe where contestants could play with celebrities. The show was a combination of games and comedy. Joke answers and plausible incorrect bluffs would often be given by the celebrities, supplied by the show’s writers along with question subjects, as per the show’s scripting. But, the gameplay was scripted differently, and they only got the questions in the show. The show had 3500+ episodes over 14 years.
6. I’ve Got a Secret
Allan Sherman and Howard Merrill created the show as a derivative of What’s My Line? In this show, the celebrity panellists had to guess the secret of the contestant. The fun element of the game was that this secret, which was something that ranged from amazing to embarrassing, from humorous to intense. It was aired in 1952 and ran till 1967, and was revived repeatedly in the 70s, and 2000s. They had a revolutionary revival with an all-gay panel. Having started in Black and White, it switched to colour broadcast in 1966. 350+ episodes were aired over 15 seasons of the show.
5. What’s My Line
Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions created this unique show whose first run was aired from 1950 to 1967, but had several brief revivals until 1975. In this game show, a panel of four celebrities would be given game tasks, and the panellists had to ask “yes” or “no” questions to guess the occupation, i.e. ‘line’ of work of a fifth contestant whose identity would be kept a secret. The Mystery Guests would be paid for appearing on the show. The show was moderated by John Charles Daly, and several celebrities were featured in over 2000 episodes over 25 seasons.
4. Truth or Consequences
The show was created by Ralph Edwards for the radio, and it was adapted on television in 1950 to run till 198. It has had several runs and completed 24 seasons. It was a quiz competition with a twist. The contestants would be asked questions that were often obscure and tricky, and if they would not be able to answer, they would have to suffer the ‘consequences’, i.e. perform wacky stunts. The show reached its peak of popularity when Bob Barker hosted it from 1956 to 1975, after which it never got back the former glory, and was briefly revived for short periods in the 80s.
3. Jeopardy!
Created by Merv Griffin, the original version was aired from 1964 to 1975, including a one-year run of a night-time syndicated edition. Then, The All-New Jeopardy ran from 1978 to 1979. The current daily syndicated version, started in 1984, features Alex Trebek as host. This is a unique quiz show where general knowledge clues are presented to the contestants in the form of answers, and they have to phrase the responses in the form of questions. The number of episodes is close to 7000 in 31 seasons. The show has won several accolades and awards, including 31 Daytime Emmy Awards.
2. Wheel of Fortune
Merv Griffin created the show with the basic concept of solving word puzzles in Hangman. In the 1975 show, gives the opportunity to the contestants to solve word puzzles and spin a giant carnival wheel to win cash and prizes. It was originally hosted by Chuck Woolery and Susan Stafford. Currently, the syndicated version of the show is hosted by Pat Sajak and Vanna White. The huge popularity of “America’s game” led to its nightly syndicated edition, and it is the longest running syndicated game show in the United States, having aired more than 6000 episodes in 32 seasons.
1. Price is Right
Created by Mark Goodson and Bill Todman, this show was created in 1972 as the reincarnation of the original 1956 version, retaining some elements. The programme revolves around contestants selected from the audience, who compete to identify the accurate price of merchandise, and take home cash and prizes. Bob Barker was the show’s first and longest running host. Drew Carey took over in 2007 and has been running the show. Several famous models and announcers have appeared on the show which is the longest running game show with 8000+ episodes in 42 seasons.
Game shows have always caught our imagination. They not only let the contestants walk home with great prizes or even money, but also allow those sitting on the other side of the television have a fun time guessing answers or get the feel of the game as they enjoy the show .
Wrong. This title should be “longest running shows in US television.”
Try to remember this is the WORLD Wide Web.
Oendrila De
Please read the article. That the list is made on the basis of US television has been mentioned in the very first paragraph. However, thank you for pointing out, we shall make the necessary changes ASAP. 🙂
| The Price Is Right |
In what type of triangle are all of the sides different in length? | Top 10 Longest Running TV Game Shows of All Time
Home » For Entertainment » Top 10 Longest Running TV Game Shows of All Time
Top 10 Longest Running TV Game Shows of All Time
Watching television game shows has always been an interesting part of our lives. These bring enjoyment and excitement and make our moments lovely. The game shows can be of any type such as entertainment with sitcoms, soap operas, chat shows, and reality shows. Their purpose is always to make us feel excited and get lots of fun. Let us check out the top 10 longest running TV game shows of all time.
10. To Tell the Truth
This game show was a presentation of Bob Stewart. Some of its versions have been aired for over 25 seasons from 1956 to 1968 aired 12 seasons. The show presented celebrity panellists with the description of a contestant’s unique experience. The participants and impostors were the central character. Another character of the show had to tell the truth of every question.
9. Jeopardy
This game show was presented by Merv Griffin, and it was aired from 1964 to 1975, including a one-year run of a night-time syndicated edition. Later on, the show was run from 1978 to 1979. The latest season of the show was hosted by Alex Trebek. It was a kind of quiz show where questions of general knowledge were asked. This show got several accolades and awards including 31 Daytime Emmy Awards.
8. I’ve Got a Secret
Allan Sherman and Howard Merrill were the creators of this show. In it, the celebrity panellists had to guess the secret of the contestant. The fun of the show lies in the range of embarrassment the contestants used to receive with wrong answers. The show was aired in 1952 till 1967. It was revived in the 70s, and 2000s. The show was initiated in Black and White, and switched to color broadcast in 1966.
7. Concentration
This show was produced by Jack Barry and Dan Enright, and is a creation with Robert Noah and Buddy Piper. The theme of the show is based on children’s memory game. The show revealed certain activities in which matching pairs of cards were gradually removed from the board to show off the puzzling elements. It was a highly interesting show for your children and adults. It was aired on and off between 1958 and 1991.
6. Let’s Make a Deal
This show was hosted by Monty Hall. This game show is a creation of Stefan Hatos. It is a kind of a luck game and intuition. The selected members are offered with different deals. Whoever is the winner gets a mega-prize. The show aired 3000+ episodes in 13 seasons. It was started in 1977.
5. Hollywood Squares
This panel game show is a creation of Merrill Heatter and Bob Quigley. The show was aired from 1966 to 1980. The show is about a game of tic-tac-toe where contestants had a chance to play with celebrities. The show was combined with games and comedy. Joke answers and plausible incorrect bluffs used to be a part of it. This show had 3500+ episodes over 14 years.
4. What’s My Line
Mark Goodson-Bill Todman Productions created this unique show which was aired from 1950 to 1967, and consisted of several brief revivals until 1975. This show underwent several modifications by John Charles Daly, and several celebrities were featured in over 2000 episodes for 25 seasons.
3. Wheel of Fortune
This show was created by Merv Griffin. Its theme is to solve some interesting word puzzles in Hangman. In this 1975 show, the contestants were given the chance to spin a giant carnival wheel for winning cash and different prizes. The show was originally hosted by Chuck Woolery and Susan Stafford. Later version was hosted by Pat Sajak and Vanna White. It has over 6000 episodes in 32 seasons.
2. Truth or Consequences
This interesting game show was created by Ralph Edwards for the radio, but later on it was adapted on television by 1950. The show lasted till 1988. This show saw 24 seasons. It was a quiz competition having various twists. The participants were to answer the questions which were usually quite confusing and irritating. The show got much success when Bob Barker hosted it from 1956 to 1975, and was briefly revived for short periods in the 80s.
1. Price is Right
This game show is a creation of Mark Goodson and Bill Todman. It was started in 1972 as the reincarnation of 1956 version, with some elements retained. For this game show, several contestants were selected from the audience who had competed with one another for identifying the accurate price of merchandise. If they win, they could take home cash and costly prizes. Bob Baker was the first host of this game show before Drew Carey who took over in 2007 and has been running the show. The show had 8000+ episodes in 42 seasons.
Which show you think is the best? Share the comments!
2014-10-28
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What unit of currency does the country of Switzerland use? | franc | currency | Britannica.com
currency
currency
Franc, originally a French coin but now the monetary unit of a number of countries, notably Switzerland, most French and former Belgian overseas territories, and some African states; at one time it was also the currency of France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. The name was first applied to a gold coin minted by King John II of France in 1360, which bore on one face the Latin legend Johannes Dei gratia Francorum rex (“John, by the grace of God, king of the Franks”). Because this coin also carried the figure of the king on horseback, it was known as the franc à cheval to distinguish it from another coin of the same value later issued by Charles V of France. This latter coin was called the franc à pied because it showed the monarch on foot standing under a canopy. During the 17th century the minting of gold francs ceased, but the name was freely applied by the French public to the new unit of exchange—the livre tournois, a gold coin subdivided into 20 sols. In 1795, to symbolize the political changes that followed the French Revolution , the republican government introduced a new franc currency. The first coin was a five-franc silver piece; gold coins worth 20 francs (napoleons) were coined in quantity later. The livre tournois, which was exchangeable into the new currency at a rate of 81 livres to 80 francs, continued to circulate in France until 1834.
A 5-franc coin from Comoros (obverse).
SDC
The franc was formally established as the monetary unit of France in 1799 and made divisible into 10 decimos and 100 centimes. The Swiss franc was adopted by France’s client state, the Helvetic Republic (made up of cantons of Switzerland), in 1799. The Belgian franc was adopted by Belgium in 1832, after independence. The Luxembourg franc was adopted in 1848 in place of the Dutch guilder . In 2002 the franc ceased to be legal tender in France, Belgium, and Luxembourg after the euro , the monetary unit of the European Union , became those countries’ sole currency.
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franc - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
Originally a French coin, the franc became the monetary unit of a number of countries including France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, most French and former Belgian overseas territories, and some African states. The name was first applied to a gold coin minted by King John II of France in 1360, which bore on one side the Latin legend Johannes Dei gratia Francorum rex (John, by the grace of God, king of the Franks). The coin was known as the franc a cheval because it also carried the figure of the king on horseback. During the 17th century the minting of gold francs ceased, but the name was applied by the French public to the new unit of exchange-the livre tournois, a gold coin subdivided into 20 sols. After the political changes that followed the French Revolution, the republican government introduced a new franc currency in 1795. The first coin in the new system was a 5 franc silver piece; gold coins worth 20 francs (napoleons) were coined in quantity later.
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| Frank |
Considered one of the premier and most scenic concert locations in the world, in what Washington city do you find the Gorge Amphitheatre? | franc | currency | Britannica.com
currency
currency
Franc, originally a French coin but now the monetary unit of a number of countries, notably Switzerland, most French and former Belgian overseas territories, and some African states; at one time it was also the currency of France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. The name was first applied to a gold coin minted by King John II of France in 1360, which bore on one face the Latin legend Johannes Dei gratia Francorum rex (“John, by the grace of God, king of the Franks”). Because this coin also carried the figure of the king on horseback, it was known as the franc à cheval to distinguish it from another coin of the same value later issued by Charles V of France. This latter coin was called the franc à pied because it showed the monarch on foot standing under a canopy. During the 17th century the minting of gold francs ceased, but the name was freely applied by the French public to the new unit of exchange—the livre tournois, a gold coin subdivided into 20 sols. In 1795, to symbolize the political changes that followed the French Revolution , the republican government introduced a new franc currency. The first coin was a five-franc silver piece; gold coins worth 20 francs (napoleons) were coined in quantity later. The livre tournois, which was exchangeable into the new currency at a rate of 81 livres to 80 francs, continued to circulate in France until 1834.
A 5-franc coin from Comoros (obverse).
SDC
The franc was formally established as the monetary unit of France in 1799 and made divisible into 10 decimos and 100 centimes. The Swiss franc was adopted by France’s client state, the Helvetic Republic (made up of cantons of Switzerland), in 1799. The Belgian franc was adopted by Belgium in 1832, after independence. The Luxembourg franc was adopted in 1848 in place of the Dutch guilder . In 2002 the franc ceased to be legal tender in France, Belgium, and Luxembourg after the euro , the monetary unit of the European Union , became those countries’ sole currency.
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franc - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
Originally a French coin, the franc became the monetary unit of a number of countries including France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, most French and former Belgian overseas territories, and some African states. The name was first applied to a gold coin minted by King John II of France in 1360, which bore on one side the Latin legend Johannes Dei gratia Francorum rex (John, by the grace of God, king of the Franks). The coin was known as the franc a cheval because it also carried the figure of the king on horseback. During the 17th century the minting of gold francs ceased, but the name was applied by the French public to the new unit of exchange-the livre tournois, a gold coin subdivided into 20 sols. After the political changes that followed the French Revolution, the republican government introduced a new franc currency in 1795. The first coin in the new system was a 5 franc silver piece; gold coins worth 20 francs (napoleons) were coined in quantity later.
Article History
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April 4th, 1968 saw the assassination of which civil rights leader? | What Happened on April 4th This Day in History
11th
What happened This day in History on April 4th
1968 U.S.A. Martin Luther King Jr. Murdered 4th April 1968 : Martin Luther King Jr. is shot to death by James Earl Ray at a hotel in Memphis, Tennessee. His assassination led to riots in more than 100 US cities and a call from the United States President Lyndon Johnson for citizen's to reject the blind violence that has taken Dr King who had lived by non-violence. James Earl Ray was convicted of his murder and sentenced to 99 years in prison.
1958 UK Aldermaston Peace March 4th April 1958 : 10,000 protesters arrive in Trafalgar Square, London as part of the CND / Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament the protesters including mothers pushing children in prams and singing peace songs, over the next four days march over 52 miles in rain and snow from London to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston. The march was held again in 1959 , 1961 and 1962 when over 150,000 took part. In 1963 anarchists became involved which resulted in bad press for the peaceful march.
1939 U.S.A. Glen Miller Records "Moonlight Serenade." 4th April 1939 : Glen Miller records the wildly popular "Moonlight Serenade." It becomes a standard throughout the big band era and beyond.
1964 U.S.A. The Beatles 4th April 1964 : The Beatles hold an unprecedented record of twelve positions on Billboard Hot 100 singles chart,
The songs were
"Do You Want To Know A Secret"
"Thank You Girl" .
1973 U.S.A. New York's World Trade Center Completed 4th April 1973 : New York's World Trade Center The twin towers of the World Trade Center rising 1,350 feet above Manhattan officially became the world's tallest buildings.
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1850 U.S.A. Los Angeles and San Francisco become cities 4th April Following California becoming the 31st State in 1850 Los Angeles and San Francisco become Cities ( Los Angeles with a population of 1,610- April 4th ) and ( San Francisco with a population of 21,000 - April 16th ) on the same year.
1818 U.S.A. Stars And Stripes 4th April 1818 : Congress decided the U.S. flag would consist of 13 red and white stripes represent the original Thirteen Colonies that rebelled against the British crown and became the first states in the Union, and 20 stars, with a new star to be added for every new state. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first
July 4th
(Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states.
1902 UK Scholarships for Americans at Oxford University 4th April 1902 : British industrialist Cecil Rhodes left $10 million in his will to provide scholarships for Americans at Oxford University in England.
1916 - 1918 France World War I Battle Of The Somme 4th April : One of the most costly battles in modern wartime is fought near the Somme Region and over 2 years when this small area of countryside saw the deaths of over 1 million men from both sides of the war.
1920 Palestine Riots Sunday, 4th April : Violence erupts between Arab and Jewish residents in British-controlled Jerusalem from April 4th to the April 7th with 9 killed and 216 injured.
1933 U.S.A. Dirigible Airship The Akron 4th April 1933 : The dirigible airship The Akron crashes in New Jersey, killing 73 people in one of the first air disasters in history, it was the largest airship built in the United States when it took its first flight in August 1931 .
1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Established 4th April 1949 : The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is established by 12 Western nations: the United States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Iceland, Canada, and Portugal
1967 U.S.A. Martin Luther King, Jr Says US Should Leave Vietnam 4th April 1967 : The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. says in a speech that the United States stop all bombing of North and South Vietnam and declare a unilateral truce in the hope that it would lead to peace talks.
1975 Vietnam Transport Plane Evacuating Vietnamese Orphans Crashes 4th April 1975 : A U.S. Air Force transport plane ( C-5A Galaxy cargo plane )which was part of "Operation Babylift" evacuating Vietnamese orphans crashed shortly after takeoff from Saigon, killing 138 people, including 127 of the orphans, this was just under half of those who were on board.
1979 Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Hanged 4th April 1979 : Pakistan's former Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, has been hanged in spite of international calls for clemency. Many believed his trial and the sentence were manipulated by the ruling military regime, led by General Zia ul-Haq,. He was sentenced to death for the murder of a political opponent following a trial which was widely condemned as unfair. Mr Bhutto had been Pakistan's leader since 1973 and was deposed in a military coup 18 months earlier. The country stayed under martial law until 1985.
1984 England Greenham Common Peace Demonstrators 4th April 1984 : The women from the main peace camp at Greenham Common in Berkshire have been evicted with more than 30 arrested after bailiffs backed up by 300 police officers moved in. By the following day women had returned to Greenham Common to re-establish their camps around the smaller gates and remained at the base throughout the time Cruise missiles were there. The last of the missiles was flown back to the US in 1991 and most of the protesters left the site believing they had helped to keep the base in the Public Eye which forced the government to end the of Cruise missiles in England.
1991 Scotland Children Taken BY Social Services For Satanic Abuse Charges against Parents 4th April 1991 : Three children are taken from their families after allegations of satanic abuse in the Orkney Islands off Scotland. The case was thrown out of court by Sheriff David Kelbie who criticized the social workers who took the children away from their homes for failing to produce any evidence supporting the allegations.
1996 U.S.A. Jaguar New SK8 4th April 1996 : Jaguar introduced its new SK8 convertible at the New York International Auto Show.
2000 UK Freak Weather Causes Chaos 4th April 2000 : Unusual severe weather including blizzards and the coldest day in April on record brings chaos to Roads, Rail and Air Travel throughout the UK.
2003 U.S.A. Sammy Sosa hits his 500th homer 4th April 2003 : Chicago Cub's player Sammy Sosa hit his 500th homer in the seventh inning of a game against the Cincinnati Reds. His hit made him the 18th member of the 500 home run club .
2003 Iraq Saddam International Airport 4th April 2003 : During the 2003 invasion of Iraq U.S. forces seized Saddam International Airport outside Baghdad.
2006 Iraq Saddam Hussein Charged With Genocide 4th April 2006 : The Iraq tribunal announce criminal charges against Saddam Hussein and six others, accusing them of genocide and crimes against humanity stemming from a 1980s crackdown against Kurds
2006 Kuwait Women vote for first time in Kuwait 4th April 2006 : Women have voted for the first time in this year's Kuwaiti council by-elections, and female candidates were among the eight that were running for the seat in the Salmiya district. 60% of eligible voters are women, and voting is in segregated polling booths (a condition that was demanded by Islamist and tribal leaders). Women were granted equal political rights in 2005, and will be able to vote in 2007's legislative polls.
2008 United States Abraham Lincoln Letter is sold at auction 4th April 2008 : A letter written by Abraham Lincoln is sold at auction for $3.4 million in New York. The 1864 reply to a petition by 195 children asking for the freedom of "all the slave children in this country" has beaten the national record of $3.1 million. Sotheby's have said that it was bought by an American collector by telephone. The letter asks to "Please tell these little people I am very glad their young hearts are so full of just and generous sympathy and that, while I have not the power to grant all they ask, I trust they will remember that God has, and that, as it seems, He wills to do it."' The letter was dated April 5th, 1864.
2008 United States The Martin Luther King Shooting anniversary in Memphis 4th April 2008 : Crowds have gathered in Memphis to mark the fortieth anniversary of the assassination of civil rights leader Martin Luther King. Commemorations have taken place around the former Lorraine Motel, now a civil rights museum, where he was shot dead. Presidential hopefuls John McCain and Hillary Clinton have both marked the event in Memphis, while the latter's Democratic rival Barack Obama has spoken of it in Indiana. King's campaign for equal rights by non-violent means has inspired millions. The shooting was on April 4th, 1968.
2008 United States Shootings at a New York immigration center 4th April 2008 : A gunman has killed thirteen people after taking dozens hostage in New York. The gunman was found dead inside Binghampton's immigration center. Around forty people had escaped from the building, but four others were critically injured in the shooting.
Mexico 2011 Mexico Shoot-out in Acapulco 4th April, 2011 : A shoot-out between security forces and gunmen left three people dead in the Mexican resort city of Acapulco. One of the dead was a soldier while the other two were suspected gunmen. The two-hour long gun fight occurred after police and soldiers tried to stop gang members as they tried to set a shopping area on fire. Seven people were arrested and four people sustained injuries.
United States 2012 United States Sculptor Elizabeth Catlett Dies
4th April, 2012 : American artist Elizabeth Catlett died at the age of ninety-six. Catlett was known for being a sculptor and printmaker who was unafraid to create political statements in her art in order to highlight better rights for African-Americans and women. Catlett was barred from the US during the McCarthy era because of her political activisim and moved to Mexico.
United States
2013 United States Famous Film Critic Dies
4th April, 2013 : Widely respected and world renowned film critic Roger Ebert died at the age of seventy. Ebert had been suffering with thyroid cancer for several years and had lost his ability to talk after a jaw surgery related to the illness. Ebert had been most well known for his thumbs up or thumbs down rating system featured on a television show with his colleague Gene Siskel.
United States
2014 United States Former President Art Exhibit Opens
4th April, 2014 : An exhibit featuring paintings of world leaders by former US president George W. Bush opened at his Presidential Library in Dallas, Texas. The exhibit featured 24 different portraits of world leaders who the former president had met and worked closely with during his two terms.
Born This Day In History 4th April
Celebrating Birthday's Today
| Martin Luther King, Jr. |
In honor of his passing on April 5, 2008, which actor made a career of starring in heroic roles such as Moses, Ben-Hur, and Colonel George Taylor, before spending 5 years heading up the NRA? | Martin Luther King Jr Assassination - Black History - HISTORY.com
Martin Luther King Jr Assassination
Martin Luther King Jr Assassination
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Martin Luther King Jr Assassination
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Introduction
In early April 1968, shock waves reverberated around the world with the news that U.S. civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. had been assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. A Baptist minister and founder of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), King had led the civil rights movement since the mid-1950s, using a combination of powerful words and non-violent tactics such as sit-ins, boycotts and protest marches (including the massive March on Washington in 1963) to fight segregation and achieve significant civil and voting rights advances for African Americans. His assassination led to an outpouring of anger among black Americans, as well as a period of national mourning that helped speed the way for an equal housing bill that would be the last significant legislative achievement of the civil rights era.
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King Assassination: Background
In the last years of his life, King faced mounting criticism from young African-American activists who favored a more confrontational approach to seeking change. These young radicals stuck closer to the ideals of the black nationalist leader Malcolm X (himself assassinated in 1965), who had condemned King’s advocacy of non-violence as “criminal” in the face of the continuing repression suffered by African Americans. As a result of this opposition, King sought to widen his appeal beyond his own race, speaking out publicly against the Vietnam War and working to form a coalition of poor Americans–black and white alike–to address such issues as poverty and unemployment.
Did You Know?
Among the witnesses at the scene of King's assassination was one of his closest aides, Jesse Jackson. Ordained as a minister soon after King's death, Jackson went on to form Operation PUSH (People United to Save Humanity) and the National Rainbow Coalition and to run twice for U.S. president, in 1984 and 1988.
In the spring of 1968, while preparing for a planned march to Washington to lobby Congress on behalf of the poor, King and other SCLC members were called to Memphis, Tennessee to support a sanitation workers’ strike. On the night of April 3, King gave a speech at the Mason Temple Church in Memphis. In it he seemed to foreshadow his own untimely passing, or at least to strike a particularly reflective note, ending with these now-historic words: “I’ve seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. And I’m happy tonight. I’m not worried about anything. I’m not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.”
Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Just after 6 p.m. the following day, King was standing on the second-floor balcony of the Lorraine Motel, where he and associates were staying, when a sniper’s bullet struck him in the neck. He was rushed to a hospital, where he was pronounced dead about an hour later, at the age of 39.
Shock and distress over the news of King’s death sparked rioting in more than 100 cities around the country, including burning and looting. Amid a wave of national mourning, President Lyndon B. Johnson urged Americans to “reject the blind violence” that had killed King, whom he called the “apostle of nonviolence.” He also called on Congress to speedily pass the civil rights legislation then entering the House of Representatives for debate, calling it a fitting legacy to King and his life’s work. On April 11, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1968, also known as the Fair Housing Act.
King Assassination: Seeking Justice
On June 8, authorities apprehended the suspect in King’s murder, a small-time criminal named James Earl Ray, at London’s Heathrow Airport. Witnesses had seen him running from a boarding house near the Lorraine Motel carrying a bundle; prosecutors said he fired the fatal bullet from a bathroom in that building. Authorities found Ray’s fingerprints on the rifle used to kill King, a scope and a pair of binoculars. On March 10, 1969, Ray pleaded guilty to King’s murder and was sentenced to 99 years in prison. No testimony was heard in his trial. Shortly afterwards, however, Ray recanted his confession, claiming he was the victim of a conspiracy. Ray later found sympathy in an unlikely place: Members of King’s family, including his son Dexter, who publicly met with Ray in 1977 and began arguing for a reopening of his case. Though the U.S. government conducted several investigations into the trial–each time confirming Ray’s guilt as the sole assassin–controversy still surrounds the assassination. At the time of Ray’s death in 1998, King’s widow Coretta Scott King (who in the weeks after her husband’s death had courageously continued the campaign to aid the striking Memphis sanitation workers and carried on his mission of social change through non-violent means) publicly lamented that “America will never have the benefit of Mr. Ray’s trial, which would have produced new revelations about the assassination…as well as establish the facts concerning Mr. Ray’s innocence.”
Impact of the King Assassination
Though blacks and whites alike mourned King’s passing, the killing in some ways served to widen the rift between black and white Americans, as many blacks saw King’s assassination as a rejection of their vigorous pursuit of equality through the nonviolent resistance he had championed. His murder, like the killing of Malcolm X in 1965, radicalized many moderate African-American activists, fueling the growth of the Black Power movement and the Black Panther Party in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
King has remained the most widely known African-American leader of his era, and the most public face of the civil rights movement, along with its most eloquent voice. A campaign to establish a national holiday in his honor began almost immediately after his death, and its proponents overcame significant opposition–critics pointed to FBI surveillance files suggesting King’s adultery and his influence by Communists–before President Ronald Reagan signed the King holiday bill into law in 1983. Construction is underway on a permanent memorial to King, to be located on the Mall in Washington, D.C. , near the Lincoln Memorial–the site of King’s iconic “I Have a Dream” speech during the March on Washington in 1963.
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Symbolized by a small TM or the letter R inside a circle, what is the name of a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to identify that the products or services to consumers originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or services from those of other entities? | FIGURAL AND LITERAL TRADE MARKS ON AMERICAN SILVER: figural part 1
THE WHAT IS? SILVER DICTIONARY
FIGURAL AND LITERAL TRADE MARKS
ON AMERICAN SILVER
anchors, arrows, bells, birds, candelabra, crosses, crowns
The trademark (or trade mark) is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to signify that the products or services, to consumers with which the trademark appears, originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or services from those of other entities.
In many cases the manufacturers of American electroplated or sterling silver did not use the firm name in their trade mark, preferring a figural or a graphic symbol, often accompanied by the initials of the firm (one or more).
This feature, while often obtaining a pleasing visual effect, makes difficult the identification of the manufacturer.
The objective of these pages is to offer a quick reference to the directory listing the manufacturers in alphabetic order.
Click on the mark to obtain a wider image and on the silversmith's name to read further details about the manufacturer (location, activity, dates, etc.)
| Trademark |
The worlds largest single structure made by living organisms, and visible from space, what is the name of the major tourist attraction off the coast of Queensland? | FIGURAL AND LITERAL TRADE MARKS ON AMERICAN SILVER: figural part 1
THE WHAT IS? SILVER DICTIONARY
FIGURAL AND LITERAL TRADE MARKS
ON AMERICAN SILVER
anchors, arrows, bells, birds, candelabra, crosses, crowns
The trademark (or trade mark) is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to signify that the products or services, to consumers with which the trademark appears, originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or services from those of other entities.
In many cases the manufacturers of American electroplated or sterling silver did not use the firm name in their trade mark, preferring a figural or a graphic symbol, often accompanied by the initials of the firm (one or more).
This feature, while often obtaining a pleasing visual effect, makes difficult the identification of the manufacturer.
The objective of these pages is to offer a quick reference to the directory listing the manufacturers in alphabetic order.
Click on the mark to obtain a wider image and on the silversmith's name to read further details about the manufacturer (location, activity, dates, etc.)
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What can be a chess piece, a card game, or a bird? | Chess Cards
Chess Cards
by Edward Lovett
INTRODUCTION
I found the essence of this game in Sid Sackson's A GAMUT OF GAMES, Hutchinson & Co. (Publishers) Ltd., Second edition 1982. It is the first game discussed (entitled MATE), and played with a particular subset of 20 playing cards from a regular deck.
According to Sackson: 'In Hanover, Germany, in the year 1915, G. Capellen published a small booklet entitled "Zwei neue Kriegspiele!" (that is, "Two New Wargames!" ). Sackson infers that the timing was not right for the emergence of new war games "..while the reality of World War I occupied the center of the stage", as the booklet subsequently passed into obscurity. One of the games in the booklet was MATE, the heart of this article. 1
Note that this card game is not a game of chance; there is a unique playing mechanism to eliminate the 'luck of the draw' no matter how the cards are dealt.
In this game we have:
Perfect Information
Out-thinking your opponent as a major component of the game
Relatively simple to learn (really!) while having considerable depth
I have added the concept of using 'Chess Cards' in place of regular playing cards to give the game more of a chess 'flavour'. Further, the concept of 'foreplacing' a card (as specified in the original article) has been replaced by a more general concept of 'sacrificing' cards, and minor changes have been made to scoring, terminology and gameplay. I would refer the reader to the original article in Sid Sackson's book if a more definitive comparison is required.
Other than these 'cosmetics', it is G. Capellen who deserves credit for the mechanics of this rather unique and interesting card game.
The Chess Cards for this game consist of a set of 20 cards comprising 5 piece types (Queen, Rook, Bishop, Knight and Pawn), each in 4 suits (Black, Red, Yellow and White). The King is imaginary, but subject to 'threats' by the Chess Cards in play.
You may wish to obtain your own set of Chess Cards here (colour printer required).
1The other game was called Free Chess, and noted to be a 'chess variant', although no rules were specified in Sackson's book.
GENERAL PLAY
A dealer is chosen (in any manner you wish). The dealer has no advantage.
The 20 chess cards are shuffled, and 10 cards are dealt to each player in groups of 5 at a time.
The dealer opens with any card he wishes; this is deemed a 'threat' (to an imaginary King) that the opponent must counter in his next turn (else mate will have been given). This card is placed face up in front of the dealer. Note that as cards are played they are kept face up in respective piles in front of each player, rather than playing to a common pile in the centre of the table.
To counter a threat, the opponent must reply with a card of the same suit (colour) - if he has more than one card of that particular suit, he may reply with any of these cards (but note 'winning the initiative' below).
Lacking a card of the same suit, the opponent must then reply with a card of the same rank (that is, piece type), for example queen countering queen, bishop countering bishop etc. This card, the opponent's 'reply', is placed face up in front of him.
Failing to have a legal move in reply to a threat is deemed mate and the game credited to the player with the initiative.
WINNING THE INITIATIVE
The player who played the highest piece type (within a suit), or the highest suit (when piece type is played) has the initiative and leads for the next move.
SUIT AND PIECE RANKINGS
Piece rankings are (from highest to lowest):
Queen > Rook > Bishop > Knight > Pawn
Suit rankings are (from highest to lowest):
black > red > yellow > white
Play continues in this manner until a player is unable to reply to a card lead by the player with the initiative. The player with the initiative has given mate to the opponent and play stops.
Further rules pertaining to advanced play, namely Queen's Privilege, Sacrificing and the concept of Overmate will be discussed later.
SCORING A MATE
For purposes of scoring a mate, each card is considered to have a value as follows (note that the particular suit is irrelevant for scoring purposes):
Queen=11 Rook=10 Bishop=4 Knight=3 Pawn=7
In case of a draw, neither player scores.
In its most elementary form (that is, no sacrifices have taken place), the value of the mating-card is multiplied by the move number to obtain the score:
Score = Mating Card Value x Move Number
For example, mating with a knight on the first move: Score = 3 x 1 = 3. Mating with a Queen on the 10th move: Score = 11 x 10 = 110.
Note that, in advanced play (see below), additional parameters are used to calculate the score.
GAMES AND MATCHES
At the conclusion of the first game, the players cards are exchanged, and another game is played with each player now playing with the other player's cards (note that this effectively eliminates the luck of the draw and makes the card game one of pure strategy).
The player who was the non-dealer of the first game opens the second game.
Playing two games as such constitutes a match. It is the player who has accumulated the greater score at the end of the match that is deemed the winner. The difference between the two players scores at the end of the match may be used as a relative measure of victory.
Note that games can be played quite quickly; a match typically lasts < 30 minutes.
ADVANCED PLAY
QUEEN'S PRIVILEGE
As befitting her role as the most powerful piece in FIDE chess, the card-queen has a special privilege associated with her; on playing a queen, the player may announce 'Queen's Privilege' (an optional move) in which case the queen must be followed by another queen, if that player possesses one; if not, he follows with a card of the same suit. Note that this privilege can have a dramatic effect on the outcome of a game - please refer to the sample games section
SACRIFICING CARDS
To sacrifice a card, a player announces at the beginning of his turn that he wishes to sacrifice a card; he clearly shows it to his opponent and places it face down in front of him. The card does not enter into play. The player must then make a normal move.
The opponent at this or any subsequent time, also has the opportunity to sacrifice.
THE VALUE OF SACRIFICING
Sacrificing cards has strategic value and allows the greatest possible extraction of score from play. However, sacrificing too many cards inevitably leads to mate by your opponent!
Examples of play are examined in the sample games section , but for the moment, let us consider some calculations of score when sacrifice(s) have taken place as we will need to understand this in relation to the discussion of overmate which will be considered shortly.
The player who has sacrificed a card(s) and succeeds in giving mate has the multiplying number of the move increased by one for each card sacrificed.
(A common motif, when you know that you can force mate, is to sacrifice a card just prior to delivering the mating card).
For example, a mate given in the seventh move by a bishop would score as follows:
Score = 4 x (7 + 1) = 32 for one card sacrificed, and
Score = 4 x (7 + 2) = 36 for two cards sacrificed.
Note that the 'multiplying number of the move' (the calculation that occurs within the brackets) = move number + number of cards sacrificed.
Please note that these are but trivial examples of what may be achieved.
THE CONCEPT OF OVERMATE
If players sacrifice different numbers of cards and the game proceeds to the point where the player who has sacrificed the greater number of cards has run out of 'cards in hand' to play, he must (and can only) use his last played card for all subsequent turns (depending on how many cards the opponent still holds) until the game is resolved.
I would refer the reader once more to the sample games section for illustration.
The term overmate pertains to the situation where a player who has sacrificed one or more cards succeeds, (by employing his 'last played card' as mentioned above), in giving mate and the 'multiplying number of the move' is then calculated to be greater than 10. Remember that the 'multiplying number of the move' is incremented by '1' for each card sacrificed, i.e.
'multiplying number of the move' = move number + number of sacrificed cards.
Thus, if a player has sacrificed, say, 2 cards and succeeds in mating on the tenth move, his 'multiplying number of the move' is going to be greater than 10 (10 plus '1' for each card sacrificed). Anytime the 'multiplying number of the move' is calculated to be greater than 10, this situation is known as overmate and attracts further bonuses. The overmate number (see table below) is the number of units above 10; in the previous example, the overmate number would be 2.
Overmate Bonuses Overmate Number Score is Multiplied by 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6
Since there is a maximum of 10 moves per game, and since each card sacrificed must be followed by a 'normal move', then it follows that a maximum of 5 cards could possibly be sacrificed by a player in a game.
Theoretically then, if move 5 by Player A was a Queen, and mate was given on the tenth move by this player, he having played his fifth card also as his sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth cards, then his final score would be:
Score=mating card value x (move number + number of sacrificed cards) x bonus
= 11 x (10 + 5) x 6 = 990 (theoretical maximum mate score), although it has yet to be demonstrated that this can be achieved in actual play.
Please refer to the sample games section for an example of overmate.
SUGGESTED NOTATION
A printed scoresheet for recording and analysing games is suggested. It is certainly not necessary to record games, however if a record is desired where one can review game-play and strategy, then printing this sheet may help.
The score sheet contains a printed 5 x 4 grid containing all possible cards ranked in order of suits and piece types. When your cards are dealt, simply circle the cards in your hand on the grid. By default, the uncircled boxes indicate the cards your opponent has in hand. The hand of cards as dealt needs to be recorded only if retrospective analysis of the game is desired.
Note that, in the grid, suit colour is in lowercase, and piece type in uppercase. For example, rR=red rook and yB=yellow bishop.
There is a maximum of 10 possible moves in a game, and cards as played are recorded next to the corresponding move number. The player with the initiative has his card underlined so that play can be followed more readily. A card that is sacrificed is simply placed in brackets next to the card played at that time. Remember though, that a card is sacrificed first, followed by a normal move.
If the game is a draw, simply record draw on the sheet. If mate has occurred, record mate in the column of the player delivering the mating card. If overmate has occurred, record mate and a "!" representing the number of units overmate (5 "!" possible) next to the card delivering mate.
Record game score and match score in the boxes indicated.
All sample games have pictorial and text-notation representation.
PLAYING SUGGESTION
Initially, or whenever space allows, players may place their cards face-up in a row in front of them, ordered in suits and pieces if desired, so that all cards are in view during play.
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In honor of a story by Mark Twain, Calaveras County, California holds a yearly Jubilee in which what kind of animals are raced? | Guide to Scholastic Tournaments
Guide to Scholastic Tournaments
B. Choosing the Right Tournament
C. Registration Details and USCF Registration
D. Packing the Tournament Bag
B. “Skittles” Area or Team Room; Activity Between Rounds
C. Pairings
D. Basic Scholastic Chess Tournament Rules
E. Time Controls and Chess Clocks
F. Chess Notation
H. Eating for Good Chess
I. Chess Etiquette
J. Reporting and Viewing Results
K. Awards, Tiebreaks, and Final Results
I. Pre-Tournament Planning
A. Readiness
When is a child ready to play in a chess tournament? There is both a technical and an emotional side to chess readiness. First, the child must know how all the pieces move. The child must understand how to win, or, in other words, that the game is over when the king is placed in checkmate. A chess game can also end in a draw, such as when the king is not currently in check but cannot move without placing himself into check. Tournament players need to understand some basic rules, such as “Touch Move/Touch Take” (if you touch a piece, you must move it or capture it). Most tournaments require players to use a chess clock. Older players, generally those in fourth grade and up, also may need to know how to take notation.
Once a player understands the basic rules of tournament chess, the parent or coach should evaluate the child’s emotional readiness. Is the child willing to accept victory or defeat graciously? No crying, no whining, and, especially, no gloating! Is the child able to sit quietly through a chess match without talking to his or her opponent? Does the child enjoy the game, having fun regardless of wins or losses? Chess is a game, and should be fun. Is the child able to persevere through four or five games of chess in one day without losing patience and wanting to go home? Win or lose, the child should stay through all of the scheduled rounds of the tournament.
Chess is about learning. Although kids enjoy winning, the best players know you learn more from your losses than from your wins. The only way to improve is to be willing to play stronger players and, sometimes, lose. You might ask your player, "If you played basketball against your baby brother, would you win? Would you get any better at basketball?” Chess is about constantly challenging yourself and improving. One of the best things about chess is that players can continue to learn and improve their game, no matter how old they are or how well they play. Hopefully, through chess, a child can develop a love for learning that will extend to every aspect of his life.
In his book, The Art of Learning, child chess prodigy Josh Waitzkin, who became the subject of the book and movie “Searching for Bobby Fischer,” writes:
We need to put ourselves out there, give it our all, and reap the lesson, win or lose. The fact of the matter is that there will be nothing learned from any challenge in which we don’t try our hardest. Growth comes at the point of resistance. We learn by pushing ourselves and finding what really lies at the outer reaches of our abilities (p. 42).
Are the parents ready? Most scholastic tournaments consume an entire day, for kids as well as parents. Many parents bring reading material, work, or a laptop. Some parents agree to watch a child who is not their own, or split time at the tournament with another family. Chess tournaments provide an opportunity for parents to bond not only with their own child, but with other parents. While their children duel across checkered squares, parents become friends. Just as the kids learn to support each other through hard fought wins and difficult losses, parents form emotional bonds, sharing each others’ joys and disappointments.
A chess tournament can be an emotionally draining experience for parents, as well as children. Losing may bring tears. While this can be heart-wrenching for parents, keeping the focus on small measurable achievements can help the child feel successful about their tournament experience even when he is not awarded a trophy at days end. Celebrate milestones, such as upsetting a higher rated player, gaining rating points, crossing a ratings milestone such as 1000, winning against an opening that the child has struggled against, or even playing a long hard-fought game. By emphasizing the positives, parents can help children see the value in improving, not just winning. (This topic is explored in more detail in our section called “How to Be a Good Chess Parent.”)
B.Choosing the Right Tournament
What tournament is best? If the child is emotionally and technically ready to play in a tournament, the next step is choosing an appropriate tournament.
1. USCF Rated versus Non-Rated. The United States Chess Federation (“USCF”) is a nonprofit corporation that promotes chess throughout the country. The USCF has developed a rating system that evaluates chess performance for players in USCF-sanctioned tournaments. Once a child has played in a USCF-rated tournament, he will receive a USCF rating that may be tracked at the USCF website (uschess.org). The rating will go up when the child wins and go down when he loses. The rating will go up more when the child beats a player rated higher than himself and go down more when he loses to a player rated lower. A rating difference of 200 points means that the higher rated player is predicted to win three out of four matches against the lower rated player – not a slam dunk for the stronger player, and certainly reason for the weaker player to fight hard and remain hopeful.
Kids, parents and coaches may become obsessed with ratings. Everyone has good days and bad days, especially children, so it is best not to place too much emphasis on rating gains or losses resulting from a single event. Perspective is key. Encourage a child to see chess progress as reflected through the rating over a period of months or even years. One of the benefits of playing rated tournaments is that players can track personal progress by checking their ratings graph on the USCF website. This graph charts rating changes throughout a person’s chess playing history. A downside of playing rated tournaments is that they tend to be more expensive because the USCF uses part of the entry fee to assist in the costs of maintaining the rating system.
Unrated tournaments afford players the opportunity to play chess without affecting their rating. Because unrated tournaments tend to attract less experienced players, they are a gentle introduction to the world of tournament chess. More experienced players may sometimes want to play an unrated tournament to try out a new opening or tactic without risking losing rating points.
Some tournaments and clubs employ rating systems different from the one maintained by the USCF. These “local” ratings are usually generated by the software used to run tournaments or manage clubs, and may be used in non-USCF-rated tournament pairings or to maintain club rankings.
2. Open versus Rating-Limited Sections. Chess players should consider whether to play in open style tournaments or those divided into sections according to ratings. Open tournaments group together all players of a particular level, such as Kindergarten through 2nd grade, regardless of rating. This gives every entrant an opportunity to take a shot at the best grade-level players. For top players, it may mean that they will compete against some players who may be far below their ability level. For weaker players, it may mean that they will compete against players with significantly more experience and/or ability.
Tournaments that group players according to ratings afford the opportunity for players of all levels to win a prize. With less disparity in ratings, the brackets tend to be more competitive. Each player can compete at a level appropriate to their ability and experience. The top players may not win as many games as they would in an open style tournament, but their chess will benefit from the superior level of competition.
The trick is finding the appropriate fit, where the player feels challenged but not overwhelmed by the level of competition. A key element is assessing the maturity of the player and his willingness to take on challenges. A less mature player may feel discouraged after playing and losing several rounds in an open style tournament, while a more mature player may be able to see the value in competing against stronger players. This is particularly true if the player notates his games and can analyze the notated game with a chess coach, teacher or parent with a higher level of chess knowledge.
C. Registration Details and USCF Registration
How do I find a tournament? To find a chess tournament, players may check the Illinois Chess Association website (il-chess.org) for a listing of upcoming tournaments in
Illinois
, or the USCF-website (uschess.org) for national events. Typically, these sites provide key information about the tournament, such as how the brackets are structured, what prizes are offered, what the time controls are, how to register, and in some cases, a list of early registrants.
If the event is a USCF rated tournament, the player will need to have a current USCF membership. For kids, annual memberships start at $16. For a little more, members can receive USCF’s excellent Chess Life magazine and other benefits. See ( https://secure2.uschess.org/webstore/member.php?mode.x=15&mode.y=13 ). All memberships include continually updated online ratings and playing histories. It is important to keep track of your 8-digit USCF ID number and your membership’s expiration date.
D. Packing the Tournament Bag
What do I need at a tournament? On the eve of the tournament, players should pack a bag with items they will need for the event. Healthy snacks and drinks are always a good idea, as well as some money to buy lunch. Players are expected to bring their own sets and boards for open tournaments. Even when sets and boards are provided, as in most scholastic events, children may wish to bring their own for post-game analysis or playing with their friends. Players should set their chess clock for the appropriate time control and pack extra batteries in case their batteries run low. Players should bring their chess notation book and pencil. Players may wish to bring a ball (usually for outdoors only), deck of cards or board game to play between chess rounds.
II. Tournament Day
A. Check-In
What should I do first? Players should check in with the registration desk or check the master list, if posted, to be sure they are registered and their details are posted correctly, such as section, school affiliation, grade, and USCF number. Do not be surprised if the posted rating differs significantly from the most current online rating. Tournaments typically use the most recent rating published by the USCF, which may be a month or two old.
B. “Skittles” Area or Team Room; Activity Between Rounds
Where do I stay all day? Most tournaments have a designated area where parents and players may hang out between chess rounds. In chess lingo, this is called the “Skittles” area. Coaches also may arrange to reserve a room for their team, often at a price. When they arrive at the tournament, players should find their team or, if they are not with a school team, stake out an area in the Skittles room to be their base for the day. It is a good idea to arrive at the tournament 30 to 45 minutes before the first round to get settled.
Many players and coaches find that playing chess for fun or blitz games between rounds is not a good idea. Younger players may get caught up in the fast and silly nature of blitz, and play less carefully during their tournament rounds. More experienced players may find that the nonstop calculation of chess moves in tournament and “just for fun” games may cause them to perform less optimally during their competitive rounds.
If time permits after the game is over, players may wish to briefly analyze the critical moments of their game; it is a great way to learn! Players may then wish to take a break from chess between rounds. Physical activity is a great outlet; it gets the blood pumping and energizes the player. A bouncy ball to use for wall ball (outside only, please!) or a Frisbee or football are perfect. Playing outside can also ease the pain of a loss and build friendships. Even a walk around the block can do the trick. Parents and coaches should monitor the kids to be sure they do not get too drained from physical exercise, their play is appropriate to the given space, and they understand when to return to the playing area or their team room for the next round. On rainy or cold tournament days, a deck of cards may offer a spirited diversion from chess calculations.
C. Pairings
How do I find an opponent? Pairing sheets are typically posted on the wall near the tournament playing room a few minutes before the start of the round. Players should check and write down (in their notation book if they have one) their board number, their color (black or white), and their opponent’s name and rating.
Pairing sheets are commonly issued in two forms: alphabetical by player (which make it easiest to find your name) and by board number. Here’s an example of a few names from a typical alphabetical pairing sheet:
XYZ Tournament - Round 3 Pairing List, Page 1
Player Color/Board Opponent
Adeline, Addy (AGS)........... B4 Potter, Harry (4, 2.0, HWS, 1300)
Bell, Tinker (NNL).............W2 Granger, Hermione (3, 0.0, HWS, 1555)
Bird, Tweety (ACME.............W1 Weasley, Ron (1, 0.0, HWS, 1800)
Taking Tweety Bird as an example: “W1” means he is playing White on Board 1. His opponent is Ron Weasley. The information in the parenthetical after Weasley’s name tells you he is player #1 on the list of participants (usually posted separately, with players listed sequentially by rating, but sometimes simply in the sequence they registered), has a score in this tournament of 0.0 (meaning he’s won no games thus far), is from a school whose abbreviation is
HWS
, and has a rating of 1800 (usually the USCF rating, although possibly a “local” rating).
Many tournaments post pairings by board number, with players playing White on the left, and those playing Black on the right. It may take a moment to find your name, and pairing sheets in this format may not contain the additional information contained in the parentheticals in the example above.
When the player sits down at the designated board, they should check that the name of their opponent matches the name posted on the pairing sheet.
Most scholastic tournaments are organized according to the Swiss System, where players are matched each round according to the number of wins they have. Pairings are created by computer software (usually “WinTD” or “Swiss Sys”) that, whenever possible, follows a few basic rules:
1) Every player plays every round;
2) No two players play each other more than once;
3) Teammates do not play each other, unless necessary;
4) Each pairing matches players having the same number of wins in this tournament;
5) Each player plays an equal number of games as black and white.
In a rated tournament, players are seeded according to their rating, and are ranked from highest rated to lowest rated in each bracket. The normal pairing system matches the highest rated player in the top half of the bracket against the highest rated player from the second half of the bracket. Then the second highest player in the top half of the bracket plays the second highest player in the second half of the bracket and so on until all players are paired. (For example, in a 20-person section, #1 would play #11, #2 would play #12, and so on.) After the first round, the pairing system proceeds in the same manner but players are first grouped by their number of wins, and then by their ratings. In other words, players having one win will be grouped together and seeded according to rating, highest to lowest. The highest rated player in the top half of the bracket with one win will play the highest rated player with one win from the second half of the same bracket. If there is an uneven number of players in a particular group, such as 11 players with one win, the lowest rated player with one win will be paired against the highest rated player of the next win/loss group, either 0.5 wins if there were draws in the first round, or 0 wins if there were no draws in the first round.
Tournament directors (“TDs”) sometimes employ an accelerated pairing system to match stronger players against each other earlier in the tournament. As with normal pairings, the players are seeded according to rating, from highest to lowest. In an accelerated system, the rating list is divided into quarters, with the top seed in the top quartile playing the top seed in the second quartile, and the top seed in the third quartile playing the top seed in the fourth quartile, and so on down the list until all players are paired. In the second round, players who lost in the top half of the bracket compete against players who won in the bottom half of the bracket, while winners play winners in the top half of the bracket and losers play losers in the bottom half of the bracket. . Thereafter, players in each score group are split into quartiles and paired, top quartile with second quartile, third quartile with fourth quartile. The accelerated system results in fewer perfect scores and less reliance on tiebreaks to order the top players than the regular pairing system. . (See “Awards, Tie Breaks and Final Results” below.)
D. Basic
Tournament Rules
What rules should I know? Tournament players should understand the following basic rules:
1. Touch/Move, Touch Take. If you touch a piece with intent to move it, you must move it. This does not mean if you reach across the board and inadvertently knock over your king with your sleeve, you must move it. If you grab a piece with your fingers, the intent is clear that you mean to move it, and you must. Once you place a piece on a square and let go of it, the move is final and may not be changed. If a piece is not centered on a square, you may say “adjust” and center the piece on the square. If you touch your opponent’s piece and you can legally capture it, you must capture it.
2. Illegal Moves. An illegal move occurs when a player moves in a manner inconsistent with the rules of chess, such as when a player moves a pawn backwards, or moves into check. The most common illegal moves involve checks. For example, a player may not castle through check, and if a player is in check, he must either capture the checking piece, block the check or move out of check. Any other move is an illegal move. Touch move rules apply here as well; if there is a legal move to be made with the illegally moved piece, then it must be made. Castling is considered a king move. Thus, a player who commits an illegal move by attempting to castle through check must make a legal move with his king if possible. Similarly, if the player has made a move and removed his hand from the piece, he cannot change his mind and instead move another piece. The second move would be illegal. When an illegal move has been made, the opposing player should pause the clock and raise his hand to consult with a tournament official. If the player is new to the game, the TD will likely explain why the move is illegal. Sometimes a player making an illegal move will lose time off of his clock as a consequence of the illegal move.
3. No Talking or Distracting Behavior. Chess is a game of concentration, and all players deserve the opportunity to think quietly. Players may not discuss their game with their opponents, their parents or their coaches while the game is in progress. Most scholastic tournaments require parents and coaches to leave the playing area once the round is set to begin. Players may not engage in annoying behaviors designed to distract their opponents, such as tapping their pencils or making noises. Badgering one’s opponent with comments such as “Hurry Up” or “Move” is not allowed. Any player who feels his opponent is badgering or distracting him should pause his clock and raise his hand to bring the behavior to the attention of a tournament official. The official will likely warn the player to cease the annoying behavior or comments. The official may also impose a time penalty or, in extreme cases, cause the perpetrator to forfeit the round.
4. Disputes. If a question or problem arises during the game, players should pause the clock and raise their hands to consult a tournament official. Do not try to resolve disputes directly with your opponent. While TDs are not perfect, they will do their best to understand and fairly resolve disputes. Accurate notation sheets can greatly aid a TD in making a fair determination. Do not move the pieces from the disputed position or reset the board until the TD has ruled. Young players need lots of reminding not to argue with their opponent or – worse still – accept their opponent’s interpretation of the rules. A player has the right to ask to speak to another TD or the chief TD if he does not understand or agree with the ruling of a TD.
5. Draw Offers. When offering a draw to an opponent, a player must first make his move and offer the draw on his own time, that is, before he starts his opponent’s clock. The game is over once both players agree to the draw.
6. Losing on Time. A player loses on time if his clock shows no time remaining and the opposing player – only the opposing player—notices and claims a win on time. The opponent must also have sufficient material remaining to create a checkmate. (If the opponent does not, the outcome is a draw.) If both players run out of time before either player has called it, the game is ruled a draw.
7. Comings and Goings. Inform the tournament director – if possible, before the event—if the player is going to arrive late for a round or miss a round entirely. Many tournaments have forms or special requirements for such situations.
8. Draws. A chess game can end in three possible outcomes: a win, a loss, or a draw. Players should understand the following types of draws so that they can recognize drawn positions when they arise on the board.
a. Stalemate. A stalemate occurs when the player who is on move is not presently in check, but cannot make a legal move with any piece, pawn or king without placing himself into check. Because moving into check is an illegal move, the player cannot make a legal move and the game is a stalemate.
b. Insufficient Mating Material. A king cannot be checkmated by a solo king, or by a king and knight, or by a king and bishop. These pieces are considered insufficient mating material and the game is a draw.
c. Draw by Three-Fold Repetition. If during the course of the game, all of the pieces are arranged in exactly the same position three times, either player may claim a draw by three fold repetition. If the opposing player disagrees, the tournament director should be summoned and the claim proven by replaying the game from the notation sheet. Where the players do not agree, and there is no notation sheet, the draw claim cannot be proven, and the players must play on.
d. 50 Moves Without Progress. A player who is on move may claim a draw when each player has made 50 moves without capturing a piece or moving a pawn. Once again, an accurate notation sheet may need to be consulted to prove this claim if the players do not agree.
e. Insufficient Losing Chances. A player who has a clearly won or drawn position but is low on time (less than five minutes) can request a draw based on insufficient losing chances. This is frequently a difficult calculation requiring a tournament director.
f. Both Players “Flag.” If both players run out of time on their clocks before either player notices and calls out, the game is a draw.
g. Draw By Agreement. At any time during the match, either player may offer a draw. The proper way to do this is to make your move, say “I offer a draw,” then punch the time clock. The opposing player then either accepts or declines the offer.
E. Time Controls and Chess Clocks
Do I need a clock? Many scholastic tournaments require players to bring a chess clock to time their moves. Chess clocks afford each player the same amount of time to complete their part of the game. For example, a tournament with a posted time control of “G/30” allows each player 30 minutes on their clock, so that the maximum amount of time for a game is one hour. Some clocks also have a delay feature. In this case, no time comes off the player’s clock until the time of the delay, typically 5 seconds, has passed. Usually when a clock with a delay feature is used, the time control is adjusted downward by five minutes, so that a G/30 tournament requires players to set their clocks either as G/30 with no delay, or G/25 with a 5 second delay. If both players have a clock, black chooses which clock to use. If only one of the clocks has a delay feature, the one with delay should be used. If a player is late for a round, the opposing player may start his clock when the TD announces it is time for the round to begin.
When using a clock, the player first moves his piece, then pushes his clock with the same hand that moved the piece, stopping his clock and starting his opponent’s. If neither player owns a clock, the tournament director may, at his discretion, either forfeit both players for the round or, more commonly, allow the players to compete and place a clock on their game as the round draws close to the end of the time limit. In the latter case, the clock is then set equally for both players, often with five or ten minutes apiece.
F. Chess Notation
Why notate? As scholastic players gain familiarity with the game, they should learn to take chess notation, in which they record the moves made in their chess games. Notation enables a player to replay their game and thus learn from it. It is also a record that can be shown to a tournament official to help resolve a dispute with an opponent during the round. A player’s ability to make certain claims, such as Draw by Three-Fold Repetition (where the pieces have been in exactly the same position three times during the match), may depend on accurate notation. Learning chess notation also allows a player to read chess books and understand positions.
The standard form used for recording chess moves is called “Algebraic Notation.” In this system, each square on the chess board is identified by a coordinate consisting of both a letter and a number. The letters run across the horizontal portion of the board from A to H, read left to right for white, and the numbers run vertically from 1 to 8 with 1 representing the back rank for white’s pieces. Each move is written according to the piece making the move and the square where the piece lands. For example, if white’s Queen moves one space up the board, the move would be written Qd2. Each piece is identified by its first letter, except for the Knight, which is identified as N to avoid confusion with the King (K). Pawn moves are identified only by the square the pawn lands on. For example, a standard opening pawn move for white would be written as e4. Checks are identified as a +, checkmate as a # or ++, captures as an x, castling king-side as 0-0 and queenside as 0-0-0.
Most scholastic tournaments require players in grades four and above to take notation. If the player does not know how to take notation, the tournament director may allow the game to be played but may assess the non-notating player a time penalty, typically 5 minutes for every 30 minutes of time allowed for the game. If the player knows how to notate but chooses not to, the tournament director may, at his discretion, impose the severe penalty of affording the player only 5 minutes on his clock to complete his entire game. This should serve as a cautionary tale: be prepared to notate. Neither player is required to notate once their game clock gets down to five minutes remaining.
A player may borrow, on his own time, his opponent’s notation book during the round to correct an error in notation. Players may also compare notation after the conclusion of the round to correct any mistakes. This kind of consultation should take place outside of the tournament room to avoid distracting players involved in active games.
G. Byes
What if I need to miss a round? There are two kinds of “byes”: Requested and Assigned. A player may request a bye for a given round if he knows in advance that he will be unavailable to play that round. Most tournaments provide for a half point for a requested bye, except when requested for the last round of the tournament, in which case a bye counts as a loss. Assigned byes may occur when there are an uneven number of players in a section. In this case, because the player is available to play but the tournament is unable to provide an opponent, the player usually receives a full point as if he has played the round and won. Most often, the lowest rated player with the fewest wins is assigned the bye.
On the pairing sheet, the assigned bye is usually indicated with the words “Please Wait” or “See tournament director.” The player then finds a tournament official to let him know that the pairing sheet indicated “please wait” or “see TD” after his name. The official will usually look to see if all of the paired players have shown up for their games. If there is an absent player, the player with the assigned bye will often fill in. Sometimes, the tournament official will pair together players from different sections with assigned byes. When this happens, the game counts for rating points for both players. In the tournament standings, however, the game usually only counts for the player from the higher-rated section, not for the player from the lower-rated section, who gets a point in the tournament as if he had played and won, even if he loses to the higher rated player. Tournament directors have lots of discretion in these situations. Often, the TD cannot find a game for the player with the assigned bye, and he is credited with a win for the tournament without actually playing a game.
H. Eating for Good Chess
What should I eat during a chess tournament? Some parents may be surprised by how hungry their kids get during chess tournaments. It’s sometimes said that kids can burn as much energy playing chess as they do playing sports. Other parents find that their child has no desire to eat all day as tournament stress wreaks havoc on their child’s stomach. Whether or not they feel hungry, chess players burn a lot of energy during a tournament and they require nourishment. Developing healthy eating habits is another valuable life lesson chess can teach kids.
Scan the skittles room after any scholastic chess tournament and you will see a floor awash with candy wrappers, empty chip bags, and pop cans. Sadly, junk food is often all that is available for purchase at scholastic events. Preparing for a grueling day or weekend of chess requires planning, including planning for healthy eating. Experts recommend a healthy balance of high protein and high carbohydrate foods for optimal performance. Carbohydrates provide glucose to energize the brain and body, while protein improves brain connections and helps to maintain focus. (See Mike Klein’s “The Grandmaster Diet,” Chess Life, December, 2008, p. 20.)
Timing is also important. Most coaches recommend that kids eat something before each round, rather than a large mid-day meal. Eating at least 30 minutes before a round allows time for digestion. At game time, it’s best for the blood to be flowing to the brain, not the stomach! Optimal meals are relatively small, so as not to induce a state of sleepiness. Peanut butter, meat or chicken, cheese and nuts are good options, as are whole wheat breads, fruits or vegetables, and yogurt. A lunch box packed for a day of chess might include a ham or chicken and cheese sandwich or a Caesar salad with chicken, and some combination of bananas, apples, nuts or trail mix, carrot sticks, beef jerky, or yogurt.
Players should stay hydrated, because dehydration can lead to low blood pressure, headaches, lack of concentration, and fatigue. Water is probably the best source of hydration, and is usually readily available at chess tournaments. In some tournaments, water is the only drink allowed on the playing floor. Sports drinks may be high in glucose, which can lead to a sugar high and then low. Fruit juice during the tournament can boost carbs and provide extra energy, but be wary of juices that are high in natural sugars. Vitamin enriched waters might also be helpful, particularly if they are low in sugar and high in B vitamins, which can be depleted during times of stress.
Perhaps the best reason to pack a nutritious array of food offerings for your chess player is to show him that he is supported and loved in his efforts. Knowing that he is providing his brain with the right balance of nutrients may be just the confidence boost he needs to sail through a day of competition. By eating right, he knows that he is giving himself the best chance for success--another great life lesson learned through chess.
I. Chess Etiquette
What behavior is expected? Manners matter, in chess and in life. Players should shake hands before and after the match. The same hand that moves the piece should push the button on the chess clock. If the set is provided by the tournament organizer, both players should set up the pieces for the next round at the conclusion of their match. When castling, players are expected to move the king first, then the rook, using the same hand. When promoting a pawn, the player should move the pawn to the last rank, state which piece he would like it to become (usually a queen), then remove the pawn from the board and replace it with the promoted piece. A player may pause the clock to ask the TD for assistance in finding an extra queen if necessary. When placing an opponent’s king in check, the player is not required to say check, but if he does announce checks, he should do so quietly.
When a checkmate is imminent and unavoidable, the losing player may not stall indefinitely to delay the inevitable. Good sportsmanship means making your move, even if it leads to a loss. We address a number of common situations involving sportsmanship and etiquette in a separate section below.
J. Reporting and Viewing Results
What happens when the game ends? At the end of the round, after resetting the board, the players should go together to the scorekeeper’s table and record their result. Speak clearly and be sure the scorekeeper has understood completely who the players are, who was black and who was white, which board number the game was played on, who won and who lost or that it was a draw. Some tournaments require players to report results by completing a card left on their board and handing it to a tournament official, or writing results on a wall chart at the end of the round. Players should listen carefully to the announcements made before the first round to learn how to report their results.
Results are generally posted between rounds in one of two forms, commonly referred to as Cross Tables and Wall Charts.
Here’s an example of a few lines from a Cross Table:
XYZ Tournament Cross Table, Page 1
No. Name (Team) Rate 1 2 3 4 Score
1. Weasley, Ron (1,
| i don't know |
April 12, 1945 saw the death of President Franklin D Roosevelt, the 7th president to do so. What number president was he? | 1000+ images about Franklin D. Roosevelt #32 on Pinterest | The march, Franklin roosevelt and Remember pearl harbor
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Franklin D. Roosevelt #32
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt (Democratic) was the thirty-second President of the United States from 1933-1945. FDR was elected to four consecutive terms as president. His Vice Presidents were: James N. Gardner (1933-1941), George A. Wallace (1941-1945) and Harry S. Truman (1945). FDR died in office April 12, 1945, after being elected to his forth term. His fifth cousin, Teddy Roosevelt was the twenty-sixth President of the United States.
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Supported by a consortium of 26 organizations from all over the world, and unusual in that it holds both the mens and womens halls of fame, what sport has its HoF in St. Augustine, Fl? | Biography of President Franklin D. Roosevelt for Kids
from the Library of Congress
Franklin D. Roosevelt was the 32nd President of the United States.
Served as President: 1933-1945
Vice President: John Nance Garner, Henry Agard Wallace, Harry S. Truman
Party: Democrat
Born: January 30, 1882 in Hyde Park, New York
Died: April 12, 1945 in Warm Springs, Georgia
Married: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt
Children: Anna, James, Elliot, Franklin, John, and a son who died young
Nickname: FDR
Biography:
What is Franklin D. Roosevelt most known for?
President Roosevelt is most known for leading the United States and the Allied Powers against the Axis Powers of Germany and Japan during World War II . He also led the country during the Great Depression and instituted the New Deal which included programs such as Social Security and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC).
Roosevelt was elected to president for four terms. This is two more terms than any other president.
Growing Up
Franklin grew up in a wealthy and influential New York family. He was tutored at home and traveled the world with his family during his childhood. He graduated from Harvard in 1904 and married his distant cousin Anna Eleanor Roosevelt . He then went to Columbia Law School and began to practice law.
Roosevelt became active in politics in 1910 when he was elected to the New York State Senate and, later, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy. However, his career stopped for a while in 1921 when he became sick with polio. Although he survived his bout with polio, he nearly lost the use of his legs. For the rest of his life he could only walk a few short steps by himself.
Roosevelt and Churchill
on the Prince of Wales
from the US Navy
Before He Became President
Franklin's wife Eleanor told her husband not to give up. So, despite his condition, he continued with both his law and political career. In 1929 he was elected Governor of New York and, after serving two terms as governor, he decided to run for president in the 1932 election.
Franklin D. Roosevelt's Presidency
In 1932 the country was in the midst of the Great Depression. People were looking for some new ideas, leadership, and hope. They elected Franklin Roosevelt hoping he had the answers.
The New Deal
When Roosevelt entered office as president the first thing he did was to sign a number of new bills into laws in an effort to fight the Great Depression. These new laws included programs such as Social Security to help retirees, the FDIC to help secure bank deposits, work programs such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, new power plants, aid for farmers, and laws to improve working conditions. Finally, he established the SEC (Security and Exchange Commission) to help regulate the stock market and hopefully prevent any future collapses in the financial markets.
All of these programs together were called the New Deal . In his first 100 days of being president, Roosevelt signed 14 new bills into law. This time became known as Roosevelt's Hundred Days.
World War II
In 1940 Roosevelt was elected to his third term as president. World War II had broken out in Europe and Roosevelt promised that he would do what he could to keep the U.S. out of the war. However, on December 7, 1941 Japan bombed the U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor . Roosevelt had no choice but to declare war.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
by Frank O. Salisbury
Roosevelt worked closely with the Allied Powers to help fight back against Germany and Japan. He partnered with Winston Churchill of Great Britain as well as Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union. He also laid the groundwork for future peace by coming up with the concept of the United Nations.
How did he die?
As the war was coming to an end, Roosevelt's health began to fail. He was posing for a portrait when he had a fatal stroke. His last words were "I have a terrible headache." Roosevelt is considered by many to be one of the greatest presidents in the history of the United States. He is remembered with a National Memorial in Washington D.C.
Fun Facts about Franklin D. Roosevelt
President Theodore Roosevelt was Franklin's fifth cousin and uncle to his wife Eleanor.
He met President Grover Cleveland when he was five years old. Cleveland said "I am making a wish for you. It is that you may never become president of the United States."
After Roosevelt's presidency, a law was made that allowed presidents to serve a maximum of two terms. Prior to Roosevelt, previous presidents had followed George Washington 's example of only serving two terms despite there being no law against serving more.
He was the first president to appear on television during a 1939 broadcast from the World's Fair.
During World War II, Roosevelt spoke to the American people over the radio in a series of talks called the " fireside chats ."
One of his famous quotes is "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself."
Activities
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Mary Ann Summers, one of the castaways stranded on TVs Gilligan's Island, hailed from what state? | Mary Ann | Gilligan's Island Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
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Mary Ann was based on Dorothy from the film The Wizard of Oz.
It is said throughout the series that she knows a lot about gardening, coming from a farm in Kansas.
Although Mary Ann was supposedly meant to be a teenager, Wells was older than her fictional character with her actual age at the start of the series being 26; Tina Louise was about 5 years older.
Her favorite radio soap operas are Old Doctor Young and Blaze Of Noon .
In Two on a Raft , it's revealed Mary Ann was employed at the general store in Winfield , Kansas and had also been a member of the Girl Scouts.
Through the series, there are several moments that imply Mary Ann is sweet on Gilligan inasmuch as she is usually making coconut cream pies for him as prizes or gifts of gratitude. Although attempts at romance are made in The Matchmaker and The Postman Cometh , nothing ever develops.
In Ring Around Gilligan , Mary Ann reveals she was a member of club that wore club rings
In the early opening sequence, neither Mary Ann's name or the Professor's was mentioned. It was mentioned that Bob Denver successfully petitioned to include their character's names in the opening sequence when the series opener was re-created for the color episodes.
The episode, Beauty Is as Beauty Does stands out as a fan favorite for all Mary Ann fans inasmuch as she accidentally loses her bathing suit in the lagoon in preparation for running against Ginger for Miss Castaway.
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What are the official languages of our neighbors to the north, Canada? | Dan Schneider on Classic TV: Gilligan's Island & The Odd Couple
A Not So Odd Couple Of TV Classics
Copyright � by Dan Schneider, 11/29/02
The Professor Lives!
While growing up I watched alot of tv- not more than your average kid, but that�s still alot. Some of the earliest tv shows I recall are those my mom & dad watched: The Lawrence Welk Show, The Carol Burnett Show, & other such variety shows. When I hit 4 or 5, though, I started watching shows on my own: Sesame Street, The Banana Splits, Underdog, & other Saturday morning kids shows come to mind. Then there were the repeats I would see in early evening. I believe my favorite hour was the 6-7 pm slot on WNEW- old Channel 5, now a New York City FOX- TV affiliate, but then an independent station. Or, it may have been WPIX- Channel 11- the station that, then, broadcast New York Yankees games. Nonetheless, I recall at 6 pm they would air the old wacky game show Beat The Clock, after which would follow the cornucopia of silliness that was Gilligan�s Island. A year or 2 later I would discover Star Trek in the same time slot- but that was definitely on Channel 11, so GI must have been Channel 5- ah, the memory!
About a year later, say 1971-72, I recall discovering 1 of my other all-time favorite shows- just starting up its great network tv run: The Odd Couple. TOC was part of a great Friday night tv lineup, back in the days when great tv was run on Fridays: CBS had shows such as The Mary Tyler Moore Show, The Bob Newhart Show, & The Carol Burnett Show (such creative titling, eh?), while ABC had The Brady Bunch (produced by GI�s helmsman Sherwood Schwartz- more on him later), The Partridge Family, TOC, & Love, American Style. While all the shows produced fond memories it was the LA-produced, but NYC-set TOC that embedded most deeply into my psyche- from its basic premise, to its jazzy opening score, to the very palpable chemistry between its 2 lead protagonists. The show was at the very beginning of the 1970s heyday of smartly-written adult sitcoms, just as GI was at the center of the 1960s �High Concept� goofball sitcoms. Yet, both shows� successes owe to their archetypal characters, the main comedy duos of Gilligan & the Skipper & Oscar & Felix, their indebtedness to modern theater, & their relative brief network runs, which did not allow for either show to go stale.
Let�s tackle some of these assertions briefly, then delve in to both shows, compare them & then summarize. GI was at the center of the 1960s �High Concept� brand of comedy. This term referred to an almost absurdist approach to comedy- make the characters so over the top & put them in situations so wacky, that either audiences loved or hated them. This produced a skein of very hit & miss television: The Beverly Hillbillies (HIT), The Addams Family (MISS), My Favorite Martian (MISS), I Dream Of Jeannie (HIT), My Mother The Car (MISS), The Monkees (HIT), Get Smart (HIT), F-Troop(MISS), Bewitched (HIT), The Munsters (MISS), & GI (HIT), among the more noted shows in this class. The shows were about (respectively) nouveau riche white trash, ghoulish fetishists, an alien, a genie & an astronaut, reincarnation (or, technically transmigration), a Beatlesian faux pre-MTV rock band, a stolid spy, a band of incompetent post-Civil War Wild West U.S. Army regulars, a domestic witch, a clan of monsters, & 7 moronic castaways on an island. Yet, all the shows, save for GI, seem dated. It was the only show not embedded in the 1960s culture- it is classically timeless- not unlike The Honeymooners- another archetypal & brief tv masterwork. TOC, by contrast, was 1 of the 1st of the adult sitcoms of the 1970s. These were shows where the laughs were primarily based on situations & people all of us might experience (& often rooted in the milieu of the day). The other shows in this genre were The Mary Tyler Moore Show (& its spinoff & soulmate shows such as Rhoda, Phyllis, The Bob Newhart Show, etc.), the socially conscious Norman Lear sitcoms (All In The Family, Maude, Good Times, The Jeffersons, etc.), plus other shows such as the Vietnam War parable MASH, among the more well-known. As with GI, the reason TOC has survived better than all the others (save for MASH) is that it rarely made direct references to the pop culture of the day.
Both shows made their bread & butter off the use of archetypes. On GI there have literally been classes taught on this subject. The 7 castaways all represent different parts of society- a view advocated & advanced by creator Sherwood Schwartz. Gilligan is the not to bright proletarian, the Skipper is the dependable but ineffective leader, Mr. Howell is the cut-throat & exploitative industrialist, Mrs. Howell is the old money idle rich heiress, the Professor is the ever-resourceful, somewhat na�ve, but always doomed, intelligentsia, Ginger is the celebrity & All-American male fantasy- the girl you wanna bed, while Mary Ann is the All-American Dream- the girl all men wanna marry & raise a family with. The Ginger-Mary Ann debate is 1 that has raged for decades- essentially the argument over whether males prefer lust or love. Usually, in most polls, Mary Ann wins. However, as a male I can tell you that this is exactly the kind of question where men lie through their teeth. In truth, Ginger is the babe all the men wanted. TOC, too, is chock full of archetypes. Oscar is the male id- sloppy, carefree, genial, & into �male� activities- a sportswriter. Felix is the female ego- neat, organized, anal, fussy, & into �female� activities- cooking. There are also archetypes in the recurring characters- such as dimwitted Murray the cop, Oscar�s shrewish ex-wife Blanche, Felix�s earth motherish ex-wife Gloria, & drudge-next-door secretary Myrna Turner.
But if archetypes were the 2 shows� staples it was the main comedy teams of Gilligan-Skipper (Bob Denver-Alan Hale, Jr.) & Oscar-Felix (Jack Klugman-Tony Randall). Along with The Honeymooners� duo of Ralph Kramden-Ed Norton (Jackie Gleason-Art Carney) these teams are the Golden Trinity of tv comedy teams. Their big screen equivalents are Laurel & Hardy for Gilligan-Skipper, because, like L&H the GI team was basically wholly dependent on slapstick. The fat man (Hardy & the Skipper) would often do great �slow burns� whenever the skinny moron (Laurel & Gilligan) would fuck up. The big screen equivalent for the TOC team was Abbott & Costello. Like A&C the TOC team�s comedy came mainly out of great verbal sparring, with a little slapstick to boot. Can any TOC fan ever recall the duo�s Password episode where the name Aristophanes is used for high comedy?
Both shows also are very indebted to the modern 20th Century theater. GI is, truly, the only American television example of true Absurdism- not only the endlessly recycled plot elements, but in the fact that the show�s run being cut short left the castaways forever stranded, without any resolution of their fate. Yes, forget about the 1970s & 1980s reunion tv films- GI is the lone tribute to Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, & Eugene Ionesco. On the other side of the coin TOC literally started as a comic play- by playwright Neil Simon- 1 of the giants of American theater in the last 40 years. The original Oscar & Felix were Walter Matthau as Oscar & Art Carney (of Ed Norton fame) as Felix. When the play became a film Matthau was retained as Oscar but Jack Lemmon was brought in as Felix. The tv version of the show & characters hewed quite a bit to the play, even as it worked in aspects of the new Oscar & Felix�s character traits- such as Jack Klugman�s love of gambling & Tony Randall�s passion for opera.
Another aspect to both shows� enduring success is their brief tv runs. GI ran from 1964 to 1966- 3 seasons where it was constantly moved around, yet always was a big ratings grabber. Myopically bad reviews, however, had CBS executives cringing- even as the public loved it. The show fully expected a 4th season- then, without warning or ceremony, it was over. CBS decided to save Gunsmoke & shoot GI. TOC ran 2 seasons longer & was never the ratings smash GI was, although it was a respectable Top 20 show. But, neither of the 2 leads wanted the show to go stale, so they ended it after season 5. TOC is 1 of the very few tv shows that fans of the website JumpTheShark.com have said never jumped- that is never peaked & went downhill. The boys quit while they were ahead.
Now, let�s look a bit more in depth at the 2 shows. 1st up is Gilligan�s Island. Alot of what follows in the next section was gleaned from Sherwood Schwartz�s 1988 book Inside Gilligan�s Island, as well as the websites of Bob Denver (Gilligan) http://bobdenver.com/ , & Dawn Wells (Mary Ann) http://www.dawn-wells.com/ .
Gilligan�s Island
It had taken SS a few years to get GI on the air. The original pilot was filmed in 1963 but languished. TV execs were sensitive to the accurate & portentous 1961 description of tv as a �vast wasteland� by FCC Chairman Newton Minnow- where SS got the delicious idea of tributing him by naming the Skipper�s ship after him. CBS executives though the show so moronic they were even embarrassed to air it. But, space needs filling & the execs finally relented. The show debuted 9/26/64 & ran 3 highly rated seasons, ending its network run 9/4/67. Ratings persisted despite embarrassed CBS execs, & despite a near constant switching of the show to different nights- its 1st year on Saturdays from 8:30-9 pm, year 2 on Thursdays from 8-8:30 pm, & its last year on Mondays from 7:30-8pm. Its constant creep toward earlier hours reflected CBS�s wish to justify canceling the hit by even pushing it out of traditional prime time slots- 8-11 pm is prime time on the East Coast- the standard these hours reflect. But, faced with axing GI or the lower-rated Gunsmoke, CBS decided to forever strand the castaways & carry on with the lower rated western. A dumb immediate move, but 1 which actually helped immortalize the show. These days the show would be running in to its 11th season with Gilligan & the 2 babes still practicing celibacy. Then syndication took over & made GI a phenomenon. Overall, the show filmed 98 shows (Over 4 season�s worth by today�s 22-24 episode standards)- 36 black & white episodes in year 1, & the 62 remaining episodes in color. 3 bad telesequels were to follow in the late 1970s & early 1980s, with only the original Ginger (Tina Louise) failing to reprise her role, bitter over the show�s killing her chance to be taken seriously as a film star- a cruel irony.
As for the overall theme of the show? Well, its opening & closing theme songs pretty well describe it:
The Opening Theme Song:
Just sit right back and you'll hear a tale,
A tale of a fateful trip,
That started from this tropic port
Aboard this tiny ship.
The mate was a mighty sailing man,
The skipper brave and sure.
5 passengers set sail that day
For a 3 hour tour, a 3 hour tour.
The weather started getting rough,
The tiny ship was tossed,
If not for the courage of the fearless crew
The Minnow would be lost, the Minnow would be lost.
The ship set ground on the shore of this uncharted desert isle
With Gilligan, The Skipper too,
The millionaire and his wife,
The movie star
The professor and Mary Ann,
Here on Gilligan's Isle.
So this is the tale of the castaways,
They're here for a long, long time,
They'll have to make the best of things,
It's an uphill climb.
The first mate and the Skipper too,
Will do their very best,
To make the others comfortable,
In the tropic island nest.
No phone, no lights, no motor cars,
Not a single luxury,
As primitive as can be.
So join us here each week my friends,
You're sure to get a smile,
From seven stranded castaways,
Here on �Gilligan's Isle.�
An interesting side note is that during Season 1 the penultimate line read �and the rest�, but was changed to �The Professor and Mary Ann� because the actors portraying those characters were considered unspecified �supporting� characters, according to their contracts. By Season 2 they became �lead� characters.
& just who were the lead characters & the actors who played them?
The Pirandellan cast of GI was the S.S. Minnow�s Skipper Jonas Grumby (Alan Hale. Jr.), 1st Mate Willy Gilligan (Bob Denver- note that his 1st name was never used in the series, only purported by creator SS), millionaire industrialist Thurston Howell III (Jim Backus), Eunice �Lovey� Wentworth Howell (socialite & heiress), film star Ginger Grant, Professor Roy Hinckley, & Kansas farm girl Mary Ann Summers. An 8th (often overlooked) cast member was the lone announcer heard on the castaway�s radio, voiced by Charles Maxwell. Let me now sketch some facts about each character, gleaned from SS�s book, some websites, remembrances of the show, & then try to explicate a little more deeply on things.
Jonas �The Skipper� Grumby
The Skipper seems to have been a WW2 Navy vet, serving against the Japanese in the Pacific. It is unclear as to where the Skipper & Gilligan hooked up. I don�t believe the show ever tells (Navy or charter boat industry?) but certain fan sites claim the Navy, where Gilligan saved the Skipper�s life. This meeting doomed this modern Jonas to a fate worse than the Biblical Jonah. Some sites also claim background info on the character being a poker shark, a high school football star, a musician, & that upon retirement the Skipper took his savings & bought the S.S. Minnow. He is also prone to beliefs in the supernatural. This leads to some of his flawed leadership. AS portrayed by Alan Hale, Jr. the character is 1 of the most beloved in tv history, despite his poor leadership; but then, that�s what Gilligan�s for- the dumber foil all leaders can foist their shortcomings on. The character is classic archetype & almost a total ripoff of the Oliver Hardy persona, yet who really cares? This is Absurdism & Oliver Hardy as leader seems apropos. Many a hater of the show points to many of the logical gaps in the show, foremost being how could a supposed Navy vet not even build a decent raft, nor- by dead reckoning- divine the group�s location? Of course, that�s a silly question in light of the show�s ridiculous premise. On to the titular hero.
First Mate Willy �Little Buddy� Gilligan
Gilligan is a Pennsylvanian native who, as a boy, had a turtle named Herman, & a legendary pal even dumber than him- Skinny Mulligan. In every episode Gilligan kiboshes the castaways� chances of being rescued. Logically, 1 might ask why the others� tolerate him. The answer would be that without Gilligan nothing would get done, because- despite his relentless idiocy- Gilligan is the only true laborer on the island. Without him the rest of the island would fall apart- not just in the diurnal grunge, but emotionally, as well. He is the measure of contented ignorance.
�Millionaire� Thurston Howell III
Mr. Howell is a classist and snob, actually a billionaire industrialist who was known as �The Wizard of Wall Street�. He & his wife are long-time marrieds, own many homes & corporations, & is the epitome of the �Rockefeller� Republican. His main purpose on the island is to serve as the foil that the others rally against. He cares little for the others� feelings, although he sometimes displays surprising affection for his fellow castaways, despite constantly seeking to manipulate every aspect of their island lives. How he managed to stow away so much money & things is a point of irritation to logical purists. To devotees of the show it is merely more fodder for the lovable lunacy.
Mrs. Eunice �Lovey� Howell
Mrs. Howell is old money personified, claiming lineage back to Columbus�s crew. She is, in ways, more snobbish than her husband, yet also more sociable. She acts as mother hen to the 3 younger castaways: Gilligan, Mary Ann, & Ginger.
Professor Roy Hinkley
The Professor is also a Ph.D., & high school science teacher, with degrees in chemistry, botany, biology, psychology, & geography. He is in his mid-30s, speaks many languages, & is seemingly oblivious to sex, despite being the island�s resident heartthrob to Mary Ann & Ginger. He was on the Minnow because he was researching a book on tropical plant life. He is the Island�s equivalent of Star Trek�s Mr. Spock- logic itself. Without him the castaways would probably have died within a few weeks. Despite that, it is curious that he has never been able to construct a decent boat or raft for the Skipper to navigate back to the mainland.
Ginger Grant
The movie star & resident sexpot. Usually seen in her skintight jewel-studded gown, Ginger is never not dressed & made up to the 9s. She is sexuality itself. If any man had to pick just 1 of the castaways to be marooned with Ginger would win in a landslide. Despite her constant need for male attention Ginger claims to have become a �star� on her talent alone- no casting couches for her! Yet, she is always willing to wrap the island�s men around her fingers to get what she wants, & onlty fails with the Professor, who is oblivious to her pursuits. She & Mary Ann share a hut, but have an on & off again rivalry.
Mary Ann Summers
Mary Ann is an All-American country girl & general store clerk from Winfield, Kansas. She lived with her Aunt Martha & Uncle George (in very Wizard Of Oz-type fashion), was a member of the 4H club, & has an unrequited crush on Gilligan. Mrs. Howell has often taken her under her wing. She is Americana itself. She is the most good-hearted of all the castaways. She is also the resident gardening expert whose skills keep the others healthy & well-fed.
An interesting side note is that a # of social critics have taken the 7 castaways to be the embodiment of the 7 Deadly Sins. I even did a poem on this notion- with the 7 main Star Trek characters as their counterpart Virtues. But my poem is not necessarily the standard for this discussion. Let�s chuckle at this proposition. The most obvious candidate is Ginger as Lust. In the 1960s & 1970s there was not a single American schoolboy whose main reason for watching GI was Ginger & her slinky dresses, & �come hither� appeal. Yes, the show was funny- but Ginger was the main reason why men watched it. Period. Envy describes her hut-mate Mary Ann- after all, there was a whole episode in which Mary Ann delusionally thinks she�s Ginger. Another obvious choice is Greed- Mr. Howell. Period. Although, truthfully, he also could be Pride & Sloth. But let�s give Sloth to his wife. Mrs. Howell certainly was as lazy as they come. That leaves Pride, Gluttony & Anger to be divvied up between the Professor, the Skipper, & Gilligan. Yes, the Skipper was a tub of lard with a voracious appetite- but let�s be fair, Gilligan ate more, was far more gluttonous. He lucked out by having a hyperactive thyroid. Why else would so many episodes show him whizzing around at super speed? The Skipper can take Anger, since he was always slapping Gilligan around with his Captain�s cap. Then we come to the problem of the Professor- there is no sin of Sexual Stolidity so we�ll have to wedge him in to Pride. Not as good a fit as the others, but serviceable. After all, he kept plugging away at his devices & rescue attempts even though the gods had pre-ordained that Gilligan was gonna fuck things up in the end. Oddly, another poll thought the Professor most obviously as Pride, & assigned Anger & Gluttony to the Skipper alone, reckoning his wide body could carry the load. So, where did that leave Gilligan? The answer was Satan, himself.
Now that we know the who, let�s examine some of the whys:
The charter boat S.S. Minnow, out of Honolulu, Hawaii, was on a sightseeing tour when it was caught in a storm & shipwrecked on an uncharted South Pacific island. Numerous questions abounded for nitpickers who found the show�s simplicity annoying- chief among them were: If the cruise was only supposed to be for 3 hours, how & why did the passengers pack so much? Well, obviously they did not. Each episode, in a way, is a self-contained vignette, not necessarily related to the others, although some are. Producer Sherwood Schwartz has tried to cast his show as a sort of tv version of the Grimm Bros. fairy tales- with each show teaching a lesson. Others believe GI is akin to the Genesis myth- yet farcical rather than dramatic. GI shows a group of castaways exiled from the paradise of modern America, filled with fast food, modern appliances, & entertainments galore. Marooning replaces exile but instead of finding themselves lost from history they end up severed from their modernity. In truest Biblical fashion they long for Salvation- not of their souls, but of their corpi. & like mankind, eternally doomed by Adam & Eve�s sin, the castaways are doomed by Gilligan�s stupidity, & their own ethics for not offing him. In a way Gilligan & Co. are living cartoons- occasionally over-the-top Tex Avery toons, but more often the Nietszchean hell of the Roadrunner & Wile E. Coyote. Despite the failures, the castaways always survive- not unlike the numerous personae of Buster Keaton, or more aptly Charlie Chaplin�s Tramp. Most often it�s Gilligan�s failings that doom the castaways. But others� failures abound: the Skipper�s need to be in control, Mr. Howell�s need to manipulate, Mrs. Howell�s need for routine over pragmatism, the Professor�s Rube Goldbergian devices, Ginger�s need for attention & approval, & Mary Ann�s na�ve-t�.
So, the query is- if the characters are so dumb & predictable, why are they so beloved? Because they are archetypes, not stereotypes- despite the absurd plots. Even when treated to the stand-bys of doppelg�ngers or �certain� doom, the viewer knows the episode will end just where it began- not waiting for Godot, but salvation. Still, the characterizations are so strong, that by the 3rd or 4th episode we know how every character is going to react to a certain premise. This would kill most shows- witness the dull meanderings of the 1980s mega-hit, The Cosby Show. But, being set with such a wacky initial premise allowed each episode to go off on increasingly absurd branches without viewer backlash against the characters. This allowed producer SS to moralize without being preachy- unlike, say Bill Cosby�s show. This absurdism also allowed SS to have a retinue of occasional stock actors to play many parts- the most notable recurring actor being Vito Scotti- who made a handful of outrageous appearances as different characters. In a way, GI�s fantastical plots allowed a lot of subtextual social commentary to go on without being heavyhanded. In this way, GI resembled another all-time tv classic- The Twilight Zone. On TTZ writer & producer Rod Serling could slip in political messages under the guise of an extraterrestrial storyline, that he could never slip by the network censors were he overtly writing about McCarthyism or racism. Similarly, GI could tackle greed, vanity, materialism, & relationships by using far out scenarios to comment on more prosaic dealings with such things. This is why viewers were drawn into the show in its network run, & have never let it go since. Despite the absurd silliness we all know versions of the 7 castaways in our own lives. This made them REAL, despite their often caricaturized state. Add in the fact that the castaways never really learn their lessons, & the parallels to reality could become depressingly obvious, were they not so hilarious. Never before nor since has tv been so existential, & simple, at the same time. The show was about total illogic, yet it made perfect sense, especially the more its slapstick & absurdism pushed the pedal to the metal.
Let�s look at a few episodes & examine why they are such classics. Episode # & title are included:
SEASON 1
9) The Big Gold Strike- As per the title gold is discovered on the isle & Mr. Howell employs Gilligan to mine for it. The Minnow�s rubber life raft, meanwhile, floats ashore. Then gold fever strikes the castaways. Mr. Howell displays his avarice by charging gouge-worthy prices for supplies & food. The Castaways respond by taking bits of gold for themselves as The Professor repairs the life raft from the Minnow. When they get in, hoping to return home, the weight of the smuggled gold sinks the raft. The morale is about greed�s perils. This was probably the 1st overtly didactic episode in the series, yet the castaways, despite all kyboshing their collective dream- by the next episode- forgave all. This episode also hints at the existential flavor of the whole show by being so blatantly didactic, & being a self-contained piece with no necessity to have had backstory nor influence on what follows. Other later episodes would follow this template.
14) Water, Water Everywhere- Long live Samuel Taylor Coleridge! The island is in a drought. The gang pools together their remaining fresh water. Gilligan bungles, then saves the day when he finds a frog, & a fresh spring that it comes from. 1 of the classic good coming from bad episodes- a staple of fables everywhere.
15) So Sorry, My Island Now- The castaways are captured by a Japanese sailor who thinks that WW2 never ended. When the gang captured, Gilligan saves them. This episode is notable mainly because it was 1 of the many episodes originally hooted at as implausible, yet in the 1970s sporadic cases of marooned graying Japanese soldiers in the Pacific did turn up. Unfortunately, a racist portrayal by a white character actor stands as proof to the era the series was made in.
36) A Nose By Any Other Name- Gilligan falls from a coconut tree & his nose swells to immense proportions. Distraught, he asks the Professor to do plastic surgery on his nose. The Professor pretends to so but merely puts a bandage on the nose, allowing it time to heal. When the bandages are removed, Gilligan is happy to have his old nose back. This episode not only shows a streak of Hans Christian Andersen, but is an episode where the characters go beyond their caricatured selves, to really show empathy for another�s feelings.
SEASON 2
38) Beauty is and Beauty Does- The gang holds a beauty contest- the Skipper says Ginger�s the most babeolicious, the Professor stumps for Mary Ann, & Mr. Howell posits the Mrs. The 3 guys try to sabotage the others� favorites. Gilligan is set up as judge & Solomonically picks Gladys, his pet ape- stating she�s the only true native. A classic episode in which �a little boy shall lead them�.
42) Quick Before it Sinks- The Professor thinks the island is sinking, because sticks he was using to measure the water�s depth seem to indicate the water rising. But, it was just Gilligan moving the sticks for his fishing traps. Another episode where the castaways become humanized in the face of presumed mortality acoming.
54) The Postman Cometh- The radio announcer states that Mary Ann's boyfriend in Kansas is getting married. She has been sending messages in a bottle for months. Rationalists ask where was she getting all those bottles? Wouldn�t most of the glass bottles have broken in the storm that stranded the gang? Anyway, Mary Ann overhears the others talking about her beau, but mistakenly believes she�s dying, & has fantasies. But, the truth comes out, Mary Ann is not dying, her beau is not her beau- she just wanted people to feel she was loved. A surprisingly touching episode in a series derided as being without substance.
55) Seer Gilligan- Gilligan discovers a bush that produces seeds which, when eaten, give the gang the ability to read each other�s minds. Total honesty wreaks havoc. Gilligan, again, shows uncanny wisdom by burning the bush. A very Becettian episode with deep ethical themes in it.
SEASON 3
76) Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow- Gilligan wakes up with white hair, that later falls out. Bald, he is upset beyond words. The Skipper berates him for overreacting until he goes bald too. The Professor saves the day & the duo�s hair. Another episode where the reactions of the characters, while overdone, are true to human failings.
82) All About Eva- The best doppelganger episode- this time it�s a Ginger look-alike in the classic �frump-cum-babe� theme. Yet again, she- like so many others- escapes, & leaves the Castaways behind. She decides to resume Ginger Grant�s career. This episode is 1 of many of the recurring trope episodes- which adds to the overall Absurdism & Surrealistic aspects which make the show a classic.
87) Lovey's Secret Admirer- Mrs. Howell receives anonymous love letters. Mr. Howell is furious, until it- of course- he turns out to be the admirer. Another episode where some of the true affection between the characters is displayed.
96) The Pigeon- A very haunting episode, & mildly disturbing. Sterling Holloway plays Burt, a prisoner whose homing pigeon flies between the island & the prison. The Professor sees rescue in this providence. Assorted travails occur but the pigeon makes it back just as Burt is released. He frees all his birds, including the 1 with the castaways rescue. The episode ends with the mantra of �Free!� ringing in antichorus to the castaways� dilemma. An episode at once at the root of the show�s being, & apart from it.
98) Gilligan, the Goddess- The last episode. It ends as ever. The show looked primed for another season. Alas. Some racism rears its head as native island King Killiwani comes to the island looking for a White Goddess. Ginger & Mary Ann are rejected by the castaways since they will be sacrificed. So, Gilligan does drag, trouble ensues, but all ends up well. Nietszche is smiling.
But the last episode of the show was not the end of the GI phenomenon- the 1970s saw the show return as a Saturday morning cartoon called The New Adventures of Gilligan, & another later cartoon set in outer space, called Gilligan�s Planet- can you guess the premise? Then, the late 70s & early 80s saw 3 bad GI tv movies surface. They were most noted for having replaced Tina Louise�s Ginger Grant with an actress named Judith Baldwin- where is she now? All in all GI has been durable, in its many guises. But so has this essay�s other tv classic.
The Odd Couple
Now, on to the other neglected classic- whereas GI was Absurdism�s tv treasure, The Odd Couple was its modern sophisticated turning point, debuting on 9/24/70 & ending 7/4/75. I started watching it during the 2nd season of its network run, but have seen all the episodes many a time in reruns. TOC was 1 of the 1st- if not the 1st- sitcoms to effectively rely on its own internal mythos to sustain laughs. 1 need not be aware of the tenor of the times to enjoy it, & it was not wholly dependent on the absurdism of GI, nor the slapstick of I Love Lucy or The Honeymooners, nor be attuned to the political climate of the day- like The Monkees or Get Smart. It was crisp smart dialogue between the 2 main characters that drove this show. TOC was an early example of the sophisticated, well-written, character-driven sitcoms that dominated the 1970s. But it was an anomaly in that while it was transcendent of its era while still being relevant- dealing with issues like the generation gap, singles� sex lives, working class people & their problems, aging, loneliness, & divorce in a very adult & funny manner. Were the show to debut nowadays it would undoubtedly be laced with snide sexual innuendos & relentless gay jokes. It was also- like MASH, which followed 2 years later- 1 of the early successful tv sitcoms based on material from another medium, in its case the Broadway play & film. Critically acclaimed during its network run, the show did not receive its due of popular recognition until syndication. A few years ago the sitcom Seinfeld was lauded, on its ending, for being a show that did not indulge in the faux warmth & moralism of many post-1980s sitcoms- despite its relentless steals from The Abbott & Costello Show of � a century before. TOC used much of that same zeitgeist decades before Seinfeld, yet its characters were truly likable, although only to their audience- neither Oscar nor Felix ever learned to appreciate each other�s good qualities- at least they never let it show to each other. There were no end-of-show soulful talks, no forced hugs or speechifying- just the eternal conflict between slob & priss. Even in the last episode, after Felix leaves, Oscar does not wax poetic about his pal- he just joys in his freedom from the neat freak.
As with GI, however, the basic setup of the show was reiterated in the show�s opening for the 1st few seasons. This is an important point to recall because TOC is noted for being 1 of those shows that had many �continuity errors� from show to show. Yet, if the opening monologue�s set up is to be taken as a fresh entr�e in to the TOC universe, then it does not really matter about the inconsistencies. Here�s the basic intro (narrated by William Woodson), which went through some minor modifications through the years:
On November 13th, Felix Unger was asked to remove himself from his place of residence. That request came from his wife. Deep down, he knew she was right, but he also knew that someday he would return to her. With nowhere else to go, he appeared at the home of his childhood friend, Oscar Madison. Sometime earlier, Madison's wife had thrown him out, requesting that he never return. Can two divorced men share an apartment without driving each other crazy?
This was accompanied by Neal Hefti�s trademark jazzy theme song, & its distinctive piano opening. Hefti had become hot in the tv score biz when a few years earlier his theme to the Batman tv series became a radio hit.
TOC was never a Top 10 hit in the way of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, or the powerhouse All In The Family, but it was a consistent Top 40 show, despite bouncing around the ABC schedule. During its 5 year run the show aired in 6 different slots! Here�s a breakdown via EST: From September, 1970 to January, 1971, it aired on Thursday nights at 9:30. From January, 1971 to June, 1973, it aired on Friday nights at 9:30. From June, 1973 to January, 1974, it aired on Friday nights at 8:30. From January, 1974 to September, 1974, it aired on Friday nights at 9:30. From September, 1974 to January, 1975, it aired on Thursday nights at 8:00. From January, 1975 to July, 1975, it aired on Friday nights at 9:30.
Important to note is that the tv show slowly evolved away from the play�s & movie�s premises. Especially after the 2nd season started filming in front of a live audience. I�ll address some of the differences in the separate TOC universes later. But, now, a bit of the characters that made TOC such a great show.
Felix Unger
Felix (Tony Randall) is a commercial photographer [portraits a specialty is his business�s catchphrase] who is also an anal retentive neat freak. He lives for cleanliness- this is what kyboshed his marriage. He�s also a hypochondriac whose unstable temperament often leads him to start �honking� his nose when he�s upset. He also has spinal problems, & would probably be seeing both a therapist & a chiropractor in today�s world. But this was the 1960s era. His catchphrase, used to rebuke his pal, is �Oscar, Oscar, Oscar�. He also loves the opera, & fine cuisine. These are characteristics not in Neil Simon�s original characterization, but molded to suit TR�s wishes.
Oscar Madison
Oscar (Jack Klugman) is a sportswriter for the New York Herald (a fictive tabloid). He is the archetypal sloppy male. He is also well-known in the fictive New York- as this allowed for TOC to bring in celebrity guest stars on the premise that Oscar hobnobbed with them. TOC made better use of these cameos than any show I can think of. Among the invited were football star Deacon Jones (in a memorable episode where he & Oscar filmed a shaving cream commercial), Howard Cosell, Bobby Riggs & Billie Jean King (in the memorable Felix in Bondage episode), David Steinberg (the Little Orphan Annie song- recall?), Dick Cavett, Monty Hall, & Rob Reiner- as his then-wife Penny Marshall�s (the Myrna Turner character) love interest. Oscar loves cigars, horse racing, gambling of all sorts, & just tossing off his clothes wherever. These latter traits were also molded to fit JK�s own persona.
Murray Greshler
Murray (Al Molinaro- later Al in Happy Days) is an obese, balding, & dumb Jewish NYC flatfoot. He is the butt of good-natured jokes by the others, often for his large schnozz. Originally he was just 1 of the boys� poker pals, but he gained in prominence & was featured in several episodes, especially 1 memorable courtroom episode where he tried to arrest the boys for their weekly poker game, despite his own participation.
Myrna Turner
Myrna (Penny Marshall) is Oscar's plain Jane secretary at the New York Herald. She is a minor character whose traits include a grating & nasal Bronx accent, & the worst laugh in tv history- excepting for Welcome Back, Kotter�s Arnold Horshack.
Miriam Welby
Miriam (Elinor Donahue) is Felix's sometimes girlfriend & neighbor in their apartment house. Her character was never really developed & was dropped from later episodes. An interesting point of humorous debate revolves around the fact that ED�s character�s father in Father Knows Best was played by Robert Young, who later starred in the 1960s & 70s teledrama Marcus Welby, M.D. Was ED�s TOC character also the daughter of that doctor? The show never makes clear whether this was a coincidence or running in-joke.
Dr. Nancy Cunningham
Nancy (Joan Hotchkis) was Oscar�s girlfriend early in the series- her high point being the classic �Hocaloma� episode where the trio vacation in the Caribbean. As with Miriam, little was made of her character & she & Oscar split up.
The Pigeon Sisters
Holdovers from the play & film, this duo of wacky British sisters never made it past the 1st season. Gwendolyn & Cecily Pigeon (Carol Shelly & Monica Evans) met Oscar when the three of them were stuck in an elevator- in the original play. They live upstairs from the boys & they all double dated a few times; yet both sisters prefer Felix.
Gloria Unger
Gloria (Janis Hansen) is Felix's gorgeous ex-wife (a former Playboy bunny). He has never gotten over her & none of his female companions ever matches up to her. She divorced him over his neuroses, although she still loves him. In the last episode she takes him back.
Blanche Madison
Played by JK�s real life ex-wife Brett Somers, Blanche is Oscar's ex-wife, & lives in California. Some classic episodes revolve around her & Oscar. Although they love each other (Oscar once interrupts her re-marriage even though it means Oscar�s dreaded alimony payments- in which he is always late on- would end) they know they are not right for each other. In another memorable episode Blanche sends Oscar a hilarious singing telegram threatening to jail him if he doesn�t pay his alimony on time. Blanche was probably the most well-developed female character on the show, owing, in large part, no doubt, to the real life chemistry between Brett Somers & JK.
Speed, Vinny, & Roy
This trio was prominent in season 1, but rarely showed up after that, as the poker angle decreased. Speed (Garry Wahlberg) is an even worse gambler than Oscar, & is ashamed that his real name is Homer Deegan. Vinny Barella (Larry Gelman) is a plump bespectacled little nebbish with little personality, while Roy (Ryan McDonald) is Oscar�s bespectacled accountant & also rather bland.
Edna Unger
Edna is Felix�s daughter, played 1st by Pamelyn Ferdin (the redhead) who later voiced the Charlotte�s Web film & many other cartoons. The role later was portrayed Doney Oatman (the blond), after puberty struck. A noted episode had Edna falling for 1970s musical schlockmeister Paul Williams. The character at 1st disdained Oscar, but as she grew up, rebelled against Felix & saw Oscar as really cool.
Leonard Unger
Leonard is Felix's son, & Edna�s little brother. He was played by Willie Aames (of later Eight Is Enough & Charles In Charge infamy), & then by Leif Garrett (of even worse late 1970s pinup teenybopper infamy). His character was never developed as much as Edna�s was.
Now that we�ve got the basics down, let me briefly run down some of the major reasons the show has endured- the arguments over the show�s relation to the play & film, & some of the continuity errors I mentioned previously. 1st, the show vs, the play & film.
Both
the movie & the show were based on the play, produced by different folk, & as such, should be seen as interpretations of the original play- not dependent upon it or each other. The movie & play were written by Neil Simon & almost solely under his aegis. The tv show was producer Garry Marshall�s baby- he bought the rights from Simon. Thus, as in Baz Luhrman�s recent filmic retake on Romeo & Juliet, fidelity is not needed. The following points are culled from a # of online TOC fan sites, & given in no particular order nor importance:
***In the film Felix is a tv newswriter; in the tv series he�s a commercial photographer.
*** In the film Felix spells his last name Ungar; in the series it is Unger.
***In a later telefilm Felix�s daughter is Hannah; in the series it�s Edna.
*** In the film Oscar has 2 kids; in the series he has none.
***In the film Felix�s wife is Frances; in the series it�s Gloria. Blanche is Oscar�s ex in both film & series.
***In the film Felix�s wife throws him out in July; in the series he was tossed on November 13.
***In the film Felix�s brother lives in Buffalo & is a doctor; in the series his brother lives in Buffalo, but runs a bubble gum company.
***At the end of the film Oscar throws Felix out of his apartment; in the show Felix is still living there.
***In the film the boys have dated the Pigeon sisters regularly, but in the series opening episode they appear to be dating them for the 1st time. But this is SOP in tv shows made from films, as the 1st episodes often recap the film�s basic premises.
***In the film only Oscar is divorced, Felix is merely separated; in the series both men are divorcees.
***Both the film & series inspired later sequels which were totally at odds with the others� universes- with factoids too diverse to digress in to. The point, though, is that there were clearly 2 TOC mythos�s going.
As with GI�s logical inconsistencies these continuity errors are no real problem if 1 accepts that both shows are works of fiction- a simple realization. & TOC�s inconsistencies could also be seen to be a connection to the more Absurdist approach of GI. 1 of the online sites sums up the philosophy of the competing TOC cosmoses very aptly:
In �Your Mother Wears Army Boots�. Felix quotes this phrase by Ralph Waldo Emerson: �Foolish consistencies are the hobgoblin of little minds.� The writers of the show certainly took this phrase to heart, as you can see by the vast number of inconsistencies in the show. It seems that they didn't exactly keep track of certain details of Oscar and Felix's lives, which has caused many episodes to contradict each other.
Here are some more inconsistencies that have churned on for years:
***When did TOC actually meet? In a 1970 episode it�s claimed the boys met in 1963 (7 years ago) on a jury. Another episode that year claimed the boys were pals for 15 years; meaning they met in the mid 1950s, or so. Another episode posits the early 1950s, & the show�s opening claims they were childhood pals, although a later episode shows they met each other as kids, but had forgotten the incident!
***In 1 of the Blanche Madison episodes the boys were supposedly Army pals (during WW2?) since both men seem to be in their late 40s-early 50s during the show�s run). Other shows mention this, too, even though other shows contradict this point. Felix also claims to have served in England & Greenland, yet other episodes reveal he served in Anzio, Vichy France, & Guadalcanal. Felix Unger was either a superspy or a great fabulist! Oscar was a little less well traveled, but he seems to have served in Okinawa, & never left the States, having spent his tour in Connecticut, along with Felix!
***Speaking of Blanche, Oscar seems to be very hazy in regards to his ex. He cannot recall salient points of their union- such as their wedding day- sometimes it�s Christmas day, but also it�s claimed to have occurred during baseball season. Another time they got married while Oscar was in the Army. In another episode Oscar apparently married Blanche in a Tuxedo, because he remembers he never returned the rental suit, yet in the episode �This is the Army, Mrs. Madison� Oscar married Blanche in his army uniform, then had get back to camp for inspection. Blanche had her wedding photo taken with Felix.
***How old is Oscar? In a 1973 episode Oscar turns 40, meaning he was born in 1933- but, how could he have served in WW2- when he would have been 8-12 years old? Another episode uses a flashback to show that the boys were born during prohibition (1919-1933). & both the play & film clearly state Oscar was 43, so if he was 43 at the series� start, he should have been 46 in 1973. The real JK was born in 1922. Oscar also claims to have been a native New Yorker, yet other episodes state both Felix & Oscar were Chicago natives, & another states Oscar was a Philadelphian by birth.
***More marriage messes: In an episode called �The Odd Holiday� the boys went on a vacation with their wives, during which Gloria told Felix that she wanted a divorce. Yet, this violates the entire premise of all 3 TOC universes- where Oscar was already divorced, & invited Felix to stay with him. Another Gloria paradox seems to be when Oscar introduced her to Felix- 1 episode states it was the early 1950s yet another claims Oscar knew Gloria for only about 10 years- the early 1960s. Still another episode has Felix claiming he met Gloria on a photo shoot. In a 1972 episode Felix states Oscar�s been divorced for 3 years, or since 1969. Yet in another episode he mentions Oscar�s been paying alimony for 8 years, which means that he was divorced in the mid-60s. Oscar says he�s been divorced for 8 years, as well- but at various points in the show�s 5 year run- meaning the writers were consistent in the years since divorce, but forgot that what was 8 years in 1972 was not 8 years later on. & which of the boys married 1st? 1 show flashes back to a married Felix during Gloria�s pregnancy- & Oscar is a bachelor, yet Oscar supposedly married Blanche in the Army- the 1940s? & what were the 2 ex-wives� maiden names? Various episodes state Gloria�s was Schaefer or Fleener, while Blanche�s was Jefferson or Somers. & which of Felix�s kids is older?
***The change from Season 1 on brought some errors in continuity, as well. The apartment changed. Did the boys move to a different apartment during the summer break? If so, then why are all the flashbacks from Seasons 2-5 set in the 2nd apartment? & did they change apartment buildings. The boys� apartment house is sometimes at 1049 Park Avenue & other times at 74th Street & Central Park West.
Even with all of the factual faux pas TOC was very consistent in the quality of the verbal dash between the characters, especially Oscar & Felix, who were remarkably consistent to themselves. This was long before the days of �Very Special� episodes of tv shows, where characters became antithetical didacts to their personae. TOC�s writers took the approach that whatever facts were necessary for a particular episode were all that were needed.
But TOC, as said, was not just the classic tv show- it began as the play penned by Neil Simon. It opened in the year of my birth, 1965, & was a smash comedy on Broadway. Walter Matthau was Oscar Madison & Art Carney was Felix Ungar. Simon won a Tony Award for best author, director Mike Nichols won for best director, & WM won the best actor Tony. The play is reputed to be the most produced play in community theaters since its premiere. A little known fact is that Jack Klugman- the tv Oscar- actually took over the Broadway role of Oscar after WM left the part to film a movie. In 1968 the play was made into the movie starring WM as Oscar, & Jack Lemmon as Felix. 2 years later the tv show premiered, written by Garry Marshall & Jerry Belson of The Dick Van Dyke Show fame. Originally Martin Balsam was slated to play Oscar & Art Carney would reprise his role as Felix. Carney bowed out & was replaced by Tony Randall. When Balsam also bowed out the role of Oscar was offered to Mickey Rooney, who declined. 3rd choice Jack Klugman accepted, & you know the rest. The show never finished in the top 25 in the Neilsen ratings- its highest seasonal rating was during the 1972-73 season, when it finished at #36. But TOC lasted 5 seasons & 114 episodes. But, like GI, it was in syndication that the show became a hardcore cult favorite- airing in countries around the world, & on cable channels non-stop. Its 2 leads were recognized as the premier comedy team of the day & their verbal repartee drew comparisons to Abbott & Costello. Both TR & JK won awards for their portrayals. TR won an Emmy in 1975 for Lead Actor in a Comedy, & JK won that award twice- in 1971 & 1973. & in 1974 JK won a Golden Globe in the same category.
Yet, few know that TOC universes include more than just the canonical trio of the play, film, & classic tv series. There were other versions of the show- not unlike GI- & aside from the reunion film. The early 1980s saw a �black� Odd Couple tv series called �The New Odd Couple�. It aired from October, 1982 until June, 1983. The show recycled mostly old classic TOC scripts & was canceled after 13 episodes. It featured Ron Glass (Detective Ron Harris of Barney Miller fame) as Felix, & Demond Wilson (Lamont Sanford from Sanford & Son) as Oscar. That same decade saw a new version of the play- an all-female version written by Neil Simon. The 2 leads were renamed Olive Madison & Florence Ungar- & the play centered on their Trivial Pursuit pals, rather than poker buddies. The new version debuted on Broadway in 1985, but did not last long. &, like GI, TOC also inspired a Saturday morning cartoon series- �The Oddball Couple�- which aired from September 6, 1975 to September 3, 1977. Its 2 leads were not named Oscar & Felix, but a sloppy dog named Fleabag, & a neat cat named Spiffy (although Felix/Felis would have seemed a natural).
Like GI, TOC left its mark on pop culture. Oscar & Felix- the names alone- invoke the archetypes of slob & neat freak, wild id & anal retentive ego. The famous episode where the boys appear on the game show Password, is still remembered for Oscar�s slow boil-come-to-a-head-clue of Aristophanes to elicit Felix�s reply of �ridiculous�. The most famous quote from the series was the great line: �Never ASSUME, because when you ASSUME, you make an ASS of U and ME.� This line was Felix�s in the episode �My Strife in Court�. Felix was in court for scalping opera tickets to a woman. While cross-examining the woman in court, Felix asked the woman if he told her he had been selling the ticket. The woman says she just assumed he was. Felix pounces & nails her with the �assume� quote. Legend has it that the line originated with the show, but in truth it had been a sort of bon mot for decades before. In an interesting twist of fate, it was a later Garry Marshall tv show- Happy Days- that actually did originate a pop cultural term. The term nerd- meant to describe a nebbishy person- was a word that the show- set in the 1950s- used regularly. But there is no evidence that the word was ever used before the tv show popularized it upon its mid-1970s debut. Another connection is that both shows� 1st seasons were filmed with laugh tracks, but then switched to live audiences. HD, however, was a show that was a #1 smash. Unlike TOC, however, it has faded from view because it was a show of little quality.
Other TOC points of interest were that, like GI, it used recurring stock actors in assorted parts. The 2 most noted were stage & film actor John Fiedler in 2 tv parts- most memorably as the manager of a security apartment building. He had played the original Vinny Barella in the film version. The other noted recurring actor was Richard Stahl, who appeared in 8 different episodes as 8 different characters- with the boys never noticing this rain of octuppelgangers. 4 times he was a priest: In �I Do, I Don't� he was the priest at the wedding of Felix�s friend, in �Being Divorced is Never Having to Say I Do� he was the priest at Blanche and Roger�s wedding- the episode where Oscar objected, in �This is the Army, Mrs. Madison� he was the priest at Oscar and Blanche�s wedding, & in �The Odd Monks� he was Brother Ralph. In �Engrave Trouble� he played Wally the florist & gangster, in �Murray the Fink� he was a cop, in �Cleanliness is Next to Impossible� he was a shrink, & in �The Frog� he owned a pet shop.
After the show was canceled Producer Garry Marshall served up mostly banal sitcoms, yet all were ratings smashes: Happy Days, Mork and Mindy, Laverne and Shirley, & Joanie Loves Chachi. He then went on to produce even blander feature films. His partner, Jerry Belson, was a bit more daring- & far less successful. His greatest post-TOC success was The Tracy Ullman Show, on the fledgling FOX tv network. JK returned to tv drama by starring in NBC�s Quincy, M.E. TR starred in the well-written but short-lived The Tony Randall Show in the late 1970s. In the early 1980s he starred in the critically acclaimed, & groundbreaking NBC show Love, Sidney, the 1st tv show with a lead gay character. All in all TOC was a both a milestone in American tv comedy & the best �comedy duo� sitcom ever.
Wrap Up
Let me bring this essay in to port by tying together some of the commonalities that these 2 seemingly disparate tv comedies share. Both shows were laden with archetypes- GI in its 7 stock characters, & TOC in its lead duo. Both shows were well-written- GI in a very Absurdist bent, & TOC in a very adult contemporary comedic way. Both shows were consistent in their visions, true to their characters, & went off the air before decline could set in. GI�s characters never learned from their errors. Gilligan, especially, was an unfailing- but lovable- idiot from start to finish. Oscar was an irritable slob, & Felix a nagging prudish priss from start to finish. GI is that rare example of pop art stumbling in to true artistic greatness, with depths to explore (much more so than the many 3 Stooges courses)- it�s great pop schlock, unlike, say, the contemporary cable show, The Anna Nicole Show, which is dumb & DULL. GI was always a riot. TOC is, in a real sense, a tv show with no true predecessor & no true heir. It is a pinnacle of sublime sitcom television. The duo of Randall & Klugman are the tv equivalent of any great filmic duo you can name, & I�d say even better, yes, than my own beloved Abbott & Costello. In a way, GI, is also a show without precedent or heir. Of all the �High Concept� sitcoms of its era, only GI is still beloved & watched daily. GI took the theater�s stab at Absurdism & pushed it even further in the newer medium- being less pretentious & not nearly as self-conscious. It was a flesh cartoon. 1 need only look at Bob Denver�s later Dusty�s Trail (a sort of GI-F-Troop hybrid, replete with FT�s Forrest Tucker in a Skipper-like role) to see how difficult this achievement really is. TOC�s greatness is apparent with its status as 1 of the few tv shows to never have Jumped The Shark. Both show�s inconsistencies have provided decades of fodder for their fans. & both show�s producers also had great success afterwards- GI�s Sherwood Schwartz with the kitschy (not absurdist) The Brady Bunch, & TOC�s Garry Marshall as previously noted.
Yet, to this day, both shows have suffered unfathomable disrespect. GI is literally hated by many. That such a good-natured & upbeat show should be so reviled is odd- I mean GI is not Barney the Dinosaur. It is filled with violence & stupidity. TOC, however, has seemed to suffer a worse fate. Despite being popular in reruns it is almost always passed over in discussions of tv�s greatest shows. Contemporary shows such as MASH, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, & All In The Family may have run longer, garnered bigger ratings, & been more obviously groundbreaking, but none had the consistent quality of TOC. MASH descended into bathos in the latter � of its 11 year run, TMTMS was never the same after Mary�s foils- Rhoda & Phyllis- left for their own spinoff sitcoms, & All In The Family�s glorious 1st 5 years towered over its last 8 years (in various guises) of ignominy & hanging-on.
So why do these 2 shows need an essay like this to argue for their greatness? I think it�s because of a very simple fact. The viewing public- aptly emblemic of humanity in general- is filled with morons. People are just not smart. Even GI�s hardest core fans probably will not get some of the points I�ve made in defense of their beloved show. & while TOC�s fans may be a bit more savvy, in truth, there are far more dumb tv watchers than smart- or why would TOC never have climbed higher in the ratings? But, idiots aside, both of these shows deserve their long-lived status in the rerun universe because in 50, 100, 500, or 50,000 years the 7 castaways of GI, & the nonpareil archetypal duo of Oscar Madison & Felix Unger, will still resonate deeply with human audiences, despite intervening advances. We will all see the 7 Sins, or such, that the Gilligan�s Island Castaways can represent, & we will all see aspects of our ids & egos in The Odd Couple. If you want to explore some of these ideas more deeply, go ahead- they are worth the plumb. This essay has merely been a prod to direct some of you that way. As for me, I have those reasons & a more personal 1 to recommend these great shows: they remind me of a time in my youth when laughter was only gotten from a flickering black & white television screen, when joy was found on an island of fools, or bickering buddies. They remind me of a past that never was, but could be. Thus is tv�s truest power, rarely exercised, but fully felt when it does. Enough sentiment- Goodnight Gracie!
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The youngest person in the world to earn $1,000,000,000, who is the CEO, President, and Co-founder of Facebook? | The World's Youngest Billionaires 2015: 46 Under 40
The World's Youngest Billionaires 2015: 46 Under 40
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Of the 1,826 members of the Forbes Billionaires ranking, 46 are under the age of 40, and just under half of them owe their fortunes to technology.
Becoming a three comma net worth before the age of 30 is a nearly impossible feat, but three new billionaires can claim it: Snapchat cofounders Evan Spiegel , 24, and Bobby Murphy , 26, join beer heir and DJ Julio Mario Santo Domingo, 29, on the global richlist.
Snapchat's Evan Spiegel, CEO of the temporary photo messaging company, is the world's youngest billionaire. He met cofounder Murphy at Stanford's Kappa Sigma frat house. After their first disappearing photo app flopped, they rebranded and launched Snapchat in 2011. The free app is now used by 100 million people monthly. Valued by investors at $10 billion, FORBES estimates that Speigel and Murphy each own at least 15%.
"We weren't cool," Murphy told Forbes in 2013 regarding his and Spiegel's experience in college. "So we tried to build things to be cool."
In addition to the three twenty-something newcomers, another 18 under 40 are making their debut. Twenty-seven of these billionaires made their own luck and 20 did so in the tech world. Among the self-made new additions: Airbnb's Nathan Blecharczyk and Brian Chesky; Uber's Travis Kalanick, Ryan Graves and Garrett Camp; and blood test developer Elizabeth Holmes, 31. One of nine women in the youth group, she is the youngest self-made woman in the world.
The wealthiest youngster is Facebook cofounder and CEO Mark Zuckerberg, who made his own debut on the list at 23. He is now worth $33.4 billion and is the 16th richest person in the world, the first time he's ever been among the top 20 in the world. Today, Zuckerberg's social network, birthed out of a Harvard dorm room, boasts some 1.4 billion users. Its Instagram unit has over 300 million photo accounts, while mobile messaging app WhatsApp, which it purchased for $19 billion in cash and stock in 2014, carries 700 million users.
Zuckerberg is one of three billionaires under 40 who earned their fortunes through Facebook; Dustin Moskovitz, Facebook's third employee, and Sean Parker, the company's founding president, also built their bank accounts there.
The kids club no longer includes Shutterstock's Jon Oringer, who has since turned 40. (He became New York's first tech billionaire in 2013 thanks to the soaring value of Shutterstock, the stock photo service he founded 10 years earlier and took public in 2012.)
The 46 billionaires under 40 have a combined net worth of $152.8 billion, putting their average net worth at $3.3 billion. Just under half of these young and wealthy people are U.S. citizens, while the others hail from the rest of the globe. Find the full list below.
| Mark Zuckerberg |
Billing itself as “Soft Rock For The Great Northwest”, what radio station do you find at 96.1 on your local FM dial? | Who Owns Facebook? - The 10 Richest Facebook Shareholders - How To Make Money Online
By: Josh Dunlop Topics: Entrepreneurship
Last week it was announced that Facebook would be releasing their initial public offering (IPO), which estimates the value of the company at roughly $100 billion, in an effort to raise $5 billion in funds. This is a huge step for the company, who have been in no hurry to make the company go public, and with this new valuation, it makes a whole lot of people very rich indeed, possibly even 1000 millionaires . That would mean giving 7 figure payouts to nearly 1/3 of the company’s workforce.
We here at IncomeDiary aren’t quite sold on the valuation of the company, especially when you consider there’s only 845 users on website. Lets round that up to a billion users, that means that every user is worth $100 to Facebook. So with that knowledge, Facebook could start putting a ridiculous amount of money into advertising, and so long as they’re spending less than $100 per person, they will be making money. With a revenue of $3.7 billion last year, each user was worth an average of $4 each, so there is money there, but $100 billion valuation? That might be a little bit much when you consider that it’s 100 times that of the company’s profits to earning ratio last year – Apple has a profits to earning ratio of 13 for last year, and Google has one of 22. What do you think?
Mark Zuckerberg – 28.4% – $28.4 Billion
Everyone knows who Mark Zuckerberg is, he’s famous as the owner, founder and CEO of Facebook, and made even more famous when the movie ‘The Social Network’ was released, which tells the tales of the turbulent early days of Facebook. His wealth has grown year after year, and with the new IPO released, which you can read in full here , it’s revealed that he currently owns 28.4% of Facebook, which if current estimates are correct, is going to be work $28.4 Billion. With their best year yet at Facebook, revealing a $1 Billion profit on $3.7 Billion revenue, it’s no wonder that Mark’s worth has gone up.
Here’s another little interesting fact about Facebook. In 2011, Zynga, the owner of social games such as FarmVille, was responsible for roughly 12% of Facebook’s earnings. And that’s massive. Here’s a quote from Facebook’s IPO offering:
“We currently generate significant revenue as a result of our relationship with Zynga, and, if we are unable to successfully maintain this relationship, our financial results could be harmed.
In 2011, Zynga accounted for approximately 12% of our revenue, which amount was comprised of revenue derived from payments processing fees related to Zynga’s sales of virtual goods and from direct advertising purchased by Zynga. Additionally, Zynga’s apps generate a significant number of pages on which we display ads from other advertisers. If the use of Zynga games on our Platform declines, if Zynga launches games on or migrates games to competing platforms, or if we fail to maintain good relations with Zynga, we may lose Zynga as a significant Platform developer and our financial results may be adversely affected.”
That means that Zynga users spent $308M on Facebook last year alone, which is absolutely ridiculous when you consider what they sell.
With Mark’s Facebook money, you could buy…
558 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, 28 times.
Jim Breyer & Accel Partners – 11.4% – $11.4 Billion
For those of you that don’t know, Jim Breyer is an American venture capitalist and partner of Accel Partners, which currently owns a solid 11.4% of Facebook, which for those of you who haven’t cottoned on to the maths yet, that’s roughly $11.4 Billion. In August, 2010, Fortune Magazine named Breyer one of the 10 smartest people in technology, and you can see why. It’s his smart thinking and foresight into an incredible company, that has skyrocketed his wealth over the past few years. His previous success with earlier ventures ensured that there was enough money available invest in the right company, at the right time. His firm Accel Partners own the stake in Facebook, but he’s a very large part of the success, and the face of the company.
With Jim’s Facebook money, you could buy…
228 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, 11 and a bit times.
Dustin Moskovitz – 7.6% – $7.6 Billion
Dustin is just 8 days younger than Mark Zuckerberg, making him the youngest billionaire in the world. Dustin founded the site with Mark back at Harvard and holds on to a 7.6% stake of the company, which with this current valuation is likely to net him a worth of $7.6B. He left Facebook in 2008 to work on his own ventures, such as a mobile photo -sharing site, called Path (I’m sure you’ve heard about it lately), which has already turned down a $100 million offer from Google, and now serves over 2 millions people . As good as that may well be, you can’t help but compare it to the likes of Facebook, which has grown rapidly in the 8 short years since it was created. Clearly a force to be reckoned with.
With Dustin’s Facebook money, you could buy…
152 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, 7 and a bit times.
Yuri Milner & Digital Sky Technologies – 5.4% – $5.4 Billion
DST was founded by Yuri Milner to focus solely on investments in the internet sector, where they have investments in Facebook, Zynga and Groupon. They bought into Facebook with a $200 million investment in May 2009, based on a $10 Billion valuation . On top of that, they put another $100 million together to start buying employee’s shares to expand their stake in the company. In January 2011, they co-led an investment with Goldman Sachs of another $500 million based on a $50 billion dollar valuation. This has made them one of the largest shareholders in Facebook, and their stake in Zynga means that they’re making money from more than one source, seeing as Facebook users decided to spend $308 million on Zynga through Facebook alone last year. Ridiculous when you think about it.
With Yuri’s Facebook money, you could buy…
108 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, 5 times, with some spare cash left over for some fancy cars in the basement.
Eduardo Saverin – 5% – $5 Billion
You might recognise the name if you’ve seen ‘The Social Network’, and that’s because Eduardo played a key role in the company’s founding, back when he was roommates and best friends with Mark Zuckerberg. And if you’ve seen the film, you’ll know that their relationship went sour, and that Eduardo actually used to own a third of the company, before it went down to 30% when Dustin Moskovitz came aboard. After some disputes between Mark and Eduardo about how the company was going to move forward, and whether Eduardo was going to remain as part of the Facebook team, he got pushed out the company when a group of investors (including Peter Thiel from PayPal), got onboard. After a series of legal disputes, Eduardo finally got his stake pushed back up to 5%, and even from such a small stake, he’s worth an incredible amount of money. There might be love lost between the two of them, but I wouldn’t turn my nose up at $5 Billion.
With Eduardo’s Facebook money, you could buy…
100 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, 5 times.
Sean Parker – 4% – $4 Billion
Sean parker is a name that many of you would have been familiar with since way before Facebook, due to his role in Napster, the peer2peer file sharing program. When that eventually went sour and everyone tried to sue him, he walked away with an interesting reputation and a whole lot of knowledge. It was Sean that got involved in Facebook when it was just five months old, becoming the company’s first president, and helped the company to think big with the knowledge that he had acquired from Napster, and his role as an early advisor to Friendster (anyone remember that?). He introduced the company’s first investor to Mark, in the form of Peter Thiel (PayPal Co-Founder) and was the one to implement features such as the photo sharing function. In Mark’s own words , “Sean was pivotal in helping Facebook transform from a college project into a real company.”
He has other irons in the fire, and has recently invested $15 M in Spotify, which is a rival to the new version of Napster, but none of that accounts towards the wealth that we’re look at here today. With a 4% share in one of the fastest growing and most profitable companies on the internet, he’s a sizeable part of something very special.
With Sean’s Facebook money, you could buy…
80 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, 4 times.
Peter Thiel – 2.5% – $2.5 Billion
As you hopefully read above, Peter experienced early success on the internet with PayPal, which he sold for $1.5B in 2002, which left him with some money to put to good use. He became the first investor in Facebook back in 2004 with a $500,000 investment for a 10.2% stake in the company. His share has been of course watered down in the past eight years as new investors have gotten on board, looking for a stake in the business. His business acumen and foresight for a small company, with plenty of competitors, has served him well as it’s one of the fastest growing companies on the internet, with a value similar to that of McDonalds.
With Peter’s Facebook money, you could buy…
50 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, 2 1/2 times.
Microsoft – 1.3% – $1.3 Billion
Microsoft bought into Facebook right around the time that Li Ka-shing did below, paying $240 million for 1.6% of Facebook. Those shares have now been diluted somewhat, so their stake has come down to $1.3 billion, only earning them just over a billion dollars from their investment. Poor things. All jokes aside though, they had the money, and they saw the opportunity and potential so they took it. 2008, when they bought the stock, was an interesting time for Facebook, as it was only half the age it is now, and people were only just beginning to make the switch from other social networks.
I remember learning about Facebook in 2006, and I even opened an account, but I decided I didn’t like it, and didn’t come back to it until the next year. It was only in about 2008, when the majority of my friends and I started to say goodbye to MySpace for good, and open up a Facebook account instead. Microsoft’s investment at this time meant that the company was already in a very strong position, but still had plenty of room to grow, which makes it a wise time to invest for any investor. If anyone can find out how much of Microsoft Bill Gates owns, I’d be very interested to know, because then you could see how much he personally owns of Facebook.
With Microsoft’s Facebook money, you could buy…
26 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home once, with a bit of cash left over for soft furnishings.
Chris Hughes – 1% – $1 Billion
Chris Hughes is the forth roommate to Mark, Eduardo and Dustin, from when they were back at Harvard, and that was how he got involved with Facebook. As well as a co-founder of Facebook, Chris was also in charge of the social media side of Barack Obama’s presidency campaign. He appeared on the cover of ‘Fast Company’ magazine, under the title ”The Kid Who Made Obama President; How Facebook Cofounder Chris Hughes Unleashed Barack’s Base – and Changed Politics and Marketing Forever”. Now that’s a pretty bold statement to make about anyone, but it seems that Chris really did play a big part in promoting Obama, with his extensive knowledge of social media. I don’t know about you, but if I needed someone to help promote me through social media, I’d want one of the co-founders of Facebook too.
With Chris’s Facebook money, you could buy…
20 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
Antilla , the world’s most expensive home, once. Still though, who really needs 2?
Li Ka-shing – 0.8% – $800 Million
The Hong Kong billionaire Li Ka-shing bought into Facebook in 2008, when the company had a valuation of around $15 billion and he only paid $120 Million. It sounds a bit ridiculous to say only when it’s an enormous amount of money, and only a very small percentage, but that very small percentage is now worth almost seven times what he paid for it, at $800 million. It makes you wonder what would happen now if you invested the same amount of money? I think that even back in 2008 there were plenty of investors who felt like they had already missed the boat, when really, that was when Facebook really started to take off and secure itself as a giant of the internet.
With Li’s Facebook money, you could buy…
16 Gulfstream G550 private jets, at $50M each.
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Dr. Sam Beckett jumps from person to person to "put things right that once went wrong" in what 90s TV series that had a 5 year run on NBC? | Quantum Leap (TV series) | Maveric Universe Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Quantum Leap (TV series)
Template:Infobox television
Quantum Leap is an American television series that was broadcast on NBC from March 1989 to May 1993. The series was created by Donald Bellisario , and starred Scott Bakula as Dr. Sam Beckett , a scientist who becomes lost in time following a botched experiment. Dean Stockwell co-starred as Al , Sam's womanizing, cigar smoking sidekick and best friend. He appeared to Sam as a hologram that only Sam and a select few others could see or hear. The series features a mix of comedy, drama and melodrama, social commentary, nostalgia and science fiction, which won it a broad range of fans. It is particularly notable for the end of each episode, where Beckett leaps into his next persona (the story of the next episode), usually uttering "Oh boy!".
==Show summary==
In the series' first episode, Sam appears in the past with no memory of who he is or how he got there. Referred frequently throughout the series as a "swiss cheese brain", Sam's partial amnesia prevents him from remembering most of the details of his own life; all he knows is that he's not who everyone in the past seems to think he is. Fortunately Admiral Al Calavicci ( Dean Stockwell ), Sam's best friend, appears to him as a hologram and explains that Sam is the victim of a time travel experiment that went "a little caca". Now Sam is lost in time, and his colleagues are having difficulty retrieving him and bringing him back to his own time.
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Series creator once said an interveiw,David Bellisario,he got the idea for the series while movies like Heaven Can Wait (1978 film) , a remake of the 1941 film Here Comes Mr. Jordan .Bellsario felt the premise handle right and put a science fiction setting,could work.Irwin Allen's Time Tunnel. This was a show about a secret government funded time travel experiment in which a young researcher sends himself back in time in an effort to prevent the project's funding from being cut. This, the two men travelling through time, and the efforts to retrieve them are the only things this show has in common with Quantum Leap (which only has One man travelling through time, his companion is firmly rooted in the future.). In the Time Tunnel , time travellers Anthony Newman and Doug Phillips unfailingly arrived at historical events and desperately tried to influence events based on their knowledge of the outcome. They always failed. This is a show where the time travellers would find themselves at the Roman coliseum one week, and in Napoleon's army the next, Then tripping to the bombing of Pearl Harbor. It is drastic time changes like this that Don Bellisario wanted to avoid when he imposed the 'within his own lifetime' rule. He felt the huge differences in time settings were distracting and unrealistic. :-).Quantum Leap just like that other time travel show, Voyagers ,where Phineas Bogg with the assistance of companion Jeffrey Jones are time travellers who find themselves trying to fix history, or to 'put things right' when 'people become displaced in time and find themselves a half-step away from a totally different destiny' [Harry and Wally]. In one episode, Franklin D. Roosevelt became a movie director and it was up to Phineas and Jeffrey to set him on the right course to the presidency of the United States. This is another show that would find its heroes travelling to far-flung places and times, a plot device that Don Bellisario wanted to avoid.
Dean Stockwell (left) and Scott Bakula (right) as Al Calavicci and Sam Beckett
Sam soon learns that the man he replaced in the past (or "leaped into", in the show's parlance) is an Air Force test pilot who was about to be killed during a botched flight. Al explains that their best theory to what's going on is that "God, time, faith, or whatever" wants Sam to save the man (as well as his wife and unborn child) before he can "leap out". Sam does so and disappears, but instead of returning to his own time he leaps into yet another person's life and once again tries to "put right what once went wrong". In each episode, Sam leaps into a new host, often finding himself in dangerous, embarrassing, or otherwise compromising positions, and with Al's help (and that of his colleagues, who have access to information from the future), he tries to right some wrong or misfortune in the life of that person or someone close to them.
Several characters are referred to throughout the series, but rarely (if ever) actually appear. Ziggy, the artificial intelligence that runs the project and supplies Al with information to help figure out the purpose of Sam's leaps, only appears in "The Leap Back", the same episode in which Al's girlfriend Tina appears. Gooshie, the project's head programmer who has chronic halitosis and is reputedly having an affair with Tina, appears in six episodes including both the pilot and the finale. Dr. Beeks, the project psychiatrist, is also frequently mentioned, but only appears in two episodes.
===Conclusion===
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Throughout the series, Sam believes that God, or some other higher power, is controlling his leaps, sending him to times and places where he is needed. In the series' final episode, he encounters a mysterious bartender who insinuates detailed knowledge of Sam's "mission" and his true identity. Because this bartender (or someone who looks exactly like him - both parts played by Bruce McGill ) was also present in Sam's first leap, Sam comes to believe he might actually be that higher power, though the man neither confirms nor explicitly denies this.
The bartender helps Sam remember that he built Project Quantum Leap exactly because he wanted to put right what once went wrong and makes him realize that he himself has control over his leaps. The bartender then asks Sam where he wishes to leap to next. Sam replies by saying he wishes to return home but he cannot as he still has a wrong to put right for Al, by letting his first wife Beth ( Susan Diol in her second appearance in that role during the series) know that Al is still alive in a POW camp in Vietnam . Sam then promptly leaps out and does so. The show's epilogue states that Sam never returned home.
This final episode was in fact intended to be an end-of-season cliffhanger but after the series was not renewed for a sixth season it was revised to function as a series finale . Template:Citation needed The original ending had Al's Vietnam-era picture "leaping" into a portrait of Al sitting with Beth and their four adult daughters. In both the alternate ending and the episode as broadcast, the leap effect eventually recedes into darkness and text on the screen informs the viewer that "Dr. Sam Becket never returned home." Note that "Beckett" is spelt with only a single T.
===Physics of leaping===
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Al explains the concept of the experiment to Sam in the first episode during his initial period of amnesia using a simple analogy. Using a piece of string, Al explains that one end represents Sam's date of birth while the other represents Sam's date of death. Connecting the two ends together will, in effect, form a loop. The looped string is then scrunched up in one's hand and various parts of the piece of string will inevitably intersect and touch each other. By leaping at the intersections to a different section of the string, Sam can travel to a different date within his own lifetime. The leap seems instantaneous to Sam but Al explains in the pilot episode that he spent a week traveling in time between the moment he leaped out of the Air Force test pilot and the moment he leaped into his next host.
In early episodes, it was unclear whether Sam's mind was leaping into other people's bodies or whether his mind and body leaped together. Later episodes make it clear, however, that Sam's entire body has traveled through time and that "the illusion of [his host's] physical aura" surrounds him, making him look and sound like that person with whom he interacts in the past, as well as to Al. Likewise, Sam's counterpart in the future is surrounded by a similar aura and looks and sounds like Sam to people at the project. Sam is also able to transcend the physical limitations of his host, being able to see after leaping into a blind pianist , walk while sharing the existence of a legless Vietnam veteran , swim after leaping into a monkey, and retain the strength of an adult man after leaping into a child, an elderly woman, and so on.
During the time in which Sam occupies a host, the host is simultaneously transported to the time travel facility where Sam made his initial leap - effectively switching places with them. It is never explicitly stated what happens to the people Sam has leaped into after he leaves, but it is assumed that the person return to their timelines with amnesia of the events. Conversely, in the episode "Roberto!", Sam suggests that the people he leaps into remember being in the waiting room at Project Quantum Leap.
===Sam's memory===
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At the beginning of the series, Sam has almost total amnesia, not even knowing his own name, or recognizing Al. Complex technical skills (such as medical and scientific training and his knowledge of foreign languages), as well as historical knowledge, seem to survive intact, yet he is unable to recall most of the details of his own life. The appearance of these holes in his memory while other regions are left unaffected is what the character refer to as a "Swiss cheese" effect.
Sam slowly starts to remember more personal information during the early episodes of the series, such as the fact that he had an older brother who was killed in Vietnam and a younger sister who eloped and married an abusive alcoholic. While reviewing his memory, Sam mentions that his sister now lives in Hawaii and is married to a Navy man, Jim Bonnick, a character from the Magnum P.I. series. He also seems to recognize Al's references to his various colleagues.
In the first episode of the fourth season, Sam briefly returns to his own time, at which point his memories from before he first leaped begin to return but his experiences during the last four years quickly begin to fade. Sam calls this a "reverse Swiss cheese effect". Sam's memory gets Swiss cheesed anew when he leaps again.
===Kisses with history===
The show occasionally featured "kisses with history" scenes where Sam briefly encounters a famous historical figure or is tangentially involved in a historically significant event, but which is unrelated to the episode's story. For example:
* In "Star-Crossed", Sam has to get his future fiancée ( Teri Hatcher ) to reconnect with her father, who is a colonel in the army. On June 17, 1972, Sam tries to bluff his way past the security guards in the lobby of the Watergate Hotel. He is ejected but Sam manages to find a door with a piece of tape over the latch. He and his future wife sneak in but the guard, noticing that their car is still there, does a check of the outside doors and reports a break-in .
* In "How the Tess Was Won", Sam helps a young Buddy Holly to write the song " Peggy Sue ."
* In "Double Identity", Sam causes the Northeast Blackout of 1965 when he asks someone to plug in a 1000 watt hair dryer at a fraternity house at 111 Erie Drive, Buffalo (New York) at 5:15 EST on November 9, 1965.
* In the episode "Camikazi Kid", Sam demonstrates how to do the moonwalk to a boy called Mikey .
* In "Play it again Seymour", Sam leaps into a man who looks a lot like Humphrey Bogart and in 1953 New York runs into a young Woody Allen .
* In "Good Morning, Peoria", Sam helps Chubby Checker to perfect the Twist .
* In "Thou Shalt Not...", Sam performs the as-of-yet uninvented Heimlich Maneuver on a choking man who is addressed as Dr. Heimlich .
* In "Sea Bride", a voice can be heard over the ship's intercom saying, "Calling Mrs. Thatcher, Mrs. Margaret Thatcher ".
* In "Leap Of Faith", Sam recounts to a young boxer a scene from the film Rocky ; the boxer's locker door is tagged S. Stallone .
* In the episode "The Boogieman", Sam's stories help inspire a young aspiring horror writer, Stephen King .
* In "Rebel without a Clue", Sam pleads with Jack Kerouac to talk a young woman out of pursuing a dangerous life on the road.
* In "It's a Wonderful Leap", Sam, as a cab driver in 1958, advises a 12-year-old Donald Trump that investing in New York City real estate would be a good way to get rich, and that there will one day be a crystal tower on 57th Street and 5th Avenue .
* In "Lee Harvey Oswald", Sam had thought he was to prevent the assasination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy , but instead successfully prevented First Lady Jackie Kennedy from being shot.
* In "Goodbye Norma Jean", Sam inspires the title of the last film Marilyn Monroe ever completed. In Sam's original timeline she died before The Misfits was made.
* In "Dr. Ruth", Sam leaps into Ruth Westheimer to deal with a case of sexual harassment in the past. While defending a victim of sexual harassment from her harasser, a woman later revealed to be Anita Hill stops to listen to what Sam is saying.
* In "The Leap Between the States", Sam leaps into his own great-grandfather during the American Civil War , who is charged with helping runaway slaves escape through the Underground Railroad . The house servant and conductor of the stop has the last name "King", and Al explains that he is the ancestor of Martin Luther King, Jr. .
* In the episode "Memphis Melody", where Sam leaps into Elvis Presley , a young saxophonist from Hope (Arkansas) in a music contest is addressed as "little Billy C ".
===Opening narration===
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With the exception of Magnum PI ,Quantom Leap is the only quality series that Donald Bellasario has involved.Not Jagg or NCIS.Those might stay tv and might in reruns,but no way are as watchable or as quality as the two other shows mentioned.Magnum was often a character study of the main star and freind,with a action and Quantum Leap was basically Here Comes Mr.Jordan the Series.
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Observations;
It is ashame Sam Bechett could in the final episode find away to bring himself back.Too bad some hasn't drawn up plans for a tv movie to wrap up this series.Nothing Donald Bellisario has done is as good.Not Jagg and certainly not NCIS.
* Julie Barrett: The A–Z of Quantum Leap. Boxtree, London 1995. ISBN 0-7522-0628-1
* Louis Chunovic: Quantum Leap Book. Boxtree, London 1993. ISBN 1-85283-866-3
* Hal Schuster: The Making of Quantum Leap. HarperCollins, London 1996. ISBN 0-06-105438-0
===Novels===
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Ace Books published a series of novels due to the show's popularity, beginning in 1992 and continuing until the year 2000. While not considered canon , the novels were met with approval from Bellisarius Productions and Universal Studios. Being non-canon, the novels tended to deviate from series norms and also attempted to provide explanations for conventions that went unexplained in series episodes. For example, in Quantum Leap: The Novel (a.k.a. Carny Knowledge), Sam is depicted as exchanging bodies with subjects he leaps into, rather than being surrounded by the person's aura as explained on the show. The novel also states that Sam used brain cells from himself and Al in the creation of Ziggy, and that this "link" was the reason why Ziggy could transmit an image of Al to Sam's mind. This is also used to explain why Al can recognize changes in the present due to Sam's actions while others remain unaware.
* Julie Robitaille: The Ghost and the Gumshoe. CORGI BOOKS, London 1990. ISBN 1-85283-397-1 . Re-published in U.K. by BOXTREE LIMITED, London 1994. (Novelization of "Play It Again, Seymour" and "A Portrait of Troian")
* Ashley McConnell : Quantum Leap: The Novel. ACE, 1992. ISBN 0-441-69322-9 . Re-published in the UK as Carny Knowledge. Boxtree Limited, London 1993. ISBN 1 85283 871 X
* Ashley McConnell: Too Close for Comfort. ACE, 1993. ISBN 0-441-69323-7 .
* Julie Robitaille: The Beginning. BOXTREE LIMITED, London 1994. ISBN 1-85283-392-0 . (Novelization of the pilot episode)
* Ashley McConnell: The Wall. ACE, 1994. ISBN 0-441-00015-0 .
* Ashley McConnell: Prelude. ACE, 1994. ISBN 0-441-00076-2 .
* Melissa Crandall : Search and Rescue. ACE, 1994. ISBN 0-441-00122-X .
* Ashley McConnell: Random Measures. ACE, 1995. ISBN 0-441-00182-3 .
* L. Elizabeth Storm: Pulitzer. ACE, 1995. ISBN 1-57297-022-7 .
* C. J. Henderson and Laura Anne Gilman : Double or Nothing. ACE, 1995. ISBN 1-57297-055-3 .
* Barbara E. Walton: Odyssey. BOULEVARD, 1996. ISBN 1-57297-092-8 .
* John Peel : Independence. BOULEVARD, 1996. ISBN 1-57297-150-9 . Re-published in the U.K. as Leap Into the Unknown. BOXTREE LIMITED, London 1996 ISBN 0-75220-137-9 .
* L. Elizabeth Storm: Angels Unaware. BOULEVARD, 1997. ISBN 1-57297-206-8 .
* Carol Davis: Obsessions. BOULEVARD, 1997. ISBN 1-57297-241-6 .
* Sandy Schofield ( Dean Wesley Smith & Kristine Kathryn Rusch : Loch Ness Leap. BOULEVARD, 1997 ISBN 1-57297-231-9 .
* Melanie Kent: Heat Wave. BOULEVARD, 1997 ISBN 1-57297-312-9 .
* Christo Defillipis: Foreknowledge. BOULEVARD, 1998 ISBN 0-42516-487-X .
* Mindy Peterman: Song And Dance. BOULEVARD, 1998 ISBN 0-42516-577-9 .
* Carol Davis, Esther D. Reese: Mirror's Edge. BOULEVARD, 2000 ISBN 0-42517-351-8 .
=== Comics ===
Template:Primary sources
Quantum Leap : A Leap To Di For (2009) Writer/Director Christopher Allen and RACSO Motion Pictures, present this not for profit fan film, continuing the journey of Sam Beckett after the events of the final television episode.
Synopsis: Sam Beckett has leapt into a 26-year-old American male on a visit to Paris, France. Finding himself with a beautiful young British girl, all seems well until Sam discovers the exact date... August 30, 1997, twenty-four hours before the death of Princess Diana .<ref> Template:Cite web </ref>
Filmed on location in Indianapolis, Indiana. Premiered at the 20th anniversary Leapback convention in Hollywood, California, March 27, 2009. With an international FREE Internet release April 18, 2009.<ref> Template:Cite web </ref>
With a cast consisting of: Deborah Pratt , Beth Horn , Joshua Ramsey, Ed Ernstes, Niki Hurrle Warner, Ladonna Pettijohn, Chelsea Marie Rogers, David Briggs, Nathan Bechtold , and many others.<ref> Template:Cite web </ref>
==Home video releases==
Edit
In the 1990s, a few of the episodes were released on VHS . In the United States , these included "The Pilot Episode" ("Genesis"), "Camikazi Kid", "The Color of Truth", "What Price Gloria?", "Catch a Falling Star", "Jimmy", "The Leap Home", "Dreams", and "Shock Theater". In the United Kingdom , they were mostly released in pairs, selling as "The Pilot Episode" (on its own), "The Color of Truth" and "Camikazi Kid"; "The Americanization of Machiko" and "What Price Gloria?"; "Catch a Falling Star" and "Jimmy"; "The Leap Home" and "The Leap Home Part II - Vietnam"; and "Dreams" and "Shock Theater".
1998 brought the DVD release of "The Pilot Episode", containing only the episode "Genesis" and chapter selection.
For many years, despite many requests from fans, the official word from Universal was that more releases (such as season box sets) would be very unlikely due to the high level of music recordings used in episodes, creating numerous copyright problems. This was resolved with the DVD releases in 2004, which replaced much of the library music with generic music (causing a protest by fans in the process).
The Region 1 version of Quantum Leap: The Complete First Season came out in North America on June 7, 2004, containing all of the episodes as they were originally broadcast (except for "Play It Again, Seymour"), along with some bonus features.
Universal Studios chose not to obtain the necessary music rights for all of the music for use in the Quantum Leap: The Complete Second Season Region 1 DVD. Some were replaced with generic instrumental music. This, as mentioned above, outraged many fans and inspired a letter-writing campaign, demanding such a modification be corrected. The most criticized instance Template:Citation needed was the removal of Ray Charles 's " Georgia on My Mind " from the season two finalé, "M.I.A.", during a scene in which the holographic Al dances invisibly with his first wife Beth. Subsequent Region 1 DVD releases continued to feature music replacement, but Universal did begin including a disclaimer on the package indicating such (this disclaimer also began to appear on other releases of various other Universal series, such as Magnum, P.I. and The A-Team ). Quantum Leap: The Complete Third Season and Quantum Leap: The Complete Fourth Season also have extensive music alterations in order to keep licensing costs low.
All seasons have been released on DVD in the UK; Season 1 was released on November 8, 2004 (music intact), Season 2 on October 31, 2005 (music intact), Season 3 on December 12, 2005 (music intact),Season 4 on June 26, 2006 (music partially intact) and Season 5 on December 26, 2006 (music unknown).
All five seasons are available on DVD in Australia; Season 1 was released on May 2, 2005 (music intact), Season 2 on February 7, 2006 (music intact) and Season 3 on June 7, 2006.
Quantum Leap: The Complete Fifth season was released on DVD November 14, 2006 in North America, with "Blueprints from the original Time/Imaging chamber set" as the only extra. This release was not affected by music replacement.
===DVD releases===
Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1, 2, and 4.
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Time-travel shows using a similar premise:
* Journeyman , another show about a man uncontrollably travelling through time, putting right what once went wrong.
* The Time Tunnel , a show about a time-travel experiment gone wrong and time-travellers being stranded in time.
* Being Erica , a show about a woman time-travelling to put right what went wrong in her own life.
* Seven Days , a show about American NSA time-travellers putting right matters of national security that once went wrong.
* Tru Calling , a show about a doctor going back one day to save patients lives, and also fix things that went wrong during the day.
* Early Edition , a show about a man receiving the next day's newspaper, and using the information to put right what is about to go wrong.
* Voyagers! , a show about a time-traveller ensuring that history unfolds as it is supposed to.
* Doctor Who
| Quantum Leap |
The interrobang is a punctuation mark that consist of the superimposition of an exclamation mark and what other punctuation mark? | Set Right What Once Went Wrong - All The Tropes
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"Theorizing that one could time travel within his own lifetime, Doctor Sam Beckett stepped into the Quantum Leap accelerator -- and vanished. He awoke to find himself trapped in the past, facing mirror images that were not his own, and driven by an unknown force to change history for the better. His only guide on this journey is Al, an observer from his own time, who appears in the form of a hologram that only Sam can see and hear. And so Doctor Beckett finds himself leaping from life to life, striving to put right what once went wrong and hoping each time that his next leap... will be the leap home."
—Opening, Quantum Leap
The character receives foreknowledge of what will happen (or, if Time Travel is involved, Ripple-Effect-Proof Memory will allow them to remember what happened "the first time around") and has to correct it.
Distinguished from Groundhog Day Loop by:
The character's knowledge of what needs to be corrected prior to the first time through, and
Usually only one attempt to correct it is necessary or in fact possible.
Combinations of Groundhog Day Loop and Set Right What Once Went Wrong' are possible, however, and have been used on occasion: see for example "The Siege" on The Dead Zone , the Tru Calling episode "The Longest Day", Early Edition s "Run, Gary, Run." In fact, this combination is the entire premise of Day Break .
Sometimes, trying to Set Right What Once Went Wrong is what sets everything wrong in the first place , resulting in a Stable Time Loop and Two Rights Make a Wrong . Succeeding would create a Temporal Paradox (i.e. if you do manage to set right what was wrong, you would have no reason to travel back in time in the first place, which means the wrong-ness would still be there, so you'd travel back in time, etc.) When the purpose of the time travel is to save a person (but not alter the timeline) by pulling the person out of time, it's a Time Travel Escape .
Often the adventurer has to travel to fix things, combining this premise with Adventure Towns . This premise has also been applied to literature rather than time, with characters trapped in a Portal Book interfering with the book's original plot and being forced to set things back on track to resolve "the right way."
Note: World War II did not go wrong. Traveling there will only make it worse .
Examples of Set Right What Once Went Wrong include:
Contents
Anime & Manga[ edit | hide ]
The plot of Higurashi no Naku Koro ni once the protagonists realize that they've been trapped in a Groundhog Day Loop of murder, insanity and betrayal. Rika and Hanyuu knew from the beginning, and were trying to save the town, but eventually nearly gave up.
Steins;Gate runs on this trope. The protagonist Okabe voluntarily relives the same couple of hours over and over as he tries and fails repeatedly to prevent his childhood friend Mayuri's death. Then, upon realizing that doing so is futile, he instead opts to send new messages to the past in order to counteract every previous D-mail that's been sent. The series ends with a truly Mind Screwy plan put together by his future self to physically travel back to the past and save his love interest by fooling his past self into thinking she's dead.
Generator Gawl seems to fall into this category, seeing how the only reason Auge was able to take over was because Gawl, Koji, and Ryu went back in time to stop them. In the end Ryu was the one who created the include cells and gave Auge the ability to take over, which is what caused them to go back in the first place. Ouch, I think my brain just exploded.
An attempt at this is the driving force behind the Myth Arc of Rave Master . The series inverts the trope because changing history back to the way it was is the bad guys' plan, as the original timeline's world was utterly destroyed save one survivor, who was able to change history to create the Rave world. On top of the Eldritch Clock Roach out to undo the paradox involved, most of the late-story baddies want to see the "false" world destroyed.
The premise of Flint the Time Detective . The Time Shifters got scattered throughout history, changing the way certain historical events played out, and the Time Detectives have to captured them and put the past back the way it was.
The entire final arc of Full Metal Panic! is about this, as it's Leonard's motive behind all the trouble he causes. It's why he kidnaps Kaname, why Kalinin joins him, why Kaname/Sophia help him (it can be argued that Kaname didn't know what she was doing when she merged with Sophia, but she certainly didn't fight back until Sousuke pissed her off). They intend to go back in time to prevent Black Technology from being invented so that the world would be more peaceful. Only the Whispereds will know that anything has changed.
Homura from Puella Magi Madoka Magica leaps time to save Madoka from becoming a Magical Girl , or more commonly known as a Lich that may transform in the future into a wit ch . This being a Deconstruction , each successive attempt only makes things worse. However, each attempt manages to make Madoka stronger until she Ascended to A Higher Plane of Existence upon making her contract in this timeline.
One of the arcs in Kurohime involves two of the titled character's foes (Kurohime considered a bad guy in that world) going back in time to try and kill her, for personal reason (revenge being the main motive, but also to keep the father of one of them being killed by her.) Its a bit of a twofer subvision. 1) They realize Kurohime not as evil as they figured and learn the reason behind her motives and 2) They wind up inadvertently causing the events that lead to the father's death. Kurohime wasn't even trying to kill him but took the blame anyway.
Amakusa 1637 is built around this trope. Six schoolers from modern Nagasaki end up thrown in the Nagasaki of 1637, few before the failed Japanese Christian rebellion of Shiro Amakusa; they decide to pull this trope to avert such tragedy.
Exiles was supposedly pitched as Quantum Leap or Sliders with superheroes.
Booster Gold does this quite a bit as the secret protector of the time line. It's when he has to set wrong what once went right or keep wrong what once went wrong that things get really morally complicated for him.
In one issue of Paperinik New Adventures , the incident to be stopped in question is a major disaster in present-day Duckburg that would destroy a large part of the city and everyone there, while the one trying to stop it is a time traveller from OUR future. Obviously, when Donald Duck 's superhero alter ego learns of this, he does everything in his power to stop it , thus getting in trouble with the Time Police .
In Marvel's Civil War storyline, the entire event was kicked off when Namorita, a member of the New Warriors , fought a villain named Nitro whose ability was to explode. Said explosion killed hundreds, including Namorita herself. Because of this, Namorita's name was posthumously slandered with the rest of the New Warriors , much to the chagrin of her ex-lover, Richard Ryder aka Nova , even though they'd been broken up for years at that point. In his eponymous series, Nova is plucked out of the timestream along with a Namorita who is obviously from an era not only before the Civil War incident, but while she and Ryder were still lovers. Later, when the cosmic forces that threw them together start to send them back where they belong, Nova (being a Paragon -type character), refuses to let Namorita return to her own time (where she'll be doomed to repeat the same fate) and brings her to the present instead...consequences be damned.
In an issue of Marvel Two-in-One, the Thing goes back in time to cure his past self of being an orange-skinned monster and change his own life, but only succeeds in creating an alternate timeline where a now-human Ben Grimm quits the Fantastic Four and is replaced by Spider-Man. This becomes Make Wrong What Once Went Right in a follow-up story, when it is revealed that the absence of the Thing on the FF results in Galactus succeeding in his initial attempt to feed on the Earth, leaving the remnants of humanity with a Crapsack World low in vital resources.
Fan Works[ edit | hide ]
In the Warhammer 40000 Fanfic/Play by post story Abaddon Quest , there's a rather amusing Inversion , the eponymous Chaos Lord and his flunkies travel back in time to kill the God-Emperor as a baby, which is to say they travel back to Set Wrong What Once Went Right. Considering /tg/'s Opinion of Abaddon, Failure Is the Only Option . As is Hilarity.
In Heta Oni , Italy has been rewinding time again and again so that everyone can get out of the Haunted House alive.
Neon Genesis Evangelion
Subverted in Evangelion RE-TAKE . Shinji of the End of Evangelion wakes up in the past, just after the battle with Leliel. He tries to set right everything that went wrong to prevent the End of Evangelion. It turns out he's only making life better for an alternate version of himself, and there's nothing he can do to change that. He eventually accepts it, and returns to the Crapsack World future he belongs to. Though there is an implication of a Happy Ending for him, so it's all good.
Played straight in Going Another Way , where Rei, horrified with her direct hand in causing the Third Impact, decides to go back in time to diverge the timeline in such a way that while the core events still transpire, several differences also occur. The major one being that she steered Gendo's thoughts into sending Shinji to live with a much more caring and compassionate guardian, an action resulting in a much more strong willed and self-assured Shinji.
The Pony POV Series Recursive Fanfiction Fading Futures has Twilight Tragedy manage to break free of Discord's control in the Epilogue timeline and seek to change the past so that Discord never won in the first place. She manages to do so, but as a result, the timeline she inhabits no longer exists and everything in it are "reborn" into their main timeline counterparts. Realizing this, she invokes her Super-Powered Evil Side , Nightmare Purgatory, to take her revenge on Discord before the "rebirth" is complete. She realizes at the last moment she's dangerously close to becoming She Who Fights Monsters and manages to stop herself from finishing the job, prefering to fade away as Twilight Sparkle instead of becoming a monster, even if no one, not even her, will ever know .
Films -- Animation[ edit | hide ]
The Girl Who Leapt Through Time involves a girl who learns she has time-traveling powers, but each jump makes things worse. She has to stop herself from screwing everything up over and over.
Films -- Live-Action[ edit | hide ]
In Triangle this is what Jess tries to do after she realized she's in a Groundhog Day Loop . But it only created another timeline which we don't see completely in the movie.
Most of the Back to The Future sequels: the second one begins with Doc taking Marty to the future to stop his son from getting arrested, and then having to go into the past to stop teenage Biff from using a Timeline-Altering MacGuffin to become evil and rich . The third movie has Marty go back to 1885 to stop Doc from getting shot by Buford Tannen. The main problem in the first movie, however, is Marty's fault to begin with. However, Marty's eventual solution to this problem has the unexpected bonus of his father being more confident and assertive over Biff in 1985, leading to this trope in a roundabout way.
Cyborg 2087. In the far future, a mind-control invention has been abused to create a police state controlled by cyborgs. Garth, a good guy cyborg, travels back to 1966 to convince the invention's creator to keep it secret and thus change the future.
The two time travelers in each of the Terminator films are each trying to set right the wrong the other one caused .
The film Frequency is about a man who can communicate with his dead father through a family ham radio thanks to an Aurora Borealis that appeared in the same timespan between 1969 and current-day 1999. He uses this communication to save his father from his impending death in a warehouse fire, but that sets off a chain of events that lead to his mother's death, so the two work together to fix that, but then... et al.
The plot of the Stargate SG-1 movie Stargate: Continuum centers around the main cast being the only people to know that the timeline has been changed and trying to convince others to let them change things back. The trope is notably deconstructed when SG-1 gets a What the Hell, Hero? speech upon suggesting time travel; the issue is raised that this trope requires an Omniscient Morality License to work and that to assume you can go around Setting Right What Once Went Wrong is an act of staggering arrogance as it necessitates changing the lives of millions... of course it always Gets Worse and they're allowed to do it in the end.
Viciously subverted by the film The Butterfly Effect , in which every time the main character goes back in time to fix something the titular concept conspires to make things worse for everyone. This occurs repeatedly with all kinds of nastiness happening along the way, culminating in an inevitable Downer Ending the exact nature of which depends whether you're watching the theatrical release or the director's cut.
The basic premise of Time Cop , to fix what the baddies are doing in the past and avoid the aforementioned butterfly effect.
In The Time Machine (2002) Alexander Hartdegen's original motive for inventing his time machine is to prevent his fiancee from dying in the park. However, the movie subverts this trope, as his every effort to save her causes her to die anyway from another cause . It is explained later that were it not for that tragic event, he would never have finished his invention, which would have precluded him going back and saving her.
The heroine of the underrated Retroactive finds herself timelooped due to close proximity to an underground time travel experiment. She is witness to a murder, and tries to use the shortish (20-minute?) loop to alter the outcome. Results vary.
In OOO, Den-O, All Riders: Let's Go Kamen Riders , history was accidentally altered thanks to a Cell Medal being left in the past during a fight. This resulted in Shocker defeating the Kamen Riders and conquering the Earth. So the plot of the movie revolves around going back in time to set it right.
Subverted in the Final Destination series. One character's foreknowledge allows him or her and a group of friends to escape some kind of fatal accident. The rest of each movie is about death trying to fix this event that "went wrong".
A core concept of Battle for the Planet of the Apes , with Caesar and co trying to stop the Earthshattering Kaboom of 'Beneath The Planet Of The Apes' from ever occuring.
Brazilian film O Homem do Futuro (The Man from the Future) has a guy accidentally going back to the prom that ruined his life, and guiding his past self so things go right. Unfortunadely it leads to future where he's a rich jerk and the love of his life hates him, so he again goes back to make sure things go back the way they originally happened (including passing the details on how his date should humiliate him).
In the film Split Infinity, financially-minded teenager Amelia Jean falls from a barn loft and wakes up as her own late (by her time) great aunt for whom she was named. She tries to prevent her brother/grandfather from losing everything to the impending Black Tuesday. She succeeds only in learning a lesson about what's really important , and setting things in motion that would cause them to be the way they would be by her time. (And quite possibly confusing her great aunt when she returned to her own time...)
Primer . The plot involves Aaron going back in time twice to save Abe's girlfriend, Rachel, from her psychotic ex-boyfriend. Thomas Granger, Rachel's father, is believed to have come back for similar reasons, but we never find out exactly what his motives were.
Literature[ edit | hide ]
Teresa Edgerton 's Celydonn books, specifically The Grail and the Ring, have an interesting take on this. Strictly speaking, Time Travel is not possible. However, Functional Magic allows one to travel to the Inner Celydonn, to a shadow of the past, where one can see what really happened if one doesn't try to derail events. This quasi- Time Travel is used to find out What Once Went Wrong, so that it can be Set Right in the present, thus avoiding any Temporal Paradoxes .
The Care Taker Trilogy focuses on people from a future where the world's ecosystem has been ruined coming back to the present: the "Turning Point", or the point at which it was theorized to still be possible to reverse the damage done. Their foes, who actually like the future as it is, also come back, with the aim of speeding up the damage, and ensuring their own victory.
A Christmas Carol has this with the Ghost of Christmas Future warning of the deaths of both Tiny Tim and Scrooge, which Scrooge then fixes thanks to Scare'Em Straight .
In Mergers by Steven L. Layne, the titular Mergers must go back in time to make sure that a man named Michael Quinn dies as a young boy.The reason why is that Senator Broogue went back in time before the Mergers were born and saved Michael from dying, thus causing the creation of a society with only one race. Somewhat different from the usual situation, in that usually it is the opposite(them saving the person).
Throughout the early Nightside series, John Taylor is pursued by the Harrowing, constructs sent from an After the End future to kill him before he can begin investigating the Nightside's origins. A bit of a subversion, as it's implied the constructs' creators are motivated as much by bitterness and revenge as a need to avert What Went Wrong; else, they could've just sent someone to tell John his investigation would kick off an apocalypse, so he'd turn down the case.
The protagonist of Jack Chalker 's Downtiming the Night Side is forced to choose sides in a temporal war. Naturally, both sides claim to be battling those who would Make Wrong What Once Went Right in order to Set Right What Once Went Wrong.
Poul Anderson's The Corridors of Time has essentially the same plot, with added saga and mythology.
Elizabeth Haydon's Symphony of Ages is this all over.
Thursday Next's father's intent throughout The Eyre Affair. Whatever else they feel it important to talk about, her father always asks Thursday about the outcome of some major battle. His normal response is to swear and vanish (presumably to the battle he asked about), but the whole thing is lampshaded when he asks about one he asked about earlier in the book, and Thursday exasperatedly tells him that the answer hasn't changed since he last asked, but the actual answer she gives is different.
This is one of the main plots in Roger Zelazny's Roadmarks, which has a road that travels from one end of time to another with off-ramps into various alternate histories. If an off-ramp doesn't get used, it eventually vanishes. The main protagonist, Red Dorakeen keeps trying to run modern firearms to the Battle of Marathon to change the outcome, thus re-creating an off-ramp that will allow him to find his lost home. At one point he sees Hitler, traveling in a VW Bug, “trying to find the place where he won.”
Chronicles of Chrestomanci
Diana Wynne Jones likes this trope. In Witch Week a cataclysmic event has caused an alternate universe to split off, which is identical to ours in every way except that magic exists and witches are persecuted and burned. In order to merge the universes, the characters have to work out what the cataclysm was, and use their combined magic to change history so the universes will never have split in the first place. As a side-effect, various characters' parents haven't been executed or imprisoned in the new universe.
In A Tale of Time City there's a lot of time travelling, but you can only change the past in an "unstable era". The characters travel three times to the same station platform in 1939 in an attempt to change the results of events, but the results are unpredictable and they never manage to improve the situation. Meanwhile, the changes they cause create greater instability each time...
Isaac Asimov's End of Eternity is based on this trope. A group known as Eternity exists outside of time, constantly intervening to maintain peace and order. However, in the end, it is discovered that their constant maintaining of a peaceful world resulted, in the long run, in the extinction of humanity, and the entire Eternity program is prevented from beginning
The capacity for doing this appears in the later books of Peter F. Hamilton 's Void Trilogy. It turns out that "The Void", a Pocket Dimension accessible via a giant singularity has a "reset to time X" function built in, accessible to anyone that knows it's there; as is traditional everyone but the resetter forgets the original timeline. (The downside is that the act of rewinding an entire dimension needs lots of energy, and the Void obtains that by expanding and eating a bit more of the surrounding "real" galaxy's mass. This isn't very popular in the real galaxy.)
Attempted in the novel Time And Again, sequel to From Time to Time (unrelated to the Naruto Fanfic of the same name). In this universe, time travel to the past is possible for a select few with the proper training. The main character in Time and Again goes back to 1912 in an attempt to prevent World War 1. He knows that there was a man who went to Europe to negotiate an agreement that could have prevented the war, but the agreement never made it back to the US. He later finds out that this was because the man and agreement went down with the Titanic. His next attempt is to prevent the ship from sinking. Another time agent alters the ship's course the tiniest bit, so that the ship will miss the iceberg by a few inches. Turns out that her alteration was what caused the ship to hit the iceberg.
Live-Action TV[ edit | hide ]
The Trope Namer is Quantum Leap , whose entire plot is a series of these.
Tru Calling : Tru does this in almost every episode. A number of twists and variations of the trope are also used.
This was also the plot for the entire Voyagers ! series where Phineas and Jeffrey would travel through time to "give history a little nudge".
Appears to be the premise of the lamentably late NBC series Journeyman .
One episode revolves around him trying to undo something he did by accidentally leaving his digital camera in the 70s. He returns home to find that computer technology is decades ahead of what it was (holographic screens and video-newspapers are commonplace), but his son was never born (he was delayed at work due to a computer error), replaced instead by a daughter who was conceived a few days later. Despite his wife's objections, he goes back and fixes it.
Odyssey 5 , where a Five-Man Band witnesses the destruction of Earth from a space shuttle and are sent back in time five years by Sufficiently Advanced Aliens to prevent it. Although they promise not to change events, each of them can't resist meddling with their past to make it better. For instance one woman who knows her son will die of cancer starts giving him a potentially dangerous preventative drug—her husband, convinced she's going insane, cuts off her access to the boy. Another character bets on a football game—the size of his bet leads to other people betting on the outcome, starting rumors that adversely affect the course of the game. Worse, the group have consider the possibility that their own actions might advance in time, or even cause, the destruction of Earth.
Seven Days is entirely about this trope: a time machine allows a government agent to go seven days back in time in order to prevent the catastrophe of the week from taking place.
The main plot of the first three seasons of Heroes , though this is more of a case of Set Right What Will Go Wrong. Name dropped by Hiro in Season 5's "PassFail" during his all-in-his-coma-mind-trial, and Mental!Adam/Kensei rightfully points out that he's simply reciting the opening to Quantum Leap.
Another example of this is the CBC drama, Being Erica , where the majority of episodes were centred around her travelling back to a point in her past where she tries to put right something, she believes, went wrong in her life. Normally it would turn out that actually she needed to learn a lesson from that event and her changes wouldn't help her life that much. There were also a couple of episodes that varied from this format but stayed true to this theme. One where she was required to make changes to the life of the man sending her back in time, another where she managed to make a huge change in her life by stopping her brother's accidental death. This ended up to make her life drastically different and he still died but at a different time in his life and in a different way. Also, in another episode she had to travel forwards in time to learn about another time traveller's life as the version of him she knew in her present time was actually the past version of his actual self. He was refusing to make the changes he needed to and she had to convince him to make the changes he needed to and return to his own time.
Video Games[ edit | hide ]
An elementary tactic in Achron . Occurs often in multiplayer games as a response to another player screwing with your past .
Basically the whole premise of Daikatana , although the main characters spend so much time screwing around in the mythic past that one could be forgiven for thinking it was otherwise.
The plot of Marathon Infinity in the round-about way.
This is the premise of the fan-made Game Mod Marathon: Eternal. Earth is devastated by an interstellar war, and the hero is sent back in time to ensure that Humanity wins. Avoids a Temporal Paradox because the Lost Technology doing the time traveling can also jump between different dimensions - the plan is to create an alternate timeline where Earth isn't destroyed and transport the refugees from the original Earth there.
We learn in the end of Arc the Lad 2 that It was the reason behind Arc's father disappearance: he tried to set things right, and failed
Final Fantasy
The whole point of the Wings of the Goddess expansion in Final Fantasy XI . In fact, the player's version of Vana'diel was revealed to be the Set Right What Once Went Wrong outcome of the nine Cait Siths nudging the Crystal War into a better direction, until people from the other timeline decided to set wrong what once went right. Leads one to wonder how long the Pandemonium Warden fight took in the "bad" version of the universe.
The point of Final Fantasy XIII -2 is to fix the timeline and help everyone find happiness while averting future disaster. They fail, and cause a massive Time Crash .
In Dark Fall 2: Lights Out, Parker stumbles into a time portal while investigating the disappearance of some lighthouse keepers, and discovers both the reason they vanished, and that he'll be blamed by history for murdering them if he doesn't fulfill this trope. Likewise, while Darkfall: The Journal doesn't actually involve time travel, it does give the hero a chance to avert What Went Wrong, by foiling a supernatural menace in the present.
The overarching plot of the popular Half-Life Timeline mod trilogy. Scientists at Black Mesa discovered time travel as a corollary to the dimensional portal technology they were working on... and gave it to the Nazis. Now Gordon must travel to the ends of time and even to parallel Earths to Set Right What Once Went Wrong and stop the Nazi timeship fleet , eventually, after all else has failed, traveling back to Black Mesa a few hours before the Resonance Cascade event to stop the fateful experiment before it even began.
Implied in-game and inferred by fans in regards to Ocarina of Time , and also one of the cornerstones of the infamous Split-Timeline Theory . The whole game deals with Link's efforts kick Ganondorf off the usurped throne of Hyrule ( which Link was sort of responsible for in the first place ), which he succeeds at with the help of Zelda and the sages. Then Zelda sends Link back to before all that happened so Link can experience the childhood he was robbed off. Link therefore uses this opportunity to warn Zelda and everyone else of how Ganondorf was planning to steal the Triforce, which leads to Ganondorf being captured and executed. However, this sets up the plot for Twilight Princess , where Ganondorf survives said execution and is trapped in the Twilight Realm, where he gives Zant the power to usurp the throne of the Twili. So things were set right, but they ended up going wrong in a different way.
In the Interactive Fiction game Jigsaw , the antagonist is trying to set right what once went wrong (preventing the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, for example), while the player character must try to keep history on track. (At least, that's how it starts; then it gets a bit more complicated .)
Radiant Historia is about a soldier who is given a book called the White Chronicle, allowing him to travel back to certain points in time on his journey to help guide the world to its "correct" history (i.e. one that doesn't lead to its destruction through constantly-expanding desertification). Invoking this trope is required to complete the game. Many other temporal tropes apply at various points in the game, but this trope pops up beautifully in a simple sidequest: a woman is mourning the death of her husband from sickness, saying "if only he'd taken this medicine...". To complete the sidequest, just travel back in time with the medicine and give it to the husband (saying it's from his wife). Both husband and wife will be mystified about how you knew and where it came from, as the wife hadn't told you yet about her husband, but that fixes the future so they both live and are grateful.
Pretty much the point of TimeShift . The Big Bad gets the suit that lets him time-travel at will and reshapes the world to his own ideals, so the Hero has to get the toned-down suit and go back after him in order to try to fix things.
Singularity has the main character trying to do this after a time-travel incident leads to the Soviet Union taking over the world with time-manipulation technology. It doesn't work. At best, the scientist who invented the time-manipulation technology takes over the world because of your actions.
Millennia Altered Destinies is built on this trope. You play a human cargo ship captain who is abducted by an alien race called the Hoods and given a timeship with the goal of stopping the hostile Microids from taking over the Echelon galaxy (except that they have already done that in this timeline) and moving on to the Milky Way. To this end, you are to seed four suitable planets with life and help the four different races evolve and deal with various crises. Your ship, the XTM, can go back 10,000 years into the past in 100 year increments. You also have access to the complete history of the four races that, unlike you, doesn't have Ripple-Effect-Proof Memory . This means that, as soon as you change something, there is a temporal storm that updates the database right before your eyes. Essentially, you have 2 goals in the game: help the 4 races spread out throughout the Echelon galaxy in equal amounts (defeating the Microids) and have the 4 races reach the technological stage at which they can build replacement parts for your ship's wormhole drive to get back to Earth. Due to the game mechanics, you usually can only accomplish one of these.
Unfortunately, there is an alternate version of you, who has been recruited by the Microids to stop you. He will randomly show up at any point in the past to destroy one of the races, undoing all your hard work. You can't kill him, just as you yourself can't be killed.
Interestingly, the creators originally planned to have a Nonstandard Game Over if you happen to have screwed up the history of the four races so much that it can't be fixed. Your ship would be destroyed by a powerful temporal storm. Then they realized that this could never happen in-game, and eventually removed that ending.
Visual Novels[ edit | hide ]
This trope is the entire purpose of the game Time Hollow , where the main character is completely normal except that he can use his "Hollow Pen" to make a window into the past and alter an event.
Web Original[ edit | hide ]
The "Strangerverse" in Alternatehistory.com has its basic premise as this.
In the United States of Ameriwank , the traveler came to Colonial America before the American Revolution and gave George Washington a mission to unite the world under the United States to prevent an apocalyptic war.
Almost all of the Strangerverse stories take as their basic premise that there was an apocalyptic war shortly before 2258, and that a group used prototype time-travel technology to send one person back in time long enough to hand over a few tools to an historic figure and tell the recipient why he is doing so. Just when and where the Stranger travels to, what tools are delivered, and whether the destination was the intended destination provide the -verse part of the Strangerverse.
Western Animation[ edit | hide ]
Samurai Jack : "Now the fool seeks to return to the past, and undo the future that is Aku... " Partially subverted in that, within the run of the original series, Jack never did return to his original time and stop Aku from taking over the world. He's always trying, but he's more often than not just fighting Aku's dystopia and helping people survive. A future film adaptation may play this trope straight. His never returning had more to do with the show being cancelled, though.
This is Time Squad 's mission; to keep the past from unravelling. However, all of these changes are comedic and none ever cause a bad future. They just have to be fixed.
The Peabody and Sherman segments of Rocky and Bullwinkle involve going back in time to correct historical events which have gone wrong.
This sets the events of Megas XLR into motion through subversion of the trope. The Human Resistance steals a prototype Glorft mecha, modifies it, and attempts to send it and its pilot back in time to prevent the Glorft from winning the war against humanity. Things don't go as planned, and as a result the Glorft invasion actually happens centuries before it's supposed to. Hilarity Ensues .
Anime & Manga[ edit | hide ]
In the Mahou Sensei Negima manga, this is Chao Lingshen's motivation for messing around with her great grandfather's childhood, although whether she had an absurdly complicated Xanatos Gambit set up, or was simply playing Xanatos Speed Chess as her alterations made foreknowledge less useful is never made clear. She actually fixed the problem she went back to solve with the changes wrought by her first trip, but later makes a second one to tie up a loose end or two before the Cosmic Deadline .
Subverted in Dragonball Z . Future Trunks also attempts to Set Right What Once Went Wrong, but he does this in a timeline not his own: since in DBZ every timeline counts as another dimension, any changes made in the current time will not directly effect Future Trunks' past or future. He still wants to help out, hoping to create at least one peaceful world, and to return to his own time strong enough to finally stop what he wanted to prevent.
Archer in Fate Stay Night attempts to do this by creating a Temporal Paradox . Archer is not so much setting right what went wrong as setting wrong what once went really wrong.
A great part of the Haruhi Suzumiya Light Novels deals with Kyon trying to rectify past events in order not to let Haruhi's powers go haywire. Although he travels back in time mainly to set Haruhi off so that she'd create aliens, time travellers and ESPers, and to fix up the events on December 18. On that day, there's a point in time where there's 3 Mikurus and 4 Kyons. December 18 was only because of Disappearance, and to fix what Yuki did.
Comic Books[ edit | hide ]
Rayek from Elf Quest travels to the future in an attempt to 'save' his space-travelling ancestors from being thrown back in time and crashing on the planet. Unfortunately, all their descendants currently living on this planet will then cease to exist—and will never have existed, since their ancestors will never have set foot on the planet in the first place. Opinions about whether or not this is a good thing differ—he thinks it's good, everyone else thinks it's bad. Who cares about other men's opinion anyway. He tried to compromise by having the people he actually knew and cared about stay inside the palace, which would protect them from the history-wiping effects... but since this would only save the people standing immediately in front of him, and still wipe out everyone else on the planet, they refused his offer. When confronted with the choice between annihilating everyone he ever loved, and preventing ten thousand years of suffering, he ends up suffering a BSOD and losing his powers.
In the "Camelot Falls" storyline in the Superman comics, a prophetic sorcerer tells him what he needs to do to avert the extinction of humanity years down the line. In a subversion of this trope, Superman refuses to comply, namely because "what he needs to do" involves not preventing the deaths of countless innocents.
The mission of Samaritan in Astro City . He actually did set things right before the series started, but now his own time period has changed beyond recognition .
Cable has apparently set as his ultimate goal to set right everything that went wrong, like preventing Apocalypse from waking up. (He then wakes up Apocalypse himself by accident. Good job .)
Archie's Sonic the Hedgehog series:
Silver's personal Story Arc is much the same as in Sonic the Hedgehog 2006 —he comes from a Bad Future where the world is all but destroyed, and is constantly traveling through time trying to find a way to undo it, with his only clue being that the betrayal of a member of the Freedom Fighters was somehow key to this disaster. Of course, like his game counterpart he's being advised by a -- supposedly reformed --- villain, so we'll have to wait and see how that turns out.
A Story Arc in the early 100's issues involved Knuckles' future daughter Lara-Su attempting to undo her own Bad Future by preventing her father's assassination. Unfortunately, when she got back to her time, she discovered that her mother had lied to her in order to protect her—the truth was, Knuckles hadn't died, he'd pulled a Face Heel Turn and was in fact responsible for the Bad Future they lived in. The bright side, however, is that the "present" Lara-Su had visited was the series' main timeline, while her future is an alternate one . So we don't have to worry about our Knuckles switching sides like that.
In the Star Trek "Time Crime" miniseries, someone screwed up the timeline so that Klingons aren't aggressive warmongers and the Romulan Empire doesn't exist. Despite the positive bits, Kirk and Spock still have to fix everything because the overall outcome would ultimately be a Bad Future . That and, as bad as Romulans are, they don't deserve to be erased from time. In one Tearjerker moment, Kirk realizes that "fixing" the timeline will mean losing his son David (in the real timeline David was killed by Klingons), and he gives his son one final hug before embarking on his trip through time.
Films -- Live-Action[ edit | hide ]
In Galaxy Quest , the "Omega 13" device is used to go back 13 seconds in time, "enough to change a single mistake".
In the conclusion and epilogue of Jumanji , Alan prevents Carl Bentley from getting fired (or gets him re-hired), and the kids' parents are stopped from going on their fatal ski trip.
This is the main plot of Star Trek: First Contact . The past is going perfectly fine until the Borg try and set wrong what once was right.
Animorphs :
In Elfangor's Secret, the team is sent back to prevent Visser Four from changing key events in the past. Unfortunately, those changes were much more far-reaching than either side anticipated, and would've prevented the Holocaust, though likely still making a worse future. So in order to return the present to normal , the team has to essentially condemn millions to death . Eventually they decide on paradoxing out the events of the novel, deciding that at least this way it happened naturally.
In In the Time of the Dinosaurs, they must sabotage a nuclear device and sacrifice an entire colony of aliens, or else the Cretaceous Era won't end on schedule.
In the novel Soon I Will Be Invincible , Lily gets sent back in time to prevent a blight from wiping out humanity, but after she succeeds she decides she liked the blighted future better and becomes a supervillain to try to bring back her original future. However, this turns out to be an outright lie—she's a native of the current time period, although the era she claims as her origin really is a possible future that she has visited—and she ends up using it to trick another supervillain into saving the world.
In the third Harry Potter book , Harry and Hermione have the chance to go back and save two innocent lives.
Dean Koontz 's Lightning features a time-travelling protagonist who goes back to his own time, after having thwarted a Nazi Time Travel plot, and tells Winston Churchill about the Cold War. When he returns to the future, The Cold War never happened, as the Allies kept on pushing eastward after the Nazis surrendered, defeating the communists before the Cold War ever started.
Live-Action TV[ edit | hide ]
Naturally, Life On Mars and Ashes to Ashes have played with this: in Sam's case, it was finding out why his father abandoned him, as well as arresting the serial killer who'd kidnapped his girlfriend and a crime lord who'd had a witness in his custody murdered; in Alex's, it was preventing her parents' death by car bomb. Their success rates are... varied; Sam eventually wound up convincing his father to skip town, because there was that little matter of a murder and racketeering charge if he stayed...
Doctor Who
Officially this can't work in the Whoniverse (the series 1 episode "Father's Day" shows why) but Amy gets a chance to do it in a small way in the series 5 finale—not by time travelling, but because the universe is being rebooted from her memories, so if she remembers something the way it was, she can have it back.
Not-quite-subverted in "Genesis of the Daleks". The Time Lords send the Doctor back in time to the creation of the Daleks, with the goal of either preventing their creation, or at least making them less aggressive. While there, the Doctor is captured by the Daleks' creator and is made to detail every Dalek vulnerability he knows about. Being the universe's resident expert on fighting Daleks, this would have been a catastrophe had he not destroyed the tape before leaving the scene.
Possibly subverted in "Resurrection of the Daleks", where the Daleks used the Doctor's interference in their creation to justify an attack on Gallifrey.
Russell T. Davies ' view was that this Dalek-Time Lord skirmishing eventually led to the Time War of the new series, thus subverting the trope. Alternatively, this could be playing the trope straight, as the Time War may actually be a better outcome than what the Time Lords originally predicted.
In the Mirror, Mirror series, there is exactly one person who was trained to do this exactly once, as revealed in the final episode. Everything prior to this point had already happened in her mentor's past.
In Babylon 5 , this is a key point in the 5 year plot—instead of "Sometimes, trying to Set Right What Once Went Wrong is what sets everything wrong in the first place , resulting in a Stable Time Loop .", everything will go wrong unless the heroes go back to keep what's right, creating a Stable Time Loop by altering the past to what it is. Which gets really confusing if you try to ask, "What happened the first time?". There are a few hints via dreams and a broadcast. It's said the Shadow's army would have been three times larger and more prone to act directly earlier.
More of a case of "Set right what we messed up" but in an episode of Hannah Montana , Miley and Jackson travel back in time and mess up their parents meeting. Cue a back to the future style disappearance for Jackson as Miley tries to set things right. It was probably All Just a Dream .
Done in Power Rangers Turbo , with heavily debated success. A robot, the Blue Senturion, came from a thousand years in the future to warn the heros about a war two years later... and was intercepted by the villains, who took the message, and deleted it from his memory. Not only did the war still happen, but it happened a year earlier than scheduled. On the one hand, an all-out win for Team Evil was averted, but on the other, it still didn't end very happily .
This is Desmond's major character motivation throughout the third season of Lost (apart from his desire to be reunited with his lost love Penny).
Farscape
Subverted in episode "Different Destinations," where the team go back in time to a historic siege and make things worse by getting everyone except them killed.
Played straight in "Kansas" when the team accidentally goes back to Earth in 1985 and has to prevent John's father from going on the "Challenger" shuttle to prevent his death and John possibly never ending up on Moya.
Guinan of Star Trek the Next Generation is practically this trope walking personified (as for reasons that were never even hinted at until The Movie , changes in the timeline do not affect her), especially in "Yesterday's Enterprise". More technically they don't entirely affect her. She could identify something was wrong, but didn't know what could have caused it.
The Outer Limits TOS episode "The Man Who Was Never Born". A mutant from a devastated future goes back in time to prevent the biological disaster that destroyed civilization.
In modern series of The Outer Limits . A scientist develops a time machine and uses it to go back and kill serial killers before their first murder. However, it turns out she was motivated by the fact that she'd been raped and tortured by a serial killer herself as a child. She eventually goes back and kills him, thus saving her younger self, but this undoes all of her other killings.
She also dies while killing him. However, her younger self realizes that time travel is possible and uses it to re-invent the technology. This time using it to help people (she dies when another time traveler blows up Washington, D.C., in the future).
Another episode involves a popular presidential candidate traveling on a plane and seeing an intangible image of a woman claiming to be from a Bad Future where his plane crashed (because of another time traveler's accidental interefence), and his ineffectual opponent ended up winning. She convinces him to jump out of the plane by claiming that she will use future technology to halt his fall moments before hitting the ground. This appears to happen, but then she explains that she is here to kill him, as he is the one who will become President Evil due to his paranoia. The falling scene repeats, and nobody catches him this time. The plane lands without problems.
Supernatural has an episode that Dean thinks is a Set Right What Once Went Wrong, but not only does it turn out he was only meant to Witness What Went Wrong and not change it, it sure looks like he actually caused it.
Another episode had an angel go back to that time to try to kill their mother before they were born. While she seemingly succeeds in killing their father, he is brought back as a vessel for Archangel Michael, who kills the angel.
Stargate SG-1
Subverted in "The Gamekeeper": Jack and Daniel think that they're being sent to the past to fix mistakes in their lives, but it turns out that they're just mentally reliving them, not really time travelling, and there's no way for them to fix it anyways.
Played straight in the Aschen arc, in the episodes "2010" and "2001". The former takes place in a Bad Future , where the Aschen, posing as benevolent aliens, infect Earth with a sterility vaccine that will eventually cause its population to die out. To avert it, SG-1 sends a note to their past selves back in time, leading to a less tragic future.
Played straight in the two-parter "Moebius" when an attempt to go back in time to retrieve a piece of technology results in screwing up the timeline and having to go back in time again to fix it.
Not necessarily. It's not made clear if it was SG-1's interference that made Ra leave with the stargate or if that was what originally happened.
Also played straight in the movie Continuum as listed in the "Films" section.
The Stargate Atlantis episode "The Last Man" has Sheppard thrown 48,000 years into the future, where a program Rodney left behind recounts a long It Got Worse story of the intervening years and arranges to send Sheppard back to fix everything. He even gives Sheppard some crucial information, like Teyla's location at the time, so Sheppard can change what happened for the better.
The X-Files episode "Synchrony" presents the case of a strange old man warning an MIT student and professor that the student is going to die at a specific time—because of this warning the professor, attempting to save the student, ends up accidentally pushing him into the path of an oncoming bus and thus the warning is a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy . The old man is actually the professor from the future, who has traveled back in time attempting to Set Right What Will Go Wrong and prevent an impending scientific breakthrough that would be made by the professor in collaboration with his girlfriend, also a scientist, and the student, and which would be a catalyst for a catastrophic technological development. Mulder cites an old theory of Scully's about how You Can't Fight Fate , and so the old man's efforts are probably doomed. Although the professor manages to kill both his present and future selves and erase all of his files, as the episode ends, the girlfriend is continuing the research on her own with backups of the erased data.
The conclusion of the Star Trek Voyager "Year of Hell" serial. Or for that matter, the conclusion to the series altogether.
In an episode of The Flash , Barry Allen is accidentally thrust 10 years into a future where Central City has been taken over by his brother's killer, Nicholas Pike, and where an underground group of citizens were waiting for the Flash to return in order to set things right.
Kamen Rider Den-O touches on this occasionally, in the context of "You are not supposed to do this".
Kintaros nearly gets kicked off DenLiner in one episode when he tries to change a girls past for the better instead of dealing with the Monster of the Week (who was damaging the timeline himself in the meantime).
Although it seems perfectly okay for them to change history in some cases but not in others. In one early episode, our heroes help a struggling musician make it to a gig which he had missed in the original timeline. He's convinced that had he not missed this gig, he'd be a star in the present. Turns out he's still a nobody even after they change history; the only difference is that he no longer blames himself for the breakup of his band. Since the change was so unimportant, our heroes are informed that what they did was okay.
What the previous two events have in common is that the change prevented the Imagin from making a Deal with the Devil with that person in the first place. While Singularity Points negate some of the damage caused by an Imagin to the past, they only negate damage to things that were part of their memory and some things are lost for good. So completely negating the rampage better preserves the timeline than simply destroying the Imagin in the past, even if it requires a minor change. Strangely, this doesn't negate the fact the Imagin was destroyed though...
In the Non-Serial Movie of Kamen Rider Kiva , King of Hell Castle, Wataru goes back in time in order to prevent a prison inmate from discovering the ruins of an ancient demon race and becoming their king. Unfortunately, his actions don't make any real difference, and in fact may have made it worse, given that when he returns to 2008, the creatures are roaming freely and the moon is covered by a gigantic monster eyeball.
In Primeval , Matt spends the majority of season four and five doing this to prevent a Bad Future . Although, as he doesn't know exactly what went wrong, and doesn't find out what went wrong until halfway through season five, he spends most of the time tracking the wrong person and helping prevent a bad present.
The Mysterious Ways episode "Yesterday" deals with a police officer who relives the previous day after accidentally shooting and killing his partner and praying for some way to make it right.
Used in Sonic the Hedgehog 2006 :
In Sonic's story, he eventually ends up time-traveling to a Bad Future , and discovering that it was caused by the death of Princess Elise, very shortly after the date that Sonic had just left. Sonic travels back to rescue her.
In Silver's story, Silver is a native of the aforementioned bad future; he travels to the past (i.e. Sonic's time) intending to kill the "Iblis trigger" and prevent Armageddon. However, he thought that Sonic was the Iblis trigger—because Silver's source of information about the past was manipulating him into Making Wrong What Once Went Right .
The plot of Ratchet and Clank Future A Crack In Time . Subverted in that it turns out to be impossible and/or will only result in tearing the universe apart.
Fails spectacularly in The Legend of Zelda series.
In The Legend of Zelda Ocarina of Time 's ending, Zelda sends Link back to the beginning of the game so he can avoid his Nice Job Breaking It, Hero moment. Rather than changing the future they're in, it creates a second time line. The timeline where Link sealed Ganon away now lacks a hero to take care of him, and the gods end up destroying hyrule in a Great Flood for lack of any other option. And the other timeline, where Link didn't lead Ganondorf directly to the triforce? Ganondorf ends up with 1/3 of it and gets sealed away anyway. Net result of attempt to Set Right What Once Went Wrong: one timeline in exactly the same situation that they were trying to prevent, and one timeline utterly destroyed.
The Legend of Zelda Majoras Mask begins with Link dumped into an alternate reality, unwillingly transformed into a harmless Deku Scrub , and forced to watch helplessly as the world around him goes to hell in a handbasket before its eventual destruction at the end of the third day. Then Link goes back in time, regains his true form, and relives the same three days over and over as he gradually meets and helps everyone the Big Bad has hurt, until he is finally strong enough to stop it all from happening.
The entire plot of Mortal Kombat 9 centers around an attempt to do this. Shao Kahn ends up winning the events of Armageddon, leading Raiden to send a message back to his past self to try and fix this. He ends up nearly bungling the whole thing. In the end, every single one of the Forces of Light save for Johnny Cage, Sonya, and himself are dead, their souls taken by Quan Chi. Shao Kahn is defeated, averting THAT particular Armageddon event, but Quan Chi has an army of powerful souls at his command now, and the ending implies that Shinnok and the Netherrealm are preparing to attack next...
Deconstructed in Episode 4 of the Back to The Future games, where Citizen Brown doesn't like the idea that setting right what once went wrong means that the prudish Edna Strickland goes on to be a miserable old Crazy Cat Lady in the proper timeline, choosing instead to find a way to make sure that Young Emmett Brown ends up with Edna without her becoming a Knight Templar by making sure that he never develops his passion for science.
Riven has a non-time-travel variant as the framing device. The linking books the series relies on can be used to modify worlds they link to using quantum uncertainty; if it could have been there but was never noticed before, writing in that it is there will make it happen. Unfortunately, Gehn, who wrote quite a number of linking books, was not actually very good at writing them, so the same quantum-uncertainty mechanics are causing the Ages he wrote to deteriorate of their own accord. His son, Atrus, is much better at writing them, and thinks he can save some of them using these same quantum-uncertainty mechanics, but some are beyond salvaging. Your task is to go into one of the doomed ones to rescue Atrus' wife while he stays and tries to stall its destruction for as long as possible.
This is the reason for (most of) the Caverns of Time in World of Warcraft . The Infinite Dragonflight are screwing with history and the Bronze Dragonflight are recruiting mortals to help them out, since they're too preoccupied searching for their missing leader Nozdormu.
Back to The Future
"Go Fly A Kite". Verne accidentally interrupts Benjamin Franklin's famous kite experiment, causing the electricity in present day Hill Valley to disappear. Doc and Marty must head back to 1752 and simulate a storm in order for Franklin to make his discovery.
Played straight in "Ok at the Gunfight Carol" episode of Captain Planet : Hoggish Greedy & Sly Sludge, travel back to the Old West to get the deeds for the Grand Canyon turning it a landfill. The Planeeters follow and work things back on track returning the Grand Canyon to it's natural state.
Danny Phantom promises not to allow his evil future to come to pass after seeing himself as a sadistic, mass-murdering sociopath. Although Clockwork helps, the subversion comes when it's hinted at the end that it may just be a matter of time after all, if with different circumstances.
Future Candace travels back in time after she discovers that her meddling with the timeline has turned the tri-state area into a dystopia ruled by Doofenshmirtz in the Phineas and Ferb episode "Phineas and Ferb's Quantum Boogaloo".
This is the goal of Nox, the Big Bad from season 1 of the French cartoon Wakfu . His desire to save the family that he lost 200 years before the show has driven him to go from a simple watchmaker to one of the most powerful (and insane) magic users alive. Unfortunately, while he is a skilled enough time mage to slow time to a stand still, he has so far been unable to actually travel backwards in time. He believes that this is a power requirement issue, and now seeks to drain enough wakfu from the plants, animals, and people of the world to save his family. One character mentions that he has drained entire countries dry over the years, and his current plan involves exterminating an entire race of people to gain the wakfu he needs. Of course, Grougaloragran also mentions that it won't actually work, as time travel is simply impossible no matter how much wakfu he collects, and he'll probably just end up breaking the universe if he tries. Nox, however, is long past caring. Turns out it is possible. Too bad the wakfu requirements were far steeper than Nox estimated -- the wakfu he spent centuries gathering was only enough to facilitate a twenty minute time jump.
In The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest episode "The Edge of Yesterday," we learn that Dr. Quest created a time machine program in Questworld after his wife died, which would allow him to travel back in time and see his wife again. When he finished it, he realized he wouldn't only be able to see his wife, he could also change the past to prevent her from dying. His ethics would not let him alter history for personal gain, so he sealed the program so it couldn't be used. Later on, Jonny and Jessie use the program to go back in time and prevent Ezekiel Rage from planting a bomb that could cause the tectonic plates to split, destroying the Earth.
Two episodes of Lilo and Stitch: The Series centered around this plot. In the first, Lilo embarrasses herself in front of her love interest. She find out Jumba has a surfboard style time machine and used it to fix the blunder, but at the same time theres an experiment running around that Stitch tries to catch and each attempt causes a disaster to the area causing multiple re-dos. Eventually Lilo has to let herself get embarrassed to fix the timeline. The second involves Lilo finding an experiment that can warp time forward, allowing her to age into a teenager and later an adult. However since she and Stitch are time traveling, they're not around to catch experiments. Allowing Big Bad Gantu and Hamsterveil to capture them and take over the Earth. Conveniently said experiment has a Reset Button but they have to rescue it first to fix the damage.
Family Guy
Done as a Shout-Out to Back to the Future, when Peter has Death warp him back in time so he can relive a day in his teenage years. However he does so at a critical moment in the history of his relationship to Lois that ends with her married to Quagmire and him married to Molly Ringwald (its complicated, just go with it). Peter, along with Brian, convince Death to send them back to undo Peter's mistake.
Also, explicitly referenced in an episode where Peter becomes a Jehovah's Witness (among other things) and explains Jesus like this, leading to a Quantum Leap sight gag.
And now Stewie and Brian are credited as using this to CREATE THE FAMILY GUY UNIVERSE. LITERALLY. So that's a... set half-right what was elsetime random-in-the-void? It gets played straight in the same episode when Stewie's sperm-brother tries to erase one of his more 'European' ancestors to erase Stewie.
Likewise, sister series American Dad had a Christmas Episode that featured a Ghost of Christmas Past trying to pull Yet Another Christmas Carol on Stan but he uses the opportunity to try and "fix" Christmas by killing Jane Fonda. His guardian angel stops him, but when they get back to modern times America is under the control of Soviet Russia. It Makes Sense in Context . [1] In a bit of a subversion, trying to fix the original event by making Taxi Driver doesn't work, so Stan is forced to shoot Reagan himself (which much to his relief is told he just has to "wing him") to fix the timeline. Note that even in the end the timeline isn't the same : Since Stan only shot Reagan, his assistant James Brady was fine which meant no Brady Bill and thus America has less strict gun laws.
Notes
↑ Stan also got Martin Scorcese off drugs, which meant no Taxi Driver , which meant John Hinkley Jr. didn't try to shoot Ronald Reagan , which meant Walter Mondale gets elected President and immediately surrendered to the USSR
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April 10, 1912 saw a “moderately famous” ship, some called the Titanic, leave what English port on its’ first and only voyage? | Titanic - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com
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The Making of Titanic
The Royal Mail Steamer Titanic was the product of intense competition among rival shipping lines in the first half of the 20th century. In particular, the White Star Line found itself in a battle for steamship primacy with Cunard, a venerable British firm with two standout ships that ranked among the most sophisticated and luxurious of their time. Cunard’s Mauretania began service in 1907 and immediately set a speed record for the fastest transatlantic crossing that it held for 22 years. Cunard’s other masterpiece, Lusitania , launched the same year and was lauded for its spectacular interiors. It met its tragic end–and entered the annals of world history–on May 7, 1915, when a torpedo fired by a German U-boat sunk the ship, killing nearly 1,200 of the 1,959 people on board and precipitating the United States’ entry into World War I .
Did You Know?
Passengers traveling first class on Titanic were roughly 44 percent more likely to survive than other passengers.
The same year that Cunard unveiled its two magnificent liners, J. Bruce Ismay, chief executive of White Star, discussed the construction of three large ships with William J. Pirrie, chairman of the Belfast-based shipbuilding company Harland and Wolff. Part of a new “Olympic” class of liners, they would each measure 882 feet in length and 92.5 feet at their broadest point, making them the largest of their time. In March 1909, work began in the massive Harland and Wolff yard on the second of these ships, Titanic, and continued nonstop until the spring of 1911.
On May 31, 1911, Titanic’s immense hull–at the time, the largest movable manmade object in the world–made its way down the slipways and into the River Lagan in Belfast. More than 100,000 people attended the launching, which took just over a minute and went off without a hitch. The hull was immediately towed to a mammoth fitting-out dock where thousands of workers would spend most of the next year building the ship’s decks, constructing her lavish interiors and installing the 29 giant boilers that would power her two main steam engines.
Titanic’s Fatal Flaws
According to some hypotheses, Titanic was doomed from the start by the design so many lauded as state-of-the-art. The Olympic-class ships featured a double bottom and 15 watertight bulkheads equipped with electric watertight doors which could be operated individually or simultaneously by a switch on the bridge. It was these watertight bulkheads that inspired Shipbuilder magazine, in a special issue devoted to the Olympic liners, to deem them “practically unsinkable.” But the watertight compartment design contained a flaw that may have been a critical factor in Titanic’s sinking: While the individual bulkheads were indeed watertight, water could spill from one compartment into another. Several of Titanic’s Cunard-owned contemporaries, by contrast, already boasted innovative safety features devised to avoid this very situation. Had White Star taken a cue from its competitor, it might have saved Titanic from disaster.
The second critical safety lapse that contributed to the loss of so many lives was the number of lifeboats carried on Titanic. Those 16 boats, along with four Engelhardt “collapsibles,” could accommodate 1,178 people. Titanic when full could carry 2,435 passengers, and a crew of approximately 900 brought her capacity to more than 3,300 people. As a result, even if the lifeboats were loaded to full capacity during an emergency evacuation, there were available seats for only one-third of those on board. While unthinkably inadequate by today’s standards, Titanic’s supply of lifeboats actually exceeded the British Board of Trade’s regulations.
Titanic Sets Sail
The largest passenger steamship ever built, Titanic created quite a stir when it departed for its maiden voyage from Southampton, England, on April 10, 1912. After stops in Cherbourg, France, and Queenstown (now known as Cobh), Ireland, the ship set sail for New York with 2,240 passengers and crew—or “souls,” the expression then used in the shipping industry, usually in connection with a sinking—on board.
As befitting the first transatlantic crossing of the world’s most celebrated ship, many of these souls were high-ranking officials, wealthy industrialists, dignitaries and celebrities. First and foremost was the White Star Line’s managing director, J. Bruce Ismay, accompanied by Thomas Andrews, the ship’s builder from Harland and Wolff. (Missing was J.P. Morgan , whose International Mercantile Marine shipping trust controlled the White Star Line and who had selected Ismay as a company officer. The financier had planned to join his associates on Titanic but canceled at the last minute when some business matters delayed him.)
The wealthiest passenger was John Jacob Astor IV, who had made waves a year earlier by marrying 18-year-old Madeleine Talmadge Force, a young woman 29 years his junior, not long after divorcing his first wife. Other millionaire passengers included the elderly owner of Macy’s, Isidor Straus, and his wife Ida; industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim, accompanied by his mistress, valet and chauffeur; and widow and heiress Margaret “Molly” Brown, who would earn her “unsinkable” nickname by helping to maintain calm and order while the lifeboats were being loaded and boosting the spirits of her fellow survivors.
The employees attending to this collection of First Class notables were largely traveling Second Class, along with academics, tourists, journalists and others who would enjoy a level of service equivalent to First Class on most other ships. But by far the largest group of passengers was in Third Class: more than 700, exceeding the other two levels combined. Some had paid less than $20 to make the crossing. It was Third Class that was the major source of profit for shipping lines like White Star and Cunard, and Titanic was designed to offer these passengers accommodations and amenities superior to those found in Third Class on any ship up to that time.
Titanic’s departure from Southampton on April 10 was not without some oddities. A small coal fire was discovered in one of her bunkers–an alarming but not uncommon occurrence on steamships of the day. Stokers hosed down the smoldering coal and shoveled it aside to reach the base of the blaze. After assessing the situation, the captain and chief engineer concluded that it was unlikely it had caused any damage that could affect the hull structure, and the stokers were ordered to continue controlling the fire at sea. According to a theory put forth by a small number of Titanic experts, the fire became uncontrollable after the ship left Southampton, forcing the crew to attempt a full-speed crossing; moving at such a fast pace, they were unable to avoid the fatal collision with the iceberg. Another unsettling event took place when Titanic left the Southampton dock. As she got underway, she narrowly escaped a collision with the America Line’s S.S. New York. Superstitious Titanic buffs often point to this as the worst kind of omen for a ship departing on her maiden voyage. Ironically, had Titanic collided with the ship named for her port of destination, the delay might have spared the ship from being in the precise position for her encounter with the iceberg.
Disaster Strikes Aboard Titanic
That encounter took place roughly four days out, at about 11:30 p.m. on April 14. Titanic was equipped with a Marconi wireless, and there had been sporadic reports of ice from other ships, but she was sailing on calm seas under a moonless, clear sky. A lookout saw the iceberg dead ahead coming out of a slight haze, rang the warning bell and telephoned the bridge. The engines were quickly reversed and the ship was turned sharply, and instead of making direct impact the berg seemed to graze along the side of the ship, sprinkling ice fragments on the forward deck. Sensing no collision, the lookouts were relieved. They had no idea that the iceberg’s jagged underwater spur had slashed a 300-foot gash well below the ship’s waterline, and that Titanic was doomed. By the time the captain toured the damaged area with Harland and Wolff’s Thomas Andrews, five compartments were already filling with seawater, and the bow of the ship was alarmingly down. Andrews did a quick calculation and estimated that Titanic might remain afloat for an hour and a half, perhaps slightly more. At that point the captain, who had already instructed his wireless operator to call for help, ordered the lifeboats to be loaded.
A little more than an hour after contact with the iceberg, a largely disorganized and haphazard evacuation process began with the lowering of the first lifeboat. The craft was designed to hold 65 people; it left with only 28 aboard. Amid the confusion and chaos during the precious hours before Titanic plunged into the sea, nearly every boat would be launched woefully under-filled, some with only a handful of passengers. In compliance with the law of the sea, women and children boarded the boats first; only when there were no women or children nearby were men permitted to board. Yet many of the victims were in fact women and children, the result of disorderly procedures that failed to get them to the boats in the first place.
Exceeding Andrews’ prediction, Titanic stubbornly managed to stay afloat for close to three hours. Those hours witnessed acts of craven cowardice and extraordinary bravery. Hundreds of human dramas unfolded between the order to load the lifeboats and the ship’s final plunge: Men saw off wives and children, families were separated in the confusion and selfless individuals gave up their spots to remain with loved ones or allow a more vulnerable passenger to escape.
The ship’s most illustrious passengers each responded to the circumstances with conduct that has become an integral part of the Titanic legend. Ismay, the White Star managing director, helped load some of the boats and later stepped onto a collapsible as it was being lowered. Although no women or children were in the vicinity when he abandoned ship, he would never live down the ignominy of surviving the disaster while so many others perished. Thomas Andrews, Titanic’s chief designer, was last seen in the First Class smoking room, staring blankly at a painting of a ship on the wall. Astor deposited Madeleine in a lifeboat and, remarking that she was pregnant, asked if he could accompany her; refused entry, he managed to kiss her goodbye just before the boat was lowered away. Although offered a seat on account of his age, Isidor Straus refused any special consideration, and his wife Ida would not leave her husband behind. The couple retired to their cabin and perished together. Benjamin Guggenheim and his valet returned to their rooms and changed into formal evening dress; emerging onto the deck, he famously declared, “We are dressed in our best and are prepared to go down like gentlemen.” Molly Brown helped load the boats and finally was forced into one of the last to leave. She implored its crewmen to turn back for survivors, but they refused, fearing they would be swamped by desperate people trying to escape the freezing ocean.
Titanic, nearly perpendicular and with many of her lights still aglow, finally dove beneath the icy surface at approximately 2:20 a.m. on April 15. Throughout the morning, Cunard’s Carpathia, after receiving Titanic’s distress call at midnight and steaming at full speed while dodging ice floes all night, rounded up all of the lifeboats. They contained only 705 survivors.
Analyzing the Titanic Catastrophe
At least five separate boards of inquiry on both sides of the Atlantic conducted comprehensive hearings on Titanic’s sinking, interviewing dozens of witnesses and consulting with many maritime experts. Every conceivable subject was investigated, from the conduct of the officers and crew to the construction of the ship. While it has always been assumed that the ship sank as a result of the gash that caused the compartments to flood, various other theories have emerged over the decades, including that the ship’s steel plates were too brittle for the near-freezing Atlantic waters, that the impact caused rivets to pop and that the expansion joints failed, among others.
The technological aspects of the catastrophe aside, Titanic’s demise has taken on a deeper, almost mythic, meaning in popular culture. Many view the tragedy as a morality play about the dangers of human hubris: Titanic’s creators believed they had built an “unsinkable” ship that could not be defeated by the laws of nature. This same overconfidence explains the electrifying impact Titanic’s sinking had on the public when she was lost. There was widespread disbelief that the ship could possibly have sunk, and, due to the era’s slow and unreliable means of communication, misinformation abounded. Newspapers initially reported that the ship had collided with an iceberg but remained afloat and was being towed to port with everyone on board. It took many hours for accurate accounts to become available, and even then people had trouble accepting that this paradigm of modern technology could sink on her maiden voyage, taking more than 1,500 souls with her.
The ship historian John Maxtone-Graham has compared Titanic’s story to the Challenger space shuttle disaster of 1986. In that case, the world reeled at the notion that some of the most sophisticated technology ever created could explode into oblivion along with its crew. Both tragedies triggered a sudden and complete collapse in confidence, revealing that we are vulnerable despite our modern presumptions of technological infallibility.
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‘The outlook wasn’t brilliant for the Mudville Nine that day;’ opens what 1888 poem by Ernest Thayer? | Titanic pictures from 1912: Poignant photos from the aftermath | Daily Mail Online
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Astonishing unseen photographs of the aftermath of the Titanic disaster have emerged after 99 years.
The black and white pictures show an iceberg at the site of the tragedy - and may even be the one that sunk the luxury liner.
Another image shows two lifeboats packed full of survivors rowing for safety following the 1912 disaster in which 1,517 people died.
Survivors from the Titanic are pictured here rowing towards rescue ship the Carpathia in what appear to be relatively calm seas
Danger ahead: Taken from a rescue vessel, this photograph shows an iceberg in the distance - perhaps even the one that sank the luxury liner
The archive of letters and photographs are owned by the family of survivors John and Nelle Snyder, who were returning from their honeymoon when the tragedy struck. The pair are pictured here in the clothes they escaped in
The remarkable archive includes a survivor's letter containing a moving first hand account of the sinking, which tells how the rows of portholes 'disappeared one by one'.
It was written by first class passenger John Snyder who was returning to America on the doomed liner with his new bride Nelle from their honeymoon.
He described how they were woken following the 'bump' and that he owed his life to his wife who made him see what was going on even though he wanted to go back to bed.
He explained how they were almost the first people in the life boat because others thought it safer to stay on the 'big boat'.
The archive of photos and letters have remained in the Snyder family all this time but have now emerged for sale at auction.
The incredible photos were taken from the deck of the Carpathia, the first ship that arrived at the disaster scene and picked up survivors on the morning of April 15, 1912.
Another rescue ship - the SS Californian - can been seen in the background after she finally arrived at the scene having at first ignored the Titanic's distress rockets.
There is also a picture of the Snyders shortly after they reached land and they are still wearing the clothes they were rescued in.
A press report at the time suggested that before the Titanic sank someone on deck shouted 'put in the brides and grooms first' and that was why the Snyders were saved.
But in his letter to his father dated April 24 Mr Snyder makes no mention of it, but his account reveals the confusion.
Rescue: The SS California is pictured at the scene, having initially ignored the Titanic's distress rockets
THE 'UNSINKABLE' SHIP WHICH SANK IN 3 HOURS
Dubbed the 'unsinkable' ship, the Titanic famously struck an iceberg and sank in under three hours on April 15, 1912. Of the 2,224 on board, 1,517 passengers and crew perished.
It lay unseen on the ocean floor for decades, until 1985, when an American-French expedition identified its final resting place 329 miles south-east of Newfoundland.
The wreck, which was split into two sections 2,000ft apart, has now been the focus of research by scientists and historians for 25 years.
He wrote: 'I can only tell you that I have a mighty fine wife and she is the one you must thank - besides our Lord - for my being able to write this letter.
'If it hadn't been for Nelle I am sure that I never would be here now. She is the one that urged me to get up when I wanted to go back to bed.
'We were both asleep when the boat hit. I don't know whether the bump woke me up or I woke when Nelle spoke to me.
'At any rate she made me get up and go out to the companionway to see what was going on - I went out three times before deciding to get up and get dressed.
'When we reached the top deck only a few people were about and we all were told to go down and put on some life belts - we did it, thinking it was only a precaution.
'When we got back on the top deck again we saw they were getting the life boats ready - as soon as they were ready they told the people to get into them.
'Nearly every body stepped back from in front of us and as a result we were almost the very first people placed in the life boat.
Doomed: The 'unsinkable' Titanic setting sail from Southampton in 1912
'Only a very few people were on deck at that time and they thought it much safer to stay on the big boat than to try the life boat.
'When we had moved some distance away from the Titanic we realised - by looking at the bow seeing the different rows of port holes getting less and less from three rows - then two rows and finally the bow went under - that the finest boat in the world was doomed - we hit between 11.40 and 11.50 and the Titanic sunk at 2.22 in the morning.'
The items are being sold by Philip Weiss auctions in New York and are expected to fetch over £50,000.
Mr Weiss said: 'The initial items came from John and Nelle Snyder who were saved and over the years the family has added to the archive.
'There are some remarkable letters and photographs that have always been with the family and never been to market before.
'There is a photograph showing the couple still wearing the clothes they had on when they were saved.
Watery grave: The bow of the Titanic at rest on the bottom of the North Atlantic, about 400 miles south east of Newfoundland
'There are photos of survivors rowing to safety and there are several photographs of the Californian which arrived to help.
'The pictures appear to have been taken from the Carpathia, which picked up the couple.
'One picture includes an iceberg - it could even be the one that sunk the Titanic.
'There is also letter written by Mr Snyder just four days before the sinking and in it he thanks a tobacconist for his cigars that he is smoking.
'I don't think he ever sent it because it was still with him.
'Another letter that has never been seen describes the sinking and it tells how both were asleep when the ship struck the iceberg.
'There is also a letter from Mr Snyder's father that describes the worry that the family had and how news filtered back to them.'
Mr Snyder was aged 24 at the time of the sinking and his wife Nelle was 23 and they had boarded the Titanic at Southampton.
Mr Snyder died in 1959 aged 71 from a heart attack on a golf course. He and Nelle lived in Minneapolis where he ran a automotive firm.
Nelle died in 1983 age 94 and the couple had three children.
The auction takes place on October 21.
RARE DECK PLANS TO GO UNDER THE HAMMER
Isadore Straus: The elderly couple drowned side by side in the disaster after Ida refused a place on a lifeboat to remain with her husband
A rare Titanic deck plan owned by an elderly couple in first class who died when the doomed liner sank is set to sell at auction £50,000
Ida and Isidore Straus drowned side by side after Mrs Straus refused a place on a lifeboat to remain with her husband - a scene iconically depicted in the 1997 Titanic film.
The deck plans were only handed out to the 324 first class passengers when they arrived on the ship in Southampton on April 10, 1912.
It is believed only three of them from the ship exist today, with two in private collections and this one now on the open market. Witness accounts stated the plan's owners sat on deckchairs and held hands until they were washed into the sea as the Titanic sank.
In the Hollywood blockbuster, starring Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio, artistic licence was used to show the devoted couple cuddling up together on their bed. In the emotive scene, Mr Straus gives his wife a kiss on the cheek while their stateroom floods.
The plan was in the possession of the Straus' maid Ellen Bird who survived the disaster in which 1,495 people were lost. She kept hold of the 41x29in document for the rest of her life and it has now been put up for auction by the current private owner.
Despite its age and fragile condition the delicate piece of tissue paper has remained in one piece over the last 99 years. It has been given a pre-sale estimate of between £40,000 to £50,000.
Andrew Aldridge, of auctioneers Henry Aldridge and Son of Devizes, Wilts, which is selling the plan said: 'This represents the zenith of collectables pertaining to Titanic.
'Isadore Straus was one of the wealthiest people on the ship and original material relating to his and his party's time on board Titanic is practically non-existant.
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Different class: The pictures on the left of decks A and B show the opulence in which some stayed compared with those in the lower classes on decks C and D
There is still pencilled notations made by Miss Bird who marked with a cross her suit of C97 which was next door to the suite occupied by John Farthing -Mr Straus' man servant who died in the disaster.
Miss Bird's room was directly opposite the Straus' lavish stateroom numbered C55-57 which had its own bedroom and separate sitting room.
The plan also includes several printed photos of some of the onboard facilities as well as a list of them and directions and instructions for the passengers.
Mr Straus, 63, was a wealthy businessman who owned the Macey's department store in New York.
He and his family were returning to America on Titanic following a holiday in Europe.
Their 15-year-old granddaughter Beatrice holidayed with them but stayed on in Germany. After the 45,000 ton liner struck an iceberg at 11.40pm on April 14, in the north Atlantic many first class passengers were helped into lifeboats.
At first Mrs Straus, 63, joined Mrs Bird in lifeboat eight before getting out to be with her husband, reportedly saying: 'We have lived together for many years. Where you go, I go.'
Her body was never recovered unlike that of her husband. His last listed effects included black silk socks, gold watch, silver flask and £40 in notes. Miss Bird, who was from Old Buckingham, Norfolk, died in Rhose Island in 1949 aged 68. The auction takes place in Devizes on Saturday, October 29.
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Broad, Claymore, and Epee are types of what? | Sword Types
Sword Types
Giving a short list of sword types seems to be easy. Well - it isn't. For one thing, it will never end because every culture / civilization or language group had and has plenty of sword types and words for them, most of them unknown outside that culture / civilization or language group, thank God. But some of these words made it to other groups already in the past, and more and more outlandish denominations make it into English or German right now. Unfortunately, the precise meaning, if it was known at all, may get lost in the process.
Contrariwise, one and the same word might have different meanings here or there or then and now. Not to mention that there is no 1 : 1 correlation between translations from language to language. The English "broadsword" translates properly to a German "Korbschwert" (= basket sword). The direct translation would be "Breitschwert". This term does exist in German - but it denotes something quite different from a "broadsword".
Only one thing seems to be certain: any short definition of some term, no matter which one, will bring in protests from some camp of believers out there. So let me state on the outset: whatever I write further down, my heart isn't in it. Correct me if you like. I'll go along with you - until the next correction comes in.
My own interest is not so much about the name associated with a particular type of sword but about its metallography. Since correlating sword types to metallography is mostly not a sensible thing to do, my next question is why some particular kind of sword existed at all? The user had always access to or at least some knowledge of some other types. Why did the crusaders not switch from their long straight swords to the curved ones of their opponents and vice versa? Why was the Greek kopis / falcata not used by the Romans but by their Hispanic adversaries?
I know that form often follows function, and that you have to consider stabbing / thrusting vs. slashing / cutting and so on. Fighting on foot or from horseback demands different kinds of weapons, and so does the kind of armor in use at a particular era. But that does not not explain half of it. What is the advantage of a Yatagan (concave curved) relative to a scimitar (convex curved)? Blades with rather similar shapes often have quite different hilts. Why? What function was optimized?
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Form follows function but there are often quite different forms for the same function (like attracting members of the opposite sex; fashion in clothing relies on that but differs mightily). The hilts shown above would all go with one and the same blade, and one might ask which one is "best". One just won't get a clear answer.
I'm not saying that there aren't any answers to some of these questions. There are - but not to all questions. And keep in mind that some of these answers might be wrong. Worse, there might be several and possibly conflicting answers.
Quite frustrating - and quite interesting! If the present fascination with old swords and old ways of fighting with swords continues, we will get more answers and in parallel more insights into our history.
In what follows I just share with you what I found out about the topic without actually doing much research. Wikipedia was very helpful but I neither claim completeness nor accuracy.
I start with a table containing major sword types plus some types occurring somewhere in the Hyperscript. The links in the left column of the table lead to some more involved description further down, other links lead to modules in the bulk of the Hyperscript. Some terms highlighted in red and italics you find explained either somewhere in this module or in the glossary .
Xiphos
Xiphos
The straight double-edged ancient Greek sword, leaf-shaped and quite similar to bronze swords and early Celtic ("Hallstatt") swords.
Arming sword (Ritterschwert = knight's sword; Kampfschwert = fighting sword; Breitschwert = literally broadsword)
The term is not very popular but describes "the" quintessential European sword; the basic kind of sword most people would describe if asked "what is a sword"?
"The arming sword (also sometimes called a knight's or knightly sword ) is a type of European sword with a single-handed cruciform hilt and straight double-edged blade of around 70 cm - 80 cm, in common use from the 11th to 16th centuries." says Wikipedia.
It's the kind of older sword you see in many museums and castles. They are so common that, funny enough, nobody seems to have taken a picture. There is practically nothing in the Net!
Well - here are a few from the always reliable Sword Forum International:
Source: Sword Forum International
Details can be found in Oakeshott's book . The German terminology tends to be a bit more descriptive and differentiated. Note that the German "Breitschwert" (= broad sword if transcribed literally) is an arming sword!
Arming swords belong to the "high medieval" (Hochmittelalter) era (about 1050 - 1250), the related longsword appeared after that in the late medieval (Spätmittelalter) era (about 1250 - 1500).
For comparison: The crusades took place essentially from 1095 - 1272. After 1272 the holy fighting spirit flared up occasionally again, and the very last crusade ended with the ignominious battle of Nicopolis (Bulgaria) in 1396, where the 10 000 or so allied knights of Hungary, Bulgaria, Croatia, Wallachia, France, Burgundy and Germany first lost the battle to the Ottoman forces under Sultan Bayezid and then their heads to the sword. Bayezid, majorly pissed about the whole crusade thing, had all but a handful of survivors put to the sword (probably of the scimitar type).
Yemen origin, total length 89.5 cm; blade length 77 cm, 3.5 cm wide.
Source: Auction catalogue
Backswords originated with a slightly curved blade and a kind of basket hilt in Hungary as the sword of the heavy noblemen cavalry. The German word "Pallasch" is simply a transcription of the Hungarian pallos = sword.
We have a first case where the name in some language, here German, is simply the general word for sword in the original language. We have in parallel the case that the word in English describes some property: "backsword" means a sword with a flat "back" or "spine" opposite the cutting edge.
Backswords were used all over the world it seems. First by the cavalry but later also be the infantry. Backswords are simple, easy to make and thus cheap. They also were easy to use. Soldiers who had a sword not as primary weapon but as a kind of last resort could not make very good use of a long double-edged blade since that needed considerable skill if it was to be used to full advantage.
Broadsword or actually a schiavona
Source: Wikipedia
Broadswords are also known as (Italian) Schiavona or (Scottish) claidheamh cuil (meaning "backsword"). I refer to this to illustrate the easy confusion inherent in all these words and types. A broadsword, if single edged, is a backsword or Pallasch if you like.
To make things worse, the direct translation to German yields " Breitschwert ", and this is something else.
The schiavona, by the way, was popular in Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries. It goes back to the sword of the 16th-century Balkan mercenaries of Istrian and Dalmatian Slavs, Schiavoni in Old Italian, who formed the bodyguards of the Doge of Venice.
A German "Breitschwert", also known as "Ritterschwert" (= knight's sword) or Kampfschwert (= fighting sword), is your typical straight double-edged sword with a long cross-guard (so it imitates the Christian cross) that could be used with one hand in contrast to the "Langschwert", the long sword. It is thus the basic sword of the medieval fighting noblemen, say 10 th - 15th century.
To make the confusion complete you just need to google the pictures for "broadsword" and you get none of the above but a lot of modern phantasy stuff.
U.S. Naval Cutlasses, models (top to bottom) 1917, 1860, 1841
Source: Internet; ArmsCollectors.com
The word "cutlass" has a history of its own. It goes back to a 17th-century English variation of "coutelas", which in turn is 16th-century French word for a big knife. In modern French a knife is a coteau. Ultimately, the couteau / coutelas or coltello in Italian goes back to the Latin "cultellus" = small knife.
The cutlass is a 17th century descendent of the edged short sword exemplified by the medieval falchion. It was a kind of low prestige weapon, used by woodsmen, simple soldiers, and in particular by sailors, including pirates, from the 17th century and up.
"It was not only robust enough to hack through heavy ropes, canvas, and wood, but short enough to use in relatively close quarters, such as during boarding actions, in the rigging, or below decks. Another advantage to the cutlass was its simplicity of use. Employing it effectively required less training than that required to master a rapier or small sword, and it was more effective as a close-combat weapon than a full-sized sword would be on a cramped ship." says Wikipedia.
I might mention that it was probably cheap and easy to fix yourself. Its roots might go back to the low prestige but non-nonsense sax or seax of antiquity and the "dark ages" in Europe if not to the even older falcata and the Greek kopis .
Cutlasses made it to the standard sword of many navies; see the picture above. Being sturdy and short, it was good for close-range combat on board of ships and, not to forget, rather cheap.
In order to confuse things a bit, in the English-speaking Caribbean, the term "cutlass" is used as a word for machete. That might well be so because the machete might have the cutlass as its ancestor.
Executioners swords (used), 17 th century
Source: Photographed on Coburg Castle, South Germany
Of course , before special executioners swords became the fashion, regular sword were used and still are. Watching a public beheading is still an item on the short list of allowed weekend fun activities in present-day Saudi Arabia. You might have an intimate if brief date with the guy and his sword shown below if you were convicted, among other things, of apostasy (renunciation of Islam), blasphemy, sodomy, homosexuality or lesbianism, idolatry (worship of an idol or a physical object), sorcery or witchcraft, whatever the difference, and waging war on God. In addition, Saudi Arabia has recently passed a law recommending the death penalty for anyone caught carrying or smuggling a bible into the country.
Executioner swords, 21st century, with executioner attached
Source: Internet; obviously ISFPHOTOS.COM
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"This shape distributes the weight in such a way that the falcata is capable of delivering a blow with the momentum of an axe, while maintaining the longer cutting edge of a sword" says Wikipedia.
Falcata were used by the ancient Greeks in the 4th - 5th century BC and the old Spaniards until 100 AD or maybe longer.
Alexander the Great and his troops may have brought it to India where it mutate into the kukri.
A lot about the falcata is rather unclear. Some believe that the Celts introduced in to the Iberian Peninsula, together with iron working in general, and that it developed independently of the Greek kopis. The only difference, however, are details of the grip. The kopis is usually depicted with a straight grip, whereas the end of the falcata's grip curves around to form a semi-enclosed hilt.
This may or may not be true. We certainly need more data and more detailed investigations.
Source: "Weapons of Warriors"
A kilijis not all that different from the Shamshir, typically associated with Persia / Iran, the Arabian saif or the tulwar. They are all scimitars, if you like.
A kilij is typically a bit more massive and a bit less curved then a samshir / tulwar. Its blade may curve slightly from the hilt and more strongly in the distal half, and the width of the blade stays narrow (with a slight taper) up until the last 30% of its length, at which point it flares out and becomes wider. This distinctive flaring tip is called a " yalman " or yelman (false edge) that adds to the cutting power of the sword and in particular to its thrusting capabilities
It goes without saying that a kilij was typically made from wootz steel.
Source: Weapons of warriors
Between the one-handed arming sword and a fully two-handed long sword are all kinds of in-betweens like the "bastard sword" or "hand-and-a-half sword" (Anderthalbhänder).
There is far more to the longsword and its cousins (like the claymore ). Suffice it to add that the really long blades are found later, 15th century say, when the rapier and the epée took over. Fighting with the long sword, however, remained in fashion as a kind of sports among civilians and sword-fight schools appeared, some of which issued "manuals":
Long sword fighting techniques
Source: Internet; the lower one is from the 1467 manual of Hans Talhoffer
Rapiers in some (unidentified) museum
The rapier evolved from the " side-sword " (Seitschwert), a slender kind of a one-hand regular straight double-edged sword. popular during the late 16th century.
The rapier still has a flat if rather slender and long blade with two sharp edges. While primarily a thrusting weapon, it does not bend easily and thus can still be used for slashing, if not very effectively. That distinguishes it from the similar looking but shorter and lighter epée or Degen (with a triangular, square or round cross-section).
In the 16th century a rapier was the sword of a nobleman. Before that a sword was an important tool for all men in the military who needed it and could afford it. The nobility eventually didn't like to do the killing themselves anymore, running the risk of getting killed themselves. They now had paid specialists for that (just like today). They just needed some kind of sword as status symbol, and to kill you and me on the side if we got uppity. The occasional duels added spice to life.
Swords, in short, became fashion items once more.
Fencing with the rapier eveloped as a kind of art with the endless exchange of blows we all know from watching TV. To be sure, wielding a spatha of any kind in a real battle also demanded considerable skill but you would not be standing there, engaging your enemy for 20 minutes or longer "as seen on TV" or in innumerable movies. You or your enemy typically went down within minutes if not seconds.
All that new stuff became possible because the quality of steel had increased to the point where these kind of swords could be made without risking early breakage of the slender blade.
Guarding the Danish Queen in Copenhagen with a sabre (and a machine gun)
Medieval men did encounter curved blades early on. Perhaps as early as the battle of Poitiers and Tours around 735 but certainly during the crusades.
Sabres, late 19th century, French army
Sabres. French Navy (top; 19th century), US Cavalry (bottom, 1862)
Source: Wikipedis "sabre" in various languages
However, sabres came in many forms and sizes, from almost straight to substantially curved and generalizations are dangerous. Of course, you might use the term "sabre" to denote any sword with some curvature (including almost none) and with a cutting edge on one side only (but allowing parts of a sharpened backside, too). Backsword, cutlasses and so on then would be special kinds of sabres.
Whatever, most of the European military carried some kind of sabre (or the related backsword / cutlass) at the latest in the 19th century
Why the sabre completely replaced the time-honored straight European sword is easy to see. In the words of the German Wikipedia (translated by me):
"With a curved blade substantially larger wounds could be inflicted on the opponent compared to a straight sword - provided one knew the drill otherwise hardly any damage was done. Moreover, with a sufficiently curved blade it didn't matter much if you hit the opponent with the middle part of the blade, in contrast to the straight sword where it was important to hit with the front part only. That's why a straight blade is rather counterproductive in close combat, at least for only averagely skilled fighters."
Of course, as always, the specific design depended on the intended use. Only slashing: go for substantial curvature. Mostly stabbing: Keep it pretty much straight and sharpen at least parts of the backside. Both: compromise.
The history of curved single-edged blades or "sabre" in Central Europe is complex. Very generally speaking, sabres were of little consequence in Western Europe before the 30-year war (1618 - 1648). During this war, the Croatian Cavalry used sabres in an obviously convincing manner, and the sabres of the Hussar's (originally the Hungarian cavalry, later a term for light cavalry in general) became feared until modern times. "The sabre then gained widespread use in the early 19th century, to some extent inspired by the "Mameluke sword", a type of Middle Eastern scimitar" says Wikipedia, and I would guess that this inspirations was in parts due to the lively interest in "wootz" steel in England and the Continent that started in the early 19th century.
However! While sabres might well have been of little consequence in Western Europe before the 17th century, they were nevertheless known, particularly in the East - look up the Sarass below. Charlemagne (ca. 745 814) was rumored to own a sabre and this weapon can still be seen as part of the Regalia of the Holy Roman Empire. Here it is:
"Charlemagnes" sabre
1 The real thing in Vienna, 2. Modern Replica, 3 The real thing.
Source: 1 Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna, 2 Hanwei, 3. Herman Fillitz, 1954, "Die Insignien und Kleinodien de Heiligen Römischen Reiches"
"The sabre is of a Hungarian type and formed part of the Aachen (Germany) regalia of the "Holy Roman Empire" (in central Europe; essentially Germany, from the 12th to the 19th century). During the coronation of the (more or less German) King, the new king belted the sword to his person. Until 1794 it was kept in Aachen. When French troops approached Aachen in 1794 the Imperial regalia located there were taken to the Capuchin abbey at Paderborn (Germany), then to Hildesheim (Germany) in 1798 and finally to Vienna (Austria) in 1801. The sabre was stored in the Treasury of the Hofburg Palace in Vienna." states the English Wikipedia.
That's what happens to your regalia if you fail to to invade Gaul every now and then.
Before you get all excited now: Charlemagne did certainly not own this sabre. It dates either to the 10th or early 11th century (German Wikipedia) or to the second half of the 9th century (English Wikipedia). Whatever, it is a rather early sabre and it came from the East. It is only slightly curved and probably comes from the Avar sphere of influence .
Anyway, "Charlemagne's sabre" was obviously kept in high regard by the mighty and influential in the 11th century and later - but they did not emulate it.
In between "Charlemagne's sabre" and the sabre in the 30-year-war and beyond, was the sarass, see below.
My personal feeling is that up to about 1500 a straight doubled-edged sword was the sword of Central Europe, use by all involved in warfare. In the same general time period (give or take a century), the iron and steel industry switched from running small-scale blooneries producing wrought iron to larger-scale blast furnaces producing cast iron. That in turn necessitated new technologies for making steel and allowed to make guns, changing warfare. In consequence, swords branched into two basically different kinds: those employed to kill people with on the battle field, and those needed to display your status and for ritual fighting, like duels. The former evolved into the sabre, the latter into rapiers and epées.
Source: Khorasani's brilliant book
The samshir is a member of the scimitar family that includes the tulwar, saif and kilij as the more prominent members. They all are curved and often made from wootz steel . While the blades might be similar, hilts and scabbards typically differ substantially.
Granted, the average samshir might be more strongly curved than your average tulwar or kilij. You can certainly go on and define more fine points of difference but as far as I'm concerned the decisive feature of the samshir is its Persian origin.
It is not surprising that all the swords mentioned above are related. They all made it to prominence around the middle of the 16th century and they are supposed to have a common ancestor. To quote Wikipedia:
"Originally Persian swords were straight and double edged, just as the Indian khanda. The curved scimitar blades were Central Asian in origin. The earliest evidence of curved swords, or scimitars, is from the 9th century, when these weapons were used by soldiers in the Khurasan region of Central Asia. The sword now called "shamshir" was introduced to Iran by Turkic Seljuk Khanate in 12th century and was later popularized in Persia by the early 16th century, and had "relatives" in Turkey (the kilij), the Mughal Empire (the talwar), and the adjoining Arabian world (the saif)".
Khorasani has a lot to say about the origin of the samshir. He details all the instances where curved blades have been encountered rather early but also makes clear that science so far as not reached a general agreement on details. The view given above, if oversimplified, is not entirely without merits.
Be that as it may. From a metallurgical point of view (my view, remember?), it is far more interesting when, where and how the crucible steel used for a samshir and his brethren was developed, and how wootz blades eventually developed from that. I have given you many modules for that; go find them
Paintings of Sarras', around 1600
Source: Wkipedia
The sarass is the "classical" sword of the originally Hungarian Hussars . After Hussars and the related Croatian horsemen took it into Western Europe, it mutated to the sabre discussed above.
The pictures above make it quite clear that the ancestors of the sarras are swords from the scimitar family, e.g. the kilij.
That is not surprising. After the Turkish victory at Nicopolis , some driven-out local yokels became a kind of "Gastarbeiter"1) for the Hungarian army, forming a light cavalry equipped with sarass, lance and shield. They became known and feared as "hussars". The first mentioning of that term (with unclear etymology) is from 1481. By then the hussars had evolved to heavy cavalry, armed with the sarass and other heavy stuff that showed clear Osmanic influence. Read on under "sabre".
Why does the Sarras nicely demonstrates how tangled the connections between sword types can be? Consider:
The sarass goes back to the "Turks", and Croatians brought it into Hungary
Croatians and Hungarian Hussars used it for devastating Germany during the 30 year war, fighting for the Austrians. .
The name is actually Polish (za raz "for slash, strike").
And thus Germany (and other countries) acquired the sabre
Yatagans form the Askeri Museum , Istanbul
Left to right: from 1864, 1855, 1808)
Source: From Gözde Yasar's book: : "Askeri Müze Yatagan Koleksiyonu"; 2009
Yatagans have their name either from the Turkish town Yatagan in southwest Turkey that was famous for its yataghan smithing, from the Uzbek tribe of Kataghan, or because it was carried "lying down" (= yatagan in Turkis) in the belt. It's remote ancestors might have been the Greek kopis and in particular the falcata . But these swords haven' t been around much for more than 1000 years before the yatagan became prominent in Turkey and surrounding Balkanese regions around 1500 - 1900, peaking in the 19th century.
I have not found any reference to the advantage of a recurved blade for fighting. And the yatagan was used for honest fighting, it was not just a dress sword like the European smallsword . However, it certainly did have that function, too, together with advertising the status of its owner. It was not worn hanging from a belt or baldric but was pushed inside the belt. Mustafa Kemal A tatürk , the famous founder of the modern Turkish Republic, shows how:
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, sporting a Yatagan in 1914
Source: From Gözde Yasar's book: : "Askeri Müze Yatagan Koleksiyonu"; 2009
Note that Atatürks headwear is not so much a fashion statement but the Turkish version of armor. Try to cut through all this stuff with a sword stroke!
From a metallurgical point of view, a yatagan could be made from wootz steel , plain steel (typically with a softer spine and a hard edge) and even pattern welded ones are known (e.g. in Manfred Sachse's book ).
| Foster-Miller TALON |
What type of animal appears in the Ferrari logo? | Sword Types of the World
Common Sword Types
Bayonet: A short to medium length blade adapted to fit the muzzle end of a rifle. The first bayonets were made at Bayonne, France around 1655, and the word "bayonet" or "bayonette" entered the English language around 1672.
Broadsword: A sword with a wide blade used for slashing and cutting rather than thrusting.
Claymore: Large heavy Scottish double-edged variant of the late medieval two-handed sword. The Claymore is characterized as having a cross hilt of forward-sloping quillons with quatrefoil terminations. It was in use from the 15th to 17th centuries.
Cutlass: Heavy short sword with curved single-edged blade used by sailors and pirates
Dagger: A short stabbing weapon with pointed blade
Dirk, Durk: Single-edged Scottish dagger with blade about 15 inches (38cm) long
Epee, �p�e: Narrow double-edged or triple-edged French sword heavier than a foil with bowl-shaped bell guard used for dueling and fencing, with the opponent's entire body as its target
Fencing Foil: Narrow four-sided French thrusting weapon with bowl-shaped guard used for fencing, which has as its target the opponent's torso
Flamberg�: Double-edged French sword with wavy multiple-curved or serpentine blade usually over 18 inches in length
Katana: Japanese single-edged sword with slight curve
Kris, Kriss: Malaysian double-edged dagger with wavy multiple-curved blade usually under 18 inches in length
Knights of Columbus: A Masonic ceremonial double-edged sword that dates back to mid to late 1930's with the head of Christopher Columbus, the Order's patron, on the grip cap. The Knights of Columbus sword has a narrow double-edged blade about 28 inches in length with the overall length of the sword in the scabbard being 37 inches. For Masons, the sword is worn hanging from the Service Baldric on the left hip with Columbus' head facing forward.
Landsknecht Zweih�nder: Large two-handed German double-edged sword used by the German Landsknecht in the early 16th century. The Zweih�nder swords developed from the bastard sword or montante ("longsword") of the Late Middle Ages, and they became a hallmark weapon of the German Landsknechte from the time of Maximilian (d. 1519) and during the Italian Wars of 1494-1559.
Light Sword: Shorter version of the classic "knightly" double-edged longsword common to various European cultures dating from the late Medieval period.
Longsword: Classic "knightly" double-edged sword common to various European cultures dating from the late Medieval period.
Rapier: A long narrow French sword lacking a cutting edge, often with swept, basket or cuplike hilt, used in the 16th and 17th centuries for thrusting
Saber, Sabre: Single-edged military sword with slight curve and swept knuckle guard
Sai: Far-eastern style eight-sided sword used for martial arts practice
Scimitar: Near-eastern style single-edged curved saber
Shamshir: Type of sabre with a curve that is considered radical for a sword: 5 to 15 degrees from tip to tip. The name is derived from Persian
"shamshir", which means "sword" (in general). Typical pre-Islamic Iranian blades used for warfare were originally straight. Curved blades in this period were used primarily for hunting, though examples of curved swords used in battle are present in Greek depictions of Achaemenid Persian soldiers. The curved scimitar blades became popular after the Mongol invasions. The sword now called shamshir was popular in Persia by the early 16th century, with similar variations in Turkey (the kilij), Mughal India (the talwar), and the adjoining Arabian world (the saif). These blades all were developed from the ubiquitous parent sword, the Turko-Mongol saber.
Stiletto: Smaller version of the Italian 'stilo' dagger with a double-edged almost triangular blade which was easy to hide in clothing
Wakizashi: Small Japanese single-edged katana sword
Zweih�nder: Large two-handed German double-edged sword used primarily in the early 16th century. The Zweih�nder swords developed from the bastard sword or montante ("longsword") of the Late Middle Ages. They became a hallmark weapon of the German Landsknechte from the time of Maximilian (d. 1519) and during the Italian Wars of 1494-1559.
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April 12, 1861 saw the opening of the Civil War when confederate forces opened fire on what fort in the harbor of Charleston, SC? | Charleston, SC - April 1861
Maps of Fort Sumter, South Carolina (1861)
Charleston, SC - April 1861
Fort Sumter
April 12, 1861
On April 10, 1861, Brig. Gen. Beauregard, in command of the provisional Confederate forces at Charleston, South Carolina, demanded the surrender of the Union garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Garrison commander Anderson refused. On April 12, Confederate batteries opened fire on the fort, which was unable to reply effectively. At 2:30 pm, April 13, Major Anderson surrendered Fort Sumter, evacuating the garrison on the following day. The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the opening engagement of the American Civil War. Although there were no casualties during the bombardment, one Union artillerist was killed and three wounded (one mortally) when a cannon exploded prematurely while firing a salute during the evacuation on April 14.
For history articles, photos and more visit our Fort Sumter page »
| Fort Sumter |
Active up until the late 90s, when he switched to a successful acting career, who headlined the group known as the Funky Bunch? | Fort Sumter [ushistory.org]
33a. Fort Sumter
Confederate forces shelled Fort Sumter for three and a half days before Northern commander Major Robert Anderson surrendered. This image depicts Fort Sumter as it appeared in 1861.
It all began at Fort Sumter.
On December 20, 1860, South Carolina seceded from the Union. Five days later, 68 federal troops stationed in Charleston, South Carolina, withdrew to Fort Sumter, an island in Charleston Harbor. The North considered the fort to be the property of the United States government. The people of South Carolina believed it belonged to the new Confederacy. Four months later, the first engagement of the Civil War took place on this disputed soil.
The commander at Fort Sumter, Major Robert Anderson, was a former slave owner who was nevertheless unquestionably loyal to the Union. With 6,000 South Carolina militia ringing the harbor, Anderson and his soldiers were cut off from reinforcements and resupplies. In January 1861, as one the last acts of his administration, President James Buchanan sent 200 soldiers and supplies on an unarmed merchant vessel, Star of the West, to reinforce Anderson. It quickly departed when South Carolina artillery started firing on it.
Fort Sumter lies in the center of Charleston Harbor.
In February 1861, Jefferson Davis was inaugurated as the provisional president of the Confederate States of America, in Montgomery, Alabama. On March 4,1861, Abraham Lincoln took his oath of office as president of the Union in Washington, DC. The fate of Fort Sumter lay in the hands of these two leaders.
As weeks passed, pressure grew for Lincoln to take some action on Fort Sumter and to reunite the states. Lincoln thought of the Southern secession as "artificial." When Jefferson Davis sent a group of commissioners to Washington to negotiate for the transfer of Fort Sumter to South Carolina, they were promptly rebuffed.
Lincoln had a dilemma. Fort Sumter was running out of supplies, but an attack on the fort would appear as Northern aggression. States that still remained part of the Union (such as Virginia and North Carolina) might be driven into the secessionist camp. People at home and abroad might become sympathetic to the South. Yet Lincoln could not allow his troops to starve or surrender and risk showing considerable weakness.
Jefferson Davis was inaugurated provisional president of the Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861, and elected president of the CSA later that year.
At last he developed a plan. On April 6, Lincoln told the governor of South Carolina that he was going to send provisions to Fort Sumter. He would send no arms, troops, or ammunition — unless, of course, South Carolina attacked.
Now the dilemma sat with Jefferson Davis. Attacking Lincoln's resupply brigade would make the South the aggressive party. But he simply could not allow the fort to be resupplied. J.G. Gilchrist, a Southern newspaper writer, warned, "Unless you sprinkle the blood in the face of the people of Alabama, they will be back in the old Union in less than ten days."
Davis decided he had no choice but to order Anderson to surrender Sumter. Anderson refused.
The Civil War began at 4:30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, when Confederate artillery, under the command of General Pierre Gustave T. Beauregard, opened fire on Fort Sumter. Confederate batteries showered the fort with over 3,000 shells in a three-and-a-half day period. Anderson surrendered. Ironically, Beauregard had developed his military skills under Anderson's instruction at West Point. This was the first of countless relationships and families devastated in the Civil War. The fight was on.
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The first player (since 1880) to break the so-called color barrier in Major League Baseball, Jackie Robinson played his first major league game on April 15, 1947, for what team? And a bonus point if you can tell me what position he played. | Read More in American History Magazine
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By mid-November the criticism became so hostile that Rickey’s own family pleaded with him to abandon his crusade for fear that it would destroy his health. The Dodger president refused, speaking only of the excitement and competitive advantage that black players would bring to Brooklyn baseball, while downplaying the moral significance he attached to integration. “The greatest untapped reservoir of raw material in the history of the game is the black race,” he contended. “The Negroes will make us winners for years to come and for that I will happily bear being called a ‘bleeding heart’ and a ‘do-gooder’ and all that humanitarian rot.”
Robinson’s first test came during the 1946 preseason, even before he debuted with the Montreal Royals. Rickey named Mississippian Clay Hopper, who had worked for him since 1929, to manage the Royals. There were reports, probably true, that Hopper begged Rickey to reconsider giving him this assignment. But Rickey’s careful handling of Robinson’s jump to the big leagues would seem to suggest that he believed that having a Southerner at the helm of the Montreal club would head off some dissension among the players and that he trusted Hopper to handle any situation that might arise.
Throughout the ’46 season, Robinson endured racist remarks from fans and opposing players and humiliating treatment in the South. By season’s end, the constant pressure and abuse had taken its toll—his hair began to gray, he suffered with chronic stomach trouble, and some thought he was on the brink of a nervous breakdown. Finding himself unable to eat or sleep, he went to a doctor, who concluded he was suffering from stress. “You’re not having a nervous breakdown,” the physician told him. “You’re under a lot of stress. Stay home and don’t read any newspapers, and don’t go to the ballpark for a week.” Jackie, his wife Rachel remembered, stayed home for one day. The problem, she said, “came from his not being able to fight back.” It was, as Rickey had warned him, “the cross that you must bear.”
Despite the tension and distractions, Robinson managed to hit for an impressive .349 average and led the Montreal Royals to victory over the Louisville Colonels in the Little World Series. After the final game in that championship series, grateful Royals fans hoisted Robinson onto their shoulders and carried him to the locker room. Hopper shook his shortstop’s hand and said: “You’re a real ballplayer and a gentleman. It’s been wonderful having you on the team.” Robinson had made his first convert.
Because Robinson’s success with Montreal had been so impressive, Rickey assumed that all the Dodgers would demand is promotion to the majors for the 1947 season. “After all,” he reasoned, “Robinson could mean a pennant, and ball players are not averse to cashing World Series checks.”
To promote and protect his young black star, Rickey made some additional moves. First, in order to avoid Jim Crow restrictions, he held spring training in Havana, Cuba, instead of Florida. Next, he moved Robinson, an experienced shortstop and second baseman, to first base, where he would be spared physical contact with opposing players who might try to injure him deliberately.
Finally, Rickey scheduled a seven-game series between the Dodgers and the Royals in order to showcase Robinson’s talent. “I want you to be a whirling demon against the Dodgers in this series,” Rickey told Robinson. “You have to be so good that the Dodger players themselves are going to want you on their club….I want you to hit that ball. I want you to get on base and run wild. Steal their pants off. Be the most conspicuous player on the field. The newspapermen from New York will send good stories back about you and help mold favorable public opinion.”
Robinson more than obliged, batting .625 and stealing seven bases in the series. But instead of helping him, the performance served only to alienate him from his future teammates, many of whom were Southerners. Alabamian Dixie Walker drafted a petition stating that the players who signed would prefer to be traded than to play with a black teammate. While the team was playing exhibition games in Panama, Walker proceeded to gather signatures from Dodger teammates. Harold “Pee Wee” Reese, although a Kentuckian, refused to sign. It was a tremendously courageous act on his part because, as the team’s shortstop, Reese had more to lose than any other Dodger. “If he can take my job,” Reese insisted, “he’s entitled to it.”
When Dodger manager Leo Durocher learned of the petition, he was furious. He had asked Rickey to bring Robinson up to Brooklyn during the previous year’s pennant drive. At a late-night team meeting, according to Harold Parrott, the Dodger road secretary, Durocher told Walker and the other petitioners that “I don’t care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a zebra. I’m the manager of this team and I say he plays. What’s more, I say he can make us all rich….An’ if any of you can’t use the money, I’ll see that you’re traded.”
The rebellion squelched, Rickey announced on April 10, 1947, that Jackie Robinson had officially been signed to play first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers. The noble experiment was in full swing.
Of all the major league cities, Brooklyn, with its ethnically diverse and racially mixed neighborhoods, was just the place to break the color barrier. Despite their reputation as “perennial losers”—since the franchise’s establishment in 1883, no Brooklyn team had won a World Series—the Dodgers enjoyed an enduring love affair with their fans. This warm affinity was fostered, in part, by their cramped but colorful ballpark, Ebbets Field, located in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn. The double-decked grandstands stood only along the foul lines, allowing the fans a special intimacy wit the players. “If you were in a box seat,” said broadcaster Red Barber, “you were so close you were practically an infielder.” Aside from the patchwork collection of local advertisements in left field; the large black scoreboard in right; and the tone-deaf “Dodger Symphony Band” that roamed the grandstand, nothing came between the Dodger and their die-hard fans.
When Robinson made his first appearance as a Dodger on April 15, 1947, more than 26,000 fans packed Ebbets Field; reportedly some 14,000 of those were African American. The afternoon was cold and rainy, and Robinson went hitless. Nonetheless, the sight of a black man on a major league diamond during a regular season game moved the crowd so deeply that they cheered the Dodgers on to a 5-3 victory over the Boston Braves. Every move the 28-year-old rookie made seemed to be greeted with the chant: “Jackie! Jackie! Jackie!” It seemed as if baseball had finally shed its three-quarters of a century of hypocrisy to become truly deserving of the title “national pastime.”
When the Philadelphia Phillies arrived in Brooklyn a week later, however, all hopes that integration would come peaceably were shattered. In one of the lowest moments ever in baseball history, the Phillies, led by their Southern manager, Ben Chapman, launched a tirade of racial epithets during the pregame batting practice. And the jeering did not let up throughout the entire three-game series.
Two weeks later, when the Dodgers traveled to the so-called City of Brotherly Love, Chapman and his Phillies picked up where they left off, warning the Dodger players that they would contract diseases if they touched Robinson and indulging in even more personal racial slurs. Robinson’s less-than-stellar hitting in the series only added to the Phillies’ contention that he did not belong in the majors and was a ploy to attract blacks to Dodger games and make more money for Rickey.
After the second game of the series, angry Dodger fans launched a full-scale protest with the National League’s president, Ford Frick, who responded by ordering Chapman and the Phillies to stop their verbal assault immediately. In fact, Chapman probably would have lost his job over the incident, if Robinson had not agreed to pose with him for a conciliatory newspaper photograph. Under duress, the Phillies manager agreed to stand next to the Dodger rookie. “Ben extended his hand,” Harold Parrott recalled, “smiling broadly as if they had been buddy-buddy for a lifetime. Robinson reached out and grasped it. The flicker of a smile crept across his face as the photographer snapped away, getting several shots.
Years later Robinson admitted that the incessant abuse during those games with the Phillies almost led him to the breaking point. As he described it: “For one wild and rage-crazed minute I thought, ‘To hell with Mr. Rickey’s noble experiment. It’s clear that it won’t succeed….What a glorious, cleansing thing it would be to let go.’ To hell with the image of the patient black freak I was supposed to create. I could throw down my bat, stride over to the Phillies dugout, grab one of those white sons of bitches and smash his teeth in with my despised black fist. Then I could walk away from it and I’d never become a sports star. But my son could tell his son some day what his daddy could have been if he hadn’t been too much of a man.”
The experience with the Phillies revealed the shocking severity of the racism that existed in baseball. At the same time, however, Robinson’s tremendous restraint in the face of such ugly prejudice served to rally his teammates around him and the cause of integration. Eddie Stanky, one of those who had signed the petition against Robinson joining the team, became so angered by the Phillies’ relentless abuse that he challenged them to “yell at somebody who can answer back.” Soon after, before a game in Cincinnati, the Reds’ players taunted Pee Wee Reese about playing with a black teammate. The Dodger shortstop walked over to Robinson and, in a firm show of support, placed his arm around the first baseman’s shoulders.
As the season unfolded, Dodger support for Robinson strengthened in response to the admirable way he handled all the adversity. Opposing pitchers threw at his head and ribs, while infielders would spit in his face if he was involved in a close play on the base paths. And the hate mail was unending. But through it all, Robinson persevered. He even managed to keep a sense of humor. Before one game in Cincinnati, when the Dodgers learned that their first baseman’s life had been threatened, one teammate suggested that all the players wear Robinson’s number “42” on their backs to confuse the assailant. “Okay with me,” responded the rookie. “Paint your faces black and run pigeon-toed too!”
Even the white baseball establishment began to embrace the Dodger infielder. In May of 1947, when Ford Frick learned of the St. Louis Cardinals’ intention to instigate a league-wide strike by walking off the ball diamond in a scheduled game against the integrated Dodgers, he vowed to suspend their ringleaders if they carried out their plan. “I don’t care if I wreck the National League for five years,” he declared. “This is the United States of America, and one citizen has as much right to play as another. The National League will go down the line with Robinson whatever the consequence.” The conspiracy died on the spot.
When the season ended, the Sporting News, which had gone on record earlier as opposing the integration of baseball because “There is not a single Negro player with major league possibilities,” named Robinson the National League’s Rookie of the Year for his impressive performance that season—29 stolen bases, 12 home runs, 42 successful bunt hits, and a .297 batting average.
Those efforts helped the Dodgers to capture a pennant, and on September 23, jubilant Brooklyn fans cheered their first baseman with a “Jackie Robinson Day” at Ebbets Field. In addition to a new car and other gifts, Robinson received tributes for his contribution to racial equality. Song-and-dance man Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, one of the guest speakers, told the crowd: “I’m 69 years old but never thought I’d live to see the day when I’d stand face-to-face with Ty Cobb in Technicolor.”
The Dodgers forced the New York Yankees to a seventh and deciding game in the World Series. And when all was said and done, no amount of hate mail or verbal and psychological abuse could tarnish the indisputable fact that Jackie Robinson was an exceptional baseball player. He belonged in the major leagues.
Robinson’s greatest accomplishment, however, was the inspiration that he provided for other African Americans, both in and out of baseball. Thousands of blacks came to watch him play, setting new attendance records in such cities as Chicago and Pittsburgh. Even in St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Philadelphia, where the opposing teams were the most hostile toward the Dodger rookie, black fans would arrive on chartered buses called “Jackie Robinson Specials,” having traveled hundreds of miles just to see him play.
Ed Charles, a black youngster from the Deep South who went on to play in the major leagues himself, remembered the thrill of seeing his childhood hero for the first time. “I sat in the segregated section of the ball park and watched Jackie,” he said. “And I finally believed what I read in the papers—that one of us had made it. When the game was over we kids followed Jackie to the train station. When the train pulled out, we ran down the tracks listening for the sounds as far as we could. And when we couldn’t hear it any longer, we stopped and put our ears to the track so we could feel the vibrations of that train carrying Jackie Robinson. We wanted to be part of him as long as we could.”
Indeed, Robinson had jolted the national consciousness in a profound way. Until 1947 all of baseball’s heroes had been white men. Suddenly, there was a black baseball star who could hit, bunt, steal, and field with the best of them. His style of play was nothing new in the Negro Leagues, but in the white majors, it was innovative and exciting. Robinson made things happen on the base paths. If he got on first, he stole second. If he could not steal third, he would distract the pitcher by dancing off second in order to advance. And then he would steal home. The name of the game was to score runs without a hit, something quite different from the “power hitting” strategy that had characterized major league baseball. During the next decade, this new style of play would come to be known as “Dodger Baseball.”
Before the ’47 season was over, Branch Rickey had signed 16 additional Negro Leaguers, including catcher and future three-time Most Valuable Player Roy Campanella; pitcher Don Newcombe, who in 1956 would win 27 games; and second baseman Jim Gilliam, like Robinson always a threat to steal a base. Together with Robinson and such white stars as Pee Wee Reese, Edwin “Duke” Snider, Gil Hodges, and Carl Erskine, these men would form the nucleus of a team that would capture six pennants and, at long last, in 1955, a world championship, before the Dodgers left Brooklyn for the West Coast at the end of the 1957 season. By 1959, every team in major league baseball was integrated, one of every five players being of African-American descent.
When Rickey talked of trading Robinson to the New York Giants after the ’56 season, the pioneering ballplayer chose to retire at the age of 38. His career totals, which included 1,518 hits, more than 200 stolen bases, and a lifetime batting average of .311, earned him a place in the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, the first African American so honored. He continued to fight actively for civil rights long after his baseball career had ended, supporting Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and his call for the peaceful integration of American society.
Despite his tremendous accomplishments on and off the baseball field, Jackie Robinson, with characteristic humility, never gave himself much credit. A year before his untimely death in 1972, he reflected on his struggle to break baseball’s color barrier. “I was proud,” Robinson admitted, “yet I was uneasy. Proud to be in the hurricane eye of a significant breakthrough and to be used to prove that a sport can’t call itself ‘national’ if blacks are barred from it. But uneasy because I knew that I was still a black man in a white world. And so I continue to ask myself, ‘What have I really done for my people?’”
The answer was evident to everyone but him; for by appealing to the moral conscience of the nation, Jackie Robinson had given a young generation of blacks a chance at the “American Dream” and in the process taught many white Americans to respect others regardless of the color of their skin.
More Jackie Robinson Articles
Daily Quiz for April 7, 2011 Baseball great Jackie Robinson became a vice president for this coffee company after he retired from baseball.
| History of the Brooklyn Dodgers |
The most expensive book ever sold, the Codex Leicester (previously the Codex Hammer), was written by what Italian polymath, who was born on April 15, 1452? | The Sheridan Press e-edition April 16, 2013 by Henry Lopez - issuu
VIDEO FROM BIG HORN HIGH SCHOOL’S PROM
Retiring after 30 years with Spring Creek Mine. B1
Local runner at Boston Marathon recounts tragedy BY KRISTEN CZABAN THE SHERIDAN PRESS
Editor’s note: The Associated Press contributed to this report.
SHERIDAN — In addition to strength and conditioning training, many long-distance runners will tell you that mental toughness is key to completing a race. No amount of training could have prepared runners like Sheridan’s Del Acker for what happened Monday. Two bombs blew up seconds apart at the finish line of one of the world’s most storied races, leaving the streets spattered with blood and glass, three dead, more than 140 wounded and gaping questions of who chose to attack at the Boston Marathon and why. “Boston is a resilient city but it is too early to tell,” Acker said of the atmosphere in Boston Monday night. Acker communicated
with The Press via email as cell phones were not working in Boston Monday night. Acker ran his 12th consecutive Boston Marathon Monday, finishing in three hours and 40 minutes — not his best time, but faster than last year when temperatures hit 90 degrees. Acker said he finished about 40 minutes before the bombs exploded. His wife, Peggy, always cheers from the sidelines during the race, but had already headed to the family meeting area to catch up with Acker after the race. “We first heard the emergency vehicles as we were leaving the area and didn’t know what had happened until we dashed into a downtown hotel to watch first news reports on local television,” Acker said. SEE BOSTON, PAGE 8
Development proposal nixed BY HANNAH WIEST THE SHERIDAN PRESS
SHERIDAN — At the April 1 City Council meeting a controversial development on the corner of Brundage Lane and Big Horn Avenue was tabled for later consideration. Since that meeting, the developer of Skyview West, a proposed 76unit apartment complex consisting of one-, two- and three-story units, has withdrawn the conceptual plan that would have required a planned unit development. Phoenix Limited Partnership, owned by Kim Love, intends to change the plans, according to a notice of withdrawal submitted to Mayor Dave Kinskey on Thursday. The new plans will maintain the current R-3 Residential zoning, which has been contested by nearby landowners who say one tract of the land was never officially rezoned and should be R-1. Love has asked that the city deal with a petition brought by more than 200 nearby residents in May 2011 asking for the land to be officially re-zoned back to R-1. SEE PROPOSAL, PAGE 8
Cap. tax talks kick off BY HANNAH WIEST THE SHERIDAN PRESS
because of the philanthropy we have in this community. We’re very fortunate.” The Foundation is approaching 40 years of service to the Sheridan community, according to Executive Director Ada Kirven. It was founded in 1976 to bring philanthropy to the hospital and to enable administrators to focus on health care rather than fundraising efforts to expand services.
SHERIDAN — Sheridan City Council approved a resolution inviting Ranchester, Dayton, Clearmont and the Sheridan County commissioners to begin the process of proposing projects to be funded by the Capital Facilities Tax at its regular meeting Monday. Once projects are approved, the city, county and area towns will set funding needs for each project to determine the total amount to be raised by the tax. That amount and the specific purposes it will be used for will then go before voters on the November 2013 ballot. “The Capital Facilities Tax is a specific purpose tax that is set for a dollar amount,” city Clerk Scott Badley said. “It runs the length it takes to either complete the projects or collect that amount of tax.” The tax is a sales and use tax that cannot exceed 2 percent per dollar.
SEE FOUNDATION, PAGE 2
SEE TAX, PAGE 2
COURTESY PHOTO |
Del Acker, right, stands at the finish line of the Boston Marathon Sunday, the day before two bombs exploded, killing three and injuring more than 140 people.
BY HANNAH WIEST THE SHERIDAN PRESS
SHERIDAN — Without it, cancer, cardiac, kidney and emergency care would be less comprehensive services offered at Sheridan Memorial Hospital. Without it, the hospital would be smaller and health care in Sheridan would look a lot different. But with it, Sheridan Memorial Hospital is something the community can be proud of. With the
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Foundation — and its 1,500 members who financially support its efforts — Sheridan Memorial Hospital continues to expand to meet more health care needs in the Sheridan community. “I can’t picture the hospital being able to do what it’s done in terms of taking care of the community and putting in the facilities and the services that we have,” hospital CEO Mike McCafferty said. “There’s so many things the community benefits from that we provide only
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TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
FOUNDATION: Benefit set for Saturday night began to look at building a new patient wing and decided it needTo date, the Foundation has ed help with the capital camraised more than $30 million to paign. The Foundation hired its support programs and capital first director and began to grow campaigns for new buildings and membership and fundraising new equipment. efforts as it partnered with the Funds have come from donahospital on attaining goals in the tions large and small, from chari- master plan. table trusts, planned giving, local “We’re a good fit together,” foundations, hospital employee Kirven said. “We’re making sure contributions and yearly that people are confident when fundraising events such as the they make their choice to stay Link, a walk/run for breast canhere and receive their care.” cer awareness, and the Annual Kirven sees that confidence in Benefit. This year’s Benefit— the the hospital reflected in 11th — will be held Saturday and Foundation membership, which will feature a reception and a per- has increased from 83 members formance by local music group, in 1991 to more than 1,500 in 2013. Wren, at the WYO Theater. While many may consider such The Foundation was a volungrowth exponential, Kirven sees teer-run nonprofit for its first 20 it as gradual, built through intenyears and continues to rely on the tional, one-on-one relationships time and guidance of dozens of with community members intervolunteers. ested in supporting something “The success that we feel today meaningful like health care. is because of the work of those Tom Ringley, county commisfirst board members and the first sioner, served as director of the volunteers that we had working Foundation from 2000 to 2008. He on Foundation projects,” Kirven and Kirven worked together on said. several projects in that timeframe In the mid-90s, the hospital including a nursing scholarship FROM 1
THE SHERIDAN PRESS | JUSTIN SHEELY
Sheridan Memorial Hospital Foundation staff members stand in the hospital lobby this morning. The staff is responsible for building community support through philanthropy, helping to bring more programs and services to Sheridan’s health care system. From left, Foundation Coordinator Tina Mediate, Director Ada Kirven and Brandy Johnson, assistant.
By the numbers: FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — The Sheridan Memorial Hospital Foundation has been instrumental in supporting hospital services since its beginning in 1976. It has contributed more than $30 million to the hospital, bolstering heart, cancer, kidney, diabetic, emergency and overall patient care. • One day’s wages: An unofficial campaign in the 1950s in which community members were asked to help build a new hospital building. • 5: Original number of volunteer board members. The
board has expanded to include at-large community members and physician, auxiliary volunteer and hospital board representatives. • 83: Number of Foundation members in 1991. • More than 1,500: Number of Foundation members in 2013. • 32: Number of Sheridan College students who have received a nursing scholarship through the Foundation’s scholarship program since 2002. The program supports nursing students in exchange for a commitment to work at the hospital. • 14: Number of Sheridan College nursing students who will be employed at the hospital after this summer. • 500: Number of donors who contributed a total of more than $2.5 million to build the Griffith Memorial Emergency Department in 2005, including a significant contribution by the Vernon S. and Rowena W. Griffith
program at Sheridan College, an employee partner program to get employees invested in supporting the hospital, expansion of the Griffith Memorial Emergency Department, addition of the Watt Dialysis Center and addition of the Welch Cancer Center. “I’ve always found that if you have a worthwhile project, people understand the importance of it and are willing to step up to the plate to help out,” Ringley said. “The Foundation just keeps getting stronger and stronger. I am positive it will continue to be successful and support Sheridan Memorial Hospital in the best possible way.” In recent years, the Foundation has focused on improving critical care in Sheridan. The Cardiac Catheterization lab has served more than 50 patients since opening in January, and efforts are underway to expand the Intensive Care Unit at the hospital. “From birth to the end of life, we’re here to support families and loved ones through those difficult times and through those good times,” Kirven said.
Foundation. • More than 80 percent: Percentage of full-time hospital employees who participate in the Employee Giving Program to support Foundation efforts. More than 350 employees currently participate. • 11: Number of annual benefits that have been held by the Foundation. • $25,000: An estimate of the average amount raised at each benefit. • More than 50: Number of patients treated in the Cardiac Catheterization lab since it opened in January 2013. • 1950s: Decade in which the current Intensive Care Unit was built. • One: As Ada Kirven, executive director of the Foundation, said: “Every single dollar truly makes a difference.”
Our website mishap — why it happened, timeline of events, an apology FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — Our website has been in the ditch, as the saying goes. Under repair. We messed up, we know it and we are in the process of remedy. Today, we launch again – a new website, what we call www.thesheridanpress.com, version 2.0. This is an apology for all the hassles, a timeline of events, an explanation of what happened and what’s ahead as we move forward. In late 2011, The Sheridan Press decided to upgrade its first-ever website. The old one was a bit of a clunker and wasn’t flexible to the demands of an ever-growing online readership. We went from a basic online presence, to a site that was designed, hosted and supported by an Illinois-based company, TownNews. That website upgrade gave the Press the ability to post photo galleries, provide breaking news, video reporting and many other features. It was a step forward. As time passed, however, we became frustrated with customer service issues, communication difficulties and we wanted to “go local” with our online media. Ptolemy Data Systems, our tech-
nology vendor since from scratch. Lopez 2010, has done a teraccomplished much rific job with us and in a short period we will expand our with competence, relationship with grace and humor. them as our host. The end result is The website design what we launch component of the today. It is a new project, which dated website that is effiback to late last year, cient, attractive; it’s was the part of the easy to use and one equation that didn’t that will serve our work out. Newspaper subscribers, adverwebsites, given the tisers and the expansive content of greater Sheridan stories, photos, community. The videos, submission Press’ digital media forms for advertising will continue to be a and news releases, part of the greater have a lot of moving package of print parts. The day we and online media, launched our the leading source of redesigned website, local news and marMarch 4, was a disasketing. ter. The website was Let us know what THE SHERIDAN PRESS | JUSTIN SHEELY dysfunctional and you think. incomplete. To ease We have expanded Henry Lopez wraps up a day of work at The Sheridan Press last week. the collective online our national content pain, we removed with The Associated our “pay wall,” putting all content one that’s plugged into the digital Press to include Digital AP, a proonline free of charge. world of newspapers nationally. gram that features more national Lopez is a respected designer and Since March 4, we have moved and regional news, more sports consultant. He dropped what he forward. and videos from the NFL, college was doing, rode to our rescue, tak- sports and Major League The Sheridan Press contracted with Henry Lopez of Santa Fe. ing residence in one of our small Baseball, all of it updating itself. His company, Lopez Web Works, is offices and began the rebuild This is a big deal and we’re the
only local news source that has this feature. Another unique feature is what’s called “responsive design.” This is a reasonably new development in online media — a design that compels our website to the shape of the device from which the reader is using it — desktop computer, laptop, tablet or smartphone. We have new online features coming soon that will further expand our content. More about that later. Today, the launch. For the next few weeks, all content will remain free of charge to familiarize readers with the new website. To be fair, those subscribers who were with us when it fell apart March 4 and stayed with us, you’ll have your online subscription extended. As always, we thank you for reading The Sheridan Press. Stephen Woody Publisher Kristen Czaban Managing Editor Phil Ashley Marketing Director
TAX:1 percent FROM 1 Sheridan’s current Capital Facilities Tax is one cent and is set to be collected by June 2014. The renewed tax would also be 1 percent. The most recent Capital Facilities Tax, passed in 2009, was set at $25 million. Representatives from the city, county and area communities met Monday to discuss project ideas such as a natural gas line in Ranchester and Dayton, county road and bridge projects and city capital improvement projects. Additional meetings and public outreach efforts will be held this spring and summer. In August, a resolution approving the proposed tax must be signed to place the tax on the ballot.
TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
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City approves pathway, striping bids BY HANNAH WIEST THE SHERIDAN PRESS
SHERIDAN — The Sheridan City Council voted Monday to extend Sheridan’s pathway system and improve city streets by installing longer lasting striping. The Sheridan College pathway extension project will run from Coffeen Avenue at the Sheridan College north entrance to Brundage Lane across from South Park, passing through the land behind Starbucks and running along Wetlands Drive. Schoeny Inc. will install sidewalk along Wetlands Drive and 3,300 feet of pathway from Wetlands Drive to Coffeen Avenue at the entrance to the college. The bid for the pathway portion was $107,461.70. NST Construction was award-
ed a bid for $73,922.55 to build fences along Wetlands Drive and along the western boundary of the pathway to protect the property from uncontrolled access. Mountain View Builders will construct wood plank bridges to protect wetlands areas in two locations. The bid for the bridge portion was $52,275. TEAL Ponds, LLC, donated the right of way needed for the pathway to Sheridan College. The city has allocated Optional One-Cent Sales Tax and public benefit funds for the project. City Council also awarded a bid for $97,825 to Streamline Markings of Billings, Mont., to install thermoplastic striping at six intersections. These include: Big Horn Avenue at Edwards Drive and Big Horn Avenue at Brundage
Lane, North Sheridan Avenue at East Fifth Street and South Sheridan Avenue at East Brundage, Highland Avenue at West Fifth Street and South Main Street at Burkitt Street. City staff currently paint stripes at these intersections twice a year at a cost of $19,000. After the initial cost of installing the thermoplastic striping, city staff will place new striping every five years for $20,000 to $25,000. The striping will be similar to what the Wyoming Department of Transportation placed on Main Street and Coffeen Avenue, said Joe Schoen, project manager. “As Papa used to say, ‘Let’s work smarter, not harder,’” Mayor Dave Kinskey said about the project.
Judge grants retrial based on DNA test COURTESY PHOTO | SHERIDAN BIRD FARM
Taking flight Photographer Archie Nash took this photo of pheasants being released from the Sheridan Bird Farm. The people in the photos are unknown, but it is believed the photos were taken in the 1940s.
CHEYENNE (AP) — A judge in Cheyenne has granted Wyoming’s first retrial based on DNA evidence. Andrew J. Johnson has served more than 23 years of a life-inprison sentence after being convicted of breaking into a Cheyenne woman’s apartment and raping her in 1989.
Indian policies lecture at SC SHERIDAN — Sheridan College's annual ethics lecture will be Wednesday at 7 p.m. at the CTEL presentation hall. This year's lecture is titled "Historical and Current American Indian Policies: an Ethical Framework for the Future." Larry Keown will explore historical and current American Indian policy in the United States. Keown is an author, consultant and educator on tribal relations, with degrees in forestry and natural resource management. As a federal official, he collaborated and consulted with numerous American Indian tribes on the development of a historical preservation plan for the nationally renowned Medicine Wheel sacred site in Wyoming, as well as providing advice to other agencies on management of sacred sites around the country. Keown has counseled numerous government agencies and corporate entities in the process of building successful relationships with American Indian tribes, and has trained thousands of government and corporate leaders at his tribal relations seminars throughout
could be released on $10,000 bond. Relatives of Johnson expressed mixed emotions about the judge’s ruling — happiness about a new trial but disappointment the judge didn’t dismiss the case. District Attorney Scott Homar says he still has considerable other evidence against Johnson.
WEDNESDAY’S EVENTS |
LOCAL BRIEFS | FROM STAFF REPORTS
On Tuesday, Laramie County District Judge Thomas Campbell granted Johnson a new trial. Recent testing shows Johnson was not the source of male DNA taken from the victim after the attack. The DNA instead matches the victim’s fiance at the time. Johnson remains in jail but
the country. After 10 years of collecting vital information on tribal relations, he completed his award winning book "Working in Indian Country: Building Successful Business Relationships with American Indian Tribes." This lecture is free and open to the public. Refreshments will be served following the lecture.
Legacy Pregnancy Center holding open house Thursday SHERIDAN — Legacy Pregnancy Resource Center will host an open house to celebrate the completion of their building project. Legacy is still located at 847 Coffeen Ave., but they have remodeled and expanded their existing building. The open house, co-hosted by Fletcher Construction, will be Thursday from 3-6 p.m. at Legacy. Refreshments will be served. For more information contact Crystal Merriam, Legacy Pregnancy Resource Center program director, at 673-4757.
Local writers reading at Sheridan Senior Center SHERIDAN — Local writers will read from their works at the Sheridan Senior Center community room Thursday at 12:30 p.m. Featured writers include Aaron Holst, Abbie Taylor, Jane Medved, Chris Valentine, Rose Hill, Joan Malone, Bruce Anderson and Rae Marie McReynolds. This is free and the public is invited to attend.
• 4:30 p.m., Sheridan County Public Library Board of Trustees meeting, Sheridan County Fulmer Public Library. • 6-7:30 p.m., Meet and greet with the Sheridan County Fair Association board and facilities director Jamie Ringley, Sheridan County Fairgrounds exhibit hall.
• 7 p.m., Annual ethics lecture on "Historical and Current American Indian Policies: an Ethical Framework for the Future,” CTEL presentation hall, Sheridan College. • 7 p.m., Tongue River Fire Protection District Board regular meeting, Ranchester Fire Hall.
Local news? Email us at [email protected] ADVERTISEMENT FOR BIDS The City of Sheridan, Wyoming will receive sealed bids for Mydland Road Sewer Crossing Project. These improvements are generally described as follows: Connecting a new manhole and approximately 200 lf of 12” sewer pipe to the existing system starting on Hill Ponds Dr and crossing Mydland Rd. Refer to the Project Manual to additional information. Sealed bids will be received at City Hall, to the Clerk’s office on the 1st floor, until 11:00 a.m. local time on April 30, 2013. The bids will then be opened and read aloud at the Council Chambers on 3rd floor of City Hall. All bids shall be submitted in accordance with and on the forms included in the Project Manual. Bids shall be submitted in a sealed envelope addressed to: City of Sheridan Attn:Scott Badley Mydland Road Sewer Crossing Project 55 Grinnell Plaza Sheridan, Wyoming 82801 Electronic or hard copy Contract Documents, including proposal bid forms, drawings and Project Manual, have been placed on file and may be examined at the office of DOWL HKM, 16 West 8th Street, Sheridan, WY 82801, 307-672-9006, and Engineering Department in City Hall, Sheridan, Wyoming as well as the following plan rooms: Billings Builder’s Exchange, Billings, Montana Northeast Wyoming Contractors and Plan, Gillette, Wyoming The Bid Center, Casper, Wyoming Contract Documents may be obtained on or after April 17, 2013 at the office of DOWL HKM, Sheridan, Wyoming, at the non-refundable cost of $30.00 per set. In addition, the Contractor shall obtain a copy of the March 2013 City of Sheridan Standard Specifications for Street and Utility Construction. The standard specifications may be obtained from the City website at http://www.sheridanwy.net/departments/utilities under “Utilities Documents”. A PRE-BID CONFERENCE (non-mandatory) will be held on April 24, 2013 at 2:00 p.m. local time, beginning in the Council Chambers on 3rd floor of City Hall, Sheridan, Wyoming. Contractors, in submitting their respective bids, acknowledge that such bids conform to all requirements of Wyoming State Statute. Each bidder must include a bid security with the bid, payable to the City of Sheridan, in accordance with the Instruction to Bidders. No bidder may withdraw its bid after the scheduled time of the bid opening. Bids are to remain open for 60 days after the bid opening. The Owner reserves the right to reject any and all bids or parts thereof, and to waive any irregularities of any bid. The Owner also reserves the right to award the contract to such responsible bidders as may be determined by the Owner.
City of Sheridan, Wyoming
By: /s / Nic Bateson Public Works Director
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Wild/Scenic film; Sagebrush art reception
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he Wild and Scenic Film Festival — A Climate of Change will be Wednesday at the Centennial Theater. Showtimes: 4:30 p,.m. and
7:15.
There will be raffles and other giveaways and other goodies. Proceeds benefit the Powder River Basin Resource Council, sponsor of the festival. Other co-sponsors include: Killy’s Smokehouse Deli, Foot of the Bighorns, PUBLISHER’S Patagonia, Gourmet Lamb of Wyoming, NOTEBOOK The Sport Shop, Tom | Balding Bits & Spurs, First Federal Savings Stephen Woody Bank, Good Health Emporium, Davis & Cannon, LLP, Back Country Bikes & Mountain Works, Landon’s Nursery. Info: 307 672-5809. ••••••
Of film………. The Jackie Robinson biopic, ’42,’ now showing at the Centennial Theatre is worth a look. It’s the story of Robinson’s breaking of the color barrier in Major League Baseball in 1947 and the racism and ostracism he and his wife, Rachel, who is still alive and graceful at 90, faced. Says writer Kostya Kennedy: “The fact that Robinson played in the major leagues made he marquee and drew the crowds, but it was how he played that reformed prejudice and delivered the more cogent blow to ignorance and hate.” Mrs. Robinson says actor Chadwick Boseman captured her late husband’s “dignity” and “got the (batting) stance right.” Both Mrs. Robinson and former Brooklyn Dodgers pitcher Ralph Branca were involved in the movie as advisors. Surprisingly, it’s the first film about Robinson in 63 years. In 1950, Robinson played himself in a low-budget production. There’s a couple of “calculated” exaggerations but for the most part, it’s faithful to the books by Arnold Ramperstad and others. It doesn’t cover any of the other nine seasons he played with the Brooklyn Dodgers or his post-baseball life where he was involved in business, civil rights causes and was a Republican Party activist. Harrison Ford just nails the part of Branch Rickey. It’s a good movie, fersure. •••••• Jody Sauers, director of the Sagebrush Artists’ Guild, sent a shout how the gallery is having a gallery reception on Thursday, April 18 beginning at 5 p.m. The Sagebrush Gallery is located in the old train depot on E. Fifth Street, across from the Sheridan Inn. It features work by local artists. Students from Kathy Sabine’s portrait class will be featured. The artists include: Carol Berry, Paulette Kucera, Greg Coates, Michelle LaGory, Sharon Kinnison, Linda Everhart, Dean States and Sonja Caywood. The public’s invited. •••••• They Said It “A woman is like a tea bag – you can’t tell how strong she is until you put her in hot water.” — Eleanor Roosevelt, First Lady, author, social activist, 1884-1962
THE SHERIDAN
Paul’s rough day at Howard
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ea party titan Rand Paul, visiting Howard University on Wednesday, told students that he had been called "either brave or crazy to be here" at the historically black college. Probably some of each: brave, because he's trying to sell himself and fellow Republicans to African-Americans, a singularly resistant demographic; and crazy, because he based his pitch on revised history and airbrushed facts — and the Howard kids weren't fooled. "No Republican questions or disputes civil rights," the senator from Kentucky proclaimed. "I've never wavered in my support for civil rights or the Civil Rights Act." Howzat? As a candidate in 2010, Paul questioned the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act's Title II, which prohibits private discrimination. "I don't want to be associated with those people," he said when MSNBC's Rachel Maddow asked him about private businesses that refuse to serve black customers, "but I also don't want to limit their speech in any way in the sense that we tolerate boorish and uncivilized behavior because that's one of the things freedom requires." Asked by the moderator at Howard to explain his claim that he never spoke out against the Civil Rights Act, Paul provided the creative rationale that he was talking "about the ramifications of certain portions of the Civil Rights Act beyond race, as are now being applied to smoking, menus, listing calories and things on menus and guns." Paul acknowledged that his wooing of African-Americans "is an uphill battle," and his hour with the students confirmed this. Talking about the Republicans' historical support for civil rights, he said: "I'll give you one example. The first, one of the AfricanAmerican U.S. senators was a guy named, uh, I'm blanking on his name, from Massachusetts — " "Edward Brooke!" several in the audience called out. "Edwin Brookes," Paul repeated. The students broke out in hysterics. The laughter had barely subsided when Paul posed a question. "If I were to have said, 'Who do you think the founders of the NAACP are?' ... would everybody in here know they were all Republicans?" "Yes," several could be heard grumbling. "Of course they would," one woman informed him. Paul dug himself in deeper. "I don't know what you know," he said. They knew enough to be suspicious of his central argument: that Abraham Lincoln's Republican Party is the same Republican Party that now dominates the South. This analysis glossed over the
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civil rights era, when Democrats and Republicans essentially switched sides as Southern Dixiecrats left for the GOP. "Democrats in Louisville were led by Courier-Journal DANA Editor Henry Watterson and were MILBANK implacably opposed to | blacks voting," Paul argued. Watterson died in 1921. "Meanwhile," he continued, "Kentucky's Democrat-controlled legislature voted against the 13th, the 14th and the 15th amendments." In the 1860s. A student questioner sought clarification. "Are we discussing the Republican Party of the 19th century?" he asked, to applause. "Or are we discussing the post1968 Republican Party?" "The argument I'm trying to make is we haven't changed," Paul proposed. The Howard students weren't hostile to the senator as much as indifferent. Campus police swarmed outside the hall and erected barricades, although they proved unnecessary. Doors opened an hour early, but seats didn't fill up until the last minute, and many spent their time texting and fanning themselves in the overheated hall. "My hope is that you will hear me out," Paul asked, and all appeared to — except for senior Brian Menifee, who raised a hand-lettered banner announcing that "Howard University Doesn't Support White Supremacy." Police threw him out roughly, and other students cheered. But Paul got no cheers for most of his ideas: criticizing Democrats' "unlimited federal assistance," calling privateschool choice "the civil rights issue of our day" and saying that "there are Republicans who don't clamor for war." He did better with his proposal to repeal mandatory minimum sentences but he drew boos when he defended voter-ID laws. "I come to Howard," Paul said, "to say I want a government that leaves you alone." He argued that "objective evidence shows that big government is not a friend to African-Americans." Freshman Keenan Glover disagreed. "I want a government that's going to help me," he said. "I want a government that's going to help me pay for my college education." "We can disagree," the senator said, then upgraded his pessimism. "Probably, we're going to end up disagreeing." DANA MILBANK is a political reporter for The Washington Post and has authored two books on national political campaigns and the national political parties.
mid all the heated, emotional advocacy of gun control, have you ever heard even one person present convincing hard evidence that tighter gun control laws have in fact reduced murders? Think about all the states, communities within states, as well as foreign countries, that have either tight gun control laws or loose or non-existent gun control laws. With so many variations and so many sources of evidence available, surely there would be some compelling evidence somewhere if tighter gun control laws actually reduced the murder rate. And if tighter gun control laws don't actually reduce the murder rate, then why are we being stampeded toward such laws after every shooting that gets media attention? The dirty little secret is that gun control laws do not actually control guns. They disarm law-abiding citizens, making them more vulnerable to criminals, who remain armed in disregard of such laws. In England, armed crimes skyrocketed as legal gun ownership almost vanished under increasingly severe gun control laws in the late THOMAS 20th century. (See the book "Guns and SOWELL Violence" by Joyce Lee | Malcolm). But gun control has become one of those fact-free crusades, based on assumptions, emotions and rhetoric. What almost no one talks about is that guns are used to defend lives as well as to take lives. In fact, many of the horrific killings that we see in the media were brought to an end when someone else with a gun showed up and put a stop to the slaughter. Many people who have never fired a gun in their lives, and never faced lifethreatening dangers, nevertheless feel qualified to impose legal restrictions that can be fatal to others. And politicians eager to "do something" that gets them publicity know that the votes of the ignorant and the gullible are still votes. Restricting the magazine capacity available to law-abiding citizens will not restrict the magazine capacity of people who are not law-abiding citizens. Such restrictions just mean that the law-abiding citizen is likely to run out of ammunition first. Someone would have to be an incredible sharpshooter to fend off three home invaders with just seven shots at moving targets. But seven is the magic number of bullets allowed in a magazine under New York State's new gun control laws. Banning so-called "assault weapons" is a farce, as well as a fraud, because there is no concrete definition of an assault weapon. Some people may think that "assault weapons" means automatic weapons. But automatic weapons were banned decades ago. Banning ugly-looking "assault weapons" may have aesthetic benefits, but it does not reduce the dangers to human life in the slightest. You are just as dead when killed by a very plain-looking gun. Leniency toward criminals has long been part of the pattern of gun control zealots on both sides of the Atlantic. When the insatiable desire to crack down on law-abiding citizens with guns is combined with an attitude of leniency toward criminals, it can hardly be surprising when tighter gun control laws are accompanied by rising rates of crime, including murders. THOMAS SOWELL is a senior fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University.
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President Barack Obama Rep. Cynthia Lummis The White 1004 House Longworth 1600 HOB Pennsylvania Washington, Ave. DC 20515 Washington, DC 20500 Phone: 202-225-2311 Phone: 202-456-1111 Toll free: 888-879-3599 Fax: 202-456-1414 Fax: 202-225-3057
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Haworth, Crawford married March 27 Haworth and Crawford are both students at Central Wyoming College in Riverton. The bride’s parents are Paul Sackett Haworth (Christina) of Sheridan and Lynne M. Cherrington (Graham) of Flower Mound, Texas. The groom’s parents are Faye (Delbert) Dale of Riverton and David Crawford of Boise, Idaho.
FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — Kirsten Marie Haworth and Bradly David Crawford were united in marriage March 27, 2013, in Sheridan. The ceremony took place at Sackett’s Market with Jacob Brooks officiating. Some of the bride’s Sackett and Gatchell descendants were in attendance.
Genealogy Society meeting Saturday Funeral Home will talk about funeral home records and how to find cremation records. At 11 a.m. Scott Badley from the city of Sheridan will talk about cemetery records and how to find them. The meeting is open to the public. Contact Lorretta Phillips at 672-5498 with questions.
FROM STAFF REPORTS THE SHERIDAN PRESS | JUSTIN SHEELY
A night to remember Big Horn High School junior Hanneah Puckett, left, and senior Jadyn Mirich have their photo taken by Lucas Wollenman during Saturday’s prom at the school.
SHERIDAN — The Sheridan County Genealogy Society will meet Saturday at 9:30 a.m. at the Sheridan County Fulmer Public Library Inner Circle. A short business meeting will be held first. At 10 a.m. Kevin Sessions from Kane
Center for a Vital Community presenting ‘Bridges out of Poverty’ FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — The Center for a Vital Community and the YMCA will present another “Bridges Out of Poverty” training on April 26 from 8:30 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. at the Sheridan County YMCA. Dr. Regina Lewis will present strategies
for communities and professionals to help inspire innovative solutions for those looking to counter poverty and its impact at all levels in the community. The “bridges” approach helps employers, schools, community organizations, social service agencies, hospitals, individuals and other community members address pover-
ty in a comprehensive way. People from all economic classes come together to increase job retention rates, build resources, improve outcomes and support those who are moving out of poverty. Everyone is invited to attend this training, which provides a powerful model for
economic and social change, sustainability and stability. The cost is $25 per person and includes a book and lunch. Pre-registration by April 23 is requested. For more information or to register contact Amy Albrecht at 674-6446, ext 4203, or email her at [email protected].
CHAPS hosting ‘A day at the Derby’ at Black Tooth Brewery FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — Children, Horses, and Adults in PartnerShip is holding “A Day at the Derby” benefit in The Black Tooth Brewing Company Timberline Room May 4. This annual benefit for CHAPS Equine
Assisted Therapy will be held on Kentucky Derby day from 1-5 p.m. Wager on thoroughbred horse racing, join in raffles and games of chances, participate in the silent and live auctions and enjoy great food and a cash bar. Tickets are $40 per person and are available at
the WYO Theater box office, by calling 672-9084 or online at www.wyotheater.com. All proceeds go to child and adult funding, therapy horse care and CHAPS operational expenses. For more information call Sue Suddith at 6736161.
NAMI meeting Thursday FROM STAFF REPORTS
Alaska-based military policeman gets 16 years in spy case JOINT BASE ELMENDORFRICHARDSON, Alaska (AP) — An Alaska-based military policeman will serve 16 years in prison and will be dishonorably discharged for selling secrets to an FBI undercover agent who he believed was a Russian spy, a panel of eight military members has decided. Spec. William Colton Millay, of Owensboro, Ky., pleaded guilty last month to attempted espionage and other counts. He was sentenced Monday. Military prosecutors painted him as a white supremacist who was fed up with the Army and the
United States, and was willing to sell secrets to an enemy agent, even if that would cost fellow soldiers their lives. Defense attorneys said Millay was emotionally stunted, was only seeking attention and was a candidate for rehabilitation. Monday’s proceedings were like a mini-trial conducted in front of the sentencing panel, with both sides calling two witnesses. FBI Special Agent Derrick Chriswell said Millay came to their attention in the summer of 2011 through an anonymous tip after Millay sent an email to a
Russian publication seeking information about the military and made several calls to the Russian embassy. “That’s a concern for national security,” Chriswell said. The FBI, working with military intelligence agencies, conducted the investigation. On Sept. 13, 2011, an FBI undercover agent called Millay and set up a meeting the next day at an Anchorage hotel-restaurant. Chriswell testified that during the first meeting with the agent, Millay “expressed his disgust with the U.S. military.” They then
moved to the agent’s hotel room, where audio and video recording devices were in place. Millay, 24, said he’d work for the Russian government, and if they made it worth his while, he’d reenlist for a second five-year stint. He also said he had confidential information on the Warlock Duke jamming system the U.S. military uses to sweep roadside bombs. Two days after that meeting, Millay reported to his commander that he had been contacted by a Russian agent. He was later interrogated by military intelligence officers and the FBI.
Secretary of State Kerry visits family of slain U.S. diplomat CHICAGO (AP) — U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry stopped in Chicago on Monday to visit the parents of the young U.S. diplomat who was killed while delivering textbooks in southern Afghanistan earlier this month. Kerry made the detour on his way back from Japan, the final leg of a 10day overseas tour which started with tragedy when he learned of Anne Smedinghoff ’s death while readying to depart for Turkey on April 6. At the time, a clearly affected Kerry contacted Smedinghoff ’s parents, Tom and Mary Beth, from Andrews Air Force Base. On Monday, he flew in directly to see them and Smedinghoff ’s three sib-
lings. Smedinghoff was just 25 when she and four other Americans were killed while walking from a military base to a nearby school. Two explosions occurred, apparently a suicide car bombing followed by a roadside blast. An FBI investigation is in its preliminary stages. The diplomat’s father, Tom Smedinghoff, says the Kerry visit was only the latest by people in the U.S. diplomatic corps who reached out to the family. “It really reinforces for us that Ann was part of a very close-knit family of very dedicated people who are serving our country,” he said. Kerry told embassy staff in Tokyo that Smedinghoff
was “full of idealism and full of hopes, taking books to children in a school so they can learn.” She was “wiped out by terrorism — the worst kind of nihilism,” he said. “It doesn’t stand for anything except killing people and stopping the future,” Kerry said. “And so we’re not going to be deterred. We’re going to be inspired. And we’re going to use Anne’s idealism as another motivation.” Kerry declared the protection of American foreign service officers his top priority when started as secretary of state in February, and Smedinghoff ’s death is the first of an American diplomat since militants attacked a U.S. diplomatic
installation in Benghazi, Libya, on Sept. 11, killing Ambassador Chris Stevens and three other Americans. The young woman’s death came just two weeks after Kerry met her while on a visit to Afghanistan. Smedinghoff served as his control officer, an honor often bestowed on up-andcoming members of the U.S. foreign service. Smedinghoff, who grew up in River Forest, Ill., was on her second tour of diplomatic duty. She served previously in Venezuela. The attack also killed three U.S. service members, a U.S. civilian who worked for the Defense Department and an Afghan doctor. Three other diplomats were injured. The most
serious is Kelly Hunt, a public diplomacy officer, who is being treated at a U.S. military base in Germany.
SHERIDAN — The local National Alliance on Mental Illness will hold a special organizational meeting Thursday at 5 p.m. at the Methodist Church, 215 W. Works St. The group has met over the past several months and is in the process of becoming an official affiliate of the state NAMI organization. Wyoming NAMI Executive Director Tammy Noel wil be present to help facilitate this process. The NAMI peer support group and the family member support group meetings are now being held at the Methodist Church, 215 W. Works St., on the second floor. These meetings are from 5-6 pm. on the first and third Thursday of each month. All meetings are open to interested individuals. For more information call Victor Ashear at 6723135 or email him at [email protected].
041613 Legal_Layout 1 4/16/13 8:24 AM Page 1
YOUR ELECTED OFFICIALS | CITY
John Heath Councilor Ward I 307-673-1876
Dave Kinskey Mayor 307-675-4223
Levi Dominguez Councilor Ward III 307-673-0352
Kristin Kelly Councilor Ward II 307-673-4751
Alex Lee Councilor Ward II 307-752-8804
Shelleen Smith Councilor Ward I 307-461-7082
Robert Webster Councilor Ward III 307-674-4206
COUNTY
Public Notices THE SHERIDAN PRESS
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WHY PUBLIC NOTICES ARE IMPORTANT | Public notices allow citizens to monitor their government and make sure that it is working in their best interest. Independent newspapers assist in this cause by carrying out their partnership with the people’s right to know through public notices. By offering an independent and archived record of public notices, newspapers foster a more trusting relationship between government and its citizens. Newspapers have the experience and expertise in publishing public notices and have done so since the Revolutionary War. Today, they remain an established, trustworthy and neutral source that ably transfers information between government and the people. Public notices are the lasting record of how the public’s resources are used and are presented in the most efficient and effective means possible. BIDDING REQUIREMENTS NOTICE Notice is hereby given that the Board of Trustees, Sheridan County School District Number 2, Sheridan, Wyoming, hereinafter referred to as "Owner", will receive sealed bid proposals for the STORY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL RE-MODEL AND ADDITION, 103 Fish Hatchery Road, Story, Wyoming. DESCRIPTION OF WORK The work includes selective demolition and remodel of the existing 7,700 SF building, addition of 750 SF of space, and site work. BID OPENING BIDS WILL BE RECEIVED UNTIL 2:00 PM, May 7, 2013 in the District’s Office located at, 201 North Connor Street, Suite 100, Sheridan, Wyoming, then publicly opened and read aloud. MANDATORY PRE-BID CONFERENCE FOR PRIME BIDDERS A PRE BID CONFERENCE WILL BE HELD AT 3:00 P.M., April 15, 2013 at the District Office located at 201 North Connor Street, Suite 100, Sheridan, Wyoming, with an option to visit the site afterwards. Attendance is mandatory for prime bidders. Attendance is strongly recommended for prime subcontractors. BIDDING DOCUMENTS The Bidding Documents may be obtained by accessing the SFD Website at: sfc.wyoming.gov once you have reached the site click on Projects, click on Up Coming Project, and click on click here to learn more on the project you are interested in, click on Bid Documents. Bid documents may also be examined on or after 1:00 p.m., April 11, 2013, at the office of the architect/engineer, 45 East Loucks Street, Suite 301, Sheridan, Wyoming 82801, Phone: (307) 672-8270. There will be a refundable deposit of $150.00. CLARIFICATION AND INTERPRETATION OF BID DOCUMENTS Questions regarding clarification or interpre-tation of the bid documents shall be addressed in writing to: ARCHITECT/: Dale Buckingham Architects, LLC ENGINEER 45 East Loucks Street, Suite 301 Sheridan, Wyoming 82801 Phone: (307) 672-8270 [email protected] A five percent (5%) preference will be allowed for Wyoming Resident Contractors as re-quired by Wyoming Statutes. Preference is hereby given to material suppliers, equipment, machinery and provisions produced, manufactured supplied or grown in Wyoming, quality being equal to articles offered by competitors outside of the state. The Contractors, in submitting their respective bids, acknowledge that such bids conform to all Wyoming State Statute requirements. Each bidder must provide bid bond security with the bid in accordance with Bidding Requirements. The successful bidder shall be required to furnish a
TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
GLOSSARY OF TERMS | Default: Failure to fulfill an obligation, especially the obligation to make payments when due to a lender. Encumbrance: A right attached to the property of another that may lessen its value, such as a lien, mortgage, or easement. Foreclosure: The legal process of terminating an owner’s interest in property, usually as the result of a default under a mortgage. Foreclosure may be accomplished by order of a court or by the statutory process known as foreclosure by advertisement (also known as a power of sale foreclosure). Lien: A legal claim asserted against the property of another, usually as security for a debt or obligation. Mortgage: A lien granted by the owner of property to provide security for a debt or obligation.
contract Performance Bond and a Labor and Materials Payment Bond, each in the amount of one hundred percent (100%) of the contract price as originally bid or subsequently modified. The costs of the bonds shall be included in the Contractor’s Bid Proposal as specified in the documents. The Owner reserves the right to reject any or all bids or parts thereof, and to waive any ir-regularities of any bid. The Owner also reserves the right to award the contract to such responsible bidders as may be determined by the Owner. Craig Dougherty, Superintendent Sheridan County School District No. 2 Publish: April 11, 16, 23, 2013. ADVERTISEMENT FOR BIDS: KWN Construction LLC & Northern Wyoming Community College District (Sheridan College) request subcontractor bids for work on the THORNE RIDER CAMPUS CENTER, Sheridan, Wyoming. Sealed bids will be accepted at Sheridan College, 3059 Coffeen Ave, Sheridan, WY until 2:00p.m. (local time) on May 9, 2013. All bids will be publicly opened and read aloud at Sheridan College following the closing time of receipt of bids. Bidders are instructed to reference the Invitation to Bid for bid submittal requirements. Five percent preference is hereby given to subcontractors, materials, supplies, agricultural products, equipment, machinery and provisions produced, manufactured or grown in Wyoming, or supplied by a resident of the State, quality being equal to articles offered by competitors outside the State as provided in W.S. 16-6-101 through 16-6-107. The work includes the following Bid Pack-ages: 1AFinal Cleaning, 2A- Selective Demolition, 3A- Cast-InPlace Concrete, 3B- Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete, 4A-Masonry, 5A-Steel Materials, 5B- Steel Erection, 6A-Rough Carpentry, 6B-Interior Architectural Woodwork, 7 A-Building Insulation, 7BSiding/Soffit/Fascia, 7C- Metal Roofing, 7DMembrane Roofing, 7E-Joint Sealants, 8ADoors/Frames/Hardware, 8B-Giass & Glazing, 9AMetal Stud Framing & Drywall, 9B-Tiling, 9C-Resilient & Carpet Flooring, 9D-Acoustical Ceilings, 9F-Painting, 10A- Specialties, 11A-Food Service Equipment, 12AWindow Treatments, 14A-Eievator, 21A-Fire Suppression, 23A- Mechanical Systems, 23BTemperature Controls, 26A-Eiectrical Systems, 31A Earthwork & Utilities, 31B- Engineered Aggregate Piers, 32A- Site Concrete, 32B- Asphalt Paving and 32CLandscape & Irrigation. Bidders may be required to submit an AlA A305 Contractors Qualification Statement. All Mechanical Systems (23A) and Electrical Systems (26A) bidders must provide a 5% Bid Bond in favor or KWN Construction, LLC if successful, 100% Payment and Performance Bonds will be required. Bidders on all other Bid Packages may be required to provide
Power of Sale: A clause commonly written into a mortgage authorizing the mortgagee to advertise and sell the property in the event of default. The process is governed by statute, but is not supervised by any court. Probate: The court procedure in which a decedent’s liabilities are settled and her assets are distributed to her heirs. Public Notice: Notice given to the public or persons affected regarding certain types of legal proceedings, usually by publishing in a newspaper of general circulation. This notice is usually required in matters that concern the public. Disclaimer: The foregoing terms and definitions are provided merely as a guide to the reader and are not offered as authoritative definitions of legal terms.
100% Payment and Performance Bonds. Wyoming Prevailing Wage Rates will be required for this Project. Bidders are instructed to reference the Contract Documents for wage determinations. A pre-bid meeting will be held at 10:00a.m. in the Mountain View Room located within the Thorne Rider Student Center, Sheridan College, 3059 Coffeen Ave., Sheridan, WY on April 18, 2013. Contract Documents can be obtained from CTA Architects Engineers, 13 N 23rd Street, Billings, MT, phone (406)248-7455 and/or KWN Construction, LLC, 2675 Heartland Drive, Sheridan, WY, phone (307)6720418 on April11, 2013 for refundable deposit of $100.00. Contract Documents will also be available at the following plan centers: Wyoming Plans Service (Casper) Northeast Wyoming Plan Service (Gillette) Cheyenne Plan Service, The Bid Center (Casper) Billings Builders Exchange, Construction Industry Center (Rapid City) Mountainlands Area Plan Room (Salt Lake) Plains Builders Exchange (Sioux Falls) Northern Colorado Builders Exchange, and Idaho Branch AGC (Idaho Falls). Technical information concerning these bid packages, please contact KWN Construction, LLC, Brian Bolton at (307)672-0418. KWN Construction LLC is an Equal Opportunity Employer. Publish: April 13, 16, 23; May 2, 2013. NOTICE OF PUBLIC SALE TO ENFORCE LIENS TAKE NOTICE THAT, pursuant to Wyoming Statute, § 29-7-101 et seq., the personal property held in each storage unit described below and being stored by Woodland Park Storage will be sold by public auction to the highest bidder, for cash, at public venue, at the entrance to the Sheridan County Court-house that is nearest the intersection of South Main Street and West Burkitt Street, at 10:05 o'clock a.m. on the 26th day of April, 2013. The proceeds of the sale shall be applied first to the amount claimed to be due and owed by Woodland Park Storage under storage liens which, as of February 11, 2013, are equal to the amounts specified below, plus additional storage costs until the date of the sale, attorney fees, costs, and expenses of these foreclosures, and less any partial payments made since the liens were filed. Any remaining proceeds will thereafter be distributed in accordance with Wyoming law. Contents of each unit may be viewed from 9:30 am until 10:30 am on the 25th day of April, 2013. Interested persons should go to the front desk of Woodland Park Storage at 5211 Coffeen Avenue in Sheridan at the designated time. The contents of each unit may only be viewed from the doorway of each unit during the scheduled viewing time; interested persons may not enter any unit. The highest bidders will clean out the contents of each unit from 9:30 am until 4:00 pm on
April 29, 2013. Unit No. Lienee Lien Amount as of 2/11/13 Unit 601 April Hirchert $220 Unit 25 Dannie J. Weimer $452 Dated this 3rd day of April, 2013. LONABAUGH AND RIGGS, LLP By: /s/ Mistee L. Elliott____________ Mistee L. Elliott – WSB 6-3540 Attorneys for Woodland Park Storage P.O. Drawer 5059 50 E. Loucks Street, Suite 110 Sheridan, WY 82801 (307) 672-7444 Publish: April 8, 16, 2013. NOTICE OF PROBATE STATE OF WYOMING COUNTY OF SHERIDAN ss. IN THE DISTRICT COURT FOURTH JUDICIAL DISTRICT Probate No. PR-2012-116 IN THE MATTER OF THE ESTATE OF DOLORES ELAINE EVERSON, Deceased. NOTICE OF PROBATE OF ESTATE TO ALL PERSONS INTERESTED IN SAID ESTATE: You are hereby notified that on the 14th day of March, 2013, the Will of the above named decedent was admitted to probate by the above named Court, and that Robert Everson was appointed Personal Representative thereof. Any action to set aside the Will shall be filed with the Court within three (3) months from the date of the first publication of this. Notice, or thereafter be forever barred. Notice is further given that all persons indebted to said decedent or to said Estate are requested to make immediate payment to the undersigned at Lonabaugh and Riggs, 50 E. Loucks Street, Suite 110, P. 0. Drawer 5059, Sheridan, Wyoming 82801. Creditors·having claims against the decedent or the Estate are required to file them in duplicate with the necessary vouchers, in the office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Fourth Judicial District, on or before three (3) months after the date of the first publication of this notice, and if such claims are not so filed, unless otherwise allowed or paid, they will be forever barred. DATED this 15th day of April, 2013. LONABAUGH AND RIGGS By: ______________ Jeffrey J. Gonda P. 0. Drawer 5059 Sheridan, WY 82801 (307) 672-7672 Publish: April 16,23,30, 2013.
Tom Tynan provided this photo of a parade float past the front of his Grandfather's Furniture Store. The store also carried stoves and ranges. Thomas T. Tynan was one of the earliest residents of Sheridan. In addition to the furniture store (located where Carroll's Furniture is today) he and Fay Sommers established a newspaper, The Sheridan Enterprise, in 1887; he served as Sheridan County Clerk in 1897-'98; and as Sheridan's Mayor in 1914-1915. He was a charter member of Rotary and served as Wyoming Superintendent of Schools. The photo is from the Tynan Collection of the Sheridan County Museum's Memory Book Project.
Paul Fall Assessor 307-674-2535
Matt Redle County Attorney 307-674-2580
STATE
Matt Mead Governor 307-777-7434
Rosie Berger Representative House Dist. 51 307-672-7600
A D V ICE Si x days a w eek,The S herid a n P res s deli vers advi ce.Health advi ce.Li festyle advi ce.A dvi ce to
Kathy Coleman Representative House Dist. 30 307-675-1960
Mike Madden Representative House Dist. 40 307-684-9356
Bruce Burns Senator Senate Dist. 21 307-672-6491
m ake your hom e m ore li vable.A dvi ce from the John Patton Representative House Dist. 29 307-672-2776
stars.A dvi ce that’ s entertai ni ng,i nsi ghtful,useful. D ea r A bby
D rs . O z & R o izen
H ints f ro m H elo is e
O m a rr/ H o ro s co pe
John Schiffer Senator Senate Dist. 22 307-738-2232
Content matters. 144 G ri nnell•Sheri dan,W Y •672-2431
ALMANAC
FROM THE SHERIDAN PRESS
THE SHERIDAN PRESS | JUSTIN SHEELY
Hello Doggy Marcia McChesney rubs Tinker Bell, a miniature schnauzer and unofficial greeter at the free workshop Saturday “All about Tomatoes” at Landon’s Greenhouse.
1988 — The Little Bighorn River made a conservation group’s list of the nation’s 10 most endangered rivers in 1988. The list is published annually by American Rivers, an organization dedicated to adding rivers to the national Wild and Scenic River system. 2003 — When their jail architect said, “Pick a plan and just stick with it,” the Sheridan County commissioners did just that. They threw out the idea of locating temporary detention facilities at the Road and Bridge shop or in modular housing units and went with a permanent structure that, as Commissioner Charley Whiton said, “will keep on giving.” 2008 — Sheridan County commissioners authorized for another seven years a $4.50-per-ticket passenger facility charge collected by the Federal Aviation
Administration at Sheridan County Airport — and which the county would lose without the authorization. 2012 — Tongue River High School seniors Nate Plymell and Payton Gibson and Big Horn High School seniors Ben Gilmore and Alexa Blare were named prom kings and queens Saturday night at a joint Big Horn-Tongue River prom held at Sheridan’s Kalif Shrine Temple. FROM THE ASSOCIATED PRESS
Today’s Highlight in History: On April 16, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. wrote his “Letter from Birmingham Jail” in which the civil rights activist responded to a group of local clergymen who’d criticized him for leading street protests; King defended his tactics, writing, “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice
REPORTS | SHERIDAN FIRE-RESCUE Monday • No calls reported. ROCKY MOUNTAIN AMBULANCE Monday • Medical, 1700 block South Sheridan Avenue, 5:31 a.m. • Medical, 1500 block Cedar Avenue, 5:40 a.m. • Medical, 1400 block North Main Street, 9:27 a.m. • Trauma, 500 block Lewis Street, 10:46 a.m. • Medical, 700 block Sheridan Avenue, Cody, 2:25 p.m. • Medical, 400 Coffeen Avenue, 4:17 p.m. • Trauma, 1800 block Fort Road, 6:09 p.m. • Fire standby, Highway 345, 9:43 p.m. SHERIDAN MEMORIAL HOSPITAL Monday • No admissions or dismissals reported. SHERIDAN POLICE DEPARTMENT Information in the police reports is taken from the SPD website. Monday • 911 hang up, Adair Avenue, 3:19 a.m. • Assist sheriff ’s office, Dow Street, 4:24 a.m. • Stalking (cold), East Fifth Street, 8:38 a.m. • Animal incident, Third Avenue East, 9:16 a.m. • Civil dispute, West 11th Street, 9:49 a.m. • Civil dispute, Smith
Street, 10:01 a.m. • Public intoxication, Val Vista Street, 10:39 a.m. • Dog violation, Highland Avenue, 10:44 a.m. • VIN inspection, West 12th Street, 11:28 a.m. • Hit and run, Coffeen Avenue, 12:17 p.m. • Accident, North Main Street, 12:57 p.m. • Accident, Coffeen Avenue, 1:08 p.m. • Dog violation, Coffeen Avenue, 2:52 p.m. • Drug activity, Sheridan area, 3:05 p.m. • Disturbing the peace, West Eighth Street, 3:57 p.m. • Reckless driver, West Fifth Street, 4:21 p.m. • Accident, Coffeen Avenue, 4:35 p.m. • Dog bite, Lewis Street, 5:02 p.m. • Alarm, Sibley Circle, 5:42 p.m. • Civil dispute, West Fifth Street, 5:57 pm. • Traffic complaint, Brundage Lane, 6:22 p.m. • Trespass in progress, North Main Street, 6:37 p.m. • Shoplifting, North Main Street, 7:08 p.m.
WEDNESDAY
SHERIDAN COUNTY SHERIFF’S OFFICE Monday • Court violation, Dayton Street, Ranchester, 12:30 a.m. • Interference, West Dow Street and North Brooks Street, 4:17 a.m. • K-9 search, Interstate 90 eastbound mile marker 14, Ranchester, 10:03 a.m. • Welfare check, Dayton Street, Ranchester, 11:06 a.m. • Accident, Highway 335, Big Horn, 4:07 p.m.
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Shown is Wednesday's weather. Temperatures are tonight's lows and Wednesday's highs.
Some sun with a shower; breezy
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Regional Cities City Billings Casper Cheyenne Cody Evanston Gillette Green River Jackson
Wed. Hi/Lo/W 38/19/c 29/10/sn 28/15/sn 30/17/c 31/17/sf 30/13/sn 34/19/sf 31/8/c
Thu. Hi/Lo/W 49/34/c 40/16/pc 36/20/pc 45/32/c 37/26/pc 38/17/pc 43/27/pc 38/17/sf
everywhere.” On this date: In 1789, President-elect George Washington left Mount Vernon, Va., for his inauguration in New York. In 1862, during the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln signed a bill ending slavery in the District of Columbia. The Confederacy conscripted all white men between the ages of 18 to 35. In 1947, the French ship Grandcamp blew up at the harbor in Texas City, Texas; another ship, the High Flyer, exploded the following day (the blasts and fires killed nearly 600 people). ” In 1962, Bob Dylan debuted his song “Blowin’ in the Wind” at Gerde’s Folk City in New York. In 1972, Apollo 16 blasted off on a voyage to the moon with astronauts John W. Young, Charles M. Duke Jr. and Ken Mattingly on board. In 1996, Britain’s Prince Andrew and his wife, Sarah, the Duchess of York, announced they were in the process of divorcing. In 2007, in the deadliest shooting rampage in modern U.S. history, student Seung-Hui Cho killed 32 people on the campus of
Fri. Hi/Lo/W 60/40/sh 44/34/c 48/31/pc 56/39/sh 45/32/pc 43/31/c 52/34/pc 43/33/sh
City Laramie Newcastle Rawlins Riverton Rock Springs Scottsbluff Sundance Yellowstone
Wed. Hi/Lo/W 25/10/sn 30/19/sn 27/10/sn 33/17/sn 31/18/sf 31/20/sn 24/15/sn 25/1/c
Thu. Hi/Lo/W 30/17/pc 33/13/pc 35/23/pc 42/29/pc 40/28/pc 39/19/pc 32/12/pc 32/14/sf
Fri. Hi/Lo/W 42/28/pc 45/25/c 48/35/pc 56/38/c 50/34/pc 50/30/c 41/28/c 38/25/sf
Weather (W): s-sunny, pc-partly cloudy, c-cloudy, sh-showers, t-thunderstorms, r-rain, sf-snow flurries, sn-snow, i-ice.
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Virginia Tech before taking his own life. Ten years ago: The Bush administration lowered the terror alert level from orange to yellow, saying the end of heavy fighting in Iraq had diminished the threat of terrorism in the United States. Five years ago: The Supreme Court upheld the most widely used method of lethal injection, allowing states to resume executions after a seven-month halt. One year ago: A trial began in Oslo, Norway, for Anders Breivik, charged with killing 77 people in a bomb and gun rampage in July 2011. Today’s Birthdays: Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI is 86. Basketball Hall-ofFamer Kareem AbdulJabbar is 66. Ann Romney is 64. NFL coach Bill Belichick is 61. Actress Ellen Barkin is 59. Rock musician Jason Scheff (Chicago) is 51. Actorcomedian Martin Lawrence is 48. Actor Jon Cryer is 48. Rock musician Dan Rieser is 47. Actor Lukas Haas is 37. Thought for Today: “Chaos is the score upon which reality is written.” — Henry Miller, American author (1891-1980).
UW to confer 2 honorary degrees
LARAMIE (AP) — The University of Wyoming will confer honorary doctoral degrees upon two individuals who are recognized internationally as leaders in their professions. They are Sheridan native Nancy Gwinn, director of the Smithsonian Libraries; and Casper native Dr. Stephen Nicholas, a world-renowned pediatric AIDS specialist. Both are UW alumni, and they will receive the college’s highest award during UW Commencement on May 11. UW bestows honorary degrees on individuals who embody the university’s high ideals.
DEATH NOTICES |
Dorothy (Dee) Luth Dorothy (Dee) Luth, 92, of Sheridan, Wyoming, died Monday, April 15, 2013 in the Sheridan Memorial Hospital. Arrangements are pending with Champion Ferries Funeral Home.
OBITUARIES |
Joan Edson Belisle Madia On April 13, three days after her 82nd birthday, Joan Edson Belisle Madia passed away from natural causes. Joan was born in Fullerton, California to Royce and Phyllis Edson and spent much of her childhood on her grandparents’ avocado farm in Brea, CA and at their beach house in Newport Beach. She moved to Long Beach Joan Edson while in grammar school. Belisle Madia A graduate of Naples Elementary, Rogers Junior High and Wilson high school, Joan married Bruce Belisle in 1949 and had two children, Debbie and Michael. In1973, she moved to Sheridan, Wyoming to marry Sheridan native, John J. “Chig” Madia until Chig died in early 1998. They lived in Dietz, home of the Country Nite Club. Joan spent the latter years of her life with her childhood sweetheart, Col. Ernie Evans, USMC (Ret), when they reunited after the passing of their respective spouses. The pair lived in Long Beach, CA. Joan is survived by her son, Michael Belisle, daughter Debbie Ryker and four grandchildren: Sean, Derek and Samantha Belisle and Courtney Sembler.
National Weather for Wednesday, April 17
SATURDAY
Sheridan County Airport through Monday
9a 10a 11a Noon 1p
JAIL Today Daily inmate count: 88 Female inmate count: 23 Inmates at treatment facilities (not counted in daily inmate total): 0 Inmates housed at other facilities (not counted in daily inmate total): 2 Number of book-ins for the previous day: 4 Number of releases for the previous day:11
Regional Weather FRIDAY
THURSDAY
Mostly cloudy and cold
ARRESTS Names of individuals arrested for domestic violence or sexual assault will not be released until those individuals have appeared in court. Monday • James Edward Trumbull Jr., 55, Sheridan, trespassing, circuit court, arrested by SPD.
Quarter Pounder
Billings 22/38
Overcast, flurries; cold
• Damaged property, Highway 193 and Crooked Street, Banner, 4:22 p.m. • Hit and run, Coffeen Avenue, 5:40 p.m.
2146 Coffeen Ave. • 673-1100 2590 N. Main • 672-5900
5-Day Forecast for Sheridan TONIGHT
• Gas theft, East Brundage Lane, 7:18 p.m. • Alarm, Sugarland Drive, 7:28 p.m. • Juvenile out of control, Strahan Parkway, 7:47 p.m. • Malicious mischief, South Carlin Street, 8:04 p.m. • Welfare check, West Alger Avenue, 8:29 p.m. • Suspicious person, Coffeen Avenue, 9:26 p.m. • Barking dog, Illinois Street, 10:16 p.m.
THE SHERIDAN PRESS
Shown are Wednesday's noon positions of weather systems and precipitation. Temperature bands are highs for the day.
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www.thesheridanpress.com
TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
BOSTON: Sheridan runner vows to compete in Boston as many years as he qualifies ty. The person said the boy’s mother and sister were also injured as they waited for He added that due to the location of the his father to finish the race. blasts on Boylston Street, which is the last Hospitals reported at least 144 people quarter mile of the 26.2 mile race, spectainjured, at least 17 of them critically. At tors likely would have been stacked four to least eight children were being treated at five people deep in front of the explosions. hospitals. “They took the brunt of the terrible Tim Davey of Richmond, Va., was with attack,” Acker said. his wife, Lisa, and children near a medical Federal investigators said no one had tent that had been set up to care for claimed responsibility for the bombings on fatigued runners when the injured began one of the city’s most famous civic holiarriving. “They just started bringing peodays, Patriots Day. But the blasts among the ple in with no limbs,” he said. throngs of spectators raised fears of a ter“Most everybody was conscious,” Lisa rorist attack. Davey said. “They were very dazed.” “My reaction to the attack... ANGER for a The Boston Marathon is one of the cruel and senseless attack that killed and world’s oldest and most prestigious races injured innocent people taking part in an and about 23,000 runners participated. The historic athletic event on this New England race honored the victims of the Newtown, holiday... Patriots Day,” Acker said. Conn., shooting with a special mile marker President Barack Obama was careful not in Monday’s race. to use the words “terror” or “terrorism” as Boston Athletic Association president he spoke at the White House Monday after Joanne Flaminio previously said there was the deadly bombings, but an administration “special significance” to the fact that the official said the bombings were being treatrace is 26.2 miles long and 26 people died at ed as an act of terrorism. Sandy Hook Elementary School. “We will find out who did this. We’ll find One of the city’s biggest annual events, out why they did this,” the president said. the race winds up near Copley Square, not “Any responsible individuals, any responsifar from the landmark Prudential Center ble groups, will feel the full weight of jusand the Boston Public Library. It is held on tice.” Patriots Day, which commemorates the first COURTESY PHOTO | battles of the American Revolution, at The FBI took charge of the investigation into the bombings, serving a warrant late Concord and Lexington in 1775. Monday on a home in suburban Boston and The morning of the Boston Marathon Sheridan resident Del Acker waits in the Boston Common With scant official information to guide where he joined thousands of runners to get bussed to the start of the race. appealing for any video, audio and still them, members of Congress said there was images taken by marathon spectators. little or no doubt it was an act of terrorism. found near the end of the 26.2-mile course flags lining the route. Acker said several events were canceled “We just don’t know whether it’s foreign as part of what appeared to be a well-coorBlood stained the pavement, and huge following the blasts — people were asked to or domestic,” said Rep. Michael McCaul, Rshards were missing from window panes as dinated attack, but they were safely disstay away from central Boston and the Texas, chairman of the House Committee armed, according to a senior U.S. intellihigh as three stories. Victims suffered broentire area around the explosions is off on Homeland Security. gence official, who also spoke on condition ken bones, shrapnel wounds and ruptured limits. The Boston Bruins hockey game A few miles away from the finish line and of anonymity because of the continuing eardrums. that day was also canceled, he said. around the same time, a fire broke out at investigation. Roupen Bastajian, a state trooper from Acker said he and his wife are staying in the John F. Kennedy Library. The police WBZ-TV reported late Monday that law Smithfield, R.I., had just finished the race Cambridge and weren’t planning to leave commissioner said that it may have been enforcement officers were searching an when he heard the explosions. town until tomorrow. caused by an incendiary device but it was apartment in the Boston suburb of Revere. “I started running toward the blast. And Despite the attacks, Acker said he plans not clear whether it was related. Massachusetts State Police confirmed that there were people all over the floor,” he to run the Boston Marathon next year, and The bombings occurred about four hours said. “We started grabbing tourniquets and a search warrant related to the investigaas many years as he can qualify for the into the race and two hours after the men’s tion into the explosions was served Monday winner crossed the finish line. By that started tying legs. A lot of people amputatevent. night in Revere, but provided no further ed. ... At least 25 to 30 people have at least The Ackers have lived in Sheridan for 30 point, more than 17,000 of the athletes had details. one leg missing, or an ankle missing, or years. He is an architect with TSP and his finished the marathon, but thousands more Some investigators were seen leaving the were still running. two legs missing.” wife is a retired elementary school teacher Revere house early Tuesday carrying At Massachusetts General Hospital, with Sheridan County School District 2. The attack may have been timed for maxibrown paper bags, plastic trash bags and a Alasdair Conn, chief of emergency servicThe fiery explosions took place about 10 mum carnage: The four-hour mark is typies, said: “This is something I’ve never seen duffel bag. seconds and about 100 yards apart, knockcally a crowded time near the finish line Police said three people were killed. An 8- because of the slow-but-steady recreational in my 25 years here ... this amount of caring spectators and at least one runner off year-old boy was among the dead, accordnage in the civilian population. This is their feet, shattering windows and sending runners completing the race and because of ing to a person who talked to a friend of the all the friends and relatives clustered what we expect from war.” dense plumes of smoke rising over the family and spoke on condition of anonymi- around to cheer them on. As many as two unexploded bombs were street and through the fluttering national FROM 1
BEEF: No plans to expand disease surveillance area Game and Fish officials obtained the specimens through voluntary The disease — which is often conblood sample submissions from sidered a serious economic threat by hunters during the 2012 elk season. cattle producers — is only known to Testing kits were not distributed persist in the area immediately sur- on the Sheridan side of the mounrounding Yellowstone National tains in 2012. Park. But of more than 600 testing kits Cattle produced inside what the mailed to hunters on the west side of Wyoming Game and Fish the range, the department received Department refers to as the desigonly 25 usable samples over the nated surveillance area face heightcourse of the season. Two of those ened restrictions when it comes to tested positive for exposure. testing and exporting their animals. Wildlife experts admitted that Beef from other areas of the state such a small sample can’t tell them were not previously considered at much about the possible prevalence risk. of brucellosis antibodies in area elk. But according to blood tests per“That’s what has everybody from formed by Game and Fish, a pair of the governor on down concerned,” elk harvested last year on the westsaid Regional Wildlife Supervisor ern slope of the Bighorn Mountains Joe Gilbert. tested sero-positive for brucellosis. Brucellosis is a threat to ranchers While a sero-positive result does thanks largely to the inquisitive not prove definitively that an animal nature of cattle. is infected with the disease — only a When exposed to an aborted fetus, time-consuming and costly analysis cows tend to investigate by sniffing of bodily tissue can do that — it and licking the remains. That expodoes indicate exposure to the bactesure can be sufficient for them to ria that causes it. contract the disease. FROM 1
‘We know that curiosity killed the cat, and in the case of brucellosis, curiosity infected the bovine.’ Dr. Walt Cook
Brucellosis coordinator at the University of Wyoming “We know that curiosity killed the cat, and in the case of brucellosis, curiosity infected the bovine,” Cook said. As a result, speakers urged ranchers to strengthen the physical barriers between their herds and any land where elk are known to travel. Meanwhile, state agencies plan to increase surveillance measures and work with the federal government to determine how best to fund additional voluntary testing of Wyoming cattle. They currently have no plans to expand the designated brucellosis surveillance area and the heightened restrictions that come with it.
PROPOSAL: Developer wants city to address the petition from neighbors FROM 1 That petition was tabled and was not addressed while compromises for the development were discussed, eventually leading to the proposed PUD that has now been withdrawn. “Part of my request has to do with the fact that we have asked the city to dispose of that petition, one way or the other, that came before them,” Love said. “We want the city to take it off the table and vote on it one way or another. I’m nervous about that legal cloud hanging over it.” Love said if the city decides to approve the petition and rezone part of his property to R-1, he will sue the city for damages. “We did everything we were legally supposed to. As far as I’m concerned, we didn’t do anything underhanded. I bought a piece of property. There was an issue. We went to court, and the court filed in our favor,” Love said about a declaratory judgment that ruled both tracts of property were R-3 as indicated on a city zoning map. Love said he wasn’t sure when plans for the new development will be resubmitted for consideration.
TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
Last day at the mine
Big Horn Ear, Nose and Throat hosting screening
Veteran employee retires from male-dominated profession
FROM STAFF REPORTS
BY PAOLO CISNEROS THE SHERIDAN PRESS
DECKER, MONT. — As machine operators and managers went about their business last Thursday, a melancholy air hung around the offices of Spring Creek Coal Mine just north of Sheridan. Out in the field, Joyce Neal — a woman affectionately known by her coworkers as Granny — was putting in her last shift as a shovel operator after three entire decades at the mine. “It’s a wonderful job,” Neal said during a break that afternoon. “I’m going to be sad when I leave.” At 72 years old, Neal was not only the oldest employee on payroll at Spring Creek, but also one of only 15 women employed at the facility. Nearly 260 people currently make their living at the mine. A Wyoming ranch girl whose experience working the land led to a familiarity with large machinery, Neal said the Spring Creek environment had always been welcoming for her and the handful of other women she’s worked with over the course of her 30 years on the job. While she can’t say for sure why so few women enter the profession, Neal said she imagines that some might be intimidated by the enormity of the machinery they’re charged with handling. Still, she said her gender never put her at a disadvantage when it came to fitting in. “They’ve taken care of me since the day I came out here,” she said. “The people out here are special.” In the hours leading up to the end of her time at the mine, facility managers said Neal played a crucial role in shaping the unique employee culture that developed at Spring Creek in recent years. “We have (other) people that have the skills Joyce has, but you can’t replace the person,” said Manager of Site Production Erik Strom. “She’s developed these people to be good, productive coal miners.” Looking back on the years, that’s an accomplishment Neal never envisioned for herself. She came to Spring Creek early in the 1980s, looking simply for a way to provide for her children. Recently divorced, she and her sis-
THE SHERIDAN PRESS |PAOLO CISNEROS
Shovel operator Joyce Neal retired last week after 30 years at Spring Creek Coal Mine. She was one of only a handful of women on the 257-member crew. ter both set out looking for work at around the same time. Eventually, Joyce was hired at Spring Creek and her sister took a position down the road at Decker Mine. The sisters, originally from Meeteetse, learned quickly that mining work suited them well. “We both are ranch girls and we wanted to be outside,” she said. Starting in the plant, Neal held several positions over the course of her tenure at Spring Creek, but it wasn’t until she worked her way into the role of shovel operator that she felt she had finally found her place. “I love my shovels,” she said plainly. Her enthusiasm wasn’t lost on her bosses who, several years ago, promoted her to step-in supervisor for the occasions when the higherups were out of town. Now a resident of Wyola, Mont., Neal’s dedication to her profession was the subject of much admiration from management during her final weeks at Spring Creek. “It’s sad,” Human Resources
Manager Jean Fox said of Neal’s retirement. “She’s a huge part of this team.” Looking ahead, Neal said she plans on spending her newfound free time gardening, becoming more actively involved with her church and — perhaps most excitingly — taking a cruise to Alaska this summer with her sisters. Still, she knows she’ll miss the mine. “In mining, (your coworkers) become your family,” she said. “I come to work, and I’m home.” She said she plans to visit every now and then when she’s not off on a new adventure. It’s a promise her bosses hope she keeps. As Neal’s time at the mine winded down late last week, they said her legacy will remain forever etched on the history of the facility. “We’re not sure, but we think Joyce may have loaded more coal than any employee at Spring Creek ever,” Strom said. “She’s the basis of what Spring Creek has always been.”
Pfitzer Pest Control opening Sheridan location FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — Pfitzer Pest Control, a South Dakota-based business, announced last week the launch of a new location in Sheridan. Having officially opened March 1, the company will provide pest pre-
SHERIDAN — Community members who think they might have allergies are invited to make an appointment for a simple allergy screening test to be held at Big Horn Ear, Nose and Throat. The test will take about 45 minutes and will test for several standard allergens. In the case of a positive test, options for a more extensive follow-up screening test will be available at a discount for those who participate in the screening clinic. There are certain medication restrictions to follow five days prior to the screening so see the Big Horn ENT website at www.bighornentclinic.org for specific instructions. According to Dr. Cheryl Varner, the spring months are the time that seasonal allergies are often experienced. “There are options available for treatment, but sometimes just knowing what causes your allergic reactions is enough to be able to prevent symptoms,” Varner said in a press release. Common symptoms of allergies include runny nose, sneezing and red, swollen or watery eyes. The cost of the clinic is $15 to be paid at the time of the appointment. Appointments will be April 22-26. To schedule an appointment contact Big Horn Ear, Nose and Throat at 675-4646 by Wednesday. Big Horn Ear, Nose and Throat is an affiliate of Sheridan Memorial Hospital and is located at 1416 W. Fifth St.
vention services to both residential and commercial properties. “More businesses and homeowners are realizing the link that professional pest control services provide for individuals to protect their family, company and their property," company owner Garret Pfitzer said in a media release. “We felt
there was a need in Sheridan County for its residents to have a local resource to offer this protection as many people do not realize that there is a way to prevent and contain all types of pests and rodents.” The company is headquartered in Mobridge, S.D.
Curl Up & Dye marking 12 years in business FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — Curl Up & Dye, LLC, is celebrating 12 years in business. An open house and anniversary celebration is planned for Thursday from 4-7 p.m. Refreshments, drawings, booking specials and retail specials will be offered during the open house. The hair, nail and makeup salon has had a facelift and welcomed employees Sara Tomisich and Tio Owen at the end of 2012 and Nichole Forni earlier this year. Everyone is welcome to come meet Heather Peterson and her staff. Curl Up & Dye is located at 106 S. Main St.
Yoga workshops April 26-28 FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — Santosha Yoga, on the top floor of the old Taylor School at 1030 N. Main St., is hosting a weekend of yoga workshops April 26-28. Baxter Bell, medical doctor and master yoga teacher, will share ways that yoga can keep you healthier and happier as you age. Scheduled classes are: • “The Bones Have It!”, how yoga can help in the prevention of thinning bones — April 26 from 6:30-8:30 p.m., $40. • “Yoga for Arthritis” — April 27 from 9 a.m. to noon, $75 for both April 27 sessions. • “Yoga for Healthy Eating” — April 27 from 2:30-5 p.m., $75 for both April 27 sessions. • “The Art of ‘Transfers’ or You Gotta Get Up to Get Down!” — April 28 from 9 a.m. to noon, $60. The fee for attending all four sessions is $125. If you register for sessions after April 19 there will be an additional $10 fee. Sessions are open to all levels of yoga practitioners. For more information call Steve Cropley at 751-5540 or Teddy Araas at 763-0017.
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www.thesheridanpress.com
Reporter shares account of bomb blasts in Boston JIMMY GOLEN ASSOCIATED PRESS
EDITOR’S NOTE: Boston sports writer Jimmy Golen was covering his 18th Boston Marathon when he heard the bombs go off at the finish line. This is his account of how it unfolded. BOSTON (AP) — This year’s Boston Marathon had seemed so normal. The winners were a man from Ethiopia and a woman from Kenya, and even runners two hours behind raised their arms as they finished, ecstatic just to have made it to the end of one of the most grueling 26.2-mile marathon courses. Volunteers were on hand to catch those who collapsed as they crossed the blue and yellow finish line. Spectators cheered not just for family members but for every “Dan” or “Alan” smart enough to write his name on his shirt. Then I heard the first blast. I turned to see gray smoke billowing from the north side of Boylston Street and rising over the photo bridge at the finish line. A few seconds later came another blast. I did what I was trained to do: I called the office and told them what little I knew: “There were two explosions at the finish line of the Boston Marathon.” I wouldn’t be able to get through on my cellphone again for hours. I texted my wife to tell her I was safe, though she didn’t know what had happened yet. No one did, really. It could have been a gas explosion, but even without an explanation it was clear that people were hurt. The second blast made it likely they were intentional, and it made me worry that there could be more. I walked toward the damage, more than anything else because I felt it was no more dangerous there than anyplace else in the area. Race workers in yellow volunteer jackets and police in yellow safety vests were running past me. EMTs carried their gear or pushed empty wheelchairs, followed soon by doctors in their white volunteer jackets. Runners continued to run, stopping their watches as they crossed the finish line, now confused as well as tired. I saw people crying. Runners and volunteers and family members. Police began clearing the area. I saw people turned away, pleading with officials to get through so they could see their family members. I saw two people in civilian clothes carrying a woman, who was not wearing running gear, with one arm over each shoulder and one leg in each arm. Blood was gushing from her leg. A Boston police officer went by, pushed in a wheelchair. His pants had a small tear near the ankle, and blood was dripping from his heel. Ambulances and police vehicles sped down
Boylston into the foot traffic. It seemed obvious that the worst injuries were still to come. Unable to get through on my cellphone, I went back to the media workroom so I could communicate with my editors on my laptop. The building would soon be sealed. I was stuck there for the next five hours, unable to report on the scene of the disaster, unable to leave. Reporters covering the marathon generally work from race headquarters in the Fairmont Copley hotel. It is a lush ballroom with a fresco ceiling and plaster frieze and large arched and curtained windows that, on Patriots Day, are blocked by a 6-foot high, 30-foot long tracking board that updates the media on the progress of the race. It can be a sterile way to experience what is often an exciting occasion.
I got up to walk it off. In the bathroom, a Boston police officer was at the mirror, wiping the tears from his reddened eyes. I patted him on the back but said nothing. I got back to my laptop and kept working.
Zdziarski wins bareback at Laramie HS rodeo FROM STAFF REPORTS
SHERIDAN — The Sheridan High School rodeo team completed its first spring rodeo Saturday and Sunday in Laramie. Sheridan’s top placer was Jeffrey Zdziarski, who took first in the bareback Sunday with a 74-point ride. His performance pushes him up to second place in Wyoming High School Rodeo Association 2012-13 bareback standings. Kylee Cahoy placed third in barrel racing and fourth in breakaway roping in Saturday’s first go, taking third again Sunday in barrel racing. Cahoy is the second ranked barrel racer in the state, and sits in ninth place in girls all-around standings. Tiare Ilgen finished fourth in breakaway roping Saturday, and she is in fourth place on the season. Finally, Weston Mann placed third in calf roping Saturday. Mann is in 10th place in boys allaround season standings. The team will compete in Rock Springs this weekend, where the junior high rodeo team will also compete in its first competition of the season. Detailed standings below.
COURTESY PHOTO | LORIE CAHOY
The 2012-13 Sheridan High School rodeo team, back row, from left, Brandt Ross, Tori Blea, Makenna Balkenbush and Lacy Blea. Middle row, from left, Sam Haskett, Kendall Bilodeau, Shelby Mann, Emmi Ilgen, Shyanna Cahoy, Timber Kelly and Maggie Frederickson. Front row, from left, Jeffery Zdziarski, Kylee Cahoy, Cashlee Cunningham, Cricket Cunningham, Anna Zowada, Tiare Ilgen and, Gabrielle Koltiska.
Laramie HS Rodeo Club rodeo Saturday -Kylee Cahoy fourth in breakaway roping, and third in barrel racing (Ninth in girls all-around in state) -Weston Mann third in calf roping (10th in boys all-around in state) -Brandt Ross eighth in calf roping -Tiare Ilgen fourth in breakaway roping (fourth in state) Cashlee Cunningham eighth in goat tying (ninth in state) -Jeffery Zdziarski fourth in bareback riding (second in state) Sunday -Kylee Cahoy third in barrel racing (second in state)
Time to get serious
Jimmy Golen
From his first-hand account of Monday’s Boston Marathon bombings
I had grown familiar with the pace of the day: a slow buildup to the finish, then a flurry of activity as a series of winners — first the wheelchairs, then the women and men — arrived in Copley Square. I could usually count on things to settle down by midafternoon. After my stories are edited and sent on The Associated Press wire, I like to head out to the course get a feel for how the day went. I remember last year the smell of sunscreen and the steady parade of competitors being ushered or wheeled to the medical tent to be treated for dehydration. This year’s race didn’t seem to offer any of the usual sidelights: neither unusual weather nor a surprising American contender nor even the question of trying to figure out whether the Robert Kiprono Cheruiyot of Kenya who won in 2010 was related to the Robert Kipkoech Cheruiyot of Kenya who had won four times before. I went looking for a friend who was expected to come in around that time. I walked through the VIP stands, trying to keep one eye on the course and one on the stands, where her family would be waiting. SEE BOSTON, PAGE B6
TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
THE SHERIDAN PRESS | BRAD ESTES
Nick Gill waits to take a free kick Friday against Gillette. After losing to the Camels 1-0, Sheridan (2-3 4A East) sits in fourth place in conference standings at the halfway point. In need of a win, the Broncs host their final two home games this weekend against Laramie and Cheyenne South. Saturday’s junior varsity and varsity games will be played at Sheridan Junior High School due to the Dan Hansen track meet scheduled to take place at the high school.
Davidson out, Russell in as Casper College basketball coach CASPER (AP) — Casper College is promoting assistant men’s basketball coach Dan Russell to be the Thunderbirds’ next head basketball coach. Russell will take over for Joel Davidson, who resigned last week to accept an assistant coaching position with Northern Colorado. Russell had been Davidson’s assistant for the past five years.
-Jeffrey Zdiarski first bareback riding (12th all-around in state) -Shelby Mann and Nate Rogers 10th in team roping -Tori Blea 10th in goat tying Other Sheridan County state leaders -Faith Carson, Arvada (third breakaway roping/fourth girls cutting) -Dalton Beasley, Banner (third steer wrestling) -Lacy Blea, Acme (10th goat tying) -Shelby Mann (11th/12th barrel racing) -Bryce Burnell, Arvada (first bull riding) -Gage Belus, Arvada (seventh bull riding)
Rested and ready, Manning kicks off 2013 ENGLEWOOD, Colo. (AP) — The arm: rested. The receiving corps: restocked. Peyton Manning returned to Broncos headquarters Monday, starting voluntary workouts with his group of receivers, which now includes Wes Welker, formerly the top target for Tom Brady and the New England Patriots. The 37-year-old quarterback was working with a few of his teammates a week ago at Duke, where the quarterback’s former college coach, David Cutcliffe, ran a mini-camp of sorts with Manning, his brother, Eli, and an assortment of Broncos and Giants receivers. After taking two months away from football — about a month more than he’d hoped for — Manning, like any quarterback, was happy to have given his arm a rest. But, he said, it’s hard to gauge the way he feels this spring compared to last. He conceded he isn’t sure if he’ll ever get back to where he was before the neck surger- Manning ies that cost him the 2011 season. “Whether that’s possible or not, I’m probably never going to know the answer until I stop playing,” Manning said. “I’m never going to stop trying to get back to that point. I actually made some improvements since last year but still have a plan with the trainers, a plan with the strength coaches.” As last year progressed, Manning declared himself fit enough for NFL action — both with his words and his play on the field, where he threw for 4,659 yards and 37 touchdowns, both the second-best totals in his career. His final game, in the playoffs against Baltimore, wasn’t one of his best, however. In 13-degree weather, Manning threw two interceptions, lost a fumble and fell to 0-4 lifetime when starting games where the temperature was 40 degrees or less. As the season progressed, he admitted that the feeling in his throwing hand hadn’t fully returned. He wore an orange-andgray glove to try to help him with his grip. But as much as he practiced with the glove, he acknowledged there wasn’t much he could do to simulate a real-life situation in the freezing cold. It hasn’t gone unnoticed that this season’s Super Bowl will take place outdoors in New York. It also didn’t go unnoticed that his first week of 2013 workouts in Denver were greeted by temperatures in the 30s and a spring snowstorm bearing down. Good practice for Manning, one of the most meticulously prepared quarterbacks in the game. Figuring out the timing with receivers under all conditions, good and bad, is a full-time job, not simply one that starts and ends during “football season.” SEE MANNING, PAGE B6
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TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
BABY BLUES® by Jerry Scott and Rick Kirkman
COMICS www.thesheridanpress.com
Dr. Mehmet Oz and Dr. Michael Roizen
MARY WORTH by Karen Moy and Joe Giella
BORN LOSER® by Art and Chip Sansom
WHEN LOVE HURTS BY MICHAEL ROIZEN, M.D., AND MEHMET OZ, M.D. Cher, Kim Carnes and Emmy Lou Harris all recorded the 1961 Roy Orbison song "Love Hurts," lamenting the pain of a broken heart. But that was years ago, and by now they, and 50 million other postmenopausal women in the U.S., may be dealing with the physical realities that accompany the great hormone shift -- including love that hurts. Over 70 percent of women 60-69 years old who have a steady partner report having sex a few times a month or more. But 25 percent to 40 percent report painful intercourse. That's because a lack of estrogen causes vaginal atrophy, or thinning of the
tissue. Estrogen is needed to keep membranes and skin supple and strong. So here are some tips to ease that discomfort. --Stay physically active. Regular exercise can relieve menopausal symptoms (hot flashes), improve overall health (a big plus for feeling sexy) and keep pelvic muscles toned (that keeps orgasms strong). --Eat foods that promote strong, healthy skin. Pomegranate and sunflower
seeds, guava, red peppers, Brussels sprouts, olive oil and walnuts boost collagen. Adding 900 IU of algal-oil DHA omega-3 daily is a great move. --Try safe estrogen-based therapies: Topical creams, vaginal tablets and the estrogen ring deliver relief, and the hormone isn't (much) absorbed into the bloodstream. Make sure to ask your doc about taking two baby aspirins daily if you're trying ANY estrogen therapy. --Also, ask your doc about risks and benefits of a new Food and Drug Administration-approved medication: ospemifene, a SERM (selective estrogen receptor modulator) that relieves painful intercourse by enhancing estrogen activity in some tissues.
DEAR ABBY Pauline Phillips and Jeanne Phillips
GARFIELD by Jim Davis
FRANK & ERNEST® by Bob Thaves
REX MORGAN, M.D. by Woody Wilson and Tony DiPreta
ZITS® by Jerry Scott and Jim Borgman
DILBERT by S. Adams
ALLEY OOP® by Dave Graue and Jack Bender
FRIEND'S CELEBRATION MAKES WOMAN'S BIRTHDAY UNHAPPY DEAR ABBY: I was raised that a person's birthday is his or her day to do whatever he or she wants, but my wishes are being ignored by a close friend I'll call Wade. For the last 10 years I have ignored my birthday and tried to avoid all celebrations. I'll take a vacation alone and have a great time. My family understands how I feel and gives me no grief. I met Wade five years ago. He's a co-worker who has become a good friend. Wade has made it his goal in life to make me celebrate my birthday. I have tried being nice about the presents and even a surprise birthday party one year, but I really prefer to be left alone. I never told him my birth date. He had access to HR records and found out on his own. He says I am "rude" for not letting him celebrate my birthday. Other than this issue, he's a great guy. Advice, Abby? -- NONOBSERVANT IN FLORIDA
DEAR NONOBSERVANT: Wade may be a "great guy," but he appears to be insensitive when it comes to respecting the feelings of others. Before your next birthday, "remind" him that you prefer not to celebrate or acknowledge it. A good friend should listen and respect the other person's wishes instead of trying to impose his or her will, and don't be shy about saying so. DEAR ABBY: I am one of four sisters. Two of my sisters, their husbands and I want to plan a trip to Italy. We do not want to include our fourth sister and her husband. None of us like him or can forgive how he abused her in the past. For her sake, we tolerate him at family gatherings and holidays, but none of us want to be with
him for an extended period. We also don't think his health would allow him to do a lot of the things we want to do on this vacation. How do we plan this trip while excluding our sister and her husband without hurting her feelings or causing a big family blowup? Should we just not mention it? Or should we tell her she's invited but not her husband? Please advise. -- SIS IN A PICKLE DEAR SIS: Secrets like this have a way of getting out. It might be a slip of the tongue by one of your sisters or their husbands, or some other relative who knows about the trip. Surely your sister knows how you all feel about her husband, so it won't be a shock if you tell her she is invited but he is not. Under the circumstances I doubt if she will join you, and there will probably be hurt feelings. But sneaking this past her would be like trying to smuggle dawn past a rooster, and I don't think it would be long before she finds out anyway. DEAR ABBY: My husband and I have been married for nine years. I worked until 2010, and then quit to be a stay-at-home mom to our two small children. Because I no longer work, I watch what I spend, but my husband never lets me forget that he is the wage earner. When I want to spend money he always says, "What's in it for me?" or, "What do I get?" I feel like this degrades me. Why does he do this to me? -STAY-AT-HOME MOM IN GEORGIA DEAR STAY-AT-HOME MOM: Your husband may say it because he feels stressed or resentful that he is the sole wage earner now. The first time it happened you should have responded that "what's in it for him" is that his children have a full-time mother, which the majority of children today don't have, and "what he gets" out of it are offspring who have a mother rather than a caregiver raising them. Dear Abby is written by Abigail Van Buren, also known as Jeanne Phillips, and was founded by her mother, Pauline Phillips. Write Dear Abby at www.DearAbby.com or P.O. Box 69440, Los Angeles, CA 90069.
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TUESDAY, APRIL 16, 2013
Collins resigns as 76ers head coach after team misses playoffs PHILADELPHIA (AP) — Doug Collins is on his way out as Philadelphia 76ers’ coach. It remains to be seen if he’ll stick with the organization in some other role. A person familiar with the situation tells The Associated Press the Collins and the Sixers are trying to resolve their relationship after the coach told them he would not return for a fourth season. The person spoke on condition of anonymity Monday because the issue has not been settled. The person said both sides spent the day working toward an agreement that would keep Collins in the organization in some capacity or free him from the club.
Two people with knowledge of the situation said Collins told the Sixers on Sunday night he would not return next season. All three people who spoke to the AP say management wanted Collins to return and he was under no pressure to step down. Collins is owed $4.5 million in the last year of his contract. Team president Rod Thorn was already set to step aside after this season, leaving open the possibility Collins assumes some front office control. The Sixers are 33-47 and in ninth place in the Eastern Conference a year after they won 35 games and a round in the playoffs in last year’s lockout-shortened season.
The Sixers finish out the season Monday in Detroit and Wednesday in Indiana. Collins not did address his future with the team on Sunday. Collins, a four-time All-Star with the Sixers, returned to the franchise in 2010 and led them to the playoffs in each of his first two seasons. After falling one win shy of advancing to the Eastern Conference finals last season, the Sixers shook up the roster and made the bold move to acquire All-Star center Andrew Bynum from the Los Angeles Lakers. Collins would have likely returned had Bynum panned out and kept the Sixers in contention
with numbers close to his career highs 18.7 points and 11.8 rebounds set last season with the Lakers. Instead of helping the Sixers get ready for a playoff run, Bynum never played for them because of bone bruises in both knees. He had season-ending arthroscopic surgery on both knees last month. Bynum earned $16.5 million this season and is set to become an unrestricted free agent. Bynum’s agent, David Lee, refused on Monday to discuss possible contract terms for next season. But he said Bynum would be “ready to go” for training camp. Lee said Collins’ leaving as coach did not change the way
Bynum viewed the Sixers and the All-Star center would be open to a return, if the franchise is interested. Bynum is set to shed his crutches on Friday and begin the next phase of his rehabilitation. Lee said there are no plans for Bynum to return to Germany for the Orthokine blood-spinning treatment in his knees that other professional athletes have sought. He understood why Sixers fans were upset with Bynum after several target dates for a return came and went. “The experience has been a positive one, except for the outcome,” Lee said by phone. “It’s regrettable, but this unfortunately happens in professional sports.”
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Include name, address, phone, dates to run and payment
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We reserve the right to reject, edit or reclassify any advertisement accepted by us for publication. When placing an ad in person or on the phone, we will read all ads back to you for your approval. If we fail to do so, please tell us at that time. If you find an error in your classified ad, please call us before 9 a.m. to have it corrected for the next day’s paper. The Press cannot be responsible for more than one incorrect insertion. Claims cannot be considered unless made within three days of the date of publication. No allowances can be made when errors do not materially affect the value of the advertisement.
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All classified ads run for free at www.thesheridanpress.com! All classified ads running in Monday’s Press also run in the weekly PressPlus at no additional charge!
Hints from Heloise Magazines on the Move Dear Heloise: Last time I moved, I lost all of my MAGAZINE SUBSCRIPTIONS because magazines do not get forwarded by the post office, and I forgot about calling customer service while busy with the move. I just moved again and didn't want that to happen this time. Before throwing out my most recent issues, I clipped off the address labels, which contain my account number and subscription information, then taped them to the inside cover of my address book. After I moved, I went online and was able to easily change my address with each magazine using my subscription information. I lost only one issue for each magazine, as it takes about six weeks for the change to go through. -- A Reader, via email The U.S. Postal Service sends magazines and periodicals BACK if they don't have a change-of-address form. You can do a change of address by getting the kit at your post office or filling one out online. It also is possible to suspend your mail and then have it re-
Heloise
sumed when you get settled; this way, you won't miss a magazine. And keep in mind that it usually takes between seven and 10 days to receive mail that has been forwarded. -- Heloise P.S.: Call the customer-service line listed in the magazine to alert the company about your new address. PACKAGE SHREDDINGS Dear Heloise: If you send packages and if you use a shredder, stuff some of the shredded paper into zippered bags (you can use various sizes, whatever the need) and use them in your packages. Rather than using regular popped popcorn (Heloise here: A reader suggested using popcorn in zip bags, then the recipient could eat the popcorn, too!), eat the popcorn and go for the shredded paper. Works great! -- Ingrid Capriotti, Arlington, Va. 'GRATE' PEELINGS Dear Heloise: I grated the peel of an orange to put in my homemade orange-cranberry sauce. I had to go to the store for another ingredient and left the grated orange peel on the
counter, uncovered. When I returned, I found that my entire condo smelled like freshly scented orange. This is a lot less work than boiling orange peel, etc., to scent your home. It's an easy way to get rid of bad odors or freshen your home! Just grate some orange peel and let it sit out in a bowl! -- Rusti Stover in Houston FLU-SEASON CAUTION Dear Heloise: During the flu season (which can last through late spring -- Heloise), waiting rooms in doctors' offices and hospitals have posted precautions to minimize further spread of diseases. One precaution is to avoid reading magazines, newspapers, etc., that you may find there. This will keep you from picking up a virus that has been left by a previous reader, and will eliminate you as a source of contamination. Instead, bring your own reading materials. -- Perry Crabill, Winchester, Va.
Bridge
Phillip Alder
GO FOR THE CHANCE THAT YOU HAVE Aristotle said, "All human actions have one or more of these seven causes: chance, nature, compulsions, habit, reason, passion, desire." At the bridge table, you desire to make or break the contract, using reasoning and various habits -- hopefully all good. And sometimes you have to go for any chance that you have. In this deal, West has to decide what to do when defending against one no-trump. He leads his fourth-highest diamond. South takes East's nine with his king and plays the spade queen. West ducks, but is in with his ace at trick three. What should West do now? An aggressive East would have made a three-club weak jump overcall on the first
round. Then South would probably have made a negative double, giving North a headache. The winning action would have been to pass, which would have netted 100 or 300. If East had balanced over one no-trump with a two-club bid, South would presumably have continued with two spades, which would have probably ended down one after the diamond-nine lead from East. Who has the diamond jack? It must be South -- do not be fooled by his falsecard at trick one. East was playing third hand high and the best he could do was the nine. Similarly, South has the diamond ace, giving South 10 highcard points. So, if West
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Omarr’s Daily Astrological Forecast BIRTHDAY GUY: Actor William Mapother was born in Louisville, Ky., on this date in 1965. This birthday guy is probably best known for his recurring role as Ethan Rom on "Lost." He's also guest-starred on episodes of "American Horror Story," "Justified" and "The Mentalist. " Mapother is the cousin of superstar Tom Cruise and has appeared with his famous relation in "Mission Impossible II," "Born on the Fourth of July" and "Magnolia." ARIES (March 21-April 19): Rather than working harder, work smarter. Short-term projects will roll along if you planned ahead of time. Put schemes into motion that require thoughtfulness or that use
imagination and ingenious talents. TAURUS (April 20-May 20): Garner a lesson from graffiti. If the writing is on the wall, the time is ripe to take a scrub brush and clean it off. Take care of loose ends before someone can point a finger at your scattered energies. GEMINI (May 21-June 20): When expectations are high, be sure to fulfill them. Fires burn themselves out without enough fuel. Remain focused on the doing the things that receive notice from others and engage your enthusiasm. CANCER (June 21-July 22): Everything happens for a reason, even if you aren't wise enough to know it yet. You might be torn between the need for quick action
leads another diamond, South must take at least nine tricks. The only chance for the defense is to run the clubs. West must shift to his club king and continue with his second club. Here, East and West take one spade and six clubs for down one.
and the need to follow a checklist or a set of sluggish regulations. LEO (July 23-Aug. 22): Time is on your side. There is no need to rush. If you make a pledge or a promise, others will expect you to faithfully fulfill it both today and next week. Earn merit badges for mastering a new skill. VIRGO (Aug. 23-Sept. 22): You can show two sides without being two-faced. Be super-efficient and meticulous when balancing the bank account, but remain completely relaxed when alone with your favorite companion. LIBRA (Sept. 23-Oct.22): You can't pay the rent with an argument. Rather than bristling at someone's overbearing competiveness or
Jeraldine Saunders
feeling defenseless when faced by someone's rudeness, simply get on with the job. SCORPIO (Oct. 23-Nov. 21): You aren't a spoon and life isn't coffee, so don't stir things up. Conflicting personalities or a lack of warmth from others might temporarily deter you from a business plan. You can't have it both ways. SAGITTARIUS (Nov. 22Dec. 21): Enjoy the comforts of home and family. You might stumble upon some much-needed inspiration or receive wise advice that solves a financial conundrum. Avoid participating in risky activities. CAPRICORN (Dec. 22-Jan. 19): Trust makes the world go around. When you emit confidence in someone
else's abilities, he or she is more likely to prove you right. If you add fuel to baseless suspicions, they could be set on fire. AQUARIUS (Jan. 20-Feb. 18): If you make a list of everything that can go wrong, you can also make a list of everything that can go right. You won't find a $20 bill on the sidewalk or an opportunity unless you look for it. PISCES (Feb. 19-March 20): You have to wake up first to make your dreams come true. Put the pedal to the metal to pursue your goals. You can easily earn or attain whatever you can visualize. Watch out for thoughtless spending. IF APRIL 17 IS YOUR BIRTHDAY: Right now, your ambitions are getting
in the way of your success. In May, there is a tendency to be caught up in an impossible dream or to become involved in a relationship that isn't quite what it seems. Wait until June, when both opportunities and sound advice are available, to make major changes or decisions. By then, you may be able to spin straw into gold, or at least have much better judgment, so anything you initiate should turn out for the best. Your hard work and determination may pay off with increased recognition or improved circumstances in October.
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CLASSIFIEDS
Hot Tub, Sauna, Pool 06 SUNDANCE Hottub, excellent condition $3500 307-622-0359
Furniture OAK DINNING room table w/ 8 chairs. $1000 or OBO 674-7578
Sporting Goods ELK AND Deer Antlers Wanted, any amount, all grades 208-403-3140
Guns GUN & TRADE SHOW Friends of the NRA banquet Eastmans' Journal Trophy Deer Head Display April 26, 4-8PM, April 27, 9-5PM, April 28, 9-3PM NRA Banquet April 27, 5:30PM Dinner at 6:30PM Banquet tickets $50 Live & Silent Auctions Games and fun for entire family Gun show table rent $15, Admission $3, 12 and under free Gillette Cam-Plex central pavilion. 682-4668 www.gillettegunclub.com
Boats 1988 ALUMINUM boat. 17.5ft. Blue FinSportsman. Must see $5300 OBO. Call 763-2752
Farm Machinery 57HP KUBOTA tractor and many attachments. 307660-7439
Miscellaneous 1971 351W $175 OBO. 2ton engine hoist $175 307-683-7541
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Broadway Apts. 2 bdrm, 1 bath townhouse Available in Dayton, WY. Rent based on income.
Please call 307-751-1752 or 1-888-387-7368 Toll-Free for application Equal Housing Opportunity
WESTERN APARTMENTS RENTS AS LOW AS 1 bedroom...$460-$560 2 bedroom...$565-$695 Dep. $450 Non Smoking Property
This institution is an equal opportunity provider.
672-8681 TDD-1-800-877-9965
STAGE STOP Motel. Monthly & Weekly Rentals. Best rates in Town. 307-672-2477 3BR 2-1/2BA Condo $1200.00/mo 2 car Garage 220 w. Loucks Central A/C 1500sqft. 751-4061 1 BR, heat/elec., on-site lndry, NO pets. $600/mo. 673-8200.
SHERIDAN APARTMENTS Taking Applications for 1, 2 & 3 bedroom apartments. Coin-op laundry facility & play area.
Rental assistance depending on availability and eligibility This institution is an equal opportunity provider and employer. 307-672-0854 TDD#711
For Lease
1917 N. Main Street Sheridan, WY
Rail Road Land & Cattle Co. Buildings for lease, Shop space, Warehouse space, Retail space, & office space. 673-5555
Grimshaw Investments
Rooms for Rent
Unfurnished Apts for Rent 1BR NEWLY updated, $550/mo. + dep. & 6mo. lease. Util. incl., on site laundry, no smk/pets. 6723507 CUTE 1BR $575/mo+ dep. util. incl. 752-7848 SKYVIEW ESTATES 2 BR 1 ba., W/D hookups, ďŹ replace, GARAGE, NO Pets $750/mo. 6727643 AVAILABLE IMMEDIATELY a beautiful apartment in the Historic Keenan Building at 40 East Works Street in downtown Sheridan. Living room, bedroom, Kitchen and bath, hardwood oors throughout. Laundry room, storage locker and off-street parking. $650 per month includes utilities. No pets, references required. To look at this apartment, call Chad at 752-0736
Houses, Unfurnished for Rent 4BR 2BA, lg. yd. Avail. 5/1 307-752-3665 BEAUTIFUL 5 BR 3 ba. Victorian, $1500/mo + util., call 674-7258 1BR, 1BA, remodeled, $550/mo, $550 deposit, no smoking. Realtor owned. Call Valerie Rice at Summit Realty Group 655-5795. 1343 HOLMES Ave. 2BR 1Ba. W/ 1car gar. $900/mo. +util., $250 sec. dep. smk 1pets ok. 307-752-5196/5332 2 BR, nice back yd., No pets. $700 + $700 dep. & utils. 751-3563. 1BR + remod. unďŹ n. basmt. new kitchen $800mo. 751-3993 NEWER 4BR $1300 call before 5pm 672-3077 4BR 1.5BA. Dinning Room, W/D, Shady yd. $1000mo+dep. Avail. 5/1 145 Wy. Ave. 763-0740
Now renting apartments in Sheridan, Buffalo and Wright, Wyoming Income Based
NICE, CLEAN 1BR W/D, $600/mo. + dep. + util., No smk/pets, 673-1759
For more information call
HOUSE FOR rent, 2-3 bdr, $900 + deposit 751-4025
307-672-2810
1BR NO Smk/pets $575 /mo + dep. 673-4332
SABERTON LODGE $350/ mo + dep. Call 673-4332
Furnished Apts for Rent 1 BR, heat/elec., cable, onsite lndry, NO pets. $700/mo. 673-8200. 1 BR/STUDIO $445/$545 Coin laundry & cable. Utils. incl. Pets? 673-4506 NICE 1BR, patio, off st. parking, No smk/pets. $550+dep. 752-6952 ROCKTRIM UNIT $575/ mo+dep. 673-4332 WEEKLY FROM $220, all inclusive Americas Best Value Inn call 672-9757
Mobile Homes for Rent CLEAN/QUIET 1BR plus, $625mo. incl. h/w/s , gar. No smk/pets. 752-4066 1BR & Studio $495$550/ mo., incl. utils. No smk/pets. 7520202. SUPER NICE 2 BR off street parking, quiet neighborhood, W/D hks., sm storage unit. $600/mo + 500 dep. 1 yr. lease. small pet neg. 751-2445
3BR. FNCD storage, $650mo+dep. call before 5pm 672-3077
Office Space for Rent 1600SQFT. PROFESSIONAL office w/in the city. Dedicated parking. 752-3834 PRIME MAIN street location. 2 North Main, Ste. 402. Mnt. views & great north light. Approximately 3300sqft. w/ 413sqft. for storage. 672-5858.
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Help Wanted
Help Wanted
FOR LEASE: Prime Main Street Location for Professional Office or Retail Space as follows: 54 South Main : Main Floor – 2750 sq. ft. Upper Floor - 2244 sq. ft. 44 South Main : Main Floor – 1200 sq. ft. Contact: (307) 672-7491
SPEAR-O WIGWAM PT Openings, seasonal, June-September. Located at the beautiful mountain outdoor campus site. CHEF serve as lead chef in preparation , cooking , serving, menu planning and clean-up of kitchen and dining room . COOK assist in preparation, cooking, serving & kitchen & dining room clean-up. On-line job postings and application at: https://jobs.sheridan.edu EOE.
SCHOOL DISTRICT #2 is accepting on-line applications at http://www.scsd2.com for a: School Nurse @ H.A. Coffeen School
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Help Wanted YOUTH SERVICES AIDE, Wyo. Girls School, Sheridan; Class Code SOYS03-21479, Target Hiring Range: $2253-$2650/mo. General Description: Supervise & monitor adjudicated female delinquents at a juvenile correctional facility during night shift & while preparing them for school. For more info. or to apply online go to https://statejobs.state. wy.us/JobSearchDetail. aspx?ID=21479 or submit a State of Wyo. Employment App. to the HR Division, Emerson Building, 2001 Capitol Ave., Cheyenne, WY 82002-0060, Phone: (307)777-7188, Fax: (307)777-6562, along w/ transcripts of any relevant course work. The State of Wyo. is an Equal Opportunity Employer & actively supports the ADA & reasonably accommodates qualiďŹ ed applicants w/ disabilities. IMMEDIATE OPENINGS! Housekeeping, Nite Audit & Breakfast Attend., Exp. preferred, Top wages Apply in person at Motel 6.
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SCOREBOARD | PRO RODEO LEADERS | Pro Rodeo Leaders The Associated Press Through April 14 All-around 1. Rhen Richard, Roosevelt, Utah $28,011 2. Trevor Brazile, Decatur, Texas $27,030 3. JoJo LeMond, Andrews, Texas $22,357 4. Curtis Cassidy, Donalda, Alberta $16,191 5. Justin Thigpen, Waycross, Ga. $13,610 6. Blake Hirdes, Turlock, Calif. $12,584 7. Shane Proctor, Grand Coulee, Wash. $11,589 8. Payden Emmett, Ponca, Ark. $9,873 9. Jordan Ketscher, Squaw Valley, Calif. $9,369 10. Paul David Tierney, Oral, S.D. $8,688 11. Ryle Smith, Oakdale, Calif. $8,518 12. Alan Frierson, O'Brien, Fla. $8,196 13. Jess Tierney, Hermosa, S.D. $7,468 14. Clayton Hass, Terrell, Texas $6,796 Bareback Riding 1. Kaycee Feild, Spanish Fork, Utah $43,443 2. Bobby Mote, Culver, Ore. $30,770 3. Wes Stevenson, Lubbock, Texas $28,159 4. J.R. Vezain, Cowley, Wyo. $25,724 5. Austin Foss, Terrebonne, Ore. $24,572 6. Will Lowe, Canyon, Texas $20,479 7. Jared Smith, Cross Plains, Texas $20,161 8. Ryan Gray, Cheney, Wash. $20,024 9. Ty Breuer, Mandan, N.D. $17,291 10. Clint Laye, Odessa, Texas $16,078 11. Clint Cannon, Waller, Texas $14,809 12. Jessy Davis, Power, Mont. $13,927 13. R.C. Landingham, Pendleton, Ore. $13,379 14. Winn Ratliff, Leesville, La. $13,149 15. Seth Hardwick, Laramie, Wyo. $12,899 16. Matthew Smith, Leesville, La. $12,175 17. Evan Jayne, Marseille, France $11,623 18. George Gillespie IV, Placerville, Calif. $10,763 19. Tim O'Connell, Zwingle, Iowa $10,615 20. Casey Colletti, Pueblo, Colo. $10,334 Steer Wrestling 1. Casey Martin, Sulphur, La. $44,585 2. Luke Branquinho, Los Alamos, Calif. $31,041 3. Jason Miller, Lance Creek, Wyo. $25,205 4. Jule Hazen, Ashland, Kan. $21,076 5. Straws Milan, Cochrane, Alberta $21,063 6. Les Shepperson, Midwest, Wyo. $20,077 7. Tyler Pearson, Louisville, Miss. $19,584 8. Trevor Knowles, Mount Vernon, Ore. $15,618 9. Clayton Moore, Pouce Coupe, British Columbia $15,311 10. Stan Branco, Chowchilla, Calif. $14,835 11. Sean Mulligan, Coleman, Okla. $14,542 12. Wade Sumpter, Fowler, Colo. $14,288 13. Dakota Eldridge, Elko, Nev. $12,749 14. Casey McMillen, Redmond, Ore. $12,341 15. Cooper Shofner, Huntsville, Texas $12,106 16. Curtis Cassidy, Donalda, Alberta $11,901 17. Tyler Waguespack, Gonzales, La. $11,316 18. Dean Gorsuch, Gering, Neb. $10,567 19. Jake Rinehart, Highmore, S.D. $10,099 20. Wyatt Smith, Rexburg, Idaho $8,802 Team Roping (header) 1. Landon McClaugherty, Tilden, Texas $30,128 2. Drew Horner, Plano, Texas $24,516 3. Kaleb Driggers, Albany, Ga. $23,332 4. Erich Rogers, Round Rock, Ariz. $21,948 5. Dustin Bird, Cut Bank, Mont. $21,939 6. Brock Hanson, Casa Grande, Ariz. $17,447 7. Nick Sartain, Dover, Okla. $17,241 8. Chace Thompson, Munday, Texas $17,154 9. Justin Davis, Madisonville, Texas $16,684 10. Luke Brown, Stephenville, Texas $15,672 11. Nick Rawlings, Stephenville, Texas $15,169 12. Clay Tryan, Billings, Mont. $14,832 13. Turtle Powell, Stephenville, Texas $14,775 14. Charly Crawford, Prineville, Ore. $13,581 15. Caleb Mitchell, Mason, Texas $13,107 16. Colby Lovell, Madisonville, Texas $12,755 17. Logan Olson, Flandreau, S.D. $12,438 18. Jake Cooper, Monument, N.M. $12,302 19. Calvin Brevik, Durango, Colo. $12,217 20. Ty Blasingame, Ramah, Colo. $12,089 Team Roping (heeler) 1. Tommy Zuniga, Centerville, Texas $30,128 2. Travis Graves, Jay, Okla. $26,440 3. Buddy Hawkins II, Columbus, Kan. $24,516 4. Cory Petska, Marana, Ariz. $23,347 5. Paul Eaves, Lonedell, Mo. $22,981 6. Kory Koontz, Sudan, Texas $22,616 7. Rich Skelton, Llano, Texas $18,809 8. Kollin VonAhn, Blanchard, Okla. $15,672 9. Tyler McKnight, Wells, Texas $14,666 10. Ryan Motes, Weatherford, Texas $13,430 11. Martin Lucero, Stephenville, Texas $13,083 12. Dugan Kelly, Paso Robles, Calif. $13,082 13. Jim Ross Cooper, Monument, N.M. $12,933 14. Kinney Harrell, Marshall, Texas $12,781 15. Matt Kasner, Cody, Neb. $12,438 16. Jaytin McCright, Canyon, Texas $12,182 17. Travis Woodard, Stockton, Calif. $11,851 18. York Gill, Stephenville, Texas $11,617 19. Will Woodfin, Marshall, Texas $11,449 20. Chad Williams, Stephenville, Texas $11,362 Saddle Bronc Riding 1. Cody Wright, Milford, Utah $39,319 2. Tyler Corrington, Hastings, Minn. $32,273 3. Jesse Wright, Milford, Utah $24,857 4. Cort Scheer, Elsmere, Neb. $22,221 5. Brad Rudolf, Winnemucca, Nev. $22,154 6. Cole Elshere, Faith, S.D. $21,025 7. Taos Muncy, Corona, N.M. $20,483 8. Troy Crowser, Whitewood, S.D. $16,554 9. Sterling Crawley, Stephenville, Texas $13,470 10. Chad Ferley, Oelrichs, S.D. $13,343 11. Spencer Wright, Milford, Utah $12,930 12. Isaac Diaz, Desdemona, Texas $12,494 13. Jesse Kruse, Great Falls, Mont. $12,350 14. Bradley Harter, Weatherford, Texas $11,270 15. Dawson Jandreau, Kennebec, S.D. $11,196 16. Heith DeMoss, Heflin, La. $10,694 17. Will Smith, Marshall, Mo. $10,625 18. Brady Nicholes, Hoytsville, Utah $10,615 19. Jesse Bail, Camp Crook, S.D. $10,452 20. Luke Butterfield, Ponoka, Alberta $10,286 Tie-down Roping 1. Sterling Smith, Stephenville, Texas $33,520
2. Justin Maass, Giddings, Texas $28,490 3. Tuf Cooper, Decatur, Texas $27,609 4. Clint Robinson, Spanish Fork, Utah $22,528 5. Randall Carlisle, Castor, La. $20,236 6. E.J. Roberts, Stephenville, Texas $20,123 7. Timber Moore, Aubrey, Texas $18,741 8. Rhen Richard, Roosevelt, Utah $17,608 9. Cade Swor, Winnie, Texas $16,773 10. Houston Hutto, Tomball, Texas $14,892 11. Cody Ohl, Hico, Texas $14,610 12. Ryan Jarrett, Comanche, Okla. $14,584 13. Stetson Vest, Childress, Texas $14,554 14. Trevor Brazile, Decatur, Texas $13,432 15. Caleb Smidt, Yorktown, Texas $13,342 16. Shane Hanchey, Sulphur, La. $12,819 17. Matt Shiozawa, Chubbuck, Idaho $12,751 18. Blair Burk, Durant, Okla. $12,549 19. Tyson Durfey, Colbert, Wash. $11,449 20. Jade Conner, Iowa, La. $11,398 Steer Roping 1. Chet Herren, Pawhuska, Okla. $22,415 2. Tony Reina, Wharton, Texas $18,658 3. JoJo LeMond, Andrews, Texas $16,968 4. J. Tom Fisher, Andrews, Texas $16,435 5. Cody Lee, Gatesville, Texas $16,016 6. Vin Fisher Jr., Andrews, Texas $11,537 7. Mike Chase, McAlester, Okla. $10,951 8. Jarrett Blessing, Paradise, Texas $10,314 9. Brent Lewis, Pinon, N.M. $9,903 10. Kim Ziegelgruber, Edmond, Okla. $9,326 11. Brad Prather, Skiatook, Okla. $8,852 12. Scott Snedecor, Fredericksburg, Texas $8,523 13. Dan Fisher, Andrews, Texas $8,435 14. Bryce Davis, Ovalo, Texas $7,943 15. Joe Wells, Cisco, Texas $7,827 16. Trevor Brazile, Decatur, Texas $7,247 17. Rocky Patterson, Pratt, Kan. $6,835 18. Chris Glover, Keenesburg, Colo. $6,586 19. Shane Suggs, Granbury, Texas $6,070 20. J. Paul Williams, Burbank, Okla. $5,280 Bull Riding 1. Josh Koschel, Nunn, Colo. $50,577 2. Kanin Asay, Powell, Wyo. $40,596 3. Tyler Smith, Fruita, Colo. $37,049 4. Corey Navarre, Weatherford, Okla. $35,863 5. Cody Teel, Kountze, Texas $34,670 6. Trevor Kastner, Ardmore, Okla. $34,094 7. Cooper Davis, Jasper, Texas $29,297 8. J.W. Harris, Mullin, Texas $28,826 9. Cole Echols, Elm Grove, La. $26,795 10. Tag Elliott, Thatcher, Utah $25,149 11. Cheyne Olney, Toppenish, Wash. $24,479 12. Howdy Cloud, Kountze, Texas $22,439 13. Bobby Welsh, Gillette, Wyo. $21,126 14. Jeff Askey, Martin, Tenn. $20,814 15. Tyler Willis, Wheatland, Wyo. $19,989 16. Chandler Bownds, Lubbock, Texas $19,534 17. Scottie Knapp, Albuquerque, N.M. $18,340 18. Friday Wright II, Moss Point, Miss. $18,149 19. Cody Campbell, Summerville, Ore. $17,555 20. Clayton Foltyn, Winnie, Texas $15,771 Barrel Racing 1. Fallon Taylor, Whitesboro, Texas $37,624 2. Mary Walker, Ennis, Texas $33,983 3. Jane Melby, Burneyville, Okla. $31,498 4. Lisa Lockhart, Oelrichs, S.D. $27,124 5. Carlee Pierce, Stephenville, Texas $25,830 6. Natalie Foutch, Eldora, Iowa $25,630 7. Taylor Jacob, Carmine, Texas $25,522 8. Shada Brazile, Decatur, Texas $23,831 9. Sherry Cervi, Marana, Ariz. $22,908 10. Sabrina Ketcham, Yeso, N.M. $22,087 11. Sydni Blanchard, Albuquerque, N.M. $21,118 12. Annesa Self, Sanger, Texas $19,414 13. Brittany Pozzi, Victoria, Texas $19,249 14. Kendra Dickson, Aubrey, Texas $16,012 15. Kenna Squires, Fredonia, Texas $14,241 16. Benette Barrington-Little, Ardmore, Okla. $13,602 17. Cindy Smith, Hobbs, N.M. $13,565 18. Lindsay Sears, Nanton, Alberta $13,233 19. Lee Ann Rust, Stephenville, Texas $12,634 20. Brenda Mays, Terrebonne, Ore. $12,615
BOSTON MARATHON | Boston Marathon Results The Associated Press At Boston Monday 1. Lelisa Desisa, Ethiopia, 2:10:22. 2. Micah Kogo, Kenya, 2:10:27. 3. Gebregziabher Gebremariam, Ethiopia, 2:10:28. 4. Jason Hartmann, Boulder, Colo., 2:12:12. 5. Wesley Korir, Kenya, 2:12:30. 6. Markos Geneti, Ethiopia, 2:12:44. 7. Dickson Chumba, Kenya, 2:14:08. 8. Jeffrey Hunt, Australia, 2:14:28. 9. Daniel Tapia, Castroville, Calif., 2:14:30. 10. Craig Leon, Eugene, Ore., 2:14:38. 11. Robin Watson, Canada, 2:15:33. 12. Levy Matebo, Kenya, 2:15:42. 13. Tomohiro Tanigawa, Japan, 2:16:57. 14. Carlos E. Carballo, Cathedral City, Calif., 2:17:05. 15. Lee Troop, Boulder, Colo., 2:17:52. 16. Fernando Cabada, Boulder, Colo., 2:18:23. 17. Joseph J. Gray, Renton, Wash., 2:18:45. 18. Kevin Pool, Folsom, Calif., 2:18:59. 19. Carlos Trujillo, Middleton, Idaho, 2:19:24. 20. Matt Dewald, Denver, 2:19:35. 21. Christopher J. Estwanik, Bermuda, 2:19:55. 22. Adam Macdowell, Baton Rouge, La., 2:20:38. 23. Glenn Randall, Mesa, Colo., 2:20:56. 24. Viacheslav V. Shabunin, Russia, 2:21:23. 25. Timothy Ritchie, Brighton, Mass., 2:21:31. 26. Alexander Varner, San Rafael, Calif.,
NBA | National Basketball Association The Associated Press All Times EDT EASTERN CONFERENCE Atlantic Division W L Pct y-New York 53 28 .654 x-Brooklyn 48 33 .593 x-Boston 41 39 .513 Philadelphia 33 48 .407 Toronto 32 48 .400 Southeast Division W L Pct z-Miami 65 16 .802 x-Atlanta 44 36 .550 Washington 29 52 .358 Charlotte 20 61 .247 Orlando 20 61 .247 Central Division W L Pct y-Indiana 49 31 .613 x-Chicago 44 37 .543
GB — 5 11½ 20 20½ GB — 20½ 36 45 45 GB — 5½
x-Milwaukee Detroit Cleveland
| i don't know |
April 12 was the anniversary of the passing at age 62 of which US president, the 32nd office holder? | The Abraham Lincoln Code
The Abraham Lincoln Code
Brother Berg 1 Comment
Abraham Lincoln =305. JFK was the 35th president and the only “Catholic” =35. Conspiracy =123/60. Abraham Lincoln =123/60. Abraham =123/44. Honest Abe =44. Obama is the 44th president and JFK was the 44th-term president. Kill =44. John Booth =44. Forty-Four =144. On 4/4, April Fourth =144, Lincoln had a precognitive dream of his death. He would die ‘Ten Days Later’ =144. Ten days is equivalent to 14,400 minutes. Gettysburg =144.
Murder =34/79. Lincoln =34/79. Lincoln was born in “Hodgenville Kentucky” =134 and became president on 3/4. 34 is the 9th number in the Fibonacci sequence (the first president to die in office was the 9th president and the next will be the 9th to die). Kansas was the 34th and final state to join the Union before the Civil War – 34 days before Lincoln’s presidency on 3/4. Inauguration date shifted from 3/4 to 1/20 (a 43 day change) for Eisenhower, the 34th president (and 43rd-term president).
Lincoln =474. Think, 4 score and 7. US President Barack Hussein Obama Dead at Fifty-Four =474. Think, holy shit. President =47/56 and he died at age 56. Lincoln was a “Whig” =47 and a “Republican” =47. John T Ford =47 (manager of Ford’s Theater). Authority =47. President Obama =477.
Abraham Lincoln =60. Lincoln Nebraska =60. Ford’s Athenaeum =60 (the original name of Ford’s Theater). Boston Corbett =60 (the man who shot John Wilkes Booth). Booth =60.
Birth Date: [2+12+18+09] =41. USA =41. [2+12+1+8+9] =32. America =32. Assassinated =32. America’s birthday (7+4+1+7+7+6) =32. Barack Obama =32. February 12th is the 43rd day of the year: Murdered =43. Assassination =43. Civil War =43, which began in “Charleston” =43. Lincoln died 4 years 3 days after the Civil War began. That’s the day that leaves 322 remaining. Lincoln was born in “Hodgenville Kentucky” =223/88. Presidential Assassination =888. (From the start of the Civil War on 4/12/1861 to Lincoln’s 151st death anniversary on 4/15 this year is 8088 weeks.)
Notice the duration of ’61 to ’16… From the start of the American Civil War to the birth of Barack Obama is 100 years 3 months 24 days. Our so heavily coded date of 3/24 is 154 years 1 month 13 days after the war started.
Date of Assassination Attempt (Willard Hotel, February 23, 1861)
[2+23+18+61] = 104. He would be shot on “Good Friday” =104, the 104th day of the year. Notice that 223 connected to his birth place and the days left on his birthday. Masonic =223. The Synagogue of Satan =223. Reoccurring Numbers =223. Secret Numeric Proof =223. And [2+23+1+8+6+1] =41, matching his birth numerology.
That’s 1 month 21 days (121) or 6 weeks 7 days (67) before the Civil War started. Blood Sacrifice =67/121.
Date of Assassination (Ford’s Theater, April 14th, 1865. Died the following day)
[4+14+18+65] =101. Assassin =101. Four Score and Seven Years =101. And curiously, with regards to the American vs British issue at the time, 101 kg = 223 lbs. This date has a life lesson number of [4+14+1+8+6+5] =38. Death =38. Killing =38. [4+1+4+1+8+6+5] =30. Slavery =30 (same numerology as the next day).
[4+15+18+65] =102. The Civil War began on the 102nd day of the year. Lincoln died at the “Petersen House” =1020. United States of America =102. Slavery =102/39. [4+15+1+8+6+5] =39 (Number of Books in Old Testament). [4+15+65] =84. Jesuit =84. United States of America =84. Lawyer =84. Obama =84. This is the 105th day of the year. Masonry =105. Zionism =105. Five Eleven =105. Ford’s Athenaeum =150.
From the assassination attempt to his death is exactly 216 weeks. Barack Obama is born on the 216th day of the year. Barack =216. 6x6x6 =216. That 216 week span is also 1511 days. From Lincoln’s death to the potential Obama death on 3/24 is 150 years 11 months 10 days (1511). If we connect to our other target of 5/23 it’s 151 years 1 month 10 days (151111). Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones =1511. And they’re playing Cuba on Good Friday – the day Lincoln was shot.
Ford’s Theater’s address is 511 10th St NW, Washington DC. From the end of the Civil War to 3/24 is 150 years 10 months 15 days (15115). And to 5/23 is 151 years 15 days (15115).
1511 is the fulfilment of Saturn =511. Rolling Stone =511. Perfect Alignment =511. Five Eleven =51. Jesus Christ =151. First Family of the United States =151. Michelle Obama =151 (Bacon Method). Killing of the Divine King =151. Obama Killed in March =151. Lincoln died 151 years ago.
Lincoln started speaking out about slavery in ’58. Willard Hotel =58/139. Ford’s Theatre =58/139. Freemasonry =58/139. Assassination Conspiracy =139.
Lincoln’s Assassination Details:
Ford’s Theater was 32 years old when Lincoln was shot during Act 3 Scene 2. The first president to die in office was William Henry Harrison who died on 4/4 after 4 weeks 4 days in office (32 days). The 32nd president, FDR, also died in office. Barack Obama =32. Obama =32. Lincoln’s life lesson numerology of 32. The theater closed in ’77 and remained so for 32 years – until Obama reopened it on 2/11/09.
Lincoln was shot the day before theater manager, John T Ford’s 36th birthday (sum of 1 to 36 = 666). Mr. Ford, good friends with famous actor John Wilkes Booth, died at age 64 on 3/14, Pi Day. This is curious because after Booth shot Lincoln he shouted “Sic Semper Tyrannis” =227; and Lincoln was pronounced dead at 7:22 AM. 22/7 =3.14 just like “Twenty-Two Divided By Seven” =314.
He was shot at a performance of “Our American Cousin” =82. Barack Hussein Obama =82. The renovation of Ford’s Theater was paid for by “Exxon” =82. Obama’s plate number on his limo: 800-002. Three Three Nine =82.
The duration between the premier of the play and Lincoln’s assassination is 339 days. Union =339. History tells us the exact line that was being delivered as he was shot: “Don’t know the manners of good society, eh? Wal, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal, you sockdologizing old man-trap.” =1339.
Ford’s Theater was turned into the Lincoln Museum on 2/12/32 – Lincoln’s 123rd birthday. Abraham Lincoln =123. It reopened to the public on 1/30/68 – that’s 2 months 16 days before the 103rd anniversary of Lincoln’s death. Notice the 13’s: the 13th Amendment outlawed slavery and Obama represented the 13th district in the Senate. John W Booth =130, was tracked down and shot dead 13 days after the assassination. That’s 1 week 6 days; Lincoln was the 16th president and Obama may very well join him in ’16. John Wilkes Booth =1116. Psychological Operation =1116. President Barack Hussein Obama =1016.
Obama helped reopen Ford’s Theater yet again on Lincoln’s birthday, his 200th in 2009. Obama was sworn into office on Lincoln’s bible. The 44th president was 47 at the time — MLK died 47 years ago on 4/4. Lincoln shot late on the 14th and died early on the 15th. Exactly 47 years later, the Titanic struck an iceberg late on the 14th and sunk early on the 15th.
The man credited with killing Booth died decades later in the “Great HINCKLEY Fire” =104. Lincoln was shot on “Good Friday” =104 and died on the 104th day of the year. Sept 1st 1894. 90 years 6 months 30 days later (9-6-3), John HINCKLEY Jr attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan on 3/30 — at 2:27 PM. The reflection of Lincoln’s death time of 7:22 AM. President Ronald Reagan =722.
Hinckley =87 (four score and seven years). John Hinckley =62. March Thirty =62. Dead Presidents =62. Hinckley wounded secret service agent James Brady who would die 33 years later – on Obama’s last birthday.
Just like Lincoln’s premonition 10 days prior to being shot, Reagan is also said to have foreseen his (fake) assassination attempt 10 days earlier – while at Ford’s Theater of all places on 3/21. President of the United States =321.
34 years later brings us to 2016. Trump and Clinton are speaking at AIPAC this 3/21, the 81st day of the year in Salt Lake =81. Speaking of Utah, the founder of Mormonism, Joseph Smith, died in ’44 and his replacement dropped dead 33 years later, like James Brady. Trump =88. Mormon =88. Forced Retirement =88. The next day Obama will be in Cuba for the first presidential visit in 88 years. And on 3/24 he’ll be in Patagonia… More on that to come.
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The assassination of which Austrian royalty precipitated World War I? | Strange Facts About Presidents of the United States | strange true facts|strange weird stuff|weird diseases
Strange Facts About Presidents of the United States
September 1, 2012
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Everyone of us has our own strange habits, it could be a funny, scary, or weirdest habits that sometimes, we are embarrassed or often we feel so shy about it. What if those famous celebrities have their own “peculiar behavior” just like the President of the United States. Here are some names of US Presidents with their strange facts in life.
1) George Washington Official First U.S. President
George Washington
Mount Rushmore, (left to right) Sculptures of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln represent the first 130 years of the history of the United States
George Washington was born on February 22, 1732 , and died on December 14, 1799 due to a disease known as quinsy or epiglottitis and died at age 67. During those times they use a medical practice known as bloodletting (withdrawing small quantity of blood from patients) to prevent or cure illnesses. He was not actually the First President of the United States, as claimed but it was John Hanson. Washington was elected the first president by unanimous choice in 1788, and he served two terms in office. The strange facts about George Washington”s teeth, were made from human and animal teeth, and had springs, that if he relaxed, the teeth would break. His pets are; a donkey, a Royal gift, three gazehounds dogs, four Black and Tan Coonhounds dogs (used for hunting raccoons) and Nelson the horse.
John Hanson (First US President)
John Hanson Portrait 1770
John Hanson, was born on April 14, 1721, and died on November 22, 1783 because of poor health after a year, retiring from public office as President of Congress. He was a merchant and public official from Maryland during the era of the American Revolution. He was the first person elected as the presiding officer in November 1781, thus some historians claiming John Hanson as the First President of the United States. He also approved and authorized the Great Seal of the United States. John Hanson‘s grave site has been lost, at his nephew’s plantation Oxon Hill Manor in Prince George’s County, Maryland.
John Adams 2nd President of the United States
John Adams, 2nd US President
John Adams at age 89
John Adams was the second President of the United States from 1797 to 1801, and served earlier as the first Vice President of the United States. He was born on October 30, 1735 or Old Style October 19, 1735. On October 25, 1764, five days before his 29th birthday, Adams married his third cousin Abigail Smith (1744–1818). Sixteen months before John Adams’ death, his son, John Quincy Adams, became the sixth President of the United States (1825–1829). John Adams died on July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, at his home. Fifty years after the declaration of the United States Independence, John Adams last words on his death bed was, “Thomas Jefferson will survive”, (they are close friends), but Adams was not aware that Jefferson died few hours ahead of him, strange? His death left Charles Caroll of Carollton as the last surviving signatory of the Declaration of Independence. John Quincy Adams was the president during John Adams death at the age of 90 years and 247 days old. Adams official pets are his three dogs Juno, Mark, and Satan, and Cleopatra, his horse.
Thomas Jefferson 3rd President of the United States
Thomas Jefferson 3rd US President
Thomas Jefferson portrait painting
Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 or the Old Style calendar, April 2, 1743 . Jefferson was the third President of the United States (1801 to 1809). He was an American Founding Father and the principal author of the 1776 Declaration of Independence. – July 4, 1826) In July 1825, Jefferson’s health began to deteriorate, and by June 1826 he was confined to bed. He died of complications from toxemia, uremia and pneumonia on July 4, 1826, 5oth Independence Day (strange fact, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson both died on the same day). Before Jefferson’s death, he was at ease with the idea of death and was ready to die, and called his immediate family around his bedside. Then on July 4, at 10 minutes before one o’clock, he finally died at age 83. He had his official pets, Dick the mockingbird, two Briards dogs and two bear cubs and his horse Caractacus. Jefferson invented the swivel chair, coat hanger, hideaway bed (wall bed, love seats or sofa converted into bed), and dumbwaiter (small lifts or elevators).
James Madison, Jr. 4th President of the United States
James Madison 4th President
James Madison, Jr. was born on March 16, 1751 or the Old Style calendar March 5, was the fourth President of the United States (1809 to 1817). He is known as the Father of the Constitution and as the key champion and United States Bill of Rights. – June 28, 1836) In 1826, after the death of Jefferson, Madison was appointed as the University of Virginia second Rector (“President”) and his last occupation. He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years until his death in 1836. James Madison was 43 years old when he married for the first time, which was considered late in that era. On September 15, 1794, James Madison married a young widow, Dolley Payne Todd, at Harewood (now, Jefferson County, West Virginia). Madison adopted John Payne Todd, Todd’s one surviving son,after the marriage. Dolley Payne was born May 20, 1768, at the New Garden Quaker settlement in North Carolina, where her parents, John Payne and Mary Coles Payne, lived briefly. Dolley’s sister, Lucy Payne was married to George Steptoe Washington, President Washington’s nephew. His pet is a Macaw parrot.
James Monroe 5th President of the United States
James Monroe 5th president
James Monroe, National Portrait Gallery
James Monroe was born on April 28, 1758, and was the fifth President of the United States (1817 to 1825) – July 4, 1831). Monroe was the last president who was a Founding Father of the United States, and the third President to die on Independence Day, July 4, 1831 due to heart failure and tuberculosis, and his term was marked by an “Era of Good Feelings”. Monroe’s health began to deteriorate, and by the end of the 1820s and John Quincy Adams visited him there in April 1831. His death came 55 years after the U.S. Declaration of Independence was proclaimed and 5 years after the death of two other Founding Fathers who became Presidents of the United States, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Strange facts about Monroe, he was the last president who had never been photographed and whose portraits are preserved today only on paintings, and the U.S. President to wear a powdered wig tied in a queue, tricorne (style of hat that was popular during the 18th century) and knee breaches (“culottes” commonly worn by gentlemen of the European upper-classes from the early 19th century), according to the 18th century old fashioned style, in which he gained the nickname “The Last Cocked Hat”. His pets is a Siberian Husky dog called Sebastian and one Spaniel gun dog.
John Quincy Adams 6th U.S. President
John Quincy Adams, 6th US President, son of John Adams
John Quincy Adams 1818 portrait by Gilbert Stuart
John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767, was the sixth President of the United States and the son of John Adams, the 2nd President of the United States and Abigail Adams. On February 23, 1848, Adams died from a massive cerebral hemorrhage, 2 days after he collapsed inside the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. His last words were “This is the last of earth. I am content.” He passed away at 7:20 P.M. John Adams and John Quincy Adams, were the first father and son to each serve as president (the others being George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush). Both Adams served only one term as President of the United States. Quincy Adams, was the only President to have a First Lady born outside the United States (she was born in London, United Kingdom). Strange facts about John Quincy Adams, he loves to swim naked in Potomac River. One instance, when Anny Royal, a reporter, came to the shore and sat on Adams clothes, and decline to leave until Quincy Adams would give an interview, and known as the first female to interview a president. His pets are American Alligator and silkworms.
Andrew Jackson 7th President of the United States
Jackson in 1824, painting by Thomas Sully
Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson 1845, 7th President of the United States
Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767 , and was the seventh President of the United States (1829 to 1837). Because of being aggressive and tough, Jackson was nicknamed “Old Hickory“, he fought in duels which some are fatal to his opponents. Jackson was a wealthy slaveholder, and supported a limited and small ‘federal government’ when he was elected president in 1828. Jackson met Rachel Donelson Robards (an unhappy wife of Captain Lewis Robards) because of jealousy rage between the couple, and separated in 1790. Jackson married Rachel after hearing that Robards had obtained a divorce, but the said divorce was “incomplete”, thus the marriage of Jackson and Rachel was invalid and bigamous. In 1794, they remarried after the official divorce came out. On December 22 1828, Rachel died of a heart attack, two weeks after her husband’s victory in the election and two months before Jackson took office as President. John Quincy Adams was blamed by Jackson, for Rachel’s death because the episode ridiculing his wife was repeatedly used in the campaign of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death and never forgave Adams. On May 1806, Jackson challenged Charles Dickinson for publishing immoral attack on Jackson in the local newspaper, and it resulted to a duel. During the duel, Dickinson shot Jackson in the ribs before Jackson returned the fatal shot. Jackson and his friend, Thomas Overton, decided to allow Dickinson to fire first his gun, and Jackson would wait and take careful aim at Dickinson (which Dickinson did fire first, hitting Jackson in the chest, and this bullet struck Jackson near to his heart, and it would risk his life if it would be removed). Under the rules of dueling , Dickinson had to remain still as Jackson took aim and shot and killed him. Andrew Jackson, was 6 feet, 1 inch tall, 130 to 140 pounds or 64 kg, and red hair, but by the age of 61 and became the President, it turned grey hair . Jackson had blue eyes, but one of the most “sickly Presidents“, suffering from abdominal pains, chronic headaches, whooping cough caused by a “musket ball” in his lungs that was never removed, causing him spitting blood sometimes. Jackson died on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78 from chronic tuberculosis, dropsy (edema) and heart failure. His pets are five horse, fighting cocks and Pol, a parrot who was taught to swear. Jackson had a lot of strange facts in life.
Martin Van Buren 8th President of the United States
Martin Van Buren 8th President
Martin Van Buren 1858 portrait by GPA Healy
Martin Van Buren was born on December 5, 1782, and the eight President of the United States (1837 to 1841). Under the Andrew Jackson administration, Buren was the 10th Secretary of States from 1829 to 1831. Van Buren was the first President from Dutch family, and the firs president to be born a United States citizen, unlike his predecessors having been born British citizen before the American Revolution. He is also the only president not to have spoken English as his first language, having grown up as Dutch speaking American citizen from New York, strange? Van Buren married his first cousin and childhood sweetheart, Hannah Hoes on February 21, 1807. After 12 years of marriage, Hannah Van Buren died of tuberculosis on February 5, 1819 at the age of 35, and Martin Van Buren never married again. After Martin Van Buren retired to his home in Kinderhook, his health failed and became bedridden with a bronchial asthma and heart failure and died on July 24, 1862 at the age of 79. Martin owned two tiger cubs.
William Henry Harrison , 9th US President
William Henry Harrison, 9th US President
William Henry Harrison born on February 9, 1773, and was the ninth President of the United States (1841), and the first President to die in office, and the “oldest President” to take office at the age of 68 years and 23 days old when inaugurated, and the last President to be born before the United States Declaration of Independence. On his 32nd day in office, on April 4, 1841, Harrison died of pneumonia complications, serving the shortest tenure as President of the United States. Strange facts can be unpredictable . His pets is called Sukey, a cow and one goat.
John Tyler, 10th US President
John Tyler 10th US President
John Tyler was born on March 29, 1790 , and was the tenth President of the United States (1841 to 1845), and was the first to succeed to the office of President on the death of the incumbent, William Henry Harrison. Although many had praised Tyler’s administration, historians considered his term as less visible and unclear president, with little American cultural memories. Tyler fathered many children with his two wives, more than any other President of the United States history. His first marriage to Leticia Christian-Tyler, he had 8 children, but Leticia died in the White House September 10, 1842. Then he married again, Julia Gardiner Tyler, his second wife and had 7 children. In his early days of being a president, he was attacked by Joshua Leavitt, an abolitionist publisher, accused Tyler that he fathered several sons and “sold” with his slaves, prompting response from the Tyler administration newspaper The Madisonian. It was reported that number of African-American families today have descent from Tyler, but no evidence of such a link has ever surfaced. Tyler is the oldest former President with living grandchildren, and none of the succeeding Presidents have living grandchildren until James A. Garfield, who served forty years after Tyler, with Abraham Lincoln and bachelor James Buchanan each having no living descendants of any kind. After his term from the White House, he fell victim to repeated cases of dysentery, had many aches and pains in the last eight years of his life. On January 12, 1862, Tyler start complaining of chills and dizziness, he vomited and collapsed, and was revived, yet the next day he admitted to the same symptoms. He was treated for the rest of the week, but his health did not improve, And on January 18, 1862, as he lay in bed the previous night he began suffocating, and Julia summoned his doctor. Just after midnight, Tyler took a last sip of brandy, and told his doctor, “I am going. Perhaps it is best.”It is believed that he had suffered a stroke. His pet is an Italian Greyhound known as Le Beau, and a canary called Johnny Ty, and a horse whom he called The General.
James Knox Polk , 11th US President
James_Polk 11th US President
James Knox Polk was born on November 2, 1795, and was the 11th President of the United States (1845 to 1849). As he promised to serve only one term and did not run for reelection. After three months end of his term, he died of cholera on June 15, 1849. Polk was ranked favorably on the list of greatest presidents by the Scholars, for his ability to set an agenda and achieve all of it. Polk has been called the “least known consequential president” of the United States. During Polk’s administration, in the White House, his health became poor. Polk was full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left on March 4, 1849, exhausted by his years of public service. He lost weight and had deep lines on his face and dark circles under his eyes, and was believed to have contracted cholera in New Orleans, Louisiana, on a goodwill tour of the South. Among the previous Presidents, Polk had the shortest retirement at 103 days. He was the youngest former president to die in retirement at the age of 53. Polk and wife Sarah Childress, never had a children.
Zachary Taylor 12th US President
Zachary Taylor 12th US President
official White House picture ZacharyTaylor
Zachary Taylor was born on November 24, 1784, and was the 12th President of the United States (1849 to 1850), uninterested in politics, he was an American Military Leader( serving 40 years in the military), and known as ” Old Rough and Ready“. As president, Taylor angered many Southerners by taking a moderate stance on the issue of slavery. On July 9, 1850, Taylor died of gastroenteritis, 16 months after his inauguration, and he was the third-shortest tenure of any President. President Taylor was succeeded by his Vice President,Millard Fillmore. Taylor was the last President to “own slaves” while in office. Taylor was also the second president to die in office, preceded by William Henry Harrison who died while serving as President nine years earlier, as well as the only President elected from Louisiana. Zachary Taylor’s cause of death has never been fully established and very strange for other people. On July 4, 1850, Taylor was known to have consumed large amounts of iced water, cold milk, green apples, and cherries after attending holiday celebrations and the laying of the cornerstone of the Washington Monument. Several days after, he became severely ill with an unknown digestive ailment, and believed he was dying. He died within the hour, reports listed the cause of death as “bilious diarrhea, or a bilious cholera”. But the Scholars believed it was a kind of severe gastroenteritis. A former University of Florida professor, Clara Rising, had a tentative explanation for an observation about Taylor’s death in 1980, that he was “murdered by poison”. Rising persuaded Taylor’s immediate living relative for exhumation for testing the remains. The remains was exhumed on June 17, 1991, and samples from hair, fingernail and other tissues were removed for radiological studies by the Kentucky Chief Medical Examiner. Then the remains of Taylor was returned and reinterred to the cemetery with appropriate honors. The Neutron activation analysis conducted at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory result, there are no “evidence of poisoning”, the arsenic levels were too slow, thus the analysis was that Taylor died of cholera morbus or acute gastroenteritis, as Washington had ‘open sewers, and his food and drinks might have bee contaminated. He was bled and blistered and treated by his doctors with ipecac ( roots of ipecacuanha plants), calomel (mercury(I)chloride chemical compound), opium or poppy tears (sap), and quinine a reducing malaria fever medicine.
Millard Fillmore 13th U.S. President
Millard Fillmore 13th US President
Official White House portrait of Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore was born on January 7, 1800 and was the 13th President of the United States (1850 to 1853) and the last member of the Whig Party to hold the office of the President, as the Vice President of Zachary Taylor he assumed the presidency after Taylor’s death. Throughout the Civil War, Fillmore opposed President Lincoln and during Reconstruction supported President Johnson. He commanded the Union Continentals, a corps of home guards of males over the age of 45 from the New York Upstate area. Fillmore died on March 8, 1874 at 11:10 pm, of severe stroke. His last words were alleged to be, upon being fed some soup, “the nourishment is palatable.” He owns two ponies he called them Mason and Dixon.
Franklin Pierce 14th U. S. President
Franklin Pierce 14th US President
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce was born on November 23, 1804, he was he 14th President of the United States (1853 to 1857), he was from New Hampshire. Pierce was a Democrat and a ‘doughface‘(a politician, who is perceived to be pliable and moldable). Pierce took part in the Mexican-American War. Abandoned by his party, Pierce was not renominated to run in the 1856 presidential election and was replaced by James Buchanan as the Democratic candidate. After losing the Democratic nomination, Pierce continued from his alcoholism, affecting his marriage to Jane Means Appleton-Pierce and fell apart. During the Civil war, his reputation was destroyed, when he declared support for the Confederacy, and personal correspondence between Pierce and Jefferson Davis, the Confederate President was leaked to the press. Pierce died in 1869 from liver cirrhosis. Pierce was the youngest President to have taken office, until Ulysses S. Grant took office in 1869 at age 46. Pierce had three children all of whom died in childhood; Franklin Pierce, Jr. (February 2, 1836 – February 5, 1836, 3 days old baby), Frank Robert Pierce (August 27, 1839 – November 14, 1843), died at the age of four from epidemic typhus, and Benjamin Pierce (April 13, 1841 – January 6, 1853), died at the age of 11 in a train accident, and never see their father became the president. On January 6, 1853, two months before the election, the Pierce family was trapped in a train, when their car was derailed and rolled down an embankment near Andover, Massachusetts. Pierce and his wife Jane survived, but saw their 11 year old son, Benjamin crushed to death. It was believed, since Benjamin’s death from that tragic accident, where he was decapitated, and Pierced covered him with a sheet, hoping to spare his wife, but Jane saw their son’s tragic death; Pierce began his presidency in mourning after weeks he won. Pierce died on October 8, 1869 at 4:49 am, at age 64. He had seven miniature Oriental dogs and two Japanese birds.
James Buchanan, Jr. 15th President of the United States
James Buchanan , 15th US President
James Buchanan, Jr., the 15th President of the United States (1857 to 1861), was born on April 23, 1791 . He died on June 1, 1868, due to respiratory illness at the age of 77. He is the only president from Pennsylvania and the only president who remained a bachelor. Harriet Lane, his niece played the role of the First Lady. Buchanan’s view of record was that secession was illegal, but that going to war to stop it was also illegal, ranking by historians as one of the worst Presidents. In 1819, Buchanan was engaged to Ann Caroline Coleman, the daughter of wealthy iron manufacturing businessman Robert Coleman. Buchanan spent little time with her during the courtship, he was extremely busy with his law firm and political projects during the 1819 Panic, which took him away from Coleman for weeks at a time. Rumors spread that Buchanan was marrying Coleman because of her wealth, but Buchanan, never spoke publicly of his feelings or motives to Coleman. Ann broke off the engagement, and soon died from believed to hysteria producing death on December 9, 1819, but later known caused of death was overdose of laudanum, a tincture concentrated opium. Speculations spread that Buchanan and his close friend William Rufus King, Alabama Senator, has an intimate relationship and believed Buchanan was gay. His official pets is a Newfoundland dog named Lara, and Punch, a Toy Terrier dog and an Eagle.
Abraham Lincoln 16th U.S. President
Abraham Lincoln, November 1863
Lincoln in 1860, without beard, photographed by Alexander Hessler
Abraham Lincoln Oil Painting 1869 Restored
Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, and he was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 15, 1865. A well known actor, John Wilkes Booth and a Confederate spy from Maryland, assassinated Abraham Lincoln, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13 pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln’s head and fired at point-blank range, wounding the President critically. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped. Strange facts about Abraham Lincoln, that he grew a beard because of a letter from a 11-year old girl, telling him he should grow a beard because he had a thin face, and women will like him and he will become the president. Abe (as he was fondly called) Lincoln, was suffering from melancholy, a type of clinical depression. Lincoln’s sexual orientation was also the topic of debate among scholars. Lincoln had four children from his wife, Mary Todd. But C.A. Tripp, his psychologist observed, that Lincoln had distant relationship with women, more than his relationship with number of men in his life. One instance in Lincoln’s life, was when he met Joshua Fry Speed in 1837, in Springfield, Illinois, they lived together for four years, sharing the same bed, and developed a “special friendship” until his tragic death in 1865. Captain David Derickson, was Lincoln’s bodyguard and constant companion, they also shared the same bed, during the absences of Lincoln’s wife, Mary. It was the subject of gossips. He had pets, two goats whom he named Nanny and Nanko, Jack the Turkey, two dogs named Fido and Jip, a horse and rabbit.
Andrew Johnson 17th President of the United States
Andrew Johnson 17th US President
Andrew Johnson, the 17th President of the United States (1865 to 1869)was born on December 29, 1808. As Vice President of the United States in 1865, he succeeded Abraham Lincolnafter he was assassinated. The inauguration of Andrew Johnson as Abraham Lincoln’s vice-president in 1865 was inflict damaged slightly by his strange behavior, and the fact that Johnson was incredibly drunk, his reason of drinking whiskey to medicate his “Typhoid fever” that time.
Johnson then presided over the initial and contentious Reconstruction era of the United States following the American Civil War. Johnson’s administration was ranked very poor in historical ranking by the scholars, especially among the three. Strange facts about Johnson ,during a Congressional recess, Johnson died from a stroke near Elizabethon, Tennessee, on July 31, 1875. He was buried with his body wrapped around in an American flag, just outside Greeneville and a copy of the U.S. Constitution placed under his head, according to his wishes. His pets are the white mice he fed found in his bedroom.
Ulysses S. Grant 18th President of the United States
Ulysses Grant 1870-1880
President Grant with his wife, Julia, and son, Jesse, in 1872.
Ulysses S. Grant, was the 18th President of the United States (1869 to 1877), was born on April 27, 1822. He palyed a dominant role in the second half of the Civil war. Strange facts about Grant, while he was still the President, he was issued speeding ticket for $20 dollars fine riding his horse too fast down at Washington street. He was also the first President to run against a woman candidate, Virginia Woodhull in 1872, and Ulysses S. Grant was also known as ‘Unconditional Surrender Grant’. Grant died of throat cancer on July 23, 1885 at the age of 63 in Mount McGregor. He owns pet horses Jennie, Julia, Mary and St. Louis, his two ponies Billy Button and Reb, a giant breed of dog Newfoundland named Faithful, and Butcher Boy, Cincinnatus, Egypt, and Jeff Davis his wartime mount.
Rutherford Birchard Hayes 19th U.S. President
Rutherford B. Hayes 19th US President
White House portrait of Rutherford B. Hayes
Rutherford Birchard Hayes the 19th President of the United States (1877 -1881) was born on October 4, 1822. – January 17, 1893). He oversaw the end of Reconstruction as a President, and the United States’ entry into the Second Industrial Revolution. Hayes and his wife, Lucy, were known for their policy of keeping the White House an alcohol-free, giving rise to her nickname “Lemonade Lucy“. The first reception at the Hayes White House included wine, but the President was dismayed seeing his ambassadors, cabinet members with drunken behavior and since then, alcohol was not served again in the Hayes White House. Critics charged Hayes with parsimony, but Hayes spent more money, from his personal budget after the ban, ordering that any savings from eliminating alcohol be used on more lavish entertainment. Lucy Hayes died in 1889, and this made Hayes very sad. Hayes died of complications of a heart attack at his home on January 17, 1893 and his final words were; “I know that I’m going where Lucy is.” He had lot of pets such as a Cocker Spaniel dog named Dot, Hector the Newfoundland dog , Duke the English Mastiff dog breed, Grim the Greyhound dog, Otis the Miniature Schnauzer dog, Juno, Jet and Shep the Hunting dogs, two Siamese cats Piccolomini and Miss Pussy, the first Siamese cat in the United States.
James Abraham Garfield 20th President of the United States
James Abram Garfield
James Abram Garfield was born on November 19, 1831 and served as the 20th President of the United States – September 19, 1881) Garfield’s presidency lasted just 200 days, from March 4, 1881, until his death on September 19, 1881, when he was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau as a result on July 2, 1881. The shorter presidency term was of William Henry Harrison, he served only 32 days as President . Garfield was the second of four United States Presidents who were assassinated. Strange facts about James Garfield, he has unique talent, He could write Latin with one hand, while his other hand could write in Greek at the same time. On the morning of July 2, 1881, President Garfield was on his way to his Alma mater, Williams College, accompanied by his two sons James and Harry, James G. Blaine and Robert Todd Lincoln where he was scheduled to deliver a speech. One bullet grazed Garfield’s arm; the second bullet was thought later to have possibly lodged near his liver but could not be found; and upon autopsy was located behind the pancreas. On September 19, 1881 at 10:20 pm, Monday, President Garfield died from massive heart attack and a ruptured splenic artery aneurysm, blood poisoning and bronchial pneumonia. He had official pets, a horse he named Kit and Veto the dog.
Chester Alan Arthur 21st US President
Chester Arthur 21st US President
Official White House portrait of Chester A. Arthur by Daniel Huntington
Chester Alan Arthur was born October 5, 1829 and served as the 21st President of the United States 1881 to 1885), became president following the death of James A. Garfield after the assassination. – November 18, 1886). After becoming the President, Arthur was diagnosed with Bright’s disease (a kidney ailment but reffered to as nephritis today). He attempted to keep his condition private, but by 1883 rumors of his illness began to circulate. By that time he had become thinner and more aged in appearance, as well as less energetic in keeping up with the demands of the presidency. After his vacation in New London, Connecticut in 1886, he returned very ill and, on November 16, ordered nearly all of his papers, both personal and official, burned. The next morning, Arthur suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and never regained consciousness, he died the following day November 18, 1886, at the age of 57. He owns three horses.
Stephen Grover Cleveland 22nd US President
Stephen Grover Cleveland 22nd US President
Oil painting of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1899 by Anders Zorn
Stephen Grover Cleveland born March 18, 1837, served as the 22nd and 24th President of the United States (Cleveland is the only President to served two non-consecutive terms 1885 to 1889 and 1893 to 1897) and therefore is the only individual to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents. Cleveland entered the White House as a bachelor. Rose Cleveland, his sister, acted as the White House hostess for the first two years of his administration. On June 2, 1886, Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the White House Blue Room, and the second president to marry while in office, and the only president to have a wedding in the White House. This marriage was unusual because Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom’s estate and had supervised Frances’ upbringing after her father’s death, but the public did not take exception to the match. Frances Folsom Cleveland, at the age of 21, remains the youngest First Lady, and the public soon warmed to her beauty and warm personality. The Cleveland’s had five children. In the midst of the fight for repeal of Free Silver coinage in 1893, Cleveland sought the advice of the White House doctor, Dr. O’Reilly, about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater-like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland’s hard palate, and specimens of the tumor were sent anonymously to the army medical museum. The diagnosis was not a malignant cancer but the diagnosis was epithelioma (abnormal growth of the epithelium). Cleveland’s surgery was kept secretly from the public, to avoid further panic that might worsen the financial depression, and was performed aboard Oneida yacht sailing off the Long Island. The medical team sedated Cleveland with ether and nitrous oxide, removing the parts of his upper jaw and hard palate. The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland’s mouth disfigured. Cleveland enjoyed many years of life after the tumor was removed, but the debate whether the tumor was a carcinoma , ameloblastoma or benign salivary mixed tumor also called pleomorphic adenoma after Cleveland’s death on June 24, 1908. In the 1980s, analysis of the specimen finally confirmed the tumor to be verrucous carcinoma, a low-grade epithelial cancer with a low potential for metastasis.His pets are Hector- Japanese Poodle and mockingbirds.
Benjamin Harrison 23rd President of the United States
Benjamin Harrison 23rd US President
Official White House portrait of Benjamin Harrison, painted by Eastman Johnson
Benjamin Harrison born on August 20, 1833, and served as the 23rd President of the United States (1889 to 1893) – March 13, 1901). Harrison is the grandson of 9th U.S. President William Henry Harrison, making him the only U.S. president from Indiana and the only president to be a grandson of another president. In 1896, Harrison remarried to Mary Scott Lord Dimmick at the age of 62. Mary Dimmick-Harrison, was the niece and former secretary of his deceased wife, she was a widow at the age of 37, a full 25 years junior of Harrison’s age. Harrison developed what was thought to be influenza or grippe in February 1901. He was treated with steam vapor inhalation and oxygen, but his condition worsened. He died from pneumonia on Wednesday, March 13, 1901, at the age of 67, at his home. He had strange pets at the White House, a goat he named Whiskers, a Collie dog called Dash, and two Opossums he named Mr. Reciprocity and Mr. Protection.
William McKinley 25th President of the United States
William McKinley 25th US President
William McKinley was born on January 29, 1843, and served as the 25th U.S. President from March 4, 1897 until his death on September 14, 1901. His presidency began a period over a third of a century dominated by the Republican Party, until his assassination in September 1901. Czolgosz an anarchist had initially decided to get near McKinley, and on September 4, he decided to assassinate him, but failed. After the failure, Czolgosz made an attempt again on September 5 and waited at the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds, where the President was to meet the public after his return from Niagara Falls, covering his gun in a handkerchief, and had the chance to go near McKinley, shot McKinley twice in the abdomen, but “survived”. Few days after the shooting McKinley appeared to improve, and his Doctors issued increasingly cheerful bulletins. By September 12, McKinley’s doctors were confident enough of his condition to allow him toast and coffee. He proved unable to digest the food. Unknown to the doctors, the gangrenethat would kill him was growing on the walls of his stomach, slowly poisoning his blood, making his condition worse and become critically ill on September 13. The following day September 14,1901, Mckinley died at 2:15 am. Czolgosz, put on trial for murder nine days after McKinley’s death, was found guilty, sentenced to death on September 26, and was executed by electric chair on October 29, 1901. Mckinley owned pets such as the Yellow-headed Mexican parrot named Washington Post, and two Angora kittens, he called Valeriano Weyler and Enrique DeLome and roosters.
Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt 26th US President
President Theodore Roosevelt 1904, 26th US President
bullet-damaged speech and eyeglass
Theodore “Teddy” Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858, he served as the 26th U.S. President (from 1901 to 1909) after William Mckinley was assassinated, and became the youngest President at the age of 42, beating John F. Kennedy as the youngest (by only a year) President of United States. Teddy Roosevelt (which he really disliked being called Teddy) was known for his exuberant personality, range of achievements and interests and as the Progressive Movement leader, known for his “cowboy personality” and healthy masculinity. In 1918, his youngest son Quentin, an American Forces pilot in France, was shot down behind German lines. According to reports the death of his son distressed him so much that Roosevelt never recovered from his loss. Theodore Roosevelt had many strange facts in life; He loves skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during winter, that his left retina was detached leaving him half-blind, (a fact not made public until some years later), he reads tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several a day in multiple languages and considered the most well read of any American politician along with Thomas Jefferson. . Roosevelt led a major expedition to the Amazon jungles but contracted diseases which ruined his health. He died relatively young at the age of 60. Roosevelt has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the Greatest U.S. Presidents.
Despite his rapidly declining health, Roosevelt remained active to the end of his life. The Boy Scouts of America gave him the title of Chief Scout Citizen, the only person to hold such title. Theodore Roosevelt was the fifth cousin of the 32nd U.S. President and the uncle of Theodore’s wife Eleanor Roosevelt. On January 6, 1919, Roosevelt died in his sleep at Oyster Bay of a coronary thrombosis (heart attack), and long illness from inflammatory rheumatism. On October 14, 1912, while Roosevelt was campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, a saloon keeper named John Schrank shot him, but the bullet lodged in his chest only after penetrating his steel eyeglass case and passing through a thick (50 pages) single-folded copy of the speech he was carrying in his jacket. Afterwards, probes and x-ray showed that the bullet had traversed three inches (76 mm) of tissue and lodged in Roosevelt’s chest muscle but did not penetrate the pleura, and it would be more dangerous to attempt to remove the bullet than to leave it in place, and carried it with him for the rest of his life. Roosevelt was included with George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, approved by the Republican President Calvin Coolidge. His pets are a Bull terrier named Pete, Rat Terrier called Skip, 3 Manchester Terriers named Jack, Peter and Black Jack, a Saint Bernard named Rollo, a Chesapeake Bay Retriever he named Sailor Boy, a Pekingese or Lion Dog called Manchu, two cats he called Tom Quartz and Slippers, a garter snake named Emily Spinach, two ponies named Algonquin and Fedelity, Maude the pig, Josiah the Badger, Jonathan the Piebald rat, Baron Spreckle the Hen, Eli Yale the Macaw bird, and one-legged rooster.
William Howard Taft 27th U.S. President
William Howard Taft 27th President
Official White House portrait of William Howard Taft (1911)
President William Howard Taft’s cow, Pauline, poses in front of the Navy Building, which is known today as the Eisenhower Executive Office Building.
William Howard Taft born on September 15, 1857, served as the 27th U.S. President (1909 to 1913) and the 10th Chief Justice of the United States (1921 to 1930), and the only president to have served both of these offices. Taft retired as Chief Justice on February 3, 1930 because of ill health. Five weeks following his retirement, Taft died on March 8,1930, the same date as Associate Justice Edward Terry Sanford‘s unexpected death. As it was customary for members of the court to attend the funeral of deceased members, this posed a “logistical nightmare”, necessitating cross-country travel. Strange facts about William Taft, during his term as President, he was suffering from severe obstructive sleep apnea because of his obesity. One embarrassing moment of his life,was when Taft was stuck in a bath tub in the White House, and his staff members used butter to dislodge him from the tub. Taft lost approximately 80 pounds (36 kg) and his state of drowsiness problem resolved and, less obviously, his blood pressure systolic dropped 40–50 mmHg (from 210 mmHg), and this weight loss extended his life too. After his weight loss, he had interest in the outdoors, leading him to explore Alaska. Since 1920, Taft was using a cane made of 250,000 year old petrified wood a gift from Professor of Geology W.S. Foster. Taft is the last President to have sported facial hair while in office, although Bill Clinton often had a five o clock shadow ( or stubble a regrowth shaven beard). His official pets are Caruso the dog, and two cows, Mooly Wooly and Pauline Wayne. Pauline Wayne was a Holstein cow owned by Taft, also known as “Miss Wayne”, but was not Taft’s first presidential cow, she replaced the lesser-known “Mooley Wooly”, who provided milk for the First Family for a year and a half, but because she could no longer produce milk for the first family, she was replaced by Miss Wayne. You may find this strange and funny.
Thomas Woodrow Wilson 28th U.S. President
Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow with wife, Edith Wilson, assisting him since he was half-paralyzed
sheep kept to trim the White House lawn
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born on December 28, 1856, served as the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. Strange facts about Wilson; he was over 10 years of age before he learned to read, and had difficulties in reading and indicated dyslexia, but as a teenager he learned shorthand by himself. Wilson’s mother was possibly a hypochondriac (health phobia, worry about having a serious illness) and Wilson himself seemed to think that he was often in poorer health than he really was. He suffered from hypertension at a relatively early age and may have suffered his first stroke at the age of 39. Wilson is one of only three presidents to be widowed while in office. Then on October 2, 1919, he suffered a serious stroke that almost totally incapacitated him, leaving him paralyzed on his left side body and blind his left eye. He was confined to bed for weeks, sequestered from nearly everyone except his wife and his physician, Dr. Cary Grayson, for at least a few months, he used a wheelchair. Later, he could walk only with the assistance of a cane. The full extent of his disability was kept from the public until after his death on February 3, 1924. Woodrow Wilson kept sheep as his pets, to trim the White House lawn.
Warren Gamaliel Harding 29th US President
Warren G. Harding 29th President
President Warren G. Harding 1921 -1923
Warren Gamaliel Harding was born on November 2, 1865, and served as the 29th U.S. President from 1921 to 1923. Harding a Republican from Ohio, was an influential newspaper publisher. Strange facts about Harding, he is a gambler and played poker twice a week and once put an entire set of White House thumbs up to stake his hand, and lost. Harding suffered form a respiratory disease believed to be pneumonia. He became very exhausted with his planned speech through national press to communicate with the public. Harding was given digitalis and caffeine, to help him relieved momentarily from sleeplessness and heart condition. On August 2, 1923, at 7:35 p.m., he died unexpectedly in the middle of conversation with his wife in the hotel’s presidential suite, and Dr. Sawyer, a doctor friend of the Harding family, said Harding succumbed to a stroke, but doctors disagreed.
Harding’s sudden death led to various theories that he had been poisoned or committed suicide, but suicide theory was set aside since Harding was planning for a second term election. But rumors of poisoning was fueled, which was part of a book “Strange Death of President Harding“, which the author was a former Ohio Gang member and a convicted criminal, and Detective Gaston Means, hired by Mrs. Harding to investigate her husband Warren Harding and his mistress, and suggesting Mrs Harding Poisoned her husband, and her refusal to conduct autopsy only added speculations. After Harding’s strange death, former First Lady Harding gathered all personal documents both official and unofficial and have it burned. According to her, she “took these actions to protect her husband’s Legacy”.
President Harding and Laddie Boy, the loyal dog
Laddie Boy was an airedale terrier born on July 26, 1920 owned by US President Warren G. Harding, his loyal pet dog, he had his onw carved chair to sit during cabinet meetings, having his own dog party inviting the neighborhood dogs and served them with dog biscuits. According to the White House staffs, Laddie Boy kept howling three days before Harding’s death. This could be strange but it is a true fact, that our pets can see the coming omen.
Herbert Clark Hoover 31st U.S. President
Herbert Hoover
Hoover’s official White House portrait painted by Elmer Wesley Greene.
Herbert Clark Hoover was born on August 10, 1874, and served as the 31st U.S. President from 1929 to 1933. Hoover was a mining engineer by profession, and author. When Hoover worked in China with his wife, they studied and learned Mandarin Chinese and used it during his tenure at the White House , when they wanted to foil eavesdroppers (listen secretly). Hoover was the first president to use telephone in the White House. Hoover died following massive internal bleeding at the age of 90 in his New York City suite at 11:35 a.m. on October 20, 1964, after 31 years and seven months, sixteen days after leaving office. To date, he has the longest retirement of any President. Former President Jimmy Carter may surpass the length of Hoover’s retirement on September 7, 2012. At the time of his death he was the second longest-lived president after John Adams, both were since surpassed by Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan. Hoover had outlived by 20 years his wife, Lou Henry Hoover, who had died in 1944, and he was the last living member of the Coolidge administration, and also outlived both Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt who died in 1945 and 1962, respectively. By the time of his death, he had rehabilitated his image. Herbert Hoovers official pets are, King Tut a Belgian Shepherd , Pat the German Shepherd, Big Ben and Sonnie are Fox Terriers, Glen a Scotch Collie, Eskimo dog named Yukonan , Irish wolfhound dog called Patrick, Eaglehurst Gillette a Setter breed (a gun dog or hunting dog), Weejie a Norwegian Elkhound and two crocodiles.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt 32nd U.S. President
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Roosevelt in a wheelchair, after Polio made him half-paralyze
FDR with his loyal pet Fala
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, and served as the 32nd U.S. President from 1933 to 1945 – April 12, 1945), also known by his initials, FDR and the only American president to be elected more than two terms and a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic depression and total war. He was rumored to have extra marital affairs, linking to his wife Eleanor’s social secretary, Lucy Mercer, which began soon after she was hired in 1914. Roosevelt promised his wife never to see Lucy again, but secretly Roosevelt still seeing Lucy Mercer Rutherford (she was already married with other man). On April 12, 1945, the day Roosevelt suffered a cerebral hemorrhage causing his death, Lucy Mercer-Rutherford was on his side, in Warm Spring, Georgia. In August 1921, Franklin Roosevelt contracted a disease known as polio, resulted in permanent paralysis from waist down, but Franklin refused to accept that he was paralyzed, however, he became famous as a polio survivor. His age at 39, attacked by polio disease, are mores consistent with Guillain-Barre syndrome, but since his cerebrospinal fluid was not checked then causes of paralysis may never known. On April 12, afternoon, Roosevelt was complaining of severe pain at the back of his head, and collapsed forward his chair, unconscious and was carried to his bedroom. His doctor and attending cardiologist, Dr. Howard Bruenn, diagnosed Roosevelt a severe cerebral hemorrhage or stroke, and he later died at 3:35 p.m. on that same day. His favorite pet Fala, a Scottish Terrier, Roosevelt constant companion during his term in the White House and the most photographed dog in the world. He had other pets, Majora the German Shepherd, Meggie the Scottish Terrier, Winks the Llewellyn Setter, Tiny the Old English Sheepdog, Persident the Great Dane, and Blaze the Bullmastiff.
Harry S. Truman 33rd U.S. President
Harry S. Truman 33rd President of the United States
Official White House portrait of Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman born on May 8, 1884, and served as the 33rd U.S. President (1945 to 1953), and he was 34th Vice President of the United States (1945) under the term of President Franklin Roosevelt, and succeeded as President on April 12, 1945 after Roosevelt sudden death less than three months after beginning his unprecedented 4th term. Strange fact about Truman, he was the only president who served after 1897 without a college degree, it was his childhood dream to be at the West Point, but his poor eyesight failed his dream. On December 5, 1972, he was admitted with lung congestion from pneumonia complications, to Kansas City’s Research Hospital and Medical Center. He developed multiple organ failure and died at 7:50 am on December 26, 1972 at the age of 88. His wife died nearly ten years later, on October 18, 1982. His pets are Cocker Spaniel named Feller and Mike, an Irish Setter.
Dwight David “Ike” Eisenhower 34th U.S. President
Dwight D. Eisenhower 34th President
Official White House portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David “Ike” Eisenhower born on October 14, 1890, and served as the 34th U.S. President from 1953 until 1961 – March 28, 1969) Strange facts about Eisenhower, he was a chain smoker until March 1949, and probably the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office. On September 24, 1955, while on vacation in Colorado, he suffered a serious heart attack that required six weeks’ hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the President. Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm, which was in turn the cause of a mild stroke on November 25, 1957, which occurred during a cabinet meeting when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to speak or move his right hand. The president also suffered from Crohn’s disease, a chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956. Eisenhower’s gave up his smoking habits regarding his health issues, and make some changes to his dietary habits, but he still indulged in alcohol. Eisenhower “drank several gin tonic, one or two gins on the rocks, three to four wines with dinner. Cholecystitis symptoms began to show in August 1966, for which he underwent surgery on December 12, 1966 when his gallbladder was removed, containing 16 gallstones. In 1969, after Eisenhower’s death, an autopsy unexpectedly revealed an adrenal Pheochromocytoma, a benign adrenaline-secreting tumor that may have made the President more vulnerable to heart disease. In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed his own Vice-President, Republican Richard Nixon against Democrat John F. Kennedy. Eisenhower told friends, “I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy.” But he was succeeded by the youngest elect John F. Kennedy who was 43 years old at that time, while Eisenhower, who at that time was 70 years old, was the oldest president in history. Eisenhower was the first president to appear on colored television.
John Fitzgerald “Jack” Kennedy 35th President of the United States
John F. Kennedy 35th President
The official White House portrait of John F. Kennedy by Aaron Shikler
The Kennedy family in Hyannis Port in 1963 with pets
John Fitzgerald “Jack” Kennedy often referred to his initials as JFK, was born on May 29, 1917, and served as the 35th U.S. President serving from 1961 until his death from assassination in November 22, 1963, in Dallas Texas. Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the crime, but was shot and killed two days later by Jack Ruby before the trial took place. The Warren Commission and the FBI concluded officially that Oswald was the lone assassin. Kennedy is the only Catholic President, and is the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. The HSCA or The House Select Committee on Assassinations, concluded that Kennedy was assassinated as the result of conspiracy and those investigations were not perfectly done. Today, Kennedy continues to rank highly in Public Opinion ratings of U.S. Presidents and the most loved president. Strange facts about John F. Kennedy, he usually read 6 newspapers on his breakfast. John F. Kennedy, Lee Harvey Oswald, and Jack Ruby all died in the same hospital. In September 1947, John F. Kennedy was 30 years old at that time, was diagnosed with Addison’s disease (a rare endocrine disorder). Then in 1966, his White House doctor,Janet Travell , revealed that Kennedy also had hypothyroidism, and the presence of two endocrine diseases raises the possibility that Kennedy had autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2 (APS2). Kennedys also experienced many personal tragedies. Jacqueline had a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956, their newborn son, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, died in August 1963. Kennedy had two children who survived infancy. One of the fundamental aspects of the Kennedy family is a tragic strain which has run through the family, as a result of the violent and untimely deaths of many of its members. Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr., JFK’s eldest brother died in World War II at the age of 29. It was Joe Jr. who was originally to carry the family’s hopes for the Presidency. Then both John himself, and his brother Robert died as a result of assassinations. Edward had brushes with death, the first in a plane crash and the second as a result of a car accident, known as the Chappaquiddick incident. Edward died at age 77, on August 25, 2009, from the effects of a malignant brain tumor. John F. Kennedy, Jr, son of JFK, born in 1960, just few weeks after hi father was elected, died in 1999, when the small plane he piloted crashed near the Martha’s Vineyard, killing him, his wife Carolyn Bessette and his sister-in-law. Their official pets at the White House were, Gaullie a Poodle, Welsh Terrier named Charlie, Tom Kitten, Robin the canary, parakeets named Bluebell and Marybelle, Macaroni the pony, ponies Tax and Leprechaun, hamsters named Debbie and Billie, Russian mutt named Pushinka and Soviet space dog named Strelka, dogs and rabbits.
Lyndon Baines Johnson 36th President of the United States
Lyndon B. Johnson 36th President
Official White House portrait of Lyndon B. Johnson
Johnson during an interview in August 1972, sporting longer hair
Lyndon Baines Johnson born on August 27, 1908, often referred to his initials as LBJ, served as the 36th U.S. President from 1961 to 1963, a position he assumed after his 37th Vice President of the United States. – January 22, 1973). He is one of only four people, who served in all four elected federal offices of the United States. Johnson succeeded to the presidency following the John F. Kennedy’s assassination on November 22, 1963, completed Kennedy’s term and was elected President in his own right, in the 1964 election winning by a large margin. Lyndon Baines Johnson died on January 22, 1973 at his ranch at 3:39 p.m at age 64 after suffering a massive heart attack. His death came two days after Nixon’s second inauguration, the last day of his presidency if he had been re-elected in 1968. His death came the day before a ceasefire was signed in Vietnam and just a month after former president Harry S. Truman died. (Truman’s funeral on December 28, 1972 had been one of Johnson’s last public appearances). His health had been affected by years of heavy smoking , poor diet, and extreme stress, and the former president was diagnosed with advance coronary artery disease. He had his first, nearly fatal, heart attack in July 1955 and suffered a second one in April 1972, but had been unable to quit smoking after he left the Oval Office in 1969. He was found dead by Secret Service agents, in his bed, with a telephone receiver in his hand. The agents were responding to a desperate call Johnson had made to the Secret Service compound on his ranch minutes earlier complaining of “massive chest pains”. LBJ’s pets were Beagles (Him and Her, Edgar and Freckles), white collie (Blanco), mongre (Yuki), Hamsters and lovebirds.
Richard Milhous Nixon 37th U.S. President
Richard Nixon 37th President
4 US Presidents, Reagan with Ford Carter and Nixon during funeral of Egyptian Pres Anwar Sadat
Five US presidents and their first ladies attend the funeral of Richard Nixon, April 27, 1994.
Vicki, Pasha and King Timahoe looking out the window in the White House Nixons pets
Richard Milhous Nixon born on January 9, 1913, served as the 37th U.S. President, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign from office . He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18, 1994, and died four days later on April 22, 1994, at the age of 81. Nixon remains a source of considerable interest among historians and the public. In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with phlebitis. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and John Ehrlichman, and The Washington Post, did not believed Nixon’s illness, and produced a cartoon illustration, showing Nixon with a cast on the wrong foot. In April 18, 1994, Nixon suffered a severe stroke, while preparing to eat dinner in his New Jersey Park Ridge home. A blood clot resulting from his heart condition had formed in his upper heart, broken off, and traveled to his brain, and was rushed to New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan, initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg, damaging his brain, and caused cerebral edema or swelling of the brain, and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08 p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.
Gerald Rudolph “Jerry” Ford, Jr. 38th U.S. President
Gerald Ford 38th President
Ford and his golden retriever, Liberty, in the Oval Office, 1974
Gerald Rudolph “Jerry” Ford, Jr. born Leslie Lynch King, Jr., born on July 14, 1913, and served as the 38th U.S. President serving from 1974 to 1977, and he was the 40th Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to 1974. – December 26, 2006) assumed in office as the President after Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974. He was the first person appointed to the vice-presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment after the resignation of Spiro Agnew, he became the only President of the United States who was never elected President nor Vice-President by the Electoral College. Following his years as president, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. Ford died in his home on December 26, 2006 after suffering form various health problems. Among other any U.S. Preisdents, Ford lived longer, living 93 years and 165 days, while his 895 days as president remains the shortest terms of all Presidents who did not die in office. Strange facts happened in his life, when Ford faced two assassination attempts during his presidency, which happened within three weeks of each other and happened in the same state. while in Sacramento, California, on September 5, 1975. Lynette “Squeaky” Fromme, a follower of cult leader and serial killer Charles Manson, pointed a Colt.45-caliber handgun at Ford, the gun was grabbed by a Secret Service agent, and managed to insert the webbing of his thumb under the hammer, preventing the gun from firing, however, it they found out that, even though the semi-automatic gun had four cartridges in the magazine, the weapon had not been chambered, making it impossible for the gun to fire. Fromme was taken into custody and was convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison, and was paroled on August 14, 2009. After seventeen days, as Ford left the St. Francis Hotel in San Francisco, another assassination attempt by Sara Jane Moore, standing in a crowd of onlookers across the street, pointed her .38 caliber revolver at the president. Former Marine Oliver Sipple, grabbed the gun, before Moore could fire it, deflected her shot that hit a wall about six inches above the right of Ford’s head, then ricocheted hitting a taxi driver, who was slightly wounded. Moore was later sentenced to life in prison, but was paroled on December 31, 2007, after serving 32 years in prison.He was the 3rd longest lived Vice President, falling short only of John Nance Garner, 98, and Levi P. Morton, 96. Ford had the third-longest post-presidency (29 years and 11 months) after Herbert Hoover (31 years and 7 months) and Jimmy Carter (31 years, 7 months and counting).
James Earl “Jimmy” Carter, Jr. 39th U.S. President
Jimmy Carter 39th President
Jimmy Carter
James Earl “Jimmy” Carter, Jr. born October 1, 1924, served as the 39th President of the United States (1977 to 1981) and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office. Strange facts about Jimmy Carter, he was the first President born in a hospital at the Wise Sanitarium. For a year, due to a limited real estate market, the Carters lived in a public housing (Carter is the only U.S. president to have lived in housing subsidized for the poor. Jimmy Carter is one of only four presidents, and the only one in modern history, who did not have an opportunity to nominate a justice to serve on the Supreme Court. The other three are William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor and Andrew Johnson. Of these four, Carter is the only to have served a full term.
The rabbit swimming away from the President
On April 20, 1979, Jimmy Carter went to Plains Georgia, his hometown, on a solo fishing expedition. After the fishing, the former president narrated that “a rabbit chased by hounds jumped in the water and swam toward my boat. When he got almost there, I splashed some water with a paddle”, upon returning to his office, but Carter’s staff did not believed the President’s story, insisting that rabbits couldn’t swim, or that they would never approach a person threateningly. But the incident was captured on footage taken by the official photographer of the White House.
Ronald Wilson Reagan 40th President of the United States
Ronald Reagan 40th President
Rex , the First dog, with the Reagans at Christmas
Ronald Wilson Reagan born on February 6, 1911, and served as the 40th President of the United States serving his term from 1981 to 1989, and was the 33rd Governor of California ( 1967 to 1975), radio personality and television and film actor. – June 5, 2004). On his 69th day in office as the new president, an assassination attempt on March 30, 1981, outside the Washington Hilton Hotel from his would be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr. and the first U.S. President to survived from a gunshot in an assassination attempt. Reagan, James Brady his press secretary, Thomas Delahanty Washington police officer, and Timothy McCarthy his Secret Service agent were struck by gunfire. During surgery, Reagan was “close to death” but recovered and was released from the hospital on April 11. Strange fact about Reagan, early in his presidency he started wearing hearing aid, first in his right ear, and later in his left as well. In 1983, Reagan decided to go in public regarding his wearing the small, audio-amplifying device boosted their sales. Reagan underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital on July 13, 1985, for the removal of malignant colon polyps. That same year in August, he underwent another surgery to remove skin cancer cells from his nose, then on October, another skin cancer cells were detected on his nose and removed. In January 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate which caused further worries about his health. No cancerous growths were found. In July of that year, aged 76, he underwent a 3rd skin cancer operation on his nose. In August 1994, at the age of 83, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease, an incurable neurological disorder which destroys brain cells and ultimately causes death, he died of pneumonia, brought on by Alzheimer’s disease at his home in Bel Air, California, on the afternoon of June 5, 2004. Nancy Reagan released a statement after Reagan’s death, saying, “My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after 10 years of Alzheimer’s disease at 93 years of age. During Ronald Reagan’s presidency, the White House actually suffered an atomic pollution in the air ventilation system and signs of Radioactivityis still found there.
George Herbert Walker Bush 41st U.S. President
George H. W. Bush 41st President
Official portrait of George H. W. Bush
George Herbert Walker Bush born June 12, 1924 is an American politician who served as the 41st President of the United States (1989–93). And he served as the 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981–89), an ambassador, a congressman, a Director of Central Intelligence, and the oldest surviving president today. His son, George W. Bush became the 43rd President of the United States, and his other son Jeb W. Bush is a former Governor of Florida. He is a World War II veteran. Since his son George W. Bush to the presidency in 2000, Bush was commonly referred to simply as “George Bush“, since that time, he was called in many forms, such as; Bush 41, Bush the Elder, George Bush, Sr but the most common is George H.W. Bush to distinguish from “father and son”. Strange facts about George Bush was that on July 13, 1985, (President Reagan underwent a colon polyps removal surgery), Bush became the first Vice President to become Acting President, approximately eight hours as president. George Bush has developed Parkinson’s disease, a neurological disorder which has weakened his legs. In April 2011, he said he was not suffering pain from the disorder. George Bush survived 4 plane crashes in the world war II.
Millie, first dog pet of George HW Bush
Mildred “Millie” Kerr Bush an English Springer Spaniel breed, was born January 12, 1985, pet of Barbara and George W.H. Bush. The dog was named after Mildred Caldwell Kerr, a long-time friend of the Bushes, which is also the name of Kerr’s granddaughter, Millie Kerr. Millie died of pneumonia on May 19, 1997 at age 12.
William Jefferson “Bill” Clinton 42nd President of the United States
Bill Clinton 42nd President
Clinton family in White House
William Jefferson “Bill” Clinton born William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946) is an American politician, who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Inaugurated at age 46, he was the third youngest president and took office at the end of the Cold War, and was the first president of the baby boomer generation (born between the years 1946 and 1964). Strange facts about Clinton; he worked with future two-term Dallas Mayor Ron Kirk, future Texas Governor Ann Richards, and future filmmaker Steven Spielberg who at that time was unpopular television director. The Secret Service Secret Service has code names for every President, Vice President, and family members. Ronald Reagan was Rawhide, George H.W. Bush was Timberwolf, Bill Clinton was Eagle, George W. Bush was Trailblazer, and Barack Obama is Renegade. Karenna, daughter of Al Gore that she regretted picking code name Smurfette, she complained that she was put on the spot and asked to choose her own code name. Clinton received a quadruple bypass surgery in September 2004, then another surgery for his partially collapsed lung in March 2005, and on February 11, 2010, he had two coronary stents implanted in his heart after complaining of chest pains. Clinton become a vegetarian due to health reasons, but still eats fish sometimes.
5 year old Socks The Cat peers over the White House Briefing Room’s presidential lectern in 1994.
Socks Clinton-Currie (March 23, 1989 – February 20, 2009) was the pet cat of the Clinton’s in the White House. An adopted stray cat, Socks was euthanized on February 20, 2009, in Hollywood, Maryland after suffering cancer of the jaw.
Buddy, Clinton’s dog
Buddy a male Labrador Retriever, chocolate colored, born on September 1997 owned by Bill Clinton. Buddy died on January 2, 2002, killed by a car while chasing a contractor in a playful mood. The Clinton’s are out of town when the accident occurred. Then Clinton acquired another chocolate colored Labrador and named him Seamus.
George Walker Bush 43rd U.S. President
George W. Bush 43rd President
George Walker Bush born July 6, 1946) is an American politician and businessman who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and the 46th Texas Governor from 1995 to 2000. The eldest son of George H.W. and Barbara Bush. Strange facts in George Walker Bush president’s life, was his major turning point during the September 11 Terrorist Attach. Then on May 10, 2005, a native Georgian( born to an Armenian ethnic family), Vladimir Arutyunian, threw a live hand grenade toward a podium at the Freedom Square in Tblisi, Georgia, where Bush was speaking, but landed in a crowd after hitting a girl, but luckily did not detonate. Arutyunian was arrested and was convicted for a life sentence in January 2006. During his visit in Baghdad, Iraq, an Iraqi journalist, Muntazer al-Zaidi , also a reporter for local television Al-Baghdadia for an Egyptian Newspaper threw his shoes at the United States President, George W. Bush, during a press conference, al-Zaidi was tackled by authorities. Bush had made a surprise last visit to Iraq to sign a new security pact brokered by Iraq and the U.S. Before throwing his shoes at Bush, the reporter, stood up and said, “This is a farewell kiss from the Iraqi people, dog!” The words were followed by the reporter’s two shoes being thrown at Bush, who had to duck in order to avoid being hit with them. Shortly after each shoe flew within a few inches of Bush, authorities quickly neutralized the reporter and took him out of the room. On May 2, 2011, President Obama called Bush, who was at a restaurant with his wife, informing him that Osama bin Laden had been killed.
Bush ‘duck’, Zaidi’s shoe flying over George Bush’s head.
Would you believe this strange facts, that a wealthy businessman from Saudi Arabia offered US$ 10 million offered to buy the shoes thrown by al-Zaidi. There were also suggestions and calls throughout the Middle East to display the shoes in an Iraqi Museum. The exact manufacturer of the shoes has not been confirmed, but they are believed to be made by a Turkish shoemaker. The Ducati Model 271 shoes was first renamed “The Bush Shoe” and later “The Bye-Bye Bush Shoe”
Barney Presidential dog oval office
India “Willie” Bush
India “Willie” Bush ,was a black cat owned by former U.S. President George W. Bush and Laura Bush, living with the Bush’ family for almost two decades. India died at the White House on January 4, 2009, at the age of 18.
Barack Hussein Obama II 44th President of the United States
Official portrait of Barack Obama
Obama family portrait in the Green Room
Barack Obama playing basketball with members of Congress and Cabinet secretaries_2
The Obama family and Bo, their Portuguese Water Dog, walk on the South Lawn of the White House
Obama with his half-sister Maya Soetoro-Ng, mother Ann Dunham and grandfather Stanley Dunham, in Honolulu Hawaii
Barack Hussein Obama II born August 4, 1961, is the current and the 44th President of the United States, and the first African-American to hold office as the president. American. In May 2012, he became the first U.S. president to publicly support and legalizing the same-sex marriage, and the first President to be born in Hawaii. In an interview in 2006, Obama highlighted the difference of his extended family quoting, “It’s like a little mini-United Nations”, he said. “I’ve got relatives who look like Bernie Mac, or look like Margaret Thatcher. Maya Soettoro-Ng, Obama’s has a half-sister with whom he was raised , the daughter of his mother and her Indonesian second husband, and seven half-siblings from his Kenyan father, Barack Obama, Sr. (a Lou ethnic tribe from Kenya), six of them living. Obama’s parents met in a Russian class in 1960s, at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, where Obama, Sr. was a foreign scholar student. Then they (Obama Sr. and his mother Stanley Ann Durham) got married on February 2, 1961 in Wailuku, Maui, Hawaii. Obama’s mother Ann Durham, was born in Wichita, Kansas from an English, Scottish, Irish, German and Swiss ancestry. The Obama’s owned a Portuguese Water Dog they named Bo, a gift from Senator Ted Kennedy . Obama tried to quit smoking several times, sometimes using nicotine replacement therapy, and, in early 2010, Michelle Obama said that he had successfully quit smoking.
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Which of the Great Lakes does not border on Canada? | Great Facts About the Five Great Lakes
Great Facts About the Five Great Lakes
By Kim Ann Zimmermann, Live Science Contributor |
May 3, 2013 06:40pm ET
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Credit: Stasys Eidiejus Shutterstock
The Great Lakes — Superior, Huron, Michigan, Ontario and Erie — make up the largest body of fresh water on Earth, accounting for one-fifth of the freshwater surface on the planet at 6 quadrillion gallons. The area of all the Great Lakes is 95,160 square miles (246,463 square kilometers).
The lakes are on the U.S.-Canadian border, touching Ontario in Canada and Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York in the United States. About 34 million people in the United States and Canada live in the Great Lakes basin. More than 3,500 species of plants and animals inhabit the Great Lakes basin, including 170-plus species of fish.
Today, the Great Lakes are popular recreation spots for boating, fishing and other recreational activities and still serve as an important mode of transportation of goods, but they have not always been in their current form. About 14,000 years ago, the Great Lakes area was covered with a glacier that was more than a half-mile (1 km) thick. As the glacier melted, it slowly moved toward Canada and left behind a series of large depressions that filled with water. These formed the basic shape of the Great Lakes, and about 10,000 years ago the Great Lakes took the form that is familiar today.
The Mackinac Bridge connects Michigan's Upper and Lower Peninsulas at the straits between Lake Huron and Lake Michigan.
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While the area had been inhabited for a very long time before European explorers arrived, Étienne Brûlé (circa 1592-1632), an advance man for the French explorer Samuel de Champlain (circa 1567-1635), is generally credited as the first European to discover the Great Lakes. Brûlé is believed to have reached Lake Huron around 1615, and went on to explore Lake Ontario.
There are a number of rivers and tributaries connecting the Great Lakes. The Straits of Mackinac connect Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and there is such a steady flow of water between these two bodies that they could be considered one lake. Lake Erie and Lake Ontario are connected by the Niagara River, including Niagara Falls. The St. Lawrence River connects Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which leads out to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Great Lakes are dotted with more than 30,000 islands. While many of the islands are small and uninhabitable, the largest is Lake Huron’s Manitoulin Island (1,068 square miles or 2,766 square km), which is also the largest island in any inland body of water on the planet.
There have been a number of shipwrecks on the Great Lakes, as storms and reefs can make navigation treacherous. The last and one of the most famous shipwrecks was that of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, a freighter that sank in Lake Superior during a storm on Nov. 10, 1975, killing the crew of 29.
Quick facts about the five Great Lakes:
Lake Erie: The name was derived from erielhonan, the Iroquoian word for long tail, which describes its shape. It is the fourth largest of the Great Lakes when measured in surface area (9,910 square miles / 25,700 square km.) and the smallest by water volume (116 cubic miles / 484 cubic km).
Lake Huron: Named for the Wyandot Indians, or Hurons, who lived there.Lake Huron is the second largest Great Lake by surface area (23,000 square miles / 59,600 square km) and has the longest shoreline (3,827 miles / 6,157 km), taking into account its many islands.
A view of Niagara Falls (Horseshoe Falls) from the Canadian side.
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On the US flag, are the more red stripes? Or white stripes? | Undefended no more | The Economist
Undefended no more
Violence in Ottawa has thickened a once-seamless border, souring the mood on both sides
Nov 8th 2014
| DERBY LINE, OTTAWA and VANCOUVER
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IN THE Haskell Free Library and Opera House, which straddles Quebec and Vermont, you can watch a show with one foot in Canada and the other in the United States. Built at the turn of the last century, when both countries boasted about the world’s longest undefended border, the cultural centre was created for Derby Line, Vermont, and Stanstead, Quebec. Nancy Rumery, the librarian, says the towns were a “single community that just happened to have an imaginary line drawn through it.”
Al-Qaeda’s September 2001 attacks on America put paid to that. You can still park in Canada and walk across the border to the front door. But now American officials watch to make sure you go back the same way. Elsewhere in the twin towns, movement has been curbed; gates have turned streets into dead ends. Although Derby Line and Stanstead share water and sewerage systems and a Rotary Club, they are no longer one community, says Brian Smith, a local politician.
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Many locals hesitate to cross the border to shop, worship or see friends—for fear of being detained and fined, as befell a local pharmacist who did not report to customs when he crossed over to get a pizza. “It’s not like it used to be,” says Mr Smith.
The attack in Ottawa last month by a lone gunman, who killed a Canadian soldier and stormed parliament, seems likely to make matters worse. Although there is still uncertainty about the motives of the gunman, Michael Zehaf-Bibeau—possibly a deranged outcast, possibly a religious extremist—the United States is reviewing security along the 5,525-mile (8,890km) line which separates the two countries (including the Alaskan land border).
After meeting his Canadian counterpart in Ottawa in the wake of the attacks, John Kerry, the United States secretary of state, was euphemistic but firm about the need to tighten up. He voiced confidence that the two countries could come up with “some tweaks, some changes, some additions that will promote even greater security than we have today.”
It is debatable whether more security on what Senator John McCain recently called the “porous” northern border really will make Americans much safer from terrorism. But it seems hard for politicians to shake off the habit of Canada-bashing. Both Mr McCain and Hillary Clinton (in 2004) have stated, wrongly, that the 9/11 terrorists entered American territory through Canada. An article on the politico.com website last month (before the Ottawa shootings) had the headline: “Fear Canada: the real terrorist threat next door”.
What is more certain is that “tweaks and changes” will impede economic exchanges between two countries who are each others’ largest trading partners; and they may further fray social relations between once-friendly neighbours. Nik Nanos, a pollster who has tracked cross-border attitudes for a decade, says Canadians and Americans still like each other but have lost enthusiasm for further co-operation, most notably on terrorism.
Unlike the turbulent border with Mexico, the northern frontier usually gets little attention in the United States. It “just doesn’t squeak as loud as the southern border,” says Paul Frazer, a consultant on diplomatic affairs. Jeh Johnson, homeland-security secretary in the United States, gave a speech on “Border Security in the 21st Century” last month in which the only allusions to Canada were about the 1920s.
Illegal immigration, which haunts American relations with Mexico, is less of a concern in Canada’s case. Of the 420,789 people apprehended by America’s border patrol in 2013, 98% were caught on the country’s south-western edge. On the northern side, guns and drugs are the big worry, says Jose Acosta, an American patrol officer who knows both frontiers and now works near Abbotsford, British Columbia. “We have Ecstasy, meth and marijuana coming south,” he says. “Canada gets illegal aliens and guns going north.” Mr Acosta often sees guns and drugs hidden in vehicles or on persons heading into Canada. But for anyone who knows the southern border, “it’s pretty quiet here.”
Still, comparisons with Mexico can understate the difficulty of policing a line which runs through remote spots like the hills of Montana and Alberta (pictured) and four Great Lakes. There has been a rise in security measures since 2001. The number of American border agents looking atCanada seems paltry, at about 2,200, compared with 18,600 dealing with Mexico; but the former figure was only 340 in 2001.
Since that time the United States has also added aircraft with sensor arrays, thermal cameras, video surveillance and unmanned aircraft to watch remoter areas. Aaron Heitke, deputy chief patrol agent in Montana, says that when he started 13 years ago his main item of equipment was binoculars. Now, in addition to his weapon, he has a radiation detector, night goggles and thermal imaging. Perfect security is impossible. Ross Finlayson, a member of a globe-trotting club, trekked through wild terrain from Montana to Canada last summer, bringing a passport and some anti-bear spray. Neither proved necessary.
Canada has assuaged some American concerns—by arming 5,685 customs officers; agreeing to joint patrols on the Great Lakes; and helping to form teams that include coast guards, border agencies and police from both countries. By one estimate, Canada spent an additional C$92 billion ($77 billion) on security in the ten years after 9/11. On November 4th it announced a new surveillance web, with radar, ground sensors and thermal radiation detectors, along 700km of the border.
Yet while the United States sees the border through the lens of security, Canada thinks of bilateral trade worth $2 billion a day. Businesses of all kinds moan that stringent procedures depress activity. Costs rise when lorries have to queue for hours to be inspected several times over.
Although border security is not the only factor, Canada’s share of trade in the United States has stalled since 2001 (see chart). The near-quadrupling of North American trade in the first 20 years of the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement largely concerned the United States and Mexico. (The value of United States trade with Canada tripled over the period, while that with Mexico grew more than sixfold.)
In the wake of the Ottawa shooting, Canadian businesses fear an overreaction, says John Manley, who heads a group representing the country’s largest firms. A shopping centre on Cornwall Island in the Canadian bit of Akwesasne, a piece of land set aside for the Mohawk people, shows how changing regimes harm small businesses. When the Mohawks objected to the arming of Canadian guards, Canada moved a customs post north to the mainland. This left the mall in no-man’s-land. Travellers from the United States are now told not to stop until they reach Canadian customs. The change has cost the mall’s sports store C$50,000 a year and has made some units unrentable.
Canada and the United States have made periodic efforts to ease the flow of goods and people: some cargo clearance has been moved away from the border, and American customs officers now work in some Canadian airports. Beyond the Border, a plan launched with fanfare in 2011 by President Barack Obama and Stephen Harper, Canada’s prime minister, aims to create joint perimeter security. But work on aligning standards and rules has been sporadic. Every resumption, such as a meeting last month in Washington, DC, is hailed unconvincingly as a new start.
While Canada is keen, the other side lacks the will for a sustained push. Coolness between Mr Obama and Mr Harper hardly helps. Ms Rumery, the librarian at that cultural centre on the border, could see her nightmare come to pass—users having to clear customs to get through her door.
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Your mission, should you decide to accept it, is to tell me how long until the tape self destructed in the opening scenes of Mission:Impossible? | Mission: Impossible II (2000) - Quotes - IMDb
Mission: Impossible II (2000)
Quotes
Showing all 31 items
Mission Commander Swanbeck : [during a breifing in Sevile, Spain] Mr. Hunt, this isn't mission difficult, it's mission impossible. "Difficult" should be a walk in the park for you.
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Mission Commander Swanbeck : [seeing and hearing his briefing through sunglasses and it's earpieces] Good morning, Mr. Hunt. Your mission, should you choose to accept it, involves the recovery of a stolen item designated "Chimera." You may select any two team members, but it is essential that the third member of your team be Nyah Nordoff-Hall. She is a civilian, and a highly capable professional thief. You have forty-eight hours to recruit Miss Hall and meet me in Seville to receive your assignment. As always, should any member of your team be caught or killed, the Secretary will disavow all knowledge of your actions. And Mr. Hunt, the next time you go on holiday, please be good enough to let us know where you're going. This message will self-destruct in five seconds.
Ethan Hunt : [5 seconds before he throws the sunglasses in front of him] I let you know where I'm going, I won't be on holiday.
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Dying on April 12, 1981, what boxer, nicknamed the Brown Bomber, was named the greatest heavyweight of all time by the International Boxing Research Organization? | Mission: Impossible II (2000) - Quotes - IMDb
Mission: Impossible II (2000)
Quotes
Showing all 31 items
Mission Commander Swanbeck : [during a breifing in Sevile, Spain] Mr. Hunt, this isn't mission difficult, it's mission impossible. "Difficult" should be a walk in the park for you.
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Mission Commander Swanbeck : [seeing and hearing his briefing through sunglasses and it's earpieces] Good morning, Mr. Hunt. Your mission, should you choose to accept it, involves the recovery of a stolen item designated "Chimera." You may select any two team members, but it is essential that the third member of your team be Nyah Nordoff-Hall. She is a civilian, and a highly capable professional thief. You have forty-eight hours to recruit Miss Hall and meet me in Seville to receive your assignment. As always, should any member of your team be caught or killed, the Secretary will disavow all knowledge of your actions. And Mr. Hunt, the next time you go on holiday, please be good enough to let us know where you're going. This message will self-destruct in five seconds.
Ethan Hunt : [5 seconds before he throws the sunglasses in front of him] I let you know where I'm going, I won't be on holiday.
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What play was Abraham Lincoln watching at the time of his assassination? | Abraham Lincoln’s Assassination - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com
Abraham Lincoln’s Assassination
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Introduction
On April 14, 1865, John Wilkes Booth, a famous actor and Confederate sympathizer, fatally shot President Abraham Lincoln at a play at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, D.C. The attack came only five days after Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered his massive army at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, effectively ending the American Civil War.
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Abraham Lincoln’s killer, John Wilkes Booth , was a Maryland native born in 1838 who remained in the North during the Civil War despite his Confederate sympathies. As the conflict entered its final stages, he and several associates hatched a plot to kidnap the president and take him to Richmond, the Confederate capital. However, on March 20, 1865, the day of the planned kidnapping, Lincoln failed to appear at the spot where Booth and his six fellow conspirators lay in wait. Two weeks later, Richmond fell to Union forces. In April, with Confederate armies near collapse across the South, Booth came up with a desperate plan to save the Confederacy.
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The search for John Wilkes Booth was one of the largest manhunts in history, with 10,000 federal troops, detectives and police tracking down the assassin.
Learning that Lincoln was to attend Laura Keene’s acclaimed performance of “Our American Cousin” at Ford’s Theatre in Washington , D.C., on April 14, Booth—himself a well-known actor at the time—masterminded the simultaneous assassination of Lincoln, Vice President Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William H. Seward. By murdering the president and two of his possible successors, Booth and his co-conspirators hoped to throw the U.S. government into disarray.
Lincoln occupied a private box above the stage with his wife Mary, a young army officer named Henry Rathbone and Rathbone’s fiancé, Clara Harris, the daughter of New York Senator Ira Harris. The Lincolns arrived late for the comedy, but the president was reportedly in a fine mood and laughed heartily during the production.
History Channel Online Course – Lincoln Assassination
At 10:15, Booth slipped into the box and fired his .44-caliber single-shot derringer into the back of Lincoln’s head. After stabbing Rathbone, who immediately rushed at him, in the shoulder, Booth leapt onto the stage and shouted, “Sic semper tyrannis!” (“Thus ever to tyrants!”–the Virginia state motto). At first, the crowd interpreted the unfolding drama as part of the production, but a scream from the first lady told them otherwise. Although Booth broke his leg in the fall, he managed to leave the theater and escape from Washington on horseback.
A 23-year-old doctor named Charles Leale was in the audience and hastened to the presidential box immediately upon hearing the shot and Mary Lincoln’s scream. He found the president slumped in his chair, paralyzed and struggling to breathe. Several soldiers carried Lincoln to a house across the street and placed him on a bed. When the surgeon general arrived at the house, he concluded that Lincoln could not be saved and would die during the night.
Vice President Andrew Johnson, members of Lincoln’s cabinet and several of the president’s closest friends stood vigil by Lincoln’s bedside until he was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 a.m. The first lady lay on a bed in an adjoining room with her eldest son Robert at her side, overwhelmed with shock and grief.
The president’s body was placed in a temporary coffin, draped with a flag and escorted by armed cavalry to the White House , where surgeons conducted a thorough autopsy. Edward Curtis, an Army surgeon in attendance, later described the scene, recounting that a bullet clattered into a waiting basin during the doctors’ removal of Lincoln’s brain. He wrote that the team stopped to stare at the offending weapon, “the cause of such mighty changes in the world’s history as we may perhaps never realize.” During the autopsy, Mary Lincoln sent the surgeons a note requesting that they clip a lock of Lincoln’s hair for her.
News of the president’s death traveled quickly, and by the end of the day flags across the country flew at half-mast, businesses were closed and people who had recently rejoiced at the end of the Civil War now reeled from Lincoln’s shocking assassination.
The president’s corpse was taken to the White House, and on April 18 it was carried to the Capitol rotunda to lay in state on a catafalque. On April 21, Lincoln’s body was boarded onto a train that conveyed it to Springfield, Illinois , where he had lived before becoming president. Tens of thousands of Americans lined the railroad route and paid their respects to their fallen leader during the train’s solemn progression through the North. Lincoln and his son, Willie, who died in the White House of typhoid fever in 1862, were interred on May 4, 1865, at Oak Ridge Cemetery, near Springfield.
As the nation mourned, Union soldiers were hot on the trail of John Wilkes Booth, who many in the audience had immediately recognized. After fleeing the capital, he and an accomplice, David Herold, made their way across the Anacostia River and headed toward southern Maryland. The pair stopped at the home of Samuel Mudd, a doctor who treated Booth’s leg. (Mudd’s actions earned him a life sentence that was later commuted). They then sought refuge from Thomas A. Jones, a Confederate agent, before securing a boat to row across the Potomac to Virginia.
On April 26, Union troops surrounded the Virginia farmhouse where Booth and Herold were hiding out and set fire to it, hoping to flush the fugitives out. Herold surrendered but Booth remained inside. As the blaze intensified, a sergeant shot Booth in the neck, allegedly because the assassin had raised his gun as if to shoot. Carried out of the building alive, he lingered for three hours before gazing at his hands and uttering his last words: “Useless, useless.”
Four of Booth’s co-conspirators were convicted for their part in the assassination and executed by hanging on July 7, 1865. They included David Herold and Mary Surratt , the first woman put to death by the federal government, whose boarding house had served as a meeting place for the would-be kidnappers.
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The largest electric power-producing facility and the largest concrete structure in the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Lake was created by the construction of what dam? | Assassination of Abraham Lincoln | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
This Currier & Ives print shows Rathbone reacting simultaneously as Booth fired his weapon, but Rathbone actually reacted after the shot was fired.</p>
Location
10:15 p.m. (Eastern Standard Time)
Target
Perpetrators
John Wilkes Booth and co-conspirators
The assassination of United States President Abraham Lincoln took place on Good Friday , [1] April 14, 1865, as the American Civil War was drawing to a close. The assassination occurred five days after the commander of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia , General Robert E. Lee , surrendered to Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant and the Union Army of the Potomac . Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated, [2] though an unsuccessful attempt had been made on Andrew Jackson 30 years before in 1835. The assassination of Lincoln was planned and carried out by the well-known stage actor John Wilkes Booth, as part of a larger conspiracy in a bid to revive the Confederate cause.
Booth's co-conspirators were Lewis Powell and David Herold , who were assigned to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward , and George Atzerodt who was to kill Andrew Johnson . By simultaneously eliminating the top three people in the administration, Booth and his co-conspirators hoped to sever the continuity of the United States government. Lincoln was shot while watching the play Our American Cousin with his wife Mary Todd Lincoln at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C. . He died early the next morning. The rest of the conspirators' plot failed; Powell only managed to wound Seward, while Atzerodt, Johnson's would-be assassin, lost his nerve and fled Washington.
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John Wilkes Booth
In March 1864, Ulysses S. Grant , the commanding general of all the Union's armies, decided to suspend the exchange of prisoners-of-war . [3] Harsh as it may have been on the prisoners of both sides, Grant realized the exchange was prolonging the war by returning soldiers to the outnumbered and manpower-starved South. John Wilkes Booth, a Southerner and outspoken Confederate sympathizer, conceived a plan to kidnap President Lincoln and deliver him to the Confederate Army , to be held hostage until the North agreed to resume exchanging prisoners. [4] Booth recruited Samuel Arnold , George Atzerodt , David Herold , Michael O'Laughlen , Lewis Powell (also known as "Lewis Paine"), and John Surratt to help him. Surratt's mother, Mary Surratt , left her tavern in Surrattsville , Maryland, and moved to a house in Washington D.C. , where Booth became a frequent visitor. Prosecutors later pointed out that her move coincided with Booth's need for a base of operations in the federal capital[ citation needed ].
In late 1860, Booth was initiated in the pro-Confederate Knights of the Golden Circle in Baltimore. [5] He attended Lincoln's second inauguration on March 4, 1865, as the invited guest of his secret fiancée Lucy Hale , daughter of John P. Hale , soon to become United States Ambassador to Spain. Booth afterwards wrote in his diary, "What an excellent chance I had, if I wished, to kill the President on Inauguration day!" [6]
The Old Soldiers Home, where Booth originally plotted to kidnap Lincoln.
On March 17, 1865, Booth informed his conspirators that Lincoln would be attending a play, Still Waters Run Deep , at Campbell Military Hospital . He assembled his men in a restaurant at the edge of town, intending that they should soon join him on a nearby stretch of road in order to capture the President on his way back from the hospital. But Booth found out that Lincoln had not gone to the play after all. Instead, he had attended a ceremony at the National Hotel in which officers of the 142nd Indiana Infantry presented Governor Oliver Morton with a captured Confederate battle flag . [7] Booth was living at the National Hotel at the time and could have had an opportunity to kill Lincoln had Booth not been at the hospital. [8] [9]
Meanwhile, the Confederacy was falling apart. On April 3, Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital, fell to the Union army. On April 9, the Army of Northern Virginia , the main army of the Confederacy, surrendered to the Army of the Potomac at Appomatox Court House . Confederate President Jefferson Davis and the rest of his government were in full flight. Despite many Southerners giving up hope, Booth continued to believe in his cause. [10]
On April 11, 1865, two days after Lee's army surrendered to Grant, Booth attended a speech at the White House in which Lincoln supported the idea of enfranchising the former slaves. Furiously provoked, Booth decided on assassination and is quoted as saying:
That means nigger citizenship. Now, by God, I'll put him through. That is the last speech he will ever give. [11]
Lincoln's nightmare
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Lincoln's last formal photograph, taken February 5, 1865 by Alexander Gardner .
According to Ward Hill Lamon , Lincoln's friend and biographer, three days before his assassination Lincoln discussed with Lamon and others a dream he had, saying:
About ten days ago, I retired very late. I had been up waiting for important dispatches from the front. I could not have been long in bed when I fell into a slumber, for I was weary. I soon began to dream. There seemed to be a death-like stillness about me. Then I heard subdued sobs, as if a number of people were weeping. I thought I left my bed and wandered downstairs. There the silence was broken by the same pitiful sobbing, but the mourners were invisible. I went from room to room; no living person was in sight, but the same mournful sounds of distress met me as I passed along. I saw light in all the rooms; every object was familiar to me; but where were all the people who were grieving as if their hearts would break? I was puzzled and alarmed. What could be the meaning of all this? Determined to find the cause of a state of things so mysterious and so shocking, I kept on until I arrived at the East Room , which I entered. There I met with a sickening surprise. Before me was a catafalque , on which rested a corpse wrapped in funeral vestments. Around it were stationed soldiers who were acting as guards; and there was a throng of people, gazing mournfully upon the corpse, whose face was covered, others weeping pitifully. 'Who is dead in the White House?' I demanded of one of the soldiers, 'The President,' was his answer; 'he was killed by an assassin.' Then came a loud burst of grief from the crowd, which woke me from my dream. I slept no more that night; and although it was only a dream, I have been strangely annoyed by it ever since. [12]
Day of the assassination
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Lincoln on the White House balcony, March 6, 1865. This is the last known high-quality photograph of Lincoln.
On April 14, Booth's morning started at the stroke of midnight. Lying wide awake in his bed at the National Hotel, he wrote his mother that all was well, but that he was "in haste". In his diary, he wrote that "Our cause being almost lost, something decisive and great must be done". [10] [13]
Lincoln's day started well for the first time in a while. Hugh McCulloch , the new Secretary of the Treasury, remarked that on that morning, "I never saw Mr. Lincoln so cheerful and happy". No one could miss the difference. For months, the President had looked pale and haggard. Lincoln himself told people how happy he was. This caused First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln some concern, as she believed that saying such things out loud was bad luck. Lincoln paid her no heed. [13] He met with his cabinet that day and later had a brief meeting with Vice President Andrew Johnson , the first between the two since Johnson had shown up drunk to take the vice presidential oath on Inauguration Day, six weeks prior.[ citation needed ]
At around noon, while visiting Ford's Theatre to pick up his mail (Booth had a permanent mailbox there), Booth learned from the brother of John Ford, the owner, that the President and General Grant would be attending the theatre to see Our American Cousin that night. Booth determined that this was the perfect opportunity for him to do something "decisive". [13] He knew the theater's layout, having performed there several times, as recently as the previous month. [14] [15]
That same afternoon, Booth went to Mary Surratt's boarding house in Washington, D.C. and asked her to deliver a package to her tavern in Surrattsville, Maryland. He also requested Surratt to tell her tenant who resided there to have the guns and ammunition that Booth had previously stored at the tavern ready to be picked up later that evening. [16] She complied with Booth's requests and made the trip, along with Louis J. Weichmann , her boarder and son's friend. This exchange, and her compliance in it, would lead directly to Surratt's execution three months later.
At seven o'clock that evening, John Wilkes Booth met for a final time with all his fellow conspirators. Booth assigned Lewis Powell to kill Secretary of State William H. Seward at his home, George Atzerodt to kill Vice President Andrew Johnson at his residence, the Kirkwood Hotel, and David E. Herold to guide Powell to the Seward house and then out of Washington to rendezvous with Booth in Maryland. Booth planned to shoot Lincoln with his single-shot derringer and then stab Grant with a knife at Ford's Theatre . They were all to strike simultaneously shortly after ten o'clock that night. [17] Atzerodt wanted nothing to do with it, saying he had only signed up for a kidnapping, not a killing. Booth told him he was in too far to back out. [18]
Booth shoots President Lincoln
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The Presidential Box at Ford's Theatre, where Lincoln was assassinated
Contrary to the information Booth had overheard, General and Mrs. Grant had declined the invitation to see the play with the Lincolns, as Mrs. Lincoln and Mrs. Grant were not on good terms. [19] Several other people were invited to join them, until finally Major Henry Rathbone and his fiancée Clara Harris (daughter of New York Senator Ira Harris ) accepted. [20]
There is evidence to suggest that either Booth or his fellow conspirator Michael O'Laughlen , who looked similar, followed Grant and his wife Julia to Union Station late that afternoon and discovered that Grant would not be at the theater that night. Apparently, O'Laughlen boarded the same train the Grants took to Philadelphia in order to kill Grant. An alleged attack during the evening took place; however, the assailant was unsuccessful since the private car that the Grants were riding in had been locked and guarded by porters. [21]
The Lincoln party arrived late and settled into the Presidential Box, which was actually two corner box seats with the dividing wall between them removed. The play was stopped briefly and the orchestra played " Hail to the Chief " as the audience gave the president a rousing standing ovation. Ford's Theater was full with 1,700 in attendance. [22] Mrs. Lincoln whispered to her husband, who was holding her hand, "What will Miss Harris think of my hanging on to you so?" The president replied, "She won't think anything about it". [23] Those were the last words ever spoken by Abraham Lincoln. It was now about 10:15 pm.
The box was supposed to be guarded by a policeman named John Frederick Parker who, by all accounts, was a curious choice for a bodyguard. [24] During the intermission, Parker went to a nearby tavern with Lincoln's footman and coachman. It is unclear whether he ever returned to the theatre, but he was certainly not at his post when Booth entered the box. [25] Nevertheless, even if a policeman had been present it is questionable at best as to whether he would have denied entry to the Presidential Box to a premier actor such as John Wilkes Booth - Booth's celebrity status meant that his approach did not warrant any questioning from audience members, who assumed he was coming to call on the President. Dr. Charles Brainerd Todd, a Navy Surgeon who had been aboard when the Lincolns visited his ship the monitor Montauk on April 14, was also present at Ford's Theatre that evening and wrote in an eyewitness account [26] that:
About 10:25 pm, a man came in and walked slowly along the side on which the "Pres" box was and I heard a man say, "There's Booth" and I turned my head to look at him. He was still walking very slow and was near the box door when he stopped, took a card from his pocket, wrote something on it, and gave it to the usher who took it to the box. In a minute the door was opened and he walked in.
Upon gaining access through the first door of the entry to the Presidential Box, Booth barricaded the inward-swinging door behind him with a wooden stick that he pried between the wall and the door. He then turned around, and looked through the tiny peep-hole he had carved in the second door (which granted entry to the Presidential Box) earlier that day. [27]
The Philadelphia Derringer pistol Booth used to murder Lincoln, on display at the museum in Ford's Theatre
Lincoln leaned forward and looked down to the left in the audience where he seemed to recognize someone. [28] It was now Act III, Scene II. Although he had never starred in the play itself, Booth knew the play by heart, and thus waited for the precise moment when actor Harry Hawk (playing the lead role of the "cousin", Asa Trenchard), would be onstage alone to speak what was considered the funniest line of the play. Booth hoped to employ the enthusiastic response of the audience to muffle the sound of his gunshot. With the stage to himself, Asa (Hawk) responded to the recently departed Mrs. Mountchessington, "Don't know the manners of good society, eh? Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal; you sockdologizing old man-trap!" With hysterical laughter permeating the theatre, Booth opened the door, crept forward and shot the President in the back of the head at point-blank range . [29] Lincoln immediately slumped over in his rocking chair, mortally wounded. Mary reached out, caught him, and then screamed when she realized what happened.
Upon hearing the gunshot, Rathbone quickly jumped from his seat and tried to prevent Booth from escaping. Booth dropped the pistol and drew a knife, stabbing the major violently in the left forearm reaching the bone. Rathbone quickly recovered and again tried to grab Booth as he was preparing to jump from the sill of the box. Booth again swung at Rathbone in the chest and then vaulted over the rail of the box down to the stage below (about a twelve-foot drop). In the process, his riding spur became entangled on the Treasury flag decorating the box , and he landed awkwardly on his left foot. He raised himself up despite the injury and began crossing the stage, making the audience believe that he was part of the play. Booth held his bloody knife over his head, and yelled either " Sic semper tyrannis !" [30] the Virginia state motto, meaning "Thus always to tyrants" in Latin or "The South is avenged!". [31]
Mary Lincoln's and Clara Harris' screams and Rathbone's cries of "Stop that man!" [32] caused the audience to realize that Booth's actions were not part of the show, and pandemonium immediately broke out. Booth ran across the stage just when Rathbone shouted and left just before anybody could lunge at him, and ran out the side door to the horse he had waiting outside. Some of the men in the audience chased after him when they noticed what was going on, but failed to catch him. Booth struck "Peanuts" Burroughs (who was holding Booth's horse) in the forehead with the handle of his knife, leaped onto the horse, kicked Burroughs in the chest with his good leg, and rode away into the night.
Death of President Lincoln
Charles Leale
Leale entered the box to find Rathbone bleeding profusely from a deep gash in his chest that ran the length of his upper left arm as well as a long slash in his arm. Nonetheless, he passed Rathbone by and stepped forward to find Lincoln slumped in his chair, held up by Mary, who was sobbing and could not control herself. Leale discovered Lincoln paralyzed, and barely breathing. Leale lowered the President to the floor believing that Lincoln had been stabbed in the shoulder by the knife. A second doctor in the audience, Charles Sabin Taft , was lifted bodily from the stage over the railing and into the box.
Todd, also seated in the audience, stated: "I attempted to get to the box, but I could not, and in an instant, the cry was raised 'The President is assassinated'. Such a scene I never saw before."
Taft and Leale cut away Lincoln's blood-stained collar and opened his shirt, and Leale, feeling around by hand, discovered the bullet hole in the back of his head right next to his left ear. Leale attempted to remove the bullet, but the bullet was too deep in his head and instead Leale dislodged a clot of blood in the wound. Consequently, Lincoln's breathing improved. [34] Leale learned that if he continued to release more blood clots at a specific time, Lincoln would still breathe. Then Leale saw that the bullet entered Lincoln's skull, fractured part of it badly and went through the left side of his brain before lodging just above his right eye almost exiting the other side of his head. Leale finally announced that it made no difference: "His wound is mortal. It is impossible for him to recover." [35]
Todd reported that as news of the assassination spread to the street, "Soldiers, sailors, police, all started in every direction but the assassin had gone. Some General handed me a note and bid me go to the nearest Telegraph office and arouse the nation. I ran with all my speed, and in ten minutes the sad news was all over the country."
President Lincoln on his death bed
(from Harper's Weekly, May 6, 1865)
Leale, Taft, and another doctor from the audience, Albert King , quickly consulted and decided that while the President must be moved, a bumpy carriage ride across town to the White House was out of the question. After briefly considering Peter Taltavull 's Star Saloon next door, they chose to carry Lincoln across the street and find a house. The three doctors and some soldiers who had been in the audience carried the President out the front entrance of Ford's Theatre. Across the street, a man was holding a lantern and calling "Bring him in here! Bring him in here!" The man was Henry Safford, a boarder at William Petersen's boarding house opposite Ford's who had been startled by the commotion across the street. [36] The men carried Lincoln into the boarding house and into the first-floor bedroom, where they laid him diagonally on the bed because his tall frame would not fit normally on the smaller bed. [37]
A vigil began at the Petersen House . The three physicians were joined by Surgeon General of the United States Army Joseph K. Barnes , Charles Henry Crane , Anderson Ruffin Abbott , and Robert K. Stone . Crane was a major and Barnes' assistant. Stone was Lincoln's personal physician. Robert Lincoln , home at the White House that evening, arrived at the Petersen House after being told of the shooting at about midnight. Tad Lincoln , who had attended Grover's Theater to see Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp , was not allowed to go to the Petersen House , although he was at Grover's Theater when the play was interrupted to report the news of the President's assassination.
Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles and United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton came and took charge of the scene. Mary Lincoln was so unhinged by the experience of the assassination that Stanton ordered her out of the room by shouting, "Take that woman out of here and do not let her in here again!" While Mary Lincoln sobbed in the front parlor, Stanton set up shop in the rear parlor, effectively running the United States government for several hours, sending and receiving telegrams, taking reports from witnesses, and issuing orders for the pursuit of Booth. [38]
Lincoln died from the bullet wound to his brain at 7:22am on April 15, 1865. [39] He was 56 years old. Mary Lincoln was not present at the time of his death and neither were his children[ citation needed ]. The crowd around the bed knelt for a prayer. When they were finished, Stanton made a statement, though there is some disagreement among historians as to what exactly the statement was. All agree that he began "Now he belongs to the ..." with some stating he finished with ages while others believe he finished with angels. [40] [41] Hermann Faber, an Army medical illustrator, was brought into the room immediately after Lincoln's body was removed so that Faber could visually document the scene. [42]
Though some experts have disagreed, [39] Dr. Leale's treatment of Lincoln has been considered good for its time. [43] He was honored for his efforts to save the President by participating in various capacities during the funeral ceremonies. [44]
Powell attacks Secretary William Seward
An artist's depiction of Lewis Powell attacking Frederick W. Seward
Booth had assigned Lewis Powell to murder Secretary of State William H. Seward . On April 5, Seward had been thrown from his carriage, suffering a concussion, a jaw broken in two places, and a broken right arm. Doctors improvised a jaw splint to repair his jaw (this is often mistakenly called a neck brace ). On the night of the assassination, he was still restricted to the bed at his Washington home in Lafayette Park , not too far from the White House. Herold guided Powell to Seward's residence. Powell was carrying an 1858 Whitney revolver, which was a large, heavy and popular gun during the Civil War . In addition, he carried a silver-handled Bowie knife .
Powell knocked at the front door of the house a little after 10:00 p.m. William Bell, Seward's butler, answered the door. Powell told Bell that he had medicine for Seward from his physician, Dr. Verdi, and that he was to personally deliver and show Seward how to take the medicine. Upon gaining admittance to the residence, Powell began making his way up the stairs to Seward's third-floor bedroom after much persuasion on his part. [45] [46] [47] At the top of the staircase, he was stopped by Seward's son, Assistant Secretary of State Frederick W. Seward . Powell told Frederick the same story that he had told Bell. Frederick was suspicious of the intruder, and told Powell that his father was asleep. Powell then lunged at him and stabbed, with the butler William Bell crying, "Murder! Murder!" before running away.
William and Fanny Seward in 1861
After hearing voices in the hall, Seward's daughter Fanny opened the door to Seward's room and said, "Fred, Father is awake now", and then closed the door, thus revealing to Powell where Seward was located. Initially, Powell started back down the stairs when suddenly he jolted around and drew his revolver, pointing it at Frederick's forehead. He pulled the trigger, but the gun misfired. Instead of pulling the trigger again, Powell panicked and bludgeoned Frederick Seward about the head with it. Seward crumpled to the floor unconscious, but Powell's gun was damaged beyond repair. Fanny, wondering what all the noise was, looked out the door again. She saw her brother bloody and unconscious on the floor and Powell running towards her. Powell shoved her aside, ran to Seward's bed and began stabbing him repeatedly in the face and neck. He missed the first time he swung his knife down, but the third blow sliced open Seward's cheek. [48] Seward's splint was the only thing that prevented the blade from penetrating his jugular vein. [49]
Sergeant Robinson and Seward's son Augustus tried to drive Powell away. Augustus had been asleep in his room, but was awakened by Fanny's screams of terror. Outside the residence, David Herold also heard Fanny screaming. He became frightened and ran away, abandoning Powell, who had no directional knowledge of the escape route from the capital city. [50] The force of Powell's blows had driven Secretary Seward off the bed and onto the floor behind the bed where Powell could not reach him. Powell fought off Robinson, Augustus, and Fanny, stabbing them as well.
When Augustus went for his pistol, Powell ran downstairs and headed for the front door. [51] Just then, a messenger named Emerick Hansell arrived with a telegram for Seward. Powell stabbed Hansell in the back, causing him to fall to the floor, and leaving him permanently paralyzed. Before running outside, Powell exclaimed, "I'm mad! I'm mad!", untied his horse from the tree where Herold left it, and rode away, alone.
Washington Metropolitan Police Department blotter listing the assassination
Fanny Seward cried, "Oh my God, father's dead!" Sergeant Robinson lifted the Secretary from the floor back onto the bed. Seward spat the blood out of his mouth and said, "I am not dead; send for a doctor, send for the police. Close the house." [52] Seward was covered with blood, but Powell's wild stabs in the dark room had not hit anything vital, and he recovered. His face, however, was permanently scarred.
Atzerodt fails to attack Andrew Johnson
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Booth had assigned George Atzerodt to kill Vice President Andrew Johnson , who was staying at the Kirkwood House in Washington. Atzerodt was to go to the Vice President's room at 10:15 p.m. and shoot him. [53] On April 14, Atzerodt rented room 126 at the Kirkwood, directly above the room where Johnson was staying. He arrived at the Kirkwood at the appointed time and went to the bar downstairs, carrying on his person a gun and a knife. Atzerodt asked the bartender, Michael Henry, about the Vice President's character and behavior. After spending some time at the hotel saloon, Atzerodt got drunk and wandered away through the streets of Washington. Nervous, he tossed his knife away in the street. He made his way to the Pennsylvania House Hotel by 2 a.m., where he checked into a room and went to sleep. [54] [55]
Earlier that day, Booth stopped by the Kirkwood House and left a note for Johnson that read, "I don't wish to disturb you. Are you at home? J. Wilkes Booth." [45] The card was picked up that night by Johnson's personal secretary, William Browning. [56] This message has been interpreted in many different ways throughout the years. [57] One theory is that Booth, being afraid that Atzerodt would not succeed in killing Johnson, or worried that Atzerodt would not have the courage to carry out the assassination, tried to use the message to implicate Johnson in the conspiracy. [58] Another theory is that Booth was actually trying to contact Browning in order to find out whether or not Johnson was expected to be at the Kirkwood that night. [56]
Flight and capture of the conspirators
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Broadside advertising reward for capture of Lincoln assassination conspirators, illustrated with photographic prints of John H. Surratt , John Wilkes Booth, and David E. Herold .
Within half an hour of his escape on horseback from Ford's, Booth crossed over the Navy Yard Bridge and out of the city into Maryland. [59] David Herold made it across the same bridge less than an hour later [60] and rendezvoused with Booth. [61] After retrieving weapons and supplies previously stored at Surattsville , Herold and Booth went to Samuel A. Mudd , a local doctor who determined that Booth's leg had been broken and put it in a splint . Later, Mudd made a pair of crutches for the assassin. [62]
After spending a day at Mudd's house, Booth and Herold hired a local man to guide them to Samuel Cox's house . [63] Cox in turn took them to Thomas Jones, who hid Booth and Herold in Zekiah Swamp near his house for five days until they could cross the Potomac River. [64] On the afternoon of April 24, they arrived at the farm of Richard H. Garrett, a tobacco farmer. Booth told Garrett he was a wounded Confederate soldier.
The information relayed to Dr. Todd's brother by his letter of the 15th tells us rumors flew about Washington D.C. regarding Booth's whereabouts and status.
"Today all the city is in mourning nearly every house being in black and I have not seen a smile, no business, and many a strong man I have seen in tears - Some reports say Booth is a prisoner, others that he has made his escape - but from orders received here, I believe he is taken, and during the night will be put on a Monitor for safe keeping - as a mob once raised now would know no end" [26]
Booth's escape route
During the Union manhunt for Booth, four of his pursuers drowned during patrol duty on April 24. [65] Their small barge, the Black Diamond, collided with the steamer Massachusetts on either the Rappahannock River [66] or the Potomac River. [67] There were at least 50 fatalities, including passengers from the Massachusetts, Union soldiers who were recently exchanged and paroled former prisoners of the Confederacy. [68]
Booth and Herold remained at Garrett's farm until April 26, when Union soldiers from the 16th New York Cavalry arrived at the farm. The soldiers surrounded the barn, where Booth and Herold had been sleeping, and announced that they would set fire to the barn in fifteen minutes. Herold surrendered, but Booth refused to come out when the soldiers called for his surrender, stating boldly, "I will not be taken alive!" [69] Upon hearing this, the soldiers set fire to the barn. [70] Booth scrambled for the back door, brandishing a rifle in one hand and a pistol in the other. He never fired either weapon.
A sergeant named Boston Corbett crept up behind the barn and shot Booth, severing his spinal cord [71] with the bullet wound being in "the back of the head about an inch below the spot where his [Booth's] shot had entered the head of Mr. Lincoln". [72] Booth was carried out onto the steps of the barn. A soldier poured water into his mouth, which he immediately spat out, unable to swallow. Booth told the soldier, "Tell my mother I die for my country." In agony, unable to move his limbs, he asked a soldier to lift his hands before his face and whispered as he gazed at them, "Useless ... Useless." These were his last words. Booth died on the porch of the Garrett farm two hours after Corbett had shot him. [45] [73]
The Garrett farmhouse, where Booth died on April 26, 1865
Powell was unfamiliar with Washington, and without the services of his guide David Herold , wandered the streets for three days before finding his way back to the Surratt house on April 17. He found the detectives already there. Powell claimed to be a ditch-digger hired by Mary Surratt , but she denied knowing him. They were both arrested. [74] George Atzerodt hid out in a farm in Germantown, Maryland, about 25 miles (40 km) northwest of Washington, but was tracked down and arrested on April 20. [75]
The rest of the conspirators were arrested before the end of the month, except for John Surratt , who fled to Quebec. There he was hidden by Roman Catholic priests. In September, 1865, he boarded a ship to Liverpool, England, staying in the Catholic Church of the Holy Cross in the city. From there, he moved furtively through Europe, until he ended up as part of the Pontifical Zouaves in the Papal States. A friend from his school days, Henry St. Marie, discovered him in the Papal guard during the spring of 1866 and alerted the U.S. government. Surratt was arrested by the Papal authorities but through suspicious circumstances, he managed to escape. He was finally captured by a U.S. government agent in Egypt in November 1866.
Surratt stood trial for Lincoln's murder in Washington in the summer of 1867. The defense called four residents of Elmira, New York [76] who did not know John Surratt but said they had seen him there between April 13 and 15. Fifteen prosecution witnesses, some who knew him, said they saw a man they positively identified, or said resembled, the defendant in Washington on the day of the assassination or traveling to or from the capital at this time. In the end, the jury could not agree on a verdict. Surratt was released and lived the rest of his life, until 1916, a free man. [77]
Conspirators' trial
Execution of Mary Surratt , Lewis Powell , David Herold , and George Atzerodt on July 7, 1865, at Fort McNair in Washington, D.C.
In the turmoil that followed the assassination, scores of suspected accomplices were arrested and thrown into prison. All the people who were discovered to have had anything to do with the assassination or anyone with the slightest contact with Booth or Herold on their flight were put behind bars. Among the imprisoned were Louis J. Weichmann , a boarder in Mrs. Surratt's house; Booth's brother Junius (playing in Cincinnati at the time of the assassination); theatre owner John T. Ford , who was incarcerated for 40 days; James Pumphrey , the Washington livery stable owner from whom Booth hired his horse; John M. Lloyd , the innkeeper who rented Mrs. Surratt's Maryland tavern and gave Booth and Herold carbines, rope, and whiskey the night of April 14; and Samuel Cox and Thomas A. Jones, who helped Booth and Herold escape across the Potomac. [78]
All of those listed above and more were rounded up, imprisoned, and released. Ultimately, the suspects were narrowed down to just eight prisoners (seven men and one woman): [79] Samuel Arnold , George Atzerodt , David Herold , Samuel Mudd , Michael O'Laughlen , Lewis Powell , Edmund Spangler (a Ford's stagehand who had given Booth's horse to "Peanuts" Burroughs to hold), and Mary Surratt .
The eight suspects were tried by a military tribunal ordered by then-President Andrew Johnson on May 1, 1865. The nine-member commission was presided over by Major General David Hunter . The other eight voting members were Major General Lew Wallace , Brigadier Generals Robert Sanford Foster , Thomas Maley Harris , Albion P. Howe , and August Kautz , Colonels James A. Ekin and Charles H. Tompkins , and Lieutenant Colonel David Ramsay Clendenin . The prosecution team was led by U.S. Army Judge Advocate General Joseph Holt , assisted by Congressman John A. Bingham and Major Henry Lawrence Burnett . [80] The transcript of the trial was recorded by Benn Pitman and several assistants, and was published in 1865. [81] The fact that they were tried by a military tribunal provoked criticism from both Edward Bates and Gideon Welles , who believed that a civil court should have presided. Attorney General James Speed , on the other hand, justified the use of a military tribunal on grounds that included the military nature of the conspiracy, that the defendants acted as enemy combatants and the existence of martial law in the District of Columbia . (In 1866, in the Ex parte Milligan decision, the United States Supreme Court banned the use of military tribunals in places where civil courts were operational.) [82] The odds were further stacked against the defendants by rules that required only a simple majority of the officer jury for a guilty verdict and a two-thirds majority for a death sentence. Nor could the defendants appeal to anyone other than President Johnson. [83]
The trial lasted for about seven weeks, with 366 witnesses testifying. Louis Weichmann, released from custody, was a key witness. All of the defendants were found guilty on June 30. Mary Surratt, Lewis Powell, David Herold, and George Atzerodt were sentenced to death by hanging; Samuel Mudd, Samuel Arnold, and Michael O'Laughlen were sentenced to life in prison. Mudd escaped execution by a single vote, the tribunal having voted 5–4 against hanging him.[ citation needed ] Edmund Spangler was sentenced to imprisonment for six years. Oddly, after sentencing Mary Surratt to hang, five of the jurors signed a letter recommending clemency, but Johnson refused to stop the execution. (Johnson later claimed he never saw the letter. [84] )
Surratt, Powell, Herold, and Atzerodt were hanged in the Old Arsenal Penitentiary on July 7, 1865. [85] The executions were supervised by Union general Winfield Scott Hancock . Mary Surratt was the first woman executed by the United States government. [86] O'Laughlen died in prison of yellow fever in 1867. Mudd, Arnold, and Spangler were pardoned in February 1869 by President Johnson. [87] Spangler, who died in 1875, insisted for the rest of his life that he had no connection to the plot beyond being the man Booth asked to hold his horse.
Mudd's culpability
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The degree of Mudd's culpability has remained a controversy ever since. Some, including Mudd's grandson Richard Mudd , claimed that Mudd was innocent of any wrongdoing and that he had been imprisoned merely for treating a man who came to his house late at night with a fractured leg. Over a century after the assassination, Presidents Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan both wrote letters to Richard Mudd agreeing that his grandfather committed no crime. However, others, including authors Edward Steers, Jr. and James Swanson, assert that Samuel Mudd visited Booth three times in the months before the failed kidnapping attempt. The first time was November 1864 when Booth, looking for help in his kidnapping plot, was directed to Mudd by agents of the Confederate Secret Service . In December, Booth met with Mudd again and stayed the night at his farm. Later that December, Mudd went to Washington and introduced Booth to a Confederate agent he knew — John Surratt. Additionally, George Atzerodt testified that Booth sent supplies to Mudd's house in preparation for the kidnap plan. Mudd lied to the authorities who came to his house after the assassination, claiming that he did not recognize the man who showed up on his doorstep in need of treatment and giving false information about where Booth and Herold went. [88] [89] He also hid the monogrammed boot that he had cut off Booth's injured leg behind a panel in his attic, but the thorough search of Mudd's house soon revealed this further evidence against him. One hypothesis is that Dr. Mudd was active in the kidnapping plot, likely as the person the conspirators would turn to for medical treatment in case Lincoln were injured, and that Booth thus remembered the doctor and went to his house to get help in the early hours of April 15. [90] [91]
Aftermath
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Display of mourning opposite Union Square in New York City, as sketched by an anonymous diarist on April 15, 1865
Lincoln was the first American president to be assassinated. His assassination had a long-lasting impact upon the United States, and he was mourned throughout the country in both the North and South. There were attacks in many cities against those who expressed support for Booth. [92] On the Easter Sunday after Lincoln's death, clergymen around the country praised Lincoln in their sermons. [93] Millions of people came to Lincoln's funeral procession in Washington, D.C. on April 19, 1865, [94] and as his body was transported 1,700 miles (2,700 km) through New York to Springfield, Illinois . His body and funeral train were viewed by millions along the route. [95]
Lincoln's funeral train
After Lincoln's death, Ulysses S. Grant called him "incontestably the greatest man I ever knew." [96] Southern-born Elizabeth Blair said that, "Those of Southern born sympathies know now they have lost a friend willing and more powerful to protect and serve them than they can now ever hope to find again." [97]
Andrew Johnson became President upon Lincoln's death. Johnson was to become one of the least popular presidents in American history. [98] He was impeached by the House of Representatives in 1868, but the Senate failed to convict him by one vote. [99]
Secretary of State William Seward recovered from his wounds and continued to serve in his post throughout Johnson's presidency. He later negotiated the Alaska Purchase , then known as Seward's Folly, by which the United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867. [100]
Henry Rathbone and Clara Harris married two years after the assassination, and Rathbone went on to become the U.S. consul to Hanover, Germany. However, Rathbone later became mentally ill and, in 1883, shot Clara and then stabbed her to death. He spent the rest of his life in a German asylum for the criminally insane. [101]
Skull fragments and probe used, from the National Museum of Health and Medicine
The top hat Lincoln wore on the night of the assassination
The bed that Lincoln occupied and other items from the bedroom had been bought by Chicago collector Charles F. Gunther and are now owned by and on display at the Chicago History Museum . [103] [104] The Army Medical Museum , now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display are the bullet that hit Lincoln, the probe used by Barnes, pieces of Lincoln's skull and hair, and the surgeon's cuff stained with Lincoln's blood. The chair in which Lincoln was shot is on display at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. [105]
On February 9, 1956, 95-year-old Samuel J. Seymour appeared on the U.S. game show I've Got a Secret . The celebrity panel was eventually able to guess Seymour's "secret": he had been in attendance at Ford's Theater the night of the assassination. Seymour, five years old in 1865, was the last living witness to the event. Seymour died two months after the telecast.
Lincoln was honored on the centennial of his birth when his portrait was placed on the U.S. one-cent coin in 1909. The Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., was opened in 1922.
The day before his assassination, Lincoln wrote a personal check for $800 to "self", reportedly to cover some debts incurred by Mary Todd Lincoln . That check, and several other historical checks, would be put on display by Huntington Bank at a branch in Cleveland in 2012, after a Huntington employee discovered the checks in 2011 looking through old documents from a bank Huntington acquired in 1983. Although checks from several other historical figures were also on display, the check written by Lincoln two days before his death received the most attention. [106]
Found in Lincoln's pocket, after his death, was a copy of English MP John Bright 's testimonial for the President's's re-election. [107]
See also
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Marked by a violent fear of watter, what is the common name for the disease hydrophobia? | Rabies | definition of rabies by Medical dictionary
Rabies | definition of rabies by Medical dictionary
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/rabies
Definition
Rabies is an acute viral disease of the central nervous system that affects humans and other mammals but is most common in carnivores (flesh-eaters). It is sometimes referred to as a zoonosis , or disease of animals that can be communicated to humans. Rabies is almost exclusively transmitted through saliva from the bite of an infected animal. Another name for the disease is hydrophobia, which literally means "fear of water," a symptom shared by half of all people infected with rabies. Other symptoms include fever , depression, confusion, painful muscle spasms, sensitivity to touch, loud noise, and light, extreme thirst, painful swallowing, excessive salivation, and loss of muscle tone. If rabies is not prevented by immunization, it is almost always fatal.
Description
Cases of rabies in humans are very infrequent in the United States and Canada, averaging one or two a year (down from over 100 cases annually in 1900), but the worldwide incidence is estimated to be between 30,000 and 50,000 cases each year. These figures are based on data collected by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1997 and updated in 2002. Rabies is most common in developing countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, particularly India. Dog bites are the major origin of infection for humans in developing countries, but other important host animals may include the wolf, mongoose, raccoon, jackal, and bat. A group of researchers in India found that monkeys as well as dogs were frequent vectors of rabies. The team also reported that the male:female ratio of rabies patients in India is 4:1.
Most deaths from rabies in the United States and Canada result from bat bites; the most recent fatality was a 66-year-old man in California who died in September 2003. The death of a nine-year-old girl in Quebec in the fall of 2000 was the first case of human rabies in Canada since 1985. Public health officials eventually determined that the girl had been bitten while she was sleeping by a silver-haired bat that had gotten into the family's home.
On October 18, 2004, a Wisconsin teenager was diagnosed with full-blown rabies after suffering from a minor bat bite on September 12, 2004. Miraculously, she was cured of rabies after doctors induced coma and administered four antiviral drugs to her. Since the therapy was only given and successful for one case, its curative properties needs to be corroborated by other cases before it will be considered a viable treatment option. The case and the physicians' findings will be published in a medical journal.
People whose work frequently brings them in contact with animals are considered to be at higher risk than the general population. This would include those in the fields of veterinary medicine, animal control, wildlife work, and laboratory work involving live rabies virus. People in these occupations and residents of or travelers to areas where rabies is a widespread problem should consider being immunized.
In late 2002, rabies re-emerged as an important public health issue. Dr. Charles E. Rupprecht, director of the World Health Organization (WHO) Collaborating Center for Rabies Reference and Research, has listed several factors responsible for the increase in the number of rabies cases worldwide:
Rapid evolution of the rabies virus. Bats in the United States have developed a particularly infectious form of the virus.
Increased diversity of animal hosts for the disease.
Changes in the environment that are bringing people and domestic pets into closer contact with infected wildlife.
Increased movement of people and animals across international borders. In one recent case, a man who had contracted rabies in the Philippines was not diagnosed until he began to feel ill in the United Kingdom.
Lack of advocacy about rabies.
Causes and symptoms
Rabies is caused by a rod- or bullet-shaped virus that belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae. The rabies virus is a member of a genus of viruses called lyssaviruses, which include several related viruses that infect insects as well as mammals. The rabies virus is usually transmitted via an animal bite, however, cases have also been reported in which the virus penetrated the body through infected saliva, moist tissues such as the eyes or lips, a scratch on the skin, or the transplantation of infected tissues. Inhalation of the virus in the air, as might occur in a highly populated bat cave, is also thought to occur.
From the bite or other area of penetration, the virus multiplies as it spreads along nerves that travel away from the spinal cord and brain (efferent nerves) and into the salivary glands. The rabies virus may lie dormant in the body for several weeks or months, but rarely much longer, before symptoms appear. Initially, the area around the bite may burn and be painful. Early symptoms may also include a sore throat , low-grade fever, headache , loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting , and diarrhea . Painful spasms develop in the muscles that control breathing and swallowing. The individual may begin to drool thick saliva and may have dilated or irregular pupils, increased tears and perspiration, and low blood pressure.
Later, as the disease progresses, the patient becomes agitated and combative and may exhibit increased mental confusion. The affected person usually becomes sensitive to touch, loud noises, and bright lights. The victim also becomes extremely thirsty, but is unable to drink because swallowing is painful. Some patients begin to dread water because of the painful spasms that occur. Other severe symptoms during the later stage of the disease include excessive salivation, dehydration , and loss of muscle tone. Death usually occurs three to 20 days after symptoms have developed. Unfortunately, recovery is very rare.
Diagnosis
After the onset of symptoms, blood tests and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis tests will be conducted. CSF will be collected during a procedure called a lumbar puncture in which a needle is used to withdraw a sample of CSF from the area around the spinal cord. The CSF tests do not confirm diagnosis but are useful in ruling out other potential causes for the patient's altered mental state.
The two most common diagnostic tests are the fluorescent antibody test and isolation of the rabies virus from an individual's saliva or throat culture . The fluorescent antibody test involves taking a small sample of skin (biopsy) from the back of the neck of the patient. If specific proteins, called antibodies, that are produced only in response to the rabies virus are present, they will bind with the fluorescent dye and become visible. Another diagnostic procedure involves taking a corneal impression in which a swab or slide is pressed lightly against the cornea of the eye to determine whether viral material is present.
Treatment
Until the most recent successful cure of a late-term rabies case can be validated with further success and validation from the medical community, the historic treatment options for rabies prevention immediately following a bite remains the most viable treatment. Because of the extremely serious nature of a rabies infection, the need for rabies immunizations will be carefully considered for anyone who has been bitten by an animal, based on a personal history and results of diagnostic tests.
If necessary, treatment includes the following:
The wound is washed thoroughly with medicinal soap and water. Deep puncture wounds should be flushed with a catheter and soapy water. Unless absolutely necessary, a wound should not be sutured.
Tetanus toxoid and antibiotics will usually be administered.
Rabies vaccination may or not be given, based on the available information. If the individual was bitten by a domestic animal and the animal was captured, the animal will be placed under observation in quarantine for ten days. If the animal does not develop rabies within four to seven days, then no immunizations are required. If the animal is suspected of being rabid, it is killed, and the brain is examined for evidence of rabies infection. In cases involving bites from domestic animals where the animal is not available for examination, the decision for vaccination is made based on the prevalence of rabies within the region where the bite occurred. If the bite was from a wild animal and the animal was captured, it is generally killed because the incubation period of rabies is unknown in most wild animals.
If necessary, the patient is vaccinated immediately, generally through the administration of human rabies immune globulin (HRIG) for passive immunization, followed by human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV) or rabies vaccine adsorbed (RVA) for active immunization. Passive immunization is designed to provide the individual with antibodies from an already immunized individual, while active immunization involves stimulating the individual's own immune system to produce antibodies against the rabies virus. Both rabies vaccines are equally effective and carry a lower risk of side effects than some earlier treatments. Unfortunately, however, in underdeveloped countries, these newer vaccines are usually not available. Antibodies are administered to the patient in a process called passive immunization. To do this, the HRIG vaccine is administered once, at the beginning of treatment. Half of the dose is given around the bite area, and the rest is given in the muscle. Inactivated viral material (antigenic) is then given to stimulate the patient's own immune system to produce antibodies against rabies. For active immunization, either the HDCV or RVA vaccine is given in a series of five injections. Immunizations are typically given on days one, three, seven, 14, and 28.
In those rare instances in which rabies has progressed beyond the point where immunization would be effective, the groundbreaking treatment involving a drug-induced coma and the administration of four different antiviral drugs will most likely be a radical treatment option. The traditional approach prior to October 2004 was to provide as much relief from pain and suffering as possible through medical intervention while waiting to see if survival was possible. The patient would be given medication to prevent seizures, relieve some of the anxiety , and relieve painful muscle spasms. Pain relievers would also be given. In the later stages, aggressive supportive care would be provided to maintain breathing and heart function. Survival via the traditional treatment is rare but can occur.
Prognosis
If preventative treatment is sought promptly, rabies need not be fatal. Immunization is almost always effective if started within two days of the bite. Chance of effectiveness declines, however, the longer vaccination is put off. It is, however, important to start immunizations, even if it has been weeks or months following a suspected rabid animal bite, because the vaccine can be effective even in these cases. If immunizations do not prove effective or are not received, rabies is nearly always fatal with a few days of the onset of symptoms.
Key terms
Active immunization — Treatment that provides immunity by challenging an individual's own immune system to produce antibody against a particular organism, in this case the rabies virus.
Antibody — A specific protein produced by the immune system in response to a specific foreign protein or particle called an antigen.
Biopsy — The removal of a small sample of tissue for diagnostic purposes.
Efferent nerves — Nerves that convey impulses away from the central nervous system to the periphery.
Fluorescent antibody test (FA test) — A test in which a fluorescent dye is linked to an antibody for diagnostic purposes.
Lumbar puncture — A procedure that involves withdrawing a small sample of cerebrospinal fluid from the back around the spinal cord.
Lyssavirus — A genus of viruses that includes the rabies virus and related viruses that infect insects as well as mammals.
Passive immunization — Treatment that provides immunity through the transfer of antibodies obtained from an immune individual.
Rhabdovirus — A type of virus named for its rod- or bullet-like shape. The rabies virus belongs to a family of viruses called Rhabdoviridae.
Vector — An animal or insect that carries a disease-producing organism.
Zoonosis — Any disease of animals that can be transmitted to humans. Rabies is an example of a zoonosis.
As of October 2004, the medical community awaits the publication of findings by the doctors that administered a life-saving treatment that cured a Wisconsin teenager of full-blown rabies. Further test cases will prove whether or not this treatment option will be a historic development in the search for a cure for rabies.
Prevention
One promising preventive strategy that has been used since the early 2000s is the distribution of wildlife baits containing an oral vaccine against rabies. This strategy has been used in Germany to vaccinate wild foxes, which are frequent carriers of the disease in Europe. In the United States, veterinary researchers at Kansas State University have developed an oral vaccine for fruit bats; early trials of the vaccine have given promising results.
The following precautions should be observed in environments where humans and animals may likely come into contact.
Domesticated animals, including household pets, should be vaccinated against rabies. If a pet is bitten by an animal suspected to have rabies, its owner should contact a veterinarian immediately and notify the local animal control authorities. Domestic pets with current vaccinations should be revaccinated immediately; unvaccinated dogs, cats, or ferrets are usually euthanized (put to sleep). Further information about domestic pets and rabies is available on the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) web site.
Wild animals should not be touched or petted, no matter how friendly they may appear. It is also important not to touch an animal that appears ill or passive, or whose behavior seems odd, such as failing to show the normal fear of humans. These are all possible signs of rabies. Many animals, such as raccoons and skunks, are nocturnal and their activity during the day should be regarded as suspicious.
People should not interfere in fights between animals.
Because rabies is transmitted through saliva, a person should wear rubber gloves when handling a pet that has had an encounter with a wild animal.
Garbage or pet food should not be left outside the house or camp site because it may attract wild or stray animals.
Windows and doors should be screened. Some victims of rabies have been attacked by infected animals, particularly bats, that entered through unprotected openings.
State or county health departments should be consulted for information about the prevalence of rabies in an area. Some areas, such as New York City, have been rabies-free, only to have the disease reintroduced at a later time.
Preventative vaccination against rabies should be considered if one's occupation involves frequent contact with wild animals or non-immunized domestic animals.
Bites from mice, rats, or squirrels rarely require rabies prevention because these rodents are typically killed by any encounter with a larger, rabid animal, and would, therefore, not be carriers.
Travelers should ask about the prevalence of the disease in countries they plan to visit.
Resources
Books
Beers, Mark H., MD, and Robert Berkow, MD., editors. "Central Nervous System Viral Diseases: Rabies (Hydrophobia)." Section 13, Chapter 162 In The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Research Laboratories, 2004.
Periodicals
Chhabra, M., R. L. Ichhpujani, K. N. Tewari, and S. Lal. "Human Rabies in Delhi." Indian Journal of Pediatrics 71 (March 2004): 217-220.
Deshaies, D., P. A. Pilon, L. Valiquette, and J. Carsley. "A Public Health Intervention at the Time of a Case of Rabies in Quebec." [in French] Canadian Journal of Public Health 95 (March-April 2004): 138-141.
Fooks, A. R., N. Johnson, S. M. Brookes, et al. "Risk Factors Associated with Travel to Rabies Endemic Countries." Journal of Applied Microbiology 94, Supplement (2003): 31S-36S.
"Human Death Associated with Bat Rabies—California, 2003." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 53 (January 23, 2004): 33-35.
Messenger, S. L., J. S. Smith, L. A. Orciari, et al. "Emerging Pattern of Rabies Deaths and Increased Viral Infectivity." Emerging Infectious Diseases 9 (February 2003): 151-154.
Peters, C., R. Isaza, D. J. Heard, et al. "Vaccination of Egyptian Fruit Bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) with Monovalent Inactivated Rabies Vaccine." Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35 (March 2004): 55-59.
Rosenthal, Elisabeth. "Girl is first to survive rabies without a shot." The New York Times November 25, 2004: A28.
Smith, J., L. McElhinney, G. Parsons, et al. "Case Report: Rapid Ante-Mortem Diagnosis of a Human Case of Rabies Imported Into the UK from the Philippines." Journal of Medical Virology 69 (January 2003): 150-155.
Stringer, C. "Post-Exposure Rabies Vaccination." Nursing Standard 17 (February 5-11, 2003): 41-42.
Thulke, H. H., T. Selhorst, T. Muller, et al. "Assessing Anti-Rabies Baiting—What Happens on the Ground?" BMC Infectious Diseases 4 (March 9, 2004): 9.
Weiss, R. A. "Cross-Species Infections." Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 278 (2003): 47-71.
Organizations
American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA). 1931 North Meacham Road, Suite 100, Schaumburg, IL 60173-4360. http://www.avma.org.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1600 Clifton Rd., NE, Atlanta, GA 30333. (800) 311-3435, (404) 639-3311. http://www.cdc.gov.
Institut Pasteur. 25-28, rue du Dr. Roux, 75015 Paris, France. +33 (0) 1 45 68 80 00. http://www.pasteur.fr/haut_ext.html.
Other
CDC. "Epidemiology of Rabies." http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/rabies/Epidemiology/Epidemiology.htm.
National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, Inc. "Compendium of Animal Rabies Prevention and Control, 2003." Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Recommendations and Reports 52 (March 21, 2003) (RR-5): 1-6.
rabies
[ra´bēz, ra´be-ēz]
an acute infectious disease of the central nervous system, which affects all warm-blooded animals, including humans. It is caused by an RNA virus of the genus Lyssavirus . The virus is often present in the host's saliva, and human infection is usually transmitted by the bite or lick of a rabid animal, such as a bat, wolf, dog, cat, or other mammal; it is sometimes transmitted by the respiratory route. The incubation period in humans is from one to three months, being shorter following bites near the brain.
The earliest symptoms are intermittent pain, numbness, tingling, or burning around the site of infection; soon afterward, generalized hyperexcitability occurs, followed by fever, paralysis of the muscles of swallowing, and glottal spasm brought on by the sight of fluids or the drinking of fluids, and by maniacal behavior. Convulsions, tetany, and respiratory paralysis are the inevitable terminal events in untreated cases. The diagnosis can be determined by viral isolation (from saliva, cerebrospinal fluid, urine) or by demonstration of neutralizing antibody, and after death by the appearance of cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies) in degenerated neurons.
Without adequate immunization and treatment a person who has been infected with rabies is not likely to survive.
Prevention. All warm-blooded family pets (such as dogs, cats, and monkeys) should be vaccinated against rabies periodically.
It is also essential to learn to recognize a rabid animal. In the early “anxiety” stages, a rabid animal may have a change of temperament. Many, including wild animals, may become unusually friendly. The rabid animal may next enter a “furious” stage, in which it wanders about biting everything that moves, and even some things that do not move, such as sticks and stones. It then develops paralysis of the throat, which makes swallowing difficult. The name hydrophobia, “fear of water,” was given to the disease because it was observed that stricken animals avoided water. Actually, this is not because of fear of water, but because they cannot swallow. Saliva often drips from the animal's mouth and may be whipped into a foam.
Some animals pass directly from the anxiety stage to paralysis without becoming violent. This is called the “dumb” form of rabies. The animal may appear to have something caught in its throat. A dog with something in its throat usually tries to remove it, but a rabid dog will not do this. Eventually all of the rabid animal's muscles become paralyzed and it dies.
Treatment. When a person is bitten by an animal, the wound should be washed thoroughly with soap and water, and then treated like any other wound. It is extremely important to seek emergency health care immediately. If possible, steps should be taken to find out if the biting animal has rabies, preferably by finding the animal and confining it for observation. When the biting animal must be killed in order to capture it, care must be taken to see that the head is not damaged, so that the brain can be examined to establish a diagnosis. If the biting animal cannot be caught for observation, the bitten person must be given antirabies treatment immediately.
Preventive treatment of suspected rabies is based on immunization by a series of vaccine and immune serum injections. When bites are in areas close to the head or in areas with many nerve endings, such as the hands, the virus may reach the brain quickly. In such cases treatment should start immediately, even though the suspected animal is still being observed.
Agents used to confer passive immunity are human rabies immune globulin and anitrabies serum . Allergic reactions to the immune globulin are rare, making it the preferred agent. In response to administration of antirabies serum, an occasional patient may experience severe anaphylaxis, while others develop serum sickness; hence, this agent is given only when human rabies immune globulin is not available. In many patients, the serum antibodies produce permanent immunity only after the last booster. If active immunity has been established, however, it lasts a lifetime. If a patient does not have permanent immunity established by the vaccine, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention should be contacted.
A more effective and less troublesome immunizing agent is the newer human diploid cell vaccine . It requires only five injections over 28 days.
There is no cure for rabies and once symptoms appear treatment can only be palliative. This includes sedation of the patient and provision of a quiet environment to reduce anxiety and relieve pain, administration of a powerful muscle relaxant (curare-like drugs) to reduce muscular contractions, and supportive measures to maintain urinary and respiratory function. Death occurs in 2 to 5 days.
ra·bies
(rā'bēz), Although the Latin word is correctly pronounced in three syllables, speakers of English virtually always reduce these to two.
Highly fatal infectious disease that may affect all species of warm-blooded animals, including humans; transmitted by the bite of infected animals including dogs, cats, skunks, wolves, foxes, raccoons, and bats, and caused by a neurotropic species of Lyssavirus, a member of the family Rhabdoviridae, that has tropism for the central nervous system and the salivary glands; inhalation infection possbile (aerosolized virus in bat caves, attics). The symptoms are characteristic of a profound disturbance of the nervous system, for example, excitement, aggressiveness, and madness, followed by paralysis and death. In animals, clinical signs are variable, and sometimes drooling and tongue paralysis are the only signs. Transmission of the virus can occur before clinical signs are expressed. Characteristic cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies) found in many neurons aid rapid laboratory diagnosis.
[L. rage, fury, fr. rabio, to rave, to be mad]
rabies
/ra·bies/ (ra´bēz) (ra´be-ēz) an acute, usually fatal, infectious viral disease of the central nervous system of mammals, human infection resulting from the bite of a rabid animal (bats, dogs, etc.). In the later stages, it is marked by paralysis of the muscles of deglutition and glottal spasm provoked by the drinking or the sight of liquids, and by maniacal behavior, convulsions, tetany, and respiratory paralysis.rab´id
rabies
(rā′bēz)
n.
An acute, infectious, usually fatal viral disease of the central nervous system that is transmitted by the bite of infected animals and occurs in many mammals, including dogs, cats, raccoons, and bats.
ra′bi·et′ic (-ĕt′ĭk) adj.
rabies
[rā′bēz]
Etymology: L, rabere, to rave
an acute, usually fatal viral disease of the central nervous system of mammals. It is transmitted from animals to people through infected saliva. rabid /rab′id/, adj.
observations The reservoir of the virus is chiefly wild animals, including skunks, bats, foxes, and raccoons, and unvaccinated dogs and cats. After introduction into the human body, often by a bite of an infected animal, the virus travels along nerve pathways to the brain and later to other organs. An incubation period ranges from 10 days to 1 year and is followed by a prodromal period characterized by fever, malaise, headache, paresthesia, and myalgia. After several days severe encephalitis, delirium, agonizingly painful muscular spasms, seizures, paralysis, coma, and death ensue.
interventions Few nonfatal cases have been documented in humans; survival in those cases has been the result of intensive supportive nursing and medical care. There is no treatment once the virus has reached the tissue of the nervous system. Local treatment of wounds inflicted by rabid animals may prevent the disease. The wound is cleansed with soap, water, and a disinfectant. A deep wound may be cauterized and rabies immune globulin injected directly into the base of the wound. For active immunization a series of three intramuscular injections with adsorbed vaccine (RVA), purified chick embryo cell vaccine, or human diploid cell rabies vaccine is begun. If vaccine is administered, intramuscular injection is given on days 0, 7, and 21 or 28. Great effort is made to locate and examine the animal. The animal that is suspected of being rabid is not immediately killed but put in isolation and carefully observed. If the animal is well in 10 days, there is little danger of rabies developing from the bite. Tissue from the animal's brain may be examined microscopically or by fluorescent antibody screening techniques.
nursing considerations Rabies virus infection can be eradicated from most communities by prophylactic immunization of domestic animals, stringent measures for the control of domestic animals, and elimination of any wild animals acting as reservoirs of infection. A preexposure vaccination is advised for those at risk, such as veterinarians, animal handlers, and some laboratory workers. The nurse and other health workers may encourage compliance with such efforts and teach the necessity of avoiding direct contact with wild animals and the importance of immediate first aid for any animal bite and reporting such contact to health care providers.
rabies
A fatal infection rabiesvirus which follows 'injection' by an animal bite; the virion crosses the neuromuscular junction and infects nerves, spreading centripetally into the CNS and centrifugally into the salivary glands of mammals Epidemiology Human rabies is rare 1 to 2 cases/year in US; internationally, 33,000 people die/yr from rabies in Asia, Africa Clinical 18-60 day incubation, followed by nonspecific Sx–eg, fever, headache, N&V, numbness at site of exposure, and early neurologic signs–anxiety, restlessness, depression; acute neurologic phase is characterized by agitation, confusion, delirium hydrophobia, laryngeal spasms, paralysis, complications Vaccination VRG vaccine. See Negri bodies. Cf Pseudo-rabies.
ra·bies
(rā'bēz)
Highly fatal infectious disease transmitted by the bite of infected animals, including dogs, cats, skunks, wolves, foxes, raccoons, and bats, and caused by a neurotropic lyssavirus that replicates in the central nervous system and the salivary glands. The symptoms are excitement, aggressiveness, and madness, followed by paralysis and death. Characteristic cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies) found in many of the neurons are an aid to rapid laboratory diagnosis.
Synonym(s): hydrophobia .
Rabies
A nervous system disease that affects many different animals. Rabies is a brain inflammation (encephalitis) caused by a lyssavirus, a member of the rhabdovirus family, that enters the nervous system at the site of a bite by a rabid animal. The time taken for the virus to reach the brain and cause the disease varies with the distance of the bite from the brain, and may be from 10 days to 3 or 4 months. Rabies starts with fever, headache, neck stiffness, anxiety and disorientation. Soon there is acute fear of swallowing because of violent spasms of the throat and diaphragm causing gagging, choking and extreme panic. Seizures, delusions and hallucinations then occur, followed by coma and death, usually within a week of the start of the severe symptoms. Careful cleaning of bites and the use of human antirabies globulin and rabies vaccine can prevent the disease. There is no specific treatment for the established encephalitis. Also known as hydrophobia on account of a principal symptom.
rabies
an ACUTE viral disease of the nervous system in many mammals, particularly man, dogs, cattle and foxes, resulting in degeneration of the spinal cord and brain, leading to death. Entry of the virus is usually by a wound or skin abrasion caused by a rabid animal. The incubation period is usually 3–8 weeks, the first signs being increased muscle tone and extreme difficulty in swallowing. The spasmodic contractions of the throat muscles that cause swallowing may become extremely painful and contraction may even be triggered by the sight of water. Thus individuals are described as hydrophobic. Despite recent advances, infected individuals must be vaccinated in the first few days after infection for effective treatment.
ra·bies
(rā'bēz)
Highly fatal infectious disease that may affect all species of warm-blooded animals, including humans; transmitted by the bite of infected animals and caused by a neurotropic species of Lyssavirus.
| Rabies |
April 8, 1891 saw the birth of Ole Kirk Christiansen who founded a company whose name means either play well in Danish or I put together in Latin. What company are we talking about? | Rabies - Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis - Canada.com
Health Column
The Facts
Rabies is a viral disease that is spread most often from the bite of a rabid animal to another animal or to a human.
The rabies virus affects the central nervous system including the brain and spinal cord of humans and animals. During the incubation period, the time between exposure to the virus and the appearance of symptoms, the virus travels along nerves towards the brain. This process takes an average of one to three months, but can range from several days to several years after exposure. The infection causes inflammation of the brain and spinal cord that can lead to encephalopathy and later, death. Encephalopathy is any type of disease that changes the brain's function or structure.
The rabies virus has two forms that cause different behaviours in affected animals. The forms of the disease are called furious and paralytic (dumb). If an animal has the furious form of rabies, it is easily provoked, distressed, and aggressive. Some wild animals may do things that are uncharacteristic for their species when infected with the furious form of the virus. For example, bats may come out during the day, or a wild animal may be friendlier than normal towards humans. With the paralytic form of rabies, some or all of the animal's body is paralyzed.
Causes
The bite of a rabid animal is the most common cause of rabies. The virus is carried in the saliva of the rabid animal and is able to enter the body through an opening in the skin, such as a bite wound. Although it is possible to get rabies from a non-bite exposure, this is very rare. For example, non-bite exposures include inhalation of aerosol particles of the virus, or by a rabid animal licking a person's eyes, nose, mouth, or broken skin.
High-risk animals include:
wolves
non-domesticated (wild) dogs
Domestic animals like cats, dogs, and cattle can become rabid if bitten, so it is important to vaccinate them against rabies. Recently, steps have been taken in some countries to immunize wildlife populations using oral baits containing vaccines. This is dramatically reducing the spread to domestic populations of animals.
Symptoms and Complications
From the point where the rabies virus entered the body, the virus moves towards the brain along the nerves. A person may show the first signs of rabies an average of one to three months after the virus enters the body. In humans, the first symptoms of the disease are non-specific and resemble other viral infections, they include:
pain at the bite site
a general feeling of illness
fever
problems swallowing due to painful throat and voice box spasms
hydrophobia (fear at the sight of water despite an intense thirst)
restlessness
Spasms affecting the muscles in the throat and pain or difficulty swallowing are often seen as the disease progresses. Eventually, a person infected with the rabies virus can slip into a coma and die. Death is usually caused by breathing failure. It is important to seek treatment as soon as possible after the initial contact with the infected animal. Treatment must be started before the symptoms develop or it is highly unlikely to be effective in preventing death from the virus.
Making the Diagnosis
Tests are performed on the animal that bit a person in order to confirm the presence of rabies in the animal. This requires killing the animal, if possible. This step is necessary because a person will not immediately show antibodies to the virus after being in contact with a rabid animal.
If the bite came from a pet that appears sick, the pet is euthanized so its brain can be tested for rabies. However, pets that do not show signs of the disease but are suspected of having had contact with a rabid animal may be quarantined and observed by a veterinarian over a certain period of time.
Treatment and Prevention
People should seek immediate treatment by a doctor after a bite or contact with an infected animal. The sooner treatment is started, the more likely a person will avoid developing the disease. Once symptoms appear, the rabies vaccine and immunoglobulin are not effective and death is almost certain. Rabies is a disease that must be reported to the authorities by law in Canada.
The most common treatment of rabies is with postexposure prophylaxis. The first step in treating rabies and to reduce the likelihood of developing symptoms is to wash the wound with soap and water.
The next critical step to prevent rabies includes a dose of immunoglobulin against the rabies virus followed by a strict schedule of injections of the rabies vaccine. The immunoglobulin provides immediate protection against the virus to "bridge the gap" until the vaccine starts working. The vaccine helps the person's immune system produce antibodies against the potentially lethal virus. The vaccine protects individuals for approximately 2 years.
People such as veterinarians or cattle farmers who work with potentially infected animals or humans need to be vaccinated against rabies. They will also have periodic blood tests to see whether they need booster shots of the rabies vaccine.
You can prevent being infected with the rabies virus by remembering these tips:
do not feed wild animals and stay at a safe distance when observing them
supervise children and teach them not to approach or touch animals they do not know
stay away from animals showing signs of rabies
do not bring home wild animals
if you suspect an animal is rabid, stay away from it and contact the local authorities
if you have pets or livestock, make sure to vaccinate them against rabies
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Not content to simply sling weed to her fellow suburbanites, Nancy's business has taken her to some strange, near-death places, two more marriages, another baby and, looming next season, likely jail. Flo Castleberry97. Flo Castleberry 'Alice' (1976-85) | Played By: Polly Holliday The red bouffant-wearing, gum-smacking, man-chasing waitress at Mel's Diner wasn't exactly the best slinger of hash in Phoenix, but she was a fun and sassy, always ready with a flirtatious greeting for the customers, a helping hand for pals Alice and Vera, and a snappy comeback for grumpy Mel, most famously telling her boss to "Kiss my grits!" Dee, It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia96. Dee Reynolds 'It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia' (2005-present) | Played By: Kaitlin Olson Though she's as wacky, selfish and ethically ambiguous as the rest of The Gang, "Sweet Dee" is often the butt of their jokes. A lesser female would crumble under such treatment -- which includes constant references to her alleged bird-like appearance and taunts about her failed acting career and mysterious pregnancy -- but Dee simply meets Dennis, Charlie, Mac and Frank's unchivalrous behavior with unladylike, but deserved, reactions of her own. Abby Sciuto, NCIS95. Abby Sciuto 'NCIS' (2003-present) | Played By: Pauley Perrette Is her goth dress and vast knowledge of all things death-related a contradiction to her upbeat personality and general happiness with her job? Only if you believe in stereotypes. Besides, what's not to love about a woman with a farting toy hippo named Bert? Sam Carter Stargate SG 194. Sam Carter 'Stargate SG-1' (1997-2007) | Played By: Amanda Tapping She was an astrophysicist and pilot whose efforts helped bring the Stargate program into existence and who actually led the Atlantis adventure for a year, prompting Stargate leader Jack O'Neill to refer to her brain as a national resource. Brenda Walsh, Beverly Hills 9021093. Brenda Walsh 'Beverly Hills, 90210' (1990-2000) | Played By: Shannen Doherty Whiny, self-obsessed and flighty, Brenda was a teen both envied by real-life teens -- partly because she was surrounded by hunky boyfriend Dylan and equally hunky twin brother Brandon -- but also so hated that she inspired the creation of the "I Hate Brenda" fan newsletter. Chrissie, Three's Company92. Chrissy Snow 'Three's Company' (1977-84) | Played By: Suzanne Somers The quintessential dumb blonde character, Chrissy (real name: Christmas Snow) kicked the stereotype up a notch, dishing out double entrendres and malapropisms on a regular basis, wearing her hair in pigtails and adopting a girlish voice and demeanor. She was also the frequent subject of attention from men, even after they'd heard her laugh, which could only be described as "snorting." Chloe O'Brian 2491. Chloe O'Brian '24' (2001-2010) | Played By: Mary Lynn Rajskub Other women and other co-workers had come and gone (sometimes in a permanent manner) in Jack Bauer's life, but Chloe was a bright, talented, somewhat antisocial (some fans believed she had Asperger's) CTU analyst and eventual agency head whose expertise and willingness to challenge authority was directly responsible for saving the hero's life on more than one occasion. Pepper Anderson, Police Woman90. Pepper Anderson 'Police Woman' (1974-78) | Played By: Angie Dickinson Hollywood sex symbol Dickinson projected a much less glamorous, grittier image as Pepper, a Los Angeles police detective who often went undercover to solve the most brutal crimes. Pepper was one of primetime's first female drama series stars, and applications by women to police departments across the country reportedly shot up after the show's first season. Miranda Bailey, Grey's Anatomy89. Miranda Bailey 'Grey's Anatomy' (2005-present) | Played By: Chandra Wilson Nicknamed "The Nazi" by her Seattle Grace co-workers, Bailey is a blunt leader who, nonetheless, has provided much hand-holding for her fellow medical professionals, too, and has shown her own vulnerability in her rocky relationship with her ex-husband. She has also balked at her nickname, offended that her co-workers focus on her demeanor without acknowledging the emotional toll her tough public persona hides. Lois Wilkerson, Malcolm in the Middle88. Lois Wilkerson 'Malcolm in the Middle' (2000-06) | Played By: Jane Kaczmarek Her sons would have described her as mean and stifling, but mother Lois had learned early in motherhood that being wishy-washy with her kids was only a detriment to their development (and her sanity). And that was a realization that served her particularly well as the only female in a family with five sons, including genius Malcolm and trouble-prone Francis and Reese. Jessica Tate, Soap87. Jessica Tate 'Soap' (1977-81) | Played By: Katherine Helmond The matriarch of the wealthy Tate clan, Jessica had it all, including a closet full of skeletons and a serially cheating husband in Chester. But she also remained blissfully ignorant of some of the realities of life around her (and stuck her head in the sand for others), which allowed her to charge ahead eternally optimistic, even when, in the series finale, she stood in front of a firing squad after being kidnapped. Patty Hewes, Damages86. Patty Hewes 'Damages' (2007-present) | Played By: Glenn Close A power player in a male-dominated world, litigator Patty is willing to go to a lot of ethical and legal far corners to win her cases, including ordering the murder of a dog and of the prot�g� who she'd developed motherly feelings for. Hey, remember, this isn't a list of the most likable female TV characters, but the most memorable. Diana, V85. Diana 'V' (1984-85) | Played By: Jane Badler The very intense and committed leader of the aliens known as The Visitors escaped Resistance capture several times after the first attack on earth, and despite the efforts of many on Team Resistance, she evaded recapture long enough to launch the Second Invasion of Earth. Suzanne Sugarbaker84. Suzanne Sugarbaker 'Designing Women' (1986-93) | Played By: Delta Burke She was a rich, selfish former beauty queen and southern belle, which often led her to butt heads with her far more pragmatic sister Julia. But Suzanne didn't need anyone's help in defending herself from Julia or the outside world, thanks to her feisty personality, her ability to give as good as she got and the fact that she's a pistol-packin' member of the NRA. Sun Kwon, Lost83. Sun Kwon 'Lost' (2004-10) | Played By: Yunjin Kim An heiress who fell in love with her father's employee, Sun became unhappy with her new husband, Jin, as he devoted himself to moving up in the company and the two were unable to conceive a child. She planned to leave Jin, but the two reconciled after the Oceanic plane crash, and the pampered Sun became a physically and emotionally tough survivor who gave birth to their daughter and was reunited with her love briefly, before their tragic demise in a submarine. Sue Ellen Ewing82. Sue Ellen Ewing 'Dallas' (1978-91) | Played By: Linda Gray A beauty queen raised by her mother with the sole intent of marrying a wealthy man like J.R., Sue Ellen put up with years of J.R.'s tomcattin' ways while falling further into her own self-destructive alcoholism. But after finally accepting that J.R. would never change, Sue Ellen eventually emerged as a stronger woman, who got her demons in check, ditched ol' J.R. and moved to London. Jill Munroe Charlie's Angels81. Jill Munroe 'Charlie's Angels' (1976-81) | Played By: Farrah Fawcett She was the breakout beauty of the 'Angels' bunch, but Jill was also a tomboy-ish athlete who left behind a police desk job to join Charlie's undercover team of agents. And when even that didn't prove to be exciting or daring enough, she left the Townsend agency (when Fawcett left the show after one season) to become a race car driver. Betty Suarez, Ugly Betty80. Betty Suarez 'Ugly Betty' (2006-10) | Played By: America Ferrera Her Mode magazine cohorts liked to make her plain Jane appearance an issue, but confident, informed, hard-working Betty stuck to her guns, and her values, and relied on her skills and intelligence to lead her through the backstabbing, cutthroat environment as the fashion mag. Jaime Sommers, Bionic Woman79. Jaime Sommers 'The Bionic Woman' (1976-78) | Played By: Lindsay Wagner A former tennis pro and teacher, Jaime's life was saved with the government's bionic body part replacements when she was injured while skydiving with love Steve Austin. Jaime worked for the government to repay the debt, but also remained wedded to the idea of having a life outside the Office of Strategic Science, which she did in future 'Bionic Woman' reunion storylines by becoming a doctor. Willow Rosenberg, Buffy the Vampire Slayer78. Willow Rosenberg 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Alyson Hannigan A shy teen with little confidence when she was introduced, Willow begins to gain more self-assurance as she begins to perfect her magical skills. A brief foray to the dark side gave way to a more mature Willow, who understood the real power of her magic and its effects on others. Kyra Sedgwick77. Brenda Leigh Johnson 'The Closer' (2005-present) | Played By: Kyra Sedgwick She can come off as a sweet Southern woman with a major candy jones, but don't let the exterior fool you. She's also a clever, exacting, patient interrogator and a workaholic, meaning there are few things in her life, including, to his chagrin, husband Fritz, that come between the Los Angeles Police Department deputy chief and solving a case. Morticia Addams, Addams Family76. Morticia Addams 'The Addams Family' (1964-66) | Played By: Carolyn Jones The cultured, refined matriarch of the Addams clan, Morticia kept her family in order, arranging beautiful vases of flowers (well, the stems; she cut off the roses) for their home, raising flesh-eating plants, keeping hubby Gomez in line with her vampy ways and, like any good mom, making sure her family kept living life the Addams way, no matter how creepy, kooky or altogether ooky that may have seemed to everyone else. 75. Edna Garrett 'Facts of Life' (1979-88) | Played By: Charlotte Rae A former housekeeper to the Drummonds of 'Diff'rent Strokes,' Mrs. G became the den mother (and then dietician) at the Eastland Academy for girls. There, she became more like a second mom to Natalie, Tootie, Blair and Jo, and remained such an influential presence in their lives that she would also become their housemate and employer outside school. Snoop The Wire74. Felicia "Snoop" Pearson 'The Wire' (2002-08) | Played By: Felicia Pearson Pearson, a real-life former drug dealer and convicted felon, played Snoop, a murderous drug dealer in the Stanfield crime empire. Engaging in her pursuits with a fatalistic attitude, Snoop was rarely thrown, even in her final moments, when Michael guessed she was about to kill him and put a gun to her head instead. Marion Cunningham73. Marion Cunningham 'Happy Days' (1974-84) | Played By: Marion Ross Mrs. C, as The Fonz affectionately dubbed her, was a loving mama who saw the best in everyone, and cared not just about the well-being of her husband and children, but also of their friends and pseudo son, and upstairs tenant, Fonzie. Laura Ingalls, Little House on the Prairie72. Laura Ingalls 'Little House on the Prairie' (1974-83) | Played By: Melissa Gilbert The spirited daughter of Charles and Caroline, Laura remained the symbol for her family's commitment to hard work, integrity and self sufficiency and her small town's dedication to forging and remaining a close-knit community. Claudette, The Shield71. Claudette Wyms 'The Shield' (2002-08) | Played By: CCH Pounder The moral touchstone in the wildly corrupt "Barn," Claudette, one of the few black female cops when she began her career, felt repercussions in her career several times after standing up against her shady fellow cops. Ultimately, despite her worsening lupus, she was named Captain of the Barn, and satisfyingly got to be the one to lead the final charge that brought about Vic Mackey's downfall. Patty Duke70. Cathy/Patty Lane 'The Patty Duke Show' (1963-66) | Played By: Patty Duke They were cousins, identical cousins, where "Cathy adores a minuet, the Ballet Russes and crepes Suzette"' and "Patty loves to rock 'n' roll, and hot dogs make her lose control." Cleverly, the girls' different cultural backgrounds proved to be largely irrelevant in how they actually dealt with the usual challenges of being a teen. Ally McBeal69. Ally McBeal 'Ally McBeal' (1997-2002) | Played By: Calista Flockhart A talented lawyer, Ally was nonetheless also given to less rational experiences, like the dancing baby and other hallucinations she experienced while trying to mesh her career with her quest to find her soul mate. Ally made plenty of mistakes along the way, and engaged in some selfish activity where men were concerned, but ultimately her conscience always lead her to do what she felt was right. Daria68. Daria Morgendorffer 'Beavis and Butt-Head' and 'Daria' (1993-97 and 1997-2001) | Voiced By: Tracy Grandstaff Created as a foil to slackers Beavis and Butt-head, razor sharp Daria was too great a character to stay in the background, and was spun off into her own 'toon. Her droll musings and cynical teen angst were challenged by her popular sister Quinn, career-woman mom and ditzy dad, as well as her equally sarcastic artist pal Jane and a crush on Jane's slacker rocker brother, Trent. Karen Walker, Will and Grace67. Karen Walker 'Will & Grace' (1998-2006) | Played By: Megan Mullally A "spoiled, shrill, gold-digging socialite who would sooner chew off her own foot than do an honest day's work," is how her friend and boss Grace described her, which, while accurate, doesn't describe how fun and irreverent Karen is. It also hides how, though she'd hate to admit it, loyal a pal she is to Will, Grace, hubby Stanley and especially partner-in-shallow-crime Jack, who, with Karen, usually stole the show from the titular two. Gemma Teller, sons of anarchy66. Gemma Teller 'Sons of Anarchy' (2008-present) | Played By: Katey Sagal Sagal left Peggy Bundy far behind to play Gemma, the ultimate in fierce mamas, who, as the queen of a California motorcycle club led by her husband and son, is as tough as any of the men who surround her. In fact, Gemma is often the brains behind SAMCRO's plots, as she'll do anything, and endure anything, to ensure the club, her son and her family's survival. Whitley, A Different World65. Whitley Gilbert Wayne 'A Different World' (1987-93) | Played By: Jasmine Guy A spoiled, snobby Southern belle when the series began, Whitley was forced to get real and shed (some of) her superficial ways when she fell in love with regular guy Dwayne Wayne. And though the two clashed continuously, a last-minute declaration of love (during Whitley's wedding ceremony to another guy) led to a Dwayne-Whitley marriage, and her continuing evolution as a kinder, less selfish woman. Deanna Troi, Star Trek: The Next Generation064. Deanna Troi 'Star Trek: The Next Generation' (1987-94) | Played By: Marina Sirtis Despite her skin-tight suit (and the fact that the character was originally written to have four breasts), the half-human, half-Betazoid Enterprise counselor's skills were so respected by her peers that she eventually was promoted to the rank of commander. Angela Chase My So Called Life63. Angela Chase 'My So-Called Life' (1994-95) | Played By: Claire Danes One of the angsty-est teens in TV history was also one real-world teens could most identify with. And as 15-year-old Angela tried to figure out life by shedding everything that used to be familiar to her and adopting some diverse new friends, she remained true to her beliefs and values. Maddie Hayes, Moonlighting62. Maddie Hayes 'Moonlighting' (1985-89) | Played By: Cybill Shepherd Not content to be summed up by her looks, former model Maddie decided to operate the Blue Moon Detective Agency, a business she had long ago purchased as a tax write-off. And though her tangled personal relationship with fellow detective David would eventually drive the series, Maddie stubbornly remained firmly in charge ... of both the agency and, to David's chagrin, their affair. Alexis Colby, Dynasty61. Alexis Colby 'Dynasty' (1981-89) | Played By: Joan Collins The opposite of sweet and selfless rival Krystle, Alexis was, of course, the far more interesting 'Dynasty' diva. Her methods, which included trying to destroy ex-husband Blake and his new wife Krystle, were often misguided, but her passion and motivation while fighting for her beloved children were right on the money. Jeannie, I Dream of Jeannie60. Jeannie 'I Dream of Jeannie' (1965-70) | Played By: Barbara Eden She was a woman devoted to her job -- pleasing "master" Tony and helping him in any way she could -- even when her boss didn't want her help, and by forging ahead, Jeannie was actually quite in control of her destiny (and eventually married her master). Hot Lips, MASH59. Margaret Houlihan 'M*A*S*H' (1972-83) | Played By: Loretta Swit They called her "Hot Lips," but Margaret wasn't just the camp's resident hot babe; she was also a smart, caring, talented nurse who could hold her own with wiseguys Hawkeye, Trapper, B.J. and Winchester. Florence Johnston58. Florence Johnston 'The Jeffersons' (1975-85) | Played By: Marla Gibbs The Jeffersons' sassy, wise-crackin' maid didn't take gruff from anyone, particularly boss George, who hated her cooking and laziness. Florence had become a de facto member of the family, however, and felt comfortable continuing her laziness and zinging Mr. J back whenever he dropped an insult. She even earned a short-lived spin-off, 'Checking In,' that lasted four episodes in 1981 before she headed back to work (or not to work) in that dee-luxe apartment in the sky. Lorelai Gilmore, Gilmore Girls57. Lorelai Gilmore 'Gilmore Girls' (2000-07) | Played By: Lauren Graham She didn't focus on the challenges of being a single teen mom, and instead made sure daughter Rory's life was filled with love, laughter, a deep appreciation and knowledge of pop culture, and the assurance that Lorelai would always be there as her mom and her fast-talkin' BFF. Carol Brady56. Carol Brady 'The Brady Bunch' (1969-74) | Played By: Florence Henderson Carol broke the ugly stereotype of the wicked stepmother, as she loved the Brady boys as much as her own daughters. In one memorable episode, she even offered to run away with Bobby when he felt he was unwanted in the famous ranch house. Colleen McMurphy, China Beach55. Colleen McMurphy 'China Beach' (1988-91) | Played By: Dana Delany She represented the sacrifices made by and horrific experiences encountered by nurses in the Vietnam War, who may not have personally engaged in combat, but certainly saw and treated the heartbreaking results of it. Jennifer Marlowe, WKRP in Cincinnati54. Jennifer Marlowe 'WKRP in Cincinnati' (1978-82) | Played By: Loni Anderson The antithesis of the dumb blonde stereotype, shrewd, confident WKRP receptionist Jennifer was one of the station's most calming forces, whether she was answering phones (she refused to type, take dictation or get coffee), helping the bickering staff make up, deflecting the creepy advances of salesman Herb or protecting nervous boss Mr. Carlson from dealing with people and issues that freaked him out. Gidget53. Gidget Lawrence 'Gidget' (1965-66) | Played By: Sally Field Days at the beach and boyfriend Moondoggie took up much of Gidget's time, but her so-called life was really about a 15-year-old girl trying to maneuver the tricky teen years while being raised by a single dad. Endora, Bewitched52. Endora 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Agnes Moorehead Opposed to daughter Sam's marriage to the mortal Darrin -- whom Endora refers to as "Durwood" -- Endora became the ultimate meddling mother-in-law. Opposed to all mortals, in fact, Endora was especially horrified at having one in her family, which led her to cast many a spell on Durwood, not in hopes of killing him, but in hopes of killing his marriage to Samantha. Abby, ER51. Abby Lockhart 'ER' (1994-2009) | Played By: Maura Tierney An E.R. nurse who temporarily sacrificed her own dreams of becoming a doctor to pay for her then-husband's med school stay, Abby didn't let her alcoholism, her painful childhood with her bipolar-disorder-suffering mother and absentee dad or rocky romantic relationships derail her, as she became a doctor, wife and mother by series' end. 50. Olivia Benson 'Law & Order: SVU' ( 1999-present) | Played By: Mariska Hargitay The product of her mother's rape, Benson chose to devote her career to working in the sex crimes unit of the NYPD, where she was a sympathetic presence and fierce protector for sexual assault victims, even after nearly being assaulted herself in a season 9 episode. June Cleaver49. June Cleaver 'Leave It to Beaver' (1957-63) | Played By: Barbara Billingsley She was always a little worried about Wally and The Beav, always willing to nurse their physical and emotional wounds with an icy glass of milk and freshly-baked cookies and always answered the door -- and vacuumed! -- with her trademark pearls intact. Retro, sure, but she was one magnificent mama. Carla Tortelli, Cheers48. Carla Tortelli 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Rhea Perlman Cheers waitress Carla had far less education than fellow waitress Diane, but no one could come up with a clever jab faster than Carla, who kept her co-workers and customers in line with her sharp tongue. The tough Boston broad was just as in control in her personal life, which allowed her to raise eight children on her own after divorcing oily Nick and being widowed by cheating former hockey pro Eddie. Leslie Knope, Parks and Recreation47. Leslie Knope 'Parks and Recreation' (2009-present) | Played By: Amy Poehler The always-enthusiastic Leslie might be annoying, if it weren't for the fact that her enthusiasm is so completely genuine. Her life's mission is to use her local government position to make Pawnee a better place to live for its citizens (and to become the first female president), even if that means ignoring her more cynical co-workers or spinning negative feedback into positive, as when she says a group of townies yelling at her is really "people caring loudly at me." Pegy Bundy Married With Children46. Peg Bundy 'Married ... With Children' (1987-97) | Played By: Katey Sagal She was the housewife who sat on the couch watching TV and eating bonbons. Selfish, lazy, big-haired Peg was completely unapologetic about her love of spending husband Al's money and her hatred of doing anything domestic, making her a fun and refreshing alternative to both the harried housewives and work-obsessed women that have populated most of prime time. Blanche Devereaux, Golden Girls45. Blanche Devereaux 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Rue McClanahan Southern belle Blanche had a more active love life than characters half her age, and was unashamed about her constant hot pursuit of male company after the death of her beloved husband George. The always-stylishly-attired Blanche, like her fellow 'Golden Girls,' showed that women of a more advanced age didn't have to fit into any stereotypes. Florida Evans, Good Times44. Florida Evans 'Good Times' (1974-79) | Played By: Esther Rolle Introduced to TV land as the family's maid on 'Maude,' Florida and her family were moved to Chicago for 'Good Times,' where the family constantly struggled to make it out of the housing projects. They finally had a shot, only to lose father James in a car accident, leaving the resilient Florida to continue the family's struggle on her own. Jessica Fletcher, Murder She Wrote43. Jessica Fletcher 'Murder, She Wrote' (1984-96) | Played By: Angela Lansbury No retired widow was she; Jessica was the bestselling mystery novel author of tomes like 'The Corpse Danced at Midnight' and 'The Corpse Swam by Moonlight.' She was also an amateur sleuth who got wrapped up in real-life murder mysteries in her Maine hometown and anywhere she traveled, from New York to Hawaii. Shirley Feeney, Laverne and Shirley42. Shirley Feeney 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Cindy Williams The eternal optimist to her more cynical pal Laverne, sweet Shirley was responsible for getting the two gals back on their feet again every time one of their plans to meet nice guys or improve their lives inevitably fell through. Carrie Bradshaw41. Carrie Bradshaw 'Sex and the City' (1998-2004) | Played By: Sarah Jessica Parker TV's most recent It Girl, writer Carrie was committed to work, fashion, her friends and finding love, all while eschewing many of the rules her fellow New York 30-somethings went along with. Her weekly newspaper chronicle of life and love in NYC was like a personal diary of her own Big exploits, but also put her romantic dramas in a context that had universal meaning. Dorothy, Golden Girls40. Dorothy Zbornak 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Bea Arthur Sarcastic and biting, the practical Dorothy was the much-needed voice of reason among the 'Golden Girls.' Often teased by her roomies, including mama Sophia, for being unfeminine thanks to her height and deep voice, the high school teacher nevertheless had her share of suitors, including Blanche's uncle, whom she married at the end of the series. Mary Beth Lacey, Cagney and Lacey39. Mary Beth Lacey 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Tyne Daly A married-with-children policewoman, Mary Beth shared with partner Cagney the challenges facing females in a male-dominated, and often dangerous, profession. She also dealt with issues unique to her life, such as the tension her work and hours away from home created with her husband. Ethel Mertz, I Love Lucy38. Ethel Mertz 'I Love Lucy' (1951-87) | Played By: Vivian Vance Ethel was Lucy's landlord, best friend and much-needed voice of reason during their hilarious schemes. A bit more deferential to her husband Fred than Lucy was to Ricky, sharp-tongued Ethel was still fiercely loyal to Lucy, whether the two were competing with each other for a showbiz role, operating a dress shop or restaurant together or trying to control the flow of sweets at the chocolate factory. Amanda Woodward, Melrose Place37. Amanda Woodward 'Melrose Place' (1992-99) | Played By: Heather Locklear She certainly dressed like a woman, with her trademark miniskirt suits, and used her sexuality to wrap the men in her life around her little finger, but when it came to the boardroom, Amanda could play corporate games as well as any of her male cohorts. Better, even. Her arrival, after all, turned 'Melrose' from an OK show into a guilty-pleasure phenomenon. Starbuck Battlestar Galactica36. Kara "Starbuck" Thrace 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Katee Sackhoff Hot-headed, rebellious, hard-drinking gambler and dedicated, disciplined, clear-headed fighter pilot (who was a male character in the original series) -- Starbuck was both, and throughout her many complicated relationships, she remained a leader who ultimately helped lead her people to a new home. Alice Kramden Honeymooners35. Alice Kramden 'The Honeymooners' (1955-56) | Played By: Audrey Meadows Blowhard hubby Ralph was always threatening to send Alice "straight to the moon." but even on his worst days, Ralph knew that patient wife Alice was his far better half. Not that she couldn't give as good as she got; though she put up with his various schemes, Alice never failed to meet his wisecracks with a well-placed barb of her own. Samantha Stephens, Bewitched34. Samantha Stephens 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Elizabeth Montgomery Who among us hasn't at one time wished we could wrinkle up our noses and unleash a little magic? Beautiful good witch Samantha could do just that. Against the wishes of her meddling mama and to please mortal husband Darrin, Samantha was happy to live life sans spells. Most of the time, anyway. Sophia Petrillo, Golden Girls33. Sophia Petrillo 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Estelle Getty The grandmommy of the one-liner, Sicilian Sophia had no filter, which made her a hoot as she instantly spilled whatever quip flew into her head, no matter how rude or whom it was aimed at. Daughter Dorothy, in fact, was a favorite target, as were housemates daffy Rose and man-hungry Blanche. Rhoda, Mary Tyler Moore Show32. Rhoda Morgenstern 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' & 'Rhoda' (1970-77 & 1974-78) | Played By: Valerie Harper So awesome that she spanned two series, neurotic, tough-talking New Yorker Rhoda moved from NYC to Minnesota and then back to the Big Apple for her spin-off series, in which she continued to pursue her window-dresser career and married dream guy Joe. She survived a divorce a couple of years later when the marriage soured. Diana Prince, Wonder Woman31. Diana Prince / Wonder Woman 'Wonder Woman' (1975-79) | Played By: Lynda Carter With a magical twirl, Amazonian princess Diana Prince became Wonder Woman, who used her golden lasso and her bullet-deflecting bracelets to thwart the evil-doing of baddies like Nazis, non-violent-style. Carter became an icon in her patriotic costume, meaning her red boots are going to be tough to fill on next season's planned 'Wonder Woman' remake. Diane Chambers, Cheers30. Diane Chambers 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Shelley Long Diane was easily impressed ... with her own intellect. And she was constantly frustrated by the fact that no one else would defer to what she was sure was her superior knowledge of, well, everything. Beneath that bravado, Diane did have genuine affection for her Cheers co-workers and customers and, of course, had one of the great love/hate relationships of all time with boss Sam. Lucille Bluth, Arrested Development29. Lucille Bluth 'Arrested Development' (2003-06) | Played By: Jessica Walter The matriarch of the quirky Bluth clan, Lucille could also accurately be described as the mother from hell. Any of her children's issues (and they had many) could likely be traced back to Lucille, who was committed to one thing above all: family. Specifically, using the resources of the family business to fund her decadent lifestyle. Laverne, Laverne and Shirley28. Laverne DeFazio 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Penny Marshall Laverne was a sarcastic tomboy with a big heart, and a loyal BFF and roommate to Shirley, who was also her co-worker and co-pilot in a never-ending search to meet the right fellas and engage in a bit of vo-dee-o-doe-doe. And when that failed, she and Shirl could be found bonding in their Milwaukee apartment, with Laverne, attired in her trademark "L" sweaters, sipping a milk and Pepsi. Jennifer Garner27. Sydney Bristow 'Alias' (2001-06) | Played By: Jennifer Garner She spoke dozens of languages, was skilled in multiple self-defense methods and could handle the most severe physical and emotional challenges (including the deaths of several people close to her) fearlessly. Throughout it all, Sydney remained a nice, relatively sane woman devoted to family and friends. Miss Piggy, Muppets26. Miss Piggy 'The Muppet Show' (1976-81) | Voiced By: Frank Oz Initially meant to be a minor character, Miss Piggy fought her way into the spotlight, as the natural-born ham is wont to do. All she really wants is to be a star -- and to be a couple with her Kermie. She's the only Muppet to pen a real New York Times bestseller list autobiography. Xena Warrior Princess25. Xena 'Xena: Warrior Princess' (1995-2001) | Played By: Lucy Lawless Her tight leather dress was only the beginning of Xena's tough-chick persona, as she sought to redeem herself for her past as a warlord by doing good deeds with her considerable skills, which had once almost allowed her to kill Hercules! Marge Simpson, The Simpsons24. Marge Simpson 'The Simpsons' (1989-present) | Played By: Julie Kavner Right down to the string of pearls, she's the modern-day June Cleaver, if June had been animated with big blue hair, a clueless husband and three challenging children. But mama Marge will defend her brood to the end. As she said, "If loving my kids is lame, then I guess I'm just a big lame." Rachel Green, Friends23. Rachel Green 'Friends' (1994-2004) | Played By: Jennifer Aniston Sure, there's the iconic haircut, but Rachel became one of viewers' favorite 'Friends' because she grew from what could have been a one-note character -- the spoiled, self-involved husband-seeker -- into a more independent, caring pal who left her cushy lifestyle behind and took a chance on finding career and relationship happiness in the Big Apple. Christine Cagney, Cagney and Lacey22. Christine Cagney 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Sharon Gless Cagney was the single career-woman half of the team and the daughter of an NYPD vet who had inspired her to become a crime-fighter with tales of his own adventures. Unfortunately, Christine also followed in her father's footsteps as an alcoholic, just one of the many problems the witty, working-class cop and her partner/BFF Lacey tackled together. Lt. Uhura, Star Trek21. Nyota Uhura 'Star Trek' (1966-69) | Played By: Nichelle Nichols Captain Kirk's chief communications officer, Uhura was a TV role model, with future Oscar winner (and 'Star Trek' star herself) Whoopi Goldberg recalling that she made an impression on her as one of the first black female characters on TV who wasn't a maid. Uhura was also involved in a groundbreaking moment on the show, as she and Kirk kissed in the 'Plato's Stepchildren' episode, one of the first interracial smooches on the tube. Maude20. Maude Findlay 'Maude' (1972-78) | Played By: Bea Arthur And then there's Maude! The feisty, big-mouthed liberal was Edith Bunker's cousin, hence the 'All in the Family' spin-off. And like her cousin-in-law Archie, Maude made her own mark in prime time, letting everyone know about her opinions on civil rights and women's rights. In one controversial episode, she had an abortion -- before Roe v. Wade made the process legal. Alicia Florrick The Good Wife19. Alicia Florrick 'The Good Wife' (2009-present) | Played By: Julianna Margulies The numerous cheating-politician scandals of recent years always left us wondering how the politicians' wives deal with their public humiliation. And we can only hope that it's with even half the grace of Alicia, who resumed her career (starting at the bottom rung as an attorney) and continues to try to resume her marriage for the sake of her family. Rose Nylund Golden Girls18. Rose Nylund 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Betty White A little na�ve and a bit ditzy, Rose was also a lot kind-hearted, which made her the most lovable of the 'Golden Girls.' And that was a good thing, because her friends sometimes needed a lot of patience to sit through her charming -- to viewers, anyway -- tales of St. Olaf. Tami Taylor Friday Night Lights17. Tami Taylor 'Friday Night Lights' (2006-2011) | Played By: Connie Britton Her husband was clearly in charge on the football field, but Tami is the one who kept things running smoothly in the Taylor household. The voice of reason for Coach Eric when his job / his players / local fans were all up in his Kool-Aid, Tami was also a great mom whose genuine kindness and caring also made her a top-notch school administrator. Joan Harris, Mad Men16. Joan Harris 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Christina Hendricks She hasn't advanced in her career as far as co-worker Peggy, but Joan is the one person in the office who always knows what's going on -- what's really going on -- with everyone. In another time, the savvy secretary would be running the company, but for now, she'll continue to be the sassy Marilyn Monroe?ish sexpot who's neither full-on career girl nor demure housewife. CJ Cregg West Wing15. C.J. Cregg 'The West Wing' (1999-2006) | Played By: Allison Janney The tough, funny and talented White House press secretary not only served two terms for President Bartlet, but moved up to become White House Chief of Staff and one of the most trusted members of the administration. Liz Lemon 30 Rock14. Liz Lemon '30 Rock' (2006-present) | Played By: Tina Fey She's the heroine of every bespectacled, sweats-wearing, junk-food-noshing, boy-chasing, pop-culture-loving, smart-girl nerd everywhere. Dana Scully X Files13. Dana Scully 'The X-Files' (1993-2002) | Played By: Gillian Anderson A woman of science who was recruited by the FBI when she was in med school, Scully wouldn't buy into partner Mulder's beliefs unless she could prove them. But her affection for and trust in him, and his season 7 abduction, led the brainy beauty to see she could mesh their two points of view. Murphy Brown12. Murphy Brown 'Murphy Brown' (1988-98) | Played By: Candice Bergen The recovering-alcoholic TV newswoman was such an influential character that her single motherhood on TV sparked a real-world scandal when then?Vice President Dan Quayle cited her as a threat to family values during a 1992 presidential campaign speech. Roseanne11. Roseanne Conner 'Roseanne' (1988-97) | Played By: Roseanne Barr She was loud, bossy and insulting, and no topic was too serious for her irreverent 'tude, but self-proclaimed domestic goddess Roseanne was also a fierce mama lion who never stopped wanting more for her friends and family and never shied away from working hard to get it. Edith Bunker All in the Family10. Edith Bunker 'All in the Family' (1971-79) | Played By: Jean Stapleton The incredibly kind, compassionate and non-judgmental foil to bigoted spouse Archie, Edith could have been a cartoonish character, but she loved her friends and family -- even the sometimes hard-to-love Archie -- unconditionally and was a far shrewder woman than Archie's "dingbat" nickname for her might have suggested. Claire Huxtable The Cosby Show9. Claire Huxtable 'The Cosby Show' (1984-92) | Played By: Phylicia Rashad She could bring home the bacon as a talented attorney and fry it up in a pan, all while raising five kids ... six, if you include mischievous husband Cliff. Firm but fair, tough but sensitive and caring, she was one of TV's all-time-coolest moms. Veronica Mars8. Veronica Mars 'Veronica Mars' (2004-07) | Played By: Kristen Bell After being dropped by her rich friends and raped at a party, former popular high schooler Veronica learned becoming awesome was the best revenge, using her new cynicism and sleuthing skills to become first an amateur investigator and, eventually, a licensed P.I., forging relationships with equally awesome new pals along the way. Carmela Soprano, The Sopranos7. Carmela Soprano 'The Sopranos' (1999-2007) | Played By: Edie Falco She was a complicated, but always strong, fiercely loyal and compelling woman, who alternately loved and hated her hubby Tony and could never fully resolve her guilt over enjoying the fruits of their ill-gotten lifestyle. Buffy Summers, Buffy the Vampire Slayer6. Buffy Summers 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Sarah Michelle Gellar She managed to reliably kick baddie butt even while dealing with the usual (and sometimes extraordinarily heartbreaking) ups and downs of life, love and being a teen and 20-something. Elaine Benes Seinfeld5. Elaine Benes 'Seinfeld' (1990-98) | Played By: Julia Louis-Dreyfus From her biting quips to her famous "Get out!" shoves, Elaine always let her male cohorts -- Jerry, Kramer and George -- know that she was the one with the hand in the group. Peggy Olson Mad Men4. Peggy Olson 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Elisabeth Moss Refusing to be relegated to the background in an incredibly sexist, male-dominated industry, ad wiz Peggy continues to fight for power in the office and independence in her swingin', single-girl personal life. Lucy Ricardo, I Love Lucy3. Lucy Ricardo 'I Love Lucy' (1951-60) | Played By: Lucille Ball The meddling redhead couldn't stay out of trouble, but it was only because she wouldn't let anyone, even beloved hubby Ricky or BFF Ethel, keep her in the kitchen and out of the spotlight she craved to be in. Laura Roslin Battlestar Galactica2. Laura Roslin 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Mary McDonnell She was a politician thrust into the role of president just after most of humanity had been killed off, and through some major bumps (and a battle with breast cancer), she helped lead the survivors to a new home. Mary Richards Mary Tyler Moore Show1. Mary Richards 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' (1970-77) | Played By: Mary Tyler Moore Duh, she could turn the world on with her smile. And she inspired whole generations of her fellow working girls to go for it all: friendships, love and a successful career.
Arleana Waller SPOT
Monday, March 7, 2011
100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters less than a minute ago http://www.tvsquad.com/2011/03/02/10... March is Women's History Month, which makes it the perfect time for our countdown of the 100 best female TV characters in prime-time history. You may love some of them, you may hate some of them, but it's a sure bet that all of these TV women will spark memories of some of the best tube-watchin' TV land has offered. Sue Sylvester100. Sue Sylvester 'Glee' (2009-present) | Played By: Jane Lynch The enthusiastic manner in which she embraces her role as McKinley High villain alone makes the show worth watching. Sue's motivation in her anti?New Directions plotting is the continued success of her Cheerios, the school's cheerleading squad, but no matter what her reasons, her trademark track suits, brilliantly biting quips, and devotion to sister Jean have made her one of the most compelling (and quotable) characters on TV these days. Daisy Duke, Dukes of Hazzard99. Daisy Duke 'The Dukes of Hazzard' (1979-85) | Played By: Catherine Bach Waitress at the Boar's Nest, object of affection for deputy Enos, and as skilled a driver and sharpshooter as either of her male cousins Luke and Bo, Daisy will still always be most associated with the short shorts forever known as Daisy Dukes. Nancy Botwin, Weeds98. Nancy Botwin 'Weeds' (2005-present) | Played By: Mary-Louise Parker What's a soccer mom to do when her husband unexpectedly dies and leaves her to raise two rambunctious sons on her own? Launch her own drug business, of course. Not content to simply sling weed to her fellow suburbanites, Nancy's business has taken her to some strange, near-death places, two more marriages, another baby and, looming next season, likely jail. Flo Castleberry97. Flo Castleberry 'Alice' (1976-85) | Played By: Polly Holliday The red bouffant-wearing, gum-smacking, man-chasing waitress at Mel's Diner wasn't exactly the best slinger of hash in Phoenix, but she was a fun and sassy, always ready with a flirtatious greeting for the customers, a helping hand for pals Alice and Vera, and a snappy comeback for grumpy Mel, most famously telling her boss to "Kiss my grits!" Dee, It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia96. Dee Reynolds 'It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia' (2005-present) | Played By: Kaitlin Olson Though she's as wacky, selfish and ethically ambiguous as the rest of The Gang, "Sweet Dee" is often the butt of their jokes. A lesser female would crumble under such treatment -- which includes constant references to her alleged bird-like appearance and taunts about her failed acting career and mysterious pregnancy -- but Dee simply meets Dennis, Charlie, Mac and Frank's unchivalrous behavior with unladylike, but deserved, reactions of her own. Abby Sciuto, NCIS95. Abby Sciuto 'NCIS' (2003-present) | Played By: Pauley Perrette Is her goth dress and vast knowledge of all things death-related a contradiction to her upbeat personality and general happiness with her job? Only if you believe in stereotypes. Besides, what's not to love about a woman with a farting toy hippo named Bert? Sam Carter Stargate SG 194. Sam Carter 'Stargate SG-1' (1997-2007) | Played By: Amanda Tapping She was an astrophysicist and pilot whose efforts helped bring the Stargate program into existence and who actually led the Atlantis adventure for a year, prompting Stargate leader Jack O'Neill to refer to her brain as a national resource. Brenda Walsh, Beverly Hills 9021093. Brenda Walsh 'Beverly Hills, 90210' (1990-2000) | Played By: Shannen Doherty Whiny, self-obsessed and flighty, Brenda was a teen both envied by real-life teens -- partly because she was surrounded by hunky boyfriend Dylan and equally hunky twin brother Brandon -- but also so hated that she inspired the creation of the "I Hate Brenda" fan newsletter. Chrissie, Three's Company92. Chrissy Snow 'Three's Company' (1977-84) | Played By: Suzanne Somers The quintessential dumb blonde character, Chrissy (real name: Christmas Snow) kicked the stereotype up a notch, dishing out double entrendres and malapropisms on a regular basis, wearing her hair in pigtails and adopting a girlish voice and demeanor. She was also the frequent subject of attention from men, even after they'd heard her laugh, which could only be described as "snorting." Chloe O'Brian 2491. Chloe O'Brian '24' (2001-2010) | Played By: Mary Lynn Rajskub Other women and other co-workers had come and gone (sometimes in a permanent manner) in Jack Bauer's life, but Chloe was a bright, talented, somewhat antisocial (some fans believed she had Asperger's) CTU analyst and eventual agency head whose expertise and willingness to challenge authority was directly responsible for saving the hero's life on more than one occasion. Pepper Anderson, Police Woman90. Pepper Anderson 'Police Woman' (1974-78) | Played By: Angie Dickinson Hollywood sex symbol Dickinson projected a much less glamorous, grittier image as Pepper, a Los Angeles police detective who often went undercover to solve the most brutal crimes. Pepper was one of primetime's first female drama series stars, and applications by women to police departments across the country reportedly shot up after the show's first season. Miranda Bailey, Grey's Anatomy89. Miranda Bailey 'Grey's Anatomy' (2005-present) | Played By: Chandra Wilson Nicknamed "The Nazi" by her Seattle Grace co-workers, Bailey is a blunt leader who, nonetheless, has provided much hand-holding for her fellow medical professionals, too, and has shown her own vulnerability in her rocky relationship with her ex-husband. She has also balked at her nickname, offended that her co-workers focus on her demeanor without acknowledging the emotional toll her tough public persona hides. Lois Wilkerson, Malcolm in the Middle88. Lois Wilkerson 'Malcolm in the Middle' (2000-06) | Played By: Jane Kaczmarek Her sons would have described her as mean and stifling, but mother Lois had learned early in motherhood that being wishy-washy with her kids was only a detriment to their development (and her sanity). And that was a realization that served her particularly well as the only female in a family with five sons, including genius Malcolm and trouble-prone Francis and Reese. Jessica Tate, Soap87. Jessica Tate 'Soap' (1977-81) | Played By: Katherine Helmond The matriarch of the wealthy Tate clan, Jessica had it all, including a closet full of skeletons and a serially cheating husband in Chester. But she also remained blissfully ignorant of some of the realities of life around her (and stuck her head in the sand for others), which allowed her to charge ahead eternally optimistic, even when, in the series finale, she stood in front of a firing squad after being kidnapped. Patty Hewes, Damages86. Patty Hewes 'Damages' (2007-present) | Played By: Glenn Close A power player in a male-dominated world, litigator Patty is willing to go to a lot of ethical and legal far corners to win her cases, including ordering the murder of a dog and of the prot�g� who she'd developed motherly feelings for. Hey, remember, this isn't a list of the most likable female TV characters, but the most memorable. Diana, V85. Diana 'V' (1984-85) | Played By: Jane Badler The very intense and committed leader of the aliens known as The Visitors escaped Resistance capture several times after the first attack on earth, and despite the efforts of many on Team Resistance, she evaded recapture long enough to launch the Second Invasion of Earth. Suzanne Sugarbaker84. Suzanne Sugarbaker 'Designing Women' (1986-93) | Played By: Delta Burke She was a rich, selfish former beauty queen and southern belle, which often led her to butt heads with her far more pragmatic sister Julia. But Suzanne didn't need anyone's help in defending herself from Julia or the outside world, thanks to her feisty personality, her ability to give as good as she got and the fact that she's a pistol-packin' member of the NRA. Sun Kwon, Lost83. Sun Kwon 'Lost' (2004-10) | Played By: Yunjin Kim An heiress who fell in love with her father's employee, Sun became unhappy with her new husband, Jin, as he devoted himself to moving up in the company and the two were unable to conceive a child. She planned to leave Jin, but the two reconciled after the Oceanic plane crash, and the pampered Sun became a physically and emotionally tough survivor who gave birth to their daughter and was reunited with her love briefly, before their tragic demise in a submarine. Sue Ellen Ewing82. Sue Ellen Ewing 'Dallas' (1978-91) | Played By: Linda Gray A beauty queen raised by her mother with the sole intent of marrying a wealthy man like J.R., Sue Ellen put up with years of J.R.'s tomcattin' ways while falling further into her own self-destructive alcoholism. But after finally accepting that J.R. would never change, Sue Ellen eventually emerged as a stronger woman, who got her demons in check, ditched ol' J.R. and moved to London. Jill Munroe Charlie's Angels81. Jill Munroe 'Charlie's Angels' (1976-81) | Played By: Farrah Fawcett She was the breakout beauty of the 'Angels' bunch, but Jill was also a tomboy-ish athlete who left behind a police desk job to join Charlie's undercover team of agents. And when even that didn't prove to be exciting or daring enough, she left the Townsend agency (when Fawcett left the show after one season) to become a race car driver. Betty Suarez, Ugly Betty80. Betty Suarez 'Ugly Betty' (2006-10) | Played By: America Ferrera Her Mode magazine cohorts liked to make her plain Jane appearance an issue, but confident, informed, hard-working Betty stuck to her guns, and her values, and relied on her skills and intelligence to lead her through the backstabbing, cutthroat environment as the fashion mag. Jaime Sommers, Bionic Woman79. Jaime Sommers 'The Bionic Woman' (1976-78) | Played By: Lindsay Wagner A former tennis pro and teacher, Jaime's life was saved with the government's bionic body part replacements when she was injured while skydiving with love Steve Austin. Jaime worked for the government to repay the debt, but also remained wedded to the idea of having a life outside the Office of Strategic Science, which she did in future 'Bionic Woman' reunion storylines by becoming a doctor. Willow Rosenberg, Buffy the Vampire Slayer78. Willow Rosenberg 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Alyson Hannigan A shy teen with little confidence when she was introduced, Willow begins to gain more self-assurance as she begins to perfect her magical skills. A brief foray to the dark side gave way to a more mature Willow, who understood the real power of her magic and its effects on others. Kyra Sedgwick77. Brenda Leigh Johnson 'The Closer' (2005-present) | Played By: Kyra Sedgwick She can come off as a sweet Southern woman with a major candy jones, but don't let the exterior fool you. She's also a clever, exacting, patient interrogator and a workaholic, meaning there are few things in her life, including, to his chagrin, husband Fritz, that come between the Los Angeles Police Department deputy chief and solving a case. Morticia Addams, Addams Family76. Morticia Addams 'The Addams Family' (1964-66) | Played By: Carolyn Jones The cultured, refined matriarch of the Addams clan, Morticia kept her family in order, arranging beautiful vases of flowers (well, the stems; she cut off the roses) for their home, raising flesh-eating plants, keeping hubby Gomez in line with her vampy ways and, like any good mom, making sure her family kept living life the Addams way, no matter how creepy, kooky or altogether ooky that may have seemed to everyone else. 75. Edna Garrett 'Facts of Life' (1979-88) | Played By: Charlotte Rae A former housekeeper to the Drummonds of 'Diff'rent Strokes,' Mrs. G became the den mother (and then dietician) at the Eastland Academy for girls. There, she became more like a second mom to Natalie, Tootie, Blair and Jo, and remained such an influential presence in their lives that she would also become their housemate and employer outside school. Snoop The Wire74. Felicia "Snoop" Pearson 'The Wire' (2002-08) | Played By: Felicia Pearson Pearson, a real-life former drug dealer and convicted felon, played Snoop, a murderous drug dealer in the Stanfield crime empire. Engaging in her pursuits with a fatalistic attitude, Snoop was rarely thrown, even in her final moments, when Michael guessed she was about to kill him and put a gun to her head instead. Marion Cunningham73. Marion Cunningham 'Happy Days' (1974-84) | Played By: Marion Ross Mrs. C, as The Fonz affectionately dubbed her, was a loving mama who saw the best in everyone, and cared not just about the well-being of her husband and children, but also of their friends and pseudo son, and upstairs tenant, Fonzie. Laura Ingalls, Little House on the Prairie72. Laura Ingalls 'Little House on the Prairie' (1974-83) | Played By: Melissa Gilbert The spirited daughter of Charles and Caroline, Laura remained the symbol for her family's commitment to hard work, integrity and self sufficiency and her small town's dedication to forging and remaining a close-knit community. Claudette, The Shield71. Claudette Wyms 'The Shield' (2002-08) | Played By: CCH Pounder The moral touchstone in the wildly corrupt "Barn," Claudette, one of the few black female cops when she began her career, felt repercussions in her career several times after standing up against her shady fellow cops. Ultimately, despite her worsening lupus, she was named Captain of the Barn, and satisfyingly got to be the one to lead the final charge that brought about Vic Mackey's downfall. Patty Duke70. Cathy/Patty Lane 'The Patty Duke Show' (1963-66) | Played By: Patty Duke They were cousins, identical cousins, where "Cathy adores a minuet, the Ballet Russes and crepes Suzette"' and "Patty loves to rock 'n' roll, and hot dogs make her lose control." Cleverly, the girls' different cultural backgrounds proved to be largely irrelevant in how they actually dealt with the usual challenges of being a teen. Ally McBeal69. Ally McBeal 'Ally McBeal' (1997-2002) | Played By: Calista Flockhart A talented lawyer, Ally was nonetheless also given to less rational experiences, like the dancing baby and other hallucinations she experienced while trying to mesh her career with her quest to find her soul mate. Ally made plenty of mistakes along the way, and engaged in some selfish activity where men were concerned, but ultimately her conscience always lead her to do what she felt was right. Daria68. Daria Morgendorffer 'Beavis and Butt-Head' and 'Daria' (1993-97 and 1997-2001) | Voiced By: Tracy Grandstaff Created as a foil to slackers Beavis and Butt-head, razor sharp Daria was too great a character to stay in the background, and was spun off into her own 'toon. Her droll musings and cynical teen angst were challenged by her popular sister Quinn, career-woman mom and ditzy dad, as well as her equally sarcastic artist pal Jane and a crush on Jane's slacker rocker brother, Trent. Karen Walker, Will and Grace67. Karen Walker 'Will & Grace' (1998-2006) | Played By: Megan Mullally A "spoiled, shrill, gold-digging socialite who would sooner chew off her own foot than do an honest day's work," is how her friend and boss Grace described her, which, while accurate, doesn't describe how fun and irreverent Karen is. It also hides how, though she'd hate to admit it, loyal a pal she is to Will, Grace, hubby Stanley and especially partner-in-shallow-crime Jack, who, with Karen, usually stole the show from the titular two. Gemma Teller, sons of anarchy66. Gemma Teller 'Sons of Anarchy' (2008-present) | Played By: Katey Sagal Sagal left Peggy Bundy far behind to play Gemma, the ultimate in fierce mamas, who, as the queen of a California motorcycle club led by her husband and son, is as tough as any of the men who surround her. In fact, Gemma is often the brains behind SAMCRO's plots, as she'll do anything, and endure anything, to ensure the club, her son and her family's survival. Whitley, A Different World65. Whitley Gilbert Wayne 'A Different World' (1987-93) | Played By: Jasmine Guy A spoiled, snobby Southern belle when the series began, Whitley was forced to get real and shed (some of) her superficial ways when she fell in love with regular guy Dwayne Wayne. And though the two clashed continuously, a last-minute declaration of love (during Whitley's wedding ceremony to another guy) led to a Dwayne-Whitley marriage, and her continuing evolution as a kinder, less selfish woman. Deanna Troi, Star Trek: The Next Generation064. Deanna Troi 'Star Trek: The Next Generation' (1987-94) | Played By: Marina Sirtis Despite her skin-tight suit (and the fact that the character was originally written to have four breasts), the half-human, half-Betazoid Enterprise counselor's skills were so respected by her peers that she eventually was promoted to the rank of commander. Angela Chase My So Called Life63. Angela Chase 'My So-Called Life' (1994-95) | Played By: Claire Danes One of the angsty-est teens in TV history was also one real-world teens could most identify with. And as 15-year-old Angela tried to figure out life by shedding everything that used to be familiar to her and adopting some diverse new friends, she remained true to her beliefs and values. Maddie Hayes, Moonlighting62. Maddie Hayes 'Moonlighting' (1985-89) | Played By: Cybill Shepherd Not content to be summed up by her looks, former model Maddie decided to operate the Blue Moon Detective Agency, a business she had long ago purchased as a tax write-off. And though her tangled personal relationship with fellow detective David would eventually drive the series, Maddie stubbornly remained firmly in charge ... of both the agency and, to David's chagrin, their affair. Alexis Colby, Dynasty61. Alexis Colby 'Dynasty' (1981-89) | Played By: Joan Collins The opposite of sweet and selfless rival Krystle, Alexis was, of course, the far more interesting 'Dynasty' diva. Her methods, which included trying to destroy ex-husband Blake and his new wife Krystle, were often misguided, but her passion and motivation while fighting for her beloved children were right on the money. Jeannie, I Dream of Jeannie60. Jeannie 'I Dream of Jeannie' (1965-70) | Played By: Barbara Eden She was a woman devoted to her job -- pleasing "master" Tony and helping him in any way she could -- even when her boss didn't want her help, and by forging ahead, Jeannie was actually quite in control of her destiny (and eventually married her master). Hot Lips, MASH59. Margaret Houlihan 'M*A*S*H' (1972-83) | Played By: Loretta Swit They called her "Hot Lips," but Margaret wasn't just the camp's resident hot babe; she was also a smart, caring, talented nurse who could hold her own with wiseguys Hawkeye, Trapper, B.J. and Winchester. Florence Johnston58. Florence Johnston 'The Jeffersons' (1975-85) | Played By: Marla Gibbs The Jeffersons' sassy, wise-crackin' maid didn't take gruff from anyone, particularly boss George, who hated her cooking and laziness. Florence had become a de facto member of the family, however, and felt comfortable continuing her laziness and zinging Mr. J back whenever he dropped an insult. She even earned a short-lived spin-off, 'Checking In,' that lasted four episodes in 1981 before she headed back to work (or not to work) in that dee-luxe apartment in the sky. Lorelai Gilmore, Gilmore Girls57. Lorelai Gilmore 'Gilmore Girls' (2000-07) | Played By: Lauren Graham She didn't focus on the challenges of being a single teen mom, and instead made sure daughter Rory's life was filled with love, laughter, a deep appreciation and knowledge of pop culture, and the assurance that Lorelai would always be there as her mom and her fast-talkin' BFF. Carol Brady56. Carol Brady 'The Brady Bunch' (1969-74) | Played By: Florence Henderson Carol broke the ugly stereotype of the wicked stepmother, as she loved the Brady boys as much as her own daughters. In one memorable episode, she even offered to run away with Bobby when he felt he was unwanted in the famous ranch house. Colleen McMurphy, China Beach55. Colleen McMurphy 'China Beach' (1988-91) | Played By: Dana Delany She represented the sacrifices made by and horrific experiences encountered by nurses in the Vietnam War, who may not have personally engaged in combat, but certainly saw and treated the heartbreaking results of it. Jennifer Marlowe, WKRP in Cincinnati54. Jennifer Marlowe 'WKRP in Cincinnati' (1978-82) | Played By: Loni Anderson The antithesis of the dumb blonde stereotype, shrewd, confident WKRP receptionist Jennifer was one of the station's most calming forces, whether she was answering phones (she refused to type, take dictation or get coffee), helping the bickering staff make up, deflecting the creepy advances of salesman Herb or protecting nervous boss Mr. Carlson from dealing with people and issues that freaked him out. Gidget53. Gidget Lawrence 'Gidget' (1965-66) | Played By: Sally Field Days at the beach and boyfriend Moondoggie took up much of Gidget's time, but her so-called life was really about a 15-year-old girl trying to maneuver the tricky teen years while being raised by a single dad. Endora, Bewitched52. Endora 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Agnes Moorehead Opposed to daughter Sam's marriage to the mortal Darrin -- whom Endora refers to as "Durwood" -- Endora became the ultimate meddling mother-in-law. Opposed to all mortals, in fact, Endora was especially horrified at having one in her family, which led her to cast many a spell on Durwood, not in hopes of killing him, but in hopes of killing his marriage to Samantha. Abby, ER51. Abby Lockhart 'ER' (1994-2009) | Played By: Maura Tierney An E.R. nurse who temporarily sacrificed her own dreams of becoming a doctor to pay for her then-husband's med school stay, Abby didn't let her alcoholism, her painful childhood with her bipolar-disorder-suffering mother and absentee dad or rocky romantic relationships derail her, as she became a doctor, wife and mother by series' end. 50. Olivia Benson 'Law & Order: SVU' ( 1999-present) | Played By: Mariska Hargitay The product of her mother's rape, Benson chose to devote her career to working in the sex crimes unit of the NYPD, where she was a sympathetic presence and fierce protector for sexual assault victims, even after nearly being assaulted herself in a season 9 episode. June Cleaver49. June Cleaver 'Leave It to Beaver' (1957-63) | Played By: Barbara Billingsley She was always a little worried about Wally and The Beav, always willing to nurse their physical and emotional wounds with an icy glass of milk and freshly-baked cookies and always answered the door -- and vacuumed! -- with her trademark pearls intact. Retro, sure, but she was one magnificent mama. Carla Tortelli, Cheers48. Carla Tortelli 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Rhea Perlman Cheers waitress Carla had far less education than fellow waitress Diane, but no one could come up with a clever jab faster than Carla, who kept her co-workers and customers in line with her sharp tongue. The tough Boston broad was just as in control in her personal life, which allowed her to raise eight children on her own after divorcing oily Nick and being widowed by cheating former hockey pro Eddie. Leslie Knope, Parks and Recreation47. Leslie Knope 'Parks and Recreation' (2009-present) | Played By: Amy Poehler The always-enthusiastic Leslie might be annoying, if it weren't for the fact that her enthusiasm is so completely genuine. Her life's mission is to use her local government position to make Pawnee a better place to live for its citizens (and to become the first female president), even if that means ignoring her more cynical co-workers or spinning negative feedback into positive, as when she says a group of townies yelling at her is really "people caring loudly at me." Pegy Bundy Married With Children46. Peg Bundy 'Married ... With Children' (1987-97) | Played By: Katey Sagal She was the housewife who sat on the couch watching TV and eating bonbons. Selfish, lazy, big-haired Peg was completely unapologetic about her love of spending husband Al's money and her hatred of doing anything domestic, making her a fun and refreshing alternative to both the harried housewives and work-obsessed women that have populated most of prime time. Blanche Devereaux, Golden Girls45. Blanche Devereaux 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Rue McClanahan Southern belle Blanche had a more active love life than characters half her age, and was unashamed about her constant hot pursuit of male company after the death of her beloved husband George. The always-stylishly-attired Blanche, like her fellow 'Golden Girls,' showed that women of a more advanced age didn't have to fit into any stereotypes. Florida Evans, Good Times44. Florida Evans 'Good Times' (1974-79) | Played By: Esther Rolle Introduced to TV land as the family's maid on 'Maude,' Florida and her family were moved to Chicago for 'Good Times,' where the family constantly struggled to make it out of the housing projects. They finally had a shot, only to lose father James in a car accident, leaving the resilient Florida to continue the family's struggle on her own. Jessica Fletcher, Murder She Wrote43. Jessica Fletcher 'Murder, She Wrote' (1984-96) | Played By: Angela Lansbury No retired widow was she; Jessica was the bestselling mystery novel author of tomes like 'The Corpse Danced at Midnight' and 'The Corpse Swam by Moonlight.' She was also an amateur sleuth who got wrapped up in real-life murder mysteries in her Maine hometown and anywhere she traveled, from New York to Hawaii. Shirley Feeney, Laverne and Shirley42. Shirley Feeney 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Cindy Williams The eternal optimist to her more cynical pal Laverne, sweet Shirley was responsible for getting the two gals back on their feet again every time one of their plans to meet nice guys or improve their lives inevitably fell through. Carrie Bradshaw41. Carrie Bradshaw 'Sex and the City' (1998-2004) | Played By: Sarah Jessica Parker TV's most recent It Girl, writer Carrie was committed to work, fashion, her friends and finding love, all while eschewing many of the rules her fellow New York 30-somethings went along with. Her weekly newspaper chronicle of life and love in NYC was like a personal diary of her own Big exploits, but also put her romantic dramas in a context that had universal meaning. Dorothy, Golden Girls40. Dorothy Zbornak 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Bea Arthur Sarcastic and biting, the practical Dorothy was the much-needed voice of reason among the 'Golden Girls.' Often teased by her roomies, including mama Sophia, for being unfeminine thanks to her height and deep voice, the high school teacher nevertheless had her share of suitors, including Blanche's uncle, whom she married at the end of the series. Mary Beth Lacey, Cagney and Lacey39. Mary Beth Lacey 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Tyne Daly A married-with-children policewoman, Mary Beth shared with partner Cagney the challenges facing females in a male-dominated, and often dangerous, profession. She also dealt with issues unique to her life, such as the tension her work and hours away from home created with her husband. Ethel Mertz, I Love Lucy38. Ethel Mertz 'I Love Lucy' (1951-87) | Played By: Vivian Vance Ethel was Lucy's landlord, best friend and much-needed voice of reason during their hilarious schemes. A bit more deferential to her husband Fred than Lucy was to Ricky, sharp-tongued Ethel was still fiercely loyal to Lucy, whether the two were competing with each other for a showbiz role, operating a dress shop or restaurant together or trying to control the flow of sweets at the chocolate factory. Amanda Woodward, Melrose Place37. Amanda Woodward 'Melrose Place' (1992-99) | Played By: Heather Locklear She certainly dressed like a woman, with her trademark miniskirt suits, and used her sexuality to wrap the men in her life around her little finger, but when it came to the boardroom, Amanda could play corporate games as well as any of her male cohorts. Better, even. Her arrival, after all, turned 'Melrose' from an OK show into a guilty-pleasure phenomenon. Starbuck Battlestar Galactica36. Kara "Starbuck" Thrace 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Katee Sackhoff Hot-headed, rebellious, hard-drinking gambler and dedicated, disciplined, clear-headed fighter pilot (who was a male character in the original series) -- Starbuck was both, and throughout her many complicated relationships, she remained a leader who ultimately helped lead her people to a new home. Alice Kramden Honeymooners35. Alice Kramden 'The Honeymooners' (1955-56) | Played By: Audrey Meadows Blowhard hubby Ralph was always threatening to send Alice "straight to the moon." but even on his worst days, Ralph knew that patient wife Alice was his far better half. Not that she couldn't give as good as she got; though she put up with his various schemes, Alice never failed to meet his wisecracks with a well-placed barb of her own. Samantha Stephens, Bewitched34. Samantha Stephens 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Elizabeth Montgomery Who among us hasn't at one time wished we could wrinkle up our noses and unleash a little magic? Beautiful good witch Samantha could do just that. Against the wishes of her meddling mama and to please mortal husband Darrin, Samantha was happy to live life sans spells. Most of the time, anyway. Sophia Petrillo, Golden Girls33. Sophia Petrillo 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Estelle Getty The grandmommy of the one-liner, Sicilian Sophia had no filter, which made her a hoot as she instantly spilled whatever quip flew into her head, no matter how rude or whom it was aimed at. Daughter Dorothy, in fact, was a favorite target, as were housemates daffy Rose and man-hungry Blanche. Rhoda, Mary Tyler Moore Show32. Rhoda Morgenstern 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' & 'Rhoda' (1970-77 & 1974-78) | Played By: Valerie Harper So awesome that she spanned two series, neurotic, tough-talking New Yorker Rhoda moved from NYC to Minnesota and then back to the Big Apple for her spin-off series, in which she continued to pursue her window-dresser career and married dream guy Joe. She survived a divorce a couple of years later when the marriage soured. Diana Prince, Wonder Woman31. Diana Prince / Wonder Woman 'Wonder Woman' (1975-79) | Played By: Lynda Carter With a magical twirl, Amazonian princess Diana Prince became Wonder Woman, who used her golden lasso and her bullet-deflecting bracelets to thwart the evil-doing of baddies like Nazis, non-violent-style. Carter became an icon in her patriotic costume, meaning her red boots are going to be tough to fill on next season's planned 'Wonder Woman' remake. Diane Chambers, Cheers30. Diane Chambers 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Shelley Long Diane was easily impressed ... with her own intellect. And she was constantly frustrated by the fact that no one else would defer to what she was sure was her superior knowledge of, well, everything. Beneath that bravado, Diane did have genuine affection for her Cheers co-workers and customers and, of course, had one of the great love/hate relationships of all time with boss Sam. Lucille Bluth, Arrested Development29. Lucille Bluth 'Arrested Development' (2003-06) | Played By: Jessica Walter The matriarch of the quirky Bluth clan, Lucille could also accurately be described as the mother from hell. Any of her children's issues (and they had many) could likely be traced back to Lucille, who was committed to one thing above all: family. Specifically, using the resources of the family business to fund her decadent lifestyle. Laverne, Laverne and Shirley28. Laverne DeFazio 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Penny Marshall Laverne was a sarcastic tomboy with a big heart, and a loyal BFF and roommate to Shirley, who was also her co-worker and co-pilot in a never-ending search to meet the right fellas and engage in a bit of vo-dee-o-doe-doe. And when that failed, she and Shirl could be found bonding in their Milwaukee apartment, with Laverne, attired in her trademark "L" sweaters, sipping a milk and Pepsi. Jennifer Garner27. Sydney Bristow 'Alias' (2001-06) | Played By: Jennifer Garner She spoke dozens of languages, was skilled in multiple self-defense methods and could handle the most severe physical and emotional challenges (including the deaths of several people close to her) fearlessly. Throughout it all, Sydney remained a nice, relatively sane woman devoted to family and friends. Miss Piggy, Muppets26. Miss Piggy 'The Muppet Show' (1976-81) | Voiced By: Frank Oz Initially meant to be a minor character, Miss Piggy fought her way into the spotlight, as the natural-born ham is wont to do. All she really wants is to be a star -- and to be a couple with her Kermie. She's the only Muppet to pen a real New York Times bestseller list autobiography. Xena Warrior Princess25. Xena 'Xena: Warrior Princess' (1995-2001) | Played By: Lucy Lawless Her tight leather dress was only the beginning of Xena's tough-chick persona, as she sought to redeem herself for her past as a warlord by doing good deeds with her considerable skills, which had once almost allowed her to kill Hercules! Marge Simpson, The Simpsons24. Marge Simpson 'The Simpsons' (1989-present) | Played By: Julie Kavner Right down to the string of pearls, she's the modern-day June Cleaver, if June had been animated with big blue hair, a clueless husband and three challenging children. But mama Marge will defend her brood to the end. As she said, "If loving my kids is lame, then I guess I'm just a big lame." Rachel Green, Friends23. Rachel Green 'Friends' (1994-2004) | Played By: Jennifer Aniston Sure, there's the iconic haircut, but Rachel became one of viewers' favorite 'Friends' because she grew from what could have been a one-note character -- the spoiled, self-involved husband-seeker -- into a more independent, caring pal who left her cushy lifestyle behind and took a chance on finding career and relationship happiness in the Big Apple. Christine Cagney, Cagney and Lacey22. Christine Cagney 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Sharon Gless Cagney was the single career-woman half of the team and the daughter of an NYPD vet who had inspired her to become a crime-fighter with tales of his own adventures. Unfortunately, Christine also followed in her father's footsteps as an alcoholic, just one of the many problems the witty, working-class cop and her partner/BFF Lacey tackled together. Lt. Uhura, Star Trek21. Nyota Uhura 'Star Trek' (1966-69) | Played By: Nichelle Nichols Captain Kirk's chief communications officer, Uhura was a TV role model, with future Oscar winner (and 'Star Trek' star herself) Whoopi Goldberg recalling that she made an impression on her as one of the first black female characters on TV who wasn't a maid. Uhura was also involved in a groundbreaking moment on the show, as she and Kirk kissed in the 'Plato's Stepchildren' episode, one of the first interracial smooches on the tube. Maude20. Maude Findlay 'Maude' (1972-78) | Played By: Bea Arthur And then there's Maude! The feisty, big-mouthed liberal was Edith Bunker's cousin, hence the 'All in the Family' spin-off. And like her cousin-in-law Archie, Maude made her own mark in prime time, letting everyone know about her opinions on civil rights and women's rights. In one controversial episode, she had an abortion -- before Roe v. Wade made the process legal. Alicia Florrick The Good Wife19. Alicia Florrick 'The Good Wife' (2009-present) | Played By: Julianna Margulies The numerous cheating-politician scandals of recent years always left us wondering how the politicians' wives deal with their public humiliation. And we can only hope that it's with even half the grace of Alicia, who resumed her career (starting at the bottom rung as an attorney) and continues to try to resume her marriage for the sake of her family. Rose Nylund Golden Girls18. Rose Nylund 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Betty White A little na�ve and a bit ditzy, Rose was also a lot kind-hearted, which made her the most lovable of the 'Golden Girls.' And that was a good thing, because her friends sometimes needed a lot of patience to sit through her charming -- to viewers, anyway -- tales of St. Olaf. Tami Taylor Friday Night Lights17. Tami Taylor 'Friday Night Lights' (2006-2011) | Played By: Connie Britton Her husband was clearly in charge on the football field, but Tami is the one who kept things running smoothly in the Taylor household. The voice of reason for Coach Eric when his job / his players / local fans were all up in his Kool-Aid, Tami was also a great mom whose genuine kindness and caring also made her a top-notch school administrator. Joan Harris, Mad Men16. Joan Harris 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Christina Hendricks She hasn't advanced in her career as far as co-worker Peggy, but Joan is the one person in the office who always knows what's going on -- what's really going on -- with everyone. In another time, the savvy secretary would be running the company, but for now, she'll continue to be the sassy Marilyn Monroe?ish sexpot who's neither full-on career girl nor demure housewife. CJ Cregg West Wing15. C.J. Cregg 'The West Wing' (1999-2006) | Played By: Allison Janney The tough, funny and talented White House press secretary not only served two terms for President Bartlet, but moved up to become White House Chief of Staff and one of the most trusted members of the administration. Liz Lemon 30 Rock14. Liz Lemon '30 Rock' (2006-present) | Played By: Tina Fey She's the heroine of every bespectacled, sweats-wearing, junk-food-noshing, boy-chasing, pop-culture-loving, smart-girl nerd everywhere. Dana Scully X Files13. Dana Scully 'The X-Files' (1993-2002) | Played By: Gillian Anderson A woman of science who was recruited by the FBI when she was in med school, Scully wouldn't buy into partner Mulder's beliefs unless she could prove them. But her affection for and trust in him, and his season 7 abduction, led the brainy beauty to see she could mesh their two points of view. Murphy Brown12. Murphy Brown 'Murphy Brown' (1988-98) | Played By: Candice Bergen The recovering-alcoholic TV newswoman was such an influential character that her single motherhood on TV sparked a real-world scandal when then?Vice President Dan Quayle cited her as a threat to family values during a 1992 presidential campaign speech. Roseanne11. Roseanne Conner 'Roseanne' (1988-97) | Played By: Roseanne Barr She was loud, bossy and insulting, and no topic was too serious for her irreverent 'tude, but self-proclaimed domestic goddess Roseanne was also a fierce mama lion who never stopped wanting more for her friends and family and never shied away from working hard to get it. Edith Bunker All in the Family10. Edith Bunker 'All in the Family' (1971-79) | Played By: Jean Stapleton The incredibly kind, compassionate and non-judgmental foil to bigoted spouse Archie, Edith could have been a cartoonish character, but she loved her friends and family -- even the sometimes hard-to-love Archie -- unconditionally and was a far shrewder woman than Archie's "dingbat" nickname for her might have suggested. Claire Huxtable The Cosby Show9. Claire Huxtable 'The Cosby Show' (1984-92) | Played By: Phylicia Rashad She could bring home the bacon as a talented attorney and fry it up in a pan, all while raising five kids ... six, if you include mischievous husband Cliff. Firm but fair, tough but sensitive and caring, she was one of TV's all-time-coolest moms. Veronica Mars8. Veronica Mars 'Veronica Mars' (2004-07) | Played By: Kristen Bell After being dropped by her rich friends and raped at a party, former popular high schooler Veronica learned becoming awesome was the best revenge, using her new cynicism and sleuthing skills to become first an amateur investigator and, eventually, a licensed P.I., forging relationships with equally awesome new pals along the way. Carmela Soprano, The Sopranos7. Carmela Soprano 'The Sopranos' (1999-2007) | Played By: Edie Falco She was a complicated, but always strong, fiercely loyal and compelling woman, who alternately loved and hated her hubby Tony and could never fully resolve her guilt over enjoying the fruits of their ill-gotten lifestyle. Buffy Summers, Buffy the Vampire Slayer6. Buffy Summers 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Sarah Michelle Gellar She managed to reliably kick baddie butt even while dealing with the usual (and sometimes extraordinarily heartbreaking) ups and downs of life, love and being a teen and 20-something. Elaine Benes Seinfeld5. Elaine Benes 'Seinfeld' (1990-98) | Played By: Julia Louis-Dreyfus From her biting quips to her famous "Get out!" shoves, Elaine always let her male cohorts -- Jerry, Kramer and George -- know that she was the one with the hand in the group. Peggy Olson Mad Men4. Peggy Olson 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Elisabeth Moss Refusing to be relegated to the background in an incredibly sexist, male-dominated industry, ad wiz Peggy continues to fight for power in the office and independence in her swingin', single-girl personal life. Lucy Ricardo, I Love Lucy3. Lucy Ricardo 'I Love Lucy' (1951-60) | Played By: Lucille Ball The meddling redhead couldn't stay out of trouble, but it was only because she wouldn't let anyone, even beloved hubby Ricky or BFF Ethel, keep her in the kitchen and out of the spotlight she craved to be in. Laura Roslin Battlestar Galactica2. Laura Roslin 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Mary McDonnell She was a politician thrust into the role of president just after most of humanity had been killed off, and through some major bumps (and a battle with breast cancer), she helped lead the survivors to a new home. Mary Richards Mary Tyler Moore Show1. Mary Richards 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' (1970-77) | Played By: Mary Tyler Moore Duh, she could turn the world on with her smile. And she inspired whole generations of her fellow working girls to go for it all: friendships, love and a successful career.
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Where must a boxer stand when his opponent is knocked down? | Arleana Waller Blog: 100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters less than a minute ago http://www.tvsquad.com/2011/03/02/10... March is Women's History Month, which makes it the perfect time for our countdown of the 100 best female TV characters in prime-time history. You may love some of them, you may hate some of them, but it's a sure bet that all of these TV women will spark memories of some of the best tube-watchin' TV land has offered. Sue Sylvester100. Sue Sylvester 'Glee' (2009-present) | Played By: Jane Lynch The enthusiastic manner in which she embraces her role as McKinley High villain alone makes the show worth watching. Sue's motivation in her anti?New Directions plotting is the continued success of her Cheerios, the school's cheerleading squad, but no matter what her reasons, her trademark track suits, brilliantly biting quips, and devotion to sister Jean have made her one of the most compelling (and quotable) characters on TV these days. Daisy Duke, Dukes of Hazzard99. Daisy Duke 'The Dukes of Hazzard' (1979-85) | Played By: Catherine Bach Waitress at the Boar's Nest, object of affection for deputy Enos, and as skilled a driver and sharpshooter as either of her male cousins Luke and Bo, Daisy will still always be most associated with the short shorts forever known as Daisy Dukes. Nancy Botwin, Weeds98. Nancy Botwin 'Weeds' (2005-present) | Played By: Mary-Louise Parker What's a soccer mom to do when her husband unexpectedly dies and leaves her to raise two rambunctious sons on her own? Launch her own drug business, of course. Not content to simply sling weed to her fellow suburbanites, Nancy's business has taken her to some strange, near-death places, two more marriages, another baby and, looming next season, likely jail. Flo Castleberry97. Flo Castleberry 'Alice' (1976-85) | Played By: Polly Holliday The red bouffant-wearing, gum-smacking, man-chasing waitress at Mel's Diner wasn't exactly the best slinger of hash in Phoenix, but she was a fun and sassy, always ready with a flirtatious greeting for the customers, a helping hand for pals Alice and Vera, and a snappy comeback for grumpy Mel, most famously telling her boss to "Kiss my grits!" Dee, It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia96. Dee Reynolds 'It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia' (2005-present) | Played By: Kaitlin Olson Though she's as wacky, selfish and ethically ambiguous as the rest of The Gang, "Sweet Dee" is often the butt of their jokes. A lesser female would crumble under such treatment -- which includes constant references to her alleged bird-like appearance and taunts about her failed acting career and mysterious pregnancy -- but Dee simply meets Dennis, Charlie, Mac and Frank's unchivalrous behavior with unladylike, but deserved, reactions of her own. Abby Sciuto, NCIS95. Abby Sciuto 'NCIS' (2003-present) | Played By: Pauley Perrette Is her goth dress and vast knowledge of all things death-related a contradiction to her upbeat personality and general happiness with her job? Only if you believe in stereotypes. Besides, what's not to love about a woman with a farting toy hippo named Bert? Sam Carter Stargate SG 194. Sam Carter 'Stargate SG-1' (1997-2007) | Played By: Amanda Tapping She was an astrophysicist and pilot whose efforts helped bring the Stargate program into existence and who actually led the Atlantis adventure for a year, prompting Stargate leader Jack O'Neill to refer to her brain as a national resource. Brenda Walsh, Beverly Hills 9021093. Brenda Walsh 'Beverly Hills, 90210' (1990-2000) | Played By: Shannen Doherty Whiny, self-obsessed and flighty, Brenda was a teen both envied by real-life teens -- partly because she was surrounded by hunky boyfriend Dylan and equally hunky twin brother Brandon -- but also so hated that she inspired the creation of the "I Hate Brenda" fan newsletter. Chrissie, Three's Company92. Chrissy Snow 'Three's Company' (1977-84) | Played By: Suzanne Somers The quintessential dumb blonde character, Chrissy (real name: Christmas Snow) kicked the stereotype up a notch, dishing out double entrendres and malapropisms on a regular basis, wearing her hair in pigtails and adopting a girlish voice and demeanor. She was also the frequent subject of attention from men, even after they'd heard her laugh, which could only be described as "snorting." Chloe O'Brian 2491. Chloe O'Brian '24' (2001-2010) | Played By: Mary Lynn Rajskub Other women and other co-workers had come and gone (sometimes in a permanent manner) in Jack Bauer's life, but Chloe was a bright, talented, somewhat antisocial (some fans believed she had Asperger's) CTU analyst and eventual agency head whose expertise and willingness to challenge authority was directly responsible for saving the hero's life on more than one occasion. Pepper Anderson, Police Woman90. Pepper Anderson 'Police Woman' (1974-78) | Played By: Angie Dickinson Hollywood sex symbol Dickinson projected a much less glamorous, grittier image as Pepper, a Los Angeles police detective who often went undercover to solve the most brutal crimes. Pepper was one of primetime's first female drama series stars, and applications by women to police departments across the country reportedly shot up after the show's first season. Miranda Bailey, Grey's Anatomy89. Miranda Bailey 'Grey's Anatomy' (2005-present) | Played By: Chandra Wilson Nicknamed "The Nazi" by her Seattle Grace co-workers, Bailey is a blunt leader who, nonetheless, has provided much hand-holding for her fellow medical professionals, too, and has shown her own vulnerability in her rocky relationship with her ex-husband. She has also balked at her nickname, offended that her co-workers focus on her demeanor without acknowledging the emotional toll her tough public persona hides. Lois Wilkerson, Malcolm in the Middle88. Lois Wilkerson 'Malcolm in the Middle' (2000-06) | Played By: Jane Kaczmarek Her sons would have described her as mean and stifling, but mother Lois had learned early in motherhood that being wishy-washy with her kids was only a detriment to their development (and her sanity). And that was a realization that served her particularly well as the only female in a family with five sons, including genius Malcolm and trouble-prone Francis and Reese. Jessica Tate, Soap87. Jessica Tate 'Soap' (1977-81) | Played By: Katherine Helmond The matriarch of the wealthy Tate clan, Jessica had it all, including a closet full of skeletons and a serially cheating husband in Chester. But she also remained blissfully ignorant of some of the realities of life around her (and stuck her head in the sand for others), which allowed her to charge ahead eternally optimistic, even when, in the series finale, she stood in front of a firing squad after being kidnapped. Patty Hewes, Damages86. Patty Hewes 'Damages' (2007-present) | Played By: Glenn Close A power player in a male-dominated world, litigator Patty is willing to go to a lot of ethical and legal far corners to win her cases, including ordering the murder of a dog and of the prot�g� who she'd developed motherly feelings for. Hey, remember, this isn't a list of the most likable female TV characters, but the most memorable. Diana, V85. Diana 'V' (1984-85) | Played By: Jane Badler The very intense and committed leader of the aliens known as The Visitors escaped Resistance capture several times after the first attack on earth, and despite the efforts of many on Team Resistance, she evaded recapture long enough to launch the Second Invasion of Earth. Suzanne Sugarbaker84. Suzanne Sugarbaker 'Designing Women' (1986-93) | Played By: Delta Burke She was a rich, selfish former beauty queen and southern belle, which often led her to butt heads with her far more pragmatic sister Julia. But Suzanne didn't need anyone's help in defending herself from Julia or the outside world, thanks to her feisty personality, her ability to give as good as she got and the fact that she's a pistol-packin' member of the NRA. Sun Kwon, Lost83. Sun Kwon 'Lost' (2004-10) | Played By: Yunjin Kim An heiress who fell in love with her father's employee, Sun became unhappy with her new husband, Jin, as he devoted himself to moving up in the company and the two were unable to conceive a child. She planned to leave Jin, but the two reconciled after the Oceanic plane crash, and the pampered Sun became a physically and emotionally tough survivor who gave birth to their daughter and was reunited with her love briefly, before their tragic demise in a submarine. Sue Ellen Ewing82. Sue Ellen Ewing 'Dallas' (1978-91) | Played By: Linda Gray A beauty queen raised by her mother with the sole intent of marrying a wealthy man like J.R., Sue Ellen put up with years of J.R.'s tomcattin' ways while falling further into her own self-destructive alcoholism. But after finally accepting that J.R. would never change, Sue Ellen eventually emerged as a stronger woman, who got her demons in check, ditched ol' J.R. and moved to London. Jill Munroe Charlie's Angels81. Jill Munroe 'Charlie's Angels' (1976-81) | Played By: Farrah Fawcett She was the breakout beauty of the 'Angels' bunch, but Jill was also a tomboy-ish athlete who left behind a police desk job to join Charlie's undercover team of agents. And when even that didn't prove to be exciting or daring enough, she left the Townsend agency (when Fawcett left the show after one season) to become a race car driver. Betty Suarez, Ugly Betty80. Betty Suarez 'Ugly Betty' (2006-10) | Played By: America Ferrera Her Mode magazine cohorts liked to make her plain Jane appearance an issue, but confident, informed, hard-working Betty stuck to her guns, and her values, and relied on her skills and intelligence to lead her through the backstabbing, cutthroat environment as the fashion mag. Jaime Sommers, Bionic Woman79. Jaime Sommers 'The Bionic Woman' (1976-78) | Played By: Lindsay Wagner A former tennis pro and teacher, Jaime's life was saved with the government's bionic body part replacements when she was injured while skydiving with love Steve Austin. Jaime worked for the government to repay the debt, but also remained wedded to the idea of having a life outside the Office of Strategic Science, which she did in future 'Bionic Woman' reunion storylines by becoming a doctor. Willow Rosenberg, Buffy the Vampire Slayer78. Willow Rosenberg 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Alyson Hannigan A shy teen with little confidence when she was introduced, Willow begins to gain more self-assurance as she begins to perfect her magical skills. A brief foray to the dark side gave way to a more mature Willow, who understood the real power of her magic and its effects on others. Kyra Sedgwick77. Brenda Leigh Johnson 'The Closer' (2005-present) | Played By: Kyra Sedgwick She can come off as a sweet Southern woman with a major candy jones, but don't let the exterior fool you. She's also a clever, exacting, patient interrogator and a workaholic, meaning there are few things in her life, including, to his chagrin, husband Fritz, that come between the Los Angeles Police Department deputy chief and solving a case. Morticia Addams, Addams Family76. Morticia Addams 'The Addams Family' (1964-66) | Played By: Carolyn Jones The cultured, refined matriarch of the Addams clan, Morticia kept her family in order, arranging beautiful vases of flowers (well, the stems; she cut off the roses) for their home, raising flesh-eating plants, keeping hubby Gomez in line with her vampy ways and, like any good mom, making sure her family kept living life the Addams way, no matter how creepy, kooky or altogether ooky that may have seemed to everyone else. 75. Edna Garrett 'Facts of Life' (1979-88) | Played By: Charlotte Rae A former housekeeper to the Drummonds of 'Diff'rent Strokes,' Mrs. G became the den mother (and then dietician) at the Eastland Academy for girls. There, she became more like a second mom to Natalie, Tootie, Blair and Jo, and remained such an influential presence in their lives that she would also become their housemate and employer outside school. Snoop The Wire74. Felicia "Snoop" Pearson 'The Wire' (2002-08) | Played By: Felicia Pearson Pearson, a real-life former drug dealer and convicted felon, played Snoop, a murderous drug dealer in the Stanfield crime empire. Engaging in her pursuits with a fatalistic attitude, Snoop was rarely thrown, even in her final moments, when Michael guessed she was about to kill him and put a gun to her head instead. Marion Cunningham73. Marion Cunningham 'Happy Days' (1974-84) | Played By: Marion Ross Mrs. C, as The Fonz affectionately dubbed her, was a loving mama who saw the best in everyone, and cared not just about the well-being of her husband and children, but also of their friends and pseudo son, and upstairs tenant, Fonzie. Laura Ingalls, Little House on the Prairie72. Laura Ingalls 'Little House on the Prairie' (1974-83) | Played By: Melissa Gilbert The spirited daughter of Charles and Caroline, Laura remained the symbol for her family's commitment to hard work, integrity and self sufficiency and her small town's dedication to forging and remaining a close-knit community. Claudette, The Shield71. Claudette Wyms 'The Shield' (2002-08) | Played By: CCH Pounder The moral touchstone in the wildly corrupt "Barn," Claudette, one of the few black female cops when she began her career, felt repercussions in her career several times after standing up against her shady fellow cops. Ultimately, despite her worsening lupus, she was named Captain of the Barn, and satisfyingly got to be the one to lead the final charge that brought about Vic Mackey's downfall. Patty Duke70. Cathy/Patty Lane 'The Patty Duke Show' (1963-66) | Played By: Patty Duke They were cousins, identical cousins, where "Cathy adores a minuet, the Ballet Russes and crepes Suzette"' and "Patty loves to rock 'n' roll, and hot dogs make her lose control." Cleverly, the girls' different cultural backgrounds proved to be largely irrelevant in how they actually dealt with the usual challenges of being a teen. Ally McBeal69. Ally McBeal 'Ally McBeal' (1997-2002) | Played By: Calista Flockhart A talented lawyer, Ally was nonetheless also given to less rational experiences, like the dancing baby and other hallucinations she experienced while trying to mesh her career with her quest to find her soul mate. Ally made plenty of mistakes along the way, and engaged in some selfish activity where men were concerned, but ultimately her conscience always lead her to do what she felt was right. Daria68. Daria Morgendorffer 'Beavis and Butt-Head' and 'Daria' (1993-97 and 1997-2001) | Voiced By: Tracy Grandstaff Created as a foil to slackers Beavis and Butt-head, razor sharp Daria was too great a character to stay in the background, and was spun off into her own 'toon. Her droll musings and cynical teen angst were challenged by her popular sister Quinn, career-woman mom and ditzy dad, as well as her equally sarcastic artist pal Jane and a crush on Jane's slacker rocker brother, Trent. Karen Walker, Will and Grace67. Karen Walker 'Will & Grace' (1998-2006) | Played By: Megan Mullally A "spoiled, shrill, gold-digging socialite who would sooner chew off her own foot than do an honest day's work," is how her friend and boss Grace described her, which, while accurate, doesn't describe how fun and irreverent Karen is. It also hides how, though she'd hate to admit it, loyal a pal she is to Will, Grace, hubby Stanley and especially partner-in-shallow-crime Jack, who, with Karen, usually stole the show from the titular two. Gemma Teller, sons of anarchy66. Gemma Teller 'Sons of Anarchy' (2008-present) | Played By: Katey Sagal Sagal left Peggy Bundy far behind to play Gemma, the ultimate in fierce mamas, who, as the queen of a California motorcycle club led by her husband and son, is as tough as any of the men who surround her. In fact, Gemma is often the brains behind SAMCRO's plots, as she'll do anything, and endure anything, to ensure the club, her son and her family's survival. Whitley, A Different World65. Whitley Gilbert Wayne 'A Different World' (1987-93) | Played By: Jasmine Guy A spoiled, snobby Southern belle when the series began, Whitley was forced to get real and shed (some of) her superficial ways when she fell in love with regular guy Dwayne Wayne. And though the two clashed continuously, a last-minute declaration of love (during Whitley's wedding ceremony to another guy) led to a Dwayne-Whitley marriage, and her continuing evolution as a kinder, less selfish woman. Deanna Troi, Star Trek: The Next Generation064. Deanna Troi 'Star Trek: The Next Generation' (1987-94) | Played By: Marina Sirtis Despite her skin-tight suit (and the fact that the character was originally written to have four breasts), the half-human, half-Betazoid Enterprise counselor's skills were so respected by her peers that she eventually was promoted to the rank of commander. Angela Chase My So Called Life63. Angela Chase 'My So-Called Life' (1994-95) | Played By: Claire Danes One of the angsty-est teens in TV history was also one real-world teens could most identify with. And as 15-year-old Angela tried to figure out life by shedding everything that used to be familiar to her and adopting some diverse new friends, she remained true to her beliefs and values. Maddie Hayes, Moonlighting62. Maddie Hayes 'Moonlighting' (1985-89) | Played By: Cybill Shepherd Not content to be summed up by her looks, former model Maddie decided to operate the Blue Moon Detective Agency, a business she had long ago purchased as a tax write-off. And though her tangled personal relationship with fellow detective David would eventually drive the series, Maddie stubbornly remained firmly in charge ... of both the agency and, to David's chagrin, their affair. Alexis Colby, Dynasty61. Alexis Colby 'Dynasty' (1981-89) | Played By: Joan Collins The opposite of sweet and selfless rival Krystle, Alexis was, of course, the far more interesting 'Dynasty' diva. Her methods, which included trying to destroy ex-husband Blake and his new wife Krystle, were often misguided, but her passion and motivation while fighting for her beloved children were right on the money. Jeannie, I Dream of Jeannie60. Jeannie 'I Dream of Jeannie' (1965-70) | Played By: Barbara Eden She was a woman devoted to her job -- pleasing "master" Tony and helping him in any way she could -- even when her boss didn't want her help, and by forging ahead, Jeannie was actually quite in control of her destiny (and eventually married her master). Hot Lips, MASH59. Margaret Houlihan 'M*A*S*H' (1972-83) | Played By: Loretta Swit They called her "Hot Lips," but Margaret wasn't just the camp's resident hot babe; she was also a smart, caring, talented nurse who could hold her own with wiseguys Hawkeye, Trapper, B.J. and Winchester. Florence Johnston58. Florence Johnston 'The Jeffersons' (1975-85) | Played By: Marla Gibbs The Jeffersons' sassy, wise-crackin' maid didn't take gruff from anyone, particularly boss George, who hated her cooking and laziness. Florence had become a de facto member of the family, however, and felt comfortable continuing her laziness and zinging Mr. J back whenever he dropped an insult. She even earned a short-lived spin-off, 'Checking In,' that lasted four episodes in 1981 before she headed back to work (or not to work) in that dee-luxe apartment in the sky. Lorelai Gilmore, Gilmore Girls57. Lorelai Gilmore 'Gilmore Girls' (2000-07) | Played By: Lauren Graham She didn't focus on the challenges of being a single teen mom, and instead made sure daughter Rory's life was filled with love, laughter, a deep appreciation and knowledge of pop culture, and the assurance that Lorelai would always be there as her mom and her fast-talkin' BFF. Carol Brady56. Carol Brady 'The Brady Bunch' (1969-74) | Played By: Florence Henderson Carol broke the ugly stereotype of the wicked stepmother, as she loved the Brady boys as much as her own daughters. In one memorable episode, she even offered to run away with Bobby when he felt he was unwanted in the famous ranch house. Colleen McMurphy, China Beach55. Colleen McMurphy 'China Beach' (1988-91) | Played By: Dana Delany She represented the sacrifices made by and horrific experiences encountered by nurses in the Vietnam War, who may not have personally engaged in combat, but certainly saw and treated the heartbreaking results of it. Jennifer Marlowe, WKRP in Cincinnati54. Jennifer Marlowe 'WKRP in Cincinnati' (1978-82) | Played By: Loni Anderson The antithesis of the dumb blonde stereotype, shrewd, confident WKRP receptionist Jennifer was one of the station's most calming forces, whether she was answering phones (she refused to type, take dictation or get coffee), helping the bickering staff make up, deflecting the creepy advances of salesman Herb or protecting nervous boss Mr. Carlson from dealing with people and issues that freaked him out. Gidget53. Gidget Lawrence 'Gidget' (1965-66) | Played By: Sally Field Days at the beach and boyfriend Moondoggie took up much of Gidget's time, but her so-called life was really about a 15-year-old girl trying to maneuver the tricky teen years while being raised by a single dad. Endora, Bewitched52. Endora 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Agnes Moorehead Opposed to daughter Sam's marriage to the mortal Darrin -- whom Endora refers to as "Durwood" -- Endora became the ultimate meddling mother-in-law. Opposed to all mortals, in fact, Endora was especially horrified at having one in her family, which led her to cast many a spell on Durwood, not in hopes of killing him, but in hopes of killing his marriage to Samantha. Abby, ER51. Abby Lockhart 'ER' (1994-2009) | Played By: Maura Tierney An E.R. nurse who temporarily sacrificed her own dreams of becoming a doctor to pay for her then-husband's med school stay, Abby didn't let her alcoholism, her painful childhood with her bipolar-disorder-suffering mother and absentee dad or rocky romantic relationships derail her, as she became a doctor, wife and mother by series' end. 50. Olivia Benson 'Law & Order: SVU' ( 1999-present) | Played By: Mariska Hargitay The product of her mother's rape, Benson chose to devote her career to working in the sex crimes unit of the NYPD, where she was a sympathetic presence and fierce protector for sexual assault victims, even after nearly being assaulted herself in a season 9 episode. June Cleaver49. June Cleaver 'Leave It to Beaver' (1957-63) | Played By: Barbara Billingsley She was always a little worried about Wally and The Beav, always willing to nurse their physical and emotional wounds with an icy glass of milk and freshly-baked cookies and always answered the door -- and vacuumed! -- with her trademark pearls intact. Retro, sure, but she was one magnificent mama. Carla Tortelli, Cheers48. Carla Tortelli 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Rhea Perlman Cheers waitress Carla had far less education than fellow waitress Diane, but no one could come up with a clever jab faster than Carla, who kept her co-workers and customers in line with her sharp tongue. The tough Boston broad was just as in control in her personal life, which allowed her to raise eight children on her own after divorcing oily Nick and being widowed by cheating former hockey pro Eddie. Leslie Knope, Parks and Recreation47. Leslie Knope 'Parks and Recreation' (2009-present) | Played By: Amy Poehler The always-enthusiastic Leslie might be annoying, if it weren't for the fact that her enthusiasm is so completely genuine. Her life's mission is to use her local government position to make Pawnee a better place to live for its citizens (and to become the first female president), even if that means ignoring her more cynical co-workers or spinning negative feedback into positive, as when she says a group of townies yelling at her is really "people caring loudly at me." Pegy Bundy Married With Children46. Peg Bundy 'Married ... With Children' (1987-97) | Played By: Katey Sagal She was the housewife who sat on the couch watching TV and eating bonbons. Selfish, lazy, big-haired Peg was completely unapologetic about her love of spending husband Al's money and her hatred of doing anything domestic, making her a fun and refreshing alternative to both the harried housewives and work-obsessed women that have populated most of prime time. Blanche Devereaux, Golden Girls45. Blanche Devereaux 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Rue McClanahan Southern belle Blanche had a more active love life than characters half her age, and was unashamed about her constant hot pursuit of male company after the death of her beloved husband George. The always-stylishly-attired Blanche, like her fellow 'Golden Girls,' showed that women of a more advanced age didn't have to fit into any stereotypes. Florida Evans, Good Times44. Florida Evans 'Good Times' (1974-79) | Played By: Esther Rolle Introduced to TV land as the family's maid on 'Maude,' Florida and her family were moved to Chicago for 'Good Times,' where the family constantly struggled to make it out of the housing projects. They finally had a shot, only to lose father James in a car accident, leaving the resilient Florida to continue the family's struggle on her own. Jessica Fletcher, Murder She Wrote43. Jessica Fletcher 'Murder, She Wrote' (1984-96) | Played By: Angela Lansbury No retired widow was she; Jessica was the bestselling mystery novel author of tomes like 'The Corpse Danced at Midnight' and 'The Corpse Swam by Moonlight.' She was also an amateur sleuth who got wrapped up in real-life murder mysteries in her Maine hometown and anywhere she traveled, from New York to Hawaii. Shirley Feeney, Laverne and Shirley42. Shirley Feeney 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Cindy Williams The eternal optimist to her more cynical pal Laverne, sweet Shirley was responsible for getting the two gals back on their feet again every time one of their plans to meet nice guys or improve their lives inevitably fell through. Carrie Bradshaw41. Carrie Bradshaw 'Sex and the City' (1998-2004) | Played By: Sarah Jessica Parker TV's most recent It Girl, writer Carrie was committed to work, fashion, her friends and finding love, all while eschewing many of the rules her fellow New York 30-somethings went along with. Her weekly newspaper chronicle of life and love in NYC was like a personal diary of her own Big exploits, but also put her romantic dramas in a context that had universal meaning. Dorothy, Golden Girls40. Dorothy Zbornak 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Bea Arthur Sarcastic and biting, the practical Dorothy was the much-needed voice of reason among the 'Golden Girls.' Often teased by her roomies, including mama Sophia, for being unfeminine thanks to her height and deep voice, the high school teacher nevertheless had her share of suitors, including Blanche's uncle, whom she married at the end of the series. Mary Beth Lacey, Cagney and Lacey39. Mary Beth Lacey 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Tyne Daly A married-with-children policewoman, Mary Beth shared with partner Cagney the challenges facing females in a male-dominated, and often dangerous, profession. She also dealt with issues unique to her life, such as the tension her work and hours away from home created with her husband. Ethel Mertz, I Love Lucy38. Ethel Mertz 'I Love Lucy' (1951-87) | Played By: Vivian Vance Ethel was Lucy's landlord, best friend and much-needed voice of reason during their hilarious schemes. A bit more deferential to her husband Fred than Lucy was to Ricky, sharp-tongued Ethel was still fiercely loyal to Lucy, whether the two were competing with each other for a showbiz role, operating a dress shop or restaurant together or trying to control the flow of sweets at the chocolate factory. Amanda Woodward, Melrose Place37. Amanda Woodward 'Melrose Place' (1992-99) | Played By: Heather Locklear She certainly dressed like a woman, with her trademark miniskirt suits, and used her sexuality to wrap the men in her life around her little finger, but when it came to the boardroom, Amanda could play corporate games as well as any of her male cohorts. Better, even. Her arrival, after all, turned 'Melrose' from an OK show into a guilty-pleasure phenomenon. Starbuck Battlestar Galactica36. Kara "Starbuck" Thrace 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Katee Sackhoff Hot-headed, rebellious, hard-drinking gambler and dedicated, disciplined, clear-headed fighter pilot (who was a male character in the original series) -- Starbuck was both, and throughout her many complicated relationships, she remained a leader who ultimately helped lead her people to a new home. Alice Kramden Honeymooners35. Alice Kramden 'The Honeymooners' (1955-56) | Played By: Audrey Meadows Blowhard hubby Ralph was always threatening to send Alice "straight to the moon." but even on his worst days, Ralph knew that patient wife Alice was his far better half. Not that she couldn't give as good as she got; though she put up with his various schemes, Alice never failed to meet his wisecracks with a well-placed barb of her own. Samantha Stephens, Bewitched34. Samantha Stephens 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Elizabeth Montgomery Who among us hasn't at one time wished we could wrinkle up our noses and unleash a little magic? Beautiful good witch Samantha could do just that. Against the wishes of her meddling mama and to please mortal husband Darrin, Samantha was happy to live life sans spells. Most of the time, anyway. Sophia Petrillo, Golden Girls33. Sophia Petrillo 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Estelle Getty The grandmommy of the one-liner, Sicilian Sophia had no filter, which made her a hoot as she instantly spilled whatever quip flew into her head, no matter how rude or whom it was aimed at. Daughter Dorothy, in fact, was a favorite target, as were housemates daffy Rose and man-hungry Blanche. Rhoda, Mary Tyler Moore Show32. Rhoda Morgenstern 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' & 'Rhoda' (1970-77 & 1974-78) | Played By: Valerie Harper So awesome that she spanned two series, neurotic, tough-talking New Yorker Rhoda moved from NYC to Minnesota and then back to the Big Apple for her spin-off series, in which she continued to pursue her window-dresser career and married dream guy Joe. She survived a divorce a couple of years later when the marriage soured. Diana Prince, Wonder Woman31. Diana Prince / Wonder Woman 'Wonder Woman' (1975-79) | Played By: Lynda Carter With a magical twirl, Amazonian princess Diana Prince became Wonder Woman, who used her golden lasso and her bullet-deflecting bracelets to thwart the evil-doing of baddies like Nazis, non-violent-style. Carter became an icon in her patriotic costume, meaning her red boots are going to be tough to fill on next season's planned 'Wonder Woman' remake. Diane Chambers, Cheers30. Diane Chambers 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Shelley Long Diane was easily impressed ... with her own intellect. And she was constantly frustrated by the fact that no one else would defer to what she was sure was her superior knowledge of, well, everything. Beneath that bravado, Diane did have genuine affection for her Cheers co-workers and customers and, of course, had one of the great love/hate relationships of all time with boss Sam. Lucille Bluth, Arrested Development29. Lucille Bluth 'Arrested Development' (2003-06) | Played By: Jessica Walter The matriarch of the quirky Bluth clan, Lucille could also accurately be described as the mother from hell. Any of her children's issues (and they had many) could likely be traced back to Lucille, who was committed to one thing above all: family. Specifically, using the resources of the family business to fund her decadent lifestyle. Laverne, Laverne and Shirley28. Laverne DeFazio 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Penny Marshall Laverne was a sarcastic tomboy with a big heart, and a loyal BFF and roommate to Shirley, who was also her co-worker and co-pilot in a never-ending search to meet the right fellas and engage in a bit of vo-dee-o-doe-doe. And when that failed, she and Shirl could be found bonding in their Milwaukee apartment, with Laverne, attired in her trademark "L" sweaters, sipping a milk and Pepsi. Jennifer Garner27. Sydney Bristow 'Alias' (2001-06) | Played By: Jennifer Garner She spoke dozens of languages, was skilled in multiple self-defense methods and could handle the most severe physical and emotional challenges (including the deaths of several people close to her) fearlessly. Throughout it all, Sydney remained a nice, relatively sane woman devoted to family and friends. Miss Piggy, Muppets26. Miss Piggy 'The Muppet Show' (1976-81) | Voiced By: Frank Oz Initially meant to be a minor character, Miss Piggy fought her way into the spotlight, as the natural-born ham is wont to do. All she really wants is to be a star -- and to be a couple with her Kermie. She's the only Muppet to pen a real New York Times bestseller list autobiography. Xena Warrior Princess25. Xena 'Xena: Warrior Princess' (1995-2001) | Played By: Lucy Lawless Her tight leather dress was only the beginning of Xena's tough-chick persona, as she sought to redeem herself for her past as a warlord by doing good deeds with her considerable skills, which had once almost allowed her to kill Hercules! Marge Simpson, The Simpsons24. Marge Simpson 'The Simpsons' (1989-present) | Played By: Julie Kavner Right down to the string of pearls, she's the modern-day June Cleaver, if June had been animated with big blue hair, a clueless husband and three challenging children. But mama Marge will defend her brood to the end. As she said, "If loving my kids is lame, then I guess I'm just a big lame." Rachel Green, Friends23. Rachel Green 'Friends' (1994-2004) | Played By: Jennifer Aniston Sure, there's the iconic haircut, but Rachel became one of viewers' favorite 'Friends' because she grew from what could have been a one-note character -- the spoiled, self-involved husband-seeker -- into a more independent, caring pal who left her cushy lifestyle behind and took a chance on finding career and relationship happiness in the Big Apple. Christine Cagney, Cagney and Lacey22. Christine Cagney 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Sharon Gless Cagney was the single career-woman half of the team and the daughter of an NYPD vet who had inspired her to become a crime-fighter with tales of his own adventures. Unfortunately, Christine also followed in her father's footsteps as an alcoholic, just one of the many problems the witty, working-class cop and her partner/BFF Lacey tackled together. Lt. Uhura, Star Trek21. Nyota Uhura 'Star Trek' (1966-69) | Played By: Nichelle Nichols Captain Kirk's chief communications officer, Uhura was a TV role model, with future Oscar winner (and 'Star Trek' star herself) Whoopi Goldberg recalling that she made an impression on her as one of the first black female characters on TV who wasn't a maid. Uhura was also involved in a groundbreaking moment on the show, as she and Kirk kissed in the 'Plato's Stepchildren' episode, one of the first interracial smooches on the tube. Maude20. Maude Findlay 'Maude' (1972-78) | Played By: Bea Arthur And then there's Maude! The feisty, big-mouthed liberal was Edith Bunker's cousin, hence the 'All in the Family' spin-off. And like her cousin-in-law Archie, Maude made her own mark in prime time, letting everyone know about her opinions on civil rights and women's rights. In one controversial episode, she had an abortion -- before Roe v. Wade made the process legal. Alicia Florrick The Good Wife19. Alicia Florrick 'The Good Wife' (2009-present) | Played By: Julianna Margulies The numerous cheating-politician scandals of recent years always left us wondering how the politicians' wives deal with their public humiliation. And we can only hope that it's with even half the grace of Alicia, who resumed her career (starting at the bottom rung as an attorney) and continues to try to resume her marriage for the sake of her family. Rose Nylund Golden Girls18. Rose Nylund 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Betty White A little na�ve and a bit ditzy, Rose was also a lot kind-hearted, which made her the most lovable of the 'Golden Girls.' And that was a good thing, because her friends sometimes needed a lot of patience to sit through her charming -- to viewers, anyway -- tales of St. Olaf. Tami Taylor Friday Night Lights17. Tami Taylor 'Friday Night Lights' (2006-2011) | Played By: Connie Britton Her husband was clearly in charge on the football field, but Tami is the one who kept things running smoothly in the Taylor household. The voice of reason for Coach Eric when his job / his players / local fans were all up in his Kool-Aid, Tami was also a great mom whose genuine kindness and caring also made her a top-notch school administrator. Joan Harris, Mad Men16. Joan Harris 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Christina Hendricks She hasn't advanced in her career as far as co-worker Peggy, but Joan is the one person in the office who always knows what's going on -- what's really going on -- with everyone. In another time, the savvy secretary would be running the company, but for now, she'll continue to be the sassy Marilyn Monroe?ish sexpot who's neither full-on career girl nor demure housewife. CJ Cregg West Wing15. C.J. Cregg 'The West Wing' (1999-2006) | Played By: Allison Janney The tough, funny and talented White House press secretary not only served two terms for President Bartlet, but moved up to become White House Chief of Staff and one of the most trusted members of the administration. Liz Lemon 30 Rock14. Liz Lemon '30 Rock' (2006-present) | Played By: Tina Fey She's the heroine of every bespectacled, sweats-wearing, junk-food-noshing, boy-chasing, pop-culture-loving, smart-girl nerd everywhere. Dana Scully X Files13. Dana Scully 'The X-Files' (1993-2002) | Played By: Gillian Anderson A woman of science who was recruited by the FBI when she was in med school, Scully wouldn't buy into partner Mulder's beliefs unless she could prove them. But her affection for and trust in him, and his season 7 abduction, led the brainy beauty to see she could mesh their two points of view. Murphy Brown12. Murphy Brown 'Murphy Brown' (1988-98) | Played By: Candice Bergen The recovering-alcoholic TV newswoman was such an influential character that her single motherhood on TV sparked a real-world scandal when then?Vice President Dan Quayle cited her as a threat to family values during a 1992 presidential campaign speech. Roseanne11. Roseanne Conner 'Roseanne' (1988-97) | Played By: Roseanne Barr She was loud, bossy and insulting, and no topic was too serious for her irreverent 'tude, but self-proclaimed domestic goddess Roseanne was also a fierce mama lion who never stopped wanting more for her friends and family and never shied away from working hard to get it. Edith Bunker All in the Family10. Edith Bunker 'All in the Family' (1971-79) | Played By: Jean Stapleton The incredibly kind, compassionate and non-judgmental foil to bigoted spouse Archie, Edith could have been a cartoonish character, but she loved her friends and family -- even the sometimes hard-to-love Archie -- unconditionally and was a far shrewder woman than Archie's "dingbat" nickname for her might have suggested. Claire Huxtable The Cosby Show9. Claire Huxtable 'The Cosby Show' (1984-92) | Played By: Phylicia Rashad She could bring home the bacon as a talented attorney and fry it up in a pan, all while raising five kids ... six, if you include mischievous husband Cliff. Firm but fair, tough but sensitive and caring, she was one of TV's all-time-coolest moms. Veronica Mars8. Veronica Mars 'Veronica Mars' (2004-07) | Played By: Kristen Bell After being dropped by her rich friends and raped at a party, former popular high schooler Veronica learned becoming awesome was the best revenge, using her new cynicism and sleuthing skills to become first an amateur investigator and, eventually, a licensed P.I., forging relationships with equally awesome new pals along the way. Carmela Soprano, The Sopranos7. Carmela Soprano 'The Sopranos' (1999-2007) | Played By: Edie Falco She was a complicated, but always strong, fiercely loyal and compelling woman, who alternately loved and hated her hubby Tony and could never fully resolve her guilt over enjoying the fruits of their ill-gotten lifestyle. Buffy Summers, Buffy the Vampire Slayer6. Buffy Summers 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Sarah Michelle Gellar She managed to reliably kick baddie butt even while dealing with the usual (and sometimes extraordinarily heartbreaking) ups and downs of life, love and being a teen and 20-something. Elaine Benes Seinfeld5. Elaine Benes 'Seinfeld' (1990-98) | Played By: Julia Louis-Dreyfus From her biting quips to her famous "Get out!" shoves, Elaine always let her male cohorts -- Jerry, Kramer and George -- know that she was the one with the hand in the group. Peggy Olson Mad Men4. Peggy Olson 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Elisabeth Moss Refusing to be relegated to the background in an incredibly sexist, male-dominated industry, ad wiz Peggy continues to fight for power in the office and independence in her swingin', single-girl personal life. Lucy Ricardo, I Love Lucy3. Lucy Ricardo 'I Love Lucy' (1951-60) | Played By: Lucille Ball The meddling redhead couldn't stay out of trouble, but it was only because she wouldn't let anyone, even beloved hubby Ricky or BFF Ethel, keep her in the kitchen and out of the spotlight she craved to be in. Laura Roslin Battlestar Galactica2. Laura Roslin 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Mary McDonnell She was a politician thrust into the role of president just after most of humanity had been killed off, and through some major bumps (and a battle with breast cancer), she helped lead the survivors to a new home. Mary Richards Mary Tyler Moore Show1. Mary Richards 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' (1970-77) | Played By: Mary Tyler Moore Duh, she could turn the world on with her smile. And she inspired whole generations of her fellow working girls to go for it all: friendships, love and a successful career.
Arleana Waller SPOT
Monday, March 7, 2011
100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters less than a minute ago http://www.tvsquad.com/2011/03/02/10... March is Women's History Month, which makes it the perfect time for our countdown of the 100 best female TV characters in prime-time history. You may love some of them, you may hate some of them, but it's a sure bet that all of these TV women will spark memories of some of the best tube-watchin' TV land has offered. Sue Sylvester100. Sue Sylvester 'Glee' (2009-present) | Played By: Jane Lynch The enthusiastic manner in which she embraces her role as McKinley High villain alone makes the show worth watching. Sue's motivation in her anti?New Directions plotting is the continued success of her Cheerios, the school's cheerleading squad, but no matter what her reasons, her trademark track suits, brilliantly biting quips, and devotion to sister Jean have made her one of the most compelling (and quotable) characters on TV these days. Daisy Duke, Dukes of Hazzard99. Daisy Duke 'The Dukes of Hazzard' (1979-85) | Played By: Catherine Bach Waitress at the Boar's Nest, object of affection for deputy Enos, and as skilled a driver and sharpshooter as either of her male cousins Luke and Bo, Daisy will still always be most associated with the short shorts forever known as Daisy Dukes. Nancy Botwin, Weeds98. Nancy Botwin 'Weeds' (2005-present) | Played By: Mary-Louise Parker What's a soccer mom to do when her husband unexpectedly dies and leaves her to raise two rambunctious sons on her own? Launch her own drug business, of course. Not content to simply sling weed to her fellow suburbanites, Nancy's business has taken her to some strange, near-death places, two more marriages, another baby and, looming next season, likely jail. Flo Castleberry97. Flo Castleberry 'Alice' (1976-85) | Played By: Polly Holliday The red bouffant-wearing, gum-smacking, man-chasing waitress at Mel's Diner wasn't exactly the best slinger of hash in Phoenix, but she was a fun and sassy, always ready with a flirtatious greeting for the customers, a helping hand for pals Alice and Vera, and a snappy comeback for grumpy Mel, most famously telling her boss to "Kiss my grits!" Dee, It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia96. Dee Reynolds 'It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia' (2005-present) | Played By: Kaitlin Olson Though she's as wacky, selfish and ethically ambiguous as the rest of The Gang, "Sweet Dee" is often the butt of their jokes. A lesser female would crumble under such treatment -- which includes constant references to her alleged bird-like appearance and taunts about her failed acting career and mysterious pregnancy -- but Dee simply meets Dennis, Charlie, Mac and Frank's unchivalrous behavior with unladylike, but deserved, reactions of her own. Abby Sciuto, NCIS95. Abby Sciuto 'NCIS' (2003-present) | Played By: Pauley Perrette Is her goth dress and vast knowledge of all things death-related a contradiction to her upbeat personality and general happiness with her job? Only if you believe in stereotypes. Besides, what's not to love about a woman with a farting toy hippo named Bert? Sam Carter Stargate SG 194. Sam Carter 'Stargate SG-1' (1997-2007) | Played By: Amanda Tapping She was an astrophysicist and pilot whose efforts helped bring the Stargate program into existence and who actually led the Atlantis adventure for a year, prompting Stargate leader Jack O'Neill to refer to her brain as a national resource. Brenda Walsh, Beverly Hills 9021093. Brenda Walsh 'Beverly Hills, 90210' (1990-2000) | Played By: Shannen Doherty Whiny, self-obsessed and flighty, Brenda was a teen both envied by real-life teens -- partly because she was surrounded by hunky boyfriend Dylan and equally hunky twin brother Brandon -- but also so hated that she inspired the creation of the "I Hate Brenda" fan newsletter. Chrissie, Three's Company92. Chrissy Snow 'Three's Company' (1977-84) | Played By: Suzanne Somers The quintessential dumb blonde character, Chrissy (real name: Christmas Snow) kicked the stereotype up a notch, dishing out double entrendres and malapropisms on a regular basis, wearing her hair in pigtails and adopting a girlish voice and demeanor. She was also the frequent subject of attention from men, even after they'd heard her laugh, which could only be described as "snorting." Chloe O'Brian 2491. Chloe O'Brian '24' (2001-2010) | Played By: Mary Lynn Rajskub Other women and other co-workers had come and gone (sometimes in a permanent manner) in Jack Bauer's life, but Chloe was a bright, talented, somewhat antisocial (some fans believed she had Asperger's) CTU analyst and eventual agency head whose expertise and willingness to challenge authority was directly responsible for saving the hero's life on more than one occasion. Pepper Anderson, Police Woman90. Pepper Anderson 'Police Woman' (1974-78) | Played By: Angie Dickinson Hollywood sex symbol Dickinson projected a much less glamorous, grittier image as Pepper, a Los Angeles police detective who often went undercover to solve the most brutal crimes. Pepper was one of primetime's first female drama series stars, and applications by women to police departments across the country reportedly shot up after the show's first season. Miranda Bailey, Grey's Anatomy89. Miranda Bailey 'Grey's Anatomy' (2005-present) | Played By: Chandra Wilson Nicknamed "The Nazi" by her Seattle Grace co-workers, Bailey is a blunt leader who, nonetheless, has provided much hand-holding for her fellow medical professionals, too, and has shown her own vulnerability in her rocky relationship with her ex-husband. She has also balked at her nickname, offended that her co-workers focus on her demeanor without acknowledging the emotional toll her tough public persona hides. Lois Wilkerson, Malcolm in the Middle88. Lois Wilkerson 'Malcolm in the Middle' (2000-06) | Played By: Jane Kaczmarek Her sons would have described her as mean and stifling, but mother Lois had learned early in motherhood that being wishy-washy with her kids was only a detriment to their development (and her sanity). And that was a realization that served her particularly well as the only female in a family with five sons, including genius Malcolm and trouble-prone Francis and Reese. Jessica Tate, Soap87. Jessica Tate 'Soap' (1977-81) | Played By: Katherine Helmond The matriarch of the wealthy Tate clan, Jessica had it all, including a closet full of skeletons and a serially cheating husband in Chester. But she also remained blissfully ignorant of some of the realities of life around her (and stuck her head in the sand for others), which allowed her to charge ahead eternally optimistic, even when, in the series finale, she stood in front of a firing squad after being kidnapped. Patty Hewes, Damages86. Patty Hewes 'Damages' (2007-present) | Played By: Glenn Close A power player in a male-dominated world, litigator Patty is willing to go to a lot of ethical and legal far corners to win her cases, including ordering the murder of a dog and of the prot�g� who she'd developed motherly feelings for. Hey, remember, this isn't a list of the most likable female TV characters, but the most memorable. Diana, V85. Diana 'V' (1984-85) | Played By: Jane Badler The very intense and committed leader of the aliens known as The Visitors escaped Resistance capture several times after the first attack on earth, and despite the efforts of many on Team Resistance, she evaded recapture long enough to launch the Second Invasion of Earth. Suzanne Sugarbaker84. Suzanne Sugarbaker 'Designing Women' (1986-93) | Played By: Delta Burke She was a rich, selfish former beauty queen and southern belle, which often led her to butt heads with her far more pragmatic sister Julia. But Suzanne didn't need anyone's help in defending herself from Julia or the outside world, thanks to her feisty personality, her ability to give as good as she got and the fact that she's a pistol-packin' member of the NRA. Sun Kwon, Lost83. Sun Kwon 'Lost' (2004-10) | Played By: Yunjin Kim An heiress who fell in love with her father's employee, Sun became unhappy with her new husband, Jin, as he devoted himself to moving up in the company and the two were unable to conceive a child. She planned to leave Jin, but the two reconciled after the Oceanic plane crash, and the pampered Sun became a physically and emotionally tough survivor who gave birth to their daughter and was reunited with her love briefly, before their tragic demise in a submarine. Sue Ellen Ewing82. Sue Ellen Ewing 'Dallas' (1978-91) | Played By: Linda Gray A beauty queen raised by her mother with the sole intent of marrying a wealthy man like J.R., Sue Ellen put up with years of J.R.'s tomcattin' ways while falling further into her own self-destructive alcoholism. But after finally accepting that J.R. would never change, Sue Ellen eventually emerged as a stronger woman, who got her demons in check, ditched ol' J.R. and moved to London. Jill Munroe Charlie's Angels81. Jill Munroe 'Charlie's Angels' (1976-81) | Played By: Farrah Fawcett She was the breakout beauty of the 'Angels' bunch, but Jill was also a tomboy-ish athlete who left behind a police desk job to join Charlie's undercover team of agents. And when even that didn't prove to be exciting or daring enough, she left the Townsend agency (when Fawcett left the show after one season) to become a race car driver. Betty Suarez, Ugly Betty80. Betty Suarez 'Ugly Betty' (2006-10) | Played By: America Ferrera Her Mode magazine cohorts liked to make her plain Jane appearance an issue, but confident, informed, hard-working Betty stuck to her guns, and her values, and relied on her skills and intelligence to lead her through the backstabbing, cutthroat environment as the fashion mag. Jaime Sommers, Bionic Woman79. Jaime Sommers 'The Bionic Woman' (1976-78) | Played By: Lindsay Wagner A former tennis pro and teacher, Jaime's life was saved with the government's bionic body part replacements when she was injured while skydiving with love Steve Austin. Jaime worked for the government to repay the debt, but also remained wedded to the idea of having a life outside the Office of Strategic Science, which she did in future 'Bionic Woman' reunion storylines by becoming a doctor. Willow Rosenberg, Buffy the Vampire Slayer78. Willow Rosenberg 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Alyson Hannigan A shy teen with little confidence when she was introduced, Willow begins to gain more self-assurance as she begins to perfect her magical skills. A brief foray to the dark side gave way to a more mature Willow, who understood the real power of her magic and its effects on others. Kyra Sedgwick77. Brenda Leigh Johnson 'The Closer' (2005-present) | Played By: Kyra Sedgwick She can come off as a sweet Southern woman with a major candy jones, but don't let the exterior fool you. She's also a clever, exacting, patient interrogator and a workaholic, meaning there are few things in her life, including, to his chagrin, husband Fritz, that come between the Los Angeles Police Department deputy chief and solving a case. Morticia Addams, Addams Family76. Morticia Addams 'The Addams Family' (1964-66) | Played By: Carolyn Jones The cultured, refined matriarch of the Addams clan, Morticia kept her family in order, arranging beautiful vases of flowers (well, the stems; she cut off the roses) for their home, raising flesh-eating plants, keeping hubby Gomez in line with her vampy ways and, like any good mom, making sure her family kept living life the Addams way, no matter how creepy, kooky or altogether ooky that may have seemed to everyone else. 75. Edna Garrett 'Facts of Life' (1979-88) | Played By: Charlotte Rae A former housekeeper to the Drummonds of 'Diff'rent Strokes,' Mrs. G became the den mother (and then dietician) at the Eastland Academy for girls. There, she became more like a second mom to Natalie, Tootie, Blair and Jo, and remained such an influential presence in their lives that she would also become their housemate and employer outside school. Snoop The Wire74. Felicia "Snoop" Pearson 'The Wire' (2002-08) | Played By: Felicia Pearson Pearson, a real-life former drug dealer and convicted felon, played Snoop, a murderous drug dealer in the Stanfield crime empire. Engaging in her pursuits with a fatalistic attitude, Snoop was rarely thrown, even in her final moments, when Michael guessed she was about to kill him and put a gun to her head instead. Marion Cunningham73. Marion Cunningham 'Happy Days' (1974-84) | Played By: Marion Ross Mrs. C, as The Fonz affectionately dubbed her, was a loving mama who saw the best in everyone, and cared not just about the well-being of her husband and children, but also of their friends and pseudo son, and upstairs tenant, Fonzie. Laura Ingalls, Little House on the Prairie72. Laura Ingalls 'Little House on the Prairie' (1974-83) | Played By: Melissa Gilbert The spirited daughter of Charles and Caroline, Laura remained the symbol for her family's commitment to hard work, integrity and self sufficiency and her small town's dedication to forging and remaining a close-knit community. Claudette, The Shield71. Claudette Wyms 'The Shield' (2002-08) | Played By: CCH Pounder The moral touchstone in the wildly corrupt "Barn," Claudette, one of the few black female cops when she began her career, felt repercussions in her career several times after standing up against her shady fellow cops. Ultimately, despite her worsening lupus, she was named Captain of the Barn, and satisfyingly got to be the one to lead the final charge that brought about Vic Mackey's downfall. Patty Duke70. Cathy/Patty Lane 'The Patty Duke Show' (1963-66) | Played By: Patty Duke They were cousins, identical cousins, where "Cathy adores a minuet, the Ballet Russes and crepes Suzette"' and "Patty loves to rock 'n' roll, and hot dogs make her lose control." Cleverly, the girls' different cultural backgrounds proved to be largely irrelevant in how they actually dealt with the usual challenges of being a teen. Ally McBeal69. Ally McBeal 'Ally McBeal' (1997-2002) | Played By: Calista Flockhart A talented lawyer, Ally was nonetheless also given to less rational experiences, like the dancing baby and other hallucinations she experienced while trying to mesh her career with her quest to find her soul mate. Ally made plenty of mistakes along the way, and engaged in some selfish activity where men were concerned, but ultimately her conscience always lead her to do what she felt was right. Daria68. Daria Morgendorffer 'Beavis and Butt-Head' and 'Daria' (1993-97 and 1997-2001) | Voiced By: Tracy Grandstaff Created as a foil to slackers Beavis and Butt-head, razor sharp Daria was too great a character to stay in the background, and was spun off into her own 'toon. Her droll musings and cynical teen angst were challenged by her popular sister Quinn, career-woman mom and ditzy dad, as well as her equally sarcastic artist pal Jane and a crush on Jane's slacker rocker brother, Trent. Karen Walker, Will and Grace67. Karen Walker 'Will & Grace' (1998-2006) | Played By: Megan Mullally A "spoiled, shrill, gold-digging socialite who would sooner chew off her own foot than do an honest day's work," is how her friend and boss Grace described her, which, while accurate, doesn't describe how fun and irreverent Karen is. It also hides how, though she'd hate to admit it, loyal a pal she is to Will, Grace, hubby Stanley and especially partner-in-shallow-crime Jack, who, with Karen, usually stole the show from the titular two. Gemma Teller, sons of anarchy66. Gemma Teller 'Sons of Anarchy' (2008-present) | Played By: Katey Sagal Sagal left Peggy Bundy far behind to play Gemma, the ultimate in fierce mamas, who, as the queen of a California motorcycle club led by her husband and son, is as tough as any of the men who surround her. In fact, Gemma is often the brains behind SAMCRO's plots, as she'll do anything, and endure anything, to ensure the club, her son and her family's survival. Whitley, A Different World65. Whitley Gilbert Wayne 'A Different World' (1987-93) | Played By: Jasmine Guy A spoiled, snobby Southern belle when the series began, Whitley was forced to get real and shed (some of) her superficial ways when she fell in love with regular guy Dwayne Wayne. And though the two clashed continuously, a last-minute declaration of love (during Whitley's wedding ceremony to another guy) led to a Dwayne-Whitley marriage, and her continuing evolution as a kinder, less selfish woman. Deanna Troi, Star Trek: The Next Generation064. Deanna Troi 'Star Trek: The Next Generation' (1987-94) | Played By: Marina Sirtis Despite her skin-tight suit (and the fact that the character was originally written to have four breasts), the half-human, half-Betazoid Enterprise counselor's skills were so respected by her peers that she eventually was promoted to the rank of commander. Angela Chase My So Called Life63. Angela Chase 'My So-Called Life' (1994-95) | Played By: Claire Danes One of the angsty-est teens in TV history was also one real-world teens could most identify with. And as 15-year-old Angela tried to figure out life by shedding everything that used to be familiar to her and adopting some diverse new friends, she remained true to her beliefs and values. Maddie Hayes, Moonlighting62. Maddie Hayes 'Moonlighting' (1985-89) | Played By: Cybill Shepherd Not content to be summed up by her looks, former model Maddie decided to operate the Blue Moon Detective Agency, a business she had long ago purchased as a tax write-off. And though her tangled personal relationship with fellow detective David would eventually drive the series, Maddie stubbornly remained firmly in charge ... of both the agency and, to David's chagrin, their affair. Alexis Colby, Dynasty61. Alexis Colby 'Dynasty' (1981-89) | Played By: Joan Collins The opposite of sweet and selfless rival Krystle, Alexis was, of course, the far more interesting 'Dynasty' diva. Her methods, which included trying to destroy ex-husband Blake and his new wife Krystle, were often misguided, but her passion and motivation while fighting for her beloved children were right on the money. Jeannie, I Dream of Jeannie60. Jeannie 'I Dream of Jeannie' (1965-70) | Played By: Barbara Eden She was a woman devoted to her job -- pleasing "master" Tony and helping him in any way she could -- even when her boss didn't want her help, and by forging ahead, Jeannie was actually quite in control of her destiny (and eventually married her master). Hot Lips, MASH59. Margaret Houlihan 'M*A*S*H' (1972-83) | Played By: Loretta Swit They called her "Hot Lips," but Margaret wasn't just the camp's resident hot babe; she was also a smart, caring, talented nurse who could hold her own with wiseguys Hawkeye, Trapper, B.J. and Winchester. Florence Johnston58. Florence Johnston 'The Jeffersons' (1975-85) | Played By: Marla Gibbs The Jeffersons' sassy, wise-crackin' maid didn't take gruff from anyone, particularly boss George, who hated her cooking and laziness. Florence had become a de facto member of the family, however, and felt comfortable continuing her laziness and zinging Mr. J back whenever he dropped an insult. She even earned a short-lived spin-off, 'Checking In,' that lasted four episodes in 1981 before she headed back to work (or not to work) in that dee-luxe apartment in the sky. Lorelai Gilmore, Gilmore Girls57. Lorelai Gilmore 'Gilmore Girls' (2000-07) | Played By: Lauren Graham She didn't focus on the challenges of being a single teen mom, and instead made sure daughter Rory's life was filled with love, laughter, a deep appreciation and knowledge of pop culture, and the assurance that Lorelai would always be there as her mom and her fast-talkin' BFF. Carol Brady56. Carol Brady 'The Brady Bunch' (1969-74) | Played By: Florence Henderson Carol broke the ugly stereotype of the wicked stepmother, as she loved the Brady boys as much as her own daughters. In one memorable episode, she even offered to run away with Bobby when he felt he was unwanted in the famous ranch house. Colleen McMurphy, China Beach55. Colleen McMurphy 'China Beach' (1988-91) | Played By: Dana Delany She represented the sacrifices made by and horrific experiences encountered by nurses in the Vietnam War, who may not have personally engaged in combat, but certainly saw and treated the heartbreaking results of it. Jennifer Marlowe, WKRP in Cincinnati54. Jennifer Marlowe 'WKRP in Cincinnati' (1978-82) | Played By: Loni Anderson The antithesis of the dumb blonde stereotype, shrewd, confident WKRP receptionist Jennifer was one of the station's most calming forces, whether she was answering phones (she refused to type, take dictation or get coffee), helping the bickering staff make up, deflecting the creepy advances of salesman Herb or protecting nervous boss Mr. Carlson from dealing with people and issues that freaked him out. Gidget53. Gidget Lawrence 'Gidget' (1965-66) | Played By: Sally Field Days at the beach and boyfriend Moondoggie took up much of Gidget's time, but her so-called life was really about a 15-year-old girl trying to maneuver the tricky teen years while being raised by a single dad. Endora, Bewitched52. Endora 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Agnes Moorehead Opposed to daughter Sam's marriage to the mortal Darrin -- whom Endora refers to as "Durwood" -- Endora became the ultimate meddling mother-in-law. Opposed to all mortals, in fact, Endora was especially horrified at having one in her family, which led her to cast many a spell on Durwood, not in hopes of killing him, but in hopes of killing his marriage to Samantha. Abby, ER51. Abby Lockhart 'ER' (1994-2009) | Played By: Maura Tierney An E.R. nurse who temporarily sacrificed her own dreams of becoming a doctor to pay for her then-husband's med school stay, Abby didn't let her alcoholism, her painful childhood with her bipolar-disorder-suffering mother and absentee dad or rocky romantic relationships derail her, as she became a doctor, wife and mother by series' end. 50. Olivia Benson 'Law & Order: SVU' ( 1999-present) | Played By: Mariska Hargitay The product of her mother's rape, Benson chose to devote her career to working in the sex crimes unit of the NYPD, where she was a sympathetic presence and fierce protector for sexual assault victims, even after nearly being assaulted herself in a season 9 episode. June Cleaver49. June Cleaver 'Leave It to Beaver' (1957-63) | Played By: Barbara Billingsley She was always a little worried about Wally and The Beav, always willing to nurse their physical and emotional wounds with an icy glass of milk and freshly-baked cookies and always answered the door -- and vacuumed! -- with her trademark pearls intact. Retro, sure, but she was one magnificent mama. Carla Tortelli, Cheers48. Carla Tortelli 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Rhea Perlman Cheers waitress Carla had far less education than fellow waitress Diane, but no one could come up with a clever jab faster than Carla, who kept her co-workers and customers in line with her sharp tongue. The tough Boston broad was just as in control in her personal life, which allowed her to raise eight children on her own after divorcing oily Nick and being widowed by cheating former hockey pro Eddie. Leslie Knope, Parks and Recreation47. Leslie Knope 'Parks and Recreation' (2009-present) | Played By: Amy Poehler The always-enthusiastic Leslie might be annoying, if it weren't for the fact that her enthusiasm is so completely genuine. Her life's mission is to use her local government position to make Pawnee a better place to live for its citizens (and to become the first female president), even if that means ignoring her more cynical co-workers or spinning negative feedback into positive, as when she says a group of townies yelling at her is really "people caring loudly at me." Pegy Bundy Married With Children46. Peg Bundy 'Married ... With Children' (1987-97) | Played By: Katey Sagal She was the housewife who sat on the couch watching TV and eating bonbons. Selfish, lazy, big-haired Peg was completely unapologetic about her love of spending husband Al's money and her hatred of doing anything domestic, making her a fun and refreshing alternative to both the harried housewives and work-obsessed women that have populated most of prime time. Blanche Devereaux, Golden Girls45. Blanche Devereaux 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Rue McClanahan Southern belle Blanche had a more active love life than characters half her age, and was unashamed about her constant hot pursuit of male company after the death of her beloved husband George. The always-stylishly-attired Blanche, like her fellow 'Golden Girls,' showed that women of a more advanced age didn't have to fit into any stereotypes. Florida Evans, Good Times44. Florida Evans 'Good Times' (1974-79) | Played By: Esther Rolle Introduced to TV land as the family's maid on 'Maude,' Florida and her family were moved to Chicago for 'Good Times,' where the family constantly struggled to make it out of the housing projects. They finally had a shot, only to lose father James in a car accident, leaving the resilient Florida to continue the family's struggle on her own. Jessica Fletcher, Murder She Wrote43. Jessica Fletcher 'Murder, She Wrote' (1984-96) | Played By: Angela Lansbury No retired widow was she; Jessica was the bestselling mystery novel author of tomes like 'The Corpse Danced at Midnight' and 'The Corpse Swam by Moonlight.' She was also an amateur sleuth who got wrapped up in real-life murder mysteries in her Maine hometown and anywhere she traveled, from New York to Hawaii. Shirley Feeney, Laverne and Shirley42. Shirley Feeney 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Cindy Williams The eternal optimist to her more cynical pal Laverne, sweet Shirley was responsible for getting the two gals back on their feet again every time one of their plans to meet nice guys or improve their lives inevitably fell through. Carrie Bradshaw41. Carrie Bradshaw 'Sex and the City' (1998-2004) | Played By: Sarah Jessica Parker TV's most recent It Girl, writer Carrie was committed to work, fashion, her friends and finding love, all while eschewing many of the rules her fellow New York 30-somethings went along with. Her weekly newspaper chronicle of life and love in NYC was like a personal diary of her own Big exploits, but also put her romantic dramas in a context that had universal meaning. Dorothy, Golden Girls40. Dorothy Zbornak 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Bea Arthur Sarcastic and biting, the practical Dorothy was the much-needed voice of reason among the 'Golden Girls.' Often teased by her roomies, including mama Sophia, for being unfeminine thanks to her height and deep voice, the high school teacher nevertheless had her share of suitors, including Blanche's uncle, whom she married at the end of the series. Mary Beth Lacey, Cagney and Lacey39. Mary Beth Lacey 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Tyne Daly A married-with-children policewoman, Mary Beth shared with partner Cagney the challenges facing females in a male-dominated, and often dangerous, profession. She also dealt with issues unique to her life, such as the tension her work and hours away from home created with her husband. Ethel Mertz, I Love Lucy38. Ethel Mertz 'I Love Lucy' (1951-87) | Played By: Vivian Vance Ethel was Lucy's landlord, best friend and much-needed voice of reason during their hilarious schemes. A bit more deferential to her husband Fred than Lucy was to Ricky, sharp-tongued Ethel was still fiercely loyal to Lucy, whether the two were competing with each other for a showbiz role, operating a dress shop or restaurant together or trying to control the flow of sweets at the chocolate factory. Amanda Woodward, Melrose Place37. Amanda Woodward 'Melrose Place' (1992-99) | Played By: Heather Locklear She certainly dressed like a woman, with her trademark miniskirt suits, and used her sexuality to wrap the men in her life around her little finger, but when it came to the boardroom, Amanda could play corporate games as well as any of her male cohorts. Better, even. Her arrival, after all, turned 'Melrose' from an OK show into a guilty-pleasure phenomenon. Starbuck Battlestar Galactica36. Kara "Starbuck" Thrace 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Katee Sackhoff Hot-headed, rebellious, hard-drinking gambler and dedicated, disciplined, clear-headed fighter pilot (who was a male character in the original series) -- Starbuck was both, and throughout her many complicated relationships, she remained a leader who ultimately helped lead her people to a new home. Alice Kramden Honeymooners35. Alice Kramden 'The Honeymooners' (1955-56) | Played By: Audrey Meadows Blowhard hubby Ralph was always threatening to send Alice "straight to the moon." but even on his worst days, Ralph knew that patient wife Alice was his far better half. Not that she couldn't give as good as she got; though she put up with his various schemes, Alice never failed to meet his wisecracks with a well-placed barb of her own. Samantha Stephens, Bewitched34. Samantha Stephens 'Bewitched' (1964-72) | Played By: Elizabeth Montgomery Who among us hasn't at one time wished we could wrinkle up our noses and unleash a little magic? Beautiful good witch Samantha could do just that. Against the wishes of her meddling mama and to please mortal husband Darrin, Samantha was happy to live life sans spells. Most of the time, anyway. Sophia Petrillo, Golden Girls33. Sophia Petrillo 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Estelle Getty The grandmommy of the one-liner, Sicilian Sophia had no filter, which made her a hoot as she instantly spilled whatever quip flew into her head, no matter how rude or whom it was aimed at. Daughter Dorothy, in fact, was a favorite target, as were housemates daffy Rose and man-hungry Blanche. Rhoda, Mary Tyler Moore Show32. Rhoda Morgenstern 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' & 'Rhoda' (1970-77 & 1974-78) | Played By: Valerie Harper So awesome that she spanned two series, neurotic, tough-talking New Yorker Rhoda moved from NYC to Minnesota and then back to the Big Apple for her spin-off series, in which she continued to pursue her window-dresser career and married dream guy Joe. She survived a divorce a couple of years later when the marriage soured. Diana Prince, Wonder Woman31. Diana Prince / Wonder Woman 'Wonder Woman' (1975-79) | Played By: Lynda Carter With a magical twirl, Amazonian princess Diana Prince became Wonder Woman, who used her golden lasso and her bullet-deflecting bracelets to thwart the evil-doing of baddies like Nazis, non-violent-style. Carter became an icon in her patriotic costume, meaning her red boots are going to be tough to fill on next season's planned 'Wonder Woman' remake. Diane Chambers, Cheers30. Diane Chambers 'Cheers' (1982-93) | Played By: Shelley Long Diane was easily impressed ... with her own intellect. And she was constantly frustrated by the fact that no one else would defer to what she was sure was her superior knowledge of, well, everything. Beneath that bravado, Diane did have genuine affection for her Cheers co-workers and customers and, of course, had one of the great love/hate relationships of all time with boss Sam. Lucille Bluth, Arrested Development29. Lucille Bluth 'Arrested Development' (2003-06) | Played By: Jessica Walter The matriarch of the quirky Bluth clan, Lucille could also accurately be described as the mother from hell. Any of her children's issues (and they had many) could likely be traced back to Lucille, who was committed to one thing above all: family. Specifically, using the resources of the family business to fund her decadent lifestyle. Laverne, Laverne and Shirley28. Laverne DeFazio 'Laverne & Shirley' (1976-83) | Played By: Penny Marshall Laverne was a sarcastic tomboy with a big heart, and a loyal BFF and roommate to Shirley, who was also her co-worker and co-pilot in a never-ending search to meet the right fellas and engage in a bit of vo-dee-o-doe-doe. And when that failed, she and Shirl could be found bonding in their Milwaukee apartment, with Laverne, attired in her trademark "L" sweaters, sipping a milk and Pepsi. Jennifer Garner27. Sydney Bristow 'Alias' (2001-06) | Played By: Jennifer Garner She spoke dozens of languages, was skilled in multiple self-defense methods and could handle the most severe physical and emotional challenges (including the deaths of several people close to her) fearlessly. Throughout it all, Sydney remained a nice, relatively sane woman devoted to family and friends. Miss Piggy, Muppets26. Miss Piggy 'The Muppet Show' (1976-81) | Voiced By: Frank Oz Initially meant to be a minor character, Miss Piggy fought her way into the spotlight, as the natural-born ham is wont to do. All she really wants is to be a star -- and to be a couple with her Kermie. She's the only Muppet to pen a real New York Times bestseller list autobiography. Xena Warrior Princess25. Xena 'Xena: Warrior Princess' (1995-2001) | Played By: Lucy Lawless Her tight leather dress was only the beginning of Xena's tough-chick persona, as she sought to redeem herself for her past as a warlord by doing good deeds with her considerable skills, which had once almost allowed her to kill Hercules! Marge Simpson, The Simpsons24. Marge Simpson 'The Simpsons' (1989-present) | Played By: Julie Kavner Right down to the string of pearls, she's the modern-day June Cleaver, if June had been animated with big blue hair, a clueless husband and three challenging children. But mama Marge will defend her brood to the end. As she said, "If loving my kids is lame, then I guess I'm just a big lame." Rachel Green, Friends23. Rachel Green 'Friends' (1994-2004) | Played By: Jennifer Aniston Sure, there's the iconic haircut, but Rachel became one of viewers' favorite 'Friends' because she grew from what could have been a one-note character -- the spoiled, self-involved husband-seeker -- into a more independent, caring pal who left her cushy lifestyle behind and took a chance on finding career and relationship happiness in the Big Apple. Christine Cagney, Cagney and Lacey22. Christine Cagney 'Cagney & Lacey' (1981-88) | Played By: Sharon Gless Cagney was the single career-woman half of the team and the daughter of an NYPD vet who had inspired her to become a crime-fighter with tales of his own adventures. Unfortunately, Christine also followed in her father's footsteps as an alcoholic, just one of the many problems the witty, working-class cop and her partner/BFF Lacey tackled together. Lt. Uhura, Star Trek21. Nyota Uhura 'Star Trek' (1966-69) | Played By: Nichelle Nichols Captain Kirk's chief communications officer, Uhura was a TV role model, with future Oscar winner (and 'Star Trek' star herself) Whoopi Goldberg recalling that she made an impression on her as one of the first black female characters on TV who wasn't a maid. Uhura was also involved in a groundbreaking moment on the show, as she and Kirk kissed in the 'Plato's Stepchildren' episode, one of the first interracial smooches on the tube. Maude20. Maude Findlay 'Maude' (1972-78) | Played By: Bea Arthur And then there's Maude! The feisty, big-mouthed liberal was Edith Bunker's cousin, hence the 'All in the Family' spin-off. And like her cousin-in-law Archie, Maude made her own mark in prime time, letting everyone know about her opinions on civil rights and women's rights. In one controversial episode, she had an abortion -- before Roe v. Wade made the process legal. Alicia Florrick The Good Wife19. Alicia Florrick 'The Good Wife' (2009-present) | Played By: Julianna Margulies The numerous cheating-politician scandals of recent years always left us wondering how the politicians' wives deal with their public humiliation. And we can only hope that it's with even half the grace of Alicia, who resumed her career (starting at the bottom rung as an attorney) and continues to try to resume her marriage for the sake of her family. Rose Nylund Golden Girls18. Rose Nylund 'The Golden Girls' (1985-92) | Played By: Betty White A little na�ve and a bit ditzy, Rose was also a lot kind-hearted, which made her the most lovable of the 'Golden Girls.' And that was a good thing, because her friends sometimes needed a lot of patience to sit through her charming -- to viewers, anyway -- tales of St. Olaf. Tami Taylor Friday Night Lights17. Tami Taylor 'Friday Night Lights' (2006-2011) | Played By: Connie Britton Her husband was clearly in charge on the football field, but Tami is the one who kept things running smoothly in the Taylor household. The voice of reason for Coach Eric when his job / his players / local fans were all up in his Kool-Aid, Tami was also a great mom whose genuine kindness and caring also made her a top-notch school administrator. Joan Harris, Mad Men16. Joan Harris 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Christina Hendricks She hasn't advanced in her career as far as co-worker Peggy, but Joan is the one person in the office who always knows what's going on -- what's really going on -- with everyone. In another time, the savvy secretary would be running the company, but for now, she'll continue to be the sassy Marilyn Monroe?ish sexpot who's neither full-on career girl nor demure housewife. CJ Cregg West Wing15. C.J. Cregg 'The West Wing' (1999-2006) | Played By: Allison Janney The tough, funny and talented White House press secretary not only served two terms for President Bartlet, but moved up to become White House Chief of Staff and one of the most trusted members of the administration. Liz Lemon 30 Rock14. Liz Lemon '30 Rock' (2006-present) | Played By: Tina Fey She's the heroine of every bespectacled, sweats-wearing, junk-food-noshing, boy-chasing, pop-culture-loving, smart-girl nerd everywhere. Dana Scully X Files13. Dana Scully 'The X-Files' (1993-2002) | Played By: Gillian Anderson A woman of science who was recruited by the FBI when she was in med school, Scully wouldn't buy into partner Mulder's beliefs unless she could prove them. But her affection for and trust in him, and his season 7 abduction, led the brainy beauty to see she could mesh their two points of view. Murphy Brown12. Murphy Brown 'Murphy Brown' (1988-98) | Played By: Candice Bergen The recovering-alcoholic TV newswoman was such an influential character that her single motherhood on TV sparked a real-world scandal when then?Vice President Dan Quayle cited her as a threat to family values during a 1992 presidential campaign speech. Roseanne11. Roseanne Conner 'Roseanne' (1988-97) | Played By: Roseanne Barr She was loud, bossy and insulting, and no topic was too serious for her irreverent 'tude, but self-proclaimed domestic goddess Roseanne was also a fierce mama lion who never stopped wanting more for her friends and family and never shied away from working hard to get it. Edith Bunker All in the Family10. Edith Bunker 'All in the Family' (1971-79) | Played By: Jean Stapleton The incredibly kind, compassionate and non-judgmental foil to bigoted spouse Archie, Edith could have been a cartoonish character, but she loved her friends and family -- even the sometimes hard-to-love Archie -- unconditionally and was a far shrewder woman than Archie's "dingbat" nickname for her might have suggested. Claire Huxtable The Cosby Show9. Claire Huxtable 'The Cosby Show' (1984-92) | Played By: Phylicia Rashad She could bring home the bacon as a talented attorney and fry it up in a pan, all while raising five kids ... six, if you include mischievous husband Cliff. Firm but fair, tough but sensitive and caring, she was one of TV's all-time-coolest moms. Veronica Mars8. Veronica Mars 'Veronica Mars' (2004-07) | Played By: Kristen Bell After being dropped by her rich friends and raped at a party, former popular high schooler Veronica learned becoming awesome was the best revenge, using her new cynicism and sleuthing skills to become first an amateur investigator and, eventually, a licensed P.I., forging relationships with equally awesome new pals along the way. Carmela Soprano, The Sopranos7. Carmela Soprano 'The Sopranos' (1999-2007) | Played By: Edie Falco She was a complicated, but always strong, fiercely loyal and compelling woman, who alternately loved and hated her hubby Tony and could never fully resolve her guilt over enjoying the fruits of their ill-gotten lifestyle. Buffy Summers, Buffy the Vampire Slayer6. Buffy Summers 'Buffy the Vampire Slayer' (1997-2003) | Played By: Sarah Michelle Gellar She managed to reliably kick baddie butt even while dealing with the usual (and sometimes extraordinarily heartbreaking) ups and downs of life, love and being a teen and 20-something. Elaine Benes Seinfeld5. Elaine Benes 'Seinfeld' (1990-98) | Played By: Julia Louis-Dreyfus From her biting quips to her famous "Get out!" shoves, Elaine always let her male cohorts -- Jerry, Kramer and George -- know that she was the one with the hand in the group. Peggy Olson Mad Men4. Peggy Olson 'Mad Men' (2007-present) | Played By: Elisabeth Moss Refusing to be relegated to the background in an incredibly sexist, male-dominated industry, ad wiz Peggy continues to fight for power in the office and independence in her swingin', single-girl personal life. Lucy Ricardo, I Love Lucy3. Lucy Ricardo 'I Love Lucy' (1951-60) | Played By: Lucille Ball The meddling redhead couldn't stay out of trouble, but it was only because she wouldn't let anyone, even beloved hubby Ricky or BFF Ethel, keep her in the kitchen and out of the spotlight she craved to be in. Laura Roslin Battlestar Galactica2. Laura Roslin 'Battlestar Galactica' (2004-09) | Played By: Mary McDonnell She was a politician thrust into the role of president just after most of humanity had been killed off, and through some major bumps (and a battle with breast cancer), she helped lead the survivors to a new home. Mary Richards Mary Tyler Moore Show1. Mary Richards 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' (1970-77) | Played By: Mary Tyler Moore Duh, she could turn the world on with her smile. And she inspired whole generations of her fellow working girls to go for it all: friendships, love and a successful career.
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What MLB team calls Fenway Park home? | A to Z Guide to Fenway Park | Boston Red Sox
No game: 10 a.m.-5 p.m.
Game day: 10 a.m.-1 hour after game begins
Off-season: Monday-Friday, 10 a.m.-5 p.m.
Contact Us
Accessibility for Disabled Fans
All gates around Fenway Park are handicap-accessible. Gate D has three elevators and Gates B and E have one elevator each available to fans who require them. Grandstand wheelchair ticket holders should enter through Gates D or E.
View a map of Fenway Park
Alcoholic Beverages
Sale of beer at Fenway Park is stopped at the end of the 7th inning (or two and a half hours after the start of the ballgame or earlier at the discretion of management).
The following forms of ID are accepted for the purchase of alcoholic beverages. Every guest is asked for identification every time.
State Issued Driver's license
Passport or passport card
Animals
Certified service dogs for guests with disabilities are welcome at Fenway Park. All other animals are prohibited.
Anthem Singers
National Anthem
Assisted Listening Devices
Assisted Listening Devices (ALDs) are available to fans who may have hearing or visual impairments. The ALDs are located at the Fan Services Booths at Gates B and E. A $20 refundable cash deposit is required to use a device for the duration of the game. Should fans encounter any issues with the devices, they are encouraged to send a text message to 23215 with the keyword 'security' to report any problems or receive assistance.
View a map of Fenway Park
ATM Machines
For your convenience, there are 5 Bank of America ATMS inside Fenway Park. ATMs are located at (1) Gate E/3rd Base Concourse; (2) Gate A/Yawkey Way; (3) Gate D/Homeplate; (4) The Big Concourse; (5) Gate C.
View a map of Fenway Park
Autograph Alley
Autograph Alley hosts a former Boston Red Sox player, coach, or personality before each home game to sign autographs free of charge. You can find Autograph Alley in the Yawkey Way Team Store.
B
Bags, Containers and Coolers
No bag or item larger than 16"x16"x8" will be permitted inside the Park. Hard-sided coolers and glass containers are not allowed.
Ball in Play
Any guest interfering with a ball in play, or going onto the playing field, will be ejected from the ball park and subject to possible arrest.
Read all the Fenway Park Ground Rules
Braille Schedules
Braille schedules are available to those fans that are vision-impaired or blind. These items are available in the Red Sox Ticket Office.
View a map of Fenway Park
Big Concourse
Offering Fenway Park's widest selection of food and beverage, pregame entertainment, the Rawlings' Making the Game booth, family style picnic tables and more, the Big Concourse is the perfect place to take in the energy and excitement of the park before and during the game. The Big Concourse is located between Gate B and Gate C near the outfield.
View a map of Fenway Park
Birthday Parties
Celebrate your Birthday at a Red Sox Game with the Red Sox Birthday Package for kids ages 3-16. Package includes early entrance, birthday meal and more! Contact Jess Dudek for more info at [email protected] or 617.226.6284
Bricks
Fenway Park commemorative bricks can be found in the Fenway Park concourse area inside Gate B and Gate C. To find the exact location of your brick please please visit redsox.com/bricks.
C
Cameras
Cameras and video cameras are permitted inside Fenway Park, but cannot be used to reproduce the game and must not interfere with other fans' enjoyment of the game.
Cellular Phones
The use of cellular phones and pagers are permitted as long as their use does not interfere with other guests' enjoyment of the game.
Champions Club presented by Alex and Ani
Located in the Big Concourse, the Players Club is a terrific setting for companies, family reunions, alumni associations and other groups to gather and eat before a Red Sox game. For more information or to reserve your pregame date at the Players Club, please contact our Group Sales Department by calling 617.226.6835.
Changing Tables
Changing tables are located in the Men's and Women's washrooms at Gate E and in the Men's and Women's washrooms at the lower concourse level behind home plate, as well as the Family Restroom at Gate E. There is also a changing table on the Pavilion Level (behind Pavilion Box 14, and on top of Pavilion Box 2).
Children
Kids
Commuter Rail
The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) provides numerous convenient ways for Red Sox fans to get to Fenway Park using public transportation. The Red Sox strongly encourage all fans to take public transportation to the game.
Fenway Park Concessions Guide
Conduct
All fans are expected to comply with Fenway Park's Code of Conduct. Failure to do so may result in ejection from Fenway Park. The Boston Red Sox do not condone misbehavior of any kind.
Code of Conduct
Customer Service
The Boston Red Sox make every effort to preserve the family atmosphere and ensure that all fans are able to enjoy the game in comfort. For the convenience of our fans, ushers and security staff are posted throughout the ballpark. Any fan in need of assistance of any kind is urged to visit our Customer Service booths, where trained staff is ready to help. Customer service booths are located at (1) the Big Concourse; (2) Gate D/Homeplate; (3) Gate E/3rd Base Concourse.
D
Dell EMC Club
Overlooking the playing field and the city of Boston, the Dell EMC Club is one of Fenway Park's premium seating areas. The inside of the club is climate controlled with an elegant restaurant and full-service bar areas. Outside you will find padded seats with a TV screen in each section and some of the best views in baseball. The Dell EMC Club is sold on a season ticket basis only.
Read more about the Dell EMC Club
Donations
To request an in-kind donation from the Red Sox Community Relations Department, please see the Community Relations In-Kind Donation Policy.
Getting to and parking at Fenway Park
Fans with Disabilities
The Red Sox take pride in serving all our guests and hope your Fenway Park experience will bring you back many times in the future. A variety of accommodations are offered to make your experience an enjoyable one. Find more information in our Access Guide.
Access Guide
Fans with disabilities may purchase tickets either by telephone from the Red Sox Ticket Office at 877-REDSOX9 (877-733-7699) or in person at the Red Sox Ticket Office. The Red Sox Ticket Office is located at 4 Yawkey Way, Boston, MA 02215-3496 and is open Monday through Friday, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. All tickets for fans with disabilities must be purchased no later than 72 hours in advance of each game. Security will verify the validity of all handicap patrons on a random basis.
Getting to and parking at Fenway Park
Designated Driver
Register to be a designated driver at the Good Sport registration located at Gate A and in the Big Concourse. You must have a valid driver's license to register.
E
Elevators
There are three elevators at Gate D that provide accessibility to all levels of the park. Gate B has one elevator that provides accessibility to the Deep Right Field Grandstands, the Right Field Roof Deck and Right Field Roof Boxes. The last elevator is located between Gates A and E provides accessibility to all levels on the Left Field side of the ballpark.
View a map of Fenway Park
Escalators
There is an escalator located at the 20 Yawkey Way entrance servicing the Dell Technologies Level, and an additional escalator from the Dell Technologies Level to the State Street Pavilion.
Events
Fenway Park has hosted Presidents and legends, all-stars and rock stars. Now it can host your event! Inside these hallowed walls, we have created exceptional spaces and facilities. Our renowned chefs proudly present superb, 5-Star cuisine. Our staff is attentive to your every need. We invite you to explore all that Fenway Park has to offer in making your event an unforgettable memory. To book your next event at Fenway Park, get more information at redsox.com/events, call 617-226-6791 or, write to us at [email protected] .
F
Family Restrooms
Family Restrooms are located at the Customer Service booth at Gate E and next to the elevator in the Big Concourse. In addition, there is a family restroom located on the Pavilion Level under Pavilion Box 14 and on top of Pavilion Box 2.
View a map of Fenway Park
Feedback
The best way to send feedback to the Red Sox is by sending an e-mail to [email protected] . You can also visit our Help/Contact Us form.
Help/Contact Us form
Field Dimensions
Fenway Park measures 310 feet (94.5 meters) down the left field line: 379 feet (115.5 meters) in left center field; 390 feet (118.9 meters) in center field; 420 feet (128 meters) in deep center field; 380 feet (115.8 meters) in deep right field; and 302 feet (92 meters) down the right field line.
The left field wall -- also known as the Green Monster -- measures 37 feet (11.3 meters) high. The center field wall is 17 feet (5.2 meters) high, the bullpen fences measure five feet (1.5 meters) and the right field fence is 3 to 5 feet (0.9 to 1.5 meters) high.
Get more Fenway Facts
First Aid
Fans with injuries can get emergency treatment at the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center First Aid Station located on the lower concourse on the right field line near Section 12.
View a map of Fenway Park
Foul Balls
Fans are permitted to keep foul balls hit into the stands as souvenirs. However, fans must not go onto the field or interfere in any way with a ball still in play. Fans interfering with a ball in play will be subject to arrest and prosecution.
G
All Fenway Park gates open 90 minutes prior to scheduled start time of every game.
H
Hall of Fame
Created in 1995, the Red Sox Hall of Fame recognizes the outstanding careers of former Red Sox players, managers, front office members and broadcasters. The Hall of Fame plaques are located in the Dell EMC Club hallway. Inductees are chosen every two years by a 14-member selection committee of Red Sox broadcasters and executives, past and present media personnel, and representatives from The Sports Museum of New England and the BoSox Booster Club. A memorable moment in Red Sox history is also recognized in each induction cycle.
To be eligible for nomination, players must have played at least three years with the Red Sox and must also have been out of uniform as an active player at least three years.
The non-uniformed person(s) selected and the memorable moment selected will be chosen only by a unanimous vote of the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame Selection Committee.
There are 19 former Boston Red Sox personnel who spent a significant portion of their careers with the Red Sox in the National Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, NY. They are automatically enshrined into the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame.
In November 2008 there were eight inductions into the Red Sox Hall of Fame: right-hander Wes Ferrell, left fielder Mike Greenwell, left-hander Bill Lee, shortstop Everett Scott, right-hander Frank Sullivan and first baseman Mo Vaughn. Non-uniformed inductees were scout George Digby and VP minor leagues Ed Kenney Sr.
L
Large Print Schedules
Large print schedules are available to those fans who are vision-impaired or blind. These items are available in the Red Sox Ticket Office.
Lost and Found
Any items found at Fenway Park should be turned in at a Customer Service Booth. Fans who have lost items lost items should call Fan Services at 877-REDSOX9 the following day for assistance.
Lost Children
If you lose a child in the ballpark please contact the nearest Security staff member or go to one of the Customer Service Booths located at Gate D, Gate E, and the Big Concourse.
View a map of Fenway Park
Lost Tickets
The Red Sox will not replace lost or destroyed tickets. We urge you to store tickets in a safe and dry environment.
M
Magazine
A must-have for die-hard Red Sox fans, the Red Sox Magazine has insider interviews, articles and photos that will bring you even closer to the Red Sox.
Proper dress is required at all times inside Fenway Park.
Public Address Announcements
Use of the public address system is reserved strictly for ballgame-related announcements. If you are not in attendance and an emergency dictates, phone 617-226-6000.
Public Transportation
The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) provides numerous convenient ways for Red Sox fans to get to Fenway Park using public transportation. The Red Sox strongly encourage all fans to take public transportation to the game.
R
Re-Entry
Absolutely no re-entry is allowed at Fenway Park. Upon exiting the park for any reason, fans are unable to return.
Rain Delays
In the case of inclement weather, please check http://redsox.com/weather, call 877-REDSOX-9 for any updates, or follow us directly on Twitter @RedSoxWeather.
Weather information
Red Sox Nation
For more information about how you make your citizenship in Red Sox Nation official, visit the Red Sox Nation section at redsoxnation.com.
Ticket Office
Resale of Tickets
Red Sox tickets are revocable licenses and the Red Sox may revoke tickets for any reason, at management's discretion. These ticket licenses do not confer any property right to the ticket holder. Ticket holders are advised that the Red Sox may cancel or revoke tickets for certain conduct including, but not limited to, the following:
Any form of fraudulent activity;
The purchase of tickets for the purpose and intent of reselling the tickets on the secondary market;
Use of tickets for sweepstakes, contests, and/or promotions without the prior written consent from the Red Sox.
In the event that ticket holders are unable to attend games and need to sell their tickets, the Club recommends that the ticket holders go through licensed entities for this purpose. Ticket holders should comply with applicable Massachusetts law in connection with any such resale.
Restrooms
There are restrooms to accommodate all guests conveniently located throughout Fenway Park.
Restrooms on Main and Lower Concourses: Left Field Grandstand, Gate C, Gate D Concourse, Gate E, Infield Concourse, Main Concourse, Right Field Boxes, Absolut Clubhouse.
Premium Seating Restrooms: Right Field Roof Deck, Right and Left Field Pavilion level, State Street Pavilion, Dell EMC Club, Green Monster.
Please also see Family Restrooms.
Family Restrooms
Retired Numbers
The retired Red Sox numbers of Ted Williams (9), Joe Cronin (4), Bobby Doerr (1), Carl Yastrzemski (8), Carlton Fisk (27), Johnny Pesky (6), and Jim Rice (14), along with Jackie Robinson's #42 that was retired by Major League Baseball in 1997, are affixed to the right field facade in Fenway Park.
The Red Sox' policy on retiring uniform numbers is based on meeting at least two of the following criteria:
Election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame
At least 10 years played with the Red Sox
Finish his career with the club
Retired Red Sox numbers
Royal Rooters Club
The Royal Rooters Club is home to the Nation's Archives and services as one of the premier Fenway Park tour spots. It also serves is a Season Ticket Holder club where members can enjoy seasonal contemporary American fare and ballpark favorites, a full service bar, and a variety of other amenities. The Club is located behind Section 3 in the east end of Fenway Park in the Gate B concourse. For more information please contact (617) 226-6598.
Ruggles Shuttle
The Red Sox (Ruggles) shuttle has been discontinued until further notice. Please use the MBTA bus routes 8 or 19 to travel between Fenway Park Gate A and the Ruggles station. The trip takes an estimated 15 minutes.
Rules of Conduct
Large Print Schedules
Scoreboard Message Requests
Thank you for your interest in Red Sox Charitable Scoreboard Messages to benefit the Red Sox Foundation. The minimum fee for all scoreboard messages is $50 but larger donations are gratefully accepted. Donations are tax-deductible and all proceeds benefit the Red Sox Foundation, the 501(c)3 official team charity of the Boston Red Sox, and the non-profit children's programs we support. (NYY and Cubs only are $100 and marriage proposal are $250/$350).
Scoreboard message orders should be placed at least 1 day prior to the game date requested. Due to high demand and limited space, however, many games fill-up well before this deadline. Accordingly, fans are encouraged to place their order well in advance of the game date on which they would like their message to appear.
To order a scoreboard message, please visit www.redsoxfoundation.org. If you have any questions, please leave a message at 617-226-6377. This is an automated line and cannot be used for ticket requests.
NOTE: Red Sox Foundation messages run during the middle and end of the 2nd and 3rd innings on the New Balance scoreboard located above the bleachers. Before the messages begin, the scoreboard will read "Red Sox Foundation Messages." The messages then run in alphabetical order according to the first name in each message. If the game is rained out, your message will run on the date that the game is rescheduled. We regret that there are no refunds.
Please note: Marriage proposals are handled by a different department and cannot be processed by the Red Sox Foundation. For marriage proposals only, please e-mail Todd Kulakowski at [email protected] or call Fan Services 617-226-6831.
Traditional in-game marriage proposal messages require a $250 minimum donation to the Red Sox foundation. "Live" proposals, which include a scoreboard message and an appearance on the video board, require a $350 minimum donation.
Thank you for supporting the Red Sox Foundation and the children's programs your donation makes possible!
Security
More about JetBlue Park at Fenway South
State Street Pavilion
The State Street Pavilion Club is a premium season ticket seating area at America's Most Beloved Ballpark. State Street Pavilion Club members have the convenience of in-seat food and beverage service, padded seating, and unparalleled views of the field and the Boston city skyline. Club members also have exclusive access to a private lounge for dining before or during the game. State Street Pavilion Club seating is sold on a season ticket basis only.
State Street Pavilion
Strollers
Strollers and Diaper Bags are welcome at Fenway Park provided that they can fold up easily and can fit beneath fans' seats. Strollers may not be checked once inside the ballpark.
Subway
The Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority (MBTA) provides numerous convenient ways for Red Sox fans to get to Fenway Park using public transportation. The Red Sox strongly encourage all fans to take public transportation to the game.
Getting to and parking at Fenway Park
Suite Rentals
Renting a suite for a game at Fenway Park is an ideal way to enjoy the live action in the privacy and comfort of your own living room. Perfect for corporate gatherings, birthday parties, or fun with friends and family. The Boston Red Sox have luxury suites that can be rented on a game-to-game basis. For more information on Fenway Park luxury suites, please call 877-REDSOX-9 or visit redsox.com/premium.
redsox.com Online Shop
Tickets, Game Day
A limited number of tickets for that day's game are sold at Gate E on Lansdowne St beginning 90 minutes prior to all games. Tickets are sold on a first-come, first-served basis, while supplies last. Fans may assemble in line beginning five hours prior to game time. Fans must remain in line to participate in the game day purchase opportunity process. Fans are not allowed to hold spaces in line for other fans. Fans will be required to enter the ballpark immediately upon purchase at Gate E. Consequently, a one ticket limit is set per person for game day sales.
Ticket Office
The Red Sox Ticket Office, located at 4 Yawkey Way, Boston, MA 02215, is open the following hours during the baseball season: On non-game days (excluding holidays), Monday through Friday 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. The office is open on all game days from 10 a.m. to one hour after game time.
Complete ticket information
Ticket Toss
Season ticket holders can email their tickets to whomever they wish, for any game in their season ticket package. If the Ticket Toss is accepted, the original tickets will no longer be valid. The recipient can select to receive their tickets via Print at Home or pick them up at will call on the day of the game.
More about Print at Home
Tours
Visit the home where Red Sox Legends, Williams, Yaz, Fisk and Rice played. Sit atop the fabled Green Monster, 37 feet 2 inches high with an incredible view overlooking left field. Our experienced tour guides will provide a thrilling, one hour, walking tour of Fenway Park. Ballpark tours are available year-round, daily, from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. (or 3 hours before game time). Tours depart from the Team Store on Yawkey Way (across from Gate A). Tickets can be purchased online, at the Gate D ticket booth or the main ticket office. Tickets are $20.00/adult and $14/child (age 12 and under). Children under 3 yrs. are free. Group and Birthday Tour Packages are available for any age and size group. For more information please visit www.redsox.com/tours or call (617) 226-6660. All tours are handicap accessible.
Umbrellas are allowed inside Fenway Park but may only be used during official rain delays.
V
Video Cameras
Cameras and video cameras are permitted inside Fenway Park, but cannot be used to reproduce the game and must not interfere with other fans' enjoyment of the game.
Video Requests
To request a video copy of a game, please e-mail [email protected] or call 617-226-6652.
W
Wally the Green Monster
Wally the Green Monster is the official mascot of the Boston Red Sox official mascot. To have Wally visit your seat during your next trip to Fenway Park or attend a private event, please call 617-226-6040 or e-mail Wally ( [email protected] ).
More information about Wally
Wheelchair Access
All gates around Fenway Park are handicap-accessible. Gate D has three elevators and Gates B and E have one elevator each available to fans who require them. Grandstand wheelchair ticket holders should enter through Gates D or E. Wheelchair escorts are also available at the Gate D customer service booth.
View a map of Fenway Park
Wheels Up Clubhouse
The Wheels Up Clubhouse is located at 72 Brookline Avenue, and serves as a private venue before, during, and after the Red Sox home games for all Dugout Seat Holders. Inside the club is a full-service bar area along with tables to enjoy a meal before the game. The Wheels Up Clubhouse is open two hours prior to the game, throughout the game and one hour following the last out. Dugout Seating is sold on a season ticket basis only.
Read more about the Wheels Up Clubhouse
Will Call
Will call tickets are available beginning 90 minutes prior to games at Gates A, B, C, D, or E or by using the kiosks in the Ticket Office Lobby, Gates B, D and E. Fans are required to show a photo id when picking-up their tickets. No third party ticket drop-offs are accepted.
Y
Yawkey Way
Yawkey Way is an extension of the Fenway Park concourse during Red Sox home games and other special events. This public street is blocked off to traffic three hours before game time, and reopens to ticketed Red Sox game patrons once the ballpark officially opens. You'll find concessions, live music, family entertainment, the NESN pregame show, the official Red Sox Team Store, Autograph Alley, and more. Yawkey Way runs from Brookline Avenue at Gate A to Van Ness Street at Gate D.
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According to witnesses, what did John Wilkes Booth shout after shooting Abraham Lincoln? | Fenway Park Seating Chart, Pictures, Directions, and History - Boston Red Sox - ESPN
Directions
HISTORY:
Fenway Park opened in 1912 and is the oldest ballpark in the major leagues. Known for its Green Monster, a 37-foot-high wall that extends straight from left field to center field, Fenway Park has one of the last hand-operated scoreboards in baseball in the left-field wall. Green and red lights are used to signal balls, strikes and outs. The Red Sox added 269 new seats atop The Monster for the 2003 season.
Soak up the scene:
The seats are cramped, the facilities ancient and the tickets are some of the most expensive in baseball. Now that that's out of the way, every baseball fan should make it to Fenway at least once. This oldest park in the Majors is a living museum to America's pastime and home to the best team in baseball in the new century. And right outside the door are some great sports bars. For more on the Fenway Park experience, including a game-day itinerary, visit Wise Guides .
SEATING NOTES:
All tickets not specified with a section name AND number by the seller may not appear in the map.
Tickets for this venue should not be listed by section number only.
Grandstand sections 32 and 33 are designated Alcohol-Free Family sections. No alcohol is permitted in these areas.
Standing Room Only Sections must be designated as RF Roof Deck SRO, Green Monster SRO, Pavilion SRO or general Standing Room Only in order to appear in the ticket listings. SRO locations are not shown on the map. Availability is only indicated in the legend.
Fenway Park makes a designation between Bleacher and Upper Bleacher seating that is not accounted for in our ticket listings or seat map. Buyers may receive tickets that read either Bleacher or Upper Bleacher when ordering tickets listed by StubHub as Bleacher.
Kids:
The Red Sox do not offer half-price discounted tickets for children. If a child is under 2 years of age, you need not purchase a separate ticket for him or her to attend a Red Sox game at Fenway Park. Children 2 years old and older are required to have a separate ticket.
General:
No inflatable objects of any kind, alcoholic beverages, bottles, cans or personal firearms will be permitted in the ballpark. Any fan who directly or indirectly interferes with the enjoyment of the game will be promptly ejected from Fenway Park and may be subject to arrest and prosecution by the Boston Police. Fans are also reminded that anyone observed with offensive articles will be promptly ejected from the park. Such conduct is reprehensible and will not be tolerated. Disorderly behavior will result in appropriate action by the Boston Police. The club is committed to maintaining a high level of morality and denounces all forms of misconduct. The Red Sox will continue to make every effort to ensure socially acceptable behavior in order to allow all fans to enjoy the game in comfort.
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April 15, 1947 saw Jackie Robinson break the "color barrier" in major league baseball when he joined what club? | Jackie Robinson breaks color barrier - Apr 15, 1947 - HISTORY.com
On this day in history in 1947, Jackie Robinson, age 28, becomes the first African-American player in Major League Baseball when he steps onto Ebbets Field in Brooklyn to compete for the Brooklyn Dodgers.
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On this day in 1947, Jackie Robinson, age 28, becomes the first African-American player in Major League Baseball when he steps onto Ebbets Field in Brooklyn to compete for the Brooklyn Dodgers. Robinson broke the color barrier in a sport that had been segregated for more than 50 years. Exactly 50 years later, on April 15, 1997, Robinson’s groundbreaking career was honored and his uniform number, 42, was retired from Major League Baseball by Commissioner Bud Selig in a ceremony attended by over 50,000 fans at New York City’s Shea Stadium. Robinson’s was the first-ever number retired by all teams in the league.
Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born January 31, 1919, in Cairo, Georgia, to a family of sharecroppers. Growing up, he excelled at sports and attended the University of California at Los Angeles, where he was the first athlete to letter in four varsity sports: baseball, basketball, football and track. After financial difficulties forced Robinson to drop out of UCLA, he joined the army in 1942 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant. After protesting instances of racial discrimination during his military service, Robinson was court-martialed in 1944. Ultimately, though, he was honorably discharged.
After the army, Robinson played for a season in the Negro American League. In 1945, Branch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, recruited Robinson, who was known for his integrity and intelligence as well as his talent, to join one of the club’s farm teams. In 1947, Robinson was called up to the Majors and soon became a star infielder and outfielder for the Dodgers, as well as the National League’s Rookie of the Year. In 1949, the right-hander was named the National League’s Most Valuable Player and league batting champ. Robinson played on the National League All-Star team from 1949 through 1954 and led the Dodgers to six National League pennants and one World Series, in 1955. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, his first year of eligibility.
Despite his talent and success as a player, Robinson faced tremendous racial discrimination throughout his career, from baseball fans and some fellow players. Additionally, Jim Crow laws prevented Robinson from using the same hotels and restaurants as his teammates while playing in the South.
After retiring from baseball in 1957, Robinson became a businessman and civil rights activist. He died October 24, 1972, at age 53, in Stamford, Connecticut.
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Who's missing: Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis | About this Collection - By Popular Demand: Jackie Robinson and Other Baseball Highlights, 1860s-1960s | Digital Collections | Library of Congress
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About this Collection
2007 marks the 60th anniversary of Jackie Robinson's rookie season for the Brooklyn Dodgers. When he stepped onto Ebbets field on April 15th, 1947, Robinson became the first African American in the twentieth century to play baseball in the major leagues -- breaking the "color line," a segregation practice dating to the nineteenth century. Jackie Robinson was an extremely talented multi-sport athlete and a courageous man who played an active role in civil rights. This presentation was created to commemorate his achievements and describe some aspects of the color line's development and the Negro Leagues. Materials that tell his story, and the history of baseball in general, are located throughout the Library of Congress. This web presentation was made possible by a generous gift from the Citigroup Foundation.
Selection Criteria
While the Library of Congress does not have collections that focus solely on Jackie Robinson, the baseball color line, or the Negro Leagues, diverse original materials relevant to all of these topics can be found through the Library's numerous reading rooms. With the goal of representing many different media, Library staff selected and reproduced approximately 30 interesting items created between the 1860s and the 1960s, including manuscripts, photographs, ephemera, and books. Narrative information drawn from encyclopedia articles, published biographies, and baseball histories established the context for understanding the original materials.
The Library holds additional original materials that could not be reproduced here, either because they are still under copyright protection (for example, NBC radio broadcasts), or, because digitization would be very expensive (for example, the full-length movie The Jackie Robinson Story).
This online presentation introduces a multi-faceted man and a variety of complex issues, topics, and events that risk oversimplification in any short retelling. Books listed in the Bibliography should be consulted for further information.
The breadth of resources at the Library of Congress is impressive, but other libraries and organizations also offer a wealth of information on these subjects. Selected sources are listed in the Related Web Sites section.
By Popular Demand: Images from the Prints and Photographs Division
Library patrons and staff often select pictorial materials from the Prints and Photographs Division for reproduction in books, exhibits, lectures, television documentaries, decorative calendars, research papers, and many other kinds of projects. Researchers arrange with the Library's Photoduplication Service to produce copies of selected items. Typically ordered are 8x10-inch prints or 4x5-inch color transparencies. In order to make the prints, the Photoduplication Service must create a copy negative, if none exists. Afterwards, those negatives and color transparencies are added to a file of high-demand images maintained by the Prints and Photographs Division.
In 1996, this file contained approximately 120,000 negatives and transparencies. The high demand image file serves as a ready reference source for many of the Library's most popular pictures. The high-demand image file complements the division's heavily used collections of original negatives, including its Selected Civil War Photographs , Farm Security Administration/Office of War Information Collection (forthcoming), and Historic American Buildings Survey and Historic American Engineering Record collections.
Over time, the Library plans to place a significant percentage of the high-demand file online under the series title "By Popular Demand." The first group of images will consist of items which appear in staff-selected illustrated reference aids. Likely candidates will be guides relating to immigration at Ellis Island and the Statue of Liberty. The entire high-demand file covers a broad range of international subjects and popular American topics such as eyewitness drawings of the Civil War, photographs of Native Americans, historical prints by Currier & Ives, political cartoons, and portraits of prominent figures in many fields.
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Daughter of police commissioner Gordon, Batgirl's alter ego Barbara Gordon has what day time profession? | Barbara Gordon | Batman Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Batgirl (1966–1988)
Batgirl.
Editor Julius Schwartz claimed that when planning the new Batgirl's comic book debut, he had considered the character to be a vehicle that might attract a female viewership to the Batman television series of the sixties. When producers William Dozier and Howie Horowitz saw rough concept artwork by artist Carmine Infantino during a visit to DC offices, they optioned the character in a bid to help sell a third season to the ABC television network. Actress Yvonne Craig portrayed the character in the show's third season. When interviewed on his involvement with creating Batgirl, Infantino states-
Batgirl came up in the mid-’60s. The “Batman” TV producer called Julie and said Catwoman was a hit, could we come up with more female characters? Julie called me and asked me to do that. I came up with Batgirl, Poison Ivy and one I called the Grey Fox, which Julie didn’t like as much. Bob Kane had a Bat-Girl for about three stories in the ’50s, but she had nothing to do with a bat. She was like a pesky girl version of Robin . I knew we could do a lot better, so Julie and I came up with the real Batgirl, who was so popular she almost got her own TV show.
Barbara Gordon and alter ego Batgirl debuted in Detective Comics #359 (cover-dated 1967, although the comic was actually released in late 1966) as the daughter of Gotham City's Police Commissioner James Gordon . Barbara Gordon’s Batgirl had been preceded by an earlier Bat-Girl character, which was depicted as niece and sidekick to Batwoman. Gordon exceeded these earlier figures in popularity, and readers requested for her to appear in other titles. In an open letter to readership in Detective Comics #417 (1971), DC responded to the fan-based acclaim and criticism of the new character.
I'd like to say a few words about the reaction some readers have to Batgirl. These are readers who remember Batwoman and the other Bat-girls from year's back... They were there because romance seemed to be needed in Batman's life. But thanks to the big change and a foresighted editor, these hapless females are gone for good. In their place stands a girl who is a capable crime-fighter, a far cry from Batwoman who constantly had to be rescued from Batman .
Barbara as Batgirl defeats her first villain, Killer Moth .
Following the comic book debut of Barbara Gordon, Yvonne Craig also promoted the comic book incarnation of her character. The actress was featured in photo shoots reading her “favorite comic of all time,” "The Million Dollar Debut of Batgirl." While actress Yvonne Craig as Batgirl appeared every week in the new season of Batman, DC Comics featured Batgirl on several covers of Detective Comics, often overshadowing Batman and Robin in order to promote the new heroine. On the cover of Detective Comics #369, Batgirl argues with Batman over whose sidekick Robin should be.
Batgirl became a lighthearted departure from the tortured characters of Batman and Robin, each depicted as fighting crime to avenge the death of their parents. Gordon's motivation for crime fighting was written as being completely altruistic and, unlike Batwoman and Bat-Girl, independent of a male superhero. In her civilian identity, Dr. Barbara Gordon Ph.D. is not only depicted as an independent woman with a doctorate in library science, she is head of Gotham City public library; "presumably one of the largest public libraries in the DC Comics version of reality." The character's civilian career as a library professional, coupled with her alter-ego as a crime-fighter is considered to be symbolic of the women's empowerment movement of the 1960s.
Barbara as Batgirl
Batgirl continued to appear in DC Comics publications throughout the late sixties and seventies as a supporting character in Detective Comics, in addition to guest appearances in various titles such as Justice League of America, World's Finest Comics, The Brave and the Bold, Action Comics and Superman. The character was also given a starring role in DC's Batman Family comic book which debuted in 1975. The original Robin Dick Grayson became her partner in the series and the two were frequently referred to as the "Dynamic Duo: Batgirl & Robin." Although this series ended after three years of publication, Batgirl continued to appear in back up stories published in Detective Comics until DC officially retired the heroine in the one-shot comic Batgirl Special #1 (1988). Although permanently retired, Barbara Gordon's incarnation as Batgirl remains one of the most popular and high profile characters of the Silver Age of Comic Books.
Batman: The Killing Joke (1988)
As the years went on, however, Barbara found her role as Batgirl less and less fulfilling, and she eventually more or less retired. That's when The Joker showed up at her house, shooting and paralyzing her and when he kidnapped her Uncle Jim. Batman rescued Jim Gordon, but 19-year-old Barbara Gordon's career as a crime fighter was over. She spent a month in a deep depression.
During the early eighties, Batman editors sporadically put Batgirl into retirement; the character resumed her role for special cases. In 1988, Alan Moore discussed writing The Killing Joke with editor Len Wein, and the two agreed that Barbara Gordon, currently in retirement, was disposable enough for the character’s career to come to a permanent end. Although events in The Killing Joke exert a great impact on the character, the story has little to do with Gordon. She is deployed as a plot device to cement the Joker’s vendetta against Commissioner Gordon and Batman. Critical reception of The Killing Joke has been mixed — while some commentators have been appalled by the treatment of Barbara Gordon, others have regarded The Killing Joke as one of the greatest Batman stories of all time.
Despite Moore's writing, Valerie D'Orazio, a former editor at Acclaim Comics and DC Comics has denounced the book, citing "It doesn't take the perspective of a woman into account. It doesn't take into account that some women might be so very disgusted with the book [and] what happens to Barbara Gordon in it." In response, Laura Hudson, Senior editor of Comic Foundry Magazine comments, "You’re supposed to be disgusted with what happens to Barbara Gordon...because it’s disgusting...As a woman and as an adult, I can deal with fictional characters performing reprehensible acts towards women... When they’re used not gratuitously but for a purpose, as I believe they were in The Killing Joke, that's exactly what they're supposed to do."
The Joker’s aggravated assault of Barbara Gordon has become a classic example of Women in Refrigerators syndrome, in which “severe injury or death of a female comic book character [occurs] as a means to antagonize a male superhero.” Following the release of the graphic novel, comic book editor and writer Kim Yale discussed how distasteful she found the treatment of Barbara Gordon with her husband, fellow comic writer John Ostrander. Rather than allow the character to fall into obscurity, the two decided to revive her as a character living with a disability.
Oracle (1988–2011)
Recognizing she could no longer be the kind of superhero she had been, she instead devoted all her time to developing one of the world's most complex and powerful computer systems and set to work accumulating information, renaming herself "Oracle."
Blessed with a photographic memory, Barbara reads dozens of the world's top newspapers and magazines daily. She's also constantly gathering information from other, less public sources, such as the CIA's mainframe, not to mention the data networks of the FBI, NSA and Interpol (all without their knowledge or consent).
Oracle has proven an absolutely invaluable resource to the Batman and his allies, as well as countless other superheroes, few of whom know anything about the person behind the name. Oracle has formed an alliance with fellow heroes Black Canary and The Huntress to aid those in need. Together, they are the Birds of Prey , combining their unique abilities and skills in the war against crime and terror.
Both Yale and Ostrander would oversee the development of Barbara Gordon's new persona as Oracle for the next several years. The character made her first comic book appearance as Oracle in Suicide Squad #23, anonymously offering her services to the government's Task Force X. In the following two years, Oracle, under pen of Ostander and Yale, made guest appearances in various DC titles until her identity was revealed to be Barbara Gordon in Suicide Squad #38 (1990) and she officially becomes a member of the Squad in issue #48 following an invitation from fictional government agent Amanda Waller. In 1992, Dennis O’Neil gave Barbara Gordon’s Oracle a starring role in Batman: Sword of Azrael #1, where she became Batman’s sole source of information. This newly forged partnership established Oracle’s status as Batman's intellectual equal.
Oracle.
The success of Chuck Dixon’s Black Canary/Oracle: Birds of Prey (1996) lead to the comic series Birds of Prey starring the two title characters. Kim Yale and John Ostrander tell the origin of Oracle in "Oracle: Year One," a story arc contained in Batman Chronicles #5. Since the launch of Birds of Prey, the Oracle character has become a high-profile figure in the DC Comics universe - moving beyond her ties to the Batman Family and forging alliances with groups such as the Justice League of America . Gail Simone took over as writer of Birds of Prey with issue #56, taking the series in a "Bold New Direction!" In an interview with Columnist Jennifer Contino, Simone explains her fondness of Barbara Gordon:
Kim Yale and John Ostrander picked up the character and made her into a brilliant master computer operator and one of the most fascinating characters in comics. From there, Chuck Dixon did wonderful things with her in his Birds of Prey run...She’s fantastic because even just sitting in a chair in a dark room by herself, she’s tremendously compelling. The DCU without her would be a much less interesting place.
Throughout the course of the character's history, Barbara Gordon's intelligence has been one of the character's defining attributes. According to BusinessWeek, Oracle is listed as one of the top ten most intelligent fictional superheroes appearing in American comics and is the only female character to appear on the list.
Critical and Editorial Commentary
Despite the establishment of Gordon's persona as Oracle, some observers have argued for the character's mobility to be restored. Reacting to Batman: The Killing Joke and Barbara Gordon's later character development as Oracle in Batman: Gotham Knights, Ray Tate, a reviewer at Comics Bulletin, writes,
Let's get this out of the way first. There is absolutely no reason why Barbara Gordon should be in a wheelchair. Alan Moore and Brian Bolland meant The Killing Joke as an imaginary tale dealing with the iconography of Batman and the Joker...[Batman] himself is a certifiable genius in biochemistry. There are countless examples of Batman employing that which is only theoretical in his fight against crime. His knowledge of stem cell technology should surpass that of the real world. There is simply no reason for Barbara Gordon to be confined to that wheelchair.
Regarding Gordon's representation as a character living with a disability, and her effectiveness as a hero compared to her incarnation as Batgirl, Tate comments,
It's ridiculous to think somebody wakes up thinking how lucky they are to be confined to a wheelchair, and yet the attitude around DC and among the fans is that Oracle is the better character over Batgirl because of her handicap. Rubbish. Batgirl has fought more crime and done more to aid Batman as Batgirl than she has as Oracle. Batgirl has saved Batman's life on numerous occasions. Oracle has not. Barbara in this incarnation is not a bad character, but she is not better because she no longer hunts the night in cape and cowl.
Alex Ross and Paul Dini have made attempts to return the character to her original conception. Ross explains in an interview:
Paul Dini had this idea of putting Barbara Gordon in the Lazarus Pit to revive her...I thought it was a great idea, and we pitched then-Batman editor Denny O'Neil with these drawings of that costume design. The idea of using the red instead of the traditional yellow was meant to invoke the idea that coming from the Lazarus Pit, she was in a way, more compromised as a character...And...that went nowhere. Denny shot it down, because, according to him, everybody loves Barbara Gordon as Oracle and as a handicapped character. The theory was that DC didn't have enough handicapped characters, so they weren't going to do anything with Barbara as she was. And the design went into the drawer."
Kate Kane , the modern Batwoman introduced during 52, wears a variant of Gordon's Batgirl costume designed by Ross. Some argue that the Barbara Gordon character provides a greater service to DC Comics and its readers in her current status, regardless of the events which preceded Oracle's creation. DC Senior Vice President Dan DiDio comments, "Some stories... are so strong that undoing them would be a crime. The DCU would be a lesser place without Barry's sacrifice, or the crippling of Barbara at the hands of the Joker." Although critical reception of Barbara Gordon's evolution into Oracle have been mixed among critics and other observers, according to John Ostrander- "We have, over the years, on those occasions when I have worked with the character, gotten some letters from those who have disabilities of one stripe or another and all have been very supportive. I feel very proud for my part in creating Oracle." Ostrander has also spoken about the value of Oracle to both DC Comics and its fan base:
What makes the runaway success of the Oracle character more remarkable is that it began during an era where bleak heroes with big guns were ruling the day. Without much fanfare, Barbara Gordon has become the most popular handicapped character since Charles Xavier. In fact, Oracle's nature as a handicapped superhero and a role model is almost never mentioned by the company or fans...There WAS some idea of her being a role model, I think... We wanted her to cope with what had happened to her and becoming, in many ways, more effective as Oracle than she ever was as Batgirl. And we knew that others with disabilities might look at her and feel good reading about her...I don't think people 'dance around' her disabilities as they don't want to focus on them but on her character. These shouldn't be stories about a disabled person; they are stories about a compelling fascinating character who HAPPENS to be in a wheelchair and I think that's correct. Barbara isn't her handicap; there's more to her than that.
Silver Age
Barbara Gordon's classic Batgirl costume was designed by artist Carmine Infantino. In her original adventures during the Silver Age of Comics, Batgirl is depicted as a librarian by day, and a spirited crime-fighter by night. In her debut story, while driving to a costume ball dressed as a female version of Batman, Barbara Gordon intervenes in a kidnapping attempt on Bruce Wayne by the villainous Killer Moth, attracting the Dark Knight's attention and leading to a crime-fighting career. After a handful of guest appearances in Batman stories, she was given her own back-up strip in Detective Comics. The character was fleshed out considerably, with the shy, mousy, bookworm version of Barbara Gordon giving way to a more modern, confident character. Devoid of her plain-Jane glasses and hair bun, Barbara dates a succession of boyfriends, including Vietnam-veteran-turned-private-investigator Jason Bard . In addition to her appearances in both Detective Comics and Batman, Batgirl made a guest appearance in World's Finest Comics #169 (1967) where she met Superman, Supergirl, Bat-Mite, and Mxyzptlk for the first time. She also fights alongside the Justice League of America against the villainous Queen Bee. Supergirl and Batgirl encounter again in Adventure Comics #381 (1969) when both heroines separately investigate a female criminal gang.
Her back-up stories appear sporadically in Detective Comics until the mid-1970s. Although she occasionally partners with Robin, she more frequently works with Jason Bard, a Vietnam War veteran with a chronic knee injury who becomes a private detective. Bard is a romantic interest of Barbara's, as well. Batgirl reveals her secret identity to her father (who had already discovered it on his own), and serves as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. She moves to Washington, D.C., intending to give up her career as Batgirl and in June 1972, appeared in a story entitled "Batgirl's Last Case." Editor Julius Schwartz brought her back a year later in Superman #268 (1973), in which she has a blind date with Clark Kent, establishing their friendship, and fights alongside Superman. Batgirl and Superman team up twice more, in Superman #279 and DC Comics Presents #19. Batgirl also guest-starred in other Superman related titles such as #453 of Adventure Comics, and in Superman Family #171, where she teams with Supergirl.
Bronze Age
In 1975, DC created the Batman Family comic book, which ran for 20 issues. Batgirl was one of the main features in the book, frequently teaming with Robin. Batgirl meets Batwoman in Batman Family #10, when the retired superheroine returns to crime-fighting. The two fight Killer Moth and The Cavalier , and learn about each other's secret identities. When Batman Family ended at issue #20, stories featuring these characters were merged with Detective Comics, beginning with issue #481 in 1979, and Batgirl continued her adventures there. Even after the "Batman Family" feature left Detective Comics, Batgirl continued to appear in the back-up stories through issue #519 (October 1982).
Barbara Gordon as portrayed early in her Batgirl career.
Crisis on Infinite Earths, a limited mini-series published in 1985, was written in order to reduce the complex history of DC Comics to a single continuity. Although Batgirl is a featured character, her role is relatively small- she delivers Supergirl's eulogy at the conclusion of the story. The conclusion of Crisis on Infinite Earths changed DC Universe continuity in many ways. Following the reboot, Barbara Gordon is born to Roger and Thelma Gordon, and she is Jim Gordon's niece/adopted daughter in current canon.
Post-Crisis, Supergirl does not arrive on Earth until Gordon has established herself as Oracle; many adventures she shared with Batgirl are now retroactively described as having been experienced by Power Girl. In Secret Origins #20: Batgirl and the Golden Age Dr. Mid-Nite (1987), Barbara Gordon's origin is rebooted by author Barbara Randal. Within the storyline, Gordon recounts the series of events that lead to her career as Batgirl, including her first encounter with Batman as a child, studying martial arts under the tutelage of a sensei, memorizing maps and blue prints of the city, excelling in academics in order to skip grades and pushing herself to become a star athlete.
Modern Age: Exit Batgirl, Enter Oracle
The Modern Age of Comic Books had significant changes to the comic book industry as characters became darker and psychologically complex, abandoning the light-hearted themes of earlier ages. After her back-up series of stories ended, Barbara Gordon continued to be Batgirl, but increasingly felt inconsequential in a world filled with super-powered heroes. After capturing the Commorant in Batgirl Special #1 (1988), Gordon retires her Batgirl persona. In Batman: The Killing Joke (1988), the Joker shoots Barbara, intending to drive her father James Gordon into madness. The bullet severs her spine, permanently paralyzing her from the waist down. Gordon is grief-stricken upon learning the extent of her injuries, as is her ally and off-on again lover Dick Grayson, the original Robin currently known as Nightwing.
Initially, Gordon's paralysis plunges her into a state of reactive depression. However, she soon realizes that her aptitude for and training in information sciences have provided her with tremendous skills that could be deployed to fight crime. In a world increasingly centered on technology and information, she possesses a genius-level intellect; photographic memory; deep knowledge of computers and electronics; expert skills as a hacker; and graduate training in library sciences. One night, Gordon has a dream in which an all-knowing woman (similar to Oracle at Delphi of Greek mythology) has her own face, it's then that she adopts "Oracle" as her codename. She serves as an information broker, gathering and disseminating intelligence to law enforcement organizations and members of the superhero community. In "Oracle: Year One," Oracle also trains under the tutelage of Richard Dragon, one of DC's premier martial artists, to engage in combat (using eskrima) from her wheelchair. She develops her upper-body strength and targeting skills with both firearms and batarangs. In her second appearance as a hacker in the DC Comics universe, Oracle is featured in the 12-issue mini-series The Hacker Files (1993).
In 2003, comic book authors Scott Beatty and Chuck Dixon revised Barbara Gordon’s origin with the mini-series Batgirl: Year One Gordon is a highly gifted child having graduated from high school early, but initially desires to join law enforcement as opposed to vigilantism in the previous origin myths.
Former Batgirl
Birds of Prey
Following her paralysis and recovery from depression, Oracle founds the Birds of Prey, a team of female heroes, whom she employs as agents and extended members of the Batman team. After her unsuccessful partnership with Power Girl, Oracle later joins forces with the superheroine Black Canary. During Chuck Dixon's crossover series Hunt for Oracle, Barbara Gordon and Dinah Lance meet in person and establish a long-term friendship. They form the nucleus of the Birds of Prey organization. While Oracle serves as the basic head of operations, Black Canary becomes her full-time employee and field agent.
During the 2004 cross-over event War Games, Black Mask commandeers Oracle's computers and satellites and engages in a fight to the death with Batman. In order to prevent Batman from killing his adversary, Oracle initiates the Clock Tower's self-destruct sequence, provoking Batman to rescue her rather than continue the battle. This results in the destruction of Gordon's home and headquarters in the clock tower. Subsequently, Oracle decides to move on, and leaves Gotham City altogether. She cuts her ties with Batman, and after a temporary world trip with her team, relocates to Metropolis.
In the events comprising Gail Simone's Birds of Prey: Between Dark and Dawn (2005), and Birds of Prey: The Battle Within (2005), Oracle is possessed by arch-villain Brainiac, an artificial intelligence entity, in order to become a biological being. Although Oracle overpowers Brainiac and expels him from her body, the advanced virus delivered by him remains despite his absence. The virus steadily causes cybernetic attachments to sprout all over her body. Oracle develops cyberpathic powers that allow her to psychically interact with computer information systems. Although she loses these abilities after the virus is rendered dormant following an operation by Doctor Mid-Nite, she discovers she can move her toes. However, this proves to be short-lived; Gordon remains paralyzed.
During the company wide cross-over Infinite Crisis (2005), Oracle teams with the Martian Manhunter in Metropolis to coordinate a counterstrike to the Secret Society's global jailbreak. The renewed romance between Barbara Gordon and Dick Grayson is also cut short by the Infinite Crisis storyline. When DC continuity jumps forward one year after the events of Infinite Crisis, Oracle and her team continue to work in Metropolis. Oracle works with Batman, although not on a regular basis as before. Oracle continues to lead the Birds of Prey, and expands the ranks of the operation. In Birds of Prey #99, Black Canary leaves the team and The Huntress becomes the team's de facto field leader, while Big Barda has been brought in as the group's heavy-hitter alongside a larger, rotating roster; Oracle also makes an attempt to reforge her alliance with Power Girl, however, when Oracle invites her to rejoin the team, she replies that she'll do so "when Hell freezes over." In "Whitewater," Gail Simone's final story arc on Birds of Prey (2007), Oracle and her team struggle for power with Spy Smasher, a government agent who has taken over the Birds of Prey organization. Eventually, Spy Smasher is forced to admit her defeat and returns control of the Birds of Prey organization to Oracle. At the conclusion of the arc, Oracle also adopts Misfit into the Birds of Prey.
In Countdown (2007), Oracle dispatches the Question and Batwoman to capture Trickster and Piper following their role in the murder of the Flash. She struggles to keep the identities of the world's heroes from being stolen and coordinates the response to a global crisis engineered by the Calculator, a villainous hacker and information broker. In issue #5 of the comic book series The All-New Booster Gold (2007), the title hero is given the mission of traveling back in time in order to prevent "a tragedy that he discovers never should've happened — the Joker shooting and paralyzing Barbara Gordon, Batgirl." Although Booster Gold makes several attempts to prevent the events which took place in Batman: The Killing Joke, he ultimately fails and Barbara Gordon's chronological history remains unchanged.
Final Crisis and Beyond
In the Final Crisis storyline, Darkseid , who has finally gained control of the Anti-Life Equation attempts to put the mind-control equation on the Internet. Both Oracle and Mister Terrific make desperate attempts to stop Darkseid, even attempting to shut down the entire Internet. Unfortunately, they both fail and those affected ended up mindless slaves of Darkseid.
Freed from Darkseid's control after the restoration of the Multi-verse, she attempts to shut down the criminal Unternet set up by her opposite number, the Calculator, as a Darkseid-free replacement for the regular Internet and still used by tech-savvy criminals. However, the Calculator, preventing her moves, takes control of the Kilg%re, gaining the ability to thrive in cyberspace by controlling digital and cybernetic avatars, and tracks Oracle down with his newfound powers. Even though Oracle foils him, she starts doubting her abilities and fears she's losing her edge and brilliance, which results in her disbanding the Birds of Prey team to do some soul-searching.
Following the events of Batman: RIP and the Final Crisis, Oracle has returned back to Gotham City, and although the Birds of Prey are disbanded, she continues to summon them to help Nightwing and Robin deal with the growing crime in Gotham following the supposed death of Bruce Wayne.
The Calculator's plans finally come to their fruition, and Kuttler, hoping to save her dying daughter Wendy takes on the Babbage alias and begins prowling the digital world of Alta Viva, a virtual world game, for fragments of the Anti-Life Equation unleashed by Darkseid. Barbara, now living in a dilapidated apartment in Gotham, becomes aware of Kuttler's activities when Cheesefiend, one of her informants, is brutally killed, with the Anti-Life Equation itself, after coming in contact with Babbage.
Hoping to stop the Calculator and prevent him from piecing together the fragments of the Anti-Life Equation in his possession, Oracle travels to Hong Kong, hoping to steal them back by the means of an advanced supercomputer programmed to track the chunk of data left behind by Babbage. However the Calculator discovers her attempts, swearing vengeance upon her. She manages to defeat Calculator, curing the Anti-Life Equation's fragments.
Working with Leslie Thompkins, Barbara has begun to mentor the Calculator's daughter, Wendy, who was crippled following an attack at Titans Tower, which took the life of her brother Marvin. Recently it came to Barbara's attention (thanks to Dick Grayson) that Cassandra Cain has once again stepped down from the role of Batgirl, and has been replaced by Stephanie Brown . Still seeing Stephanie as an impulsive young girl, Barbara tries to talk her out of being Batgirl. When a new recreational drug known as "Thrill" is hitting the streets of Gotham, Barbara and Stephanie work together to stop the drug trade which they discover to be run by Scarecrow and Black Mask.
After Dick discovers that Barbara has approved of Stephanie as Batgirl, he and Barbara had an intense argument over Barbara's decision which eventually made him leave to resume his patrol in the city. Her father has been trying to set Barbara up on a blind date with Gotham PD's newest recruit from Coast City, Detective Nicholas Gage. After they've finally meet there was a miscommunication between the two: as Barbara thought the detective was discriminating her because of her disability but it is really because Gage senses Barbara wants to be with someone else (Dick Grayson). His instincts prove to be somewhat true, as Dick and Barbara begin working together on a kidnapping case, and despite some early attitude, begin to flirt playfully like they used to.
Blackest Night
During Blackest Night, Green Lantern crashes into the Bat-Signal after a fight with the Black Lantern Martian Manhunter. Barbara and Commissioner Gordon are both present. After sending Green Lantern's intel to every superhero community across the planet of the Black Lanterns, the Gordon's find themselves being attacked by the original Dark Knight's deceased rogue gallery members, whom are all reanimated by the Black Lantern Corps. Barbara and her father are forced to fight for their lives as they witness the Black Lanterns are massacring everyone on sight at Gotham Central. During the crisis, Barbara falls under the control of Deadman , channeling Barbara's athletic capability and apparently using his own super-natural ability to allow her to stand on her own two legs, to save Commissioner Gordon from the reanimated King Snake and the Trigger Twins .
After being rescued by Dick Grayson, Damian Wayne, and Tim Drake, the Gordon's are later being attacked by Dick and Tim's parents with their saviors, the reanimated Grayson's and the Drake's. While Grayson and Drake battle the Black Lanterns, Robin takes the Gordon's to their underground base where Alfred Pennyworth tends her and her father's wounds.
Barbara is later approached by Huntress and Renee Montoya (the new Question) for help in tracking down a mysterious criminal who ordered a hit on them through Philo Zeiss .
DCnU
Babs explains how she regained the use of her legs
After the events of Flashpoint, Barbara Gordon has recovered from her injuries by the hands of Joker, and has returned to the streets as Batgirl.
One of her nights back in action as Batgirl has her stopping a trio of crooks attempting to murder a couple. The fight almost turns sour when one of the crooks launches himself and her out the window. Thankfully, the couple rescued the two before they could fall (though Barbara had to correct them as they accidentally called her Batwoman). The next morning, despite James Gordon's parental protests, Barbara moves away from home, moving in with another girl with a more independent streak. However, the settling in had to wait - there was an attack at a hospital where the criminal she had stopped earlier was staying at.
Arriving at the scene, she found herself confronting a murderer known as The Mirror, whose modus operandi was to kill people who survived major accidents. Barbara attempted to stop him from taking the man's life, but she found herself paralyzed when he aimed his gun at her gut, allowing him to launch the man out the window. The police officer there opted to brand her a murderer for not being able to stop him.
Back with the Birds.
After she reclaimed the Batgirl mantle, Barbara handed over the reigns of the Birds of Prey to Black Canary . When Dinah formed a new team of Birds, Barbara initially declined membership, though agreed to be a part-time member as of issue 6.
Powers and abilities
Martial artistry
According to the character's fictional biography, Barbara Gordon took numerous self-defense classes in judo and karate prior to her tenure as Batgirl and is described as being a "star athlete." Following the events of The Killing Joke, Barbara Gordon continued to train in the martial arts as Oracle, despite being paralyzed from the waist down. She has extensive skills with eskrima fighting sticks, small firearms and batarangs; she customarily keeps a pair of eskrima sticks stored in the armrests of her wheelchair as a contingency.
Technological skill
Prior to the character's career as a vigilante, Barbara Gordon developed many technological skills, including vast knowledge of computers and electronics, expert skills as a hacker, and graduate training in library sciences. Gordon is also written as having a genius-level intellect and naturally possessing a photographic memory. Like Batman, Barbara Gordon originally used a wide variety of computer electronics and gadgets during her early adventures as Batgirl. These included an infrared scanner built into the cowl of her costume, various bat-inspired weaponry and the "Batgirl Cycle." According to Gail Simone, Oracle maintains control over the twelve technologically advanced satellites that were created by Lex Luthor during his tenure as President of the United States.
Information broker
Oracle places her considerable skills and knowledge at the disposal of many of the DC universe's heroes. She is a skilled hacker, capable of retrieving and dispersing information from private satellites, military installations, government files, and the properties of Lex Luthor. Batman, himself a genius with a wide knowledge base and access to vast information resources, routinely consults Oracle for assistance.
Romance
Barbara Gordon has been romantically linked to Dick Grayson , aka Nightwing. At a young age they shared their passion as Robin and Batgirl. Nightwing was shocked and disturbed to learn of the effects of the Killing Joke, resulting in Barbara's paralysis. After the events of No Man's Land , the two fall in love. Before Infinite Crisis, Nightwing drops to one knee and proposes. Barbara tearfully accepts. During the Crisis, Grayson was shocked by raw energy, and was taken into care of Barbara's arms. When Batman asks Nightwing to help him rediscover himself, Dick is hesitant due to his engagement to Barbara. She allows him to go, telling him they were not ready for marriage. Dick sends her engagement ring with a picture of them as Robin and Batgirl, promising to return to her when the time is right.
Both show genuine romantic affection towards the other, though not as a couple anymore. Grayson is rejoining the JLA with Starfire, however a recent issue of Titans stated that Dick has moved on of his past relationship with her. Barbara's father has start trying to set her up with a hotshot young detective who've just transferred from Coast City, Nicholas Gage, although he's apparently more interested in the newest Batgirl ( Stephanie Brown ) along with the fact that Barbara senses he keeps secrets despite being a supposedly honest police officer.
Another brief romance was with Jason Bard, her ex-fiancee. When Grayson left Gotham and rejoined Koriand'r , Babs found comfort in the young man's arms. The relationship fizzled and the engagement was cancelled. In a Birds of Prey comic book, the two are reunited on a mission. However, this does not last as Babs shoves him out of her life once again in favor of Grayson.
In the new 52, Grayson and Babs have never officially dated, though it is clear they both seem to have feelings for each other.
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Barbara Gordon
Character » Barbara Gordon appears in 2439 issues .
Barbara Gordon was the first modern age Batgirl until she was brutally shot by the Joker, rendering her paralyzed from the waist down. Barbara reinvented herself as Oracle, providing intelligence to the DCU heroes and leading the Birds of Prey. She has recently become Batgirl once again to protect Gotham City.
The Barbara Gordon wiki last edited by Renchamp on 01/13/17 08:24AM View full history
Disambiguation
6th Batgirl: Stephanie Brown
Pre-New 52, Barbara was also known as Oracle, the behind-the-scenes coordinator/leader of the Birds of Prey .
In New 52 continuity, she's once again the current Batgirl, a member of the Birds of Prey. Her past from before the launch of the new 52 is relatively intact, only that the Joker' attack on her did not leave her permanently paralyzed and she was able to recover after a long period of physiotherapy.
Origin
Batgirl Year One
While attending a costume party dressed as a female counterpart of Batman, Barbara Gordon witnesses the kidnapping of billionaire Bruce Wayne by super-villain Killer Moth . She prevents this and without realizing it, draws the attention of the Dark Knight. This event begins Barbara's path in crime fighting.
In the New 52, Barbara, alongside with her brother, was visiting her father in the Police Station of Gotham City, under the excuse of needing it as part of a college project. Her real motivation, though, was taking a closer look on what the officers thought and knew about Batman, the mysterious vigilant who was similar to her in many aspects, including her smartness.
She is escorted by officer Dwight Morgan, who is slightly attracted by the young lady. In the middle of the visit, though, a criminal who had just been arrested, Harry X, managed to start chaos in the Station, with the help of his allies. He threats James Junior's life, saying he would only need one of the comissioner's kids as a hostage. He picked Barbara over the boy he called an aberration, forcing her to run with her brother while Morgan fought the assassin.
The bandit, however, defeated the officer and would certainly kill him if Barbara did not stop him. She dressed up with the Batman's fantasy which the cops were using to try to get how the vigilant worked. She uses her martial arts skills to defeat Harry and is praised by Batman himself for the good work.
Since then, she started to work alongside with him and Robin . At first, Batman did not want another partner, but he ended up accepting her. Barbara remained as Batgirl for about a year, leaving the crime fighting life to focus on her studies and personal projects.
Creation
Barbara Gordon was created by Gardner Fox and Carmine Infantino . Barbara Gordon was created to be the new Batgirl for the third season of the Batman TV series on ABC. After editor of the Batman books, Julius Schwartz was approached by the producers of the Batman TV series, William Dozier and Howie Horowitz, to create a new female character to gain more female viewership. Artist Carmine Infantino did a rough concept art for the new Batgirl the producers used the drawing to help the Batman series get a third series. The new Batgirl quickly became popular due to the show and constant appearances within the comics with many fan letters expressing there love for the new Batgirl and for her appearance in other titles.
Batgirl appeared in the starred as a supporting character in Detective Comics and had many guest appearances in books such as Justice League of America , World's Finest Comics and Superman . In 1988 in Alan Moore's The Killing Joke , Barbara Gordon was crippled with months before having retired the Batgirl persona. After being crippled Barbara was then changed her identity to Oracle and became a information broker and computer hacker helping out the government sponsored Suicide Squad .
Character Evolution
Silver Age
Silver Age Batgirl.
By day she is a librarian and at night she pursues her career in crime fighting. Eventually she begins dating many boys including private investigator Jason Bard . She would soon team-up with Superman , Supergirl and fight the likes of Mr. Mxyzptlk. She has also fought alongside the Justice League of America as well as having a team-up with Supergirl on her own. Later on, she begins to work with Batman's partner, Robin , on occasion as well as working with Jason Bard. Batgirl eventually reveals her secret identity to her adopted father, Police Commissioner Jim Gordon , who had already figured out who she was. He had, after all, known her all her life, going from her uncle to father. She is later elected to the U.S. House of Representative and as a result moves to D.C . with the hopes of giving up her career as Batgirl. However a year later she is set up on a blind date with Clark Kent and later fights alongside Superman. She would then team-up with both Superman and Supergirl again throughout the Silver Age.
Bronze Age
Barbara Gordon continues to be Batgirl and again frequently teams up with Robin. She also encounters Batwoman , who has been retired for some time, who comes out of retirement however, she is later killed by the Bronze Tiger. Before her death they fight Killer Moth and Cavalier . She plays a small role in Crisis on Infinite Earths , and delivers Supergirl's eulogy. After this event, which reshaped the DC Universe, Batgirl entered the Modern Age
Modern Age
Oracle's Birds of Prey
The Modern Age saw Barbara Gordon as a slightly darker character. While recounting the series of events that lead her to become Batgirl, this is also significantly different that in the previous age's interpretations of her character. She encounters The Batman at a early age. As she grows up she excels in school, warranting her the honor of skipping grades throughout her academic career. She also pursues martial arts and striving to become a star athlete. She initially tries to pursue a career in criminal justice as opposed to her future vigilantism as Batgirl. Her father is no longer Jim Gordon, instead being the adoptive daughter of Gordon, also being her uncle, however there has been allegations that Jim is her biological father.
She would still be Batgirl for some time, however she started to feel inadequate in a world that had heroes like Superman , Captain Marvel and Wonder Woman . She retired from her career as Batgirl, however that did not stop violence from entering her life. In an attempt to drive Jim Gordon insane, the Joker arrives at the Gordon's house and shoots Barbara Gordon through the spine. He then takes pictures of her in various states of undress and torture that he would show Gordon later in an attempt to drive him insane. The shots from the Joker's gun severed Barbara's spine leaving her in a wheelchair for the rest of her life. Upon hearing this both Barbara and Nightwing, the former Robin Dick Grayson are devastated. This would lead to an obsessive disorder regarding the Joker, tapping into video of him, as well as telling Nightwing that they should make an exception to their one rule and kill the Clown Prince of Crime. She would later ask Batman for the camera that was used to shoot the pictures of her. She has it in a secret building, along with her original Batgirl suit.
Initially Barbara falls into a bout of depression, but soon uses her knowledge of computers in the ever growing modern era and use it to fight crime the best way she can. Using her incredible smarts and photographic memory along with her ability to use computers in a way that most of the DCU are unable to, she creates a new persona. She now goes by the codename Oracle and she serves as an information broker, first to the Suicide Squad , then to heroes throughout her world. She also trains to become a fighting threat from the world famous Richard Dragon , although she is still in a wheelchair.
She is also a key player, gathering information for Batman and his operations throughout the years, specifically during No Man's Land and when Bruce Wayne was accused of murdering his girlfriend. She is seen to have a very good relationship with all the members of the Batman Family in recent years, and has served as a member of the Justice League .
Upon her complete transformation into the Oracle, she founds the Birds of Prey , a team of female heroes whom she employs and sends out as agents in her fight on crime as well as considering them extended members of the Batman Family. She partnered with Power Girl , however their partnership did not work very well. Black Canary, Dinah Lance, becomes the main operative in her unit, as the two have formed an incredibly strong friendship once they finally meet in person.
During War Games , Oracle's computer systems are compromised by the Black Mask as he confronts the Batman. Batman was going to kill the Black Mask, however due to Oracle setting off her self destruct mechanism in her Clock Tower she forced Batman to rescue her. Because of this destruction, Barbara decides to cut her ties with the Batman and moves her operation to Metropolis.
Barbara is later possessed by Brainiac , who attempts to have a biological body. Barbara was able to overcome his advances and remove him from her body, however in the aftermath a virus remains in her system. Because of this virus she is able to communicate cyberpathically with computer systems. Later, Dr. Mid-Nite is able to make the virus dormant, however after this she is soon able to move her toes, however that does not last very long.
The New 52
Batgirl VS Stix
Barbara Gordon's return to the role of Batgirl, involving her regaining mobility to her legs, after being paralyzed in "The Killing Joke". She has just recently regained the use of her legs. Her new found mobility may springboard her back into action, but the effects of the Joker's terrible act may be mentally more difficult to get over than she ever imagined. Though Babs is able to walk again, it could be temporary, which means she has to be careful. Also, in addition to working solo, she has been helping out Black Canary's Birds of Prey, in spite of not initially wanting to join the team.
With Batgirl #35 in 2014, a new direction was taken for the character. Although ostensibly as a reaction to the events to took place previously in the series, the character was somewhat redesigned, giving her a more youthful outlook. The resulting character became quite popular, to the point that other series attempted to copy the same redesign for themselves. Although it was not the first and not even necessarily the most popular series to do so, the term "Batgirling" was coined to describe series that were focused on a more youthful approach, a list which could include Gotham Academy, Silk, Spider-Gwen, Spider-Woman and Ms Marvel.
Storyline
No Man's Land
A very young woman named Cassandra Cain became involved with the Bat Family after saving Commissioner Gordon's life from her father David Cain an assassin, during No Man's Land . Cassandra proved herself and was given the Batgirl costume the Huntress wore with the approval of both Batman and Oracle. She then became the next to officially carry on the mantle of Batgirl. It is during this time that Cassandra become Barbara's ward. It is also at this time Oracle begins a relationship with Dick Grayson once again following the events of No Man's Land . This on again off again relationship has been going on for some time. Also the Huntress joins the Birds of Prey, although Barbara and Helena do not get along, particularly after it is revealed that Dick and Helena had a relationship at one point.
Cassandra works as Batgirl with Oracle and they become a team to be reckoned with. One time they were trying to solve a bombing at the diamond exchange that killed several people. Two-Face caused the bombing and took credit for it but the problem was why did six of the bodies disappear. It turned out they were being reanimated and used by a man named Malcolm Greymater (The General) in his crime-syndicate known as the Trio . The machine that brought people back didn't really work on everyone's minds leaving some complete zombies while others with slight memory loss that just got worse as their brains rotted. Good looking woman were taking to a strip club were they would perform. Strong men were recruited in his own gang. Everything led them to Arcadia were Oracle and Cassandra worked with the Ghost .
Officer Down
Jim Gordon gun down
On Jim Gordon's birthday, Barbara waits for him to arrive to see him as he's out having drinks with several officers. As he leaves to come visit Barbara, he runs into Catwoman before being shot three times in the back by an unknown shooter as Catwoman is grazed by a bullet he discharged. Barbara hearing this, is forced to feign ignorance and officers arrive to take her to the hospital, where all the local media is there trying to gather a statement from her. Once Gordon pulls out of his first surgery, Barbara calls in Azrael , Robin , Batgirl , Nightwing and Batman to find out the truth. As Bruce, charges all of them to look for Catwoman with Oracle coordinating their efforts as Bruce waits with Gordon.
Following the tip from Harley Quinn, Oracle and Nightwing devise a plan to slow Catwoman down and capture her. By all the heroes chasing her and making her tired before allowing her to fall on a net, and be shocked by Robin. Catwoman then tells her story of witnessing a fellow officer shoot Gordon, and hide the weapon which she took and hid in order to prove her innocence. Upon Batgirl and Azrael gaining the gun, they release Catwoman with Dick heading to Barbara to have it traced. Barbara then traces the gun as being having recovered by G.C.P.D but having never been recorded in evidence, with officer Rich being revealed to be Jordan Reynolds, a mobster from Chicago who Commissioner Gordon had arrested, but was put in witness protection in exchange for information.
Following learning the truth Nightwing is forced to talk Barbara out seeking vengeance instead of justice. Nightwing manages to talk her out of it, giving him the gun as she leaves to the hospital to see the now awakened Commissioner Gordon.
War Games
War Games
Oracle is responsible for coordinating efforts between Batman, Nightwing, Robin, Batgirl, Onyx and Catwoman when Gotham is tossed into a city wide gang war. Through out the gang war, Batman grew increasingly cold to Oracle, only relying on her to give out orders to the others. Following Orpheus being killed by Black Mask , and taking his place as the new head of Gotham organized crime. Black Mask then arrives to Oracle's clock tower along with Scarecrow and a Gotham television reporter which he believe is the Batcave , as Hush told him.
Through the use of sacrificing his henchmen and Scare Crow to Oracle's various traps, he makes it to the top where he meets Barbara herself. He then challenges Batman for a final televised duel to death and if he doesn't show up threatens a live televised execution of Barbara. Batman then arrives and begins his battle with Black Mask despite Barbara's pleas to end it. When Bruce continues his battle with Black Mask, Barbara takes matters into her own hands activating the tower's self destruct system forcing Bruce to choose between continuing his fight to the death or saving her, which he readily does.
Following the clock tower's destruction she leaves Gotham as well as the Gotham vigilantes believing it's unfair to them as well as the Birds of Prey . She then begins traveling the world with the Birds, eventually setting up base in Metropolis .
Infinite Crisis
Oracle recruits Misfit into Birds of Prey
Oracle and Martian Manhunter team up in order to counteract the Secret Society's jailbreak during Infinite Crisis . It was around this time that Jason Todd returned to Gotham as red Hood. Before the crisis started however, Dick Grayson proposed to Barbara, however in the aftermath of the crisis she puts the engagement on hold in order for Dick to travel the world with Bruce Wayne and Tim Drake , retracing the roots of Batman. She tells him they aren't ready to be married, Dick gives her the engagement ring and a picture of the two of them when they were Robin and Batgirl. Once they return, Oracle begins to work with the Batman, although on a limited basis. Black Canary has left the team and as such The Huntress takes up the field command of the team. Barbara expands her team and include Big Barda as her heavy hitter. Oracle also tries to reform her friendship with Power Girl and invite her back on the team but she blatantly declines her. For a brief period the Government tried to take over the Birds of Prey organization, however Barbara eventually regained control of the team and inducted a new member, Misfit, into her operation.
Cassandra Cain, the one who succeeded her as Batgirl, who was looking for her father in an attempt to kill him, is interrupted by Oracle who simply tells her she knows what she's looking for and offers to delete her browsing history on the computer. However it is revealed Cassandra's father intends to kill Barbara, and in the process Cassandra saves her. Some time later, after the death of the Flash, Oracle sends Batwoman and the Question to gather the Trickster and the Pied Piper as they played a hand in the Flash's death. She also struggles with keeping all the super-heroes secret identities when the Calculator tries to steal her records and computer sources.
Booster Gold is then assigned by Rip Hunter , to prevent the Joker's shooting of Barbara Gordon who he claims was never meant to be shot. Booster then travels back in time to the events of the Killing Joke, and is constantly defeated by The Joker and his henchmen with Barbara still being paralyzed. Rip then explains that Barbara being shot, much like Ted Kord are "solidified time" meaning it's impossible to alter to save them from their fate.
Final Crisis
In Final Crisis Darkseid has figured out the Anti-Life Equation , and as a result attempts to put it on the internet. Oracle attempts to thwart his attempts, even going as far as attempting to shut down the entire internet, however she fails and as a result the Equation is plastered on the Internet. After the crisis she is released from the Equation, and begins to doubt her abilities, disbanding the Birds of Prey .
Search for The Cure
Oracle
During Battle for the Cowl, even though the Birds of Prey are inactive, she summons them in an attempt to help Nightwing and Robin. She acts as operator for the Network in Gotham City .
The Calculator's daughter is dying and he becomes obsessed with attempting to find the Anti-Life Equation in an attempt to save her. Oracle learns of his excursions when one of her informants are killed while in a virtual reality game.
Oracle travels to Hong Kong hoping to use state of the art computer technology to reach the Equation before the Calculator. When he learns of her attempts he swears vengeance on her.
She manages to help catch him, while visiting his daughter and she cures the Anti-Life Equation.
Blackest Night
When Green Lantern is thrown into the Bat-Signal in Gotham, both Jim Gordon and Barbara are present. Barbara then sends the information that was gathered by Green Lantern and proceeds to send it to all the heroes throughout the planet before Jim and her are pursued by Black Lanterns of the dead Batman Rogues. They are forced to fight for their lives before the new Batman, Robin, and Red Robin arrive. She is possessed by Deadman , who uses his supernatural powers to make her walk, as well as using her natural athletic ability to stave off the Black Lanterns. Robin takes the two to Alfred who tend to their wounds.
New Batgirl
Mentioning Wendy Harris (Proxy)
Dick Grayson informs Barbara that Cassandra Cain is no longer using the identity of Batgirl . As a result she knows that Stephanie Brown has taken the mantle. Barbara confronts her and tells her to stop going out because she is far too reckless. She tries to dissuade her from pursuing this life, telling her that it will end badly for her, bringing her to the Batcave she tells her to quit. When Scarecrow attacks Gotham, Barbara is forced to send her out to the field. Through this fight Barbara takes a liking to Stephanie, and begins mentoring the young hero. She begins teaching as a professor at Gotham University in order to keep a closer eye on Stephanie. When Dick realizes that Barbara is allowing Stephanie to be Batgirl he confronts her angrily, causing the two to have quite a fight but eventually he accepts Stephanie.
Barbara is set up on a blind date, but that goes south as the man realizes that she wants to be with someone else. She is seen flirting with Dick Grayson again, and at one point when Helena goes undercover, being Dick Grayson's date at a social event, where she kisses Dick to maintain a cover. Barbara hears this over a comm link and is seen to be frustrated and jealous.
Since she is no longer permitted to use the Batcave, Barbara creates a new base of operations for Batgirl beneath her apartment which she calls Firewall . Barbara also begins helping young Wendy Harris , who has also been paralyzed, by giving her a position on 'Team Batgirl' to help Stephanie in her absence.
A Turbulent Reunion
Getting the Band Back Together
Barbara and the Birds are back in town as Black Canary, Huntress, and Lady Blackhawk come to Gotham.
She as always helps the girls with her intelligence.
Soon after getting the team back together, Barbara was supposedly kidnapped by Savant , but he did not want to kill her. He just asked her forgiveness.
He told her he was not strong enough for her. He tried to commit suicide but before he fell, Barbara took his hand. She was not strong enough to save him but in the final moment Creote appeared and helped her. She blamed herself for her arrogance toward him.
She cried and was really worried for his safety. Creote after saving his friend told him Barbara still loves him.
That was the reason she would never let him die in front of her. Oracle decides to continue to help them and shows them her other new base of operations: Kord Tower .
The Death of Oracle
Death of Oracle
With the return of the original Batman, Bruce Wayne, and his formation of Batman Incorporated , Bruce has a new need for the talents of Oracle. He tells Barbara that he and Wayne Enterprises plan to launch the Internet 3.0, and he wants Barbara to be his "ghost in the machine." He shows her a mysterious set of plans that have her in a Bat-Suit, next to a vehicle, but fails to go further into detail about what it all means. Later, Bruce visits Barbara and apparently is trying to talk her out of a decision she's made. He tries to remind her how much he needs Oracle for his future plans, but Barbara tells him it's inappropriate to call her Oracle any more, as too many people know of her existence, continuing to say "Tonight... Oracle dies, once and for all." She grabs Bruce's hand and asks him to wish her luck. All this while Calculator, one of Oracle's greatest foes conspires with new villain Mortis , against her and the rest of the Birds of Prey. When the new villain, Mortis comes looking for Oracle at a strip club, Barbara Gordon is no where in sight and Dove is really drunk. That leaves, Black Canary , Huntress and Lady Blackhawk to defend one another against a foe that has a touch of insanity - then suicide!
Skeleton Keys
James Gordon Jr.
As Gordon tries to draw a line between work and home, he gets a phone call from Harvey Bullock telling him to go to the Gotham City Aviary. When Gordon arrives, Bullock informs Jim that the aviary cages are all automated from the control room and there is some troubling video footage from the security cameras that Jim needs to see. Gordon sees the image of a man who resembles his son James Jr. This troubling assumption begins to trouble Gordon and soon he becomes haunted by the visions of past unsolved case files that involved murdered children.
Fifteen years ago, Gordon was moving up the ranks within the precinct when he started investigating a string of eight murders that involved the Peter Pan Killer who would sneak into family homes and abduct children from their beds then murder them. Gordon apprehended the Peter Pan Killer when he attempted to abduct a young James Jr.
After fifteen years, Gordon heads to Blackgate to interrogate the Peter Pan Killer before he was released from prison. Gordon wanted to find out why the killer didn’t go through with kidnapping James Jr. The killer reveals that he was going to kill Gordon Jr. rather than abducting him because James Jr. gave the killer an ominous stare when he entered the boy’s room. The killer also reveals that he murdered a young girl who was friends with Oracle before he visited Gordon’s apartment.
This revelation causes Gordon wonder about his son’s innocence and what exactly happened to the young girl. Oracle has always been under the assumption that James Jr. murdered her friend Bess because she saw James Jr. playing with her friend’s apartment keys with smug look on his face. Gordon has heard this story from Babs before but now he doubts if Babs’ story is actually true. There is a possibility that the killer took the young girl’s keys and dropped them at the Gordon’s apartment by accident. After his conversation with the Peter Pan Killer, Gordon threatens the killer that he will be followed at all times in order to prevent another murder.
Later on that same day, Gordon invites his daughter for some coffee at Bay Diner and talks to her about his findings. Jim tells Barbara that her brother, James Jr. , is back in Gotham City. Barbara asks her father if he really thinks it's him coming back, and Jim replies yes. As they continue their talk, Barbara reminds her father that Jim Jr. is really smart and cunning. Jim tells her that it's going to be all right and that they've got police officers looking out for him. However she still sticks by her story and she leaves her father with lingering doubts but then James Jr. appears from other side of the diner, staring at his father. James Jr. sits down with his father and explains his return to Gotham. James Jr. begins by apologizing to his father for the theatrics at the aviary. James tells the commissioner that his mother (Barbara Sr.) sent him to Arkham for a psychological evaluation and the doctors clinically diagnosed him as mentally unstable in regards to exhibiting apathetic behavior. However, the doctors prescribed an experimental medicine to help James in stabilizing his emotional imbalance.
James also overheard Barbara's convictions about him and he swears to his father that he has never killed anybody. Gordon still doesn't know what to think about his son until James informs him about his volunteer work at Dr. Thompkins' clinic. James Jr. leaves the cafe and asks that his father will hopefully find it in his heart to forgive him. For a while, Gordon feels this extreme sense of relief that his son is misunderstood but he is changing for the better. When Gordon reaches his apartment, he finds a trail of blood. Gordon follows the trail to James Jr.'s old room. The trail ends in James' closet. Gordon opens the door and finds the body of a schoolyard bully that James Jr. fell victim to when he was young.
It seems everyone was right about James Jr. even though Gordon tried to give him the benefit of the doubt. Gordon immediately goes to the clinic and finds Dr. Thompkins. Gordon confronts Leslie by demanding to know where his son is. Leslie informs Gordon that his son is a model volunteer because anything she asks him to do, he "happily" does. Over time, Leslie has given James Jr. more responsibilities like making "nutrition runs" for newborn babies who come from poor families. Gordon doesn't want to panic Leslie by telling her what he had found at his apartment so he humbly asks her to call him the moment James comes in for his shift. Leslie agrees to Gordon's request and she tries to calm his worries by showing him James' office.
Leslie flips on the lights in James' office and gives Gordon a tour. As Leslie professes how great James is, Gordon on the other hand, can't believe that Leslie would be so naive to willingly put her full trust in someone like James whom she knows is mentally unstable. Gordon peers around the office and finds a vial of James' medicine. The medicine is called Diaxemene which is designed to release a chemical in the brain so the patient can feel empathy. Gordon takes a pill from the vial, thanks Leslie for the tour and makes his way to Barbara's place at Kord Tower.
Gordon gives Barbara the pill that he took from James' office and asks her to run a couple of tests. Barbara knew something was going on with James but she didn't want to rub in her father's face because she could see that Gordon still wanted to hold onto any hope of saving his son. Barbara figures the medicine is supposed to help James in treating or possibly curing his psychotic tendencies but Diaxemene is still in the testing phases and hasn't been approved by the FDA. Gordon is hoping he can convince James to undergo some blood work in order to make sure that he has been taking his pills.
Gordon leaves Barbara to her work while he heads back to the clinic. Barbara breaks down the pill's components and she makes a startling discovery. James has reversed the effect of the pill and now the pill is designed to chemically induce apathy rather than empathy in a certain section of the brain. However, the dosage of James' pill is of such low grade that it wouldn't affect an adult. Barbara relays all of her findings to Gordon's cell phone. Gordon can't understand why James would concoct a pill with such a low dosage then it hits him. Leslie made James responsible for the "nutrition runs" at her clinic. James has been putting his pills in the baby formula and giving it to all the newborns thereby ensuring their development into becoming psychopaths.
Just as Gordon reached the clinic, he is stopped by Det. Bullock who has some really bad news. Bullock says the Joker has escaped Arkham and something horrible has happened to Gordon's ex-wife. Gordon acts quickly by warning Leslie about James then he calls in a small task force to station themselves at the clinic and wait for James to return. Gordon must put the hunt for his deranged son in the hands of his brothers in blue while he accompanies Bullock. Bullock tells Gordon that he received an anonymous phone call from someone who said Barbara Gordon is going to die at the Gotham Plaza Hotel. Gordon and Bullock reach the hotel room where Barbara was staying at and as Gordon entered, he notices a light coming from the bathroom. Gordon falls to his knees in tears because he has found his beloved ex-wife nude in the bath tub with a crimson smile across her face.
Gordon rushes Barbara to the lab at Wayne Enterprises while Bullock calls in Oracle and tells her what has just happened. Oracle reacts by calling Dick and having him meet her father at the lab. Oracle runs a few tests on her mother while Dick injects the anti-Joker Venom. Fortunately, Gordon got to Barbara just in time to save her and the Joker Venom was a derivative of the original. Gordon at this point wants Joker's head on a pike for all the misery he has brought to the Gordons but Dick convinces Gordon that there is no way the Joker could have escaped Arkham and found out where Barbara was so quickly. Dick promises Gordon that he will find Joker and make him talk.
Dick heads to Arkham and conducts a complete sweep of the crime scene. From what Dick could deduce, Joker didn't get very far from Arkham because Dick begins follow a trail of Joker's sweat which seems to be secreting Joker Venom. Dick follows the trail to an abandoned section of Arkham. At this point, Dick figures that Joker must have discovered Victor Zsasz 's underground path which leads to the catacombs beneath Arkham. Zsasz used this path to escape Arkham so he could freely kill anyone he wanted in Gotham then he would make his way back to Arkham as if he had never escaped at all.
Dick finds Joker in a dank corner of the catacombs. He notices Joker mumbling to himself about being disappointed. Dick apprehends Joker and begins to interrogate him. Joker starts off by complaining about the fact that Dick isn't the real Batman by saying "You don't scare me little bird” and he isn't saying a word until the real Batman returns. Dick decides to beat down on the Joker until he reveals who he hired to attack Barbara Gordon. Joker laughs hysterically because according to him, the real Batman would have figured out that the Joker does his own dirty work and he would never send some errand boy to take credit for his fun. Dick finally realizes that the Joker was able to escape simply because someone needed him to be the scapegoat for the attack on Barbara Gordon and they were counting on Commissioner Gordon to retaliate by ending the Joker once and for all.
Back at the lab, Gordon sat by Barbara's side as Bullock escorted Oracle back to her apartment. Barbara eventually wakes up and when she laid her eyes on Gordon, she immediately began to scream for help. A doctor comes rushing and injects a sedative into Barbara. Gordon finally realizes that James injected the Joker Venom into his mother as a way to get back at her for institutionalizing him while at the same time he wanted Gordon to think the Joker was responsible for the attack on Barbara in order to bait him into killing the Joker. If Gordon knows how calculating his son can be then he would guess that James has already realized his plan to manipulate everything is falling apart which leaves only one person left for him to torture... his sister.
Bullock drops Barbara off at her apartment doorstep and just as she entered her apartment, James closes the door right behind her. James and Barbara enter a discussion about on how depraved he is. James respects her because she is the only one who can see him for what he is. Barbara replies to his compliment with a scoff. Barbara always knew James was disturbed and most of those people that he has already killed were actually victims rather people who had it coming. In short, Barbara realizes that James tries to find flaws or start something with another person just so he can justify as well as satisfy his violent tendencies. James smiles and his respect for her deduction has reached new lengths.
Storyline: The New 52
The Return of Batgirl
Batgirl Back in Action
Barbara's story opens up shortly after her return to the role of Batgirl, having recovered the use of her legs due to an experimental surgery. When beating up a group of thugs threatening to murder a couple in their home, she recalls how good it feels to have a goon crumble beneath her feet. However, in spite of her excitement at being back in the crime fighting role, she realizes that she is quite a bit rusty, as she makes a few mistakes in the process of taking down the bad guys. She remarks how she felt scared during the encounter, and the she knows she succeeded in large part due to luck.
Barbara soon moves out of her house, leaving behind her father, James Gordon , as she believes it's time to stretch her own legs and make a life of her own. She moves into an apartment, with a new roommate named Alysia Yeoh .
When a hospital is attacked by a madman by the name of Mirror , Batgirl arrives to stop him. However, when he points a gun at her, she experiences a moment of terror, as it reminds her of when the Joker shot her spine, the event that paralyzed her in the first place. Because she freezes up in fear, Mirror is able to kill the man he was after and then get away.
Batgirl manages to track him down to a cemetery, where she engages him in combat. Mirror manages to defeat her and then get away again, though not before she is able to get a look at the list of names he carries around. She then returns to her apartment, where she passes out and is patched up by her roommate, who assumes she was being abused by a boyfriend.
After determining that Mirror had gone to the cemetery in order to visit someone, she researches recent deaths and managed to figure out who he is, Jonathan Mills. Batgirl tracks down the man's apartment, but he isn't there, instead contacting her via a television screen, revealing that he has been hunting down and killing people who should have died in horrific accidents, but instead miraculously survived. He also reveals his next target, giving Batgirl a chance to save him.
Batgirl vs. Mirror
Batgirl arrives at the train due to explode shortly. However, she fails to realize that there are in fact two targets, and is unable to save the second man before his train car explodes. Distraught over the event, Barbara visits her father. In their conversation, it is revealed that her newly healed legs might not be permanent, and that if she pushes herself too hard, they may deteriorate again.
The next night, when recovering her motorcycle from the impound lot, Batgirl comes across Nightwing , who wanted to make sure she was alright, because he and Batman are worried about her. She assures him that she's fine, but when he persists, she goes on to prove it to him, briefly coming to blows with him. However, Nightwing reveals that he and Batman aren't worried about her because they think she isn't capable, but because they love her. Batgirl acknowledges this, but affirms that she must do this alone.
Batgirl determines that Mirror would return to his family's graves on Christmas Eve and leaves a note for him there, calling him a disgrace to his family. She lures him to Sprang Park, where defeats him in a House of Mirrors by showing him a projection of the news clippings detailing the accident that took his family but left him alive, causing him to go insane long enough to be subdued.
Family Ties
Barbara's Mother Returns
Later that night, while Barbara and Alysia are opening Christmas Presents, Barbara's estranged mother (also named Barbara ) who left her family nine years ago, shows up on her doorstep, wanting to come back into her daughter's life. Understandably, Barbara is a bit resentful towards her mother for leaving, and is reluctant to let the woman back into her life.
After the incident with her mother, Batgirl arrives at the scene of a crime, where four men are robbing commuters at gunpoint on a bridge, all while repeating the numbers "338". When she breaks up the scene, one of the men, the father of the other three, shoots them dead and then attempts to commit suicide before she is able to stop him. She is then attacked by a woman named Gretel , who is able to hold her own in a fight. Shortly after her arrival, Gretel flees the scene.
When she learns that Gretel is after Bruce Wayne , Batgirl races off to get there in time to stop her. However, Bruce Wayne's driver is already under the woman's control, using the trigger of "338" to make him do her bidding. While Batgirl manages to arrive before the driver can kill Bruce, she is then attacked by Bruce himself, who is also under Gretel's spell. After a short fight, she manages to talk him down and get him to snap out of it, though Gretel manages to escape.
The next night, Batgirl works out a plan with Batman, using his Bruce Wayne persona in another public appearance as bait to draw out Gretel. After stopping the police that were under Gretel's spell, Batgirl locates Gretel atop a crane and pursues her, along with Batman. Together, they are able to defeat her.
Sometime later, Barbara goes to visit Black Canary , waking her up in the middle of the night to spar. During their spar, she realizes that something is holding her back when she fights, something causing hesitation and trepidation. Even though her body has healed, her spirit is still wounded. Afterward, while talking over coffee, Barbara laments about how guilty she feels that she regained the use of her legs, while others are still in a wheelchair. Eventually, Dinah slaps her and tells her to stop feeling sorry for herself, and to stop complaining that she can walk again, when she never once complained while actually in a wheelchair. Dinah also urges Barbara to give her mother a chance, and to at least try to let the woman back in her life, because others don't even have a mother.
Snap Out of It!
After regaining her confidence, Batgirl decides to check out some intel for Black Canary. She arrives at the Iceberg Casino, where a group of masked men are attacking the patrons. Batgirl promptly interrupts the the attack, beating up several of the men. Their ringleader, Grotesque , however, escapes into the sewers with a couple of his men. She follows him, though he is able to get away. When she recognizes one of the other men she knocked unconscious, she recognizes him as the same man who was with the Joker the night she was shot.
The next day, Barbara meets with her mother and wants to know why she left them nine years ago. Her mother explains that it was because she loved her, and didn't want her to get hurt. James, Jr ., Barbara's brother, had apparently been acting strangely, even killing their pet cat, saying it was his mother's fault, and then threatening to hurt his sister if she didn't leave. In a panicked breakdown, she actually believed her son, and so fled to keep her family safe. Barbara's mother goes on to claim that she later received therapy, and then when she heard that James, Jr. was put away in Arkham, she returned to apologize to her family. Barbara then leaves, needing time to process the information.
Batgirl later tracks down Grotesque, only managing to defeat him with the help of Danny , the man she unmasked earlier. During the conflict, Danny is mortally wounded, and, while dying in Batgirl's arms, reveals that he was the one who called the ambulance that made it to Barbara in time after she was shot. if not for his actions, she would have bled to death. Elsewhere, James, Jr. reappears, apparently having escaped or been released from Arkham. He meets Alysia, Barbara's roommate, and gets her to go out for coffee with him.
Night of the Owls
During the Night of the Owls event, Batgirl is attacked by a Talon named Mary, using a bomb carried by a paper balloon. The Talon proves to be more than a match, swiftly defeating her, yet inexplicably leaving her alive. However, Batgirl is able to take a scrap of paper from the Talon, before she retreats. When she returns to her apartment, she studies the paper, on which a date is written in Kanji. Realizing that the note is written on mulberry paper, she connects the date to a period between 1944 and 1945, when Japan built thousands of paper balloons to carry bombs to the United States.
As she wonders what possible meaning that could have, Gotham is suddenly attacked by those same types of bombs, carried by paper balloons. Batgirl immediately rushes off to help, arriving at the GCPD building a short while later only to find it up in flames. Spotting the Talon on the roof, Batgirl makes her way upwards to engage her in combat again. Though the Talon gains a quick upper hand, Batgirl is able to win by flipping her over the ledge of the roof onto one of the floating bombs, an act that she is reluctant to go through with. Gravely injured, Mary reveals why she didn't kill Barbara when they first fought, writing the words "I Have Mask 2, I Understand" in her own blood.
Later in the same night, Batgirl assists the Birds of Prey in taking down another Talon, by locking it in a freezer cart on a train with Poison Ivy .
The Dark Knight-Cycle of Violence
While under the influence of Fear gas, Commissioner Gordon sees a illusion of Barbara with a stomach wound, and James Jr. in a straight jacket. The figments of the gas then apologizes to their father for ruining his perfect life.
The Disgraced
The Disgraced Attack!
Batgirl beats up a group of carjackers, taking most of them down with ease. One of them, however, manages to flee towards the parking garage exit, only to run into a bear rap that snaps his leg. While Batgirl tries to assure him that he'll be okay, and wants to wait with him until an ambulance arrives, the local security detail insists that she leaves, and says that they will take care of it. Against her better judgment, Batgirl does indeed leave.
Later that night, Barbara gets a call from Alysia to bail her out of jail, after being arrested during one of her protests. The two go out for dinner, conversing about the sad state of Gotham. Alysia speaks out against figures like Bruce Wayne, stating that they're going about fixing the city in the wrong way.
The following night, Batgirl is ambushed by a group of vigilantes calling themselves The Disgraced , who are holding the kid from earlier whose name is Michael, the one caught in the bear trap, hostage. They offer Batgirl a chance to join their organization, but she refuses, saving Michael as they throw him off a building. The Disgraced then attack Batgirl, claiming that crime in Gotham is now dead, just as she will be.
Rotworld
Barbra Gordon lead the surviving Gothamites and keep them safe within Arkham Asylum. Mr. Freeze and Killer Croc live up on the satellite being their eyes in the sky.
Death of the Family
In the Death of the Family arc, her brother James Gordon Jr. lures her to the Joker's location. Here, the Joker has kidnapped Barbara's mother. He then proposed to Barbara with her mother's cut off ring finger. Forced to protect her mother, Batgirl decides to play along and have their wedding. In an attempt to escape, Barbara loses to the Joker and his men. She doesn't get free until Batman saves her and the Bat-family.
James Gordon and the Ventriloquist
After the events of Death of the Family, Batgirl engages in battle with her psychotic brother James Gordon Jr. In their final confrontation, Barbara kills him (although we find in Suicide Squad, that he is still alive, unknown to the Gordon family). Commissioner Gordon sees this and decides to hunt down Batgirl, not knowing that she is his daughter Barbara.
Because she thought she killed James, Batgirl feels unfit to wear the Bat symbol on her chest. While this is going on, she battles the Ventriloquist.
Powers and Abilities
Intellect
Batgirl Abilities
Regardless of the version or universe, Barbara is always portrayed as someone with a genius level intellect. In the New 52 it has been shown how fast she can cross informations to get what she wants and how, during her life, people have always called her "talented", "decided", "obstinate" and "exceptional". Among the activities in which she stands out there are ballet, martial arts and science. She also has an eidetic memory. In issue #9 it is shown that she is also familiar with Kanji.
As Oracle, she was a genius, possessing extensive knowledge in numerous different fields of study, making her an adept leader, detective, computer scientist, linguist, and combatant. After the Joker shot her, causing her paraplegia, Barbara decided to continue fighting crime from behind the scenes. Although she is no longer on the field fighting criminals head to head, she has shown to be one of the most resourceful and greatest crime fighters on earth. Her brilliance in computer science has allowed to direct the Birds of Prey by computer; hack the most well-protected systems; guard her own equipment from infiltration; and access security cameras and footage as effective means of surveillance and to aid in her detective work, among seemingly limitless other uses. She has formed connections with numerous different superhero teams and individuals, often times assisting them when they require information and reference. Oracle also has large databases on various superheroes and villains alike, utilizing the information she has attained in her investigations.
Unarmed Combat
Barbara is also a master martial artist. After her paralysis, Richard Dragon trained her to fight and protect herself from the wheelchair. She was once able to knock away Tarantula while in her wheelchair. As Batgirl , Barbara was also a skilled acrobat. In issue #0 of her New 52 title, she says she had been taking self-defense classes since she was six. She is trained in boxing, Dragon Style Kung Fu, Judo, stick fighting, and many more. Even when crippled, she more than held her own in many fights.
Sensitivity
Barbara is the Bat Family member who thinks the most about the impact her actions may have on the marginalized population of Gotham. She wonders if the superhero game is the right path for the city. She goes easy on the thieves and bandits that are on this life for lack of better choices. She was even able to understand some villains' issues. To sum up, she can walk on others' shoes and reflect on her own actions, what makes her an unique member of the Bat Family.
Before the reboot, her relationship with both Batgirls, Cassandra Cain and Stephanie Brown, proved that she can be a real safe Harbor for the ones she cares about. The Birds of Prey, Bruce and even Tim did not hesitate before asking her help. She usually provided a great solution.
Elseworlds
Batman: Nine Lives
In this Elseworlds tale, Barbara is a secretary for private detective Dick Grayson, whom she has a romantic attraction towards. She is an aspiring photographer, and is offered a job from Vicky Vale when she photographs Dick fighting alongside Batman against various mobsters.
Thrillkiller
Batgirl (Thrillkiller)
In the Thrillkiller story arc of alternate continuity, Barbara Gordon is in an isolated relationship with her father/mentor, Commissioner James Gordon. When her mother died, Barbara blames her father for not solving the man who killed his wife, and her mom. So deciding that she needs to do some good, Barbara Gordon becomes Batgirl! This story is in the early 1960's, and is a noir story. She is joined by acrobat extraordinaire, Richard Greystark (whom is Dick Grayson) and finds the man who killed his mother. As a wealthy heiress, she has gained money from the death of her mother and has used that wealth to buy Wayne Manor. Which the Waynes' ( Thomas and Martha ) lost during the great depression.
Red Rain
Vampire Barbara
In the Red Rain Story arc, When Batman becomes a vampire, he decides to have partners, and bites Barbara Gordon.
As a vampire she has all of the powers of a known vampire, but when she wants her boyfriend, Dick Grayson to come to dinner, he gets concerned and decides to take her out.
When she leads him into a dark alley, he almost gets bit, but to his split-second timing he runs a stake through her heart.
Leaving her to die in the alley, Donna Troy comes and removes the stake from her heart, and they both try to warn Dick not to go see Bruce Wayne.
Elseworld's Finest
Elseworlds Batgirl
In the Elseworld's Finest Supergirl & Batgirl , James Gordon died saving the Waynes' from the mugger and his daughter Barbara became Batgirl to avenge the loss of her father. Bruce Wayne, to pay her back for saving his parents and losing her own, assisted her and financed her mission. Batgirl created a crime monitoring computer program called Oracle as well as a cybernetic costume and a flying Batmobile. She was Gotham's only hero (keeping all others out of the city) until she met Kara Zor-El (Supergirl) and the two's friendship allowed Batgirl to overcome her obsessed stalker the Joker, and Supergirl's enemy Lex Luthor.
Smallville
Smallville's Nightwing & Batman
Barbara "Babs" Gordon is the protege of billionaire Bruce Wayne as well as the masked vigilante known only as "Nightwing" in Gotham City while posing as a trusted and dedicated WayneTech Intern in Research and Development division.
She is the sidekick and assistant of The Batman, trained and mentored by the Dark Knight himself. As the daughter of a police commissioner, Barbara grew up with a huge sense of justice that drove her on the crime-fighting career: however unlike Bruce she is a positive thinker and a very cheerful person. When she is chosen to be a Blue Lantern, she recruits her acrobat boyfriend Dick Grayson to join Bruce in his crusade.
After several references during the whole TV series she first appears in the second story arc digital/print comic Smallville: Season Eleven story arc Detective.
Injustice: Gods Among Us
Oracle's new Birds of Prey
At the end of the first chapter of Year Two, Black Canary is revealed to be in contact with Oracle, Barbara's alias after her crippling.
Barbara makes her first physical appearance in chapter four of Year Two alongside Black Canary in an unknown location, intercepting a call from the President of the United States to Batman. She introduces herself as Oracle, and when the President asks where Batman is, Barbara explains, "Superman happened. Batman's alive but he can't help you. We can." The President at first refuses to place his trust in them but Barbara explains that she is working with Batman and that they all want the same thing: "We want Superman's regime torn down."
Barbara says this as she looks at the data readout listing the chemical composition of the Kryptonian nanotech pill, and finishes by saying, "And we believe Batman has given us the means to do that." Barbara then asks what is happening and the President explains that Superman has had Green Lantern and Flash take congress.
In chapter six, Barbara is shocked when her father Commissioner Gordon appears outside the secure location she and Black Canary are hiding out in, demanding to be let in, and she is even more surprised when her father claims to know everything.
When Gordon is allowed inside, he demands to know where Batman is, and while Barbara tries to bluff him off, Gordon snaps at her and reveals he's always known she was Batgirl and Bruce Wayne was Batman, and that he's known since the first night she put on her costume. Gordon starts to look for Batman and Barbara is forced to explain his current condition and whereabouts. When Barbara asks why he's there now, Gordon reveals that Superman has marched his new army into Gotham, leaving the police powerless.
Barbara is then shocked when her father reveals that he has cancer and is dying. Daughter and father share a tender embrace in silence. Gordon is apologetic over the fact he will soon no longer be there to protect her or Gotham from Superman's increasing instability, but Barbara reveals she has a plan and presses a button on her wheelchair, causing a section of the wall to move behind her, revealing Black Canary, Catwoman , Batwoman and Huntress , her new Birds of Prey.
In the Annual, she is seen grieving over the death of Nightwing, implying that the two had been in a relationship. Sent by Superman, Clayface attacks her and her father, while disguised as Nightwing and her mother. Barbara is able to defeat Clayface using a wheel of her broken wheelchair.
Other Media
Batman with Robin the Boy Wonder
Batgirl-1969 Batman
Batgirl in The New Aventures of Batman
Batgirl is one of the main characters in the series, voiced by Melendy Britt.
Batman: The Animated Series
Bargirl Animated
Barbara Gordon is introduced in the first season. In the second season, when her father is accused of corruption she attempts to contact Batman in hopes that he will show support of her father. She then decides to impersonate him when he refuses, later there is a shooting and she attempts to stop them from getting away. Robin sees her and tries to stop her, only tearing the back of her cowl revealing her hair. Batgirl figures out who is behind the plot and brings him to justice. In the process Batman accepts her as part of the team and she beings flirting with Robin and Dick Grayson, not realizing they are the same person. She is voiced by Melissa Gilbert.
Batman & Mr. Freeze - Sub Zero
Batman & Mr. Freeze - Sub Zero
Barbara Gordon is kidnapped by Mr. Freeze in an attempt to be an organ donor to save his frozen wife who has a rare blood type that Barbara has. Barbara shows her evasion skills throughout the film although she does not appear as Batgirl once. She is revealed to be a 20 year old college student and in a relationship with Dick Grayson. She is voiced by Mary Kay Bergman .
The New Batman Adventures
The Batman Adventures
When Batman: The Animated Series was revamped, Barbara Gordon/Batgirl was instrumental in the new series, becoming a regular. Her Batsuit was redesigned into a black costume. Batman is seen to trust her completely by showing her into the Batcave and revealing their identities. It is also revealed that Robin quit because Batman allowed Barbara to be Batgirl and not telling Dick that she was Batgirl. She is voiced by Tara Strong .
Gotham Girls
Gotham Girls
Batgirl is seen combating Poison Ivy, Harley Quinn and Catwoman. This was a five episode mini show, that aired on the internet. It was based off of the Gotham Girls comic series that was released in 2002 and finished in 2003. Tara Strong voices Batgirl in this mini show.
Batman - Mystery of The Batwoman
Mystery of the Batwoman
Barbara makes an appearance as she calls Bruce from college questioning him about whether or not he's replaced her. It is revealed Barbara has had a crush on Bruce when she tells him she misses him. She is voiced by Tara Strong.
Justice League
Barbara and Dick is Justice League
She makes a few appearances in Justice League episodes although there was a Bat Embargo on the characters so they were not able to be seen as such. She makes a cameo appearance in " The Savage Time Part 1 ", where in an alternate time line she is seen kissing an alternate Dick Grayson. She also appeared at Superman's Funeral. She is also mentioned in another episode as skiing with Kara Kent .
Justice League Unlimited
She was originally supposed to appear in an episode but was later replaced by other heroes. After having severe injuries as Batgirl, Barbara is house bound was to be called by Nightwing and there would have been reportedly tension between Huntress Barbara and Nightwing.
Batman Beyond
Commissioner Barbara Gordon
Barbara Gordon is now Gotham's Police Commissioner. It is revealed that Bruce and Barbara did in fact have a relationship, however she left him because he couldn't leave Batman behind. She doesn't resent him, just what he has become. She also hates that Bruce has allegedly dragged another kid under his wing, suggesting something happened between the Animated series and Batman Beyond for her to resent Batman besides their relationship. She is married to District Attorney Sam Young and grows to respect the new Batman. She came close to compromising all of the Batman Family's identities when she is almost forced to arrest Terry, the new Batman, after she apparently sees him murdering a criminal. She also reveals that Dick Grayson is still alive, but their relationship has long since died, telling Terry to look up Nightwing sometime to see how Bruce treated his partners.
Batman Beyond - Return of the Joker
Batman and Batgirl in Return of the Joker
It is revealed why Batman made all his allies quite stop working for him. Tim Drake was kidnapped by the Joker and brainwashed to be like him. Barbara fight Harley Quin and witnesses Tim killing the Joker and comforts him as he breaks down. Barbara and Batman bury the Joker in Arkham and she reveals that Jim Gordon was the only other person to know about the Jokers final fate. She reveals this to Terry and later visits Tim Drake in the hospital where they all reunite with Bruce, although Nightwing is not there, they repair their fragile relationship.
The Batman
The Batman
Barbara is portrayed as the teenage daughter of Jim Gordon . Her father wants her to pursue gymnastics with the hopes of her one day making the Olympics. She shows an interest in detective work which worries Jim, as well as her friendship with Pamela Isley , a student with a juvenile record. Once she sees Batman she strives to become part of his team, wanting to be called Batwoman however. Batman knows her identity but does not tell Jim. She earns Batman's trust and eventually figures out the Bruce Wayne is Batman. Bruce reveals that he is Batman to her, after getting a second partner, Robin, Dick Grayson. Dick and Barbara are depicted as having a sibling like relationship. Barbara graduates from Gotham High and enrolls at Gotham University. In the finale, it is revealed that Dick harbors a crush on her. Also in an episode set in the future Barbara is shown to be in a wheel chair and even though Dick is now Nightwing, she calls him Robin in a very flirtatious tone. She is voiced by Danielle Judovits.
In her appearance as Oracle, she is voiced by Kellie Martin.
Batman: The Brave and The Bold
Batman; Brave and The Bold
She is mentioned in an episode titled " Night of The Huntress! ". Batgirl is also featured in a teaser in the episode " The Last Patrol! " where she helps Batman defeat Killer Moth her costume is same to the one from Batman The Animated Series she is voiced by Mae Whitman .
Batman Under The Red Hood
When Jason Todd pointed a gun at Batman, Jason was going through the list of what Joker has done over the years. During this rant, Jason referenced "friends whom Joker crippled" referring to Joker paralyzing Barbara.
Batgirl Year One Motion Comic
Batgirl: Year One
Batgirl is the main character, voiced by Kate Higgins.
Young Justice
Young Justice
In the Cartoon Network animated series "Young Justice" Barbara Gordon appears as one of Dick Grayson's school-age friends. Barbara makes several cameo appearances.
This incarnation of Barbara Gordon makes her next appearance in the "Young Justice: Invasion" episode " Happy New Year! " In this episode she is shown as Batgirl fighting alongside Wonder Girl. The two of them are shown to have a good friendship with each other as they team-up in combat against the alien bounty hunter Lobo.
Much like Robin she uses explosives and smoke bombs. This is the first time she appears as Batgirl. Barbara wears a slightly changed version of her original Batgirl costume when she is in a mission. It is darker and looks more like the costume of the Batman shown in the series. She has already used her original uniform in "Bloodlines" and in the comics.
Also, in Young Justice #25 , it is revealed that Barbara and Dick Grayson (Nightwing) have a long-term romance since they were 14. The team, however, does not know about it. When Dick asks Barbara why they are not oficially together, one day after his 19th birthday, she answers that he is not ready for her yet, due to his flirty personality.
She is voiced by Alyson Stoner.
Super Best Friends Forever
Super Best Friend Forever
Batgirl is featured as one of the three main heroines alongside Supergirl and Wonder Girl . Her Batgirl costume is redesigned into purple like the one from Batman 60s series. Tara Strong, who voiced Batgirl from The New Batman Adventures, reprises the role.
Mad TV
Batgirls appears in Mad TV, voiced by Rachel Ramras.
Beware the Batman
Barbara - Beware the Batman
Barbara Gordon appears in the 2013 T.V. show Beware the Batman. She first appears as a fan of Batman and Katana , opposing her father's views on the heroes. During Ra's al Ghul 's invasion of Gotham, Barbara uses her computer tech skills to help Batman, Katana, and her father take back control of the city. During Alfred's absence, Barbara works more closely with Katana and takes on the identity of Oracle, In the season finale, Oracle helps out deactivating the bombs left in the Batcave by Deathstroke . Afterwards, she joins the newly formed Outsiders . Once again, Tara Strong reprises the role, but this time with Barbara as Oracle instead of Batgirl.
Teen Titans Go!
Batgtirl in Teen Titans Go!
Batgirl makes some appearences in Teen Titans Go!, voice by Tara Strong .
DC Super Hero Girls (Web and TV Episodes)
DC Super Hero Girls
Supergirl is one of the main characters in DC Super Hero Girls. She is voiced by Mae Whitman .
Batman: Bad Blood
Batgirl in Batman: Bad Blood
Barbara, as Batgirl, makes a cameo appearence in the final scene of the movie, answering the Batman distress call (Unknown to Batman and other Batman family members). She wears her second New 52 costume.
DC Super Hero Girls: Super Hero High
Barbara becomes Batgirl in Super Hero High
Barbara is the tech expert in the Super Hero High. During the invasion of the Female Furies, she becomes Batgirl. she is voiced by Mae Whitman.
DC Super Hero Girls: Hero of the Year
Batgirl in DC Super Hero Girls: Hero of the Year
Batgirl is one the heros to fight Eclipso and Dark Opal. She is voiced by Mae Whitman.
Batman: The Killing Joke
Batgirl in The Killing Joke
Batgirl is one of the main characters in the film. She is voiced by Tara Strong.
Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Gotham City Breakout
Batgirl, Robin and Nightwing in JL: Gotham City Brakout
Batgirl appears in the movie, voiced by Sarah Hyland.
Lego Batman
Batgirl will appear in the film, voiced by Rosario Dawson .
Live Action Series/Films
Batman (1966-1967)
Yvonne Craig in Batman
Yvonne Craig portrays Barbara Gordon and Batgirl in the 60's television series that starred Adam West and Burt Ward. Barbara Gordon is much like her Silver Age counterpart as she is portrayed as a Librarian. The identity and character of Barbara Gordon were devised jointly for comics and the television series, the previous Bat-Girl having fallen out of favor with DC editorial. The TV series producer, William Dozier, asked for a female character to appeal to female viewers. As a collaborative effort between TV and comics, Batgirl was created. She appears in 26 episodes in the third season and is seen helping Batman and Robin while concealing her identity as Batgirl. However Alfred Pennyworth discovers her secret but vows to never tell anyone.
She was portrayed by actress Yvonne Craig.
Batman and Robin (1997)
Batman and Robin
Alicia Silverstone plays Barbara Wilson, a character who is similar Barbara Gordon but not quite her, unlike the comic counterpart Wilson has blonde hair in the film. She eventually becomes Batgirl in the film. Her costume is all black and she wears a domino mask which differs from her comic counterpart yet similar to Robin's outfit in the movie.Unlike the comics she is not the daughter of Jim Gordon but, the niece of Alfred Pennyworth.
Birds of Prey (2002-2003)
Oracle in Birds of Prey
Dina Meyer plays Barbara Gordon in the series as she heads the team for which the show is loosely based on. The series follows Barbara as she leads a team that consists of Batman and Catwoman's daughter, Helena Wayne , the Huntress and Dinah Redman, the Black Canary .
Before the series began Batman left Gotham, in this series renamed New Gotham, after the Joker ordered a hit on Catwoman , which succeeded as he attacked Barbara, much in the same way as was depicted in The Killing Joke .
While the series only lasted one season that consisted of 13 episodes it shows Barbara donning the Batsuit twice, using a device that allows her to walk in order to combat Lady Shiva and Harleen Quinzel.
For the majority of the series, Barbara worked in the Watchtower with Alfred.
She was portrayed by actress Dina Meyer.
Batman Begins (2005) and The Dark Knight (2008)
The Dark Night Returns
Jim Gordon has a daughter who is very young. She is simply referred to as Gordon's Daughter in the credits. She is played by Hannah Gunn.
Video Games
Batman: Vengeance
Batgirl in Batman: Vengeance
Barbara Gordon appears in her role as Batgirl in Batman: Vengeance. Throughout the game, instead of crime fighting like Batman, she is in communicator contact with him to give him information of events from the outside. She is voiced by Tara Strong.
Batman: Rise of Sin Tzu
Rise of Sin Tzu
Barbara once again in her role as Batgirl appears as one of the four main playable characters in the game. Once again, Tara Strong voices the character.
Arkham Asylum
Oracle in Arkham Asylum
Barbara's role in Arkham Asylum is to guide and help Bruce throughout the story as Oracle. Throughout the game she provides direct contact with Batman through his com and helps him by giving detailed information about the various situations and puzzles throughout the game. Oracle is voiced by Kimberly Brooks
Arkham City
Oracle in Arkham City
Barbara in her role as Oracle is an important supporting character in Arkham Asylum. Through out the game she is in radio contact with Batman giving him information about events on the outside, as well help to the Batman when needed. Kimberly Brooks reprises her role.
Batman: Arkham Origins
Batgirl in Batman: Arkham Origins.
Barbara appears as Batgirl, instead of Oracle, for the first time in the Arkham serie.
Batman: Arkham Knight
Batgirls is a playable character in the game. She is voiced by Ashley Greene.
Young Justice: Legacy
Barbara Gordon/Batgirl is a playable character in Young Justice Legacy, voiced by Danica McKellar.
DC Universe Online
Oracle in DE Universe Online
Barbara Gordon once again in her role as Oracle is perhaps the most important supporting character in the game. Through out the game, she's in radio contact with every new hero who gains powers as well as the DC universe heroes, giving orders in the Battle against Brainiac and Earth's super villains. She is voiced by Kathy Catmull.
Injustice: Gods Among Us
Injustice Among Us
Batgirl is the second DLC character again voiced by Kimberly Brooks, sporting small arm blades, and a more leather based version of her New 52 costume, with the bat symbol on her chest longer. In the alternate universe, she is a member of the insurgency.
In her ending (after defeating Regime Superman) Barbara worked from the shadows, hacking into Superman's networks and finding info on his plans, then giving them to Batman under the username "Oracle". During a battle between the Insurgency and Regime, Superman kills James Gordon, her father. Driven by revenge, Barbara trained intensely, and began hunting down Superman's top lieutenants. After disposing of them, Barbara defeated Superman.
Lego Batman: The Videogame
Batgirl is a playable character in the game. She si voiced by Grey DeLisle.
Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes
Lego Batman 2
Batgirls is an unlockeable character in the game, voiced by Kari Wahlgren.
LEGO Batman 3: Beyond Gotham
Lego Batman 3
Batgirl is a playable character in the game, voiced by Kimberly Brooks. She can be played in her regular costume and the Batgirl (1966) version.
Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure
Batgirl in Scribblenauts Unmasked
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How many states surround New Mexico? | Quick Geography Facts About Mexico
Bordering Countries: Belize, Guatemala, and the United States
Land Area: 758,450 square miles (1,964,375 square kilometers)
Coastline: 5,797 miles (9,330 kilometers)
Highest Point: Volcan Pico de Orizaba at 18,700 feet (5,700 meters)
Lowest Point: Laguna Salada at -32 feet (-10 meters)
History of Mexico
The earliest settlements in Mexico were those of the Olmec, Maya, Toltec, and Aztec. These groups developed highly complex cultures prior to any European influence.
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What are the Seven Wonders of the World
From 1519-1521, Hernan Cortes took over Mexico and founded a colony belonging to Spain that lasted for almost 300 years.
On September 16, 1810, Mexico proclaimed its independence from Spain after Miguel Hidalgo formed the country's declaration of independence, "Viva Mexico!" However, independence did not come until 1821 after years of war. In that year, Spain and Mexico signed a treaty ending the war for independence.
The treaty also laid out plans for a constitutional monarchy. The monarchy failed and in 1824, the independent republic of Mexico was established.
During the later part of the 19th century, Mexico underwent several presidential elections and fell into a period of social and economic problems. These problems led to a revolution that lasted from 1910 to 1920.
In 1917, Mexico established a new constitution and in 1929, the Institutional Revolutionary Party rose and controlled politics in the country until 2000. Since 1920 though, Mexico underwent a variety of reforms in the agriculture, political and social sectors that allowed it to grow into what it is today.
Following World War II , Mexico's government focused primarily on economic growth and in the 1970s, the country became a large producer of petroleum. In the 1980s though, falling oil prices caused Mexico's economy to decline and, as a result, it entered into several agreements with the U.S.
In 1994, Mexico joined the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with the U.S. and Canada and in 1996 it joined the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Government of Mexico
Today, Mexico is considered a federal republic with a chief of state and a head of government making up its executive branch of government. It should be noted, however, that both of these positions are filled by the President.
Mexico's legislative branch is comprised of a bicameral National Congress which consists of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
The judicial branch is made up of the Supreme Court of Justice.
Mexico is divided into 31 states and one federal district (Mexico City) for local administration.
Economics and Land Use in Mexico
Mexico currently has a free market economy that has mixed modern industry and agriculture. Its economy is still growing and there is a large inequality in the distribution of income.
Mexico's largest trading partners are the U.S. and Canada due to NAFTA.
The largest industrial products that are exported from Mexico include food and beverages, tobacco, chemicals, iron and steel, petroleum, mining, textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, consumer durables and tourism.
The main agricultural products of Mexico are corn, wheat, soybeans, rice, beans, cotton, coffee, fruit, tomatoes, beef, poultry, dairy and wood products.
Geography and Climate of Mexico
Mexico has a highly varied topography that consists of rugged mountains with high elevations, deserts, high plateaus and low coastal plains. For example, its highest point is at 18,700 feet (5,700 m) while its lowest is -32 feet (-10 m).
Mexico's climate is also variable, but it is mainly tropical or desert. Its capital, Mexico City, has its highest average temperature in April at 80˚F (26˚C) and its lowest in January at 42.4˚F (5.8˚C).
More Facts about Mexico
The main ethnic groups in Mexico are Indian-Spanish (Mestizo) 60%, Indian 30%, Caucasian 9%, other 1%.
The only official language in Mexico is Spanish.
Mexico's literacy rate is 91.4%.
The largest city in Mexico is Mexico City, followed by Ecatepec, Guadalajara, Puebla, Nezahualcóyotl and Monterrey. (It's important to note, however, that Ecatepec and Nezahualcóyotl are also suburbs of Mexico City.)
Which U.S. States Border Mexico?
Mexico shares its northern border with the United States, with the Texas-Mexico border formed by the Rio Grande. In total, Mexico borders four states in the southwestern U.S.
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Ultimately resulting in the deaths of over 620,000 soldiers, what war broke out on April 12, 1861? | New Mexico travel guide - Wikitravel
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New Mexico [1] , the Land of Enchantment, is a state in the American Southwest . Formerly a Spanish colony after conquistadors arrived in the 16th century, then a Mexican colony until the Mexican-American War of the 1840s, and then an American territory until New Mexico achieved statehood in 1912, New Mexico still has a large native Spanish-speaking population as well as many Native American communities, offering a unique culture that clearly stands apart from that of other states. Spanish is the official second language. A visitor to New Mexico will also discover fantastic natural scenery, a major fine arts scene centered around Santa Fe , great outdoor recreational opportunities, and a distinctive regional cuisine.
Understand[ edit ]
Understanding New Mexico starts with grasping the overpowering importance of two of its geological features: the Rio Grande, which bisects the state north to south, and the nearby Sangre de Cristo Mountains , southernmost range of the Rocky Mountains and a part of the same large-scale geological structure that produces the Rio, the "Rio Grande rift." The eastern third of the state is an extension of the Great Plains both geographically and culturally and has more in common with the western parts of Texas and Oklahoma than with the rest of New Mexico. The western third, beyond the Rio and the assortment of minor mountain ranges (Nacimientos, Magdalenas, and the not-so-minor Jemez Mountains ) to its west, is part of the same " basin and range " geography as comprises much of Arizona and Nevada , with a little Utah canyon country thrown in toward the northwest corner.
It's the area in between these two sparsely inhabited regions that gives the state much of its identity, houses the majority of its population, and contains many of its travel attractions. The "Rio Grande Corridor" starts at the Colorado state line and includes (from north to south) such well-known places as Taos , Los Alamos , Santa Fe , Albuquerque , and Las Cruces at the southern end of the state. Travelers who have seen only the flat emptiness of the eastern side or the rugged desolation of the western third simply do not expect this region, with its snowcapped mountains, fertile riparian habitat along the Rio, and a population density that, while not high by the standards of the United States (let alone Europe), is still unusual in the Southwest. Most of the state's many American Indian reservations (the pueblos ) are here ( Navajo Nation , however, is in the northwest region), as are the most conspicuous remnants of the Spanish influence resulting from the state's ties to Mexico that persisted into the 19th century. At the same time, the relative prosperity of this area (although no part of New Mexico can really be considered "wealthy" except in isolated neighborhoods) is making several of its communities into high-tech centers, for example the Albuquerque suburb of Rio Rancho that houses a great manufacturing plant for computer components. The Sangre de Cristos and Jemez also create a relatively cool and moist (at least compared to the rest of the state) climate zone in which snow can persist in the highest mountains nearly year-round.
There is also a more subtle north/south dichotomy to the culture and geography that breaks basically along the route of Interstate highway 40, which follows the historic Route 66 across the state. Most of the north/south differences (apart from the observation that the north is higher and cooler than the south) are political in nature and affect residents more than travelers, but they lead to the state self-identifying the six regions given under the "Regions" heading of this article. Note that there is no "South Central" region; the Rio Grande Corridor narrows toward the southern end of the state, and features along the southern Rio are treated in the southwest region .
History[ edit ]
Archaeological evidence has shown that humans have existed in New Mexico for at least 13,000 years now, as shown by the existence of "Clovis points" - arrowheads first found near the town of Clovis . For the next several millennia, a long line of Native American cultures lived, prospered, and perished here, the most well-known being the Ancestral Puebloans (also known as the "Anasazi", though that term has recently fallen out of favor) who emerged around AD 700 and by AD 1100 has established impressive settlements in what is now the northwestern region of the state and were part of a far-flung trade network that reached south to what is now Mexico. However, in the 12th and 13th centuries they abandoned their settlements for reasons not entirely clear; drought, environmental degradation, pressure from other groups, and religious or cultural change are all considered possibilities. It is commonly believed today that the inhabitants of today's Pueblos of New Mexico are the descendants of the Ancestral Puebloans. Of course, Puebloans were not the only Native American group to establish themselves here; despite changing climates, war, and European and later American aggression, many Navajos, Apaches, Comanches, and Utes also make the state their home today.
The first Europeans to arrive in New Mexico were the Spanish. The explorer Cabeza de Vaca may have passed through a portion of the area, but it was the expedition of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado in the 1540s that marked the first significant European contact in the area. Coronado came seeking the mythical Seven Cities of Gold, but found nothing of the sort. His contact with the Puebloan residents in New Mexico was marked by violence against the Natives, which sadly set the stage for more bloodshed to come. Though Coronado returned to Mexico in disgrace, his reports paved the way for the first settlers to arrive in 1598, who were led by Juan de Oñate and established the first European village in the area near present-day Española. Oñate displayed vicious cruelty toward the Puebloans, and after being chewed out by the Spanish Empire a new governor was appointed who led the construction of a capitol city, Santa Fe.
Over the next several decades, the Puebloans continued to be the victims of repression on the part of the Spanish, particularly Franciscan missionaries who found that while many Puebloans were receptive to Catholicism, they were also unwilling to abandon their traditional religions. Tension grew until finally the Pueblos banded together in 1680 to drive the Spanish out of New Mexico. It wouldn't be for another 12 years that Europeans returned, this time through a reconquest led by Diego de Vargas. Though there were some military campaigns involved, the Pueblo Revolt had taught the Spanish the consequences of oppression and the Puebloans were granted rights and land in exchange for allowing the Spanish to live side-by-side with them. This partnership largely worked; indeed, Spaniards and Puebloans frequently banded together to wage war against the nomadic tribes (Apaches, Comanches, Navajos) in the area.
Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821, but New Mexico's isolation meant that little changed in the relationship between the settlers and rulers, with the exception that Mexico was more willing to trade with the United States. This set the stage for the creation of the Santa Fe Trail - a rugged wagon route that brought American goods and settlers to New Mexico, as well as opening the floodgates to encroachment from the east. An attempt on the part of the then-independent Republic of Texas to gain control of New Mexico ended in humiliating defeat, but within several years Texas was part of the U.S. and the vision of an America "stretching from sea to shining sea" brought New Mexico into the Mexican-American War. Mexican officials didn't focus much on defending New Mexico - American General Stephen W. Kearny marched into Santa Fe without firing a shot - but the residents reacted to U.S. presence with a mixture of welcome and deep suspicion; New Mexico's early years as a U.S. territory were marked by rebellion and bitter land disputes.
Under American rule, New Mexico experienced combat in the American Civil War. Most of New Mexico remained loyal to the Union, and Confederate forces mounted a campaign to stake their claim here. Their presence was short-lived however, as Union forces soon drove them back south after winning a couple of key battles near Santa Fe. The Civil War over, the Union returned to focus on breaking the Comanche, Navajo, and Apache forces in the area, with considerable success.
The arrival of the railroad in 1880 brought numerous new settlers to the area and caused an explosion of growth in towns along the rail lines. Ranching and mining came to New Mexico in full force, becoming the mainstay of the economy. Following statehood in 1912, a new set of visitors came to New Mexico as the state shed its wild west image: artists established themselves in the Santa Fe and Taos areas, tourists came via the railroad to experience the scenery and culture of the Southwest, and tuberculosis patients came to live the rest of their lives in New Mexico's mild climate. With the rise of the automobile came the arrival of Route 66, bringing a new wave of arrivals to the state.
World War II brought a new industry to New Mexico: nuclear science. The world's first atomic bomb was constructed in the top secret government town of Los Alamos and tested at the Trinity site in southern New Mexico. Federal investment in military research brought money and new migrants to the state, which coincided with considerable urban growth in parts of the state, particularly the Albuquerque area. The 1960s and 70s manifested itself in civil rights battles for Latinos and the arrival of a large number of Hippies in the northern part of the state who were attracted by New Mexico's relative isolation.
The last couple of decades have seen a modernization effort in New Mexico. The metro areas of Albuquerque, Santa Fe, and Las Cruces are still experiencing major urban growth, and the typical features of today's built American landscape - cell phone towers, gas stations, Wal-Marts - have certainly arrived, along with the problems - traffic, pollution, etc. However, New Mexico remains a place isolated enough from the rest of the country that one can still venture out of the city and find great, wild beauty, and still catch a glimpse of what New Mexico was like hundreds of years ago.
Talk[ edit ]
"American Indian" or "Native American"?
In many places in the United States, the neologism "Native American" has replaced "American Indian" as the descriptor for indigenous peoples, "American Indian" being viewed by some as pejorative. In New Mexico, however, "American Indian" is still widely used, and indeed was preferred by members of several northern New Mexico pueblos in a poll conducted a few years ago. (Actually, the most common response was "it doesn't really matter," but "American Indian" was preferred by a plurality of those who expressed an opinion.) You can use either term without discomfort, and need not go to any lengths to structure your language one way or the other when visiting the Institute of American Indian Arts, Gallup Intertribal Indian Ceremonials, Santa Fe Indian Market, etc.
New Mexico is very much like the rest of the U.S. in that English is almost universally spoken. New Mexico Magazine [2] , the state's tourist magazines (and a better-than-average read by the standards of such things), carries a regular column called "One of our Fifty Is Missing" that describes the many humorous misconceptions (the polite word) that the state and its residents experience at the hands of those seemingly unaware that New Mexico is part of the United States; linguistic misunderstandings are among the more frequent anecdotes appearing there. English will do just fine, although particularly in the North Central and Northwest regions, you'll have a good chance of running into people for whom English is a second, or even third, language, behind Spanish and/or a tribal language. Albuquerque, Las Cruces, Los Alamos and Santa Fe all have notably diverse populations that include native speakers of most of the world's major languages. It's common (if unexpected, given the town's historic secrecy) to walk into a store or restaurant in Los Alamos and hear a conversation between storekeeper and patron in Russian or Chinese, or even Polish or Korean.
This said, when you encounter an apparently Spanish place name or surname, as you will in almost all parts of the state, it's wise to pronounce it as Spanish. Anglicizing the pronunciation may be acceptable in some parts of the United States, but is likely to be considered rude here. The Wikitravel Spanish phrasebook can help with this; particular things to be on the alert for are "ñ" (e.g. Española and other place names), double "ll" (e.g. Valles Caldera National Preserve ), and double "rr" (e.g. Rio Arriba County in the North Central region, which incidentally is a particularly good place in which to avoid Anglicized Spanish).
By air[ edit ]
The state's only major airport is in Albuquerque , in nearly the exact center of the state. Santa Fe has limited connector service. Several of the state's minor cities such as Carlsbad , Farmington , Roswell , Hobbs , and intermittently Gallup and Taos have commuter air service.
For travel to the southern part of the state, particularly the southwestern region, consider flying into El Paso in extreme west Texas . For example, Las Cruces , the state's second largest city, is only 45 miles from El Paso compared to 226 miles from Albuquerque.
By car[ edit ]
Route 66 neon, Tucumcari
Interstate highways 10 and 40 cross the state east/west, the former entering between El Paso and Las Cruces and paralleling the southern border, and the latter following the route of historic Route 66 through the middle of the state. Interstate 25 enters the state in its northeast corner near Raton, passes through the eastern plains, crosses the Sangre de Cristo Mountains at Glorieta Pass near Santa Fe, then follows the Rio Grande south through Albuquerque to its terminus at I-10 in Las Cruces.
Although New Mexico has a fairly long border with Mexico , there are few ports of entry. Most traffic inbound from Mexico enters the United States at El Paso and then continues to Las Cruces and beyond. In addition to the usual customs, etc., at the national border, there are checkpoints along the major highways out of Las Cruces at which vehicles may be searched for illegal immigrants. (If you're considering bringing an illegal in, don't; penalties are serious and enforcement is stepping up, if still uneven.) The small town of Columbus has a border crossing with Mexico that is open 24 hours a day. Santa Teresa NM, adjacent to El Paso and south of Las Cruces also has a port of entry. Although this border crossing is only open from 6AM-10PM, it forms a handy bypass of Ciudad Juarez and El Paso and is an important route for international commerce and travel.
In practice, traffic inbound from neighboring states is generally not subjected to inspection for controlled items, apart from the usual weigh stations, etc., for commercial trucks. However, commercial traffic heading out of New Mexico for Arizona may be inspected on the Arizona side of the state line, owing to concerns about the introduction of agricultural pests.
By rail[ edit ]
The Southwest Chief [3] , the main Amtrak line through the southwestern United States, makes a daily run between Chicago and Los Angeles through New Mexico. Westbound, the line enters the state at Raton , and basically follows the route of I-25 to Albuquerque, making stops at Las Vegas and Lamy (where you can catch a shuttle bus to Santa Fe). After Albuquerque the train follows the route of I-40 to Gallup and on west.
The Sunset Limited [4] makes its way from New Orleans to Los Angeles, with stops at El Paso , TX, Deming , and Lordsburg. This train runs three times a week.
The Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad of Chama (New Mexico) and Antonito, Colorado operates tourist trains with vintage equipment passing attractive scenery, but this line doesn't connect to any commercial railroads and isn't intended to open the state to the traveler from afar. There are presently no other rail services from other states (or Mexico) to points in New Mexico.
Get around[ edit ]
The larger cities (Albuquerque, Las Cruces, Santa Fe) have some degree of public transportation, but this is still a state where you'll have to drive most of the time. The New Mexico Rail Runner Express [5] commuter train connects Albuquerque and Santa Fe, along with residential communities in the area.
Roads in New Mexico are generally well maintained and driving itself can be a pleasurable experience. Although only a few roads are designated scenic drives, most rural highways in the western two thirds of the state provide splendid vistas. However, if you are behind the wheel, please remain attentive to the road and the local driving habits. New Mexico has road conditions and situations that may be different than your own; use caution and drive defensively at all times. Speed limits on interstates are normally 75 miles per hour, except in urban and mountainous areas areas where the speed limit typically drops to 65. Multilane US and state highways have rural speed limits ranging from 45 to 75 miles per hour. Two-lane rural highways have speed limits in the range of 45-65 miles per hour. In urban areas and other communities speed limits can be as low as 15 and as fast as 55 miles per hour, and enforcement is more highly visible and heavy-handed than in rural areas. A number of state highways and most county roads, remarkably enough, are still unpaved and should be driven at reduced speeds. Between this, a number of radar traps, and the fact that many of the roads through the mountains are more sinuous than is apparent on a map, you should expect intercity travel to take a bit longer than the distance would imply, except on the Interstates. There are exceptions in the eastern parts of the state, where you're in serious danger of being run over if you drive as slowly as the speed limits.
Weather-related driving hazards are generally confined to the winter months, when the northern half of the state, as well as the mountainous parts of the southwestern region, can experience snowstorms that close highways or render them hazardous. Have chains or 4-wheel drive available in these areas from December through February, particularly in the mountains. Spring winds can be disconcerting to drivers in tall vehicles and occasionally create reduced visibility from blowing dust, but dust storms are less of a problem than in some neighboring states. Most of New Mexico is at higher elevation, hence slightly cooler, than other states of the Southwest; problems with boiling radiators, etc., are therefore not as common, although it's still a good idea to take water with you when driving in the summer, particularly along the low, hot southern tier (I-10 and vicinity).
New Mexico has a severe problem with drunk driving, although aggressive enforcement and public-education campaigns have reduced DUI levels somewhat, compared to 10 years ago. No road in the state is immune to this problem; there is no time of day when it cannot occur. Defensive driving is the obvious antidote. Large animals on the roadway create hazards as well. Cattle and sheep are often seen in the open range areas of the state; elk are seen in the north central mountains. In the south, the Oryx, an elk-sized antelope imported from Africa, or the Javelina (aka the Collared Peccary), a distant relative of the pig family, are often seen on roads, especially rural routes. Again, just drive defensively.
See[ edit ][ add listing ]
Arts and culture[ edit ]
Santa Fe (and really the north central region in general, which includes the artist hotspot of Taos ) has a high concentration of artists and is a major destination for art collectors. The central tourist districts of Santa Fe and Taos are home to a huge number of extremely high-end art galleries as well as a number of excellent art museums. Outside of Santa Fe and Taos, one is still likely to come across galleries in the rural, smaller towns of the north central region, which often take on a more folk art characteristic with a still decidedly New Mexico twist. Albuquerque , though lacking Santa Fe's world-renowned image, has plenty of art institutions in its own right and offers a greater mix between the traditional arts which define Santa Fe and more contemporary work.
Native Americana[ edit ]
Taos Pueblo
One of the primary attractions of New Mexico is its large and diverse collection of American Indian (or, if you prefer, Native American -- both terms are used in the state) pueblos , reservations, artwork, and of course, people. The north central and central regions have the greatest diversity of Native American centers, while Navajo Nation in the northwest region (extending into the other Four Corners states) is the largest Indian reservation/nation within the contiguous United States. There are a few points of interest in other regions, such as the Mescalero Apache reservation in the southeast region and outlying parts of Navajo Nation in the southwest . For detailed information on each of the pueblos, see New Mexico Pueblos .
Many, but by no means all, of the American Indian communities welcome visitors, usually with some restrictions. Following are some tips if you're planning to see the sights of these communities:
Check the regional articles for guidance on which pueblos/reservations are open to visitors; not all will be.
Please respect local regulations regarding photography and sketching! Most north-central and central pueblos require would-be photographers and artists to pay for permits issued by the pueblo administration, and some don't allow photography or sketching at all. If the restrictions seem draconian, remember that these are not museum exhibits or theme parks, they're towns and settlements where people live their daily lives. However, if you are on public property, pictures may be legally taken. It doesn't matter if you are photographing someone who doesn't want to be photographed, or a building that locals do not want photographed. As long as you are on public property, you are within your legal rights to photograph anything in sight, so make your own decision.
Most of the pueblos and reservations hold ceremonial dances, feasts and sings that welcome visitors, as well as some others of a more private, religious nature at which visitors are unwelcome if not forbidden. Many have succeeded in reconciling their historic religious practices with the dominant Christian (particularly Catholic) practice, and celebrations at Christmas (in some cases extending through much of December), Easter, and the feast day of San Antonio (June) are generally open to visitors.
For many residents of some pueblos and reservations, not only is English not the primary daily language, it may not be spoken fluently or at all. Most residents in the "service" sector (i.e., those you'll interact with first) are as fluent in English as their Anglo colleagues in neighboring communities, and there is no reason to speak to them in a patronizing or condescending manner. However, if you venture far from the main tourist centers, you may run into language issues, although you're still odds-on to deal with English speakers. Patience and gestures will overcome many obstacles, but be aware that in certain areas (notably Navajo Nation) it is considered rude to point with extended fingers. A nod or tip of the head for indicating direction is considered more polite (true among fluent English speakers as well).
Ancestral Puebloan ruins[ edit ]
Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon
Another primary attraction of the state is its collection of major archeological sites from the Ancestral Puebloans (note that the term "Anasazi," which refers to the same group of people, has recently fallen out of favor), who are the ancestors of many of the Native American tribes in the Southwest today and inhabited the area from roughly the 700s AD to the 1300s, when it is believed they migrated to more promising locales, such as along the banks of the Rio Grande. Although Mesa Verde , the most famous of such ruins, is just to the north in Colorado, New Mexico is home to many stunning collections of ruins in its own right, the most renowned of which being Chaco Canyon in the northwest section of the state, with remarkably well-preserved walls and pictographs that are easily accessed. Also in the northwest part of New Mexico is Aztec Ruins National Monument near the town of Farmington , home to more well-preserved walls and an impressive reconstructed kiva. Near Los Alamos in the north central section is Bandelier National Monument , with a superb collection of cliff dwellings situated in a scenic canyon. These are but just the most famous ruins; there are many other small ones open for viewing and in many parts of the state a hiker on public lands is likely to come across unexcavated ruins; in such a situation, remember not to disturb the site, do not remove any artifacts (pottery shards being the most common), and don't walk or sit upon the remains of walls.
Natural scenery[ edit ]
Being in the high desert, New Mexico is home to a great deal of natural beauty and a surprising variety of it; a few hours of driving can take you from red rock desert to alpine forests, or from flat grassland to sandy dunes. There's some gorgeous scenic beauty in every corner of the state, but there are some highlights.
The northwest region of the state perhaps most exemplifies the popular image of the American Southwest, with red rock mesas and stunning cliffs; really much of the same kind of scenery you can expect in Northern Arizona or Southern Utah. El Malpais National Monument , on the edge of this region, has the unusual mixture of sandstone and volcanic rock, where the remains of ancient lava flows run up against tall sandstone cliffs. The red rocks mostly vanish as one moves into the north central region (although Abiquiu is notable for some stunning red rock features), replaced largely by alpine mountain ranges. The Valles Caldera National Preserve in the Jemez Mountains is the remnant of a huge volcanic caldera that now takes the form of a vast meadow in the middle of the range. The nearby Sangre de Cristo Mountains are the state's highest mountain range and perhaps its most spectacular, with several wilderness areas, ski areas, and alpine forests and meadows.
The elevation drops off as you move into the central part of the state, with alpine forests replaced by stands of piñon and juniper, although the spectacular Sandia Mountains above Albuquerque jut above the surrounding landscape and are the most easily accessible mountain range in the state, with an aerial tramway that rises from the foothills on the edge of the city straight up to the top of the crest. Within Albuquerque proper and stretching south is a scenic bosque (cottonwood forest) along the banks of the Rio Grande, a thin wetland which provides an important wildlife corridor for this part of the world. To the northeast , the scraggly piñon and juniper forests are replacing by wide, flat grasslands at the edge of the Great Plains.
The southwest portion of the state is home to some of the most remote wilderness areas in the state; where small mountain ranges mark the meeting point between the hot Chihuahuan Desert and the piñon-juniper forests of central New Mexico. The southeastern reaches of the state are where the elevation is at its lowest in the state, and are mostly a vast, featureless plain; although there are some scattered unusual geologic features, the most spectacular being Carlsbad Caverns , a collection of vast caves that are among the most stunning in the world. Near Alamogordo is White Sands National Monument , the world's largest gypsum sand dune field and a frequent sight in the state's tourist literature.
Do[ edit ][ add listing ]
International Balloon Fiesta[ edit ]
Albuquerque is the host city for the International Balloon Fiesta [6] , held each year during the first full week in October. This extravaganza of color and sound is a unique event, with participants from throughout the world bringing gaily colored and some unusual or "Special Shapes" hot air balloons. As many as 700 or 800 balloons have been registered with mass ascensions highlighting the mornings, balloon glows lighting up the night and competitions sprinkled in for the competitive and professional balloon pilots. And licensed pilots are required! This event draws tens of thousands of visitors to Albuquerque and New Mexico each year as participants, ground chase crew members and observers.
Hike[ edit ]
Believe it or not, New Mexico isn't all desert
A considerable portion of New Mexico is preserved in national parks and monuments , national forests, wildlife refuges, and other wild areas, and is available to the hiker/backpacker. The pronounced north-south elevation gradient means that one part or another of the state has satisfactory hiking weather throughout the year. Good places and times for hiking include:
The Sangre de Cristo Mountains , highest and most important range in the state, include several wilderness areas. Important trail heads are near Taos and Santa Fe on the west side, and near the otherwise obscure town of Cowles on the east. Hiking is best from June to September; many high-country trails will be snow-packed from November through May, and October is hunting season, when non-hunters do well to stay off the trails.
The Jemez Mountains are a major volcanic range near Los Alamos and include Bandelier National Monument and Valles Caldera National Preserve . Bandelier offers excellent hiking practically year-round (hot in mid-summer), while the higher parts of the range are in Santa Fe National Forest or the Preserve and are good for summer and fall hiking. Note that a disastrous forest fire in the year 2000 severely degraded outdoor recreation in parts of the Jemez, but there are still plenty of opportunities.
The Sandia Mountains near Albuquerque , and their southern extension into the Manzano Mountains, offer hiking and rock climbing. The La Luz Trail enters the mountains from Albuquerque itself and is possibly the most-used trail in the state. Hiking is usually feasible practically year-round, although snow will be sufficient in some but not all winters to make the high-country trails impassable.
The Gila Wilderness, in the southwest region near Silver City , is the largest roadless area in the state. Many of the trailheads into the Gila are remote and hard to reach, but as compensation offer a chance to get away from the crowds. Generally hikeable year-round, although the lower elevations will be uncomfortably hot in mid-summer.
The Organ Mountains, in the southern part of the state, have several hiking trails close to major towns (notably Las Cruces ), as well as spectacular rock climbing. Visit the Organs in fall, winter or spring; they're not high enough to escape the fierce heat of the summer.
White Sands National Monument is a white dune-covered area in the middle of a desert valley with lower-key hiking than the committal mountain trails. Picnics are common, and adults and children alike love to climb the snowy white hills of beach-like sand. Go in fall or winter; wind is nasty in spring, and it's blazing hot in the summer.
Sugarite State Park near Raton was named a Top Ten state park in the nation by Camping Life Magazine. Visitors can explore the remains of the historic Sugarite Coal Camp, hike, fish, or camp.
Ski[ edit ]
Alpine skiing [7] is popular in New Mexico and is much more widely available than the state's desert image would suggest. Most of the state's ski areas are in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in the north central part of the state, the best known being at Taos and Santa Fe . However, there are also interesting areas near Los Alamos in the Jemez Mountains , in the Sandia Mountains above Albuquerque , and at Ruidoso in the southeastern part of the state.
Nordic (cross-country) skiing is also widely practiced, although snow conditions are marginal in some years. The most reliable snow for Nordic skiing is near Cumbres Pass on the Colorado state line near Chama . There is usually enough snow around Taos for Nordic work, and Enchanted Forest Nordic Ski Center near Red River maintains an extensive network of groomed trails. Nordic skiing at Bandelier National Monument and Valles Caldera National Preserve in the Jemez Mountains is of variable quality; the scenery is gorgeous, but snowpack varies greatly from year to year and may be insufficient to allow much skiing.
Two things to keep in mind if you're coming to New Mexico to ski: First, check on snow conditions before coming. Snowfall varies wildly from year to year in this area. The resulting variations in snowpack are such that even Taos may have marginal conditions, and some of the lower areas may not be open at all. On the other hand, if you come in a good snow year, conditions will be among the best in the world, so it's worth your time to do some research on conditions. Second, the ski areas are at high altitude by the standards of most of the world's Alpine ski resorts. If you're prone to altitude sickness , take precautions before coming, and spend a day or two acclimatizing in the towns before you start to ski.
Orienteer[ edit ]
For basic information about orienteering, see Orienteering .
Orienteering in the manner of the International Orienteering Federation [8] and its national affiliate the United States Orienteering Federation [9] is offered by New Mexico Orienteers (NMO) [10] . NMO offers low-key, training-oriented competitions (meets) for all ages. Most meets include beginner, intermediate, and advanced courses. New courses are designed for each meet, to specifications recommended by USOF so that the courses have consistent and predictable levels of technical and physical challenge. Some recreation programs offer their own orienteering events. For a list of scheduled NMO meets and other ways to have fun orienteering in New Mexico, see the NMO website [11] .
Los Alamos [ edit ]
NMO has completed detailed maps of Rendija Canyon, Bayo Canyon, the area around Guaje Pines Cemetery, and connecting corridors across the mesas. NMO also has a map in development for Pajarito Mountain Ski Area and the adjacent Camp May and Santa Fe National Forest.
Los Alamos has excellent and free public transit. All orienteering map locations in Los Alamos can be reached by bus.
In 2000, Los Alamos was devastated by the Cerro Grande wildfire. Several of the orienteering venues here are affected by the wildfire, and subsequent drought and bark beetle outbreaks. Happily, as of 2010 most of the killed trees have fallen, and fallen trees and standing hazard trees have been cleared from trails. New growth is everywhere, mule deer are abundant, and some valleys have magnificent wildflower shows in summer and fall.
After orienteering you may like a hot shower or a swim. Hot showers and warm and cool swimming pools may be enjoyed for a small fee at the Larry Walkup Aquatic Center in Los Alamos.
Valles Caldera National Preserve[ edit ]
In the Valles Caldera National Preserve (VCNP), NMO has made a detailed map of a portion of Valle Grande. This map is used in winter for ski and snowshoe orienteering. VCNP sometimes offers orienteering as one of its own visitor experiences.
Snowshoes for adults and children can be rented by the day, weekend, or week ($5, $10, $20) from the Larry Walkup Aquatic Center in Los Alamos (505 662-8173). Weekend rental includes pick up Friday, return Monday. [12] REI stores in Albuquerque (505 247-1191) and Santa Fe (505 982-3557) rent snowshoes and x-country skis, poles, and boots for around $15 per day. [13]
After orienteering here, the closest places for a day visitor to get a hot shower or soak are in Los Alamos at the Larry Walkup Aquatic Center (95F), or in Jemez Springs at any one of several developed hot springs and spas.
Albuquerque [ edit ]
Albuquerque boasts two orienteering maps, on either side of Sandia Crest. They are the Elena Gallegos Picnic Area on the west side (in town), and a large map on the east side covering the Doc Long, Sulfur Canyon, and Cienega Canyon picnic areas of the Cibola National Forest.
Eat[ edit ][ add listing ]
The Chile Ristra: a practical way to cure chiles and a classic souvenir of any visit to New Mexico
A distinctive regional cuisine has developed in New Mexico. Often considered a subset of "Mexican" food, "New Mexican" cooking is characterized by:
First and foremost, chile peppers. New Mexico chiles, despite their reputation, are generally not nearly as hot as habaneros and some Asian peppers, although their spiciness can still come as quite a jolt to the palate unused to spicy foods. Chiles are green for most of their growing life but turn red and dry out as they mature, and can be picked and cooked either "red" or "green." When you order a New Mexican dish in a restaurant, you'll be asked whether you prefer red or green sauce, referring to the color -- maturity -- of the peppers used to prepare the sauce. Green is usually hotter than red, but it depends on the seasons it was grown. They both have distinctive flavors; try both while you're here. The difference of red and green chile can also refer to how the chile will be served. In some instances, red chile will come as a sauce while green chile will come chopped or whole. (Incidentally, "red" chile has nothing at all in common with the red "chili" -- note spelling -- typical of Tex-Mex-style Mexican food, which is generally scoffed at in New Mexico.) The small town of Hatch, near Las Cruces, is famous for its chile farms, and is a good place to pick up some chile to take home.
The sopaipilla, a light, puffy fry bread that can be served as a side dish or turned into an entree by stuffing it with meat, cheese, beans and chile peppers. The stuffed sopaipilla is perhaps the quintessential New Mexican dish and is most commonly seen in the northern half of the state (southerly restaurants are more likely to involve tortillas as the table bread, as in the cuisine of "old" Mexico). As a dessert, sopaipillas are often topped with sugar and honey.
"Blue corn," which is just what it sounds like: corn in which the kernels, and resulting corn meal, have a distinctive bluish color. Tortillas made with blue corn differ from the usual tortillas not only to the eye but also to the palate, with a pleasingly gritty consistency and slightly "nutty" taste. Enchiladas made with blue-corn-meal tortillas are characteristic of Santa Fe and environs and have become trendy on a national if not world-wide level.
Piñon nuts, the fruit of the scruffy little piñon pine tree that is widespread in the state. These can be eaten as snacks or as components of dishes, particularly some of the upper-end "Southwestern" cuisine.
These components merge into a cuisine that ranges from utterly basic, everyday-lunch fare (served almost everywhere in the state) to incredibly elaborate "Southwestern" meals with any number of exotic variations and add-ons. Santa Fe is justly famous for its rich assortment of New Mexican and Southwestern restaurants, but don't eat New Mexican food just there; there are a number of subtle variations in New Mexican cooking in the different regions of the state (for example, topping enchiladas with a fried egg is characteristic of southern New Mexican food but rare in the north), and you'll be well advised to experiment locally.
Drink[ edit ][ add listing ]
The legal drinking and purchasing age of alcoholic beverages is 21. However, New Mexico allows underage drinking on private non-alcohol selling premises with parental consent. Underage drinking is also allowed for religious purposes(only allowed to be used in practice). [14]
Albuquerque , Santa Fe and Las Cruces are the only cities large enough to have significant night life. However, several of the American Indian pueblos operate casinos that bring in name-brand entertainment. The casinos themselves are controversial locally because of problems with patrons with gambling addictions, but the entertainment can be reasonably good.
There are a surprising number of acceptable wineries in New Mexico, concentrated mainly in the north central region, but there are several others in the middle Rio Grande valley, between Albuquerque and Socorro.
The wine- and fruit-based beverage known as sangría, more commonly associated with Spain , is also widespread in New Mexico. Most restaurants with a liquor license that serve New Mexican cuisine will also serve sangría.
One warning: small-town bars here, particularly in the northern part of the state, are not always good places for the out-of-state visitor to hang out. For one thing, northern New Mexico has significant problems with drunk driving, and the concentration of intoxicated drivers is high close to small-town bars. For another, there have been ethnic tensions intermittently in this part of the state that have led to serious bar fights, some of which have involved visitors. Tread carefully.
Word of Advice: alcohol is prohibited in areas that are under the jurisdiction of the Navajo Nation . So don't bring alcohol on the Indian reservation, unless you want trouble from the Navajo Police.
Disease[ edit ]
Like many western states, New Mexico has had cases of hantaviral pulmonary syndrome. The state has been able to confirm 84 cases of the illness since 1993, which is a significantly higher incidence rate than any other western state. Realistically, however, hantavirus is of very little concern to the traveler; but sensible precautions should be applied. Do NOT venture in a wild animal's den or handle any dead animals; particularly rodents, as rodents seem to be the primary vector of the illness. There is no cure for the disease, treatment mainly consists of supportive therapies. The main defense against the virus is prevention.
For more information on prevention and transmission, visit the CDC [15] website on hantaviruses.
Crime[ edit ]
Albuquerque has a crime rate that is higher than average for an American city, but most of it is property crime that affects residents more than visitors. The "South Valley" and the region between the University of New Mexico and Kirtland Air Force Base (as well as the infamous "War Zone" near the state fairgrounds, the site of some nasty drug-related crime) are best avoided by solitary travelers after dark. Otherwise there are no specific violent-crime issues that unduly threaten the visitor.
Undocumented immigrants are a problem in the southern region of the state, although less of one than in neighboring Arizona . Use caution when picking up hitchhikers (or hitchhiking yourself) here. There are checkpoints along major highways leading north, at which the Border Patrol checks vehicles for undocumented passengers. Behave sensibly with them and you won't have any problems. However, border patrol as always have been known to racially profile Chicanx/Latinx Americans.
Residents of New Mexico are allowed to carry concealed firearms after completing training and a thorough background check, however do not take any guns or ammunition into Mexico as you can immediately get thrown in a Mexican jail for doing so.
There are some social problems associated with the drug trade that may create unpleasant situations for the unwary visitor in some areas. The world-wide cautions regarding packages from strangers apply here too, and, in addition, some caution is indicated in rural areas of the north central and northwestern regions. The former is a notorious "pipeline" for narcotics entering the country from Mexico, and you really don't want to blunder into a drug deal being transacted in the hinterlands. The main drug-related hazard in the rugged northwest is that it is a "drop zone" for contraband delivered by light plane. If you see a small plane drop below the local horizon when you know there is no airport around, don't investigate; chances are good that a shipment of something illegal has just been delivered to waiting, unfriendly people on the ground. This is less of a problem today than 20 years ago, but can still lead to decidedly hairy situations.
Drunk driving is a notorious social problem in New Mexico, particularly in the northern half of the state. There is no hour of the day, and no road, immune to DUI. Simply drive defensively.
Drunk walking is also a serious social problem in New Mexico. About half of all pedestrians killed on New Mexico streets each year are legally intoxicated, the highest percentage in the United States. As you drive around New Mexico, you will see many visibly intoxicated people everywhere, because public intoxication is not a crime in New Mexico. Even if you swerve in time to avoid a drunk pedestrian stumbling into the street, you may end up in a head-on collision with another vehicle, so it's important to anticipate such situations and exercise extreme caution around pedestrians who may be drunk.
Environment[ edit ]
Disease: New Mexico made unpleasant headlines a few years ago owing to an outbreak of the "Sin Nombre" hantaviral lung disease that claimed some lives and depressed the tourist industry. Realistically, however, hantavirus is of very little concern to the traveler, as is the better-known bubonic plague that is endemic in the state's rodent population. Sensible precautions apply here as anywhere else (don't handle dead animals, don't poke around in animal dens, etc.), but these just aren't major concerns. Much more prevalent, if less threatening, is the Giardia parasite that causes gastro-intestinal disturbances; to avoid it, purify water if backpacking or camping. Tap water state-wide is generally safe.
Most of the state is high desert. When out and about, use sun screen, and if hiking, carry more water than you think you'll need. It's wise to wear long pants when hiking (particularly off-trail) in the desert, even if they're uncomfortably warm; most of the desert flora and fauna are thorny, spiny or venomous, and long pants will help keep you from being stuck or bitten. (Don't worry unduly about rattlesnakes, though; many long-time residents of the state have never seen one, and bites are rare.) If bicycling, beware the dreaded "goat head," an invasive weed whose seeds, distributed in the fall, seem tailor-made for puncturing bike tires -- they look like a miniature version of the caltrops used in ancient days to hinder passage of foot soldiers. Carry a patch kit and a spare tube, particularly in the fall.
The mountains of the north (and some near Alamogordo in the south) are high enough to create hazards from altitude sickness and some other environmental threats. The high peaks create thunderstorms in the summer, so that the wise hiker is off the summits by 1PM or so to avoid lightning strikes. Avalanches are fairly common in the Sangre de Cristos during the winter, and can occur in some of the other ranges.
Get out[ edit ]
If you're planning on crossing into Mexico , the crossings at Juarez (reached via El Paso or Santa Teresa) are far busier than the one near Columbus, with all that that entails -- longer lines on the US side, but more to do once you're over the border. The mercado is busy, schlocky, and colorful. One warning: drinking age in Chihuahua is 18, and on weekends, many younger students at New Mexico State University in Las Cruces , and at colleges in El Paso, make the pilgrimage to indulge. Those living close to the border of Mexico also travel to Chihuahua and Sonora to indulge in prostitution as prostitution is legal in the states. Traffic back into Las Cruces can be frightening at such times. Be cautious.
Some destinations in other states that are close to their borders with New Mexico and hence reachable as day excursions are (clockwise from the southwest corner):
| i don't know |
What is the common name of the military base in southern Nevada that is supposedly home to alien spacecraft and little green men? | Roswell UFO incident - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Roswell UFO incident
Roswell Daily Record , July 8 , 1947 , announcing the "capture" of a "flying saucer."
The Roswell UFO incident involved the recovery of materials near Roswell, New Mexico in July 1947 which have since become the subject of intense speculation and research. There are widely divergent views on what actually happened, and passionate debate about what evidence can be believed. The United States military maintains that what was recovered was a top-secret research balloon that had crashed. However, many UFO researchers believe the wreckage was of a crashed alien craft and that the military covered up the craft's recovery. The incident has evolved into a widely-recognized and referenced pop culture phenomenon, and for some, Roswell is synonymous with UFO and likely ranks as the most famous alleged UFO incident.
Contents
[ edit ] Background
On July 8 , 1947 , the Roswell Army Air Field (RAAF) issued a press release stating that personnel from the field's 509th Bomb Group had recovered a crashed "flying disc" from a ranch near Roswell, sparking intense media interest. Later the same day, the Commanding General of the Eighth Air Force stated that in fact, a weather balloon had been recovered by RAAF personnel, rather than a "flying disc." [1] A subsequent press conference was called, featuring debris said to be from the crashed object that seemed to confirm the weather balloon description. The case was quickly forgotten and almost completely ignored, even by UFO researchers, for some 30 years. Then, in 1978, ufologist Stanton T. Friedman interviewed Major Jesse Marcel , who was involved with the original recovery of the debris in 1947. Marcel expressed his belief that the military had covered up the recovery of an alien spacecraft. His story circulated through UFO circles, being featured in some UFO documentaries at the time. [2] In February 1980, The National Enquirer ran its own interview with Marcel, garnering national and worldwide attention for the Roswell incident.
Additional witnesses and reports emerged over the following years. They added significant new details, including claims of a large military operation dedicated to recovering alien craft and aliens themselves, as many as 11 crash sites, [2] and alleged witness intimidation. In 1989, former mortician Glenn Dennis put forth a detailed personal account, wherein he claimed that alien autopsies were carried out at the Roswell base. [3]
In response to these reports, and after congressional inquiries, the General Accounting Office launched an inquiry and directed the Office of the Secretary of the Air Force to conduct an internal investigation. The result was summarized in two reports. The first, released in 1995, concluded that the reported recovered material in 1947 was likely debris from a secret government program called Project Mogul . The second report, released in 1997, concluded these reports of recovered alien bodies were likely transformed memories of military accidents involving injured or killed personnel, and the recovery of anthropomorphic dummies in military programs like Project High Dive , conducted in the 1950s. The psychological effects of time compression and confusion about when events occurred explained the discrepancy with the years in question. These reports were dismissed by UFO proponents as being either disinformation or simply implausible, though significant numbers of UFO researchers discount the probability that any alien craft was in fact involved. [4] [5] [6]
[ edit ] Contemporary accounts of materials found
The Sacramento Bee article detailing the RAAF statements.
On July 8th , 1947 , reports emerged from the Roswell Army Air Field that a "flying disc" had been recovered. The following historical account reconstructs a timeline of events as described and recorded in initial news reports.
On June 14 , farmer William "Mac" Brazel noticed some strange debris while working on a ranch 70 miles from Roswell. This exact date (or "about three weeks" before July 8 ) is a point of contention, but is repeated in several initial accounts, in particular the stories that quote Brazel and in a telex sent a few hours after the story broke quoting Sheriff George Wilcox (whom Brazel first contacted). The initial report from the Roswell Army Air Field said the find was "sometime last week," but that description may have been a fourth-hand account of what Brazel actually said, and mentions the sheriff as the one who contacted them about the find. [7] Brazel told the Roswell Daily Record that he and his son saw a "large area of bright wreckage made up of rubber strips, tinfoil, a rather tough paper and sticks." He paid little attention to it, but returned on July 4 with his son, wife and daughter to gather up the material. [8] Some accounts have described Brazel as having gathered some of the material earlier, rolling it together and stashing it under some brush. [9] The next day, Brazel heard reports about "flying discs" and wondered if that was what he had picked up. On July 7 , Brazel saw Sheriff Wilcox and "whispered kinda confidential like" that he may have found a flying disc. [8] Another account quotes Wilcox as saying that Brazel reported the object on July 6 . [7]
Sheriff Wilcox called Roswell Army Air Field. Maj. Jesse Marcel and a "man in plainclothes" accompanied Brazel back to the ranch where more pieces were picked up. "[W]e spent a couple of hours Monday afternoon looking for any more parts of the weather device," said Marcel. "We found a few more patches of tinfoil and rubber." [10] They then attempted to reassemble the object but Brazel said they couldn't. Marcel took the debris to Roswell Army Air Field the next morning.
As described in the July 9 , 1947 edition of the Roswell Daily Record , [11]
"The balloon which held it up, if that was how it worked, must have been 12 feet long, [Brazel] felt, measuring the distance by the size of the room in which he sat. The rubber was smoky gray in color and scattered over an area about 200 yards in diameter. When the debris was gathered up, the tinfoil, paper, tape, and sticks made a bundle about three feet long and 7 or 8 inches thick, while the rubber made a bundle about 18 or 20 inches long and about 8 inches thick. In all, he estimated, the entire lot would have weighed maybe five pounds. There was no sign of any metal in the area which might have been used for an engine, and no sign of any propellers of any kind, although at least one paper fin had been glued onto some of the tinfoil. There were no words to be found anywhere on the instrument, although there were letters on some of the parts. Considerable Scotch tape and some tape with flowers printed upon it had been used in the construction. No strings or wires were to be found but there were some eyelets in the paper to indicate that some sort of attachment may have been used.”
A telex sent to an FBI office from their office in Dallas, Texas , quoted a major from the Eighth Air Force on July 8: [12]
"THE DISC IS HEXAGONAL IN SHAPE AND WAS SUSPENDED FROM A BALLON [sic] BY CABLE, WHICH BALLON [sic] WAS APPROXIMATELY TWENTY FEET IN DIAMETER. MAJOR CURTAN FURTHER ADVISED THAT THE OBJECT FOUND RESEMBLES A HIGH ALTITUDE WEATHER BALLOON WITH A RADAR REFLECTOR, BUT THAT TELEPHONIC CONVERSATION BETWEEN THEIR OFFICE AND WRIGHT FIELD HAD NOT [unintelligible] BORNE OUT THIS BELIEF."
[ edit ] News reports
A NOAA weather balloon just after launch.
Early on Tuesday, July 8th, the Roswell Army Air Field issued a press release which was immediately picked up by numerous news outlets: "The many rumors regarding the flying disc became a reality yesterday when the intelligence office of the 509th Bomb group of the Eighth Air Force, Roswell Army Air Field, was fortunate enough to gain possession of a disc through the cooperation of one of the local ranchers and the sheriffs office of Chaves County . The flying object landed on a ranch near Roswell sometime last week. Not having phone facilities, the rancher stored the disc until such time as he was able to contact the sheriff's office, who in turn notified Maj. Jesse A. Marcel of the 509th Bomb Group Intelligence Office. Action was immediately taken and the disc was picked up at the rancher's home. It was inspected at the Roswell Army Air Field and subsequently loaned by Major Marcel to higher headquarters." [13]
Col. William H. Blanchard, commanding officer of the 509th, contacted Gen. Roger M. Ramey of the Eighth Air Force in Fort Worth, Texas, and Ramey ordered the object be flown to his base. At the base, Warrant Officer Irving Newton confirmed Ramey’s preliminary opinion, identifying the object as being a weather balloon and its "kite.", [9] a nickname for a radar reflector used to track the balloons from the ground. Another news release was issued, this time from the Fort Worth base, describing the object as being a "weather balloon."
Gen. Roger Ramey (kneeling) and chief of staff Col. Thomas Dubose posed with weather balloon and radar reflector, July 8, 1947, Fort Worth, Texas. Some claim text contained on the paper in Ramey's hand (boxed) confirms an alien recovery. See enlargement below.
Enlargement of Gen. Ramey's held message in above photo.
In Fort Worth, several news photographs were taken that day of debris said to be from the object. The debris was consistent with the general description of a weather balloon with a kite. Ramey, Col. Thomas J. Dubose and Marcel all posed with the debris. Brazel, in interviews that day with the Roswell Daily Record and Associated Press , dismissed the military's "weather balloon" assertion. Citing several other weather balloons he had recovered previously on the ranch, he said: "I am sure what I found was not any weather observation balloon." [11] The incident was quickly forgotten.
[ edit ] Alien accounts emerge
[ edit ] New witness accounts and Roswell UFO books
In 1978, author Stanton T. Friedman interviewed Jesse Marcel, the only person known to have accompanied the Roswell debris from where it was recovered to Fort Worth. Over the next 15 years or so, the accounts he and others gave elevated Roswell from a forgotten incident to perhaps the most famous UFO case of all time. [2]
By the early 1990s, UFO researchers such as Friedman, Karl Pflock, and the team of Kevin Randle and Don Schmitt had interviewed several hundred people [12] who had, or claimed to have had, a connection with the events at Roswell in 1947. Additionally, hundreds of documents were obtained via Freedom of Information Act requests, as were some apparently leaked by insiders, such as the “ Majestic 12 ” documents. [13]
Numerous scenarios emerged from these authors as to what they felt were the true sequence of events, depending on which witnesses accounts were embraced or dismissed, and what the documentary evidence suggested. This was especially true in regards to the various claimed crash and recovery sites of alien craft, as various authors had different witnesses and different locations for these events.[Gildenberg “Requiem” article page 66]But, in general, they asserted that what was found on the Foster ranch had nothing to do with a “weather balloon” and was in fact debris from a crashed alien spacecraft; that any material shown to the press or described to the press was not the actual debris that was recovered; that large-scale recovery operations of aliens and their craft were undertaken; and that witnesses were intimidated into keeping quiet about what they saw. [14]
Friedman’s 1992 book, “Crash at Corona,” (written with Don Berliner) suggested a high-level cover-up of a UFO recovery, based on documents he obtained such as the “Majestic 12” ones, and featured accounts by several witnesses describing the actual recovery of aliens from Roswell. Those witnesses included Gerald Anderson and Barney Barnett. [15]
For quotes and more details on accounts of debris, alien recoveries and witness intimidation, see Witness accounts of the Roswell UFO incident .
Barnett’s account was the first one to connect aliens to the Roswell incident, and it first appeared in the 1980 book “The Roswell Incident” by William Moore and Charles Berlitz. While other witnesses emerged to give other accounts of alien recoveries, perhaps the most detailed account involving aliens emerged in 1989 after an episode of “Unsolved Mysteries” featured the Roswell incident and solicited new witnesses. Glenn Dennis, who called the show’s hotline, gave an account that placed, for the first time, aliens at the Roswell Army Air Base. [Gildenberg “Requiem” article page 65]
Dennis’ accounts were featured in Randle and Schmitt’s 1991 “UFO Crash at Roswell,” one of two books they co-authored. This book, along with “The Truth about the UFO Crash at Roswell,” published in 1994, remain highly influential in the UFO community, their interviews and conclusions widely reproduced on websites. [16]
The first book focused on Jesse Marcel and his accounts of the debris he recovered, and introduced evidence to corroborate his claims that the debris he recovered was switched before it was shown to reporters. New interviews with Col. Thomas Dubose, who appears in photos with the debris said to be the “flying saucer” reported earlier, seemed to confirm the premise that this material had been switched and a cover story concocted, acts directed by higher officials. Additional accounts suggested that the material Marcel recovered had super-strength and other attributes not associated with anything known of terrestrial origin, and certainly not anything associated with a “weather balloon.” And further accounts seemed to establish that Mack Brazel had been held in military custody and otherwise intimidated into changing his descriptions of what he saw so as to be consistent with the emerging “cover up” identified by the authors.
The second book focused more on some of the alien recovery accounts, from Dennis, Frank Kaufmann, Jim Ragsdale, Lewis Rickett, and others. [17]
UFO researcher David Rudiak claimed that a piece of paper which appears in one of the 1947 photos of the debris contains text which confirms that aliens were recovered. They claim that when enlarged, the text on the paper General Ramey is holding in his hand includes the words "victims of the wreck" and other phrases seemingly in the context of a crashed vehicle recovery. [14] However, interpretations of this document are disputed because letters and words are indistinct. [15]
General Arthur E. Exon, an officer stationed at the alleged final resting place of the recovered material at the time, claimed there was a shadowy group which he called the Unholy Thirteen who controlled and had access to whatever was recovered: [16]
"In the '55 time period [when Exon was at the Pentagon ], there was also the story that whatever happened, whatever was found at Roswell was still closely held and probably would be held until these fellows I mentioned had died so they wouldn't be embarrassed or they wouldn't have to explain why they covered it up. ...until the original thirteen died off and I don't think anyone is going to release anything [until] the last one's gone."
[ edit ] Air Force and skeptics respond to alien reports
[ edit ] Air Force Reports on the Roswell UFO incident
Main article: Air Force reports on the Roswell UFO incident
In the mid-1990s, the Air Force issued two reports which, they said, accounted for the debris found and reported on in 1947, and which also accounted for the later reports of alien recoveries. The reports identifed the debris as coming from a secret government experiment called Project Mogul , and alien accounts as resulting from misidentified military experiments or accidents involving anthropomorphic dummies and injured or killed military personnel.
The Air Force report formed a basis for a skeptical response to the claims many authors were making about the recovery of aliens, though skeptical researchers such as Phillip J. Klass and Robert Todd had already been publishing articles for several years raising doubts about alien accounts before the Air Force issued its conclusions.
[ edit ] Skeptical response to alien accounts
While new reports into the 1990s seemed to suggest there was much more to the Roswell incident than the mere recovery of a weather balloon, skeptics instead saw the increasingly elaborate accounts as evidence of a myth being constructed. After the release of the Air Force reports in the mid-1990s, several books, such as Kal K. Korff's "The Roswell UFO Crash: What They Don't Want You To Know" published in 1997, built on the evidence presented in the Air Force reports to conclude "there is no credible evidence that the remains of an extraterrestrial spacecraft was involved." [18]
In 1947, United States had begun a Cold War with the former Soviet Union, and as a result put in place numerous secret military programs to gain intelligence on the Soviets, particularly on their nuclear programs. One of the military experiments being conducted at the time in New Mexico was Project Mogul , designed to detect Soviet nuclear tests via high-altitude balloon launches. These balloon experiments were sent aloft from Alamogordo . In June and July 1947, several of the balloon trains got lost. [2] At the same time, reports of UFOs spiked significantly, as did press coverage of them. One tally of reports counted 853 during June and July. [17] Some, such as the Air Force , [18] (p.3) have speculated that many of these "flying saucer" sightings were in fact misidentified weather balloons.
Skeptics, like B. D. "Duke" Gildenberg, saw the sequence of events as initially reported in 1947 as being essentially accurate: A weather balloon or similar device was recovered from a ranch and personnel who had never seen such equipment before thought it might be one of the "flying saucers" being reported in the media. When personnel who were experienced with balloon experiments and their equipment saw the material, the misidentification was clarified, and a correction issued to the media. [2]
Additionally, Gildenberg and others argued that changing accounts of some of the primary witnesses who were at the crash site or who handled the debris cast doubt on their claims. Their initial testimony in many cases made the later UFO scenarios seem implausible. It is far more likely, skeptics argued, that these witnesses' initial memories were more accurate and they later added or changed details as their memories were contaminated by other accounts they had heard. [2]
The most damning evidence against any alien recovery, skeptics like Timothy Printy [19] argue, is from the whistleblower himself: Jesse Marcel. He was the only person known to have accompanied the debris from the ranch to Fort Worth, and he was the first one to voice doubts about the official explanation of the debris' origins. But despite voicing the opinion that this material was "not of this world" to researcher Stanton Friedman, Marcel nevertheless positively identified the material he appears with in the photos taken at Fort Worth as part of what he recovered.
"The stuff in that one photo was pieces of the actual stuff we found. It was not a staged photo." [20] He also appears in the 1979 film "UFOs are Real" where he said, "The newsman saw very little of the material, very small portion of it. And none of the important things, like these members that had these hieroglyphics or markings on them." [17] That material, all agree, is from some sort of balloon train. Indeed, when he was interviewed in 1979 by the National Enquirer , he seemed to preclude the chance that the object was a spacecraft: "I've seen rockets sent up at the White Sands testing grounds . It definitely was not part of an aircraft, nor a missile or rocket." [21] After it was pointed out to him that the material he posed with was balloon train material, he changed his story to say that that material was not what he recovered. [12] Skeptics like Robert G. Todd argue that Marcel had a history of embellishment and exaggeration, and his evolving Roswell story was another instance of this. [22]
Bill Brazel Jr. also is guilty of embellishing his initial accounts, Printy charges. [19] Like Marcel, he initially made no mention of anything like the gouges in the ground mentioned in later accounts, and his description of the direction of the debris was similar to Marcel’s. Brazel: "One time I asked dad [Mac Brazel] whether there was any burned spot on the ground where the wreckage was. He said no, but that he noticed on his second trip out there that some of the vegetation in the area seemed singed a bit at the tips — not burned, just singed. I don't recall seeing anything like that myself, but that's what he said."; [20] and "He [Mac Brazel] also said that from the way this wreckage was scattered, you could tell it was traveling 'an airline route to Socorro,' which is off to the southwest of the ranch." [20]
But as later accounts emerged of deep gouges from where aliens and their craft were allegedly recovered, as well as descriptions of alien vehicles traveling in a particular direction, Brazel's accounts changed so that by the late 1980's he was saying: "This thing made quite a track down through there. It took a year or two for it to grass back over and heal up."; [23] and "...he [Bill Brazel] talked about a gouge with the northwest — southeast orientation" [23]
Gildenberg and the first Air Force report point out that, save for some witnesses who described the recovered material as having exotic qualities, none of the primary witnesses described anything consistent with debris from a crashed alien vehicle or alien corpses. The numerous witness accounts of those known to have been in contact with the debris describe material largely consistent with balloon train material. [2]
The stories of aliens and their craft come from others whose connection to the events in 1947 are dubious, a point underlined in the initial Air Force report's conclusion, and those who claim those reports are accurate have failed to explain satisfactorily why the primary witnesses do not mention anything about aliens or alien recoveries. [2]
[ edit ] "Cover-up" accounts
To skeptics like Gildenberg, accounts of a cover-up are contrived attempts to explain away inconvenient testimony, especially that of Mac Brazel. His account, at face value, suggests misidentified balloon debris, they say. Claims that Col. Thomas Dubose confirmed a cover-up with switched material when photos were taken in Fort Worth are misleading, Kal K. Korff [19] and others assert. They also argue that witnesses who claimed cover-ups were quoting people second-hand, therefore their testimony is not compelling.
Gildenberg, Printy and many others say some doubt is cast on the coverup theory when examining the fact that the military issued a press release publicizing the very "flying saucer" they were supposedly trying to cover up. [13] Finally, contemporary accounts said that Mac Brazel arrived at the press conference not with a military escort, but with reporter W. E. Whitmore, whose presence with Brazel has been confirmed by numerous witnesses. [19] One witness account from Roswell Daily Record editor Paul McEvoy says Brazel arrived with a military escort, but since his own paper said Brazel arrived with Whitmore, it would seem that McEvoy would have to have been part of the cover-up, Printy points out.[ibid]
Some who believe the military covered up the recovery of alien debris use as proof the statement from retired General Thomas Dubose signed in 1991 confirming that the military had used a cover story. Dubose was one of three people to have posed with the debris at Fort Worth in 1947. Printy says that while the statement he signed confirmed a "cover story", the statement does not indicate that the material was switched. [19] To Dubose, it may have seemed self-evident that there was a cover story — but one that was intended to protect some other secret military project (such as Project Mogul), not to hide evidence of a recovered alien craft. Printy charges that researchers misled readers into believing Dubose was confirming the cover-up of alien material and of switching the debris by not directly asking him what exactly was being "covered up." Later, Dubose was asked directly and he emphatically denied having switched any material: [24]
Shandara: "There are two researchers [Kevin Randle and Donald Schmitt] who are presently saying that the debris in General Ramey's office had been switched and that you men had a weather balloon there."
Dubose: "Oh Bull! That material was never switched!"
Shandara: "So, what you're saying is that the material in General Ramey's office was the actual debris brought in from Roswell?"
Dubose: "That's right."
[ edit ] Arguments from authority
Some evidence, Printy and others point out, [25] are mere arguments from authority and reflect only prominent individuals' beliefs about what happened. They say that in the absence of actual first-hand knowledge of the events, these statements amount to the fallacy of argumentum ad verecundiam .
General Arthur Exon was at Wright Field in 1947, the alleged final destination for the Roswell debris. He is quoted as saying: "Roswell was the recovery of a craft from space" [26] But Korff points out that Exon, when shown the book with his quotes, wrote author Kevin Randle a letter saying in part: "...I did not know anything firsthand. Although I did believe you did quote me accurately, I do believe that in your writings you gave more credence and impression of personal and direct knowledge that my recordings would indicate on their own!" [24]
Another variation of the "argument from authority" is the assumption that highly trained military personnel at the Roswell air base were incapable of mistaking routine balloon debris with something "not of this world." Skeptics, like those at The Roswell Files website [27] point out that since the term "flying saucer" had just been coined, there was no expectation on what such an object "should" look like [20] and that objects were recovered at the time that were called "flying saucers" but bore no resemblance to that description. [12] Todd [28] and Printy also point out that radar was comparatively novel in 1947, and though the Roswell base was the only nuclear-equipped base on the planet, it was not yet equipped with radar. [25] Much of the material described seems consistent with material used in concert with radar detection; personnel unfamiliar with radar materials at Roswell's air base may simply not have recognized the debris for what it was, they say. However, the Fort Worth base had personnel who were experienced with balloon equipment who could have instantly recognized the debris for what it was upon arrival. Further, there is no evidence in Jesse Marcel’s military record that he had any experience with the material used in balloon trains. Since he identified material which appears to be a radar "kite" device as part of what he recovered, they argue, he may have been too embarrassed to later admit he had simply been unfamiliar with this sort of equipment.
Skeptics have had more difficulty debunking the various accounts of alien recoveries, though the Air Force would by the mid-90s come up with a detailed explanation as to those accounts. However, skeptics like Gildenberg did point out that, when added up, there were as many as 11 reported alien recovery sites [2] and these events bore only a marginal resemblance to the event as initially reported in 1947 or recounted later by the primary witnesses. Some of these memories could have been confused accounts of the several known recoveries of injured and dead from four military plane crashes which occurred in the vicinity from 1948-50. [29] others could have been recoveries of test dummies .
Depending on the researcher, there appears to be a number of possible scenarios: an account centered around the ranch and Jesse Marcel, an account where the Marcel account is peripheral to the "real" recovery, which happened at other locations in the vicinity, and an account featuring both.
Kevin Randle and Donald Schmitt initially focused on Marcel and the ranch as the main crash site in their 1991 book UFO Crash at Roswell . According to their next book, The Truth About the UFO Crash at Roswell, the crash happened several days later at a location far from the Foster ranch. Marcel and Brazel are relegated to a lesser roles and, as The Roswell Files notes, the new accounts contradict the old accounts. [30]
Later, discrepancies with certain accounts and problems with research done by Donald Schmitt would cause Kevin Randle to reject much of the evidence from The Truth About the UFO Crash at Roswell, yet many who embrace the UFO explanation still quote many of these accounts. [30]
[ edit ] Recent developments
One of the immediate outcomes of the Air Force reports on the Roswell UFO incident was the decision by some prominent UFO researchers to view the Roswell incident as not involving any alien craft.
While the initial Air Force report was a chief reason for this, another was the release of secret documents from 1948 which showed that top Air Force officials did not know what the UFO objects being reported in the media were and their suspicion they might be Soviet spy vehicles.
In January 1997, Karl T. Pflock, one of the more prominent pro-UFO researchers, said “Based on my research and that of others, I'm as certain as it's possible to be without absolute proof that no flying saucer or saucers crashed in the general vicinity of Roswell or on the Plains of San Agustin in 1947. The debris found by Mac Brazel...was the remains of something very earthly, all but certainly something from the Top Secret Project Mogul....The formerly highly classified record of correspondence and discussions among top Air Force officials who were responsible for cracking the flying saucer mystery from the mid-1940s through the early 1950s makes it crystal clear that they didn't have any crashed saucer wreckage or bodies of saucer crews, but they were desperate to have such evidence..." [31]
Kent Jeffrey, who organized petitions to ask President Bill Clinton to issue an Executive Order to declassify any government information on the Roswell incident, similarly concluded that no aliens were likely involved. [32]
Another prominent author, William L. Moore, said this in 1997: "After deep and careful consideration of recent developments concerning Roswell...I am no longer of the opinion that the extraterrestrial explanation is the best explanation for this event." Moore was co-author of the first book on Roswell, The Roswell Incident . [33]
Around the same time, a serious rift between two prominent Roswell authors emerged. Kevin D. Randle and Donald R. Schmitt had co-authored several books on the subject and were generally acknowledged, along with Stanton Friedman, as the leading researchers into the Roswell incident. [34] The Air Force reports on the incident suggested that basic research claimed to have been carried out was not carried out, [18] a fact verified in a 1995 Omni magazine article. [35] Additionally, Schmitt claimed he had a bachelor’s degree, a master’s degree and was in the midst of pursing a doctorate in criminology. He also claimed to be a medical illustrator. When checked, it was revealed he was in fact a letter carrier in Hartford, Wisconsin, and had no known academic credentials. At the same time, Randle publicly distanced himself from Schmitt and his research. Referring to Schmitt’s investigation of witness Dennis’ accounts of a missing nurse at the Roswell base, he said: "The search for the nurses proves that he (Schmitt) will lie about anything. He will lie to anyone… He has revealed himself as a pathological liar... I will have nothing more to do with him." [36]
Additionally, several prominent witnesses were shown to be perpetrating hoaxes, or suspected of doing so. Frank Kaufman, a major source of alien reports in the 1994 Randle and Schmitt book “The Truth About the UFO Crash at Roswell” and a witness whose testimony it was charged was “ignored” by the Air Force when compiling their reports, [37] was shown, after his 2001 death, to have been forging documents and inflating his role at Roswell. Randle and Mark Rodeigher repudiated Kaufman’s credibility in two 2002 articles. [38]
Glenn Dennis, who testified that alien autopsies were carried out at the Roswell base and that he and others were the subjects threats, was deemed one of the “least credible” Roswell witness by Randle in 1998. In Randle and Schmitt’s 1991 book “UFO Crash at Roswell,” Dennis’ story was featured prominently. Randle said Dennis was not credible for “for changing the name of the nurse once we had proved she didn't exist.” [39] Dennis’ accounts were also doubted by researcher Pflock [40]
In 2002, the Sci-Fi Channel sponsored a dig at the Brazel site in the hopes of uncovering any missed debris that the military failed to collect. Although these results have so far turned out to be negative, the University of New Mexico archaeological team did verify recent soil disruption at the exact location that some witnesses said they saw a long, linear impact groove. Gov. Bill Richardson of New Mexico, who headed the United States Department of Energy under President Clinton, apparently found the results provocative. In 2004, he wrote in a foreword to The Roswell Dig Diaries, that "the mystery surrounding this crash has never been adequately explained—not by independent investigators, and not by the U.S. government."
In October 2002 before airing its Roswell documentary, the Sci Fi Channel also hosted a Washington UFO news conference. John Podesta , President Clinton's chief of staff, appeared as a member of the public relations firm hired by Sci-Fi to help get the government to open up documents on the subject. Podesta stated, "It is time for the government to declassify records that are more than 25 years old and to provide scientists with data that will assist in determining the true nature of the phenomena." [41] [42]
In an interview on September 9 , 2005 , former President Bill Clinton downplayed his and his administration's interest in the Roswell incident. He said they did indeed look into it, but believes it had a rational explanation and didn't think it happened. However, he added the caveat that he could have been deceived by underlings or career bureaucrats. If that were the case, he said he wouldn't be the first American president that had been lied to or had critical information concealed from him. [43] [44]
In February 2005, the ABC TV network aired a UFO special hosted by news anchor Peter Jennings . Jennings lambasted the Roswell case as a "myth" "without a shred of evidence." ABC endorsed the Air Force's explanation that the incident resulted solely from the crash of a Project Mogul balloon.
In November 2005 an anonymous source claiming to be part of a high level group of people within the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) of the USA, began releasing information allegedly concerning a Project Serpo . This released information allegedly confirms that in July 1947 there were two extraterrestrial UFOs that crashed in the state of New Mexico, referenced in this article as the Roswell UFO incident. The Project Serpo releases further allege that there was one surviving alien entity. Communication was allegedly established with this alien and its home world. The alien lived for 5 years and died in 1952. Communications continued with the home world, allegedly in the Zeta Reticuli star system, which led to the arrangement of an exchange program between 1965 and 1978.
[ edit ] Tourism in Roswell
A mannequin from the International UFO Museum and Research Center in Roswell
Over the last few decades, business leaders in Roswell have taken advantage of growing interest in the 1947 incident, molding the town into a tourist destination for UFO enthusiasts. The city's main attraction is the International UFO Museum and Research Center, which has attracted over 2.5 million visitors from around the world since opening in 1992. [45] The museum was founded by former RAAF public relations director Walter Haut, and it displays alleged debris from the crash alongside models of UFOs and extraterrestrials. UFO-themed gift shops and restaurants abound in the vicinity of the museum, and many buildings in the area boast fake flying saucers attached to their roofs. [46] Streetlight bulbs along the city's main street even resemble almond-eyed grey alien heads. [47] Roswell also holds an annual UFO Festival, which brings up to 40,000 people to the city each 4th of July weekend. [48] The event, which inspired the 1998 documentary film Six Days in Roswell, features parades, fireworks, aircraft displays, costume contests, and seminars. Chamber of Commerce head Charlie Walker said, "The Lord gave us an opportunity. Roswell was a slow-growth town, and all of a sudden we had people wanting to come here. It's money our economy never would have had. If aliens are what brings people, if that's where we can make our mark, there's nothing wrong with that." [49]
[ edit ] Roswell incident in popular entertainment
The Roswell incident has become a popular subject of science fiction movies, television series, video games, books, and music. Kevin D. Randle and Donald R. Schmitt's 1991 nonfiction book UFO Crash at Roswell inspired the 1994 American television film Roswell , which starred Martin Sheen and Kyle McLachlan . The film received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television, but did not win. [50] An American television series called Roswell aired from 1999 to 2002, originally on The WB Television Network and later on UPN . Based on Melinda Metz 's Roswell High children's book series, the program followed the lives of four extraterrestrials who had survived the Roswell crash and assumed the form of human teenagers. A syndicated children's cartoon, called Roswell Conspiracies: Aliens, Myths and Legends (1999-2000), was distributed in several countries by the Bohbot Kids Network and inspired a 2001 PlayStation video game of the same title. The Roswell incident also played prominent roles in the American science fiction television programs Dark Skies (1996-1997), Seven Days (1998-2001), The X-Files (1993-2002), and Taken (2002).
Several novels have been written about the Roswell incident, including Whitley Strieber 's Majestic (1989) and Kevin D. Randle's Operation Roswell (2004). A humorous Bongo Comics series, called Roswell, Little Green Man , ran from 1996 to 1999 and followed the misadventures of an extraterrestrial recovered from the craft. In music, the American band Foo Fighters named their record label Roswell Records and performed a 2005 concert on the site of the Roswell Air Force Base. [51] In addition, an ambient music compilation CD called Area 51: The Roswell Incident was released in 1997 and featured such groups as Canada's Synæsthesia , England's Hawkwind , and Germany's Tangerine Dream . ( Area 51 refers to an air field in southern Nevada associated with other UFO conspiracy theories.)
| Area 51 |
According to the nursery rhyme, who had an army of 10000 men? | Area 51 : definition of Area 51 and synonyms of Area 51 (English)
Place data as RDF
Area 51 is a military base , and a remote detachment of Edwards Air Force Base . It is located in the southern portion of Nevada in the western United States, 83 miles (133 km) north-northwest of Las Vegas . Situated at its center, on the southern shore of Groom Lake , is a large military airfield. The base's primary purpose is to support development and testing of experimental aircraft and weapons systems. [1] [2]
The base lies within the United States Air Force 's vast Nevada Test and Training Range (NTTR), formerly called the Nellis Air Force Range (NAFR). Although the facilities at the range are managed by the 99th Air Base Wing at Nellis Air Force Base , the Groom facility appears to be run as an adjunct of the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards Air Force Base in the Mojave Desert , around 186 miles (300 km) southwest of Groom, and as such the base is known as Air Force Flight Test Center (Detachment 3). [3] [4]
Though the name Area 51 is used in official Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) documentation, [5] other names used for the facility include Dreamland, Paradise Ranch, [6] [7] Home Base, Watertown Strip, Groom Lake, [8] and most recently Homey Airport. [9] The area is part of the Nellis Military Operations Area , and the restricted airspace around the field is referred to as (R-4808N), [10] known by the military pilots in the area as "The Box" or "the Container". [11]
The facility is not a conventional airbase, as frontline operational units are not normally deployed there. It instead appears to be used for highly classified military/defense Special Access Programs (SAP), which are unacknowledged publicly by the government, military personnel, and defense contractors. Its mission may be to support the development, testing, and training phases for new aircraft weapons systems or research projects. Once these projects have been approved by the United States Air Force or other agencies such as the CIA, and are ready to be announced to the public, operations of the aircraft are then moved to a normal air force base.
The intense secrecy surrounding the base, the very existence of which the U.S. government did not even acknowledge until July 14, 2003, [12] has made it the frequent subject of conspiracy theories and a central component to unidentified flying object (UFO) folklore. [7] [13]
Contents
U.S. government's positions on Area 51
A letter from the USAF replying to a query about Area 51
CIA document from 1967 referring to Area 51
The federal government explicitly concedes (in various court filings and government directives) that the USAF has an "operating location" near Groom Lake, but does not provide any further information.
Unlike much of the Nellis range, the area surrounding the lake is permanently off-limits both to civilian and normal military air traffic. Radar stations protect the area, and unauthorized personnel are quickly expelled. Even military pilots training in the NAFR risk disciplinary action if they stray into the exclusionary "box" surrounding Groom's airspace. [13] [14]
A montage of available USGS satellite photography showing southern Nevada. The NTS and the surrounding lands are visible; the NAFR and neighboring land has been removed
Area 51 border and warning sign stating that "photography is prohibited" and that "use of deadly force is authorized" under the terms of the 1950 McCarran Internal Security Act . A government vehicle is parked on the hilltop; from there, security agents observe the approach to Groom Lake.
Perimeter security is provided by uniformed private security guards working for EG&G 's security subcontractor Wackenhut , [15] who patrol in Humvees , SUVs , and pickup trucks . The guards are armed with M16s , but no violent encounters with Area 51 observers have been reported; instead, the guards generally follow visitors near the perimeter and radio for the Lincoln County Sheriff. Deadly force is authorized if violators who attempt to breach the secured area fail to heed warnings to halt. Fines of around $600 seem to be the normal course of action, although some visitors and journalists report receiving follow-up visits from FBI agents. Some observers have been detained on public land for pointing camera equipment at the base. Surveillance is supplemented using buried motion sensors. [16]
The base does not appear on public U.S. government maps; [17] the USGS topographic map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine. [18] A civil aviation chart published by the Nevada Department of Transportation shows a large restricted area, [19] but defines it as part of the Nellis restricted airspace. The official aeronautical navigation charts for the area show Groom Lake but omit the airport facilities. [20] Similarly the National Atlas page showing federal lands in Nevada [21] does not distinguish between the Groom block and other parts of the Nellis range. Although officially declassified, the original film taken by U.S. Corona spy satellite in the 1960s has been altered prior to declassification; in answer to freedom of information queries, the government responds that these exposures (which map to Groom and the entire NAFR) appear to have been destroyed. [22] Terra satellite images (which were publicly available) were removed from web servers (including Microsoft 's TerraServer-USA ) in 2004, [23] and from the monochrome 1 m resolution USGS data dump made publicly available. NASA Landsat 7 images are still available (these are used in the NASA World Wind ). Higher resolution (and more recent) images from other satellite imagery providers (including Russian providers and the IKONOS ) are commercially available. These show, in considerable detail, the runway marking, base facilities, aircraft, and vehicles.
Although federal property within the base is exempt from state and local taxes, facilities owned by private contractors are not. Area 51 researcher Glenn Campbell claimed in 1994 that the base only declares a taxable value of $2 million to the Lincoln County tax assessor, who is unable to enter the area to perform an assessment. [24]
When documents that mention the NTS and operations at Groom are declassified, mentions of Area 51 and Groom Lake are routinely redacted. One notable exception is a 1967 memo from CIA director Richard Helms regarding the deployment of three OXCART aircraft from Groom to Kadena Air Base to perform reconnaissance over North Vietnam . Although most mentions of OXCART's home base are redacted in this document, as is a map showing the aircraft's route from there to Okinawa, the redactor appears to have missed one mention: p15 section No. 2 ends "Three OXCART aircraft and the necessary task force personnel will be deployed from Area 51 to Kadena." [25]
Civil Aviation identification
In December 2007, airline pilots noticed that the base had appeared in their aircraft navigation systems' latest Jeppesen database revision with the ICAO airport identifier code of KXTA and listed as "Homey Airport". [26] The probably inadvertent release of the airport data led to advice by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) that student pilots should be explicitly warned about KXTA, not to consider it as a waypoint or destination for any flight even though it now appears in public navigation databases. [26]
Facilities
Soviet spy satellites obtained photographs of the Groom Lake area during the height of the Cold War . It is presumed that intelligence-gathering satellites still monitor the area. In addition, civilian remote sensing satellites have produced detailed images of the base and its surroundings which are available via the internet on sites such as Google Earth / Maps . [27]
Airfield
Aerial imagery shows the airfield of Area 51 having seven runways including one that now appears to be closed. The closed runway, 14R/32L, is also by far the longest with a total length of approximately 23,300 feet (7,100 m), not including stopway. It appears to contain numerous cracks, the concrete slabs used in its construction having deteriorated due to the desert heat.
The two active airfield runways are of asphalt construction, 14L/32R with a length of 12,000 feet (3,700 m) and 12/30 with a length of 5,400 feet (1,600 m), and four runways located on the salt lake. These four runways are 09L/27R and 09R/27L, which are both approximately 11,450 feet (3,490 m), and 03L/21R and 03R/21L, which are both approximately 10,000 feet (3,000 m). [28] [29] The control tower and a support building is located at 37°14′25″N 115°48′32″W / 37.24028°N 115.80889°W / 37.24028; -115.80889 adjacent to an access road in the taxiway area. There is also a twin-ended hangar located in the taxiway area, 37°14′03″N 115°48′16″W / 37.23417°N 115.80444°W / 37.23417; -115.80444 . It has one end for fixed winged aircraft, the opposite end for helicopters and what may be an area for personnel in the middle of the structure. It may possibly be used for alert aircraft.
On the flight line are two open transient aircraft parking ramps, along with what appears to be a terminal/base operations buildings 37°14′22″N 115°48′44″W / 37.23944°N 115.81222°W / 37.23944; -115.81222 visible. A large number of vehicles are parked near it, likely being used for personnel transport around the base. The northern transient aircraft ramp appears to be used for single or twin-engine commuter aircraft; the southern transient ramp for larger aircraft. Imagery shows several Boeing 737 aircraft parked on the southern ramp. These are likely used for transporting personnel to the Groom Lake facility from other locations.
Station area
Road access to the facility is with Nevada State Route 375 at 37°38′03″N 115°43′10″W / 37.63417°N 115.71944°W / 37.63417; -115.71944 where an access road connects to the public highway system. The security gate and a parking facility is at 37°35′37″N 115°53′57″W / 37.59361°N 115.89917°W / 37.59361; -115.89917 about 10 miles west-southwest of the road turnoff. The gate is approximately 25 miles from the main support base along a winding road. It appears that once road traffic reaches the base, vehicles are routed to a large facility 37°14′28″N 115°49′26″W / 37.24111°N 115.82389°W / 37.24111; -115.82389 where imagery shows a large number of tractor-trailers and other vehicles are parked. This facility likely processes incoming shipments and presumably issues security credentials for personnel for their movement on the base. Several storage areas are around the facility, likely used for outside storage of large items. The road then continues to the west, eventually going into the Nevada Test Site , and southward to Mercury, Nevada , a restricted access community some 40 miles to the south-southeast where the road connects to the public highway system at U.S. Route 95 .
What may be a large Civil Engineering area, along with various equipment storage areas and workshops 37°14′25″N 115°49′10″W / 37.24028°N 115.81944°W / 37.24028; -115.81944 are visible to the southeast of that same area. A large number of white-painted, presumably government vehicles are visible in numerous parking lots in the station area, mostly being pickup trucks, SUVs and vans.
The support area of the station has what appear to be several 1960s-era personnel barracks 37°14′30″N 115°49′02″W / 37.24167°N 115.81722°W / 37.24167; -115.81722 of the type formerly found on Naval shore facilities are visible. It is not known how many personnel may be stationed at Groom Lake or the length of their tour of duty. No military family housing units are located on the base. Visible recreational facilities include a baseball diamond, tennis courts, and what may be an indoor open mess, possibly some type of base exchange, dining facility and likely some type of medical clinic. The base electrical power substation is located just to the northwest of the tennis court.
What may be a headquarters building appears to be located about a block to the north and west of the airfield terminal building at 37°14′27″N 115°48′50″W / 37.24083°N 115.81389°W / 37.24083; -115.81389 . It is a large, modern, multi-story office building with extensive landscaping and a parking area, which differentiates it from the other more bland, military-style buildings on the station. It is unknown what, if any, military designated unit is assigned to the Groom Lake facility. A large multi-storied building located just to the south of the presumed headquarters building may be an auxiliary support building containing engineering labs or other facilities.
There appear to be two separate aircraft maintenance areas; one on the north side of the station, the other on the south. Numerous hangars and maintenance support buildings are located in them. Both facilities contain a very large number of hangars (four in the north area, eight in the south), far more than a normal Air Force Base or Naval Air Station would have. The large number of hangars on the station is presumably to insure operational aircraft are kept out of view of orbiting reconnaissance satellites as well as out of the intense desert heat.
The north side maintenance area 37°14′38″N 115°48′54″W / 37.24389°N 115.815°W / 37.24389; -115.815 appears to be the original CIA facility, with what appear to be 1950s and 1960s era hangars and buildings, having been expanded over the years with additional buildings and four new large hangars. Several open aircraft parking ramps are visible, one having several black-painted F-16s. A helicopter parking ramp is located just to the north, with several black painted helicopters. Generally black-painted military aircraft are flown at night. A very large tower, possibly an old airfield control tower is visible in the area.
To the north of the aircraft maintenance area appears several buildings 37°14′51″N 115°49′03″W / 37.2475°N 115.8175°W / 37.2475; -115.8175 , and two large satellite dishes, probably being the base communications facility. Several radars are visible at 37°14′52″N 115°48′50″W / 37.24778°N 115.81389°W / 37.24778; -115.81389 linked to what is likely an air defense monitoring facility. A large, triangle shaped tower 37°14′46″N 115°49′24″W / 37.24611°N 115.82333°W / 37.24611; -115.82333 is located to the west. It's unusual appearance, painted black and also unusual external features on two sides are noted, its use is undetermined.
To the south of the aircraft maintenance hangars appears to be numerous shops and support buildings 37°14′34″N 115°48′53″W / 37.24278°N 115.81472°W / 37.24278; -115.81472 , one appearing to be an administrative office complex, and a 1960s era hangar on the flightline, which has been expanded into possibly a logistics support facility and warehouse.
The south side maintenance area 37°14′03″N 115°48′47″W / 37.23417°N 115.81306°W / 37.23417; -115.81306 appears to be of relatively new construction, with modern buildings and recently-constructed aircraft taxiways and hangars of the current area. It consists of several double aircraft hangars and what are likely maintenance support buildings. A very large quad-size hangar, 37°13′53″N 115°48′54″W / 37.23139°N 115.815°W / 37.23139; -115.815 which appears to have four separate sets of doors, along with two other hangars are visible. One hangar just to the east of the quad-sized hangar appears to have a very high roof, twice the height of the other hangars in the area. Another large hangar, possibly several stories tall 37°13′44″N 115°48′40″W / 37.22889°N 115.81111°W / 37.22889; -115.81111 is located separately from the other facilities, it having quite wide doors, possibly capable of accommodating very large, wide winged aircraft.
What appears to be the POL area with large above-ground fuel tanks and several aircraft fueling trucks is located on the south side of the station 37°13′24″N 115°48′54″W / 37.22333°N 115.815°W / 37.22333; -115.815 , along with several areas of disturbed land, possibly indicating new construction. Nearby are what appears to be several storage tanks 37°13′44″N 115°49′24″W / 37.22889°N 115.82333°W / 37.22889; -115.82333 , along with what may be the base security police building and an outdoor rifle range.
On the extreme south end of the station appear to be several high security areas, enclosed by fences and monitored by video cameras on poles. One appears to be a munition storage area 37°12′48″N 115°48′40″W / 37.21333°N 115.81111°W / 37.21333; -115.81111 , given what appear to be munitions storage bunkers similar to ones found on normal Air Force Bases. Two other high security areas are of undetermined use 37°12′28″N 115°48′56″W / 37.20778°N 115.81556°W / 37.20778; -115.81556 . A third fenced area, consisting of large dirt mounds is visible; the area having some natural vegetation growing on the mounds. Its use is undetermined.
Other areas
Approximately 15.5 miles north-northeast of the base, on a peak known as Baldy Mountain, are a series of radar radomes 37°26′58″N 115°44′01″W / 37.44944°N 115.73361°W / 37.44944; -115.73361 , 37°27′06″N 115°44′06″W / 37.45167°N 115.735°W / 37.45167; -115.735 at approximately 9,400' elevation. The types of radar at these sites is unknown, although they may be the ARSR-4 Air Route Surveillance Radar which is used by the Air Force and FAA Joint Surveillance System throughout the United States. Another series of radars of a different type are located on a ridge at 4,300' just to the north of Groom Lake at 37°17′41″N 115°49′21″W / 37.29472°N 115.8225°W / 37.29472; -115.8225 . All of the radar sites appear to be automated and unattended.
Approximately 85 miles to the northeast of the Area 51 airfield is a 7,300' airstrip aligned 03/21, that is parallel to U.S. Route 6 38°18′55″N 116°16′59″W / 38.31528°N 116.28306°W / 38.31528; -116.28306 (Base Camp Airfield) . This airfield is known as "Base Camp Airfield". There is no sign at the facility except "U.S. Government" and to "Keep Out". It is alleged that the facility is operated by civilian government contractor personnel on behalf of the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California. It may be an auxiliary airfield for the Groom Lake airfield. In addition to the single runway, there is a small residential compound presumably for the operations staff; a radome which appears to be a VORTAC/VOR-DME station; an industrial compound; and a fire station. The runway, equipped with modern navigation aids, is shown as "closed" on air charts and is marked with an "X" painted on either runway end, however aerial imagery shows the industrial compound has several vehicles parked inside it, and a vehicle parked near the aircraft parking ramp of the airstrip. [30]
Halligan Mesa Radar Site is located approximately 15 miles northeast of Base Camp Airfield 38°30′18″N 116°08′50″W / 38.505°N 116.14722°W / 38.505; -116.14722 (Halligan Mesa Radar Site) . It is an electronics and communications facility used for collecting data for Air Force testing programs conducted in the vicinity of the Tonopah Test Range (TTR) and the Nellis North Range [30]
Background
World War II
The first known use of the area was the construction in 1941 of an auxiliary airfield for the West Coast Air Corps Training Center at Las Vegas Air Field . Known as Indian Springs Airfield Auxiliary No. 1, it consisted of two dirt 5000' runways aligned NE/SW, NW/SE 37°16′35″N 115°45′20″W / 37.27639°N 115.75556°W / 37.27639; -115.75556 . The airfield was also used for bombing and artillery practice, as bomb craters are still visible in the vicinity of the runways. It was abandoned after the gunnery school at Las Vegas closed in June 1946. [31] [32]
U-2 program
Main article: Lockheed U-2
The Groom Lake test facility was established by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for Project Aquatone, the development of the Lockheed U-2 strategic reconnaissance aircraft in April 1955.
As part of the project, the director, Richard M. Bissell Jr., understood that, given the extreme secrecy enveloping the project, the flight test and pilot training programs could not be conducted at Edwards Air Force Base or Lockheed's Palmdale facility. A search for a suitable testing site for the U-2 was conducted under the same extreme security as the rest of the project. [33]
Bissell recalled "a little X-shaped field" in southern Nevada that he had flown over many times during his involvement with the nuclear weapons test program. The airfield was the abandoned Indian Springs Airfield Auxiliary No. 1 field, which by 1955 had reverted to sand and was unusable, but the adjacent Groom Dry Lake to the northwest met the requirements for a site that was "remote, but not too remote". [33]
He notified Lockheed, who sent an inspection team out to Groom Lake. According to Kelly Johnson, "... We flew over it and within thirty seconds, you knew that was the place ... it was right by a dry lake . Man alive, we looked at that lake, and we all looked at each other. It was another Edwards, so we wheeled around, landed on that lake, taxied up to one end of it. It was a perfect natural landing field ... as smooth as a billiard table without anything being done to it". Johnson used a compass to lay out the direction of the first runway. The place was called "Groom Lake." [1] [33]
The lakebed made an ideal strip from which they could operate the troublesome test aircraft, and the Emigrant Valley's mountain ranges and the NTS perimeter protected the test site from prying eyes and outside interference about 100 miles north of Las Vegas. [34] [35]
On 4 May 1955, a survey team arrived at Groom Lake and laid out a 5,000-foot (1,500 m), north-south runway on the southwest corner of the lakebed and designated a site for a base support facility. The new airfield, then known as Site II or "The Ranch", initially consisted of little more than a few shelters, workshops and trailer homes in which to house its small team. [34] In a little over three months, the base consisted of a single, paved runway, three hangars, a control tower, and rudimentary accommodations for test personnel. The base's few amenities included a movie theatre and volleyball court. Additionally, there was a mess hall, several water wells, and fuel storage tanks. By July 1955, CIA, Air Force, and Lockheed personnel began arriving. [1] The Ranch received its first U-2 delivery on 24 July 1955 from Burbank on a C-124 Globemaster II cargo plane, accompanied by Lockheed technicians on a Douglas DC-3 . [34] The first U-2 lifted off from Groom on 4 August 1955. A U-2 fleet under the control of the CIA began overflights of Soviet territory by mid-1956.
The Groom Lake airfield soon acquired a name: Watertown. According to some accounts, the site was named after CIA director Allen Dulles ' birthplace: Watertown, New York . Upon its activation, the testing facility was used with increasing frequency for U-2 testing, however that changed in 1957 when the Atomic Energy Commission began testing nuclear weapons at the nearby Yucca Flat facility. [1]
Once the AEC Operation Plumbbob series of tests began with the Boltzmann blast in May 1957, the Watertown airfield personnel were required to evacuate the base prior to each detonation. The AEC, in turn, tried to ensure that expected fallout from any given shot would be limited so as to permit re-entry of personnel within three to four weeks. All personnel at the base were required to wear radiation badges to measure their exposure to fallout. Once the atomic testing began, the CIA U-2 testing operations were interrupted constantly due to the explosions at Yucca Flat, which were scheduled and re-scheduled frequently. [1]
The CIA facilities at Groom Lake were always considered by the agency as a temporary facility, to accommodate the U-2 testing. As the project began to wind down, and CIA pilot classes finished their training, Watertown became a virtual ghost town. By June 1957, most U-2 testing had moved to Edwards AFB and the first operational USAF unit to receive the U-2, the 4080th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing , was active at Laughlin AFB , Texas. For two years following the departure of the U-2s from Groom Lake, the base was fairly quiet, although it remained under CIA jurisdiction. [1]
X-15 program
In July 1959 USAF personnel from Edwards AFB embarked on a two-day survey trip to investigate potential emergency landing sites for the North American X-15 rocket plane. The survey crew received permission to land on the then unused CIA facility at Groom Lake. The crew tested the hardness of the lakebed surface by dropping a 10-pound steel ball from a height of six feet and measuring the diameter of the resulting imprint. The result was that the Groom Lake surface was considered excellent for emergency use. [1]
In September 1960, NASA and Air Force Flight Test Center personnel at Edwards reviewed the results of the survey trip to Groom Lake, as well as other sites visited by the survey crew. The use of Groom Lake meant a reduction in support requirements as there was an airfield with emergency equipment and personnel at the site. Ultimately, they agreed to remove Groom from consideration as an emergency landing site due to difficulty obtaining clearance into the area. [1]
OXCART program
Main articles: Lockheed A-12 and SR-71 Blackbird
A-12 during radar testing at Groom Lake
Even before U-2 development was complete, Lockheed began work on its successor as part of the CIA's OXCART project, involving the A-12, a Mach -3 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft – a later variant of which became the famed USAF SR-71 Blackbird .
The second YF-12A Interceptor prototype at Groom Lake, Nevada (USAF Photograph)
Lockheed YF-12A 60-6934 in Air Defense Command markings 1963. The only YF-12A in ADC markings, Its first test flight occurred on 7 August 1963 at Groom Lake, Nevada. It was extensively tested at Edwards Air Force base. This aircraft was damaged beyond repair by fire at Edwards during a landing mishap on 14 August 1966; its rear half was salvaged and combined with the front half of a Lockheed static test airframe to create the one and only SR-71C 64-17981.
As with the previous U-2 program, security requirements of the Oxcart project necessitated an obscure, secret location for A-12 testing. Despite the success of the U-2 flight tests and the OXCART mock-up radar tests, Groom Lake was not initially considered. It was a "Wild West" outpost, with primitive facilities for only 150 people. The A-12 test program would require more than ten times that number. Groom Lake's five-thousand foot asphalt runway was both too short and unable to support the weight of the Oxcart. The fuel supply, hangar space, and shop space were all inadequate. [33]
Ten Air Force bases programmed for closure were considered, but all were rejected. The site had to be away from any cities and military or civilian airways to prevent sightings. It also had to have good weather, the necessary housing and fuel supplies, and an eighty-five-hundred-foot runway. None of the air force bases met the security requirements, although, for a time, Edwards Air Force Base was considered. In the end, Groom Lake was the only possibility, however its short runway, austere facilities and other shortcomings meant a major overhaul was necessry prior for Oxcart A-12 testing could commence. [1] Groom Lake had also, by this time, received a new official name. The Nevada nuclear test site was divided into several numbered areas. To blend in, Groom Lake became "Area 51." [33]
This aircraft flight characteristics and maintenance requirements forced a massive expansion of facilities and runways at Groom Lake. On 1 October 1960, Reynolds Electrical and Engineering Company (REECo) began work on the site, referred to as "Project 51". Workers engaged in double-shift construction schedules for the next four years to overhaul and upgrade base facilities, and also expand the existing runway to 8,500-foot (2,600 m) as well as harden the existing runway to support the heavier A-12. In addition, a new 10,000-foot runway was constructed (14/32) diagonally across the southwest corner of the lakebed. An Archimedes curve approximately two miles across was marked on the dry lake so that an A-12 pilot approaching the end of the overrun could abort to the playa instead of plunging the aircraft into the sagebrush. Area 51 pilots called it "The Hook." For crosswind landings two unpaved airstrips (runways 9/27 and 03/21) were marked on the dry lakebed. [1] [36]
By August 1961 construction of the essential facilities were completed. The United States Navy supplied three surplus hangars which were erected on the base's north side. They were designated as Hangar 4, 5, and 6. A fourth, Hangar 7, was new construction. The original U-2 hangars were converted to maintenance and machine shops. Facilities in the main cantonment area included workshops and buildings for storage and administration, a commissary, control tower, fire station, and housing. The Navy also contributed more than 130 surplus Babbitt duplex housing units for long-term occupancy facilities. Older buildings were repaired, and additional facilities were constructed as necessary. A reservoir pond, surrounded by trees, served as a recreational area one mile north of the base. Other recreational facilities included a gymnasium, movie theatre, and a baseball diamond. [1] [36] A permanent aircraft fuel tank farm was constructed by early 1962 for the special JP-7 fuel required by the A-12. Seven tanks were constructed, with a total capacity of 1,320,000-gallons. [1]
Preparations began for the arrival of OXCART; security was greatly enhanced, and the small civilian mine in the Groom basin was closed. In January 1962, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) expanded the restricted airspace in the vicinity of Groom Lake. The lakebed became the center of a 600-square-mile addition to restricted area R-4808N. Restricted continuously at all altitudes, the airspace occupies the center of the Nellis Air Force Range. [1] [36]
Although remaining under the jurisdiction of the CIA, the facility received eight USAF F-101 Voodoos for training, two T-33 Shooting Star trainers for proficiency flying, a C-130 Hercules for cargo transport, a U-3A for administrative purposes, a helicopter for search and rescue, and a Cessna 180 for liaison use; and Lockheed provided an F-104 Starfighter for use as a chase plane . [36]
The first OXCART was covertly trucked to the base in February 1962, assembled, and it made its first flight 26 April 1962. At the time, the base boasted a complement of over 1,000 personnel. It had fueling tanks, a control tower, and a baseball diamond. The A-12 was a large, loud, and distinctive-looking aircraft. During the early test flights, the CIA tried to limit the number of people who saw the aircraft. All those at Groom Lake not connected with the Oxcart program were herded into the mess hall before each takeoff. This was soon dropped as it disrupted activities and was impractical with the large number of flights. [33]
Although the airspace above Groom Lake was closed, it was near busy Nellis Air Force Base . Inevitably, there were sightings. Some Nellis pilots saw the A-12 several times. At least one NASA test pilot from Edwards AFB saw an A-12. He radioed the Edwards tower and asked what it was. He was curtly told to halt transmissions. After landing, he was told what he had seen was vital to U.S. security. He also signed a secrecy agreement. The major source of A-12 sightings was airline pilots. It is believed that twenty to thirty airline sightings were made. One American Airlines pilot saw an A-12 twice. During one sighting, a pilot saw an A-12 and two chase planes; he radioed, "I see a goose and two goslings." [33]
Groom saw the first flight of most major Blackbird variants: A-12, the abortive YF-12A interceptor variant designed to intercept Soviet manned bombers, and the D-21 Blackbird-based drone project. By the end of 1963, nine A-12s were at Area 51. A mock-up of the "Reconnaissance Strike-71" (RS-71) was inspected by the Air Force on 4 June 1962. The concept of a strike A-12 with strategic bombing capabilities ran into political problems from both the Air Force, which was involved with the XB-70 Valkyrie program at the time and a lack of enthusiasm from Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara . McNamara and his "whiz kids" saw no need for additional manned bombers in the age of ICBMs . In addition McNamara was phasing down Air Defense Command and saw no use for the YF-12A Interceptor. Accordingly, only the reconnaissance version of the RS-71 remained (it kept the "strike" part of the name, however). Where the A-12 was designed for clandestine overflights of Soviet territory, the RS-71 carried additional side-looking cameras and other sensors which gave it much greater capabilities. On 27–28 December 1962, a contract was issued to Lockheed to build six test RS-71s. [33]
According to legend, President Lyndon B. Johnson asked an aide soon upon taking office after the Kennedy Assassination what the RS-71 was for. The aide responded, "strategic reconnaissance". Thus, when Johnson announced the existence of a new reconnaissance aircraft, on 24 July 1964, President Johnson called it the "SR-71". President Johnson's announcements created an unusual security situation. While the USAF SR-71 project was a "White" or open project, the CIA's A-12 was not. Its existence would remain a secret until 1981. To maintain the secret, all those involved were told of the coming SR-71 announcement and warned to keep the A-12 separate. [33]
The SR-71 first flew at the Lockheed facilities at Palmdale, California in December 1964, and Palmdale and Edwards AFB served as the primary operation sites for that model. The 4200th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing activated at Beale AFB on 1 January 1965, however the first SR-71 did not arrive until 7 January 1966.
Starting in November 1965, even as the A-12 was declared operational for use by the CIA and planning was made for its use, doubts were expressed about the cost of operating the two separate groups of A-12s and SR-71s. After a year or more of debate, it was decided on 10 January 1967, to phase out the CIA A-12 program. Although the Oxcart was gone, its USAF descendant, the SR-71, would continue to fly intelligence missions for the next 22 years. Finally, in 1990, the SR-71 was retired. [33]
The A-12s would remain at Groom Lake until 1968 and occasionally were deployed to other United States bases overseas. [5] The CIA's nine remaining A-12s were placed in storage at Palmdale in June 1968. All surviving aircraft remained there for nearly 20 years before being sent to museums around the United States.
D-21 Tagboard
Main article: Lockheed D-21
The D-21 mounted on the back of the M-21. Note the intake cover on the drone, which was used on early flights.
Following the loss of Gary Powers 's U-2 over the Soviet Union, there were several discussions about using the A-12 OXCART as an unpiloted drone aircraft. Although Kelly Johnson had come to support the idea of drone reconnaissance, he opposed the development of an A-12 drone, contending that the aircraft was too large and complex for such a conversion. However, the Air Force agreed to fund the study of a high-speed, high-altitude drone aircraft in October 1962. The air force interest seems to have moved the CIA to take action, the project designated "Q-12". By October 1963, the drone's design had been finalized.At the same time, the Q-12 underwent a name change. To separate it from the other A-12-based projects, it was renamed the "D-21." (The "12" was reversed to "21"). "Tagboard" was the project's code name. [33]
The first D-21 was completed in the spring of 1964 by Lockheed. After four more months of checkouts and static tests, the aircraft was shipped to Groom Lake and reassembled. It was to be carried by a two-seat derivative of the A-12, designated the "M-21". When the D-21/M-21 reached the launch point, The first step would be to blow off the D-21's inlet and exhaust covers. With the D-21/M-21 at the correct speed and altitude, the LCO would start the ramjet and the other systems of the D-21. With the D-21's systems activated and running, and the launch aircraft at the correct point, the M-21 would begin a slight pushover, the LCO would push a final button, and the D-21 would come off the pylon". [33]
Difficulties were addressed throughout 1964 and 1965 at Groom Lake with various technical issues. Captive flights showed unforeseen aerodynamic difficulties. By late January 1966, more than a year after the first captive flight, everything seemed ready. The first D-21 launch was made on 5 March 1966 with a successful flight, with the D-21 flying 120 miles with limited fuel. A second D-12 flight was successful in April 1966 with the drone flying 1,200 miles, reaching Mach 3.3 and 90,000 feet. An accident on 30 July 1966 with a fully fueled D-21, on a planned checkout flight suffered from a non-start of the drone after its separation, causing it to collide with the M-21 launch aircraft. The two crewmen ejected and landed in the ocean 150 miles offshore. One crew member was picked up by a helicopter, but the other, having survived the aircraft breakup and ejection, drowned when sea water entered his pressure suit. Kelly Johnson personally cancelled the entire program, having had serious doubts from the start of the feasibility. A number of D-21s had already been produced, and rather than scrapping the whole effort, Johnson again proposed to the Air Force that they be launched from a B-52H bomber. [33]
By late summer of 1967, the modification work to both the D-21 (now designated D-21B) and the B-52Hs were complete. The test program could now resume. The test missions were flown out of Groom Lake, with the actual launches over the Pacific. The first D-21B to be flown was Article 501, the prototype. The first attempt was made on 28 September 1967, and ended in complete failure. As the B-52 was flying toward the launch point, the D-21B fell off the pylon. The B-52H gave a sharp lurch as the drone fell free. The booster fired and was "quite a sight from the ground". The failure was traced to a stripped nut on the forward right attachment point on the pylon. Several more tests were made, none of which met with success. However, the fact is that the resumptions of D-21 tests took place against a changing reconnaissance background. The A-12 had finally been allowed to deploy, and the SR-71 was soon to replace it. At the same time, new developments in reconnaissance satellite technology were nearing operation. Up to this point, the limited number of satellites available restricted coverage to the Soviet Union. A new generation of reconnaissance satellites could soon cover targets anywhere in the world. The satellites' resolution would be comparable to that of aircraft, but without the slightest political risk. Time was running out for the Tagboard. [33]
Several more test flights, made from Beale AFB , California, including two over Communist China were made in 1969 and 1970 to varying degrees of success. On 15 July 1971, Kelly Johnson received a wire canceling the D-21B program. The remaining drones were transferred by a C-5A and placed in dead storage. The tooling used to build the D-21Bs was ordered destroyed. Like the A-12 Oxcart, the D-21B Tagboard drones remained a Black airplane, even in retirement. Their existence was not suspected until August 1976, when the first group was placed in storage at the Davis-Monthan AFB Military Storage and Disposition Center . A second group arrived in 1977. They were labeled "GTD-21Bs" (GT stood for ground training). [33]
Davis-Monthan is an open base, with public tours of the storage area at the time, so the odd-looking drones were soon spotted and photos began appearing in magazines. Speculation about the D-21Bs circulated within aviation circles for years, and it was not until 1982 that details of the Tagboard program were released. However, it was not until 1993 that the B-52/D-21B program was made public. That same year, the surviving D-21Bs were released to museums. [33]
Foreign technology evaluation
HAVE DOUGHNUT, (MiG-21F-13) flown by United States Navy and Air Force Systems Command during its 1968 exploitation.
During the Cold War , one of the missions carried out by the United States was the test and evaluation of captured Soviet fighter aircraft. [1] Beginning in the late 1960s, and for several decades, Area 51 played host to an assortment of Soviet-built aircraft. Under the HAVE DOUGHNUT, HAVE DRILL and HAVE FERRY programs, the first MiGs flown in the United States, were used to evaluate the aircraft in performance and technical capabilities, as well as in operational capability, pitting the types against U.S. fighters. [37]
This was not a new mission, as testing of foreign technology by the USAF began during World War II. After the war, testing of acquired foreign technology was performed by the Air Technical Intelligence Center (ATIC, which became very influential during the Korean War), under the direct command of the Air Materiel Control Department. In 1961 ATIC became the Foreign Technology Division (FTD), and was reassigned to Air Force Systems Command . ATIC personnel were sent anywhere where foreign aircraft could be found.
The focus of Air Force Systems Command limited the use of the fighter as a tool with which to train the front line tactical fighter pilots. [37] Air Force Systems Command recruited its pilots from the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base , California, who were usually graduates from various test pilot schools. Tactical Air Command selected its pilots primarily from the ranks of the Weapons School graduates. [37]
In August 1966, Iraqi Air Force fighter pilot Captain Munir Redfa defected , flying his MiG-21 to Israel after being ordered to attack Iraqi Kurd villages with napalm. His aircraft was transferred to Nevada within a month. In 1968 the US Air Force and Navy jointly formed a project known as Have Donut in which Air Force Systems Command, Tactical Air Command, and the U.S. Navy's Air Test and Evaluation Squadron Four (VX-4) flew this acquired Soviet made aircraft in simulated air combat training. [1] [37] Because U.S. possession of the MiG-21 was, itself, secret, it was tested at Groom Lake. A joint air force-navy team was assembled for a series of dogfight tests. [33]
Comparisons between the F-4 and the MiG-21 indicated that, on the surface, they were evenly matched. But air combat was not just about technology. In the final analysis, it was the skill of the man in the cockpit. The Have Doughnut tests showed this most strongly. When the Navy or Air Force pilots flew the MiG-21, the results were a draw; the F-4 would win some fights, the MiG-21 would win others. There were no clear advantages. The problem was not with the planes, but with the pilots flying them. The pilots would not fly either plane to its limits. One of the Navy pilots was Marland W. "Doc" Townsend, then commander of VF-121, the F-4 training squadron at NAS Miramar. He was an engineer and a Korean War veteran and had flown almost every navy aircraft. When he flew against the MiG-21, he would outmaneuver it every time. The Air Force pilots would not go vertical in the MiG-21. The Have Doughnut project officer was Tom Cassidy, a pilot with VX-4, the Navy's Air Development Squadron at Point Mugu. He had been watching as Townsend "waxed" the air force MiG 21 pilots. Cassidy climbed into the MiG 21 and went up against Townsend's F-4. This time the result was far different. Cassidy was willing to fight in the vertical, flying the plane to the point where it was buffeting, just above the stall. Cassidy was able to get on the F-4's tail. After the flight, they realized the MiG-21 turned better than the F-4 at lower speeds. The key was for the F-4 to keep its speed up. What had happened in the sky above Groom Lake was remarkable. An F-4 had defeated the MiG 21; the weakness of the Soviet plane had been found. Further test flights confirmed what was learned. It was also clear that the MiG-21 was a formidable enemy. United States pilots would have to fly much better than they had been to beat it. This would require a special school to teach advanced air combat techniques. [33]
On 12 August 1968, two Syrian air force lieutenants, Walid Adham and Radfan Rifai, took off in a pair of MiG-17 Fs on a training mission. They lost their way and, believing they were over Lebanon, landed at the Beset Landing Field in northern Israel. (One version has it that they were led astray by an Arabic-speaking Israeli). [33] In 1968 these ex-Iraqi MiG-17s were transferred from Israeli stocks and were added to the operation. These aircraft were given USAF designations and fake serial numbers so that they may be identified in DOD standard flight logs. As in the earlier program, a small group of Air Force and Navy pilots conducted mock dogfights with the MiG-17s. Selected instructors from the Navy's Top Gun school at NAS Miramar , California, were chosen to fly against the MiGs for familiarization purposes. [1] Very soon, the MiG-17's shortcomings became clear. It had an extremely simple, even crude, control system which lacked the power-boosted controls of American aircraft. The F-4's twin engines were so powerful it could accelerate out of range of the MiG-17's guns in thirty seconds. It was important for the F-4 to keep its distance from the MiG 17. As long as the F-4 was one and a half miles from the MiG-17, it was outside the reach of the Soviet fighter's guns, but the MiG was within reach of the F-4's missiles. [33]
The data from the Have Doughnut and Have Drill tests were provided to the newly formed Top Gun school at NAS Miramar. By 1970, the Have Drill program was expanded; a few selected fleet F-4crews were given the chance to fight the MiGs. The most important result of Project Have Drill is that no Navy pilot who flew in the project defeated the [MiG 17] Fresco in the first engagement The Have Drill dogfights were by invitation only. The other pilots based at Nellis Air Force Base were not to know about the U.S.-operated MiGs. To prevent any sightings, the airspace above the Groom Lake range was closed. On aeronautical maps, the exercise area was marked in red ink. The forbidden zone became known as "Red Square. [33]
During the remainder of the Vietnam War, the Navy kill ratio climbed to 8.33 to 1. In contrast, the Air Force rate improved only slightly to 2.83 to 1. The reason for this difference was Top Gun. The navy had revitalized its air combat training, while the Air Force had stayed stagnant. Most of the Navy MiG kills were by Top Gun graduates.
In May 1973, Project Have Idea was formed which took over from the older Have Donut, Have Ferry and Have Drill projects and the project was transferred to the Tonopah Test Range Airport . At Tonopah testing of foreign technology aircraft continued and expanded throughout the 1970s and 1980s. [37]
Area 51 also hosted another foreign materiel evaluation program called HAVE GLIB. This involved testing Soviet tracking and missile control radar systems. A complex of actual and replica Soviet-type threat systems began to grow around "Slater Lake", a mile northwest of the main base, along with an acquired Soviet "Barlock" search radar placed at Tonopah Air Force Station . They were arranged to simulate a Soviet-style air defense complex. [1]
The Air Force began funding improvements to Area 51 in 1977 under project SCORE EVENT. In 1979, the CIA transferred jurisdiction of the Area 51 site to the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards AFB, California. Mr. Sam Mitchell, the last CIA commander of Area 51, relinquished command to USAF Lt. Col. Larry D. McClain. [1]
Have Blue/F-117 program
Main articles: Lockheed Have Blue , Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk , and Tonopah Test Range Airport
The Lockheed Have Blue prototype stealth fighter (a smaller proof-of-concept model of the F-117 Nighthawk ) first flew at Groom in December 1977. [38]
In 1978, the Air Force awarded a full-scale development contract for the F-117 to Lockheed Corporation's Advanced Development Projects. On 17 January 1981 the Lockheed test team at Area 51 accepted delivery of the first full Scale Development (FSD) prototype #79–780, designated YF-117A. [1] At 6:05 am on 18 June 1981 Lockheed Skunk Works test pilot Hal Farley lifted the nose of YF-117A #79–780 off the runway of Area 51. [39]
Meanwhile, Tactical Air Command (TAC) decided to set up a group-level organization to guide the F-117A to an initial operating capability. That organization became the 4450th Tactical Group (Initially designated "A Unit"), which officially activated on 15 October 1979 at Nellis AFB , Nevada, although the group was physically located at Area 51. The 4450th TG also operated the A-7D Corsair II as a surrogate trainer for the F-117A, and these operations continued until 15 October 1982 under the guise of an avionics test mission. [39]
Flying squadrons of the 4450th TG were the 4450th Tactical Squadron (Initially designated "I Unit") activated on 11 June 1981, and 4451st Tactical Squadron (Initially designated "P Unit") on 15 January 1983. The 4450th TS, stationed at Area 51, was the first F-117A squadron, while the 4451st TS was stationed at Nellis AFB and was equipped with A-7D Corsair IIs painted in a dark motif, tail coded "LV". Lockheed test pilots put the YF-117 through its early paces. A-7Ds was used for pilot training before any F-117A's had been delivered by Lockheed to Area 51, later the A-7D's were used for F-117A chase testing and other weapon tests at the Nellis Range.
15 October 1982 is important to the program because on that date Major Alton C. Whitley, Jr. became the first USAF 4450th TG pilot to fly the F-117A. [39]
Although ideal for testing, Area 51 was not a suitable location for an operational group, so a new covert base had to be established for F-117 operations. [40] Tonopah Test Range Airport was selected for operations of the first USAF F-117 unit, the 4450th Tactical Group (TG). [41] From October 1979, the Tonopah Airport base was reconstructed and expanded. The 6,000 ft runway was lengthened to 10,000 ft. Taxiways, a concrete apron, a large maintenance hangar, and a propane storage tank were added. [42]
By early 1982, four more YF-117A airplanes were operating out of the southern end of the base, known as the "Southend" or "Baja Groom Lake." After finding a large scorpion in their offices, the testing team (Designated "R Unit") adopted it as their mascot and dubbed themselves the "Baja Scorpions." [1] Testing of a series of ultra-secret prototypes continued at Area 51 until mid-1981, when testing transitioned to the initial production of F-117 stealth fighters. The F-117s were moved to and from Area 51 by C-5 under the cloak of darkness, in order to maintain program security. This meant that the aircraft had to be defueled, disassembled, cradled, and then loaded aboard the C-5 at night, flown to Lockheed, and unloaded at night before the real work could begin. Of course, this meant that the reverse actions had to occur at the end of the depot work before the aircraft could be reassembled, flight-tested, and redelivered, again under the cover of darkness. In addition to flight-testing, Groom performed radar profiling, F-117 weapons testing, and was the location for training of the first group of frontline USAF F-117 pilots.
Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG. [1] [43]
On 17 May 1982, the move of the 4450th TG from Groom Lake to Tonoaph was initiated, with the final components of the move completed in early 1983. Production FSD airframes from Lockheed were shipped to Area 51 for acceptance testing. As the Baja Scorpions tested the aircraft with functional check flights and L.O. verification, the operational airplanes were then transferred to the 4450th TG at Tonopah. [1] [43]
The R-Unit was inactivated on 30 May 1989. Upon deactivated the unit was reformed as reformed as Detachment 1, 57th Fighter Weapons Wing (FWW). In 1990 the last F-117A (#843) was delivered from Lockheed. After completion of acceptance flights at Area 51 of this last new F-117A aircraft, the flight test squadron continued flight test duties of refurbished aircraft after modifications by Lockheed. In February/March 1992 the test unit moved from Area 51 to the USAF Palmdale Plant 42 and was integrated with the Air Force Systems Command 6510th Test Squadron. Some testing, especially RCS verification and other classified activity was still conducted at Area 51 throughout the operational lifetime of the F-117. The recently inactivated (2008) 410th Flight Test Squadron traces its roots, if not its formal lineage to the 4450th TG R-unit. [43]
Later operations
Since the F-117 became operational in 1983, operations at Groom Lake have continued. The base and its associated runway system were expanded. [44] [45] In 1995, the federal government expanded the exclusionary area around the base to include nearby mountains that had hitherto afforded the only decent overlook of the base, prohibiting access to 3,972 acres (16.07 km2) of land formerly administered by the Bureau of Land Management . [44]
United States military aircraft likely have been flown against Soviet-type radar systems and the Dynamic Coherent Measurement System (DYCOMS). The airborne RCS range likely has been used to measure the L.O. characteristics of all known stealth aircraft from the F-117A to the B-2 Spirit and F-22 Raptor . [1]
Over the past 20 years since the end of F-117A testing, the base has been expanded with new facilities, and a new main runway being built in the 1990s. Ongoing projects at Area 51 may include stealth aircraft development, weapons development, unmanned aerial vehicles, and avionics testing. Workers toil in relative isolation and inhospitable conditions at the site to prove revolutionary technologies and enhance the readiness of today's warfighter and support national requirements. [1]
Commuter service is provided along Groom Lake Road by a bus, catering to a small number of employees living in several small communities beyond the NTS boundary (although it is not clear whether these workers are employed at Groom or at other facilities in the NTS). The bus travels Groom Lake Road and stops at Crystal Springs , Ash Springs , and Alamo , and parks at the Alamo courthouse overnight.
Geography
Map showing Area 51, NAFR , and the NTS
Area 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flat region of the Nevada Test Site (NTS), the location of 739 of the 928 nuclear tests conducted by the United States Department of Energy at NTS. [46] [47] [48] The Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository is 44 miles (71 km) southwest of Groom Lake.
Nevada Test Range topographic chart centered on Groom Lake
The original rectangular base of 6 by 10 miles (9.7 by 16 km) is now part of the so-called "Groom box", a rectangular area measuring 23 by 25 miles (37 by 40 km), of restricted airspace. The area is connected to the internal NTS road network, with paved roads leading south to Mercury and west to Yucca Flat. Leading northeast from the lake, the wide and well-maintained Groom Lake Road runs through a pass in the Jumbled Hills. The road formerly led to mines in the Groom basin, but has been improved since their closure. Its winding course runs past a security checkpoint, but the restricted area around the base extends further east. After leaving the restricted area, Groom Lake Road descends eastward to the floor of the Tikaboo Valley, passing the dirt-road entrances to several small ranches, before converging with State Route 375, the "Extraterrestrial Highway" , [49] south of Rachel .
Environmental lawsuit
Area 51 viewed from distant Tikaboo Peak
A closed-circuit TV camera watches over the perimeter of Area 51
In 1994, five unnamed civilian contractors and the widows of contractors Walter Kasza and Robert Frost sued the USAF and the United States Environmental Protection Agency . Their suit, in which they were represented by George Washington University law professor Jonathan Turley , alleged they had been present when large quantities of unknown chemicals had been burned in open pits and trenches at Groom. Biopsies taken from the complainants were analyzed by Rutgers University biochemists , who found high levels of dioxin , dibenzofuran , and trichloroethylene in their body fat. The complainants alleged they had sustained skin, liver, and respiratory injuries due to their work at Groom, and that this had contributed to the deaths of Frost and Kasza. The suit sought compensation for the injuries they had sustained, claiming the USAF had illegally handled toxic materials, and that the EPA had failed in its duty to enforce the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (which governs handling of dangerous materials.) They also sought detailed information about the chemicals to which they were allegedly exposed, hoping this would facilitate the medical treatment of survivors. Congressman Lee H. Hamilton , former chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, told 60 Minutes reporter Leslie Stahl , "The Air Force is classifying all information about Area 51 in order to protect themselves from a lawsuit." [50]
Citing the State Secrets Privilege , the government petitioned trial judge U.S. District Judge Philip Pro (of the United States District Court for the District of Nevada in Las Vegas) to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of secret witnesses, alleging this would expose classified information and threaten national security. [51] When Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, President Bill Clinton issued a Presidential Determination , exempting what it called, "The Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada" from environmental disclosure laws. Consequently, Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence. Turley appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. Secretary of the Air Force Sheila E. Widnall filed a brief that stated that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom "can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations." The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal, [52] and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting an end to the complainants' case.
The President continues to annually issue a determination continuing the Groom exception. [53] [54] [55] This, and similarly tacit wording used in other government communications, is the only formal recognition the U.S. Government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex.
An unclassified memo on the safe handling of F-117 Nighthawk material was posted on an Air Force web site in 2005. This discussed the same materials for which the complainants had requested information (information the government had claimed was classified). The memo was removed shortly after journalists became aware of it. [56]
1974 Skylab photography
Groom Lake (upper left) and Papoose Lake (lower right). Photo by Doc Searles , 2010.
In January 2006, space historian Dwayne A. Day published an article in online aerospace magazine The Space Review titled "Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident." The article was based on a memo written in 1974 to CIA director William Colby by an unknown CIA official. The memo reported that astronauts on board Skylab 4 had, as part of a larger program, inadvertently photographed a location of which the memo said:
There were specific instructions not to do this. <redacted> was the only location which had such an instruction.
Although the name of the location was obscured, the context led Day to believe that the subject was Groom Lake. As Day noted:
[I]n other words, the CIA considered no other spot on Earth to be as sensitive as Groom Lake. [57] [58]
The memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should, and NASA and the State Department arguing against classification. The memo itself questions the legality of unclassified images to be retroactively classified.
Remarks on the memo, [59] handwritten apparently by DCI ( Director of Central Intelligence ) Colby himself, read:
He did raise it—said State Dept. people felt strongly. But he inclined leave decision to me (DCI)—I confessed some question over need to protect since:
USSR has it from own sats
What really does it reveal?
If exposed, don't we just say classified USAF work is done there?
The declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of discussions regarding the Skylab imagery. The behind-the-scenes debate proved moot as the photograph appeared in the federal government's archive of satellite imagery along with the remaining Skylab 4 photographs, with no record of anyone noticing until Day identified it in 2007. [60]
UFO and other conspiracy theories
Its secretive nature and undoubted connection to classified aircraft research, together with reports of unusual phenomena, have led Area 51 to become a focus of modern UFO and conspiracy theories . Some of the activities mentioned in such theories at Area 51 include:
The storage, examination, and reverse engineering of crashed alien spacecraft (including material supposedly recovered at Roswell ), the study of their occupants (living and dead), and the manufacture of aircraft based on alien technology.
Meetings or joint undertakings with extraterrestrials.
The development of exotic energy weapons for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) or other weapons programs.
The development of means of weather control .
Activities related to a supposed shadowy one world government or the Majestic 12 organization.
Many of the hypotheses concern underground facilities at Groom or at Papoose Lake (AKA "S-4 location"), 8.5 miles (13.7 km) south, and include claims of a transcontinental underground railroad system, a disappearing airstrip (nicknamed the "Cheshire Airstrip", after Lewis Carroll 's Cheshire cat ) which briefly appears when water is sprayed onto its camouflaged asphalt, [61] and engineering based on alien technology. Publicly available satellite imagery, however, reveals clearly visible landing strips at Groom Dry Lake, but not at Papoose Lake.
Veterans of experimental projects such as OXCART and NERVA at Area 51 agree that their work (including 2,850 OXCART test flights alone) inadvertently prompted many of the UFO sightings and other rumors: [7]
The shape of OXCART was unprecedented, with its wide, disk-like fuselage designed to carry vast quantities of fuel. Commercial pilots cruising over Nevada at dusk would look up and see the bottom of OXCART whiz by at 2,000-plus mph. The aircraft's titanium body, moving as fast as a bullet, would reflect the sun's rays in a way that could make anyone think, UFO. [7]
They believe that the rumors helped maintain secrecy over Area 51's actual operations. [13] While the veterans deny the existence of a vast underground railroad system, many of Area 51's operations did (and presumably still do) occur underground. [7]
Bob Lazar
see: S-4 (facility) for further information
Several people have claimed knowledge of events supporting Area 51 conspiracy theories. These have included Bob Lazar , who claimed in 1989 that he had worked at Area 51's "Sector Four (S-4)", said to be located underground inside the Papoose Range near Papoose Lake . Lazar has stated he was contracted to work with alien spacecraft that the U.S. government had in its possession. [62]
Bruce Burgess
Similarly, the 1996 documentary Dreamland directed by Bruce Burgess included an interview with a 71 year old mechanical engineer who claimed to be a former employee at Area 51 during the 1950s. His claims included that he had worked on a "flying disc simulator" which had been based on a disc originating from a crashed extraterrestrial craft and was used to train US Pilots. He also claimed to have worked with an extraterrestrial being named "J-Rod" and described as a "telepathic translator". [63]
Dan Burisch
In 2004, Dan Burisch (pseudonym of Dan Crain) claimed to have worked on cloning alien viruses at Area 51, also alongside the alien named "J-Rod". Burisch's scholarly credentials are the subject of much debate, as he was apparently working as a Las Vegas parole officer in 1989 while also earning a PhD at SUNY . [64]
Portrayal in media and popular culture
Novels, films, television programs, and other fictional portrayals of Area 51 describe it—or a fictional counterpart—as a haven for extraterrestrials, time travel, and sinister conspiracies , often linking it with the Roswell UFO incident . In the 1996 action film Independence Day , the United States military uses alien technology captured at Roswell to attack the invading alien fleet from Area 51. The "Hangar 51" [65] government warehouse of the Indiana Jones films stores, among other exotic items, the Ark of the Covenant and an alien corpse from Roswell. The television series Seven Days takes place inside Area 51, with the base containing a covert NSA time travel operation using alien technology recovered from Roswell. The 2005 video game Area 51 is set in the base, and mentions the Roswell and moon landing hoax conspiracy theories.
See also
Dugway Proving Ground , a restricted facility in the Utah desert.
Groom Range , a mountain range north of the lakebed.
Kapustin Yar , a Russian rocket launch and development site.
Woomera Prohibited Area , a defense and aerospace testing area in Australia.
Tonopah Test Range Airport , a large airfield which also resides within the Nellis Range.
References
General
Rich, Ben R. ; Janos, Leo (1994). Skunk Works: A personal memoir of my years at Lockheed. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-74300-6
Darlington, David (1998). Area 51: The Dreamland Chronicles. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-6040-9
Patton, Phil (1998). Dreamland: Travels Inside the Secret World of Roswell and Area 51. New York: Villard / Random House ISBN 978-0-375-75385-5
| i don't know |
If I've made a Faustian bargain, who have I made a deal with? | Should News Sites Make a ‘Faustian Bargain’ With Facebook?
Should News Sites Make a ‘Faustian Bargain’ With Facebook?
Yahoo Tech•
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Mark Zuckerberg (Photo: Reuters)
According to a March 23 report in the New York Times , Facebook is working with a number of media outlets –– including BuzzFeed, National Geographic, and the Times itself –– on a deal that would see those outlets publish news and other content directly on the social platform instead of just linking out to stories on their own websites.
If you follow any journalists on Twitter, you may have seen the term “ Faustian bargain " used more than once to describe this arrangement. Faust, of course, was a legendary German scholar — immortalized in a play by Goethe — who was dissatisfied with his life and wound up making a deal with the devil: unlimited wealth, fame, and knowledge in return for his immortal soul.
That analogy might be overstating the downside of Facebook’s deal just a tad. But the rumored partnership is definitely a double-edged sword, and media companies shouldn’t buy in without considering both the upside and the consequences.
For a media outlet, the benefits of publishing direct to Facebook are obvious: By doing so, they get strategic access to Facebook’s more than 1 billion active members, some of whom spend hours every day on the site. That kind of audience reach is like the Holy Grail for publishers, most of whom are lucky if their readers spend more than a few minutes on their site at a time.
In addition to reach, it appears that Facebook is also offering media outlets the ability to have their content appear more quickly. Loading external sites from Facebook can apparently take so much time that readers become frustrated and don’t click those links again. Facebook wants to prevent that from happening by hosting the articles within the app itself.
Finally, Facebook can also offer the power of its news-feed algorithm — and this is where the company’s appealing offer starts to look a lot more like the classic Faustian bargain. Facebook could heavily favor stories and content from its partners. For now, the details of whose content gets recommended –– or not recommended –– would be totally under Facebook’s control.
News media have been down this particular road once before, you may remember: A few years ago, so-called social readers were all the rage. These were applications from outlets such as the Guardian and the Washington Post that allowed readers to consume content from those publications without having to leave Facebook. The applications quickly gained millions of readers because Facebook promoted them; then, almost overnight, the social platform stopped doing so, and their readership was reduced to virtually zero .
The Guardian’s social reader app on Facebook (Photo: Screenshot via Adweek .
The unfortunate reality of dealing with Facebook is that, as with Google, its algorithm is a black box. The only ones who know how it works — and ultimately control its outcome — are CEO Mark Zuckerberg and Chris Cox, the executive in charge of the newsfeed.
They say they want high-quality content because that’s what their readers desire, and therefore it increases “engagement” with the platform. And so, they decide what content matches that description, and they decide who it will be shown to, and when.
This is part of why Facebook as a news source is a concern not just for media outlets but for individual readers as well: The functioning of the Facebook algorithm — the way it chooses which things to show you and which to hide — is so arcane that many users aren’t even aware that it is operating. Their view of the world is being distorted in some way, but they don’t have any idea how or why. That’s more than a little troubling, and the new arrangement that Facebook is talking about would expand that problem even further.
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For the media, meanwhile, it’s not just about editorial control –– it’s also about who ultimately benefits most from the kind of arrangement Facebook is proposing. If media outlets can get some data about their readers and their demographic breakdown, interests, etc., then it might arguably be worth it. But then there’s the long-term cost to consider: If consumers find more and more of their news appearing on Facebook without having to click to find it somewhere else, who will they start to see as the source of their news? Facebook.
In some ways, dealing with Facebook is actually worse than Faust’s deal: The German scholar chose to cut a deal with Satan primarily because he was vain, but media companies don’t really have a choice: They are forced to work with Facebook whether they want to or not, because the platform plays such a huge role in how millions of people come into contact with the news.
With that kind of clout, news entities can’t afford not to be on the network. But the more content they put there, the more they risk losing even more control over their business — and the only one that is in any position to dictate the terms of such a deal is Facebook. If anything could make newspapers and other traditional media outlets feel even worse about the state of their industry, it would be that they are forced to consider signing even lopsided deals like the one Facebook is offering.
| Devil |
The first income tax in the United States, 3% on incomes over $800, was levied to finance what conflict? | Celebrities that have signed a pact with the Devil., page 1
Celebrities that have signed a pact with the Devil.
page: 1
Name some celebrities that have signed a pact with the devil to get to where they are today.
Here are some I know of, that you might not know of :
Ozzy Osborne
Paul Daniels (80s UK Magician)
Kurt Cobain
John Lennon
Simon Cowell
Feel free to add more. Or even Celebs that you suspect have signed a pact with the devil.
reply to post by routerboy
Said pact didnt add to their life expectancy for at least half there,,,,,how do you know they made this faustian bargain?
Yeah, John Lennon, that guy who preached Peace and not War definitely made a deal with the Devil.
.... And Jimi Hendrix? Wanted to play the blues, so they killed him.
link
Originally posted by routerboy
Name some celebrities that have signed a pact with the devil to get to where they are today.
Here are some I know of, that you might not know of :
Ozzy Osborne
Paul Daniels (80s UK Magician)
Kurt Cobain
John Lennon
Simon Cowell
Feel free to add more. Or even Celebs that you suspect have signed a pact with the devil.
Can you provide any evidence to back up your statement. There have been many rumours about many people signing a pact with the 'devil' but very little proof - for example Mick Jagger of the Rolling Stones.
the devil would have to be real....which he/she is not.
Its just another fictional character in those fairytales people call religious texts.
Prove there is a devil first
reply to post by loves a conspiricy
Make yourself alone in your house at night. Close the bathroom door behind you and light a candle. Say out loud the following, "I know you're there." - "I know that you know that I'm here." And you will meet the devil when the door is opened.
Kurt, Jimmy and Lennon got a bad deal then !
you think so ???
look how long they've been dead
and we still remember who they are.
How many people can say that about themselves???
Did Nostradamus make a deal with the Devil too ???
Or how bout Alexander the Great ???
reply to post by loves a conspiricy
Make yourself alone in your house at night. Close the bathroom door behind you and light a candle. Say out loud the following, "I know you're there." - "I know that you know that I'm here." And you will meet the devil when the door is opened.
hahahahah come on dude do you really believe that???
Im home alone now....ive just tried it....and guess what....NO DEVIL
....i did get a text message from my mum though
spooky hahahahaha
| i don't know |
On April 19, 1971, Judge Charles H Older sentenced Susan Atkins, Patricia Krenwinkel, Leslie Van Houten, and what major asshat to death for their roles in the deaths of Sharon Tate and 6 others in Los Angeles on the nights of August 8 and 9, 1969? | SERIAL KILLER CALENDAR - SERIAL KILLER TRADING CARDS- SERIAL KILLER MAGAZINE - SERIAL KILLER DVDS - MURDERABILLIA
CLICK HERE TO VIEW THE BRIEF CHARLES MANSON BIO
Charles Milles Manson (born November 12, 1934) is an American convict and career criminal, most known for his participation in the Tate-LaBianca murders of the late 1960s. Manson had spent most of his adult life in prison, initially for offenses such as car theft, forgery and credit card fraud. He also worked some time as a pimp. In the late 1960s, he became the leader of a group known as "The Family", and masterminded several brutal murders, most notoriously that of movie actress Sharon Tate (wife of the Polish movie director Roman Polanski), who was eight and a half months pregnant at the time. He was convicted of conspiracy to commit murder in what came to be known as the "Tate-La Bianca case", named after the victims, although he was not accused of committing the murders in person.
The Sharon Tate Murders
Quiet and secluded is just what the young movie star wanted. The canyons above Beverly Hills were far enough away from the noisy glitz of Hollywood to afford some privacy and space. Sharon Tate loved this place on Cielo Drive . To her it meant romance - romance with the man of her dreams and the father of her child, director Roman Polanski. It was cooler up there too, which was especially refreshing on that hot muggy Saturday night, the 9 th of August 1969. The beautiful young woman kept herself company with her attractive and sophisticated friends: Abigail Folger, the coffee heiress and her boyfriend Voytek Frykowski, and an internationally known hair stylist Jay Sebring. Sharon was eight months pregnant and very lonely for her husband who was away in Europe working on a film. Impromptu gatherings like this one on a weekend night were not at all unusual.
The house was deliberately secluded but not completely insecure. Approximately 100 feet from the house was a locked gate and on the property was a guesthouse inhabited by an able-bodied young caretaker.
That night the Kotts, Sharon's nearest neighbors who lived about 100 yards away, thought they heard a few gunshots coming from the direction of Sharon 's property sometime between 12:30 and 1 A.M. But since they heard nothing else, they went to bed.
Around the same time, a man supervising a camp-out less than a mile away heard a chilling scream: "Oh, God, no, please don't! Oh, God, no, don't, don't..."
He drove around the area, but found nothing unusual.
Nearby a neighbor's dogs went into a barking frenzy somewhere between 2 and 3 A.M. He got out of bed and looked around, but found nothing amiss and went back to bed.
A private security guard hired by some of the wealthy property owners thought he heard several gunshots a little after 4 A.M. and called his headquarters. Headquarters, in turn, called Los Angeles Police Department to report the disturbance. The LAPD officer said: "I hope we don't have a murder; we just had a woman-screaming call in that area."
Winifred Chapman, Sharon Tate's housekeeper, got to the main gate of the house a little after 8 A.M. She noticed what looked like a fallen telephone wire hanging over the gate. She pushed the gate control mechanism and it swung open. As she walked up to the house, she saw an unfamiliar white Rambler parked in the driveway.
When she got to the house, she took the housekey from its hiding place and unlocked the back door. Once inside the kitchen, she picked up the telephone and confirmed that it was a telephone wire that had fallen, completely knocking out all phone service. As she made her way toward the living room, she noticed that the front door was open and that there were splashes of red everywhere. Looking out the front door, she saw a couple of pools of blood and what appeared to be a body on the lawn.
She shrieked and ran back through the house and down the driveway, passing close enough to the Rambler to see that there was yet another body inside the car. She ran over to the Kotts and banged on the door, but they were not home, so she ran to the next house and did the same thing, screaming hysterically.
The Crime Scene
LAPD Officer Jerry DeRosa arrived first. He walked up to the Rambler and found a young man slumped toward the passenger side, drenched in blood. At this point, Officer William Whisenhunt joined DeRosa. The two officers, with guns drawn searched the other automobiles and the garage, while a third officer Robert Burbridge caught up with them.
There on the beautifully manicured lawn with its magnificent panorama of Los Angeles lay two bodies. One was a white man that appeared to be in his thirties. Someone had battered in his head and face, while savagely puncturing the rest of his body with dozens of wounds.
The other body was that of a young woman with long brown hair lying in a full-length nightgown with multiple stab wounds.
The three officers cautiously approached the house. No telling what or who may be waiting in there for them. It would have been foolhardy for all of them to enter through the front door. However, as they went near the front door, they saw that one of the front window screens had been removed. Whisenhunt found an open window on the side of the house where he and Burbridge made their entry.
Once the other two officers were inside, DeRosa approached the front door. On the lower half of the door, he saw scrawled in blood the word "PIG." In the hallway they found two large steamer trunks, a pair of horned rimmed glasses and pieces of a broken gun grip.
Then when they reached the couch, they were in for a real shock. A young blond woman, very pregnant, was lying on the floor, smeared all over with blood, a rope around her neck that extended over a rafter in the ceiling. The other end of the rope was around the neck of a man lying nearby, also drenched in blood.
As they looked through the rest of the house they heard a man's voice and the sound of a dog. It was William Garretson the caretaker. The officers handcuffed him and put him under arrest.
Later that Saturday night, Leno and Rosemary LaBianca and Susan Struthers, Rosemary's 21-year-old daughter, drove back from vacation trailering their boat. They dropped off Susan at her apartment and drove home to 3301 Waverly Drive in the Los Feliz area of L.A. They stopped to pick up a newspaper between 1 and 2 A.M.
It wasn't until the next day that anybody came to the house to see them. Frank Struthers, Rosemary's son by a previous marriage, got a ride home. Around 8:30 P.M., as he carried his camping equipment up the driveway, he noticed things that worried him. First the speedboat was still in the driveway. It was very unlike his stepfather not to put the boat in the garage. Then Frank noticed that all the window shades were down - something his parents never did.
He knocked on the door, but got no answer, so he went to a pay phone and called, but again with no response. He finally got in touch with his sister, who came with her boyfriend to their parents' house.
Frank and the boyfriend found the back door open. They left Susan in the kitchen until they had a chance to look around. When the two young men walked into the living room, they saw Leno in his pajamas, lying with a pillow over his head and a cord around his neck. Something was sticking out from his stomach
They rushed out of the house, dragging Susan with them and called the police at the neighbors' house.
Soon an ambulance and police cars arrived. Leno was found with a blood-drenched pillowcase over his head and the cord of a large lamp tied tightly around his neck. His hands had been tied behind him with a leather thong. A carving fork protruded from his stomach and the word "WAR" had been carved in his flesh.
In the master bedroom, they found his wife Rosemary lying on the floor, her nightgown up over her head. She too had a pillowcase over her head and a lamp cord tied tightly around her neck.
In three places in the house, there was writing which appeared to be in the victims' blood: on the living room wall, "DEATH TO PIGS;" on another wall in the living room, the single word "RISE;" and in the refrigerator door, "HEALTHER SKELTER," misspelled.
The Slaughtered - Sharon Tate
Eventually, all of the victims of the massacre at Sharon Tate's home were identified. The young man in the car was a teenager named Steve Parent who had come to visit Garretson, the caretaker. The two victims found outside the house were Abigail Folger and her lover, Voytek Frykowski. In the living room joined by rope were Sharon Tate and Jay Sebring.
A .22 caliber gun had shot Steve Parent, Jay Sebring and Voytek Frykowski. Of the five victims, all but Steve Parent had been stabbed repeatedly. Sebring had been hit in the face and Frykowski had been repeatedly hit on the head with a blunt object.
The stab wounds suggested that only one knife had been used for the wounds. The nature of the wounds indicated that something like a bayonet was the weapon. A strange knife, a Buck brand clasp-type pocketknife that the housekeeper could not identify was found very close to Sharon Tate's body.
Sharon Tate had been a beauty all of her life. Even as a child she had won beauty contests. But her ambition was not to be a model but a movie actress. Finally in 1963 at the age of 22 she found a sponsor in Producer Martin Ransohoff. With Ransohoff's help, she landed parts in the series Beverly Hillbillies and Petticoat Junction, and the movies The Americanization of Emily and The Sandpiper.
In 1965, she got her chance at her first feature role in the Eye of the Devil with David Niven and Deborah Kerr. In this movie she played the part of a country girl with special magical powers. While in London in the summer of 1966 for the filming of the movie, she met Roman Polanski, who had just made his mark as a director of the movie Repulsion with Catherine Deneuve and Cul de Sac, which had won many European film awards.
Polanski put Sharon as the lead in his campy film The Fearless Vampire Killers. During this period she became Polanski's lover. This relationship lasted quite a long time and shortly after the filming of Rosemary's Baby, he and Sharon married. In 1969, they rented the house on Cielo Drive from Terry Melcher, Doris Day's son and moved in mid-February.
Sharon 's career never skyrocketed the way Polanski's did even with her role as Jennifer in Valley of the Dolls. A good part of the reason her career was going nowhere is that she never had an opportunity to show off whatever acting skills she had. All the roles she had were ones in which all she had to do was look pretty. Her career took a backseat when she became pregnant. The baby and her husband became the center of her life.
She was a unique lady according to most everyone who knew her. In spite of her beauty and remarkable figure, she was a very down-to-earth woman with none of the phoniness normally associated with starlets. She was very sweet and a bit on the naïve side. Everyone seemed to like Sharon even in a jealous, bitchy town like Hollywood .
Sharon 's life was ended by five stab wounds in her chest and back, which penetrated her heart, lungs and liver and caused massive internal hemorrhaging. The remaining eleven wounds simply added insult to her savaged body.
Her little boy, Paul Richard Polanski, died with her.
Abigail & Her Lover
Abigail Folger, Sharon 's friend was twenty-five years old when she died. As heiress to the Folger coffee fortune, she had led a very comfortable life. She made her debut in San Francisco in 1961. She graduated from Radcliffe. Like many wealthy girls, she looked for something meaningful to do with her time and became very involved in social work.
In 1968, she met her lover Voytek Frykowski who introduced her to Sharon and Roman Polanski. She became an investor in Jay Sebring's men's toiletries and hair styling business.
Her social work in the ghettos of Los Angeles was beginning to get to her.
She started to feel that her contribution was futile in combatting the enormous problems of ignorance and poverty. She told her friends that she couldn't get away from her work at the end of the day. "The suffering gets under your skin," she said.
Her relationship with Frykowski was also a source of concern to her. The two of them had become much too dependent upon drugs. Both the frustrations of her social work and her problems with Voytek were the subject of her almost daily conversations with a psychiatrist. She had just about built up enough strength to break off her love affair and try to get her life back on track when twenty-eight stab wounds intervened.
Voytek Frykowski was thirty-two when he died. He had been a long-time friend of Roman's from Poland . He was, according to Polanski, "a man of little talent but immense charm." Always a playboy, he had no visible means of support, essentially living off Abigail's money. While he told people he was a writer, there was no evidence that he was anything but a very charming, extroverted and entertaining "druggie."
However dissipated his life was or charming his personality, it came to an abrupt end with two gunshot wounds, thirteen blows to the head and fifty-one stab wounds.
Jay Sebring
Jay Sebring was quite the opposite career-wise from Frykowski. He was the top men's hairstylist in the U.S. and was a major force in the development of a market for men's hair products and toiletries. His customers included Frank Sinatra, Peter Lawford, George Peppard, Paul Newman and Steve McQueen. His new company, Sebring International would franchise men's hair styling shops and his line of hair products.
He was known as a ladies man and dated many different women. One of those women had at one time been Sharon Tate, who broke off her relationship with Sebring when she became involved with Polanski.
There was another, darker side to Sebring's exuberant sex life. He would tie up his girlfriends and occasionally whip them before they had sex. In spite of his flashy, successful outward life, there was reason to suspect that the real Jay Sebring was lonley and insecure.
A gunshot wound and seven stab wounds liberated him from his insecurities.
More Manson Family Victims
Aside from Sharon Tate's baby, the youngest victim was 18-year-old Steven Earl Parent who lived with his father, mother and siblings in El Monte . At around 11:45 P.M. Saturday night, Parent had come onto the estate to visit William Garretson, the caretaker who was living in the guesthouse. Parent's hobby was hi-fi equipment and he wanted to show Garretson a radio he brought with him. Garretson wasn't interested and Parent left the guesthouse around 12:15 A.M.
The young man had just graduated from high school in June and worked several jobs so that he could go to college in the fall.
Instead he got four bullets from a .22 caliber revolver.
Leno LaBianca was a respectable businessman. His father was the founder of State Wholesale Grocery Company and Leno went into the family business right out of college. He was a man who was well liked and did not appear to have any enemies. People described him as a quiet, conservative person.
He died from the multiple stab wounds, twenty-six in all.
Rosemary LaBianca was an attractive 38-year-old woman of Mexican origin. She had been orphaned as a child and later adopted when she was twelve. She had worked as a carhop and a waitress. She met her first husband in the 1940's and had two children. After they were divorced in 1958, she met Leno when she was a waitress at the Los Feliz Inn.
Rosemary had become a very successful businesswoman. Not only did she run the profitable Boutique Carriage, but also her prudent investments in securities and commodities left her with an estate of $2.6 million. Not bad for someone who started life with no advantages and spent most of her career as a waitress and carhop.
She had been stabbed forty-one times, six of which were enough to have caused her death.
On two consecutive nights, seven innocent adults and one unborn child lost their lives in what seemed to be a senseless, motiveless crime.
However one feels about the lifestyles of the wealthy and glamorous, it is hard to imagine any social good coming from these vicious murders. Yet over the years, the perpetrators of these crimes and their persistent followers have tried to suggest that these killings were necessary and desirable.
This author hopes that nobody finishing this story will agree.
Suspicion
In his very thorough book on the case, Helter Skelter , Prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi heaps a great deal of fault upon the homicide detectives of the Los Angeles Police Department. One of the examples he provides is the LAPD's slowness to connect the Tate murders with the LaBianca murders the following night and with the murder of Gary Hinman a few days earlier. Some of this fault on the part of the LAPD apparently stemmed from its lack of cooperation with the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Office.
The LAPD was approached shortly after the Tate-LaBianca murders by two LA Sheriff's Office detectives who told them of the July 31 murder of music teacher Gary Hinman. On the wall of the dead man's living room was written in his own blood "POLITICAL PIGGY," which seemed very similar to the words written at both the Tate and the LaBianca crimes scenes. Also, Hinman had been stabbed to death as had victims at the Tate and LaBianca homes.
Amazingly enough, the LAPD detectives refused to examine any connection between the deaths of Hinman and the people at the Tate house. Furthermore, the LaBianca murders were squarely in the territory of the LA Sheriff's Office and the LAPD had no interest.
Had the LAPD detectives bothered to listen to the LA Sheriff's Office detectives, they would have heard that the Sheriff's Office had arrested a Bobby Beausoleil for the Hinman murder. A Beausoleil who had been living with a bunch of hippies led by Charles Manson. But, the LAPD had already decided that the Tate murders were a result of a drug deal gone bad and didn't want to hear about any hippies.
On the other hand, the LAPD had in custody one William Garretson, the caretaker on the Tate estate who claimed that he slept through the entire bloody ordeal. The case against the frightened young man never materialized after he passed a polygraph test.
Officials essentially discounted robbery as a motive for the crimes, even though Rosemary LaBianca's wallet and wristwatch were missing. In the two homes of these affluent victims there were many items of value, which had not been touched by the killers. Small amounts of cash lying around the Tate home were still in evidence and the purses and wallets of the Tate victims were intact.
The LAPD did investigate three alleged dope dealers that had once crashed a party at the Polanski's, but one by one the men were cleared of any involvement.
Likewise, Roman Polanski was interviewed for hours by the police and agreed to a polygraph examination. On August 15, he returned for the first time since the murders to the house on Cielo Drive , accompanied by psychic Peter Hurkos.
Polanski had been devastated by the loss of his wife and son and was enraged at the media circus that he walked into when he got back to the States. He lashed out at the newspapers for suggesting that he and his wife were Satanists, indulging in sex and drug orgies. " Sharon ," he said, "was so sweet and so lovely that I didn't believe that people like that existed...She was beautiful without phoniness. She was fantastic. She loved me and the last few years I spent with her were the only time of true happiness in my life..."
He worried to the police that perhaps he was the target not Sharon . "It could be some kind of jealousy or plot or something. It couldn't be Sharon directly." Polanski did not believe that drugs were a motive for the crimes. His wife, although she had experimented with LSD before they met, was not a big drug user. "I can tell you without question," he told the police. "She took no drugs at all, except for pot, and not too much of that. And during her pregnancy there was no question, she was so in love with her pregnancy she would do nothing. I'd pour a glass of wine and she wouldn't touch it."
Polanski Offers Reward
One month after the murders, Polanski, along with other contributors such as Peter Sellers, Yul Brynner and Warren Beatty, put an ad in the LA area newspapers for a reward:
$25,0000
Roman Polanski and friends of the Polanski family offer to pay a $25,000 reward to the person or persons who furnish information leading to the arrest and conviction of the murderer or murderers of Sharon Tate, her unborn child, and the other four victims.
It seemed like it was open season on theories. Everybody had a theory. The Mafia did it, the Polish secret police, etc. Sharon 's father, Colonel Paul Tate, a former Army intelligence officer, launched his own private investigation. Letting his hair grow long and growing a beard, he started to frequent the hippie joints, the drug markets, hoping that he would get some tidbit of information that would lead to the murderers of his beloved daughter and grandson.
On September 1, 1969, a 10-year-old boy found a gun on his lawn in Sherman Oaks. He carefully took the .22 caliber Hi Standard Longhorn revolver to his father, who immediately called the LAPD. The gun was dirty and rusty and had a broken gun grip.
A couple of weeks earlier, the LAPD forensics experts determined that the .22 caliber revolver with the broken grip used on the Tate victims was none other than a Hi Standard .22 caliber Longhorn revolver, which was relatively unique and rare. Amazingly enough, two weeks later, an identical gun with a broken grip is turned in to the LAPD, tagged, filed away and completely forgotten.
A couple of days later, the LAPD sent out flyers to all personnel describing the murder gun and attaching a photo of the revolver. The flyer was also sent out to other law enforcement agencies around the country and Canada , while all the time, the gun sat in the Property Section of the Van Nuys division.
Three months after the murders, which had been separately pursued by the LAPD and the LA Sheriff's Office, neither group had made any progress. However, the detectives working for the Sheriff's Office were younger and more aggressive than their LAPD counterparts and came to the conclusion that the Tate and LaBianca cases were definitely connected. They had several suspects, one of which was Charles Manson.
Finally in mid-October, the LAPD began to talk to the Sheriff's Office and decided to investigate similarities between the murder of Gary Hinman and the Tate-LaBianca crimes. The investigation lead to the Spahn Ranch, which was the home of a hippie group that called itself the Manson Family.
The Spahn Ranch was in the mountains near Chatsworth. In the 1920's it had been the site for old cowboy movies. Author John Gilmore in his book The Garbage People describes the isolated old movie set:
The façade of the main street, a cluster of rundown movie buildings, had become a ghost town with its Longhorn Saloon, the Rock City Café, some stables, weathered props and old trailers. Millions of moviegoers once viewed this old "Wild West" setting, but the dust had settled. Rusted car parts littered the grounds and few visitors passed by...
Bobby Beausoleil, the man charged with the murder of Gary Hinman, had lived at the Spahn Ranch with the Manson Family.
His 17-year-old girlfriend told police that Manson sent Bobby and a girl named Susan Atkins to Hinman's house to get money from him. When Hinman wouldn't give them the money, they killed him. She also recalled that Susan Atkins mentioned a fight with a man who she stabbed in the legs several times.
When police questioned Susan Atkins, who was still in jail, she admitted that she went with Beausoleil to Hinman's home to get some money he had inherited. When he refused, Beausoleil slashed his face. The two of them kept Hinman prisoner in his home until Beausoleil murdered him a couple of days later.
At that point there did not seem to be any direct connection between Beausoleil and the Tate-LaBianca murders, except for some hearsay that Susan Atkins had stabbed a man in the leg. Gary Hinman had not been stabbed in the leg, but Voytek Frykowski had.
Susan Atkins
While she was awaiting trial for the murder of Gary Hinman, Susan Atkins was placed in the Sybil Brand Institute, L.A. 's women's house of detention. Her bed was next to that of 31-year-old Ronnie Howard. Another inmate, Virginia Graham, was a close friend of Ronnie's. Susan Atkins was a real talker. She had an almost unbelievable story that Ronnie and Virginia listened to with absolute amazement.
Atkins acted like a nut case: dancing and singing at the oddest times, oblivious to the seriousness of the charges against her and bubbling over with laughter and delight without any apparent reason.
In the course of conversation, Susan told Virginia that she was in for first degree murder.
"Did you do it?" Virginia wanted to know.
"Sure," Susan answered as though it were the most natural response in the world. But, the police thought that she only held Hinman while Bob Beausoleil stabbed him. In reality, Susan said, it was she who stabbed Hinman while Beausoleil held him.
She also told Virginia that her lover Charlie was Jesus Christ and he was going to lead her to a hole in the earth in Death Valley where there was a civilization down there. After hearing that story, Virginia was convinced that Atkins was completely nuts.
Several days later on November 6, Susan was again in a talky mood and mentioned the Sharon Tate murder. "You know who did it don't you?
Confession
"Well, you're looking at her."
Virginia was horrified and asked why she did such a thing.
"Because we wanted to do a crime that would shock the world, that the world would have to stand up and take notice."
Atkins went on to explain that they selected the Tate house because it was isolated. Susan said they knew who the owner was but they didn't know or care who would be at the house that night.
Susan explained that there were four of them, three girls and a man, all of whom had been given their instructions by Charlie. When they got to the gate, the man cut the telephone wires. Next they shot the teenager four times because he had seen them.
When they got in the house, Susan said that in the living room there was a man on the couch and a woman on the chair reading. Then some of Susan's group stayed in the living room, while Susan went into the bedroom where Sharon was sitting on the bed talking to Jay Sebring. They quickly put nooses over Sharon and Jay's heads so that if they moved they would choke.
Frykowski ran for the door. "He was full of blood," she said and claimed that she had stabbed him three or four times. "He was bleeding and he ran to the front part, and would you believe that he was there hollering 'Help, help, somebody please help me,' and nobody came? Then we finished him off."
" Sharon was the last to die," Susan said with a laugh as she described how Sharon was begging her, " Please don't kill me. Please don't kill me. I don't want to die. I want to live. I want to have my baby. I want to have my baby."
Susan said she just looked at Sharon straight in the eye and said, "Look, bitch, I don't care about you. I don't care if you're going to have a baby. You had better be ready. You're going to die and I don't feel anything about it...In a few minutes I killed her."
Susan said she saw that there was Sharon 's blood on her hand and she tasted it. "Wow, what a trip! To taste death, and yet give life."
Flabbergasted, Virginia asked Susan if it didn't bother her to kill a pregnant woman.
"I thought you understood. I loved her, and in order for me to kill her I was killing part of myself when I killed her," Susan explained. She had wanted to cut out Sharon 's baby but there wasn't enough time. She had also wanted to take out all the victims' eyes and squash them against the walls and cut off and mutilate all of their fingers, but they didn't have the chance.
Susan told Virginia that after they left the Tate house she realized that she didn't have her knife with her any more. Not only that, she had left her palm print on a desk, "but my spirit was so strong that obviously it didn't even show up or they would have me by now." The four of them drove to a place where they were able to wash their hands and change their clothes.
Charles Manson's Plan
Susan ended the story with admitting that they killed the LaBianca's the next night. "That's part of the plan," she explained. "And there's more."
This tale of murder had Virginia 's head spinning. She told Ronnie Howard, who didn't believe the story. "She's making it all up. She could have gotten it out of the papers," Ronnie reasoned. Virginia came up with a way to test Susan about whether she was telling the truth.
Some years earlier when the Tate house had been up for lease, Virginia had actually been to see the exterior of the house on Cielo drive. When she saw Susan, she asked her if the house was still decorated in gold and white. Susan said no.
Virginia also picked up some miscellaneous pieces of information that tied Charlie and Susan to that house. It used to belong to Terry Melcher, Doris Day's son. Charlie and Susan were angry with Melcher for some reason that was not clear. She babbled something about Melcher being too interested in money.
Later that day, Susan began to talk again and gave Virginia the list of celebrity targets that were next on their list: Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Steve McQueen and Tom Jones. It was important to select victims that would shock the world.
She had planned to carve the words "helter skelter" on Elizabeth Taylor's face with a red-hot knife and then gouge her eyes out. Then she would castrate Richard Burton and put his penis along with Elizabeth Taylor's eyes in a bottle and mail it to Eddie Fisher.
Sinatra was to be skinned alive, while he listened to his own music. The Family would then make purses out of his skin and sell them in hippie shops. Tom Jones would have his throat slit, but only after being forced to have sex with Susan Atkins.
More Manson Family Confessions
People who knew them but were not part of the group reported other confessions from Manson and Family members about the same time. On November 12, the L.A. Sheriff's detectives had a chance to interview Al Springer who was a member of the motorcycle gang called the Straight Satans who had been involved with the Manson Family off and on.
The detectives were astonished when Springer told them that a few days after the Tate murders that Manson had bragged to him about killing people: "We knocked off five of them just the other night." Springer stayed clear of Manson after that, but mentioned that Danny DeCarlo, another member of the motorcycle gang lived at the Spahn Ranch with the Family.
In the course of the interview Springer asked if anyone had their refrigerator wrote on? "Charlie said they wrote something on the fucking refrigerator in blood...Something about pigs or niggers or something like that."
When the police finally got to Danny DeCarlo, they really got an earful about Charlie and his Family. Not only did DeCarlo confirm their culpability in Gary Hinman's death, but he implicated them in the death of a 36-year-old ranch hand named Shorty, a nickname for Donald Shea. He was killed because he'd tell the owner of the Spahn Ranch what was really happening on his property. "Shorty was going to tell old man Spahn...and Charlie didn't like snitches," DeCarlo explained.
DeCarlo had been told what they did to his friend Shorty: "they stuck him like carving up a Christmas turkey...Bruce ( Davis ) said they cut him up in nine pieces. They cut his head off. then they cut his arms off too, so there was no way they could possibly identify him. They were laughing about that."
Another Family member named Clem told DeCarlo with a big grin that "we got five piggies" the day after the Tate murders.
The two detectives shared this information with the detectives at the LAPD, but the latter did nothing with the information. The L.A. Sheriff's detectives, on the other hand, now focused their investigation on the Manson family believing that the hippie cult was somehow tied into both the Tate and LaBianca murder cases.
At some point in mid-November, Susan Atkins told her story to Ronnie Howard. Ronnie Howard felt that she had to tell the police about what Susan had revealed, especially since other people were future targets of the group. She asked for permission to contact LAPD, but was repeatedly denied, even though the woman she asked permission was dating one of the Tate case homicide detectives. Virginia Graham, who had been transferred to another facility, was running into the same kind of difficulty when she tried to tell the authorities about Susan.
Finally on November 17, 1969, two LAPD homicide detectives came to Sybil Brand to interview Ronnie Howard. The message was finally beginning to penetrate the collective intelligence of the LAPD that they had just found a gold mine. After they interviewed her, they had her moved for her safety into an isolation unit.
Charlie Manson
Just who was this Charlie anyway? Both the LAPD and the Los Angeles Sheriff's Office started to dig through the rubble of his heavily documented 36 years. As information came in about him, it was no surprise that he was in trouble. If ever a kid had a miserable start in life Charles Manson was it.
An illegitimate and unplanned child, he was born in Cincinnati , Ohio , November 12, 1934 to Kathleen Maddox, a promiscuous sixteen-year-old who drank too much and got into a lot of trouble. Two years later, Kathleen filed suit against Colonel Scott of Ashland , KY , for child support, which she was awarded, but never received. Kathleen was briefly married to William Manson who gave his name to the boy.
Charles Manson in Nuel Emmons' book Manson in His Own Words describes the Maddox family:
Kathleen was the youngest of three children from the marriage of Nancy and Charles Maddox. Her parents loved her and meant well by her, but they were fanatical in their religious beliefs. Especially Grandma, who dominated the household. She was stern and unwavering in her interpretation of God's Will, and demanded that those within her home abide by her view of God's wishes.
My grandfather worked for the B&O Railroad. He worked long hard hours, a dedicated slave to the company and his bosses...He was not the disciplinarian Grandma was...If he tried to comfort Mom with a display of affection, such as a pat on the knee or an arm around her shoulder, Grandma was quick to insinuate he was vulgar.
For Mom, life was filled with a never-ending list of denials. From awakening in the morning until going to bed at night it was, "No Kathleen, that dress is too short. Braid your hair, don't comb it like some hussy. Come directly home from school, don't let me catch you talking to any boys. No, you can't go to the school dance, we are going to church..." In 1933, at age fifteen, my mother ran away from home.
Other writers have portrayed Mom as a teenage whore...In her search for acceptance she may have fallen in love too easily and too often, but a whore at that time? No!...In later years, because of hard knocks and tough times, she may have sold her body some...
Charlie never knew his father and never had a real father figure. His mother was the kind that children are taken away from and placed in foster homes. Kathleen had a habit of disappearing for days and weeks at a time, leaving Charlie with his grandmother or his aunt. When Kathleen and her brother were both sentenced to the penitentiary for armed robbery, Charlie got sent off to live with his aunt and uncle in McMechen , West Virginia . The aunt was very religious and strict in stark contrast to his mother's permissiveness.
When Kathleen was released from jail, she was not responsible enough to take care of him, preferring her life of promiscuity and hard drinking to any kind of normal lifestyle. There was no continuity in his life: he was always being foisted on someone new; he moved from one dingy rooming house to another; there were only transitory friendships that he made on the streets.
Manson Sold for a Pitcher of Beer
Manson tells the story that circulated within his family: "Mom was in a café one afternoon with me on her lap. The waitress, a would-be mother without a child of her own, jokingly told my Mom she'd buy me from her. Mom replied, 'A pitcher of beer and he's yours.' The waitress set up the beer, Mom stuck around long enough to finish it off and left the place without me. Several days later my uncle had to search the town for the waitress and take me home."
John Gilmore in his insightful book called The Garbage People describes how Charlie adapted to this life of emptiness and violence:
He kept to himself. Though friendless, his young mind bypassed the loneliness of his surroundings. He watched, listened, pretended his imaginative resources knew no limit. And he began to steal, as if to hold onto something that continually flew away. There was a consistency and permanency to the habit of stealing and it became easier. With everything transient, the thefts and goods he carried with him offered a sense of stability, a kind of reward. An object owned gave identity to an owner, an identity that had yet to be acknowledged.
When he was nine, he was caught stealing and sent to reform school and then later when he was twelve, he was caught stealing again and sent to the Gibault School for Boys in Terre Haute , Indiana , in 1947. He ran away less than a year later and tried to return to his mother who didn't want him. Living entirely by stealing and burglary, he lived on his own until he was caught. The court arranged for him to go to Father Flanagan's Boys Town .
He didn't last long at Boys Town . A few days after his arrival, thirteen-year-old Charlie and another kid committed two armed robberies. A few more episodes like that landed Charlie in the Indiana School for Boys for three years. His teachers described him as having trust in no one and "did good work only for those from whom he figured he could obtain something."
Charlie Manson as an Institutional Politician
In 1951, Charlie and two other boys escaped and headed for California living entirely by burglary and auto theft. They got as far as Utah when they were caught. This time he was sent to the National Training School for Boys in Washington , D.C. While he was there they gave him various tests which established that his IQ was 109, that he was illiterate and that his aptitude for everything but music was average.
His keepers said this about him: "Manson has become somewhat of an 'institution politician.' He does just enough work to get by on. Restless and moody most of the time, the boy would rather spend his class time entertaining his friend. It appears that this boy is a very emotionally upset youth who is definitely in need of some psychiatric orientation."
That same year, Dr. Block, a psychiatrist examined him, noting "the marked degree of rejection, instability and psychic trauma." His illegitimacy, small physical size and lack of parental love caused him to constantly strive for status with the other boys. "This could add up to a fairly slick institutionalized youth," Dr. Block concluded, "but one is left with the feeling that behind all this lies an extremely sensitive boy who has not yet given up in terms of securing some kind of love and affection from the world."
For a short time, things started to look up for Charlie. His aunt had agreed to take care of him and his chances for parole were good. Shortly before the parole hearing, Charlie held a razor blade against another boy's throat while he sodomized him. Charlie was transferred to the Federal Reformatory at Petersburg , Virginia , where he was characterized as definitely homosexual, dangerous and safe only under supervision.
In September of 1952, he was sent to a more secure institution in Chillicothe , Ohio . His keepers there saw him as "criminally sophisticated despite his age and grossly unsuited for retention in an open reformatory type institution." For some reason, Manson suddenly changed his attitude. He was more cooperative and genuinely improved educationally so that he was able to read and understand basic math. This improvement lead to his parole in May of 1954 at the age of nineteen.
At first he lived with his aunt and uncle, then his mother for a short period of time. Early in 1955, he married a waitress who bore him a son, Charles Manson, Jr. Charlie worked at various low-paying jobs and augmented his income by stealing cars. One of them he took to Los Angeles with his then pregnant wife. Inevitably, he was caught again and eventually found his way to the prison at Terminal Island in San Pedro , California .
Charles Manson - The Manipulator
His wife had the good sense to divorce him after he spent three years in jail. In 1958, he was released on parole. This time Manson took up a new occupation - pimping. He supplemented this income by getting money from an unattractive wealthy girl in Pasadena . In 1959, Manson was arrested on two federal charges: stealing a check from a mailbox and attempting to cash a U.S. Treasury check for $37.50
This time Manson was lucky, a young woman pretended she was pregnant and pleaded with the judge to keep him out of jail. The judge believed the story and had pity on him. While he sentenced Charlie to ten years, he then immediately placed him on probation. A couple of months later, he was arrested by the LAPD for stealing cars and using stolen credit cards, but the charges were dropped for lack of evidence.
Near the end of 1959, Manson conned a young woman out of $700 in savings to invest in his nonexistent company. To make matters worse, he got her pregnant and then drugged and raped her roommate. He fled to Texas but was arrested and put in prison to serve out his ten-year sentence. "If there ever was a man who demonstrated himself completely unfit for probation, he is it," the judge said. Eventually at the age of 26 he was sent to the U.S. Penitentiary at McNeil Island , Washington .
His record there described Charlie as having "a tremendous drive to call attention to himself. Generally he is unable to succeed in positive acts, therefore he often resorts to negative behavior to satisfy this drive. In his efforts to "find" himself, Manson peruses different religious philosophies, e.g. Scientology and Buddhism; however, he never remains long enough with any given teachings to reap meaningful benefits."
By 1964, he hadn't changed much, as least as viewed by prison officials: "His past pattern of employment instability continues...seems to have an intense need to call attention to himself...remains emotionally insecure and tends to involve himself in various fanatical interests."
Whatever those "fanatical" interests were, they included an obsession with the Beatles. Manson's guitar was another obsession. He felt that with the right opportunities he would be much bigger than the Beatles. In prison, he became friends with the aging gangster, Alvin Karpis. The former Public Enemy Number One and sole survivor of the Ma Barker gang taught Charlie how to play the steel guitar. The prison record noted in May of 1966 that "he has been spending most of his free time writing songs, accumulating about 80 or 90 of them during the past year...He also plays the guitar and drums, and is hopeful that he can secure employment as a guitar player or as a drummer or singer."
Karpis had some interesting insights into Charlie's true personality: "There was something unmistakably unusual about Manson. He was a runt of sorts, but found his place as an experienced manipulator of others. I did feel manipulated, and under circumstances where it hadn't been necessary."
On March 21, 1967, Charlie was released from prison and given transportation to San Francisco . He was 32 years old and more than half of his life had been spent in institutions. He protested his freedom. "Oh, no, I can't go outside there...I knew that I couldn't adjust to that world, not after all my life had been spent locked up and where my mind was free. I was content to stay in the penitentiary, just to take my walks around the yard in the sunshine and to play my guitar..." The prison officials ignored his protest and unleashed him on the world again.
Charlie's Followers "The Manson Family"
As poorly prepared for life on the outside as he was, Charlie was able to blend in with his guitar into the hippie scene in San Francisco . The high-point of the Haight Ashbury culture was past and the only ones left were the diehards and the last ones to the party. Charlie was never impressed by the hippie culture, but he lived off it and it didn't expect much from him. He learned about drugs and how he could use them to influence people.
Charlie started to attract a group of followers, many of whom were very young women with troubled emotional lives who were rebelling against their parents and society in general. He battered down their inhibitions and questioned the validity of their notions of good and evil. For the most part, Charlie's followers were weak-willed people who were naïve, gullible and easy to lead. LSD and amphetamines were additional tools by which Charlie altered their personalities to his needs.
In spring of 1968, Manson and his followers left San Francisco in an old school bus and traveled around. Eventually, he and a few of his group moved in with Gary Hinman, a music teacher with a house on the Canyon Road . Through Hinman, Charlie met Dennis Wilson of the Beach Boys. Manson and his girls starting hanging around Wilson every chance they had. Manson tried to leverage the acquaintance with Dennis Wilson but it didn't go anywhere. Eventually, Wilson became uncomfortable with Manson and his girls and told them to split.
About that time, Manson found George Spahn and conned the old man into letting him and his followers live on the Ranch. Squeaky Fromme, one of Charlie's devotees, made sure that the elderly man's sexual needs were fully satisfied. The Manson Family survived by a combination of stealing and scavenging. Much of their food was taken from what the supermarkets discard each day.
Charlie was still hell-bent to market his music to somebody. Through his contacts with Dennis Wilson and another man in the music business, Charlie met Doris Day's son Terry Melcher. The plan was to interest Melcher in financing a film with Manson's music.
At that time, Melcher owned the house on Cielo Drive that was eventually leased to Roman Polanski and Sharon Tate. At various times, Manson had been by the property in a car with Dennis Wilson.
Melcher was asked to listen to Charlie and decide whether or not he wanted to record them. Melcher went out the first time and listened to Charlie sing his own compositions and play the guitar. Some of the girls sang and played tambourines. Melcher went out a second time a week later, but the music was nothing he was interested in recording. What he didn't realize is that Manson had built this recording opportunity with Melcher into something very real in his mind. When nothing came of it, Charlie was plenty angry and blamed Melcher for his disappointment.
Helter Skelter
Another facet of Charlie, although not nearly as important to him as his music, was his philosophy. To a large extent, this "philosophy" was a con, something he dreamed up to impress his followers, but he probably believed some of it.
The core of this philosophy was a kind of Armageddon. Charlie preached that the black man was going to rise up and start killing the whites and turn the cities in to an inferno of racial revenge. The black man would win this war, but wouldn't be able to hang onto the power he seized because of innate inferiority.
In 1968, Charlie was forecasting racial war when all of a sudden the Beatles released their White Album, which had the song "Helter Skelter." The lyrics fit Charlie's theory to a tee: "Look out helter skelter helter skelter helter skelter/She's coming down fast/ Yes she is/Yes she is." Now, the racial Armageddon had a name. It was Helter Skelter.
Helter Skelter would begin, according to one of Charlie's devotees, "with the black man going into white people's homes and ripping off the white people, physically destroying them. A couple of spades from Watts would come up into the Bel Air and Beverly Hills district...and just really wipe some people out, just cutting bodies up and smearing blood and writing things on the wall in blood...all kinds of super-atrocious crimes that would really make the white man mad...until there was open revolution in the streets, until they finally won and took over. Then the black man would assume the white man's karma. He would then be the establishment..."
Charlie and the Family would survive this racial holocaust because they would be hiding in the desert safe from the turmoil of the cities. He pulled from the Book of Revelations, the concept of a "bottomless pit," the entrance of which, according to Charlie, was a cave underneath Death Valley that led down to a city of gold. This paradise was where Charlie and his Family were going to wait out this war. Afterwards, when the black man failed at keeping power, Charlie's Family, which they estimated would have multiplied to 144,000 by that time, would then take over from the black man and rule the cities.
"It will be our world then," Charlie told his followers. "There would be no one else, except for us and the black servants. He, Charles Willis Manson, the fifth angel, Jesus Christ, would then rule the world. The other four angels were the Beatles.
How did this hokey philosophy result in the blood bath at the Tate and LaBianca houses? Well, Charlie the Prophet had already forecast that the murders would start in the summer of 1969, but as the summer went on, it looked as though the "prophet" was wrong. "The only thing blackie knows is what whitey has told him," he said to one of his followers just before the murders. "I'm going to have to show him how to do it."
After the LaBianca murder, one of Manson's girls, Linda Kasabian, was told to take Rosemary LaBianca's wallet and credit cards and leave them in the ladies room of a gas station in an area heavily populated by blacks. That way, when, theoretically, the credit cards would be used by some black woman, it would appear that blacks were responsible for the LaBianca deaths. However, the credit cards were never used or turned in to the authorities.
The Prosecution of Charles Manson
On November 18, 1969, 35-year-old Deputy District Attorney Vincent T. Bugliosi was assigned the Tate-LaBianca murder cases. Aaron Stovitz, head of the Trials Division of the District Attorney's Office, was assigned as a co-prosecutor, but was later pulled off for another case.
Bugliosi had an unbelievably difficult job ahead of him. Not only did he need to prove that members of the Manson Family were responsible for the Tate and LaBianca murders, but he had to prove the Charles Manson ordered them to do it. While Manson had sent four Family members to the Cielo Drive massacre, he did not go himself. He did, however, tie up Rosemary and Leno LaBianca and gave three others instructions to kill them.
The prosecutor had to establish Charlie's dominance over the members of his Family and convince a jury that Charlie had sufficient motive to want these seven people dead.
At the beginning, he didn't have much of a case. There was Susan Atkins' story as related to Virginia Graham and the stories that Al Springer and Danny DeCarlo told the police, along with some comments from other people interviewed about Manson and his followers. It wasn't until December 3 that Bugliosi knew for certain who of Manson's Family had actually been involved with the murders. Manson had sent Charles " Tex " Watson, Susan Atkins, Patricia Krenwinkel, and Linda Kasabian to the Tate residence. Accompanying him to the LaBianca home was Watson, Krenwinkel, and Leslie Van Houten. Atkins, Kasabian and Steve "Clem" Grogan waited in the car.
Atkins' testimony was deemed vital to the prosecution, but she was not offered immunity. However, if she cooperated with the prosecution, they would not seek the death penalty against her in any of the three cases: Hinman, Tate and LaBianca. The extent to which she cooperated would affect whether the prosecution would press for first-degree murder, life sentence, etc.
Things started to look up for the prosecution when a fingerprint of Patricia Krenwinkel's was found on a door inside of Sharon Tate's bedroom. This physical evidence was added to the .22 caliber bullets found at the Spahn Ranch (the gun used at the Tate murders was a .22 caliber revolver).
The first order of business for Bugliosi was to get grand jury indictments against Manson and the individuals involved in the murders. When Susan Atkins testified to the grand jury, she gave the same bloodcurdling story to them that she gave to Ronnie Howard and Virginia Graham. She showed absolutely no sign of guilt or remorse for the ghastly things she did. The jurors stared at her in disbelief.
Biker Danny DeCarlo testified that he, Manson, Watson and others had used a .22 caliber Buntline revolver for target practice at the Spahn Ranch.
He also said that the three-strand nylon rope that was used in the Tate murders was identical to the rope used at the ranch.
It only took the grand jury twenty minutes to hand down the indictments Bugliosi sought: Charles Manson, Charles "Tex" Watson, Patricia Krenwinkel, Susan Atkins, and Linda Kasabian, seven counts of murder and one count of conspiracy to commit murder; Leslie van Houten, two counts of murder and one count of conspiracy to commit murder.
Evidence Against Charles Manson
A few days later, the wallet belonging to Rosemary LaBianca was found in the ladies restroom at the service station where Linda Kasabian left it. The wallet had gotten lodged in the toilet tank. This piece of corroborating evidence was necessary to bolster Susan Atkins' story in case she decided to repudiate her testimony when Charlie started to pressure her.
Another critical piece of evidence was finally "found:" the unusual .22 caliber Hi Standard Longhorn revolver with the broken gun grip which had been found by Bernard Weiss' son and turned over to the police three and a half months earlier. Bernard Weiss after reading about the indictments in the newspaper called LAPD Homicide to see if the revolver he had turned in was the murder weapon.
After being passed around to several people, an officer told Weiss "We don't keep guns that long. We throw them in the ocean after a while."
Weiss said, "I can't believe that you'd throw away what could be the single most important piece of evidence in the Tate case."
"Listen, mister," was the official answer. "We can't check out every citizen report on every gun we find."
Weiss called a newscaster, who in turn, called the LAPD. The gun was "found" where it had been "lost" in the Van Nuys police station. After the tests had been run, there was no doubt that it was the murder weapon. One thing remained to be done - linking Manson to that particular revolver. Eventually Randy Starr provided that link. He once owned the revolver and had given it to Manson.
Another important development occurred when the police were contacted by the man who owned the place that the Tate killers had used to clean up right after the murders. The man had remembered the car and the license plate, which was traced to a Spahn Ranch employee, who had let Manson and his girls borrow his car.
Motive for the Manson Family Murders
Even though it was not necessary for the prosecution to establish the motive for the crimes, Bugliosi considered motive an important piece of evidence, especially since Manson was not physically present at the Tate murders. Bugliosi set out to establish that the primary motive was Helter Skelter: Manson's belief that he could start a race war and personally gain from it. But certainly, there was the connection between Manson's anger at Terry Melcher and the crimes committed on his former property. To further bolster that motive, it was established that two different people had chased Manson off the property a few months before the murders.
Rudi Altobelli, the man who bought the Cielo Drive property from Melcher, was an important man in the entertainment industry. He represented stars like Katherine Hepburn and Henry Fonda. Because he traveled so much, he rented out the property to the Polanski's and stayed in the guesthouse when he visited the area.
In March of 1969, Manson went to the house where four of the five murdered people were staying. Charlie said he was looking for Melcher. Sharon 's houseguest sent him away in not too friendly terms, but not before he saw Sharon, who wondered what the "creepy looking guy" wanted.
Then Manson went to the guesthouse and told Rudi Altobelli that the people in the main house told him to ask at the guesthouse. Altobelli admonished Manson for bothering his tenants and told him he didn't know where Terry Melcher had moved.
Manson knew the layout of the house and he knew who was living in it. It was quite possible that the "Helter Skelter" crimes were committed at that particular house because Charlie wanted to pay back the residents for rejecting him and scare the daylights out of Melcher for not backing his recording career.
Manson himself became a major player as he appeared frequently in the courtroom. Bugliosi studied him and described the behavior he witnessed:
Though he had little formal schooling, he was fairly articulate, and definitely bright. He picked up little nuances, seemed to consider all of the hidden sides of a question before answering. His moods were mercurial, his facial expressions chameleon-like. Underneath, however, there was a strange intensity. You felt it even when he was joking, which, despite the seriousness of the charges, was often. He frequently played to the always-packed courtroom, not only to the Family faithful but to the press and spectators as well. Spotting a pretty girl, he'd often smile or wink. Usually they appeared more flattered than offended.
The Trial of Charles Manson
The trial officially began in mid-June of 1970. Judge Charles Older presided. He decided that the jury, once selected, would be locked up until the end of the trial - "to protect them from harassment and to prevent their being exposed to trial publicity." Older was given a bodyguard and his home was provided with protection.
The twelve jurors selected were five women and seven men with a range of ages spanning from 25 to 73. While many occupations were represented, one was a retired deputy sheriff.
In his opening statement, Bugliosi characterized Manson as "vagrant wanderer, a frustrated singer-guitarist...who would refer to himself as Jesus Christ...and was a killer who cleverly masqueraded behind the common image of a hippie that of being peace loving...but was a megalomaniac who coupled his insatiable thirst for power with an intense obsession for violent death."
Bugliosi stressed that Manson commanded his followers to commit the murders, but that "the evidence will show that they were very willing participants in these mass murders..."
Manson, who first appeared to the jury with a bloody X that he had carved into his forehead, insisted on defending himself. He was assisted by an older lawyer named Irving Kanarek, who was legendary for his attention to detail (much to the frustration of witnesses, judges and juries) and Ronald Hughes, "the hippie lawyer" who was Leslie Van Houten's attorney.
Critical to Manson's defense was maintaining control of the Family. If his followers testified against him, he was doomed. He had to set up and maintain an effective communications network between himself and the other Family members, particularly those under indictment. He needed the Family members who were not in jail to communicate his wishes to those who were.
Just how sinister this communication would be was evidenced by what happened to Barbara Hoyt. Hoyt was one of the prosecution's witnesses, who was threatened that if she testified at the trial, she and her family would be killed. She was then lured to Honolulu by one of Manson's girls and given a lethal dose of LSD. Fortunately, she got to the hospital in time for doctors to save her.
Manson was able to exert a lot of control over his girls in the courtroom. By then Susan Atkins had repudiated her testimony to the grand jury. They came up with bizarre stories that would implicate themselves but spare their beloved Charlie.
As the evidence was presented, things were looking bad for Charlie and the girls. A pattern was developing, according to Bugliosi: "The more damaging the testimony, the more chance that Manson would create a disturbance, thereby assuring that he - and not the evidence itself - would get the day's headlines. Often these disturbances would result in Judge Older removing them from the courtroom.
The drama hit a high point when Manson got into an argument with Judge Older and jumped towards the judge, yelling, "someone should cut your head off!" Atkins, Krenwinkel and Van Houten stood up and started chanting in Latin.
When Manson and his girls were removed from the court, a shaken Judge Older instructed the jury to disregard what they heard and saw, but the effect was indelible. The jury got a first hand chance to see the real Charles Manson.
After 22 weeks of trial, the Prosecution rested. It was time for the defense attorneys to do their part. Judge Older told the lawyers that were assisting Manson and defending the girls to call their first witness. The defense responded: "Thank you, Your Honor. The defendants rest."
The court was stunned. Then the three girls shouted that they wanted to testify. The judge and everyone else was bewildered. The girls had decided that they would testify that they planned and committed the murders themselves and that Charlie had nothing to do with it.
Ronald Hughes, Leslie Van Houten's "hippie lawyer" objected and stood up against Manson's transparent ploy: "I refuse to take part in any proceeding where I am forced to push a client out the window." A few days later, Ronald Hughes had disappeared. After the trial was over, his body was found wedged between two boulders in Ventura County . One of Manson's followers later admitted that the Manson Family had murdered him.
A new lawyer had to be found immediately to take over the defense. Maxwell Keith was appointed. When the court reconvened, Manson and the girls created a disturbance suggesting that Judge Older "did away with Ronald Hughes," which resulted in them being removed again from the courtroom.
For the most part, the lawyers for the defense put forth a disappointing presentation. Paul Fitzgerald, Patricia Krenwinkel's attorney, spent more time defending Manson than his client. Daye Shinn, Susan Atkins' lawyer made a brief defense for his client. Irving Kanarek went on for days in his rambling style. Finally, Judge Older accused him of filibustering. Manson, apparently also tired of Kanarek's exhausting argument, shouted at him: "Why don't you sit down? You're just making things worse."
Judgment Day
On January 15, 1971, seven months after the start of the trial, the jury began to deliberate. Nine days later, it came to a verdict. Security was very tight around the Hall of Justice since a Manson follower had stolen a case of hand grenades from a Marine Base and reportedly had planned a special event on what they were calling "Judgment Day."
The jury had found Charles Manson, Patricia Krenwinkel, Susan Atkins and Leslie Van Houten each guilty of murder and conspiracy to commit murder.
Charles " Tex " Watson, because of extradition proceedings and other legal complications did not stand trial until later in the year and was also found guilty of murder and conspiracy to commit murder.
On March 29, 1971, the jury completed deliberations on the penalty phase of the trial. Manson and the three female defendants had shaved their heads for the reading of their verdicts.
"We, the jury in the above-entitled action, having found the defendant Charles Manson guilty of murder in the first degree...do now fix the penalty as death."
Patricia Krenwinkel responded: "You have just judged yourselves."
"Better lock your doors and watch your own kids," Susan Atkins said.
All four defendants received the death penalty.
On April 19, 1971, Superior Court Judge Charles H. Older pronounced the judgment: "It is my considered judgment that not only is the death penalty appropriate, but it is almost compelled by the circumstances. I must agree with the prosecutor that if this is not a proper case for the death penalty, what should be?"
The judge shook the hands of each juror. "If it were within the power of a trial judge to award a medal of honor to jurors, believe me, I would bestow an award on each of you."
At a later date, Robert Beausoleil, Charles Manson, Charles Watson, Bruce Davis and Steve Grogan were tried and convicted for the murders of Gary Hinman and Donald (Shorty) Shea.
Bugliosi wrote," it had been the longest murder trial in American history, lasting nine and a half months; the most expensive, costing approximately $1 million; and the most highly publicized; while the jury had been sequestered 225 days, longer than any jury before it. The trial transcript alone ran to 209 volumes, 31,716 pages, approximately eight million words."
In 1972, the California Supreme Court abolished the death penalty in the state and all of the defendants are serving life sentences.
After the Charles Manson Trial
Right after the trial, there were a number of articles written that were favorable to Manson and his followers. For a while, it appeared that he might become some sort of cult hero. That never really materialized, however, and there is very little left of the Manson Family today. However, Manson still receives a large amount of mail, much of it from young people who want to join the Family.
There have been several plays about him, movies and documentaries and even an opera. Charlie's music has been played by the Guns N'Roses rock band.
Why, when other murderers that were responsible for many more deaths than Manson are forgotten by most people, does Manson remain so notorious?
Perhaps because the people they murdered and the ones they planned to murder were celebrities. Also, perhaps because of Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme's failed attempt to assassinate President Gerald Ford in 1975, even though it is unlikely that Manson put her up to it.
Bugliosi believes the notoriety continues because it is the most bizarre and strange, almost unbelievable, murder case in history. He thinks that Manson has become a "metaphor" for evil, catapulting him to near mythological proportions...People worry about this man the way they worry about cancer and earthquakes."
Manson endures, even as a sixty-year old, comparatively passive prisoner, unlikely to ever be paroled. Bugliosi sums up the continued fascination with the more fanatical elements of society: "Today, almost every disaffected and morally twisted group in America , from Satanists to neo-Nazi skinheads, has embraced Manson and the poisons of his virulent philosophy. He has become their spiritual icon, the high priest of anti-establishment hatred."
Charles Manson in Prison
Self-styled guru and one time leader of the Manson family, he is serving a life sentence for murder after his original death penalty was commuted. He is currently being held in California 's Corcoran State Prison. Although Manson, who turns 67 in November 2001, has been in prison for the last 33 years, his notoriety has not diminished as he has the dubious distinction of having received more mail than any other prisoner in the United States prison system.
According to a report on the Access Manson website, one of the many such sites dedicated to the subject, Charles Manson is currently under "disciplinary custody" in the prison's Security Housing Unit, known as "The Hole." He has been housed in the unit since February 2000 after he allegedly threatened prison staff. Being housed in the Security Housing Unit means Manson is kept isolated in his cell 23 hours a day, forbidden to interact with other prisoners and kept handcuffed while being moved within the prison.
According to a recent letter Manson sent to the website, he is due to be released from the unit in February 2002.
Manson is no stranger to the harsh conditions of the Security Housing Unit having spent eight stretches there for various offenses. The first was in 1989 when he was transferred to Corcoran from San Quentin State Prison after guards found a bullet in one of his visitor's pockets during a routine search.
During that time his period of detention was extended for "destruction of state property" when he allegedly tore a telephone receiver from the wall unit and "assaulted" a prison officer. The period was later extended to five years after he was accused of plotting to assassinate the President of the United States .
Following his release in May, 1994 he was transferred to the prison's Protective Housing Unit (PHU) and was allowed contact with other inmates and restricted privileges.
Three months later he was returned to "The Hole" pending an investigation of another alleged plot to assassinate the President. No charges were laid and he was released after three weeks.
Manson managed to stay out of trouble until March 1995 when he was charged with narcotics possession. Once again his period of detention was extended for allegedly threatening staff. In June 1995 he returned to the PHU for over a year until he was given a further two weeks detention for threatening a prison staff member with a chair.
In March 1997 he was charged with "conspiracy to distribute narcotics" and transferred to Pelican Bay State Prison in Crescent City , California , one of the toughest institutions in the country. During this period the media reported that Manson was the kingpin of a multi-million dollar drug distribution empire. After serving 14 months he was transferred back to PHU at Corcoran.
Also in 1997, Manson's parole hearing was videotaped and broadcast by Court TV . It was his ninth hearing. As before, parole was refused on the grounds that Manson "would pose an unreasonable risk and danger to society and a threat to public safety if released from prison."
In response, Manson stated:
"I accept this decision. That's cool. What I'd like for you to do in your own minds personally, everybody that has a personal mind of their own, could possibly consider that the longer that you let this conviction stand, and this little Helter Skelter scheme of the District Attorney to give his particular reality over into the play, that's going to be the reality that they're perpetuating. That's not the reality that I'm perpetuating. I'm not saying that I wasn't involved. I'm saying that I did not break man's law nor did I break God's law. Consider that in the judgments that you have for yourselves. Good day. Thank you."
Seven months later he was back in "The Hole" once again, charged with further "illegal business dealings" and served another two months.
During the following eight months in PHU, he was placed on "restricted status" for refusing to conform to prison regulations and had his visits and phone calls restricted.
As of August 2002, Manson continues to shuttle back and forth between "The Hole" and the PHU.
Manson's most recent and tenth parole hearing was April 24, 2002. He refused to attend it - allegedly because he insisted upon not attending the hearing shackled and the prison would not allow him to attend without handcuffs. No one was surprised when the board refused to grant him parole. The next hearing will be in 2007.
Leslie Van Houten
Leslie Van Houten is currently a prisoner at the California Institution for Women, Frontera.
According to CNN, on June 28, 2002, Van Houten, 52, was denied parole. It was her fourteenth application.
One central issue is that prosecutors claimed that she stabbed Rosemary LaBianca 14-16 times, whereas Van Houten maintains that Rosemary was already dead when the stabbing occurred. Rosemary LaBianca was stabbed 42 times. According to Court TV's John Springer, "after the murders, Van Houten wiped the house clean of fingerprints and changed into a pair of Rosemary LaBianca's shorts. She grabbed cheese and chocolate milk from the couple's refrigerator before the trio hitchhiked back to the ranch where the Manson family lived."
Van Houten told the board, "My heart aches and there seems to be no way to convey the amount of pain I caused. I don't know what else to say."
The parole board suggested that Van Houten needed more therapy "to further understand the enormity of her crime." However, Van Houten's psychiatric evaluations "clearly indicate that she is not a present danger to society and should be found suitable for parole."
Linda Deutsch of Associated Press writes, "Of all the members of Charles Manson's murderous "family," Leslie Van Houten was always seen as the different one - the youngest, the one most vulnerable to Manson's diabolical control."
According to CNN, this latest hearing was supposed to be Van Houten's best chance for winning release because Superior Court Judge Bob Krug said that Van Houten, "has proven to be a model prisoner in the 30 years since her incarceration, completing all available prison programs and assisting other inmates with these programs...She has earned two college degrees and has maintained a clean disciplinary record in prison...she is serving a life sentence without parole, a sentence unauthorized by law."
Deputy District Attorney Stephen Kay was present at the hearing to argue against parole for Van Houten: "This is not a garden-variety murder case and it should not be treated as such. I commend her for her good acts in prison and she appears to be a model prisoner. I think she should spend the rest of her life being a model prisoner. I feel because of what she did, she is not entitled to parole."
Judge Krug stated that it was the despicable nature of the crime that is preventing Van Houten from winning parole and gave the board two months to show evidence of why she should not be paroled and what exactly she must do to win parole.
Angela Smaldino and Louis Smaldino, relatives of the LaBiancas, were present at the hearing to voice their opposition to granting Van Houten parole. Also, some 30 letters were received by the parole board urging that parole be denied.
Christie Webb, Van Houten's lawyer, highlighted the fact that Van Houten was under heavy influence of drugs when the LaBianca murders occurred. "All that LSD changed the chemistry of her brain...I certainly have sympathies for the victims' families. But Leslie and her family are also among Charles Manson's victims. We are talking about one horrible night of violence in her life when she was clearly not in her right mind."
Where Are They Now?
Charles " Tex " Watson
Is also serving a life sentence for the Tate/LaBianca murders, and is currently housed in Mule Creek State Prison in Northern California . During his time in prison, Watson has converted to Christianity, written several books, married, fathered four children and trained as a minister of religion. His wife, Kristin and their family live close to the prison where she operates a Web site for their ministry called Abounding Love Ministries, Inc .
On October 10, 2001, Watson was turned down again for parole at his thirteenth parole hearing and was told not to apply for another four years.
The Associated Press stated, "Watson made a personal appeal to the two-member panel of the California Board of Prison Terms, saying he takes full responsibility for his crimes and is now a different person who would never do such things again." However, a prison correctional counselor said that "Watson still poses an unpredictable threat to the community should he be released."
Debra Tate, the sister of the brutally murdered Sharon Tate Polanski, tearfully urged the board to deny Watson's request.
Susan "Sadie" Atkins is serving her life sentence at California Institution for Women at Frontera. During her time in prison Atkins has married twice. She was denied parole at her last hearing in February 2000. It was the tenth time she had applied.
During the hearing, Atkins told the parole board,
"I don't have to just make amends to the victims and families, I have to make amends to society. I sinned against God and everything this country stands for."
Sharon Tate's sister Debra also attended the hearing and read from a letter written by her father, Paul:
"Thirty one years ago I sat in a courtroom with a jury and watched with others. I saw a young woman who giggled, snickered and shouted out insults, even while testifying about my daughter's last breath, she laughed. My family was ripped apart. If Susan Atkins is released to rejoin her family, where is the justice?"
Atkins will not be eligible for parole for at least four more years.
Patricia "Katie" Krenwinkel i s also serving life in prison at California Institution for Women at Frontera. She did not appear at her last parole hearing in 1997. Her next hearing is scheduled for 2002.
Linda Kasabian
Was granted immunity for giving evidence against Manson and other family members. Following the trial she left California . Her present whereabouts are unknown but she is alleged to have committed other criminal offences and served time in prison.
Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme
Was convicted of attempting to assassinate President Gerald L. Ford in 1975 and sentenced to life in prison. She is currently housed in the Administrative Unit of the Federal Medical Facility at Carswell , Texas . Originally housed in a prison in San Diego , she was later transferred to the Federal Correctional Institution in Pleasanton , California . Since that time she has served time in the Federal Correctional Institution in Alderson , West Virginia , a maximum security prison in Lexington , Kentucky and a maximum security unit at Marianna , Florida .
Sandra Good
Was convicted of "issuing threatening communications through interstate commerce" in 1975 and served ten years at the Federal Correctional Institute, Terminal Island , California . She was later transferred to the Federal Correctional Institute in Pleasanton and later to a prison in Alderson. Following her release, she moved to an area close to Corcoran prison, where Manson is held, and tends his website.
Steve "Clem" Grogan
Convicted and jailed for his part in the murder of Spahn ranch hand, Donald "Shorty" Shea, although Shea's body was never found. In 1979, Grogan agreed to tell authorities the location of the body in exchange for parole. Shea's remains were found and Grogan was paroled in 1986. His present whereabouts are unknown.
Bruce Davis
Is serving a life sentence in the California Men's Colony, San Luis Obispo , for the murders of Gary Hinman and Donald Shea. He attended his twentieth parole hearing in July of 2000. Parole was again refused.
Bobby Beausoleil
Convicted in 1969 for his part in the murder of Gary Hinman, he remains in prison despite numerous appeals and bail applications. He married in 1982 and is currently serving out his time in Oregon after being transferred there in 1993 at his own request.
He has spent his 30-plus years in prison focused on electronic music and video production. He has also cultivated a number of sponsors, which has resulted in the creation of a video production and audio recording studio in the prison. He is now the director of the Los Hermanos video project and has made 9 videos for "at risk" children. He has also made videos that help prisoners develop cognitive skills that will hopefully reduce recidivism.
The Crime Scene
According to an August 1999 Reuters news service report the house at 10050 Cielo Drive, rented by Roman Polanski and Sharon Tate at the time of the murders, was demolished in 1994. An Italian- style mansion has been erected in its place and the street address has been changed. The new mansion was originally priced at $12.5 million in an attempt to cash in on the locations notoriety but no sale was made. Recently, the price was reduced to $7.7 million but the house still remains vacant.
Real estate agents in the area believe that it will probably stay vacant as most agencies refuse to list it.
Spahn Ranch
The original headquarters of the Manson family is also on the market. The 43-acre property at Chatsworth, minus the ranch house, which burnt down some time ago, is selling for $2.7 million.
Transcript of the Tom Snyder Interview with Manson
Tom: Tell me about life here in prison, do you read newspapers? Do you listen to the radio? Do you watch television? Do you communicate with people on the outside? What goes on for Charles Manson in this prison?
Manson: Well, I can feel the grass growin' out there on the lawn and there's a few trees that's got some leaves on that I can feel. And I've been in jail all my life so I'm actually right here at home, uh how long have I been in jail? 34 years? 34 years so um..
Tom: Out of 47 you've been here 34.
Manson: I've been in jail, uh prison, uh a long time. All my life. I was raised up in here, so I understand jail so I understand myself so I can deal with that. I sit in my cell and do my number like a convict does his number.
Tom : You like jail don't you?
Manson: I uh, don't dislike or like.
Tom: Let's go back to 1967, the time you were winding up serving a term of a number of years, ten years, and written accounts indicate that you told the authorities "Don't let me out, I can't cope with the outside world." Do you have a recollection of that? And do you.
Manson: You're making a desperate plea out of something, man. There's no desperate plea out of it. I said I can't handle the maniacs outside, let me back in.
Tom: I didn't use the word desperate, that's your word Charles.
Manson: Yeah, well, your inflection and your voice tones were, uh, implications there .
Tom: Well, uh, You use the word maniacs on the outside. How are you different from the maniacs on the outside, and why do you call them maniacs? Because you know something? They think you're one.
Manson: Yeah, it would reflect. If you hold a negative up to the light, you don't see the light you just see the negative. So I'm a reflection of your negative, there's no doubt about that and I can handle that also. I been handling ain't I?.
Tom: I don't know have you?
Manson: Well, I've been up and down in these damn hallways, in and out of these nut wards for the last ten years. You think you can follow that act?
Tom: Don't want to follow that act, I don't want to get in, why do you want to get into that?
Manson: What crowd you playing for?
Tom: Huh?
Manson: I'm playing for my life. (chuckles) You're working for money.
Tom: What does that mean, you're playing for your life?
Manson: I'm working for my life mister. I'm not playing for money, I'm playing for keeps.
Tom: What do you mean you're working for your life?
Manson: I'm playing for real.
Tom: What does that mean, you're playing for real. How are you playing for your life?
Manson: Well That's something you can't buy.
Tom: When you say you're playing for your life am I to assume to you think that someday you're going to get out of here?
Manson: (chuckles) Get out of here? Hmmm.get out of here? Where would I go now see .
Tom: What would you do if you got out of here?
Manson: If I got out of here.
Tom: What if they said, they said to you tomorrow morning "Charles, hey listen, you're free" You could go where ever you wanna go, do whatever you wanna do. What would you do?
Manson: I'd probably go out front in the grass and sit down.
Tom: For how long?
Manson: For, uh, right now. How long? I wouldn't, I could put a track record on it or I could, um, put a computer on it.
Tom: Come on down, no no come on down. Get off computers and get off tracks. If you got out of here, there are a lot of people who think you'd go start killing people again.
Manson: Again? (chuckles) Well you guys are misinformed. I haven't killed anyone.
Tom: What about, uh, what about Shea?
(Note from CharlieManson.com: According to Bruce Davis' 1993 parole hearing statement, Shea was murdered by Charles Manson, Charles Watson, Steve Grogan, Bruce Davis, Bill Vance and Larry Bailey.)
Manson: What about him?
Tom: Well, what about him?
Manson: He got killed.
Tom: Well, the word is you killed him.
Manson: Who?
Tom: Word is you stabbed him.
Manson: Oh, Word.
Tom: What does it feel to kill someone Charles?
Manson: Word.word is that you're an old woman. Word is you have turkey in sky. Word is.I don't know what word is. Someone else tell you that, I didn't tell you that.
Tom: Did you kill Shea?
Manson: Hell no.
Tom: Did you cut, uh, Hinman's ear off?
Manson: Hell ..yes. Yeah.
Tom : Why'd you, How'd that feel when you cut his ear off?
Manson: Uh, I felt bad about it. .
Tom: The truth's fun now, isn't the truth fun now when you... ok ok ok, you cut his ear off what did it feel like..
Manson: Yeah Yeah sure, sure. Is the truth fun? (chuckles) My Goodness.
Tom: What did it feel like when you cut his ear off?
Manson: Huh?
Tom: Tell me about it, come on.
Manson: What did it feel like?
Tom: Yeah
Manson: Well I had done what he said for about 20 years. I done everything he told me to do. And I got to thinking now, why don't this guy do something I tell him to do? And he said uh, "no". And I said "well how comes I'm always doing what you tell me to do but then you never do what I say to?" And he said 'Well blah blah blah" So I said "now you do what I say". And he said "no." I said "you do exactly what I say!" And he said "no." "I'm telling you! I'm not asking you! I'm telling you! You do exactly what I say!" He said 'Wow, where'd you get that ?" I said "I got it from my father in prison. He gave it to me. I had a little charm bracelet I used to carry it on when I was about that big."
Tom: Mmmhmmm. Skip that for a second.
Manson: Yeah
Tom: Why was it so important for him to do what you say? Why do you like having people to do what you want them to do?
Manson: Because..
Tom: Why do you like to control them Charles?
Manson: Because. Wait a minute, no, no I was asked. The dude asked he says "are you my brother" I said "yeah I'm your brother", he said "how much are you my brother?" I said "completely". See if I'm gonna explain it to you, it's not gonna be that easy. So you're gonna have to bare with me. So Bobby said, he was a young dude, he said "I'm your brother" so I said "ok"
Tom: Bobby?
Manson: I'm your brother. Beausoleil, Beausoleil. I just got out of prison.
Tom: Wait wait, wait, wait, wait
Manson :Yeah
Tom: Let me interrupt you for a second.
Manson: Yeah, well then we're gone with that thought.
Tom: No, no, no, no no because you're getting on to something.
Manson: Then we'll go onto another one and you'll make me look crazy.
Tom: No, no, no. You can make yourself look crazy, Charles, I can't make you look crazy and please believe me.
Manson: Alright, I'll believe you..
Tom: Let me...
Manson: and I'll put it in my left hand pocket for later.
Tom: Let me, let me take you back to you wanting this man Hinman...
Manson: I cut the dude's ear off because he was fucking over Bobby. And Bobby was a youngster and really didn't know what the hell he was doing, and he was a kid and he never had no man show him nothing, see, so I was telling the boy, I said, uh, uh , the guy says "You got my money?", I said "go over there and get your money or leave him alone."
Tom: You're taking me to another story.
Manson: No I'm trying to tell you the same thing. And we'll be here for a thousand years unless you let me finish.
Tom: No, no, no, no we won't be here that long at all if you just speak to this one point.
Manson: Ok, I made the point. Why I cut the dude's ear off, man, that's the point.
Tom: I, I didn't ask you that, I said why was it important to you to make Hinman do what you wanted him to do. If one follows your story.
Manson: Because the dude had a gun.
Tom: Ok, and if one follows your story
Manson: Yeah
Tom: through the times at the ranch
Manson: Yeah
Tom: in southern California, it was important to Charles Manson to be a leader,
Manson: No
Tom: to have people follow him.
Manson: Come on district attorney! See you're full of brainwarsh. That's the district attorney. I'm nobody's fucking leader and I'm nobody's follower. I got a parole officer. I got a sleeping bag and a guitar and I'm standing at old blind man's ranch and that's about the extent of it. All this occult and that hocus pocus stuff that you guys are playing, I don't nothing about all that.
Tom: You know nothing about something called Helter Skelter? You know nothing about it?
Manson: Yeah I know about Helter Skelter! It was a song that some people sang!
Tom: And that's all it was?
Manson: and some other kids picked it up in their minds. And they said "What do you think Helter Skelter is" and I say "Well I get out of the penitentiary in the 50's and everybody's going (claps) "dun..dun..dun" (claps) and they're walking like that. I get locked back up, and I get out of the penitentiary in 65 and it's going (claps faster) "dun..dun..dun..dun" And locked up again I come out in 69 and it's going (claps very fast) "dundundundundundundun" and I was thinking "Wow man, wow far out"
Tom: Wow what? Wow what? Come on keep going, Charles, keep going.
Manson: I was a beatnik, I was a beatnik in the 50's before the hippies came along. You know, and I cut a rut down through Acapulco, and I smoked Acapulco before you knew what it was, and I lived in the tombs and I was in the Cook County jail in Chicago when you were playing cricket in, uh, high school. See, like you live in another world. I live in street peoples world.
Tom: Manson had a plot, "Helter Skelter."
Manson: Yeah.
Tom: Manson had uh a little scheme called creepy crawlers. He'd send people in to move furniture around. Is that all a figment of someone's imagination so far or is there any truth to that? Tell me Charles, I don't know.
Manson: It's a fairy tale. It's worse than a fairy tale.
Tom: It's a fairy tale?
Manson: It's, uh, it's, it's a comedy. It's a comedy tragedy, uh, opera that (chuckles) was played in the, uh, early morning.
Tom: Come on Charles off..
Manson: It was sickening. You know?
Tom: Get off the space shuttle.
Manson: Well that's what the D.A. gave you as reality.
Tom: Ok.
Manson: He stood in the courtroom and said "this man did this and this man did that", and you all believed him. He said "this man did that" and I said "Your honor may I speak?" and he said "No you can't speak" and I said "your honor I got a voice, let me talk" then he said "No sit down and shut up" and then he handcuffed me and took me to the back and whipped my (inaudible) what are you gonna do? I come out and sit down, I ain't gonna get whipped again.
Tom: Didn't you, uh, stand up in that courtroom
Manson: Sure
Tom: and by the way, by the way , let me just go back.
Manson: and I felt the reproductions of it in the back of it.
Tom: Ok ok, but you say the whole thing is a fairy tail. You say the whole thing is make-believe.
Manson: Yeah, that's his Helter Skelter, it wasn't mine.
Tom: Uh huh, uh huh. The body of Sharon Tate is make believe isn't it?
Manson: Uh that's make believe..
Tom: Make believe..
Manson: That's make believe to the people that went in there and did what they did.
Tom: And who were those people? You know.
Manson: Yeah
Tom: You know, but you know who those people were.
Manson: Sure I know who they were .
Tom: They were with you at the Spahn's Ranch. They were part of this thing
Manson: Yeah
Tom: if not the Manson Family or the Manson Cult, the Manson Ranch, call it what you will.
Manson: So then? What?
Tom: And Tex Watson testified in a court of law that you told him "go to the house that Terry Melcher used to live in and kill those people in the most gruesome way." A man that was once your associate said that of you and now you sit here and say that's not true, that's all make believe?
Manson: You've got a stone wall there, won't you take it down a little bit. Look here, I'll explain something to you.. Um, Tex took the witness stand, and this is record, and he said "I don't know whether I'm Charlie Manson or my mother" Tex didn't have his own mind one way or the other . He was balanced back and forth because I had already took his mind in another game down the road that I was playing with some Hell's Angels that you don't know nothing about and you probably never will know nothing about it. Because you would have to know those people to get in that thought, see. But there's different colors on different peoples backs doing different things. It's a different world. I love the world I live in too just like Reagan loves the world he lives in.
Tom: You love the world you live in?
Manson: (chuckles) Most a surely. It's me.
Tom: You love all the pain that you've caused people?
Manson: OH!
Tom: All the anguish that you've ...
Manson: Oh! I don't know pain! I don't know pain! I have no depth of pain! I have no depth of suffering! I don't know ridicule! I don't know all the bad things! I haven't been punished by you all my life since I was 10 years old! I've been in every reform school you've got across the country. I used to have to lay down and get my ass whipped till I couldn't walk. Tell me about some pain. Yeah.
Tom: And that's our fault, it's all these peoples fault?
Manson: No, no one fault, make strong, good pain, understand pain. Not bad. Pain's not bad, it's good. It teaches you things. It teaches you things. Like when you put your hand in the fire, OW! You know not to do that again. Yeah I understand that.
Tom: But how come you didn't learn
Manson: That's the reason come I never stick my hand in fire .
Tom: But, excuse me! You've been putting your hand in the fire sense you were a little boy.
Manson: I have?
Tom: By, you just told me a couple minutes ago
Manson : I did?
Tom: that out of 47 years you've spent 34 of them behind bars, now if isn't keep putting your hand in the fire, I don't know what is.
Manson: Yeah, yeah, what year was that?
Tom: It's uh, uh, the year's not important.
Manson : Oh.
Tom: What's important is you just say you learn by pain not to experience it again to put your hand in the fire. Why have you been in and out of prisons for the last 34 out your 47 years. Do you call that normal behavior Charles? Is that something you're proud of?
Manson: No, no, no. I never thought I was normal, never tried to be normal. Normal runs in that little rut down there. I don't know nothing about being normal. I've been in jail all my life, man. I lived on the handball court. This guy raised me up. All the men in the joint raised me up, told me what to do, what was right and wrong, told me where to sit down , where to stand up, I just did whatever I was told. You know, and I got to the end of it and I just turned around and said "Wow, far out."
Tom: Alright, now that's....
Manson: Then I went outside and all these little kids got a hold of me and said "We want to stop the Vietnam War and we want to do this." What? there was a war,? I don't know what's happening. I just got out of prison. I never had any vocational, did you ever see me go to any vocational training, rehabilitation? I never played no rehabilitation. I sweep the floor in the kitchen then go play handball. I'm still 10 years old in your world. Your world I'm still a kid, I'm not gonna grow up, I'm not gonna go to college.
Tom: How old are you in your world?
Manson: Um, Forever. Since breakfast... I can't remember.
Tom: I don't know what that means, come on off the space shuttle Charles.
Manson: Yes.off the space shuttle.
Tom: How old are you in your world.
Manson: How old am I? I'm as old as my mother told me (chuckles). How's that?
Tom: Your mother? Tell me about your mother, what did your mother tell you?
Manson: My mother told me that when she worked on death row and they took that dude into hanging and his head popped off and went down them 13 stairs and rolled over by her, it scared the shit out of her. (chuckles) you know, and I said "Wow, that sure is a far out trip Moms". So then when I got up on Death Row in cell 13 for 9 counts of murder 1969, and I looked at, at her fears of that guy's head popping off of that hanging noose, and I said to myself "My goodness, what the hell am I doing here, I didn't want to come here." I didn't break the law. The judge knew that. But the people didn't want to hear it. The Judge knew it. He washed his hands. He said "I know it but what can I do? The people want this."
Tom: The judge never said that.
Manson: Yeah
Tom: The judge never said that.
Manson: that's what Older said.
Tom: No, the judge never said that.
Manson: He got off and shook their hands, didn't he?
Tom: The judge did not say he washed his hands
Manson: He's a Flying Tiger man, from Madam Shanghai's Shack. I just wrote him a letter today.
(Note from CharlieManson.Com: Judge Older flew a fighter in World War II. His group was called "The Flying Tigers.")
Tom: The judge did not say you were innocent Charles.
Manson: Innocent?
Tom: Let's go back to your mother, what..
Manson: Innocent?
Tom: What is.
Manson: Wait a minute, wait a minute, let's get back to that word innocent. Are you so white and pure?
Tom: The judge didn't say you were innocent.
Manson: Are you innocent?
Manson: Oh. That's what I'm saying.
Tom: None of us are innocent.
Manson: Yeah, just because you're convicted in a court room doesn't mean you're guilty of something.
Tom: What does mean you're guilty.
Manson: When you know you're guilty.
Tom: And how do you feel about yourself, tell me about.
Manson: I feel, I feel pretty good.
Tom: (sighs) Let me take you back to your mom.
Manson: Take me back to old river..
Tom: What else did see talk to you about besides the fellow who's head popped off?
Manson: The head popped off, yeah. She was living in the Blue Moon Café and she hit a dude in the head with one of them bottles of uh, Jim Beam Whiskey. She tried to hustle a few dollars on the corner but there wasn't no money, so when she jammed this whiskey bottle upside that clown's head, he went down and she took his bread and come up and got me and we left and went to Indiana.
Tom: When you were a boy, did you love your mother?
Manson: Uh, I didn't know what that was.
Tom: Did you respect your mother? How did you feel about , how do you feel about your mom right now? If your mother, I don't know if she is alive Charles or not.
(Note from CharlieManson.com: Manson's mother had passed away several years before this interview)
Manson: Yeah you don't huh?
Tom: Do you?
Manson: Hmmm. Let's see. Alive now.yeah, yeah, maybe..
Tom: I mean, if she could be watching this right now..
Manson: She could watching this right now..
Tom: What would you say to her Charles?
Manson: Oh well, what would I say to her.
Tom: What would you say?
Manson: I'd say, "you sure did go through a lot of changes to get me as far as you did. And you did a damn good job with the help of my grandma." My grandma was a mountain girl (chuckles) from Kentucky up in the mountains. And uh she never did drink or smoke or cuss or lie. She used to cook for the Salvation Army and she was a human being, a good one. I'd go to Church down there and sweep the floor for her.
Tom: Well how were you in school? I've heard that you weren't too good, but maybe I've heard wrong.
Manson: Depends on which school. I did very well in reform school.
Tom: (chuckles) yeah.
Manson: I did good in uh, in uh, every place that I was ever told to go good in. As much as I was allowed to do, you know. Lot of times good for some may not be the same for others. Sometimes it kind a bumps heads but when it does um, I just chew on my pipe and think about it and do the best I can.
Tom: Mmmmhmmm... but..
Manson: You dealt , you dealt the hand down there in LA. You and that press, you and that uh, LA Times. You dealt the hand. You put me on "Life Magazine" and had me convicted before I walked into the courtroom. You had what people wanted to buy. When they wanted to buy it they didn't give a damn if they had to convict the District Attorney. They'd convicted the whole building to get that dollar bill going there.. They had big bucks going there. They made twenty seven million, thousand, hundred, billion and I'm bumming fifteen dollars from a friend here..
Tom: Here's another newspaper account that you can now speak to since you haven't done it before. That on the night following the, uh, killings of the house on Cielo Drive in Los Angeles, you accompanied four people to a home occupied by Mr. & Mrs. Leo LaBianca.
(Note from CharlieManson.com: The group consisted of Manson, Watson, Krenwinkel, Van Houten, Grogan, Atkins and Kasabian.)
Manson : Yeah
Tom: That you went inside that house
Manson : mmmhmmm
Tom: And you tied them up
Manson : mmmmhmmmm
Tom: And assured them that they were not going to be hurt
Manson : mmmmhmmm
Tom: That you went back outside
Manson : mmmmhmmm
Tom : And sent Kasabian and Krenwinkel and Watson and Atkins inside the house to kill them.
(Note from CharlieManson.com: Watson, Krenwinkel and Van Houten were sent in. Not Kasabian or Atkins.)
Manson : mmmmhmmm
Tom : Cause you know something Charles, that's what you were convicted of among other things.
Manson : Alright.
Tom: Is it true or false?
Manson: Do you deserve and in theory do you....
Tom: No no no. It's, it's a yes or no.
Manson: No, no, no, no, nothing's played.
Tom: But it's so simple. Try it, try it, try it.
Manson :No, nothing's yes or no. No. You, you go, go, go through your little boxes and things. You know, look, look here, uh, first you have to see where I'm coming from.
Tom: Not on that question, there's no coming from anywhere on that question Charles. (long pause) Did you do that?
Manson : (very long silence)
Tom : Chair's getting hot huh? (long silence) Get mad, get angry, come over here and hit me if you like, but why don't you answer the question?
Manson : Hit you?
Manson : Nah.
Tom : But answer the question
Manson : I don't want to hit you. I, uh, got out of prison and I went up in the streams and I saw a big fat dead rat laying in the water.
Tom : I'm gonna ask the question again Charles
Manson : Uh-huh
Tom : I'm gonna ask the same question again
Manson : (long pause) Same question again. (pause) Did I break the law? Is that your question?
Tom : No, the question was that on the night following the murders or the killings or whatever else you want to call it at the Melcher home
Manson : Mmmmhmmm
Tom: On Cielo Drive in Los Angeles, newspaper accounts claim that you, Krenwinkel, Atkins, Kasabian and Watson went to the home of Mr. & Mrs. LaBianca in Los Angeles, that you went inside the house, tied them up, assured them that they would not be hurt, then went back outside and sent the other four in.
(Note from CharlieManson.com: As mentioned previously, the list of participants is incorrect.)
Manson : Who told you that?
Tom : Newspaper accounts...I do..newspaper accounts and this is one of the things that for which you were convicted of in a courtroom in Los Angeles. Now here's your chance before the whole world to tell it straight once and for all. Did you do that?
Manson : Did I kill anyone?
Tom : No, did you go in and tie up the LaBiancas that night? Very simple question.
Manson : That night..
Tom : August 10 th 1969
Manson : That night, August the 10 th , 1969
Tom: Did you? Why duck it, why dodge it? why not answer yes or no once and for all put it behind you?
Manson : (very long pause) mmmhmmm (long pause) Did I kill anyone?
Tom: Did you tie up the LaBiancas? (long pause) Atkins testified you did.
Manson : (long pause) That's what Susie said?
Tom : That's what she said
Manson : Yeah?
Tom : And you remember it. You were in the courtroom when she said it.
Manson : (chuckles) She's written three books, and each time she's said something different.
(Note from CharlieManson.com: He is likely referring to "The Killing of Sharon Tate" and "Child of Satan, Child of God.")
Tom : Mmmhmmm
Tom : Did you time them up?
Manson : Did I?
Manson : (long silence) Well, we came down from Aberdeen, and uh
Tom : Let's stay in Los Angeles August 10th, 1969
Manson : And there was a hole-in-the-wall gang there.
Tom : (long pause) Why don't you want to talk about it Charles? Why don't you want.
Manson : Because I'm an outlaw and I go so far and then that's all you know.
Tom: And if you did..
Manson: That's like asking Jessie James "are you going to shoot somebody?"
Tom: And if, and if, and if, and if as others have written and others have testified and as the media has reported you did that ,and you sent your friends back in to do the deed, aren't you a coward?
Manson: Oh my friends back in to do the terrible deed .
Tom: Doesn't that make you..
Manson: The wicked deed. Um, did we have the castle there with the vampires and the Frankenstein, and the bugs and lizards dying in the desert? Did we have the water that is dying and the whales that are being killed and the seals.
Tom: Here we go again, lay it off on someone else.
Manson: Well
Tom: Let's point to all the other injustices
Manson: Oh I'm in the world all by myself?
Tom: Yeah, on this one you are. Yeah.
Manson: Yeah, hmmm, it's ok, if that's the way you see it for you.
Tom: Well, whether you like it or not Charles, all those things that happened that August in Los Angeles are identified as the Manson Killings.
Manson: Yeah, that's what your history book will tell you.
Tom: So you can sit here and talk about the whales and Hiroshima and you can sit and talk about the environment and the Great Lakes and that's all fine, but what it really comes down to in this particular instance is that this one is your ballgame.
Manson: Well if I could get some help from the doctor then I could get my mind straightened out a little bit and I come back and play like a human.
Tom: Well, you've never talked about this before, but I'm gonna try it one more time.
Manson: Yeah. Now, now, now
Tom: You can see
Manson: You got a pistol on you?
Tom: No sir. They wouldn't let me in here if I had a pistol, you know that as well as I do, so why even ask the question? Okay?
Manson: Well, I just thought you might not like what I have done and want to do something about it.
Tom: I don't much care for what you've done.
Manson: Yeah.
Tom: A lot of people don't. How do you feel about that?
Manson: Well
Tom: They think you are a monster Charles.
Manson: Yeah, they think you are a monster because you reflect this news media on me. Cult leader. I never had long hair before I got busted. I never had a beard before I got busted. I went to shave and the guy's "No, you can't shave", I said "I need a razor to shave", he said "No you can't shave" I said "Let me get a hair cut" he said "no we don't want you to change your appearance." So when you , first put that camera on me you got long hair and a beard. First time in my life I've got long hair and a beard.
Tom: You want, you want a shave and get a hair cut? I'll shut them off and you'll get a shave and a hair cut.
Manson: Am I telling him right? I'm not of this generation.
Tom: You want a shave and a hair cut right now? I'll shut them down right now if you want a shave and a hair cut.
Manson: Yeah, yeah I was trying to explain to you man, that a lot of what they pushed of on me is not me. They said I had a great family and I was the followers and leader. There was no followers and leaders, bunch of kids out at the ranch playing, to me.
Tom: Playing at what?
Manson: Playing at living.
Tom: The accounts say that you, that you gave them dope. I'm just saying what the accounts say.
Manson: Oh yeah.
Tom: I'm not saying I know it to be so. So here's your chance to say that it wasn't true.
Manson: Yeah, yeah
Tom: That there was a lot of hanky panky. That you turned the girls on with dope and sex out there. That's..
Manson: That's what they said.
Tom: Alright that's what they said, well are they wrong?
Manson: Oh! Well! I went down to Haight-Ashbury and a little kid 10 years old came up and said "You want an acid pill?" I said "what's that?" he said "This is good. Make colors go" I said "No, I've heard of them things. I don't want none of that." And then, then another little kid was rolling a joint, and they were sitting there smoking a joint and asked me if I wanted one.
Tom: What'd you say?
Manson: I said "I used to smoke this stuff in the 60's but it never, or the 50's but it really, really wasn't, you know, it was funny but it's not."
Tom: How much dope did you do in your lifetime? Were you a heavy user of dope?
Manson: No. I smoked a little grass and I've taken some acid, mescaline, uh, psilocybin, peyote, mushroom. But actually take uh dope, no. Nothing. I'd never take anything that I feel would actually hurt me .
Tom: Do you feel that those things that you just mentioned hurt you at all Charles?
Manson: Uh, physically or spiritually?
Tom: Mentally.
Manson: And then on what level? On the level of society the way you view the norm?
Tom: No, no, no, no, no, no. Stop the hogwash. Do you feel that the drugs that you did use in your earlier life time confused you, altered your mind, uh juggled, scrambled, made you see things differently, uh stay on that level if you can.
Manson: Maybe I find a uh, spirit of uh, cave man-think-through-brain.
Tom: Let me try it again
Manson: (laughs)
Tom: Do you think the drugs you used hurt you?
Manson: Nah. Drugs hurt me? No I don't think the drugs have hurt me. If I overdone it I think it would.
Tom: You don't want to be anybody's leader do you?
Manson: No.
Tom: Never did want to be anybody's leader?
Manson: No. Don't like attention.
Tom: Mmmmhmmmm. Then why do you
Manson: Most insecure people need attention. I don't
Tom: I was just going to say then, if you don't want attention, why do you keep, why all your life have you kept waving your arms saying "Hey look at me"?
Manson: That's what I've been doing all my life?
Tom: Well I have to say a young man..
Manson: Let me see if I've got that documented.
Tom: who by the time he's 20 years old has been in and out of jails and reform schools for a variety of offenses that include wife beating... homo...
Manson: (chuckles) Wife beating?! Now that bullshit, I've never whipped my old lady.
(Note from CharlieManson.com: Manson was married to Rosalie Willis in the 1950's and had one son.)
Tom: Didn't you?
Manson: No, I punched my mother out once.
Tom: Oh you did, alright, we'll call it mother beating. Uh, forging checks
Manson: But she was wrong. She lied to me and beat me for my money, and she, she didn't do right. You know what I mean?
Tom: Forging checks, uh car theft, I mean these are ways of waving your arms and saying "Look at me, give me some attention"
Manson: Yeah
Tom: And you say you don't want attention. Now Charles, that's a contradiction.
Manson: Yeah.
Tom: That doesn't make any sense.
Manson: Well over a period of about 20 years, I would imagine you'd would want to change something. I'm not very wise to many things. But I am wise to one thing, you know.
Tom: What's that?
Manson: Well I'm not gonna to tell you.
Tom: Ok. You punch your mother, did you hate your mother?
Manson: Nah, I loved my mother, she's a good girl.
Tom: What about your wife, you were married once weren't you?
Manson: Yeah.
Tom: How'd that go? Why'd you wanna get married? That's kinda conventional, that's kind of normal. that's kinda of in the rut as you say to get married isn't it?
Manson: (laughs)I got married, cause I wanted to get in that (inaudible) That's why I got married.
Tom: oh yeah? Married for sex was the reason you got married?
Manson: Yeah, I did know what was happening. I knew something was happening but no one would tell me so I had to find out, you know, I didn't have books like you guys, you know, "Playboys" and stuff in them days. I had to find out for myself.
Tom: Mmmmhmmm. Why do you think that all us guys are playboys? That we can't
Manson: AH MAN! I didn't say you were playboys, I was talking about "Playboy" magazine-type thought man!
Tom: Ok, ok, ok, ok, ok, ok. You had a son by that marriage didn't you?
Manson: Uh Yeah, I got a kid somewhere.
Tom: Do you think about him?
Manson: Uh, not, about as much as my father did me.
Tom: So two wrongs make a right, Charles?
Manson: No I didn't say there's anything wrong with the way my dad's been taking care of me. He lets me live, (laughs) I'm alive, you know.
Tom: I remember you saying, or being quoted.
Manson: Thank you.
Tom: In a courtroom in Los Angeles as saying "The children who came at you with knives are your children."
Manson: Yeah, I didn't raise 'em. You raised 'em.
Tom: "You are the ones that kicked them out. You are responsible for what they've done."
Manson: That's right, just as much as I am.
Tom: Mmmhmmm, so you , in my mind, were criticizing society for kicking their children out.
Manson: Sure.
Tom: And yet I've just seen you sit here and say "Yeah, I've got a kid somewhere."
Manson: Yeah
Tom: How can you criticize other people for kicking their kids out and you did the same thing?
Manson: Difference, difference, difference on many levels. Difference. See my old lady left me and run off with a truck driver. She said "let's steal a car and go to California." and I said "Man, I ain't gonna steal no car and go off to California and go back to jail." She said "We won't get caught". Well we didn't get caught, just I got caught. She didn't get caught. So then she had a kid and then some truck driver came along, and I was a green kid and didn't know what I was doin', you know. So she says " You know, I got a ride, you know, see you later." So she took off and got married to someone else, you know. She's a good girl.
Tom: And besides the son from your marriage, you've got, what, four other children somewhere?
(Note from CharlieManson.com: The number of children is likely incorrect.)
Manson: Oh I don't, uh, uh, think I've been uh, uh, uh, responsible for as much as you people want to lay on me .
Tom: Well how many children do you have Charles?
Manson: How many children do I have? Uh, I don't know, I've got lots of children, man. Uh, in fact sometimes I even think that you're a child.
Tom: But you just said you don't have any children, you don't have any family in the context of the Ranch. I'm talking about children that (sighs) are your, uh, natural children.
Manson: How many are my natural ego?
Tom: No, children.
Manson: Oh children? I would divide one child from the other?
Tom: Alright, somewhere out there, somewhere there's at least one son that we know of that is your child, who's probably about 25 or 26 years old right now.
Manson: Is that right?
Tom: Yeah. Look into that camera. What do you say to that kid? What do you say to your son out there, who's watching his old man on television. Maybe the first time he's ever seen his old man with his face all carved up and his eyes glowering. You talk to that kid, what are you going say to him?
Manson: You gotta catch it on your own boy. The train's hard. The road's ruff.
Tom: And that's it?
Manson: That's all I knew. That's all anyone ever told me.
Tom: Alright. (sighs)
Manson: And you wanna hear something?
Tom: Yeah.
Manson: He'll do it better than me. (chuckles)
Tom: Do what?
Manson: Whatever he does, (chuckles) he'll do it a little better. Kids do, don't they?
(Note from CharlieManson.com: Manson and Rosalie's son committed suicide in 1993.)
Tom: Sometimes.
Manson: Yeah, (chuckles) that's what makes them such a gas. They always seem to get through.
Tom: (sighs) There was a story of a celebrity hit list..
Manson: Was you ever a kid once?
Tom: Absolutely.
Tom: Still am in many ways.
Manson: Hmmmmm.
Tom: But not, not, not your way.
Manson: Oh my way? I don't know what my way is, everybody keeps telling me I got all these things. I read the other day where I had magical powers, and I told everybody in the chapel, I said "ZAP-ZAP-ZAP-ZAP". I said "where's my magical powers?" Well you can't, you can't believe what you read in the press. I ain't got no magical powers and mystical trips and all that kind of crap. (pause) Yeah, it's kind of silly. Yeah, you got witches and devils and uh. One guy came up and said "I heard you said your Jesus" I said "Nah man, I ain't said nothing." He said "I'm glad" He said "I'm damn glad." I said "Why?" He said "I know you ain't him." I said "How do you know?" He said "Because I am." (laughs) I said "Ok". But I mean, you know I've been in the nut ward for the last 10 years, so you can't expect me to, uh, to rationally take thing stuff serious.
Tom: Don't you think that you belong in the nut ward?
Manson: It's alright. I can deal with that.
Tom: I'm mean don't you belong there?
Manson: Belong, where, I belong where I am allowed to go, man like, uh, you know, I belong there.
Tom: Let me nail down one of the real simple ones, listen how simple this is Charles. There was a story in the media, back when the trial was going on that Charles Manson had a celebrity hit list. I don't know who was on it, maybe there never was such a list. But was there a list of people, famous people that you thought about harassing, bothering?
Manson: If I wanted to harass them I just wouldn't watch their TV show.
Tom: Talk to me about your life in prison in terms of you being in isolation. You are not on what is called the main line. You don't, you're not in with the prison population here, how do you feel about that?
Manson: How do I feel about it? I don't feel about it.
Tom: Would you rather not be in isolation?
Manson: Oh I've been trying to get on the main line, I've been trying to get to the prison for the last 13 years.
Tom: Why?
Manson: Why? Walk around, play some handball, play a little guitar. Uh, do my number, do my time like any convict does. Like I've always done. Like my mind been set to do. Like my uh, past lives have been in jail, doing time in jail. In fact when I got out I just got outside and sat down. I wasn't going nowhere, I gave up, see.
Tom: If you were on the mainline, wouldn't you be exposed to some dangers?
Manson: Come on man,
Tom: What?
Manson: if you're thinking exposure to danger, then that danger you're thinking is coming around you.
Tom: Well look what happened to James Earl Ray? Heard about didn't you?
Manson: Uh, James Early Ray's got his problems, I've got mine.
Tom: Have you heard? He got stuck.
Manson: Yeah.
Manson: Some people died in India too.
Tom: Got stuck.
Manson: And some other people died in Hawaii.
Tom: You wouldn't be scared.
Manson: People are dieing all over.
Tom: You wouldn't be frightened or afraid then of the uh, of the uh, prison population trying to make a hit on you.
Manson: Man, I've been staying alive in prison this long without no help.
Tom: What is "S Ward?"
Manson: It's a nut ward.
Tom: What goes on there?
Manson: Uh, what ever goes on in there. You'd have to ask the people responsible for that.
Tom: Well, do you they do things to you in there?
Manson: Do they do things to me?
Tom: Mmmhmmm
Tom: Do they give you medication here?
Manson: Yeah, they give you medication here.
Tom: (long pause) You on medication now?
Manson: No. No. It took me about a few years to get off the medication. The medication has toned me down quite a bit. (pause) A whole lot. (chuckles) That's the reason I like the desert, was I get out in the desert then I can let it out and say if I see you within 50 miles then we'll know something. Yeah I used to love that desert, out in the woods and things. I didn't know you could get out in the woods for 30 years.
Tom: How do you feel about spending the rest of your life in prison?
Manson: Well, we're our own prisons. We each our own wardens and we do our own times. We get stuck in our own little trips and we kind a judge ourselves the way we do. You know, I can't judge uh, nobody else, best thing I can do is try to judge myself and live with that. See, what other people do is not really my affair, unless they approach me with it, and want me to do something about it, uh, then I'll uh take into consideration what has to be done. But other than that I just uh, try to do my number, and do my time. Get out on the main line, play some tennis, walk around, make the chow a little better, you know. And then there's the possibility the preacher can teach me something, because the preacher, the reverend is, is quite a guy. And I'm finding they got two or three doctors here that got a lot of sense. I mean as far as I'm concerned they got a lot of sense in my world, you know. And I've tried to shake two or three of them, but they, they're pretty smart. And uh. then they got some uh, pretty good inmates here, trying to get out and work their lives into a decent sort of way. Trying to promote harmony. Pull ourselves together and be right and do right and have the understanding of what it is in a congenial form for world peace. There's a lot of people working for world peace.
Tom: Let's assume that one day you were paroled. Let's just.
Manson: Parole?
Tom: Let's just make believe. Do you ever think you will be?
Manson: Yeah, do I ever think I will be? Well I've never been paroled before. I went up to the board and they never would, they said I was incorrigible. And uh, not only was I incorrigible, I'd never grow up. And I kind a agreed with them. I had a..
Tom: I mean let's just make believe here for a second.
Manson: Make believe?
Tom: Let's make believe, let's make believe that you're getting out tomorrow.
Manson: Tomorrow.
Manson: Tomorrow creeps it's petty pace. Yeah
Tom: Would you go after anybody Charles??
Manson: After anybody? Hell no.
Tom: Do you feel, do, let me try another way,
Manson: I'll come after you, man.
Tom: Do you, do you feel, do you feel that you have any scores to settle with anyone on the outside?
Manson: Hmm, let me think. Do I have any scores out there? Now we're making believe right?
Tom: Mmmhmmm
Manson: Well, I'll tell you buddy.. (laughs) (long pause) Well, I don't rightly know. I'm stupid (chuckles) to the point to where I'm not really sure, and if you'll ask the question again, maybe the answer will come to you. What was it again?
Tom: If you got out tomorrow do you have any scores to settle on the outside?
Manson: Scores? You mean people that have done me wrong?
Tom: Or that you feel that have done you wrong?
Manson: That feel that I've done them wrong?
Tom: No, feel that they've done you wrong.
Manson: Oh
Tom: That you feel that done you wrong?
Manson: Oh well most people do themselves wrong.
Tom: But would you want, would you want to go get anybody if you got out.
Manson: No.
Tom: No.
Manson: They push, see what they do, see they take all that bad and then they push it off on each other. I told the dude, "You're doing this to yourself man". You know, I've been sitting in there, in other words I'm the cell, right, and they let me out, and I walk around and the guy says "If you don't do this we're gonna lock you back up." I said "ok, I don't care anyway." Already gave up that thought. Prison's in your mind, man, like you know.
Tom: Okay. Okay.
Manson: You sit in the cell, and they guy asks "You in prison?" I say "no, I'm just here." He says "what you doin'?" I say "I'm just sitting waiting for these uh, people to get done doin' what they're doing so I can get out."
Tom: Do you have a television set? Do you watch television?
Manson: Yeah, I used to watch it a little bit, but kinda it looks, I don't really like it that much.
Tom: Ok, What about newspapers. Do you get newspapers?
Manson: No I don't bother with those. I know that they're jiving there.
Tom: Ok, Radio? Listen to the radio?
Manson: I listen to the Hearts and Space Program. I like that. And the rest of it is just like a bunch of (gibberish) There's no uh..
Tom: What about your music?
Manson: I get some classical music on the 98 station that saying something'..
Tom: Okay, but what about your own music? I remember reading
Manson: Well..
Tom: that you at one time you had a recording stint at a studio in Hollywood, that you liked guitar, that you wrote music, or that you sang music. Do you still do that?
Manson: Yeah, yeah I do that. Yeah I do that. But uh, the way I do it, ain't the same way you guys do it. And the way I do it scares you guys. So I didn't want to scare you guys out of the neighborhood right away. (chuckles) So I just took a can and started banging on it, you know. But we used to have some cosmic gatherings back in the mountains that would probably shake a Mormon Tabernacle Quire's eardrums.
Tom: You said, the kind of music you play scares people. Why shouldn't people be scared by you?
Manson: There's only one person you should be a-scared of and that's yourself. Afraid of what, loosing your bank account? Afraid of your wife going uh, away? You have all those things. I'm not afraid of loosing my watch or someone taking my money or robbing me. I went down to Mexico in the 50's down where the Yakees was, and they said "Man you don't go down to where the Yakees are. They're terrible" I said "Why?" he said "Well, they don't like people like you." I says "Well they didn't say anything."
Tom: Yeah. I asked that question in the context of, would you believe it or not, there's a lot of people on the outside, that think about the possibility of you coming out of here, and they're genially scared of you.
Manson: Oh boy I might just, just make dust, everything terrible. One little guy, terrible. Oooo. Boy, how insecure are we as human beings put all our fear on one little guy? And afraid to let him out, he might break all the toys. (laughs)
Tom: Why do you say little guy?
Manson: Because I'm not the guy you trying to make out of me. That's not me. That's some guy in somebody's imagination that want to make a couple hundred million dollars for himself. He got rich. He had a good game going. He had a better game going than I did. But he had a good mother to help him. She helped him in a nice game, I was kind a over on the sidelines. See I had to get around that game and look over the tracks.
Tom: Ok, Now, here we go again on mother for a second. You said he had a nice mother to help him, does that mean you did not have a nice mother to help you?
Manson: Oh, well, I imagine I have got a whole lot of nice mothers that would help me. If I I would help them you know. How much would you help yourself?
Tom: When I asked you why you got married you said for sex. Uh..
Manson: That's when I was 20 years old.
Tom: Yeah, what kind (chuckles) This is funny, what kind of sex life is there for Charles in this prison?
Manson: Well I (inaudible) get a little bit now and then.
Tom: Mmmhmmm
Manson: I try to hide it not to embarrass other people. But I've been doing it ever since I was 10. (laughs) I get to thinking, here I am an old man sitting in this cell, (laughs) that's the damnest thing I ever seen, you know. It looks like I grow up, but I really don't know how yet. I'm learning. Preacher's teaching me how to grow up.
Tom: Do you miss women?
Manson: Certainly. My goodness, yeah, damn right, yeah. (laughs)
Tom: What do you think of women?
Manson: Oh I like them. They're nice. If they're put together well, and everything and they're soft and spongy, yeah, they're nice. As long as they keep they're mouth shut and do what they're do what they're supposed to do.
Tom: Why do you say that?
Manson: 'cause that's what a woman's supposed to do.
Tom: Keep her mouth shut and do what she's supposed to do?
Manson: Sure.
Tom: Who taught you that?
Manson: Well, I don't want her snitchin' on me.
Tom: How do you feel about dieing?
Manson: Dieing is..
Tom: You know you were sentenced to the gas chamber and then they modified the death penalty, were you happy when that was done?
Manson: Was I happy when what was done?
Tom: When you found out that you weren't going to the gas chamber.
Manson: You talking about dieing now it gets me nervous.
Tom: Why?
Manson: Did you have any thoughts about something? Was you wanting to go anywhere?
Tom: Were you happy when you found out you weren't gonna go to the gas chamber, Charles?
Manson: Uh, I knew I wasn't gonna go to the gas chamber, cause I hadn't done anything wrong.
Tom: You scared to die?
Manson: (pause) Sometimes I feel I'm a-scared to live. Living is what scares me. Dieing is easy. Getting up everyday and going through this again and again is hard. See I'm carrying a heavier thought, see, the thought I'm carrying is very heavy. Like I'm on a football team, and everybody's, and, and I'm a little guy, I don't have no supp, I don't have no home team. You got all the home, I got one, one uh cheerleader (chuckles) or one uh, uh coach. See you got me in a disadvantage because I'm on your ground see. So, and this is your street I recon, you got the cameras and the money and the things. But you can believe me that um, Bugliosi has you on a rib, and all them guys that sold you most of that stuff, sold you a bunch of things that weren't uh, weren't real. Not to me. We used to have games we would play on the movie set. We would take on different people. I'd be Riff Raff Rackus, Steve would be John Jones, just a-come in from Minneapolis and driving a truck. And we'd just take other people, and play act other people. And then we lost track of who we were. (chuckles) And it went off into other dimensions and levels of thought and understandings and comprehensions that were beyond most people minds, functions, computers, data. So, um, all I did was watch and learn everything I could from everybody I ever met. Then when I got out of prison I just walked around. I didn't tell nobody to do nothing. I said do what you want to do. (inaudible) Don't tell me what to do. I don't like people telling me what to do. I just come from place where they told me what to do all my life, you know. I want to find out what to do for myself, you know. Never did. Not yet. But I was gonna take a trade, one of these days. Maybe learn to be a welder or something. (long pause) 'Til I can get to the front gate anyway.
Tom: They got you involved in this whole drama where people got killed. How did you get involved in that drama?
Manson: Well I was borned illegitimately that put me on the other side of the law. I've been an outlaw ever since I was borned. I went to reform school when I was about 10. And I learned to box and cry, and I learned to do all the things that you do in reform school. And then I went to , uh, I escaped there a bunch of times and I went to prison. And I learned everything that you do in prison. And I talked to all the guys and asked them everything they knew, and they told me all the things they knew. And then I went to the end of it and then old man would be ready to die and he'd say "Well son, un, sincerity is the best gimmick remember that." and I say "Alright, be sincere, that'll win it?" He says "That's it." Sincerity and honesty he said will do it, it'll trick 'em every time. (laughs) I said "Well, sincere and honesty, I've never tried that. I've tried everything else but maybe I'll try sincere and honesty." So then I looked in a book and it said "The wages of sin is death." Now I figured well, I don't want to die, so maybe I have been sinful here. Maybe I am wrong. Maybe I'll take a look at my life and say "well, I'm gonna change it and start all over." You know, and I know I go to God and say "Hey man, are you gonna forgive me?" And he's gonna say "What do you do? You gonna forgive you? What you come to me for? Forgive yourself man, don't be botherin' me." You know, and I think well he must be a big mighty god, man. He just, you know, he ain't got time, you gotta make an appointment or something, you know. So I see the whole aspect of the whole trip for children to play, you know, then I get stuck in the game of playing the goat here, or the lamb, or the, the some other trip. I was a teddy bear, then I was the goof ball, whatever, and uh, what is the real one, where is the real one. I don't know where the real one is. He's in a nut ward somewhere.
Interview over
Tom: Now you've seen the real Charles Manson. Hardly the glowering, sinister and assertive mastermind that was pictured of his life before and after the Tate/LaBianca killings in Los Angeles. The real Charles Manson appears to be confused and frightened. Confused if you recall his admission that we look at ourselves to better understand him. Yet each time I pressed him on the details of the murders, Manson couldn't even look at himself, nor his relationships with his mother, his wife and his son. And he's frightened. During our conversation, you recall Manson said "I'm living aren't I? They let me live didn't they?" followed by that little nervous laugh. The man does not want to die. I think he's frightened by death and I think he is as scared of us as we are of him. I get the feeling he'll be quite content to spend the rest of his life playing mind games in the jail house. And I also believe that Charles Manson knows exactly what he's done. A word about what you might think was my belligerence with Manson. I lived in Los Angeles all during his trial. I still live there from time to time. In a quiet neighborhood just across the canyon from where Sharon Tate and the others were murdered. At work by day I broadcast the six o'clock news in Los Angeles. The whole story of the trial. The shaved heads, the carved foreheads, the harangues and threats in the court room. And by night I tried to assure my young daughter, that yes even though the murder house was close by, Charles Manson and company were under lock and key and there would be no creepy crawlers in the night. So it was that Manson I was listening to, not the one that sits alone in a far away prison, where baring a most perverse miracle, he will spend the rest of his life. Thank you everybody for watching and goodnight.
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| Charles Manson |
Starting a mere 11,700 years ago, what is the current geological epoch? | AtheistJewoftheUS: Charles Manson Crime Library article
Charles Manson Crime Library article
Crime Library: Criminal Minds and Methods
Charles Manson and the Manson Family
BY Marilyn Bardsley
Comments
Murder!
Quiet and secluded is just what the young movie star wanted. The canyons above Beverly Hills were far enough away from the noisy glitz of Hollywood to afford some privacy and space. Sharon Tate loved this place on Cielo Drive. To her it meant romance — romance with the man of her dreams and the father of her child, director Roman Polanski.
Charles Manson
Charles Manson
It was cooler up there too, which was especially refreshing on that hot muggy Saturday night, the 9th of August 1969. The beautiful young woman kept herself company with her attractive and sophisticated friends: Abigail Folger, the coffee heiress and her boyfriend Voytek Frykowski, and an internationally known hair stylist Jay Sebring.
Sharon was eight months pregnant and very lonely for her husband who was away in Europe working on a film. Impromptu gatherings like this one on a weekend night were not at all unusual.
The house was deliberately secluded but not completely insecure. Approximately 100 feet from the house was a locked gate and on the property was a guesthouse inhabited by an able-bodied young caretaker.
That night the Kotts, Sharon's nearest neighbors who lived about 100 yards away, thought they heard a few gunshots coming from the direction of Sharon's property sometime between 12:30 and 1 A.M. But since they heard nothing else, they went to bed.
Around the same time, a man supervising a camp-out less than a mile away heard a chilling scream: "Oh, God, no, please don't! Oh, God, no, don't, don't..."
He drove around the area, but found nothing unusual.
Nearby a neighbor's dogs went into a barking frenzy somewhere between 2 and 3 A.M. He got out of bed and looked around, but found nothing amiss and went back to bed.
A private security guard hired by some of the wealthy property owners thought he heard several gunshots a little after 4 A.M. and called his headquarters. Headquarters, in turn, called Los Angeles Police Department to report the disturbance. The LAPD officer said: "I hope we don't have a murder; we just had a woman-screaming call in that area."
The home where Charles Manson murdered Sharon Tate on Cielo Drive
The Tate/Polanski House on Cielo Drive
Winifred Chapman, Sharon Tate's housekeeper, got to the main gate of the house a little after 8 A.M. She noticed what looked like a fallen telephone wire hanging over the gate. She pushed the gate control mechanism and it swung open. As she walked up to the house, she saw an unfamiliar white Rambler parked in the driveway.
When she got to the house, she took the housekey from its hiding place and unlocked the back door. Once inside the kitchen, she picked up the telephone and confirmed that it was a telephone wire that had fallen, completely knocking out all phone service. As she made her way toward the living room, she noticed that the front door was open and that there were splashes of red everywhere. Looking out the front door, she saw a couple of pools of blood and what appeared to be a body on the lawn.
She shrieked and ran back through the house and down the driveway, passing close enough to the Rambler to see that there was yet another body inside the car. She ran over to the Kotts and banged on the door, but they were not home, so she ran to the next house and did the same thing, screaming hysterically.
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An integral part of the Old West wagon train, what did the chuck wagon carry? | What Is a Chuckwagon? | Wonderopolis
Wonder of the Day #645
What Is a Chuckwagon?
What types of foods were served by chuckwagons?
Can you make your own campfire feast?
Tags:
Listen
Yee haw! Thanks for stopping by Wonderopolis. We're glad you could come on over to sit a spell. It's just about time for lunch, so grab a plate and we'll head on over to the ol' chuckwagon .
That's right. We said chuckwagon . Here at Wonderopolis, we believe in doing things the old-fashioned way. That means every meal is served from a traditional chuckwagon .
The chuckwagon — sometimes spelled chuck wagon — was a special type of wagon used to carry food and cooking equipment as part of a wagon train. Wagon trains were common methods of transportation for early settlers of the United States and Canada making their way across the prairies to new lands.
Chuckwagons were also commonly used to feed traveling workers, such as cowboys and loggers. If you were a cowboy in the old days, there was nothing quite like the ring of the chuckwagon dinner bell at the end of a long day of hard work.
Texas rancher Charles Goodnight is given credit for the invention of the chuckwagon in 1866. He converted an old army-surplus Studebaker wagon into a mobile kitchen to feed cowboys driving cattle from Texas to New Mexico.
The name chuckwagon comes from the word “chuck," which was a slang term for food. Goodnight's chuckwagon had a “chuck box" added to the back of the wagon to store cooking supplies. The “chuck box" also had a hinged , flat lid to provide a flat cooking surface.
Chuckwagon food usually consisted of foods that were easy to fix and preserve . These included beans, salted meats, coffee and sourdough biscuits. The chuckwagon cook — usually called “Cookie" — was often second in command of the wagon train after the trail boss. In addition to cooking meals, he was also often the barber, doctor, banker and judge while out on the trail.
The chuckwagon was more than just a cafeteria to cowboys, though. It was the social hub of the wagon train. It's where everyone would gather to relax and exchange tall tales . It was like a home on the range!
Today, chuckwagons are mainly just a symbol of a simpler past. However, there are modern versions of chuckwagons in the form of mobile food suppliers that serve meals in areas where large numbers of workers gather, such as at a factory.
You might also see chuckwagons taking part in special horse races called chuckwagon races. Some western tourist attractions and dude ranches feature chuckwagon meals that let you get a taste — literally! — of what life was like in the old west.
Wonder Words (16)
| food and cooking equipment |
In the Samuel Taylor Coleridge poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, what symbol of a heavy burden does the Mariner have to wear around his neck? | What Is a Chuckwagon? | Wonderopolis
Wonder of the Day #645
What Is a Chuckwagon?
What types of foods were served by chuckwagons?
Can you make your own campfire feast?
Tags:
Listen
Yee haw! Thanks for stopping by Wonderopolis. We're glad you could come on over to sit a spell. It's just about time for lunch, so grab a plate and we'll head on over to the ol' chuckwagon .
That's right. We said chuckwagon . Here at Wonderopolis, we believe in doing things the old-fashioned way. That means every meal is served from a traditional chuckwagon .
The chuckwagon — sometimes spelled chuck wagon — was a special type of wagon used to carry food and cooking equipment as part of a wagon train. Wagon trains were common methods of transportation for early settlers of the United States and Canada making their way across the prairies to new lands.
Chuckwagons were also commonly used to feed traveling workers, such as cowboys and loggers. If you were a cowboy in the old days, there was nothing quite like the ring of the chuckwagon dinner bell at the end of a long day of hard work.
Texas rancher Charles Goodnight is given credit for the invention of the chuckwagon in 1866. He converted an old army-surplus Studebaker wagon into a mobile kitchen to feed cowboys driving cattle from Texas to New Mexico.
The name chuckwagon comes from the word “chuck," which was a slang term for food. Goodnight's chuckwagon had a “chuck box" added to the back of the wagon to store cooking supplies. The “chuck box" also had a hinged , flat lid to provide a flat cooking surface.
Chuckwagon food usually consisted of foods that were easy to fix and preserve . These included beans, salted meats, coffee and sourdough biscuits. The chuckwagon cook — usually called “Cookie" — was often second in command of the wagon train after the trail boss. In addition to cooking meals, he was also often the barber, doctor, banker and judge while out on the trail.
The chuckwagon was more than just a cafeteria to cowboys, though. It was the social hub of the wagon train. It's where everyone would gather to relax and exchange tall tales . It was like a home on the range!
Today, chuckwagons are mainly just a symbol of a simpler past. However, there are modern versions of chuckwagons in the form of mobile food suppliers that serve meals in areas where large numbers of workers gather, such as at a factory.
You might also see chuckwagons taking part in special horse races called chuckwagon races. Some western tourist attractions and dude ranches feature chuckwagon meals that let you get a taste — literally! — of what life was like in the old west.
Wonder Words (16)
| i don't know |
Although not making it as an official EON production until the 21st film, what was the first James Bond novel published in April, 1953? | JAMES BOND AND IAN FLEMING ON HER MAJESTY'S SECRET SERVICE MI6 007
JAMES BOND and IAN FLEMING
My favourite Bond for many years was Sean Connery. Soon Roger Moore showed he had something else to offer with his tongue in cheek quips; brilliant. Each time a film was released the production was that much more slick, which made every Bond movie a must see. Soon the hunt was on to replace Roger, when Timothy Dalton took the role in a new direction, more serious, but also entertaining. Finally, Pierce Brosnan was brought forward to bring back some of that Connery feel with sophistication and added something else. Now, Daniel Craig is re-defining the genre, with a more earthy grass roots approach I think many will enjoy. Whatever you think of Daniel he's got a hard line-up to compete with and unfortunately, the novels of Ian Fleming have proved difficult to emulate.
Nelson - shaken not stirred May 2004
Ian Fleming created James Bond when he wrote the first draft of Casino Royale. Between 1952 and 1964 he developed the character into that we know today. As Fleming had worked with Naval Intelligence and the CIA , his stories were largely based on factual experiences and his own travel and evening entertainment, focusing a lot on food.
The entire world has been watching James Bond movies for forty years. Albert R. "Cubby" Broccoli presented seventeen James Bond films from 1962-1995 and was the driving force behind the world's longest running film franchise in motion picture history. He knew what people wanted to see in Bond and made sure it was there. He was born in 1909 and died at his home in 1996 of a heart ailment after undergoing major heart surgery.
Broccoli began co-producing the Bond movies with Harry Saltzman in 1962 when they teamed up to make Dr. No. For those of you wondering why he shares his last name with a vegetable, it's because his ancestors in Italy were the first to cross the cauliflower with a rabe to produce 'broccoli.' Broccoli's production company, EON, (which stands for "Everything Or Nothing") is a subsidiary of Danjaq, but the death of Broccoli will have little impact since he has recently shared the workload with his wife and his stepson Michael Wilson. All Bond fans owe a tremendous amount of their hours of viewing pleasure to his talents, his expert guidance will be missed.
The last Bond movie benefited from more advances in special effects. Die Another Day: The story begins in the demilitarized zone between North and South Korea with a spectacular high-speed hovercraft chase and continues via Hong Kong to Cuba and London where Bond meets up with the two ladies who are to play such important and differing roles in his quest to unmask a traitor and to prevent a war of catastrophic consequence. Hot on the trail of the principle villains, Bond travels to Iceland where he experiences at first hand the power of an amazing new weapon before a dramatic confrontation with his main adversary back in Korea where it all starts.
THE BOND FILES - Daniel Craig becomes the sixth holder of the licence to kill October 2005.
AGE WHEN HE FIRST PLAYED BOND 43
BORN County Louth, Ireland, 1953
HEIGHT 185 centimetres
AGE WHEN HE FIRST PLAYED BOND 42
HISTORY
James Bond 007, is a fictional British spy created by writer Ian Fleming in 1952. Fleming wrote numerous novels and short stories based upon the character and, after his death in 1964, further literary adventures were written by Kingsley Amis (pseudonym 'Robert Markham'), John Pearson, John Gardner, Raymond Benson, and Charlie Higson. In addition, Christopher Wood wrote two screenplay novelisations and other authors have also written various unofficial permutations of the character.
Although initially made famous through the novels, James Bond is now best known from the EON Productions film series. Twenty-one films have been made (as of 2006) as well as two that were independently produced and one American television adaptation of Fleming's first novel under legal licence. The EON films are generally referred to as the 'official' films (although its origin is unclear, this terminology is used throughout this article). Albert R. "Cubby" Broccoli and Harry Saltzman produced most of these up until 1975, when Broccoli became the sole producer. From 1995, his daughter, Barbara Broccoli , and his stepson, Michael G. Wilson, jointly continued production duties.
Daniel Craig (2006�present).
In addition and generally considered "unofficial", Barry Nelson portrayed Bond in an Americanised television episode adaptation of Casino Royale in 1954. Bob Holness portrayed James Bond in a South African radio adaptation of Moonraker in 1956. David Niven played the role of James Bond in a non-EON production of Casino Royale in 1967, and Connery reprised the character in another non-EON film, Never Say Never Again in 1983, an update of 1965's Thunderball, in which he also starred. The 1973 BBC documentary Omnibus: The British Hero featured Christopher Cazenove playing a number of such title characters, including James Bond in dramatised scenes from Goldfinger and Diamonds Are Forever.
The twenty-first official film, Casino Royale , with Daniel Craig as James Bond, premiered on 14 November 2006, with the film going on general release in Asia and the Middle East the following day.
Broccoli and Saltzman's family company, Danjaq, LLC, has owned the James Bond film series, through EON, since the start. It became co-owner with United Artists Corporation since the mid-1970s, when Saltzman sold UA his share of Danjaq. Currently, Columbia Pictures and MGM (United Artists' parent) co-distribute the franchise.
In addition to novels and films, Bond is a prominent character in many computer and video games, comic strips and comic books, and has been the subject of many parodies.
Ian Fleming's creation and inspiration
Commander James Bond, CMG, RNVR is an agent of the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) (more commonly known as MI6). He was created in February 1952 by Ian Fleming while on holiday at his Jamaican estate called Goldeneye. The hero of Fleming's tale, James Bond, was named after an American ornithologist of the same name who was an expert on Caribbean birds and had written a definitive book on the subject: Birds of the West Indies. Fleming was inspired by a real spy - Du�an Popov , a Serb double agent for both the British and Germans, who was also known as a bit of a "playboy". Fleming, a keen birdwatcher, owned a copy of Bond's field guide at Goldeneye. Of the name, Fleming once said,
I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, James Bond was much better than something more interesting like 'Peregrine Maltravers.' Exotic things would happen to and around him but he would be a neutral figure � an anonymous blunt instrument wielded by a Government Department.
After completing the manuscript for what would later be titled Casino Royale, Fleming allowed his friend William Plomer, a poet and later Fleming's editor, to read it. Plomer liked it enough that he gave the manuscript to Jonathan Cape, who did not like it as much, but published it anyway in 1953 due to the fact that Ian was the younger brother of Peter Fleming, an established travel writer who also put in a good word for Ian.
Since the fictional James Bond's creation, hundreds of reports by various news outlets have suggested names for Ian Fleming's inspiration of Bond. Usually these people have a background of some kind in espionage or other covert operations. Although some names share similarities with Bond, none has ever been confirmed by Fleming, Ian Fleming Publications or any of Ian Fleming's biographers such as Fleming's assistant and friend, John Pearson. James Bond may have had its origin in Toronto, Ontario. British Naval Intelligence Commander Ian Fleming was invited by Sir William Stephenson, codename Intrepid, to observe and participate in the SOE subversive warfare training Syllabus at STS-103. Fleming had a private residence located on Avenue Road in Toronto, Canada because the camp was full. On Avenue Road, there is the St. James Bond United Church and the address of the military building was 1107 Avenue Road (Double ones 0 and 7 thus the number 007). The building no longer exists, but where it once stood is Marshall McLuhan Catholic Secondary School. Ironically Marshall McLuhan CSS was built by Bondfield Construction and completed in 2001. Most researchers agree that James Bond is a highly romanticised version of Fleming himself; the author was known for his jet-setting lifestyle and reputation as a womaniser. Both, for the most part, went to the same schools, like the same foods (e.g., scrambled eggs), have the same habits (e.g., drinking and smoking), share the same view on women (e.g., how they should look and how they should dress), and have similar education and military careers both rising to the rank of Commander. Although the character of Bond is not known to be based on anyone but Fleming himself, the look of James Bond, famed for being "suave and sophisticated", is based on a young Hoagy Carmichael. In Casino Royale the character Vesper Lynd says of Bond, "He reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless." Other characteristics of Bond's look are said to be based on Fleming, such as his height, his hairstyle and his eye colour.
Fleming has, however, admitted to being inspired by true or partially-true events that took place during his career at the Naval Intelligence Division of the Admiralty. Most notably, and the basis for Casino Royale, was a trip to Lisbon that Fleming and the Director of Naval Intelligence, Admiral Godfrey, took during World War II en route to the United States. While there they went to the Estoril Casino in Estoril, which, due to the neutral status of Portugal had a number of spies of warring regimes present. Fleming claimed that while there he was cleaned out by a "chief German agent" at a table playing Chemin de Fer; however, Admiral Godfrey tells a different story, that Fleming only played Portuguese businessmen and that afterwards Ian had fantasised about them being German agents and the excitement of cleaning them out.
The franchise
The James Bond franchise is currently the second all-time highest grossing film franchise in history, after Star Wars, and one of the longest running film series in history, spanning 21 official films, 2 unofficial films, 1 TV episode based on Casino Royale, and a cartoon television series spin-off. Casino Royale, the twenty-first film was released on 15 November 2006 with a follow-up film currently using the working title Bond 22 that will be released on 7 November 2008.
Every Bond film has been a box office success to a lesser or greater extent. They continue to earn substantial profits after their theatrical run via videotape, DVD, and television broadcasts; in the UK, Bond holds three of the top five spots of the most-watched television movies.
The first actor to play Bond on-screen was American Barry Nelson in the 1954 CBS television production of Casino Royale in which the character became a U.S. agent named "Jimmy Bond". In 1956, Bob Holness provided the voice of Bond in a South African radio adaptation of Fleming's third novel, Moonraker.
Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli started the official cinematic run of Bond in 1962, with Dr. No starring Sean Connery. The films made by their production company, EON Productions are regarded as the "official films" by all parties, although the 3 "unofficial" adaptations were authorised.
The official series had set up a semi-regular schedule of releases: initially annually, then usually once every two years, although there have been a couple of times where the gap was larger, usually due to external events.
From Russia with Love is the novel credited with sparking the James Bond craze when it was listed as one of John F. Kennedy's favourite books
Since Bond's peak of popularity in 1965, with the release of Thunderball, critics have often predicted that his successful run would come to an end, usually believing that the films were out of touch with the times. After the release of On Her Majesty's Secret Service, George Lazenby quit the lead role for this very reason, even though he was offered a seven-film contract. By the 1980s, some critics had grown tired of the series, commenting that the perennial sexism and glamorous locales had become outdated, and that Bond's smooth, unruffled exterior did not mesh with competing movies like Die Hard . The hard-edge of Timothy Dalton in the Bond films of the late 1980s met a mixed response from moviegoers: some welcomed the earthier style reminiscent of Fleming's character, while others missed the light-hearted approach which characterised the Roger Moore era. While Dalton's final outing, Licence to Kill (1989), was financially successful, it did not prove as popular as previous installments. Its relative failure is usually blamed on a poor promotional campaign in the United States, Dalton's darker portrayal of Bond, and its status as the first Bond film to be rated PG-13 in the US and "15" in the UK . Regardless, a new Bond film was scheduled for release in 1991. However, legal wrangling over ownership of the character led to a protracted delay that would keep Bond off movie screens for the next six years, during which time Dalton had moved on.
The 1990s saw a revival and renewal of the series beginning with GoldenEye in 1995. Pierce Brosnan filled 007's shoes with a mix of Sean Connery cool and Roger Moore wit. The combination saw Bond's success return to a level it hadn't enjoyed since 1979's Moonraker. In all, Brosnan made four films before being replaced in 2006 by Daniel Craig, who will star in a reboot of the series. Although Craig's Casino Royale is the 21st film of the series, it will be Bond's first mission after obtaining his double-0 status from MI6.
The James Bond novels and films have ranged from realistic spy drama to science fiction. The original books by Fleming are usually dark � lacking fantasy or gadgets. Instead, they established the formula of unique villains, outlandish plots, and voluptuous women who tend to fall in love with Bond at first sight � the feeling often being mutual. The films expanded on Fleming's books, adding gadgets from Q Branch, death-defying stunts, and often abandoning the original plotlines for more outlandish and cinema-friendly adventures. The cinematic Bond adventures were initially influenced by earlier spy thrillers such as North by Northwest, Saboteur, and Journey Into Fear, but later entries became formulaic dramas where Bond saves the world from apocalyptic madmen. Inevitably, Bond's nemesis tries to kill him with a death-trap, during which the villain reveals vital information. Bond later escapes and uses this intelligence to thwart the evil plot. In many cases, Bond then kills his opponent himself, although early films often ended with the enemy either escaping or dying by someone else's hand.
Novels
In February 1952, Ian Fleming began work on his first James Bond novel. At the time, Fleming was the Foreign Manager for Kemsley Newspapers, an organisation owned by the London Sunday Times . Upon accepting the job, Fleming asked that he be allowed two months vacation per year. Between 1953 and his death in 1964, Fleming published 12 full-length novels and one short story collection (a second collection appeared after his death). Later, continuation novels were written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham), John Gardner and Raymond Benson; the last of these books was published in 2002. In 2005 Young Bond, a new series of novels featuring the adventures of Bond as a teenager began, written by Charlie Higson.
Films - Eon Films
The James Bond film series from EON Productions has a number of its own traditions, many of which date back to the very first movie in 1962.
Since Dr. No, each film begins with what is known as the James Bond gun barrel sequence, which introduces Agent 007. Appearing to be filmed through a rifled gun barrel, as if from a bullet's perspective, the scene is a side-on view of Bond walking, then quickly turning and shooting. The scene then reddens (signifying the spilling of the would-be assassin's blood); the gun barrel dissolves to a white circle. In Dr. No, the circle then becomes part of the opening credits motif, while in From Russia with Love and Goldfinger, the circle shrinks and disappears and the opening scene simply appears. Since Thunderball, the circle has opened up to reveal the pre-title sequence of the film. This was altered slightly in Bond's 20th cinematic outing, Die Another Day. When Bond turns and shoots, a computer generated bullet from Bond's gun passes through the gun barrel. The sequence then continues as usual. The long-standing tradition was broken in Casino Royale when the film began with a cold open and integrated the sequence into the scene's action.
Pierce Brosnan as James Bond in the gun barrel sequence
After this introduction, every film (with the exception of Dr. No) would start with a pre-credits teaser, also popularly known as the "opening gambit". Usually the scene features 007 finishing up a previous mission before taking on the case from the film, and does not always relate to his main objective. Some of the teasers tie in with the plot (as in Live and Let Die). Since The Spy Who Loved Me in 1977, they have often involved attention-grabbing action sequences, which have tended to become larger and more elaborate with each film. The World Is Not Enough (1999) holds the record for the longest, running more than 15 minutes, whereas most run about seven to ten minutes.
After the teaser sequence, the opening credits begin, during which an arty display of scantily clad and even (discreetly) naked females can be seen doing a variety of activities from dancing, jumping on off-screen trampolines, to shooting weapons. (Or in the case of Live and Let Die, having their heads explode) This title sequence is a trademark and a staple of the series. The best known of the Bond title designers is Maurice Binder, who created them for fourteen films from 1962 to 1989. Since Binder's death in 1991, Daniel Kleinman has designed the credits and has introduced CG elements not present during his predecessor's era. While the credits run, the main theme of the film is usually sung by a popular artist of the time. Until GoldenEye, which featured motifs such as a two headed 'Janus' figure, the backdrop was unrelated to the plot of the film, although the design may reflect an overall theme (e.g., You Only Live Twice uses a Japanese motif as well as images of a volcano , both of which are elements of the movie itself). Goldfinger uses short glimpses of the film projected onto women's bodies, and On Her Majesty's Secret Service uses clips from all of the five preceding films shown running through an hourglass. For Your Eyes Only begins with Sheena Easton singing the title song on-screen. Die Another Day's titles are unusual in that the images advance the storyline by depicting Bond's torture following his capture by the North Koreans. The credits for GoldenEye depict the fall of the Soviet Union and thus provide a transition from the pre-fall era of the opening sequence to the post-fall setting of the rest of the narrative, which is set nine years later. The Bond films are unusual in retaining full opening and closing credits: since the late 1990s it has become common for most blockbuster films to save detailed credits for the end, with only the title shown at the beginning.
Countries James Bond visited in the films
Agent 007's famous introduction, "Bond, James Bond", became a catchphrase after it was first uttered (with a cigarette in the corner of his mouth) by Sean Connery in Dr. No. Since then, the phrase has entered the lexicon of Western popular culture as the epitome of polished, understated machismo. On June 21, 2005 it was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the American Film Institute as part of their 100 Years Series. Bond's customary beverage order, "Vodka martini. Shaken, not stirred", which was first uttered by him in Goldfinger (although it is actually first said on screen by the villain in Dr. No, and referenced even earlier in the same film), was also honoured as #90 on the same list.
Every film, except Dr. No (1962) and Thunderball (1965), has the line: "James Bond will return..." or "James Bond will be back" during or after the final credits. Up until Octopussy (1983), the end-credit line would also name the next title to be produced ("James Bond will return in..."). Over the years, the sequel has been incorrectly named three times. The first, 1964's Goldfinger, announced in early prints that Bond would return in On Her Majesty's Secret Service. However, the producers changed their mind shortly after release and subsequently corrected future editions of the film. In 1977, The Spy Who Loved Me stated that 007 would be back in For Your Eyes Only, but EON Productions decided to instead take advantage of the Star Wars craze and release Moonraker, whose plot was changed to involve outer space (unlike Goldfinger, however, EON chose not to correct the credits of The Spy Who Loved Me, so the error remains). Thirdly, Octopussy incorrectly states the next film as being From a View to a Kill, the original literary title of A View to a Kill. In the most recent Bond films, the title of the next film has been omitted, saying simply 'James Bond will return'. The liner-notes of a 'Best of Bond' music compilation CD stated that this was because the early films all used titles from Fleming's novels; having outpaced the novels with the current Bond films, the abbreviated form is used instead.
Every aficionado has a favourite Bond: Sean Connery � the tough guy, his machismo ready beneath the polished persona; George Lazenby � the controversial ultra-macho man, equally loved and despised; Roger Moore � the sophisticate, a perfect gentleman, rarely mussing his hair while saving the world; Timothy Dalton � the hard-edged literarily-authentic character; and Pierce Brosnan � the polished man of action. Every actor who auditions for the Bond role must always perform a scene from From Russia With Love, where he hears a noise and investigates, only to discover a beautiful stranger on his bed.
There is also lively debate on the best Bond movie, with most major film critics giving the top mark to either From Russia with Love (Connery's favourite, as he re-asserted in a 2002 ABC interview with Sam Donaldson) or its brassy follow-up, Goldfinger. Despite George Lazenby's short tenure in the tuxedo, some reviewers have also warmed to On Her Majesty's Secret Service � Leonard Maltin's TV Movies (a.k.a. Leonard Maltin�s Movie & Video Guide) review book states it might have been the best Bond film ever had Connery appeared in it; Raymond Benson concurs in The James Bond Bedside Companion.
| Casino Royale |
The fictional utopian valley known as Shangri-La first appeared in what 1933 novel by English writer James Hilton? | 2007 Ford Mondeo To Star In Casino Royale | car News @ Top Speed
2007 Ford Mondeo to star in Casino Royale
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The all-new Ford Mondeo makes its screen debut in EON Productions’ new James Bond movie, CASINO ROYALE, which opens in cinemas around the world from November 17, 2006. Cinema goers will be the first to see the new 2007 Ford Mondeo in action at the hands of the new James Bond, actor Daniel Craig. Although an Aston Martin remains James Bond’s car of choice, the new Mondeo is the first car to appear in the film as Bond uses it to drive to a hotel after arriving in the Bahamas on the trail of a terrorist cell.
"We’re delighted to be part of this exciting new Bond project," said Stephen Odell, Ford of Europe Vice President for Marketing Sales and Service. "As part of Ford Motor Company’s significant relationship with Bond, the producers wanted a very special vehicle for this short, early sequence in CASINO ROYALE, and we decided this was a great opportunity to showcase the exciting new Mondeo shortly after the global reveal of a preview model at the 2006 Paris Motor Show."
The model is a specially-built 5-door example of the new Mondeo, fitted with a sports bodykit. Finished in striking Tonic blue, the new Mondeo property was constructed by hand at Ford of Europe’s Design Studio in Cologne, Germany, in January, 2006.
Appropriately for a Bond movie, the vehicle was then shipped under great secrecy to the filming location in the Bahamas, where the short driving sequence was filmed
This sounds simple enough, and although the car in question may not be one of Bond’s more complicated ’special’ vehicles, in reality the task of getting a new Mondeo to the Bahamas in time for the filming and more than one year before the car’s launch was immense.
The new Mondeo was essentially still on the drawing board when we were asked to supply the vehicle for filming in February 2006," said Martin Smith, Ford of Europe’s Executive Director for Design. "As volume production for the car doesn’t start until the second quarter of 2007, we had to create a one-off, driveable model based around a design studio property!"
Time was also of the essence, and a team of craftsmen in Ford’s Merkenich Design Studio near Cologne, worked night and day for several weeks to complete the car and make it driveable.
"This team normally builds the clay and fiberglass models of all of our future products, so they are used to demanding timeframes and making full-scale models look like real vehicles," Smith added.
Once completed, the Mondeo was shipped to the CASINO ROYALE set in the Bahamas, hidden in a purpose-built crate.
Despite the speed with which it was constructed, and the non-standard materials that were used to build it, the Design team was determined to make the car look suitable for the role.
"We wanted the property to be fully representative of a top-of-the-range new Mondeo," Smith added. "The end result is so convincing that you would never know its origins, and we even added a unique body kit to the vehicle to emphasise its sporty and dynamic design."
"On the big screen, the new Mondeo looks impressive and eye-catching, and we’re convinced this appearance, although brief, will stimulate early customer interest in the new model," added Odell.
In addition to its cameo role in the new film, the special Bond Mondeo will also feature in a specially made pan-European Ford television commercial inviting viewers to ’discover the secret world of 007’ and showing footage of the car in action in the Bahamas.
Proud Association
For Ford of Europe, this is not the first time that a popular new model has been previewed in a Bond film before the car itself has gone on sale.
In 1976, as Ford was about to launch its all-new Taunus-Cortina model, the company provided a pre-production vehicle for a brief appearance in "The Spy Who Loved Me". In the sequence filmed on Sardinia’s Costa Smeralda, Bond is chased by the Taunus-Cortina which eventually careers off the mountain road and through the roof of a cottage.
"We’re proud of our association over the years with the film business, and in particular the Bond movies," Odell said. "It is particularly exciting for us to have this appearance by Ford’s all-new flagship model in the same film that introduces a new James Bond."
CASINO ROYALE
CASINO ROYALE, the 21st James Bond adventure in the most successful franchise in film history, began principal photography on Monday 30 th January 2006 in the Czech Republic. Produced for Eon Productions by Michael G Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, directed by Martin Campbell and starring Daniel Craig in his debut as 007, it is based on Ian Fleming’s first novel to feature the ultimate secret agent, which was published in 1953.
CASINO ROYALE traces the early career of James Bond. His first “007” mission leads him to Le Chiffre (Mads Mikkelsen), banker to the world’s terrorists. In order to stop him, and bring down the terrorist network, Bond must beat Le Chiffre in a high-stakes poker game at Casino Royale. Bond is initially annoyed when a beautiful Treasury official, Vesper Lynd (Eva Green), is assigned to deliver his stake for the game and watch over the government’s money. But, as Bond and Vesper survive a series of lethal attacks by Le Chiffre and his henchmen, a mutual attraction develops leading them both into further danger and events that will shape Bond’s life forever.
With a screenplay by Neal Purvis & Robert Wade and Oscar winner, Paul Haggis, CASINO ROYALE was filmed in Prague and Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic, on New Providence and Paradise Islands in The Bahamas and at Lake Como and Venice in Italy, before returning to the UK. Back in the UK, the production filmed at Dunsfold Airfield in Surrey, in Buckinghamshire’s Black Park and on the legendary 007 stage at Pinewood Studios.
British actor Daniel Craig is introduced in the role of James Bond in CASINO ROYALE, supported by a strong international cast. Judi Dench once more appears as M, the Head of the British Secret Service. Vesper Lynd, the first woman with whom James Bond falls in love, is played by French actress Eva Green, and Danish actor Mads Mikkelsen takes the role of Le Chiffre, international money launderer and Bond’s rival in the high stakes poker game at the heart of the film.
American Jeffrey Wright plays Felix Leiter, Bond’s ally in the CIA, and distinguished Italian actor Giancarlo Giannini takes the role of Mathis, his MI6 contact. Caterina Murino, also Italian, plays Solange, the beautiful but unhappy wife of one of Le Chiffre’s villainous associates, who succumbs to Bond’s charms.
CASINO ROYALE is an Albert R Broccoli presentation of an EON production produced by Michael G Wilson and Barbara Broccoli, directed by Martin Campbell from a screenplay by Neal Purvis & Robert Wade and Paul Haggis, based on the novel by Ian Fleming, from Metro Goldwyn Mayer Pictures and Columbia Pictures through Sony Pictures Releasing.
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The humerus, paired radius, and ulna come together to form what joint? | Homburg Hat - Past, Present & Future — Gentleman's Gazette
Generally, most people do not know exactly what a Homburg hat is, and even the hat-wearing set may only know a few tidbits about the hat made famous by Edward VII.
Prince of Wales Bertie in Homburg Hat ca. 1890
Despite being lesser-known, I would consider the Homburg to be a wardrobe staple in every classic gentleman’s wardrobe. Since we pride ourselves on our detailed coverage of topics not explored elsewhere, I took it upon myself to visit the city of Bad Homburg, where the hat was supposedly invented. In the following, I would like to share the origins and history of the hat, in addition to its shape variations and its future role in men’s fashion.
History of the Homburg Hat
In order to find out more about the origins of this hat, I visited the hat Museum at the Gotisches Haus (Gothic House) in Bad Homburg, Germany. There are several theories of how the Homburg hat was invented.
Edward VII – The Inventor of the Homburg
Some people suggest that the birth of the Homburg can be pin pointed to August 29, 1882, because the local newspaper Taunusbote first reported on the hat on August 30, 1882. Back then, Bad Homburg was a spa destination patronized by the rich and famous that was renowned for its healing waters. As such, Edward VII visited Bad Homburg regularly. One of the tourist sights in this exclusive town was the state of the art hat factory Möckel, where tours were organized on a regular basis. Supposedly, Edward VII ordered a Homburg hat that day, bringing visibility to the style that ultimately popularized it around the world. In my opinion, there is no doubt that he was the reason the Homburg’s fame spread around the globe. However, it is doubtful that he invented it out of the blue that very day.
Kaiser Wilhelm II with Hunting Homburg Hat
The Homburg – Kaiser Wilhelm II’s Hunting Hat
There are some people who claim that Edward VII was inspired by the design of a German hunting hat. In fact, Kaiser Wilhelm’s green hunting hat -as seen in the video below – has a remarkable resemblance to the Homburg hat that is worn by Edward VII in the first picture, don’t you think. ? In any case, the shapes are rather similar and it seems to be a reasonable assertion, especially given that the Kaiser also had his hats made by Möckel. Furthermore, both men spent time in Bad Homburg together and they were cousins.
Apart from this argument, it is also entirely possible that the hat was actually invented by another person. That would be similar situation to the ironically named Panama Hat , which was actually invented in Ecuador. Either way, the origins of the hat may never be conclusively proven. In any case, Kaiser Wilhelm’d rather informal country hat was transformed, nearly overnight, into an elegant city hat that became extremely popular for the gentry across Europe. Möckel benefited greatly from this development; after all, they made the first hat for the King and went on to receive a Royal Warrant in 1909.
Cristiano Lobbia Hat
Homburg Hat with light grey brim edge & black hat band
A third theory attributes the invention of the Homburg hat to the Italian Cristiano Lobbia (1826-1876) . He was involved in battles and investigations of various kinds which earn him not always just friends. According to some, in 1869 he was attacked with a stick while he was wearing his bowler hat. Others claim he fell and his hat creased because of it. In any case, he supposedly entered Parliament with that very same hat showing a dented crease in the middle and a business savvy Florentine hatter began to make and advertise this hat as a Lobbia hat. Unfortunately, the name of the hatter remains unknown and there seems to be no other evidence for this theory.
Möckel
The hat factory Möckel was founded in 1806 by Johann Georg Möckel in Bad Homburg, who came from a longstanding hatmaking family. His son was interested in machines and traveling, which resulted in his frequent discovery of new machinery at the exhibitions of the era. As such, Möckel was always at the forefront of modern hat making, and so it does not surprise that they were the first company in Bad Homburg to utilize a steam engine in 1856. By 1890, the company had 100 employees and exported their top quality hats to numerous countries. The company symbol used to be a dove with a hat in its beak, symbolizing the light weight quality of the final product.
Homburg Hat and Boater in 1910
Although Möckel continued to grow through the 1920’s, the world economic crisis that began in 1929 forced the company to cease operations on December 31, 1931. The Homburg hat, of course, was still a very popular choice of men about town.
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Homburg Hat Styles & Shapes
The Kaiser’s hunting hat was pale green with a dark headband and a curled bound brim. Edward VII had Möckel make a more city appropriate version of the hat in grey felt. Both versions had a tapered crown and a rolled bound-edge trim of repp band. Unlike the bowler or the top hat, the Homburg was a not hard but slightly stiffened soft felt hat. Overall, it was an elegant felt hat that was not as formal as the hard hats. As such, it was often worn when strolling in town or in place of a boater hat. The picture to the right shows King Konstantin of Greece, Prince Friedrich Karl von Hessen and Prince Constantin von Schaumburg-Lippe (both princes of German duchies) wearing a Homburg hat and a boater.
Churchill in Grey Homburg with lighter colored edge trim
Until about 1914, the Homburg kept this position on the hat formality scale. The repp band on the brim was sometimes light grey, while the hat band was the same color or darker. Over time, the brim curl diminished, and the crown lost some height. After WWI, the hat became darker in color; black was the most popular color, especially in the 1950s. For example, German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer would wear a black Homburg hat (in a size 57) made by Habig, an Austrian hat maker based in Vienna! With the disappearance of the top hat and bowler, the Homburg was now one of the most formal hats for daywear such as the morning coat or the stroller suit . Dwight D. Eisenhower wore a dark grey homburg hat with a stroller suit for his inauguration on January 20, 1953. In black, it was also appropriate for black tie , however it was never considered to be suitable for white tie .
Anthony Eden Hat – a Homburg
In Britain, Earl and politician Anthony Eden is probably the most well-known Homburg hat wearer. In fact, his black hat was so characteristic that became widely known as the Anthony Eden Hat or just the Eden Hat, although others before him – like Churchill – had worn it frequently. It must be mentioned that the Anthony Eden Hat is not a special hat in any way – it is a plain, black Homburg but for some reason that name stuck in people’s minds.
Even the fictional realm, the always dapper Hercule Poirot never leaves the house without a Homburg hat.
Today, the Homburg hat remains a formal hat, though very few men wear it anymore. Personally, I own a number of Homburgs in black, grey, brown, charcoal and blue. They suit my face and they are often more appropriate than a snap brim hat, especially with business suits and a tuxedo. The next time you are at a hat store, try on a Homburg – you may like the look on you.
The Lords Hat
The Lord’s Hat – A Relative of the Homburg
A near relative of the Homburg hat is the so-called “Lord’s Hat“. Although identical in shape, it does not have a bound brim and the crown is usually pinched. As such, it is not a true Homburg. They are difficult to find and usually only available as a custom made hat. Personally, I prefer the look with the bound brim edge because I think it looks more interesting, especially if the color of brim edge and hat band are different, but this is just personal taste.
The Future of the Homburg Hat
Although you rarely see them on the streets, there will probably always be a few distinguished men who appreciate the elegance of a good Homburg hat. If you are a hat wearer, chances are you already have a few snap brims in your collection, so next time, instead of looking at a Trilby or a Pork Pie, put on a Homburg and see how it looks. I am certain you will look splendid!
Do you wear Homburg hats? If so, where do you purchase them?
Really enjoyed this article as I’m searching for a good homburg at the moment and have found one here in Melbourne made by a new Zealand based company
Ahmed Sajeel
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April 21 1962 saw the opening of Century 21 Exposition, the first worlds fair held in the US since the start of WWII, right here in the Emerald City. What was the name of the Elvis Presley movie filmed during the 6 months of the fair? | booklist | BEYOND RIVALRY
BEYOND RIVALRY
Scarpetta (2008) by Patricia Cornwell. Forensic crime fiction. Excellent.
Offshore (1979) by Penelope Fitzgerald. For bookgroup. Won Booker Prize. Not sure why …
February
Before the Frost (2004) by Henning Mankell. Police procedural/thriller set in parts of Sweden and in Copenhagen, Denmark. Begins with the killings at Jonestown, Guyana. Good.
Jesus’ Plan for a New World: The Sermon on the Mount (1996) by Richard Rohr. Some quibbles, but in all, I liked it and found it inspirational.
Animal, Vegetable, Miracle (2007) by Barbara Kingsolver. Tedious, amusing, informative, interesting, irritating, engaging, by turns. She makes lots of arguments for eating locally, sustainably, and humanely grown everything, including animals.
The Oldie Annual 2009 (2008). Hardbound collection of essays and articles from The Oldie magazine. Mostly LOL hilarious, sometimes poignant, occasionally baffling.
One Step Behind (1997; transl. 2002) by Henning Mankell, a Kurt Wallander crime novel, set mostly in Sweden. Liked it, found it very engaging (read it in three days), though in some ways it was too similar to his only Linda Wallander crime novel, which I read earlier in the month.
March
Firewall (1998; transl. 2002) by Henning Mankell, a Kurt Wallander crime novel, set mostly in Sweden, and a bit in Angola. Again, there were plot aspects in this novel that were similar to bits in the other two novels of his that I’ve read. And as in the other two, the killers’ pov is offered at times.
Lethal Legacy (2009), 11th in the Alex Cooper series, set in NYC, by Linda Fairstein. So-so. I like the tone and ambiance of this series, but often there’s too much historical information packed in, awkwardly. This one was about rare books and maps, rare map and book collecting, and the history of the New York Public Library.
The Man Who Smiled (1994; transl. 2005) by Henning Mankell. Another in the Wallander series. First one I’ve read in the series that didn’t include the killer’s pov.
The Fifth Woman (1996; transl. 2000) by Henning Mankell, in the Wallander series. This one includes killer’s pov. Motive is revenge for others’ sakes, or for the sake of ‘justice.’ Besides the murder plot, there is a small sidebar on vigilante justice and citizens’ militias in the face of perceived police ineffectiveness and rising societal violence.
The Heart is a Lonely Hunter (1940), the classic by Carson McCullers. I liked it. Set in the poor South in the late 1930s, it’s a bit dismal and it also seems true.
Scattered Graves (2009) by Beverly Connor in the Diane Fallon series. Set in Georgia. As usual, the constant level of action that Fallon is involved in without actually being killed (or even breaking a bone) requires major suspension of disbelief, but I like the series. This one focused on cybercrime.
April
Donna Leon’s The Girl of His Dreams (2008), in the Commissario Guido Brunetti series. This is the second I’ve read in the series and as with the first, I just couldn’t get into it. Kind of boring, the mysteries not complex or satisfying, the dialogue only OK. I do like the talk of food and the regular references to the leisurely pace of eating in Italy. This one was about political corruption and ethnic tensions, particularly between the Venetians and the Gypsies (Romanies) living in Venice. Doubt I will read another.
Still Waters (2007) by Nigel McCrery, apparently the first in a new series set in the UK and featuring DCI Mark Lapslie, who has synaesthesia — he tastes sounds. The plot focused on a traumatised child who grew into a (seemingly friendly and harmless) psychopathic serial killer. (Think Miss Marple if she had turned to a life of committing crime instead of a life solving it.) I liked it, though two or three times I found it melodramatic and too obvious.
The Guernsey Literary and Potato Peel Pie Society (2008) by Mary Ann Shaffer and Annie Barrows is probably best described as a romance novel. Our bookgroup is reading it this month (casting about for something light and quick after The Heart is a Lonely Hunter) , and like many popular bookgroup reads, it’s pretty bad. It’s an epistolary novel, set in 1946 in the immediate aftermath of the 5-year Nazi occupation of Guernsey, an English island among the Channel Islands between the UK and France. It’s very obvious very early on how it will end and it’s a bit of a slog to get there. The letters are charming, the heroines exceptionally kind and brave, and the plot boring as can be.
Mind’s Eye (published as The Wide-Meshed Net in Sweden, 1993; transl. 2008) by Håkan Nesser, an Inspector Van Veeteren Mystery, set some place in northern Europe, in a city called Maardam (which Wikipedia says is “in a country which is never named but resembles Sweden, the Netherlands, Poland and Germany. The names however are mostly Dutch.”) First in the series. Felt unbalanced, with most of the book taken up in abstraction, leaving the plot condensed and almost limited to the last few pages. Sometimes people weren’t named, so the reader has to guess whose pov we’re getting, or whose actions are being described.
The Glass Devil (2003; transl. English 2007) by Helene Tursten, apparently the second in the Irene Huss series, set in Göteborg, Sweden. I liked it a lot. This one concerned Satanism, Christian religion and child pornography, and was set both in Sweden and in London (and briefly in Edinburgh).
The Torso (2000; transl. English 2006) by Helene Tursten, third in the Irene Huss Swedish police procedural series. Set in Göteborg, Sweden and in Copenhagen, Denmark. Excellent, if very graphic and dark, as you might expect with sadistic necrophilia as its focus. The characterisation in this series is strong, and the plotting elements are tight. My only major annoyance with this book was that I knew who did it 100 pages before the police figured it out. I wondered if they ever would.
All the Colours of Darkness (2008) by Peter Robinson, the 18th in the Alan Banks police procedural series, set in Eastvale (Yorkshire) and London. I was 3 months on the library waiting list for this! Always worth the wait; Robinson is one of the best crime fiction writers, and Alan Banks and Annie Cabot are sympathetic figures. This one took its cues from Othello, with its successful incitement of jealous rages, with some M16 thrown in for good conspiracy measure.
Ladder of Years (1995) by Anne Tyler. A re-read, for bookgroup. Lovely fiction, set in Baltimore (Roland Park) and the Eastern Shore. My favourite of hers.
May
Detective Inspector Huss (1998; transl. English 2003) by Helene Tursten, first in the Irene Huss Swedish police procedural series. Set in Göteborg, Sweden. My least fav. of the three in this series so far available in English. Involved Hell’s Angels, skinheads, drug dealing, and a wealthy family and their associates. Set at Advent.
Sidetracked (1995; transl. 1999) by Henning Mankell, a early entry in the Wallender police procedural series. Set in Sweden, mostly in Ystad and Malmo, in summer. Killer’s pov included; motive is avenging injustice done to others via sacrificing the unjust as propitiation. Other plot aspects include relationships between parents and children, and political corruption and trafficking of under-age prostitutes from South America to Europe. And betting on World Cup soccer.
Faceless Killers (1991; transl. 1997) by Henning Mankell, the first the Kurt Wallender series. No killer pov. His least dark book, imo, but one that evokes a sense of sadness, grief, loss. Focus on asylum-seekers and the tension between liberal immigration policies and racism. Set from January to early fall, in Ystad, Malmo, Lunnarp, Kristianstad.
Borkmann’s Point (1994; transl. 2006) by Håkan Nesser, an Inspector Van Veeteren Mystery, set some place in northern Europe, in a town called Kaalbringen. Excellent plot, deft writing. As with so many of these books (crime novels? Swedish/Northern European crime novels?), the motive is ostensibly to avenge another of a perceived injustice.
He Who Fears the Wolf (1997; transl. 2003) 3rd in the Sejer/Skarre series in Norway. An elderly widow in a small village is killed, and the troubled boy who finds the body also reports seeing recently escaped (and roundly feared) mental patient Errki Johrma in the area. Then Johrma turns up as the hostage in a bank robbery, and he’s taken by the robber to hide out in a cabin.
Don’t Look Back (2002; transl. 2002) by Karin Fossum, an Inspector Sejer mystery, set someplace in Norway. Very readable,with good balance of interior monologue, dialogue, plot activity, atmosphere, etc. Plot OK though stretched believability in spots (especially at the end). Character development, oddly, seemed stronger for the deceased than for the police (Sejer and sidekick Skarre) — unusual in a police procedural series! Children and teens prominent in the book.
Winter Study (2008) by Nevada Barr in the Anna Pigeon National Parks series. This one is set in winter at Isle Royale in Lake Superior, as was Barr’s Superior Death (1994). Fast-paced, lots of plot and lots of setting. Some animal-on-animal killing and human-on-animal killing, as well as the usual interhuman crimes. What I like about this series is primarily Anna — her dark humour, her no-frills ‘yes you can!’ approach, her psychic damage, her innate humaneness coupled with an edge that’s both anxious and cynical.
The Indian Bride (2005; aka Calling Out For You), by Karin Fossum in the Inspector Sejer series. Exploration of small-town relationships: gossip, adulteries, repressions, observations from the shadows, whispers, broken friendships, etc. Though someone is charged with murder, it’s all left rather open-ended whether he’s actually guilty, whether someone else in town did it. Pet dogs are also a bit of a sidebar. Rather a sweet book, really.
Back When We Were Grownups (2001) by Anne Tyler. Another lovely book. Tyler’s writing is so perceptive, funny, compassionate, down-to-earth honest. When I read her books, I feel that I am really inhabiting the world of the story. This is the story of a widow, a young grandmother who is the step-mother of three daughters and mother of another, who feels in her 50s that she is living a false life, so she gets in touch with a jilted college boyfriend to try to find her true life.
The Return (1995, transl. 2007) by Håkan Nesser, an Inspector Van Veeteren Mystery, set in fictional Maardam in northern Europe, in which the police return to two old murders, for which a man who has now himself been murdered was convicted on very little evidence. Morally, a particularly interesting ending. In this case, none of the murders was committed to avenge another.
The Clock Winder (1972) by Anne Tyler. I read this about 15 years ago and much of it came back to me as I re-read it. It’s a novel about a somewhat aimless, passive, agreeable young woman who is terrified that she will inflict permanent damage to others if she acts decisively. She gets a job as a handyman for an older widow in Baltimore’s Roland Park and becomes enmeshed in the woman’s family.
Earthly Possessions (1977) by Anne Tyler. Sort of a variation on, or a rehearsal of, Ladder of Years. In this one, the disaffected woman is kidnapped instead of making a definite choice to leave. I sympathise with her desire to remove clutter. This book is not set in Baltimore. It’s a road trip to Florida.
June
Sun and Shadow (1999; transl. 2003) by Åke Edwardson, an Erik Winter police procedural novel set in Gothenburg, Sweden. Quite a lot about Winter and his personal life (his father dies, his girlfriend becomes pregnant and moves in). The mystery plot was OK; I felt that the ending was rushed and unsatisfying, and there seems to have been a huge red herring, but I’d have to go back and reread to make sure of that.
Never End (2000; transl. 2006) by Åke Edwardson, an Erik Winter police procedural novel set in Gothenburg, Sweden. Involves rape and murder. The ending didn’t feel so abrupt in this one as Sun and Shadow but it still wasn’t very convincing. I felt there were lots of threads left hanging. The writing is pleasant to read, though.
Black Seconds (2002; transl. 2007) by Karin Fossum, in the Inspector Sejer series, set in Norway. Again, children and teens prominent, and again, someone with a developmental disability and/or autism a focal point. Plotting felt good to me. Ending not a big surprise, made sense. Sejer and Skarre are likable characters.
Jar City (2000, transl. 2004, aka Tainted Blood) by Arnaldur Indriðason, the first (in English) in the Inspector Erlendur police procedural series. (The cover blurb calls it a ‘thriller’ but it’s not.) Set in Iceland, mostly in Reykjavik. Not bad. Plotting elements: rape, genetics, parent-child relationships.
Woman with Birthmark (1996, transl. 2009) by Håkan Nesser, an Inspector Van Veeteren Mystery, set in fictional Maardam in northern Europe. Killer is avenging wrong done to her mother by systematically killing the men involved. Not much story beyond the plot, which is a little slow.
The Draining Lake (2004, transl. 2007 ) by Arnaldur Indriðason, the fifth (in English) in the Inspector Erlendur police procedural series. Set in Iceland, mostly in Reykjavik, and in East Germany (Leipzig) in the late 1950s. Strong emphasis on socialism and how far from its ideals it strayed in Eastern bloc countries after WWII. Could be considered a reservoir noir novel ; although a town isn’t uncovered, a long-dead body is when an Icelandic lake is suddenly drained of water due to an earthquake. Another theme in the book is coincidence.
Voices (2003, transl. 2006) by Arnaldur Indriðason, the fourth (in English) in the Inspector Erlendur police procedural series. Set in Iceland, mostly at a hotel. There are two plots, one the murder of a middle-aged hotel doorman who had once been a choirboy with an amazing voice, and the other the court case of a boy who seems to have been abused by his father. Much of Erlendur’s interior monologue concerns a pivotal incident from his own childhood.
Olive Kitteridge (2008) by Elizabeth Strout, a Pulitzer Prize winner, read for bookgroup. Not a novel but a series of short stories set mostly in Maine, some of which focus on Olive Kitteridge, a former math teacher with a strong personality, and some of which simply mention her in passing. Very quick read. A bit disappointing. The idea is that the reader would see Olive from various angles and perspectives (her son’s, her husband’s, her former students, other people in town, her own sense of herself) but I felt that that was told to us rather than shown to us in most cases. Still, lovely slice-of-life writing, with some insight and humour.
The Princess of Burundi (2006) by Kjell Eriksson, a debut novel that won the Swedish Crime Academy’s award for best crime novel. Set in Uppsala, focuses on the torture and murder of a family man, tropical fish hobbyish, and small-time criminal. I sort of lost the plot somewhere but the writing is good and I look forward to learning more about some of the police officers.
July
Missing (2000, transl. 2003) by Karin Alvtegen won the Best Nordic Crime Novel in 2000. It’s about a woman on the margins of society who is wanted for brutal murders she hasn’t committed. This is not a police procedural, and in fact police are rarely mentioned other than as faceless dangers to be avoided, because they and the media, sure that this woman is guilty, are relentlessly trying to track her down. Not so much a crime novel as a thriller, I’d say. Strong development of the primary character (including through flashbacks of her oppressive childhood), good pacing, somewhat disappointing denoument.
Frozen Tracks (2001; transl. 2007) by Åke Edwardson, an Erik Winter police procedural novel set in Gothenburg, Sweden. No actual murder takes place. This is very much a ‘sins of the fathers’ sort of novel, in which damage done by dads to sons is instrumental in perpetuating further damage in the larger world, with other children and teens as prominent victims. The ending was abrupt again (though the reader has known for a while who the main perpetrator is). What I particularly enjoy about the series is the rather dark viewpoint of Winters and other cops, and the camaraderie among them.
Awakening (2009) by SJ Bolton. I liked her first book, Sacrifice, and this one was even better. It features Clara, a wild animal vet with a disfiguring scar on her face, and a plague of snakes in a small Dorset village. Clara’s character is interesting, complex, and sympathetically drawn, and the minor characters are also realistically portrayed. The plot is also complex — perhaps a little too. I enjoyed reading it and didn’t want the book to end.
After the Flood (2002) by Peter Turnbull, a British police procedural featuring DCI George Hennessey and DS Yellich, set in Yorkshire. The editing and printing by Severn House were sloppy and distracting — several typos, and the large font is clunky. The dialogue was a bit strange in places — again, distracting, though I’m not sure why. I didn’t get a good sense of either Hennessey or Yellich – don’t think I can tell them apart. The mystery plot was solid and satisfying, so I will try another one. A blurb on a more recent book in the series said that if you like Peter Robinson’s Banks series, you’d like this, but so far that seems quite a stretch: Robinson’s writing and character development is far superior.
Dark Secrets (2002) by Peter Turnbull, a British police procedural featuring DCI George Hennessey and DS Yellich, set mostly in Yorkshire and a bit in London. Better than the previous one I read (After the Flood), though there was one glaring error: the battlefield at Gettysburg was sited in Virginia! Another problem with the series is that too much backstory is repeated from one book to the next, as though each were read as a standalone and the reader needed filling in. This is done more elegantly in other series I read regularly. Even within this particular plot, one observation was repeated at least four times, which just feels like sloppy editing. Otherwise, the mystery was well-plotted and -paced, and I did feel I got to know (and appreciate) both main characters better.
Suite Française (2006) by Irène Némirovsky, a novel written during the German occupation of France in WWII. Actually, it’s just the first two pieces of what Némirovsky envisioned as a 5-part novel; she was arrested and died in a concentration camp in the summer of 1942, before she could finish writing it. The heart of the novel as it exists — which covers the 2-3-week mass exodus from Paris on the eve of the Germans’ occupation of the city in 1940 and the occupation of the provincial villages by the Germans for months afterward (1940-1941) — is the lives of ordinary humans living in extraordinary times, and it is a witness both to the extreme demands made on people of all classes and to their varying abilities to acclimate to the unthinkable — and to maintain the strong boundaries of class distinction while doing it! It was a bit of a slog, especially the second section, but it was also witty, insightful and above all humane throughout. Reading the appendix, letters, and preface to the French edition, which includes a short bio of Némirovsky (whose family had fled Russia during the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917), adds depth to the story.
The Cruel Stars of the Night (2007) by Kjell Eriksson, in the series featuring Inspector and single mother Ann Lindell and the others on the Uppsala violent crimes squad. The novel follows Ann at work and home (her young son, dating) as well as the alternately ruthless and befuddled serial killer they’re searching for, whose relationship with her parents has been complex and unhappy (to say the least) and who feels she has been “abused by words” all her life. Well-plotted, with characters, even minor ones, who feel real.
August
The Spider’s Web (1998) by Nigel McCrery, one of the ‘Silent Witness’ series featuring Cambridge (England) pathologist Sam(antha) Ryan and Serial Crimes Unit Superintendent Tom Adams. Set in the small fictitious village of Sowerby in Norfolk (not the real one in Yorkshire), the clever plot starts slow and builds momentum as it goes. Unfortunately, Sam is yet another career-driven and lonely woman (she seems to have only one female friend, whom she doesn’t have time to see socially) who is desperate for the wrong man, a type seen all too often in crime fiction. Besides the atrocious editing of St. Martin’s Press — I counted more than 10 typos and other errors — the other distraction was that much of the plot centers on ‘the Net’ as they apparently called it in 1998, and the lingo and processes related to ‘the Net’ are dated. This book offered an interesting puzzle and kept me reading well into the night, but I like his newer series better.
The Pure in Heart (2005) by Susan Hill, second in a police procedural series featuring DCI Simon Serrailler and DS Nathan Coates, set in the fictional cathedral town of Lafferton, England. This one focuses on families: the kidnapping of a child and the disintegration of the family involved, the unpleasantness of an ex-con’s sister and her family, Serrailler’s own family-of-origin dynamics before and after the death of his sister Martha and the birth of his new nephew, Felix. The plot is really secondary to relationship dynamics and character development in this novel.
The Risk of Darkness (2005) by Susan Hill, third in a police procedural series featuring DCI Simon Serrailler. This one follows directly on the heels of The Pure in Heart and solves the case. Rather a sad novel: much death, people leaving and destroying relationships, leaving jobs, a pervading sense of ‘the damage done. ‘
Our Lady of Pain (2008) by Elena Forbes, a Barnes Murder Squad Mystery, featuring DI Mark Tartaglia and DS Sam Donovan (female), set near London. Sexual deviation (S&M, bondage, incest), cruelty disguised by an angelic face and body, secrets and lies, the poet Swinburne , and the blurred jagged line between love and hate are elements of this story about the murders, about a year apart, of two young women. Well-written, with characters I cared about and an interesting plot.
Die with Me (2007) by Elena Forbes, the first in the Barnes Murder Squad Mystery, featuring DI Mark Tartaglia and DS Sam Donovan (female), set near London. This one was referred to from time to time in Our Lady of Pain, so I already knew some of the plot and outcome — about a serial killer who preys on vulnerable, depressed, lonely women and girls and involves them in suicide pacts that are not as mutual as they seem — when I started the book. The motive given for the killer’s actions is twofold: his pathetic childhood and his (perhaps) innate urge to kill, which he likens to an urge to eat when one is hungry. Side plots involve the creepy and apparently charming criminal profiler brought in on the case, the aftermath of Mark’s affair with a pathologist, and adjusting to a new DCI brought in to head the murder team.
Blackwater (1993, transl. 1995) by Kerstin Ekman, is more novel than it is crime fiction. Set in a remote area of Sweden and Norway, mainly at Midsummer’s Eve in 1974, and then 18 years later. The pov and times blend together, and the characters interact over time in changing configurations, so I was utterly confused for about 50 pages. But the writing is compelling and wondrously strange, and the book is complex: long-held secrets and beliefs turn out to be illusions; many events converge as one and a single event disperses itself into many (as in life); the landscape and flora and fauna, and all the six senses, are key elements; the story weaves into itself philosophical views of politics (particularly pertaining to clear-cutting), sex, educational theory, communal living, etc. There is a police officer on the case, at least at first, but in the end it’s the doctor who is really the investigator. . Moody, atmospheric, tense, and at times very dark and primitive, like the smell of woodland soil, a dank well, a thick and ancient eel.
The Zookeeper’s Wife (2007) by Diane Ackerman, a non-fiction book about the Zabinskis, a Polish couple who, horrified by the Nazis and their actions, act humanely and courageously during the unspeakably tragic and harrowing ghetto-ising, liquidation and bombing of their city of Warsaw by the Germans in WWII. Though their zoo is destroyed early on — most of the animals bombed, shot or plundered — the Zabinskis manage, with humor and grace, to care for hundreds of Jews seeking temporary refuge, as well as for a number of pets both wild and domestic. With threads detailing Nazi SS hunting machismso, eugenics theory and the desire to recreate extinct ancient animal breeds, the Polish Underground, the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, zoology, the Polish forest primeval of Białowieża, the constant conflict, danger and risk assessment inherent in living in a war-torn country, the charming ways that wild animals adapted to the household, and the bravery it takes to maintain a “spirit of affection and humor” through 5+ years of strife and upheaval, this should have been a much better book. Instead it felt like a quilt constructed by a novice seamstress in a hurry. It just didn’t hang together. Most of the chapters were somehow boring and meandering, and those that weren’t vividly depicted awful things happening to animals while offering little in the way of insight or charm (though there was some, which is why I wished so ardently for more). The book was marred too by the author’s repeated conjectures as to what the characters would likely have done, where they would likely have shopped, what they would surely have eaten; the book is pieced together from diaries, interviews, photographs, and other records, and Ackerman is scrupulous about reminding the reader when the absolute veracity of facts is in doubt, in a way that I found very distracting and detrimental to the flow of the story. One scene that did capture my imagination was that of some of the zoo animals, released late in 1939 from their cages by sortie bombing, fleeing through the city of Warsaw, side of jowl with each other and the town’s people: “Seals waddled along the banks of the Vistula, camels and llamas wandered down alleyways, hooves skidding on cobblestone, ostriches and antelopes trotted beside foxes and wolves, anteaters called out … as they scuttled over bricks. Locals saw blurs of fur and hide bolting past factories and apartment houses, racing to outlying fields of oats, buckwheat, and flax, scrambling into creeks, hiding in stairwells and sheds.”
Unspoken (2004, transl. 2007) by Mari Jungstedt, police procedural featuring Det. Superintendent Anders Knutas and DI Karin Jacobsson, set mostly in the town of Visby on the Swedish island of Gotland, and also in Stockholm. A 14-year-old girl goes missing and an alcoholic photographer is brutally murdered. Side story involves a woman trying to decide whether to stay with her husband and kids or leave them for a Stockholm-based TV journalist. Writing, plotting, and character development are all serviceable, even strong in places. The setting isn’t as primary as in many Swedish crime novels.
What Never Happens (2004, transl. 2008) by Anne Holt, a Norwegian police procedural set mostly in Oslo, including killer’s pov. About 1/3 of the book is taken up with the family life of detective Adam Stubo and his wife, Johanne Vik, who is a profiler. They have a 10-year-old daughter with severe impulse-control issues, as well as a newborn. The couple’s relationship is at times contentious, at times tender in a way that bewilders me but might be true for some relationships. The plot is solid and intriguing, the writing on the prosaic side but thoughtful and pleasing. I like the treatment of some of the larger issues, such as the way a murder investigation has a ripple effect (generally, a damaging one) on even those peripherally involved. Also the focus on boredom, or desire to feel life more strongly, as a motivator for crime.
September
Cheating at Solitaire (2008) by Jane Haddam, a Gregor Demarkian crime novel set in Margaret’s Harbor (thinly veiled Martha’s Vineyard) in winter and featuring lots of vapid movies stars. Demarkian is a sort of consultant on high-profile crimes. The crime plot was so-so and some major events are left unexplained. This is my first in the Demarkian series and the narrative (non-dialog, non-plot) writing struck me as overdone. There’s just too much pondering the same topics — mostly, how stupid or uneducated people feel devalued by and resentful of others, and how smart or educated people think that others are shallow — over and over again. (I’ve just begun another in the series, Living Witness, and am finding the same acres of writing about the same topic!) There’s also way too much about Demarkian’s personal life: his engagement, the extravagant wedding plans, the community of Armenian women in the Philadelphia neighbourhood he grew up in, etc. Many of the characters are likable, though, and I do appreciate some of the narrative and philosophising, especially when it’s more subtle, which is why I’m reading another one.
Living Witness (2009) by Jane Haddam, another in the Demarkian series. This time he’s in Snow Hill, a rural community outside of Philadelphia, where a battle has long been enjoined between the forces of secularism and the forces of conservative Christianity, this time in the context of the place of evolution and ‘Intelligent Design’ in the public schools, and to a lesser extent, of ‘town’ folk vs. ‘development people’ — the small-town people who have always lived there and the new, educated, wealthier people who are viewed as infiltrators. The Christians — with two notable exceptions — are almost all depicted as extremely narrow-minded and ignorant (if not downright stupid), and proud of their ignorance and stupidity; the secularists (some townies, some development people) are depicted as either contemptuous of the Christians or completely unaware of them. As in Cheating at Solitaire, the primary tension — even beyond evolution/Creationism, secularism/religion, and old town/new development — is between people who value a liberal education and those who don’t. The plot has a nice twist at the end but the book is a bit hard to read because the hateful, spiteful thoughts of many of the characters are repeated over and over, with the result that the novel feels largely populated by hardened and extremist positions instead of actual people.
The Water’s Edge (2007; transl. 2009) by Karin Fossum, in the Inspector Sejer series, set in Norway. Yet again, children and teens prominent as victims and perpetrators, as well as pedophiles, teachers, and mothers who’ve lost children or who haven’t had children they’ve wanted. The book is short by modern crime fiction standards (227 pp) and felt short and rather spare, economical, in the way it managed multiple related threads. Didn’t learn much more about Sejer and Skarre but the thoughts and feelings of the mothers were explored at some length.
The Headmaster’s Wife (2005) by Jane Haddam: I liked this one better than the later two I read (Cheating at Solitaire and Living Witness). It has by far the better title, referencing the central mimetic figure of the story who [spoiler alert] ends up having little to do with the crimes being investigated. Demarkian is at a private boarding school in Massachusetts at the request of a 16-year-old family friend who seems to be losing his mind and whose roommate has just seemingly committed suicide. There are certainly caricaturish rivalries in this story, as in her others, but the treatment here is a bit more subtle, and very little of Demarkian’s private life intrudes. (Usually, I like reading about the detective’s private life but not in this series.) I want the series to be more police procedural but instead they remind me most of Carolyn Hart’s Annie Darling series, with short chapters expressing the varied viewpoints of the suspects interspersed with narrative about Demarkian’s activities.
October
Silence of the Grave (2001, transl. 2005 ) by Arnaldur Indriðason, the second (in English) in the Inspector Erlendur police procedural series. Set in Iceland, the emotional action of this crime plot is set mainly during WWII and involves graphic descriptions of domestic abuse and its terrors. The contemporary emotional center involves Erlendur and his drug-addicted daughter, who’s pregnant. Harrowing and excellent.
When the Devil Holds the Candle (1998; trans. 2004) by Karin Fossum, in the Sejer/Skarre series set somewhere in Norway. Equally told from the first-person pov of a woman implicated in the disappearance of a teenage boy who comes to her home to try to rob her, and narrated as a mystery. Though Sejer and Skarre are police, the books aren’t really police procedurals. In this book, two teens, their relationship, and their activities drive the plot, as well as the actions and inactions of the unusual older woman who tells her side of things. Though three non-natural deaths take place (and another is mentioned), there is only one murder and it may not be the worst of the crimes committed. This book is very much about responsibility and complicity, and it asks the question: Can we watch someone else die, and do nothing to help, without being in some respect their killer? Sejer’s and Sara’s relationship is also explored further; they seem to be a case of extremes attracting.
What Is Mine (2001; transl. 2006) by Anne Holt, the first in the Johanne Vik and Adam Stubo series. Vik is a former FBI profiler, Stubo a police detective in Oslo. They meet in this book. Most of the story is set within a few hours of Oslo, though Vik takes a short trip to Cape Cod, MA. I thought this book was better written and better plotted than the third in the series (What Never Happens, which I read earlier this year). The plot is complex and solid; it’s actually two distinct plots that eventually weave together convincingly. The first involves young children abducted and killed by someone taking revenge for what’s been lost in his own life. The second concerns an old case in which a man was wrongly imprisoned for murder.
No Trace (2004) by Barry Maitland, a David Brock and Kathy Kolla police procedural set in the ultra-modern art world of London. It’s been a few years since I read one of his books, which always feature a little non-fiction learnin’. This time the focus was modern art of the scandalous and mimetic variety, particularly art modelled on and in conversation with that of Henry Fuseli. Brock and Kolla are investigating the disappearance of three young girls, including an artist’s daughter, Tracey. Her father makes her disappearance the basis of a new art installation, as he did with his wife’s suicide 5 years previously. Within a couple of weeks, two more people with ties to the artist are murdered and the the investigation begins to focus on the artist, his girlfriend, his in-laws, and his neighbours.
Midnight Fugue (2009) by Reginald Hill, in the Dalziel and Pascoe series — but this one is almost all Dalziel, which means it’s mad funny. Andy is still trying to adjust to his new role in the force, after having been recuperating from his injuries for many months and two books. All the action in this one takes place over 16 hours (a sort of mysterious Yorkshire-set Mrs Dalloway :-)), with cameo appearances, set pieces of farce, memories and past events pulled in from various directions, and a number of characters, including Andy, slipping in and out of fugue states. As usual, there are some priceless turns of phrase and imagery, and the plotting is fast-paced and elegant. This is a series you read once for the mystery and a second time for the sheer enjoyment of the language and thematic connections.
November
Careless in Red (2008) by Elizabeth George, in the Lynley/Havers police procedural series set in England. I had stopped reading the series about 6 years ago, partly because I couldn’t stomach Lynley’s girlfriend (eventually wife), Helen. So I missed With No One As Witness (2005), in which Helen is murdered by a 12-year-old boy, and its follow-up prequel, What Came Before He Shot Her (2005). I was desperate for a book recently and decided to take a chance on this one. It’s fabulous, one of the best novels I’ve read in a long time. It’s also long, almost 700 pages, but I didn’t want it to end. The setting is Cornwall, the plots are complicated and involve rock climbing and surfing, neither of which interests me, and the writing and weaving together of various plot lines is masterful. It starts out with Lynley sort of on auto-pilot in the aftermath of Helen’s murder, walking the South-West Coast Path in Cornwall in a daze and sleeping rough as he goes, when he comes upon the body of a young man. Characters include a female veterinarian with something to hide, a completely dysfunctional family whose father is a classic enabler and whose mother is a bottomless pit of sexual need, a female DI and her estranged husband (also a cop), some teens and young people trying to figure out what to do with their lives even as their parents are disdainful, contemptuous and fearful of their choices; and of course Barbara Havers comes down from London to pitch in and try to help Tommy get back on his feet. This book could easily be read as a standalone and I recommend it.
The Cruelest Month (2007) by Louise Penny, set in the fictional village of Three Pines in Quebec, Canada, is a hybrid mystery, one part police procedural and two parts village cosy. Three Pines is peopled by quirky B&B and cafe owners, artists, poets, herbalists, etc. It’s not my normal fare, and it did feel like a somewhat insubstantial read, but it was also well-written, by turns amusing and philosophical, and I could see reading another one.
Necessary As Blood (2009) by Deborah Crombie, part of the Kincaid/James Scotland Yard police procedural series. The crime plot, which occupies about half the book in total, centers geographically on London’s East End/Brick Lane area and involves Bangladeshi immigrants, an elite private club, and some sordid activities involving children; the rest of the book, weaving in and out of the crime plot, is novelistic, a story about Gemma and Duncan’s home life and their kids and friends, their halted wedding plans, Gemma’s mother’s cancer and treatment, and subplots concerning the personal lives of two sargeants, Doug Cullen and Melody Talbot. The intersection is found among Gemma and Duncan’s friends Hazel and Tim, and in 3-year-old Charlotte, the de facto orphaned daughter of a mixed race couple, one of whom disappeared several months ago and the other of whom (Tim’s friend) has turned up murdered. One aspect of the book that I especially admire is Gemma’s ongoing struggle to balance the competing needs, desires and dysfunctions of those around her. She is very much duty-bound, she wants to save the world, and yet even she, with her almost superhuman energy and drive, can’t save all those who need saving and can’t do her duty (or what she believes to be her duty) to everyone at once, and it’s often her friends who help her see more clearly.
Arctic Chill (2005; first US ed. 2009) by Arnaldur Indriðason, is part of the Inspector Erlendur police procedural series, set in Iceland. A Thai immigrant boy is killed and a woman is missing; the cases aren’t related but they intertwine with each other through mysterious calls to Erlender’s cell phone. The central concern of the book is the reaction of Icelanders to Asian (Thai, Vietnamese, Filipino) immigrants and mixed marriages. Erlendur’s ambiguously named friend and former boss, Marion Bream, dies in this book and the conceit concerning Marion’s gender is maintained except for an apparent slip on page 157 (Minotaur Books ed.). The book is a bit dark, as usual.
The Little Stranger (2009) by Sarah Waters. “A chilling and vividly rendered ghost story set in postwar Britain.” At 450 pages, it felt to me like an inexorable, too predictable, and somewhat tiresome progression towards an inevitable ending — and maybe that was the idea. The central figures are a country doctor with a chip on his shoulder about his low birth (he’s the narrator), and a mother and her unmarried daughter and war-wounded son who own a large and now decaying Georgian house and estate called Hundreds Hall, which they can’t afford; but the main character in the book is undoubtedly the house. At the end, it’s up to the reader to determine whether something supernatural has taken place or whether it’s a matter of psychology, a shadow-self or ‘little stranger’ whose thwarted negative energy finds its outlet. Reminds me of many other stories, including Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher” and Shirley Jackson’s The Haunting of Hill House.
December
The Scarpetta Factor (2009) by Patricia Cornwell: I think I’m addicted to this series. The plot, which concerns the murder of one woman and the disappearance of another — harkens strongly back to Point of Origin, which ended with Benton’s murder — or so it seemed, as we learned in Blow Fly that he had ‘merely’ assumed another identity for 6 years. The emotions from that time run high in this book, reawakened by events and the resurfacing of people from the past. In fact, not just for Kay and Benton, but for Lucy and Marino as well, past actions and experiences play a strong role in their present. I appreciate the series’ recent focus on Lucy and Jaime Berger. My main complaint is that I couldn’t keep all the ancillary characters straight and had a hard time figuring out what some of them had to do with the plot or the other characters for quite a while; I don’t know if I missed a key sentence early on or if this was Cornwell’s intention. Another reviewer notes that Cornwell has “developed an enjoyable way of beginning novels in the middle of a story, letting her audience watch the characters carry out conversations and actions which they don’t yet understand” — so perhaps it is intentional, but if like me you read about 20 or 30 pages before bed each night, it’s easy to think you’ve missed something. Finally, the ‘communion’ at the end felt a little like it was tacked on to bring all the cast together again in a rare happy(if not sappy) moment. That said, I like the core cast, which is what keeps me returning to the series, even when the crime plot is not the main feature.
That Old Cape Magic (2009) by Richard Russo, fiction about a middle-aged man, Griffin, and his conflictual relationships with his snobbish academic parents, whose only respite from the hated Midwest was a yearly family vacation on Cape Cod (never the same rental twice), his wife Joy, and to a lesser extent, his grown daughter, Laura, and his screenwriting business partner, Tommy. The narrative, spanning a year and interspersed with memories, gets its emotional energy from a short story Griffin writes about one summer with his parents on the Cape, and is framed by two weddings, his daughter’s and his daughter’s longtime friend. It’s the first novel of Russo’s I’ve read and I thought it was similar to Anne Tyler’s writing, with some amusing lines and situations (Griffins spends most of the novel with one or both parents’ ashes in urns in his trunk) and insight into human relationships, though (unlike Tyler) some of Russo’s depictions didn’t ring true for me.
Still Life (2005) by Louise Penny, the first in the Chief Inspector Armand Gamache series — part police procedural, mostly cozy — set in fictional Three Pines, a rural village south of Montreal. I figured out who did it pretty early on, partly because I had read a later book in the series already and knew who hadn’t done it — this is a problem with village cozy series, with their limited number of characters The title is a good one, as the emotional heart of the book concerns lives that are stuck, and a central aspect of the plot is a painting, which, though not technically a still life, captures scenes and people at one point in their lives. Another central theme is blindness, with a hunting blind as a metaphor for other blindness.
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Crime Fiction Book List: Disabled isn’t Unable
This crime fiction book list includes books and series featuring a character whose physical, emotional or mental limitations figure in the plot or character development of the stories or series. The character may be disabled in some way but is still able to solve, or perhaps commit, crimes.
The list was compiled with the help of the Fiction-L listserv in March 2009. It’s sorted by author’s last name. Additions always welcome; just email me .
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Jane A. Adams. Naomi Blake series. Blake is a blind ex-policewoman in the Midlands of England.
Mourning the Little Dead (2002)
Touching the Dark (2003)
An Experiment in Treason (2002)
The Price of Murder (2003)
Rules of Engagement (2005), posthumously published
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Brigitte Aubert. The ‘Death From’ books featuring 36-year-old French cinema owner Elise Andrioli, who was left quadriplegic, mute, and blind by a Belfast (Ireland) car bomb attack.
Death from the Woods (2001)
Death from the Snows (2001)
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Vicars Bell . Dr. Douglas Baynes series. Baynes is an entomologist who lost a leg in World War II.
Death Under the Stars (1949)
Death Has Two Doors (1950)
Two by Day and One by Night (1950)
Death and the Night Watches (1955)
Death Walks by the River (1959)
Death Darkens Council (1952)
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Paul Bishop. Chapel of the Ravens (1991). Chapel is “a former world class soccer player from Britain who becomes an editor for Los Angeles-based Sporting Press magazine after he loses an eye. ”
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Ernest Bramah. Max Carrados series . Carrados is a blind British detective.
Max Carrados (1914)
The Eyes of Max Carrados (1923), which “opens with a somewhat defensive essay which chronicles astonishing feats of the blind”
Max Carrados Mysteries (1927)
Also, some short stories featuring Carrados are online.
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Marshall Browne. Inspector Anders series. Anders is an Italian policeman who lost a leg battling anarchist terrorism.
The Wooden Leg of Inspector Anders (1999)
Inspector Anders and the Ship of Fools (2001)
Inspector Anders and the Blood Vendetta (2006)
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Melvin Jules Bukiet. Strange Fire (2002). A Middle East political thriller featuring Nathan Kazakov as “a blind ex-POW, Russian immigrant, former poet, Lebanon invasion veteran, semicloseted homosexual and now speechwriter.”
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Patricia Carlon. The Whispering Wall (1969). Confined to her bed by a stroke, believed to be comatose, and surrounded by greedy relatives, a woman overhears a murder plot.
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George Chesbro. Mongo series. Robert ‘Mongo’ Fredrickson is a dwarf criminology professor, private eye, and former circus gymnast in NYC. The series is a blend of mystery, suspense, science fiction, and the supernatural.
Shadow of a Broken Man (1977)
City of Whispering Stone (1978)
An Affair of Sorcerers (1979)
The Beasts of Valhalla (1985)
Two Songs This Archangel Sings (1987)
The Cold Smell of Sacred Stone (1988)
Second Horseman Out of Eden (1989)
The Language of Cannibals (1990)
In the House of Secret Enemies (1990)
The Fear in Yesterday’s Rings (1991)
Dark Chant in a Crimson Key (1992)
An Incident at Bloodtide (1993)
Bleeding in the Eye of a Brainstorm (1995)
Dream of a Falling Eagle (1996)
Lord of Ice and Loneliness (2006)
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Jeffrey Cohen. Aaron Tucker humourous mystery series. Aaron’s son has Asperger’s Syndrome and it’s part of the stories.
For Whom the Minivan Rolls (2002)
A Farewell to Legs (2003)
As Dog Is My Witness (2005) – in this book, the young man accused of the crime has Asperger’s Syndrome.
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Michael Collins (aka Dennis Lynds). Dan Fortune novels of suspense, featuring amputee Dan Fortune, a gruff Polish-Lithuanian New York detective with one arm.
Act Of Fear (1967)
The Cadillac Cowboy (1995)
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Wilkie Collins. Hide and Seek (1854). Blyth and his disabled wife Lavinia adopt a deaf girl from a country circus. “In Madonna Blyth, Collins wanted to represent ‘the character of a “Deaf Mute” as literally as possible according to nature,’ in contrast to the deaf characters featured in nineteenth-century stage melodramas.”
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Elizabeth Cosin. Zen Moses series . Zenara Moses is a cancer survivor (lost a lung), former sports journalist, and private investigator in Santa Monica, California.
Zen and the Art of Murder (1998)
Zen and City of Angels (1999)
Zen Justice (2001)
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Philip R. Craig. Jeff Jackson series . Jackson has shrapnel in his leg (Vietnam) and a bullet lodged in his spine (from his days as a Boston police officer). Set on Martha’s Vineyard, MA.
A Beautiful Place To Die (1989)
The Woman Who Walked Into the Sea (1991)
The Double-Minded Men (1992)
The Broken Window (2008)
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Mark De Castrique. Sam Blackman series. Blackman is a former U.S. Chief Warrant Officer who lost part of his leg in Iraq. Set in Asheville, NC.
Blackman’s Coffin (2008)
The Fitzgerald Ruse (2009)
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Barbara Delinsky. An Accidental Woman (2003). Romance with a mystery. A woman who is confined to a wheelchair (paraplegic) since a snowmobile accident tries to exonerate her friend from a charge of murder. Set Lake Henry, NH.
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Peter Dickinson. One Foot in the Grave (1979) in the James Pibble series. British detective Pibble is in a nursing home, prematurely feeble. In his despair, seeking to end his life, he stumbles on the body of someone whose life has already ended. Some Deaths Before Dying (1999): A 90-year woman, paralyzed from the neck down, finds an intriguing puzzle.
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Howard Engel: Memory Book (2005) in the Benny Cooperman detective series . After author Engel suffered a stroke, his PI Cooperman also suffered a head injury in this book, which results in alexia sine agraphia.
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Penelope Evans. Freezing (1997). Stewart Park, who stutters, works in the London morgue as a photographer.
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Tony Fennelly. Matt Sinclair series. Sinclair is a gay epileptic aristocratic DA turned store owner. Sometimes his epilepsy causes amnesia. Set in New Orleans.
The Glory Hole Murders (1985)
The Closet Hanging (1987)
Kiss Yourself Goodbye (1989)
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Dick Francis. Sid Halley series . Ex-jockey private investigator Halley has a damaged left hand due to a racing accident.
Odds Against (1965)
Under Orders (2006)
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Elizabeth George’s 5th Inspector Linley title, For the Sake of Elena (1992), involving the murder of a young deaf woman and requiring Linley and Havers to enter “her world.”
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Lee Goldberg. Adrian Monk series . Monk is an obsessive-compulsive police detective, in San Francisco, California. Books based on the TV series.
Mr. Monk Goes to the Fire House (2006)
Mr. Monk Goes to Hawaii (2006)
Mr. Monk and The Blue Flu (2007)
Mr. Monk and the Two Assistants (2007)
Mr. Monk in Outer Space (2007)
Mr. Monk Goes to Germany (2008)
Mr. Monk Is Miserable (2008)
Mr. Monk and the Dirty Cop (2009)
Mr. Monk in Trouble (2009)
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George Dawes Green. The Caveman’s Valentine (1995). Romulus Ledbetter, a Juilliard graduate, husband and father, and paranoid schizophrenic who lives in a cave, becomes a detective to solve his friend’s murder.
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Ken Grissom. John Rodrigue series . Rodrigue is a one-eyed diver and salvager, working out of Galveston, TX.
Drop-Off (1988)
Drowned Man’s Key (1992)
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Charlaine Harris. Harper Connelly paranormal mystery series. Connelly survived a zap from a lightning bolt, and since then she suffers physical pain — and she can find dead people and experience their last moments.
Grave Sight (2006)
An Ice Cold Grave (2008)
Grave Secret (October 2009)
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Daniel Hecht. Skull Session (1998). Features Paul Skoglund, a talented craftsman with Tourette’s syndrome, for which he takes haloperidol daily. Library Journal calls it “a marvelous mix of modern Gothic horror and romance, with a generous helping of bioscience.” Interestingly, Hecht was a guitarist (appears on the Windham Hill label) who turned to writing after a hand ailment.
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David Hunt (aka William Bayer)’s two books featuring Kay Farrow, a color-blind photojournalist in San Francisco, California:
The Magician’s Tale (1997)
Trick of Light (1998)
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Hialeah Jackson (aka Polly Whitney)’s books featuring Annabelle Hardy-Maratos, who is the deaf president of a large Miami security firm, and Dave the Monkeyman, her partner and ASL signer. Set in Miami, Florida.
The Alligator’s Farewell (1998)
Farewell, Conch Republic (1999)
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Sue Anne Jaffarian. Odelia Grey humourous mystery series. Grey, a middle-aged, plus-sized woman, is a lawyer and an amateur detective in California. Her boyfriend (later, husband), Greg Stevens, is in a wheelchair.
Too Big to Miss (2001)
The Curse of the Holy Pail (2003)
Thugs and Kisses (2008)
Booby Trap (2009)
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Stuart M. Kaminsky’s Toby Peters series , featuring Gunther Wherthman, a Swiss translator and dwarf who assists Hollywood private investigator Toby Peters.
Bullet for A Star (1977)
Murder on the Yellow Brick Road (1977)
You Bet Your Life (1978)
The Howard Hughes Affair (1979)
Never Cross a Vampire (1980)
High Midnight (1981)
Clear and Present Danger (1958)
The Aluminum Turtle (1960; apa The Spear Gun Murders)
Frankincense and Murder (1961)
The film The Hidden Eye (1945) was based on characters created by Kendrick, with Eddie Arnold as Maclain.
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Mary Kittredge’s Charlotte Kent series features Kent as a single, sharp-witted freelance writer and magazine editor who adopts a 16-year old paraplegic son, Joey The series moves from Medocino, CA to New Haven, CT. Though Joey is neither sleuth nor criminal, readers note that the relationship between Charlotte and Joey is important to the stories and ‘interestingly complicated.’
Murder in Mendocino (1987)
Poison Pen (1990)
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Frederick Knott. Wait Until Dark (1966), a play — and in 1967, a film — featuring a blind Greenwich Village housewife who becomes the target of thugs searching for heroin hidden in a doll.
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Jonathan Lethem. Motherless Brooklyn (1999): Lionel Essrog, who has Tourette’s Syndrome, narrates the book as he works to solve the murder of friend and mentor. “The compulsions of Tourette’s become a kind of kaleidoscopic metaphor, ultimately (and somewhat paradoxically) reflecting the fundamental ethos of the mystery genre itself: the compulsion to restore order and rightness to a world thrown temporarily out of joint.” (Salon)
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Gilliam Linscott. Murder, I Presume (1986). Historical mystery set in Victorian London. Rival expeditions explore the source of the Nile while Peter Pentland, who lost a leg while on an earlier joint expedition, remains in London and ends up working with Inspector Middleham to solve a murder.
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Jack Livingston (aka James L. Nusser). Joe Binney series. Binney is a hard-boiled, hard drinking, hearing-impaired private investigator in NYC. He lost his hearing working as a Navy diver.
A Piece of the Silence (1982)
Die Again, Macready (1984)
Hell-Bent for Election (1987)
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William F. Love. Bishop Francis X. Regan and Davey Goldman series . Bishop Regan is an intellectual paraplegic, wheelchair-bound since an assassination attempt.
The Chartreuse Clue (1990)
Claire Matturro. Lilly Cleary humourous legal thriller series, featuring a Florida DA with obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Skinny-Dipping (2004)
Bone Valley (2006)
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Ed McBain (aka Evan Hunter, born as Salvatore Lombino): Some of the 87th Precinct novels , set in and around New York City (aka Isola), include Teddy, Steve Carella’s wife, who is deaf and mute. In the early 1960s, there was a TV series based on the novels, with Gena Rowlands portraying Teddy. Teddy appears significantly in at least these titles of the more than 50 in the series (she probably appears in some way in most, being Steve’s wife):
Cop Hater (1956), first in the series; movie of same title (1958)
The Pusher (1956), with movie of same name (1960)
The Con Man (1957)
Thomas McCall. Nora Callum series. Nora is a one-legged single mother and Chicago police lieutenant.
A Wide and Capable Revenge (1993)
Beyond Ice, Beyond Death (1995)
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Nigel McCrery’s Still Waters (2008), starring Detective Chief Inspector Mark Lapslie, who has synesthesia. (With his form, he tastes sounds, which makes it very hard to be around people’s voices or music.)
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John Milne. Jimmy Jenner series. Jenner is a pensioned-off London cop who lost his leg and part of his hearing in a terrorist bombing. He works in the Stoke Newington section of London, England.
Daddy’s Girl (1982)
Shadow Play (1987; aka The Moody Man)
Alive and Kicking (1998)
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Harker Moore. Sakura series. NYPD homicide detective Sakura has a Zen-like detachment and a Japanese wife who is blind but gifted with a spiritual vision. She plays a larger role in the first book.
A Cruel Season for Dying (2003)
A Mourning in Autumn (2004)
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Amy Myers. Peter and Georgia Marsh series. Peter Marsh is wheelchair-bound after a shooting incident in his former police career. He works solving murders with his daughter, Georgia, in Kent, England.
The Wickenham Murders (2004)
Murder in Friday Street (2005)
Murder in Hell’s Corner (2006)
Murder and the Golden Goblet (2007)
Murder in a Mist (2008)
Murder Takes the Stage (2009)
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Abigail Padgett. Bo Bradley series, featuring a child abuse investigator for Child Protective Services in San Diego county who has bipolar illness.
Child of Silence (1993)
A Certain Malice (1998)
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Michael Palmer’s The Second Opinion (2009) features Dr. Thea Sperelakis, a doctor with Asperger’s Syndrome who tries to solve a mystery.
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T. Jefferson Parker’s Silent Joe (2001), featuring Joe Trona, who has a facial disfigurement from childhood trauma and who tries to track down his adoptive father’s killer.
Parker’s The Fallen (2006) features Robbie Brownlaw, a San Diego homicide detective who has synesthesia. (In his case, other people’s emotions are colours.)
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Anne Perry (aka Juliet Hulme). William Monk series . Monk, a detective with the police in London of 1856, has amnesia after a serious accident in a carriage.
The Face of a Stranger (1990)
A Dangerous Mourning (1991)
Walk on the Water (1991)
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R. Page Reese’s Don’t Move: While Rolling in Terror (1994) apparently involves a magician and a quadraplegic young lady trying to solve a murder. (Not much available about it online.)
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Simon Ritchie’s Jantarro character. (Ritchie is pseudonym for Simon Fodden.) John Kenneth Galbraith Jantarro is a one-armed Toronto insurance investigator. He lost his left hand and part of his arm to sadistic prison guards. Jantarro appears in two of Ritchie’s books:
The Hollow Woman (1986)
Work for a Dead Man (1989)
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Candace Robb. Owen Archer series. Archer is a one-eyed spy and Captain of Archbishop Thoresby’s guard in late 14th-century Britain.
The Apothecary Rose (1993)
The Guilt of Innocents (2007)
A Vigil of Spies (2008)
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Kevin Robinson. Stick Foster series. Foster is a paraplegic journalist in Florida, who uses a wheelchair since he fell off a roof in 1986.
Split Seconds (1991)
A Matter of Perspective (1993)
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Caroline Roe (aka Medora Sale). Chronicles of Isaac of Girona series. Isaac is a blind physician, who with his partner Bishop Berenguer solves crimes in 1350s Girona, Spain.
Remedy for Treason (1998)
Cure For a Charlatan (1999)
An Antidote For Avarice (1999)
Solace for a Sinner (2000)
A Potion for a Widow (2001)
A Draught for a Dead Man (2002)
A Poultice for a Healer (2003)
A Consolation for an Exile (2004)
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Barnaby Ross (aka Ellery Queen, aka cousins Manfred B. Lee and Frederic Dannay). Four novels about Drury Lane, a deaf retired Shakespearean actor who lives on the Hudson River (NY) and does amateur detecting. Lane lip-reads.
The Tragedy of X (1932)
The Tragedy of Y (1932)
The Tragedy of Z (1933)
Drury Lane’s Last Case (1933)
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Mary Scott’s Murder On Wheels (2000). Bryan Greyshott was paralyzed in a freak hang-gliding accident and now lives in a wheelchair in a North London suburb. When a spate of crimes breaks him out of his monotony, he decides to try to find the perpetrator, all the more s after he’s found next to a dead body holding a crutch and becomes a suspect.
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Sarah Smith. Perdita Halley and Alexander Von Reisden series. Halley is a legally blind pianist and Von Reisden, an Austrian baron and chemist, is an amnesiac with gaps in his childhood memories. The books are set in turn of the century Boston and pre World War I Paris.
The Vanished Child (1992)
The Knowledge of Water (1996)
A Citizen of the Country (2000)
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Annie Solomon’s Blind Curve (2005), romantic suspense featuring an undercover cop, Danny Sinofsky, who suddenly goes blind during a gun battle.
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Clinton Stagg. Thornley Colton, a blind detective, features in two books:
Silver Sandals (1916; apa Thornley Colton, Blind Reader of Hearts)
Thornley Colton, Blind Detective (1923; short stories)
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Rupert Thomson. The Insult (1997). Psychological thriller featuring Martin Blom, who was blinded by a shot to the head in a supermarket parking lot but who learns one night that he can actually see. Is it a delusion?
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Charles Todd (aka Charles and Caroline Todd, a mother and son team). Ian Rutledge series. Rutledge is a shell-shocked World War I veteran returning to his job on 1914 at London’s Scotland Yard. He hears the voice of a young Scottish man he killed in the war.
A Test of Wills (1996)
Wings of Fire (1998)
A Matter of Justice (2009)
The Red Door (2010)
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Peter Tremayne’s Sister Fidelma series book #5, The Spider’s Web (1997), set in 7th- century Ireland. ” The case involves a deaf and blind man who is is accused of killing the local ruler and his sister.
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John Trench’s Docken Dead (1953), “a highly-regarded biblio-mystery introducing the ‘dishevelled, one-armed‘ amateur sleuth, archaeologist Martin Cotterell.”
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Barry Unsworth’s Morality Play (1995), set in 14th-century England. A young deaf woman is accused of murder.
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Louise Ure’s Fault Tree (2008). Female auto mechanic Cadence Moran is targeted by a killer who thinks she can identify his getaway car — not knowing that she was blinded 8 years prior in a horrific car accident. Set in Arizona.
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Barbara Vine’s The Blood Doctor (2002), an historic novel set in Victorian times, with many mysteries, revolving around hemophilia.
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Ray Vukcevich. The Man of Maybe Half A Dozen Faces (2000). Brian Dobson/Skylight Howells, a private investigator based in Eugene, OR, has multiple personalities, or is he just a master of disguise?
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Penny Warner. Connor Westphal series, set in Flat Skunk, California, featuring newspaper publisher Connor Westphal, who was deafened by meningitis when she was four years old.
Dead Body Language (1997)
Dead Man’s Hand (2007)
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Henri Weiner’s Crime on the Cuff (1936), featuring one-armed sleuth John Brass, a former Secret Service man who is also a popular cartoonist.
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Carolyn Wheat’s Troubled Waters (1997), 5th in the series featuring Brooklyn attorney Cass Jameson. In this one, she defends her brother Ron, a quadraplegic Vietnam veteran charged with murder.
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Cornell Woolrich’s noir novel The Black Curtain (1941) features Frank Townsend, an amnesiac investigating a blank period in his history, and there’s also a paralyzed man who communicates key information via eye blinks
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R.D. Zimmerman (aka Robert Alexander). Maddy and Alex Phillips series. Maddy is a blind paraplegic forensic psychiatrist, Alex is a technical writer. Set on an island in Lake Michigan.
Death Trance (1992)
Fiction (and Film) Set at the World’s Fairs and Expositions
This booklist of mostly fiction titles — for children, young adults, and adults — and a few films, all with World’s Fair settings, was developed in 2008 with help from Fiction-L list members. It’s arranged chronologically by Fair, then by date of publication. Additions and corrections welcomed.
A list of many nonfiction titles related to World’s Fairs from 1851-1951 is available online at ‘International Exhibitions, Expositions Universelles and World’s Fairs, 1851-1951: A Bibliography,’ by Alexander C.T. Geppert, Jean Coffey and Tammy Lau. ( Also available here in pdf.)
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1876 PHILADELPHIA Exposition
Fiction
Light From Arcturus (1935) by Mildred Walker: Novel about a bored and restless Nebraska woman who “stepped beyond sacrifice and duty, impressed herself on a larger scene, fed her spirit, and grew in dignity. Grounded in memorable events, this novel illustrates the significance of the period’s great world’s fairs to the early settlers. The milestones in Julia’s progress are trips to the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876 and to the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893 and in 1933. ”
What Happened to Emily Goode After the Great Exhibition ( 1978 ) by Raylyn Moore: Time displacement fantasy set at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. 188 pp.
Twice Upon A Time: A Novel ( 1988 ) by Allen Appel: In the Alex Balfour series. Alex, an historian, is transported back in time to the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876, where he becomes involved with a group converging at Little Big Horn.
Dazzled (1994) by Catherine Hart: Romance. In 1876, as Philadelphia hosts its Centennial Exposition, the companion to a wealthy matron resorts to thievery in an effort to ransom her nephew from his vile father.
The Black Maria (Mystery of Old Philadelphia) (2000) by Mark Graham: As the whole world is celebrating a glorious future at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, city detective Wilton McCleary comes across the butchered body of a girl in the nearby labyrinth of festering streets called Shantyville, with its opium dens, criminals, and freak shows.
Young Adult Fiction
The Philadelphia Adventure (1990) by Lloyd Alexander: In 1876, on the eve of the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, twenty-year-old Vesper Holly and her friends clash yet again with the archfiend Dr. Helvitius, whose evil schemes plunge them into danger in the wild Pennsylvania countryside.
Film
Centennial Summer (1946): Directed by Otto Preminger. In 1876 Philadelphia, two sisters vie for the affections of a Frenchman in town to prepare the French pavilion for the Centennial Exposition. Starred Jeanne Crain, Linda Darnell, Cornel Wilde, Walter Brennan.
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1889 PARIS International Exposition (L’Exposition Universelle de 1889)
Fiction
So Long at the Fair (1947) by Anthony Thorne: On which the film was based.
Murder on the Eiffel Tower ( 2008 ) by Claude Izner: Crime fiction set in Paris in 1889, with the Paris Exposition as the scene. The Eiffel Tower is new, and people flock to see this technological wonder. While on such a visit, a young woman collapses and dies, apparently as the result of a bee sting, and bookseller Victor Legris becomes involved in the investigation of her murder.
The Paris Enigma ( 2008 ) by Pablo de Santis: Crime fiction, winner of the first Casa de las Americas prize for best Latin American novel. The “12 Detectives” meet for the first time in Paris, at the 1889 World’s Fair, and soon have their own mystery to detect when Paris detective Louis Darbon falls to his death from the Eiffel Tower shortly before the fair’s opening.
To Capture What we Cannot Keep (2016) by Bernice Colin: Romantic novel, set against the construction of the Eiffel Tower for the 1889 World’s Fair, this novel follows “the relationship between a young Scottish widow and a French engineer who, despite constraints of class and wealth, fall in love” (after meeting in a hot air balloon).
Children’s Books
Rosemary in Paris (2001) by Barbara Robertson: Rosemary Rita’s magical hourglass takes her to the Paris Exposition of 1889, where she meets her great-great-grandmother Gracie, also aged ten, and together with a friend they set out to catch the boy who steals Gracie’s locket.
Night of the New Magicians (2006) by Mary Pope Osborne: In the Magic Treehouse series. Jack and Annie visit the Paris World’s Fair of 1889 in an effort to protect four scientific pioneers from an evil sorcerer.
Film
So Long at the Fair (1950): Thriller. Vicky Barton and her brother, Johnny, take a trip to the 1889 Paris Exhibition. They sleep in separate rooms in a hotel. When Vicky wakes up, she finds that her brother and his room have disappeared and no one will even acknowledge that he was ever there. Starring Jean Simmons, Dirk Bogarde, Cathleen Nesbitt, Honor Blackman and David Tomlinson.
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More info on this fair at World Columbian Expedition: Idea, Experience, Aftermath.
Non Fiction
The Devil in the White City: Murder, Magic, and Madness at the Fair that Changed America (2003) by Erik Larson: Set around 1893 Chicago World’s Fair, the stories of two men, one the architect responsible for the fair’s construction, the other a serial killer masquerading as a doctor.
Fiction
Samantha at the World’s Fair (1893) by Marietta Holley: Account of the Chicago fair written in a fictional style with black-and-white illustrations. 475 pp.
The Adventures of Uncle Jeremiah and Family at the Great Fair (1893) by Quondam (pseud.): Fictional account of the World’s Columbian Exposition. with 4 photos. 237 pp.
Light From Arcturus (1935) by Mildred Walker: Novel about a bored and restless Nebraska woman who “stepped beyond sacrifice and duty, impressed herself on a larger scene, fed her spirit, and grew in dignity. Grounded in memorable events, this novel illustrates the significance of the period’s great world’s fairs to the early settlers. The milestones in Julia’s progress are trips to the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876 and to the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893 and in 1933.”
American Gothic (1974) by Robert Bloch: Thriller based on the murderous career of Henry H. Holmes, a young doctor who stalked Chicago victims during the World”s Fair of 1893.
Chicago Girls (1985) by Edith Freund: A novel of Chicago in the time of the Columbian Exposition.
The Scarlet Mansion (1985) by Allan W. Eckert: Based on the life of Herman Mudgett, alias Dr. Henry Holmes, the notorious serial killer.
Fairground Fiction: Detective Stories of the World’s Columbian Exposition (1992) by Donald K. Hartman. Contains reprints of Emma Murdoch Van Deventer’s ‘Against Odds’ and John Harvey Whitson’s ‘Chicago Charlie, the Columbian detective.’ 450 pp.
Coming Up Roses (2002) by Alice Duncan: Set at the Chicago World’s Fair, featuring Rose Ellen Gilhooley and the Buffalo Bill Wild West Show. First in the Meet Me at the Fair series.
Just North of Bliss (2002) by Alice Duncan: Historical romance. Causing scandal by accepting a position as a nanny, Belle Monroe contemplates further ruin by allowing a dashing stranger at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago to take her portrait, which leads to unexpected love and passion between the proper Southern beauty and the bold photographer from the North. Second in the Meet Me at the Fair series.
A Bicycle Built for Two (2002) by Alice Duncan: Historical romance. Kate Finney, a savvy fortune teller and hootchy-kootchy dancer at the Chicago World Fair who doesn’t believe in love, finds her life forever changed by Alex English, a dashing city slicker who will stop at nothing to win her heart – forever. Third in the Meet Me at the Fair series.
The White City (2004) by Alec Michod: In 1893, as the glitter and glamour of the World’s Fair commences in Chicago, ‘The White City’ is terrorized by a gruesome killer dubbed The Husker, a fear that escalates when the son of prominent architect William Rockland is abducted.
City for Ransom (2005) by Robert W. Walker: First in Inspector Alastair Ransom mysteries. As thousands flock to Chicago for the Great Exposition of 1893, a maniacal killer sets out to turn the streets into his own personal hunting ground, and it is up to Inspector Alastair Ransom to find the bloodthirsty murderer amid the glitter and turmoil of the World’s Fair, before he becomes the next victim.
‘A Fair to Remember’ series by Carol Cox: Ticket to Tomorrow (2006), Fair Game (2007), and A Bride So Fair (2008): Slightly suspenseful Christian romances, all set at the 1893 Fair.
A Proper Pursuit (2007) by Lynn Austin: Christian fiction. Violet Hayes ventures to Chicago during the World’s Fair in search of her mother, who has been missing from her life since she was nine.
What the Lady Wants: A Novel of Marshall Field and the Gilded Age (2014) by Renée Rosen: Both the Great Fire of 1871 and the Colombian Exposition feature in this romantic novel about the opulence, scandal, and heartbreak of socialites and robber barons, including Marshall Field, his friends, and his love, Delia, who “as their love deepens, … stand together despite disgrace and ostracism, through an age of devastation and opportunity, when an adolescent Chicago is transformed into the gleaming White City of the Chicago’s World’s Fair of 1893.”
Children’s Books
Summer of Dreams: The Story of a Worlds Fair Girl (1993) by Dorothy Hoobler, Thomas Hoobler, Carey Greenberg: (Grades 3-6). Set in 1893, the story follows preteen Cristina Ricci and her adventures at the Chicago Columbian Exposition, where she works as a guide to children visiting from other countries.
Chicago World’s Fair ( 1998 ) by JoAnn A. Grote: In the American adventure series, #29. Christian fiction. 144 pp.
Fair Weather (2001) by Richard Peck: In 1893, thirteen-year-old Rosie and members of her family travel from their Illinois farm to Chicago to visit Aunt Euterpe and attend the World’s Columbian Exposition which, along with an encounter with Buffalo Bill and Lillian Russell, turns out to be a life-changing experience for everyone.
Exploring the Chicago World’s Fair, 1893 (2002) by Laurie Lawlor: In the American Sisters series. Dora Pomeroy must keep watch over her sisters against the dazzling backdrop of the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
The Great Wheel (2004) by Robert Lawson: Conn Kilroy leaves his Irish village for work in America, first with a contracting company in New York and then to Chicago, where he and his uncle join a crew building what some called Ferris’s Folly — the first Ferris wheel and the showpiece of Chicago’s 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition.
Magician in the Trunk (2007) by Candice F. Ransom: In the Time Spies series. When Mattie, Sophie, and Alex travel back in time to the Chicago World’s Fair of 1893, they decide to help Harry Houdini’s failing magic show, but they find themselves in need of help when they are accused of stealing a priceless diamond.
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1901 BUFFALO Pan-American Exposition
(Surprising there aren’t more novels written with this setting, where Pres. William McKinley was assassinated.)
Fiction
City of Light (1999) by Lauren Belfer: Historical mystery set in Buffalo and Niagara Falls at the start of the 20th century, where hydroelectric power and the Pan-American Exposition promise new possibilities.
The Temple of Music: A Novel (2004) by Jonathan Lowy: Leon Czolgosz, an alienated factory worker and an ardent admirer of Emma Goldman, plots to assassinate President McKinley at the 1901 Buffalo World’s Fair.
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1904 Louisiana Purchase International Exposition in ST. LOUIS
Fiction
Meet Me in St. Louis (1942) by Sally Benson: On which the film of the same name was based. Originally serialized in the Saturday Evening Post. Tells the story of four sisters living in St. Louis at the time of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition World’s Fair in 1904
1904 (2004) by Marcelo Vital and David Montgomery: Graphic novel celebrating the centennial of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, also known as the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair. Combines adventure and historical fiction in a lavishly illustrated tale about a delivery boy who single-handedly saves the 1904 World’s Fair.
Children’s Books
The World’s Fair: The Days of Laura Ingalls Wilder (Book Five) (1992) by Thomas L. Tedrow: Given the assignment to cover the St. Louis World’s Fair, Laura and Manly decide to make a second honeymoon of it. Disgusted at what some people have made of the Games, Laura speaks up for some contestants who are being treated as side-show freaks, teaming up with Alice Roosevelt to stop the inhuman Anthropological Games. In the Thomas Nelson series, Days of Laura Ingalls Wilder. 223pp.
The Song of the Molimo ( 1998 ) by Jane Cutler: When twelve-year-old Harry comes from Kansas to visit the St. Louis World’s Fair in 1904, he befriends an African pygmy, Ota Benga, who is part of an anthropology exhibit, works for the first female news photographer, and becomes involved in a burgeoning scientific controversy.
The Minstrel’s Melody (2001) by Eleanora Tate: In the American Girl history mysteries series. In 1904, twelve-year-old Orphelia follows her dream by running away from home to join an all-black minstrel show headed for the Saint Louis World’s Fair, and learns about her family’s troubled past in the process.
Film
Meet Me in St. Louis (1944): Directed by Vincente Minnelli, starring Judy Garland, Margaret O’Brien, Mary Astor, Leon Ames, June Lockhart and Marjorie Main.
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1933-1934 A Century of Progress International Exposition in CHICAGO
Fiction
Light From Arcturus (1935) by Mildred Walker: Novel about a bored and restless Nebraska woman who “stepped beyond sacrifice and duty, impressed herself on a larger scene, fed her spirit, and grew in dignity. Grounded in memorable events, this novel illustrates the significance of the period’s great world’s fairs to the early settlers. The milestones in Julia’s progress are trips to the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876 and to the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893 and in 1933.”
Going to Chicago (1997) by Rob Levandoski: Bittersweet debut about a quixotic 1934 road trip to the Chicago World’s Fair, recalled by a curmudgeonly retiree. 207 pp.
The Hatbox Baby (2002) by Carrie Brown: Set at 1933 Chicago World’s Fair. “A Chicago woman goes into premature labor and delivers a tiny baby, barely alive. The father takes it to the fair (in a hatbox) to be cared for by a physician who has an exhibition of tiny preemies in primitive incubators. When the father is killed in a road accident, the baby becomes the focal point of a fan dancer; her brother, a dwarf; the doctor and his nurse; and the baby’s aunt.” (Library Journal)
True Detective (2003) by Max Allan Collins: In the Frank Nitti Trilogy. Nate Heller is a cop trying to stay straight in one of the most corrupt places imaginable: Prohibition-era Chicago. Reviewers mention that the World’s Fair ‘comes alive’ in this novel.
Young Adult Fiction
Beverly Gray at the World’s Fair (1935) by Clair Blank: In the Beverly Gray College Mystery series. Beverly and her friends have graduated from college and are working in New York. Disappointed that she was not going to Paris to study with friends, Beverly and her remaining friends plan a month vacation at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago where they witness a murder when a diver is killed by an air gun at the fair. 250 pp. Very rare book because it was omitted when the AL Burt series was reprinted by Grosset (it was thought that the world’s fair setting dated it).
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1939 NEW YORK World’s Fair
Fiction
Murder At The New York World’s Fair ( 1938 ) by Phoebe Atwood Taylor. Written by Taylor under the pseudonym Freeman Dana, at the request of Bennett Cerf. 265 pp.
World’s Fair Goblin (1969) by Kenneth Robeson: Doc Savage series #39. An eight-foot monster is haunting the 1939 New York World’s Fair. What is the bizarre secret of Maximus, the ‘World’s Fair Goblin’? Republished 2008 with Czar of Fear in Doc Savage Reprint #17.
World’s Fair (1985) by E. L. Doctorow: Fiction and reality meet within the 1930s Bronx childhood of Edgar, growing up through the intensity of the Depression and the hope of the New York World’s Fair. 288 pp.
1939: The Lost World of the Fair (1996) by David Gelernter – Historical fiction, romance, anti-modern political jeremiad. 418 pp.
Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay (2000) by Michael Chabon: Includes descriptive scenes on the grounds of a New York World’s Fair.
Tomorrow at the Fair (2005) by Bob Madison: Sci-fi? John Kenner, 12 years old, dreams of the future as seen in science fiction comics. When the 1939 World’s Fair promises to create the World of Tomorrow, he and his grandfather run away from home and travel to New York, only to learn that anarchists plan to blow up the Trylon and Perisphere! 300 pp.
Children’s Books
All Aboard! (1995) by James Stevenson: Hubie and his family take the Broadway Blazer to the 1939 World’s Fair, but Hubie has a series of adventures by himself on the way there.
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1940 Golden Gate International Exposition in SAN FRANCISCO
Fiction
Swing: a novel (2005) by Rupert Holmes: Jazz musician Ray Sherwood, playing at the 1940 World Fair, becomes involved in the investigation into the death of a mysterious Frenchwoman, who had previously propositioned him.
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1962 Century 21 Exposition in SEATTLE
Film
It Happened at the World’s Fair (1963): Musical adventure film starring Elvis Presley. Two cropdusters, trying to earn money, hitchhike to the World’s Fair in Seattle. While one tries to earn money playing poker, the other takes care of a small girl, Sue-Lin, whose father has disappeared.
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FICTITIOUS Fairs
Young Adult Fiction
World’s Fair 1992 (1970) by Robert Silverberg: 1992 World’s Fair in a satellite above Earth. Science fiction. The 1992 World’s Fair was to be an orbital extravaganza, set in a gigantic satellite 50 000 miles above the Earth, and the young xenobiology student thought it would be a dream come true. 248 pp.
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Drowned Towns (Book List)
I became fascinated by the idea of a drowned town when I read Peter Robinson’s In a Dry Season (1999) and Reginald Hill’s On Beulah Height (1998), both set in Yorkshire, England, and both crime novels whose plots feature towns that have been evacuated and flooded to create reservoirs.
A drowned town is a town, city, village, collection of buildings, or other place that’s submerged, inundated or flooded by water as a consequence of the building of dams and creating of reservoirs for water supply, hydroelectric power, irrigation, flood management, or job creation.
There are lots of real ones in the world, some of which are listed below.
And of course there are crime novels and other fiction books — for adults, teens, and children — written about the phenomenon, and I’ve listed some of those below as well. If you have additions, let me know!
DROWNED TOWNS
Mysteries and other fiction with a featured element of intentional submerging, inundating, and flooding of towns, villages, cities, and other places as a consequence of building dams and reservoirs for water supply, hydroelectric power, irrigation, flood management, and job creation. The core of this list was developed by a retired librarian in Pennsylvania, with additions by members of DorothyL and FictionL in August 2006. The apt term “Reservoir Noir” comes from crime novelist Peter Robinson.
Some descriptions are taken verbatim, or in essence, from review sources such as Publishers Weekly, Booklist, and Library Journal, and from booksellers’ descriptions.
Reservoir Noir (Crime Novels)
Alan Dipper, Drowning Day (1976): “The calm of a small Welsh town is shattered by the threat of annihilation. A vast reservoir already exists, poised three hundred feet above its rooftops, and now politics and greed demand that the valley itself should be flooded to provide water for new towns and industry. A tide of violence sweeps in from outside, and the people prepare to fight for their future.” Listed in Allen Hubin’s Crime Fiction II. 207 pp.
Eileen Dunlop, Valley of the Deer (1989): Young Adult. Set in Scotland. In 1964, 14-year-old Anne is living in a valley near Dumfries that is about to be flooded to make a reservoir, while her archaeologist parents excavate an ancient burial mound. When she finds an old family Bible behind a secret door in her house, she’s led on a quest to solve the mystery surrounding the death in 1726 of a young Scottish woman, Alice Jardyne, accused of witchcraft. 139 pp.
Lee Harris, Christening Day Murder (1993): Set in New York state. Thirty years ago, the inhabitants of Studsburg, N.Y., relocated when the town was flooded to create a reservoir. Now that drought has left the small town temporarily high and dry, former nun Christine Bennett (in town for a baby christening) discovers the remains of a young woman hidden in the Catholic church (from PW review). 213 pp.
Reginald Hill, On Beulah Height (1998): Set in Yorkshire, England. Dalziel and Pascoe mystery. Fifteen years ago, the village of Dendale suffered double tragedies: three children were kidnapped, never to be found, while a fourth barely escaped with her life. Then the government forced the villagers to evacuate Dendale so they could flood its homes and shops to create a new reservoir. Now, a seven-year-old girl from Danby, the village where most of the Dendale’s inhabitants retreated, disappears (from Booklist review). Excellent. 374 pp.
James D. Landis, The Taking (2003): Set in Massachusetts. Swift River Valley is doomed: set to disappear beneath the waters of the Quabbin reservoir. Jeremy Treat is the town minister, a man of deep faith trying to inspire hope in a place destined to be taken from its inhabitants. He is also the husband of Una, a voluptuous eccentric pining for her first love, and father of Jimmy, a seemingly perfect child prodigy. Into this tight-knit family comes Sarianna, a romantic student obsessed by the story of the Valley. Her ensnarement in the secrets and desires of the Treat family is the basis for this stunning gothic novel of sexual awakening, shifting identity, loss and love. Published in the UK as The Valley (2006).
Jane Langton, Emily Dickinson Is Dead (1984): Set in Massachusetts, at a poetry symposium in Amherst. Describes the 1939 flooding of the towns of Dana, Enfield, Greenwich, and Prescott to create the Quabbin Reservoir. One of her characters stuffs a body down Shaft 12 on the Hardwick shoreline of the reservoir. 247 pp.
Julia Wallis Martin, A Likeness in Stone (1997): Set near Oxford, England. A killer strikes again when long-dead victim Helena Warner surfaces from the bottom of a reservoir, and her three closest friends continue to maintain an eerie silence as Bill Driver tries to uncover their dark secret. Excellent. 280 pp.
Sharyn McCrumb, Zombies of the Gene Pool (1992): Set in eastern Tennessee. Mystery/science fiction. In the 1950s, a group of eight young men buried a time capsule containing their science fiction stories and other artifacts of the time. A dam was later built on the Watauga River, and a lake, Gene C. Breedlove Lake (known as the Gene Pool), formed over the place where the time capsule was buried. Now the lake must be drained for dam repairs. Since some of the eight men, who are now elderly, have become famous, the time capsule will be dug up. A writer who was supposed to have died 30 years earlier shows up, and when he is killed, science fiction writer Jay Omega sets out to discover who the killer is. 274 pp.
Michael Miano, The Dead of Summer (1999): Set in Connecticut. New York TV writer Michael Carpo vacations annually in the small town of Bridgewater, Conn., at the house of his friend, elderly African-American writer Jack Crawford — but this year Carpo arrives to find him dead. It looks like suicide, but then Carpo learns that the village’s older residents are dying at a suspiciously fast clip. The deceased, it turns out, are all linked to a ghost town submerged by a recently constructed lake. Carpo must find out who wanted them dead, and why, before the last of the lost town’s survivors disappear (from PW review). 224 pp.
Ron Rash, One Foot in Eden: A Novel (2002): Set in Seneca, South Carolina. This debut novel combines a murder mystery with the occasion of the flooding of a South Carolina Appalachian valley by Carolina Power. The real Santee-Cooper Reservoir is mentioned. 240 pp.
Rick Riordan, The Devil Went Down to Austin (2002): Set near and under Lake Travis in Austin. As Riordan says in an interview : ” When Mansfield Dam was built, and they flooded the area, you think that it all washes away, but it doesn’t. There really are pecan groves down there still, and they say they even have the pecans on the trees — the last pecans they ever grew. And barbed wire fences. What the land was like until it was taken and flooded.” The book includes the description of a dive into the preserved pecan orchard at the bottom of the lake. [Thanks, Kathleen!]
Peter Robinson, In a Dry Season (1999): Set in Yorkshire, England. When a drought drains the local Thornfield Reservoir, uncovering the long-drowned village of Hobbs End and the skeleton of a murder victim from the 1940s, Detective Alan Banks and Detective Sergeant Annie Cabot investigate the decades-old crime, with quite a bit of WWII ambiance and history involved. Excellent. 422 pp.
Lisa See, Dragon Bones (2003): Liu Hulan, an agent for China’s Ministry of Public Security, and her American husband return to investigate murder and archaeological theft at the Three Gorges Dam, one of the most beautiful and controversial places on earth. When completed, the Three Gorges Dam will be the most powerful dam ever built and the biggest project China has undertaken since the building of the Great Wall. Yet, the reservoir formed by the dam will inundate over 2,000 archaeological sites and displace over 2 million people. 368 pp.
Paul Somers (aka Paul Winterton), Broken Jigsaw (1961): Set in England. An adulterous couple murder her rich husband and hide his body in a sinkhole that’s about to be covered by the reservoir that will also drown the village of Alton. Two years later, a drought causes the reservoir to recede and the body must be retrieved and rehidden — but in the meanwhile a nearby cottage has been rented by a writer who never seems to leave it and who is sure to observe such activities.
Julia Spencer-Fleming, Out of the Deep I Cry: A Clare Fergusson/Russ Van Alstyne Mystery (2004): Set in upstate NY. Crime novel that intertwines storylines from the 1930s, 1970s, and present. The 1930 storyline involves the building of the Conklingville Dam and the flooding of forty square miles of the Sacandaga River Valley, creating the Great Sacandaga Lake as well as Stewart’s Pond, which is a focus of this story. When the flooding occured, many residents of the area were relocated to fictitious Miller’s Kill, where this series is set. 336 pp.
Donald Westlake, Drowned Hopes (1990): Set in upstate New York. John Dortmunder’s ex-cellmate, Tom Jimson, asks Dortmunder’s help in reclaiming a $700,000 stash from an old robbery. The cash was buried in an upstate New York town that was subsequently flooded to become part of New York City’s reservoir system. Jimson’s plan to blow up the reservoir dam will doom nearby towns, so Dortmunder must concoct a more humane solution (from PW review). 418 pp.
John Morgan Wilson, Rhapsody in Blood: A Benjamin Justice Novel (2006): Set in California. In 1956, glamorous film star Rebecca Fox was murdered in the Eternal Springs Hotel in the Calif. desert. A young African-American man was blamed for the murder and was lynched by an angry mob led by the KKK, though new DNA evidence indicates that he may have been innocent of the crime. The government has since damned the valley for hydroelectric power and the waters of Lake Enid now cover the town where the vicious killing took place. Benjamin Justice accepts an offer from a reporter friend to spend a relaxing weekend at the Haunted Springs Hotel and becomes involved in both the old murder and current-day danger. 288 pp.
Stuart Woods, Under the Lake (1987): Set in Sutherland, Georgia, “a charmingly reconstructed town on a man-made lake.” Investigative reporter John Howell becomes obsessed with the dark secrets of a local family that vanished after their farm was flooded a quarter-century earlier. 281 pp.
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Other Drowned Town Fiction
Mabel Esther Allan, Pendron Under the Water (1961):Juvenile fiction, set in the UK. When Pendron villlage is drowned to form a reservoir, all the villagers except one take the date stones from their cottages. The story is about the recovery of that missing stone one summer when the reservoir is very low because there is no rain.
Andrea Barrett, The Forms of Water (1993): Set in Massachusetts. At 80, Brendan Auberon, a former monk, is confined to a wheelchair in a nursing home. His last wish is to see the 200 acres of woodland where his family home once stood. Half a century ago, the owners of the land were evicted from their homes and the land was flooded to create a reservoir which would provide water for the big city. Brendan convinces his staid nephew Henry to hijack the nursing home van to make this ancestral visit.
John Blackburn, Bury Him Darkly (2013): An English manor house is about to be submerged under a new reservoir as part of a planned water project. The house contains the tomb of its two-centuries-dead (or is he?) previous owner — a poet/artist/occultist whose late artistic flowering is suspected of being caused by a demonic bargain — as well as most of his work.
Berlie Doherty, Deep Secret (2004): Young Adult. Set in England. Haunting novel about twins and generations in a village which is to be flooded to create a reservoir. Based on real events of the flooding of the small villages of Derwent and Ashopton in north-west Derbyshire to make way for the building of the Ladybower reservoir supplying water to Sheffield, Leicester, Derby and Nottingham. 264 pp.
Ivan Doig, Bucking the Sun (1996): Set in northwestern Montana. A Depression-era narrative largely devoted to the problems of building the Fort Peck Dam, which created a reservoir 135 miles long, provided flood control and was the biggest earth-fill dam in the world at the time. It focuses on the fictional Duff family and their roles in the mammoth dam project, and in the process describes the working conditions and way of life of the thousands of workers hired to construct the Fort Peck Dam, many of them homesteaders from upriver farms destined to disappear under the waters of the newly formed Fort Peck Lake ( summary from Wikipedia ). There are two murders, but the book is not essentially a mystery. 412 pp.
Sylvia Fair, The Ivory Anvil (1974UK/1977US) Juvenile fiction, set in the UK. A piece of a 3-D cube puzzle is found in a submerged village that that dries out during a heatwave.
Sarah Hall, Haweswater (2002): Set in Cumbria, England. Won UK’s Commonwealth Prize. Debut novel is set in 1936 in remote Marsdale village in the Lake District, and tells of the flooding of the dale to make way for a reservoir, against the wishes of many of the local hill farmers. When Waterworks representative Jack Ligget from industrial Manchester arrives with plans to build the new reservoir, he brings the much feared threat of impending change to this bucolic hamlet. And when he begins an intense and troubled affair with Janet Lightburn, a devout local woman, it leads to scandal, tragedy, and remarkable, desperate acts.
Mollie Hunter, The Walking Stones: A Story of Suspense (1970; illus Trina Schart Hyman). Ages 9-12. Set in the Scottish Highlands. Paranormal thriller. After receiving the gift of Second Sight from his old friend,the Bodach, ten-year-old Donald becomes responsible for safeguarding the ancient power of the walking stones before their glen is flooded by a hydroelectric company. 143 pp.
Jackie French Koller, Someday (2002): Ages 9-12. Set in Massachusetts. Fourteen-year-old Celie lives in Enfield, Mass. in 1938 and her town, along with three others, is to be flooded to create a reservoir. All the families have to move from their homes, but Celie’s Gran refuses to do so. Celie’s mother is angry with Gran and says she should face reality, but that’s because Celie’s mother is a city girl and really wants to leave. Based on the creation of the Quabbin Reservoir. 224 pp.
Kathryn Lasky, Home Free (1985): Young Adult. Set in Massachusetts. Fifteen-year-old Sam Brooks and his mother have moved to her hometown in New England, mourning Sam’s father, who died in a car crash. Sam soon involves himself with a project to introduce eagles to an ‘accidental wilderness’ that exists because an entire valley, including four villages, was flooded to create a reservoir, forcing many families to relocate and leave their pasts behind. His work to save the wilderness helps an autistic girl return to reality and reveals her strange hidden power. 245 pp.
H.P. Lovecraft, “The Colour Out of Space” (1927): Spooky science fiction. Set in Massachusetts. Forty years ago, a strange meteorite struck the town and farms of Arkham, Mass. Since then, nothing grows right here (inedible fruits, anatomically incorrect animals, oddly coloured plant life, a sort of phosphorescence in the air), and people have malaise, insanity, bad dreams…. Something is sucking life itself out of everything in the area, and its reach is growing larger and larger. Now, the entire blighted area will be flooded and the citizens of Boston will be drinking water from the created reservoir. The entire story is online.
Sue Miller, The World Below (2001): Set in Vermont. The Quabbin Reservoir and Harriman Reservoir are not central to the plot but are mentioned seven times between pp. 209 and 270.
Michael Shea, The Color Out of Time (1984): Science fiction. Set in New England. Homage to Lovecraft’s "The Colour Out of Space." The flooded New England valley made a beautiful holiday spot, with twenty miles of secluded lakeshore. But visitors Gerald Sternbruck and Ernst Carlsberg soon realise that the still waters of the lake conceal a frightful evil that preys on flora, fauna, and human beings.
William F. Weld, Stillwater (2001): The story of fifteen-year-old Jamieson, a farm boy who finds first love with the unforgettable, dreamy Hannah. At the same time, life as he knows it is unraveling around him, as his town and four neighboring towns will soon be flooded to create a huge reservoir. Written by a former Mass. governor. 240 pp.
Jane Yolen, Letting Swift River Go (1992; illus. Barbara Cooney): Ages 5-9. Set in Massachusetts. Relates Sally Jane’s experience of changing times in rural America, as she lives through the drowning of the Swift River Towns in western Massachusetts to form the Quabbin Reservoir. 32 pp.
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in the U.S.
Alabama: the town of Irma, under Lake Martin
Arizona: Alamo Crossing, a mining town now under 100 feet of water in Lake Alamo; town of La Laguna, under Mittry Lake.
Arkansas: Several towns, including Miller, under Greers Ferry Lake on the Little Red River (1959-1962); the town of Custer by Norfork Lake; the town of Fir by Lake Ouachita; the town of Hand by Norfork Lake
California: Hetch Hetchy Valley, a glacial valley in Yosemite National Park in California, was flooded in 1923 by O’Shaughnessy Dam, forming the Hetch Hetchy Reservoir ; Jacksonville, near Sonora, under Lake Don Pedro; Melones, near Sonora, under New Melones Lake; Monticello, near Napa, evacuated for Lake Berryessa Reservoir, and Redbud Park inundated by same; Heroult, Kennett, Baird, and Copper City, for Lake Shasta in 1944; the town Lorraine by Thermalito Afterbay; the town of Minersville by Clair Engle Lake; the town of Pleyto by San Antonio Reservoir; the towns of Foster Bar, Bullards Bar, and Garden Valley by Bullards Bar Reservoir; the town of Salmon Falls by Folsom Lake; the towns of South Fork, Bloomer, Bidwell Bar, Bidwell, and Enterprise by Lake Oroville; the town of Mussey Grove by San Vicente Reservoir; the town of Isabella by Isabella Lake; the town of El Capitan by El Capitan Reservoir; the town of Cedar Springs by Silverwood Lake; the town of Auld by Skinner Reservoir; the town of Hullville by Lake Pillsbury;
the towns of Lexington and Alma, for the James J. Lenihan Dam and Lexington Reservoir (around 1950), near Los Gatos; the town of Petersburg, under the New Hogan Reservoir; town of Picacho, mostly submerged when Laguna Dam completed 1909; Mormon Island in Folsom Lake, near Sacramento.
Colorado: Sopris, for the Trinidad Dam and Reservoir; McPhee for the McPhee Reservoir; the town of Iola by Blue Mesa Reservoir
Connecticut: the village of Barkhamsted Hollow, for Barkhamsted Reservoir on the Farmington River (Saville Dam, 1940)
Florida: the town of Butler due to construction of the Jim Woodruff Reservoir.
Georgia: the towns of Petersburg and Lisbon when Strom Thurmond Lake was created; the town of Oketeyeconne by Walter F. George Reservoir; the town of Hunt by Chatuge Lake.
Idaho: the town of American Falls, for the American Falls Reservoir and Dam (1910s-1920s); the town of Montour, for the Black Canyon Dam.
Indiana: the town of Monument City, flooded in 1965 to create the Salamonie Reservoir.
Kansas: towns under Tuttle Creek Lake on the Big Blue River, near Manhattan (1962; one town was rebuilt elsewhere: Randolph, Kansas)
Maine: the towns of Dead River and Flagstaff, flooded in 1949 when the Flagstaff Dam was built and Flagstaff Lake was created on the Dead River in western Maine.
Maryland: the town of Conowingo when Conowingo Dam was built in 1928; 1809 mill town Triadelphia, inundated in 1931 by Triadelphia Reservoir; the town of Shamburg by Prettyboy Reservoir; the towns of Dulaney Valley and Bosley by Loch Raven Reservoir.
Massachusetts: the towns of Boylston, West Boylston, Clinton and Sterling, for the Wachusett Reservoir (1897-1908); town of Dana, North Dana, Millington, Enfield, Greenwich, and Prescott, on the Swift River for the Quabbin Reservoir
Missouri: the towns of Theodosia and Forsyth when the Bull Shoals Dam and Lake was built on the White River in 1951; the town of Shawnee Bend, inundated by the creation of the Lake of the Ozarks by Bagnell Dam in 1931.
Montana: the town of Nagos, inundated by Lake Koocanusa; towns and homes near Glasgow, Mont., flooded by Fort Peck Dam on the Missouri River (1933-1940), created to provide flood control, hydroelectric power, and 10,000 jobs during the Depression — it is the largest hydraulically filled dam in the United States and created the fifth largest man-made lake in the U.S., Fort Peck Lake; the town of Armstead (inundated), plus Routes 91 (rebuilt as Interstate 15) and the main line of the Union Pacific RR, for Clark Canyon Dam and Reservoir in Beaverhead County (1961-1964), created for downstream irrigation and flood control; the town of Rexford, Highway 37, the Great Northern Railroad line, for Libby Dam and Lake Koocanusa (1970s).
Nevada: St. Thomas , under Lake Mead when the art deco Boulder Dam (aka Hoover Dam) was built on the Colorado River in 1931-1936, but due to drought conditions has been visible again since the late 1990s.
New Mexico: town of Paraje, submerged by Elephant Butte Lake when Elephant Butte Dam built, 1912-1916
New York: Neversink and Bittersweet, New York, now under the Neversink Reservoir; the towns of Olive, West Shokan, Brodhead Bridge, Brown’s Station, Boiceville, West Hurley, Glenford and Ashton (in the Catskills) to create Ashokan Reservoir ; the towns of Beerston, Cannonsville , Rock Rift, Rock Royal and Granton, for Cannonsville Reservoir; the towns of Arena, Pepacton, Shavertown and Union Grove, for Pepacton Reservoir; the towns of Eureka, Montela and Lackawack, for Rondout Reservoir (1937-1954); the town of Gilboa for Schoharie Reservoir in the Catskills (1919-1927); the town of Southeast, on the Croton River (Sodom Dam), to create East Branch Reservoir, Middle Branch Reservoir, Bog Brook Reservoir and Diverting Reservoir ( info and photos here ); Concord, partially flooded in 1930 when the Conklingville dam created the Sacandaga Reservoir (now Great Sacandaga Lake).
North Carolina: the towns of Judson and Fontana, to create Fontana Lake; the town of Tuscola, inundated by the creation of Lake Junaluska and Lake Junaluska Dam. North Dakota : Sanish (Old Sanish), Elbowoods , Lucky Mound, Shell Creek, Nishu, Charging Eagle, Beaver Creek, Red Butte, Independence, and Van Hook (some towns are part of Fort Berthold Indian Reservation), flooded for Lake Sakakawea in 1953 (see photo of foundations visible above lake); town of Moe, under the Garrison Reservoir (1950s).
Ohio: the town of Elk Lick by William H. Harsha Lake.
Oregon: the town of Arlington , in Gilliam County, relocated uphill from its original location to make way for the John Day Dam , constructed on the Columbia River (1958-1968) and creating Lake Umatilla, along with the towns of Boardman and Umatilla, also relocated for the dam.
Pennsylvania: the town of Corydon, and tribal lands and gravesites, flooded in the 1965 for Kinzua Dam and Allegheny Reservoir and in the 1990s partially uncovered due to low water levels; the town of Pritchard by Lake Cowanesque; town (Wilsonville?) under Lake Wallenpaupack (1924-1926)
Rhode Island: the towns of Kent, Richmond, Ashland, South Scituate, Saundersville, Rockland and Ponaganset, and mills at Clayville, Elmdale, Harrisdale and Glenrock, plus almost 1,500 graves (relocated), for the Scituate Reservoir (1915-1926).
South Carolina: the towns in the Saluda Valley, under Lake Murray (Saluda Dam, 1920s); the towns of Andersonville and Price by Hartwell Lake.
South Dakota: Bear Gulch II, submerged beneath the waters of Pactola Lake.
Tennessee: the town of Butler, in 1948 by the TVA for Watauga Dam and Reservoir; towns under Norris Lake, created by the TVA’s Norris Dam (1933-1936), for hydroelectric and flood control structure, on the Clinch River; the town of Willow Grove, for Dale Hollow Reservoir (1942)
Texas: Guerrero Viejo, a colonial town from the 1750s — which includes Nuestra Senora del Refugio, a historic Spanish mission — when the U.S. and Mexico dammed the Rio Grande to create Falcon Lake Reservoir in 1953; the town of Old Zapata, inundated by the Falcon Dam Reservoir; the town of Calliham, for the Choke Canyon Dam and Reservoir (1982) on the Frio River (flowing to the Nueces River); the town of Addicks near Houston for the Addicks Dam Reservoir (mid 1940s); the panhandle town of Saints Roost, under water in the Greenbelt Reservoir; town of Swartwout, inundated by Livingston Dam/Reservoir on the Trinity River; houses, farmsteads, orchards, and farms , submerged by Lake Travis with the Mansfield Dam (originally called the Marshall Ford Dam), on the Colorado River, built in 1937-1941 .
Utah: Connellsville, under Electric Lake; the old mining town of Hite, under Lake Powell; the town of Rockport, under the Rockport Reservoir (1950s).
Virginia: the town of Greenwood, inundated by Lake Moomaw
Washington: 3,000 people (including Indian tribes) in the towns of Kettle Falls, Peach, Keller, Lincoln, Inchelium, Gerome, Marcus, Gifford, Boyds, Fort Covile, and Daisy evacuated for Lake Roosevelt , formed by the Grand Coulee Dam (1933-1941) on the Columbia River, which was built for the purpose of irrigation; the town of Moncton, submerged by Rattlesnake Lake and Masonry Dam on the Cedar River Watershed (1912-1915) to provide drinking water for Seattle; the town of Roosevelt, relocated for the building of the John Day Dam and creation of Lake Umatilla on the Columbia River (1958-1968).
West Virginia: the towns of Yates, Sandy, and Stone House, inundated by Tygart Lake; the town of Morrison by Summersville Dam.
For more: Immersed Remains: Towns Submerged in America has more history, and photos, of some drowned towns in the U.S.
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outside the U.S.
Canada: the town of Minnewanka, Alberta, for Lake Minnewanka (1912; 1941); the mining town of Minto, British Columbia, for Carpenter Reservoir; towns of West Kootenay, British Columbia, including Arrowhead, Beaton, Needles and Waneta, drowned for reservoirs and power dams; the town of Upper Mill Ville by Mactequac Lake, New Brunswick; the towns of Mille Roches, Moulinette, Wales, Dickinson’s Landing, Farran’s Point, and Aultsville, near Cornwall, Ontario, for a hydro dam on the St. Lawrence River in 1958.
United Kingdom: the mill village of Goyt in Derbyshire; the towns of Derwent and Ashopton for Ladybower Dam; the village of Hambleton, inundated by Rutland Water; the town of Mardale in the Lake District, flooded by Haweswater Reservoir.
Australia: Old Jyndabyne Township, New South Wales, for the Jyndabyne Dam Project
New Zealand: Cromwell (South Island) partially flooded in the 1980s to create Lake Dunstan, to power a hydroelectric dam
Italy: the town of Fabbriche di Careggine , under Lake Vagli — every ten years the lake is emptied for maintenance and the town is visible.
Argentina, S.A.: Federación was submerged (residents relocated) in 1979 when the Salto Grande Dam was built, on the border with Uruguay.
Colombia, S.A.: the old colonial town of Guatavita was flooded to create a hydro-electric reservoir, Tominé Reservoir (1967)
Brazil, S.A. : the original city of Nova Ponte plus 8 other municipalities, due to the Nova Ponte Hydropower Plant dam and reservoir (1987-1994)
India: the town of Harsud , in Madhya Pradesh, flooded in 2005 for the Narmada Dam project, to provide hydroelectric power and irrigation for crops; the village of Khandal, the town of Tehri , and other villages, for the Tehri Dam (1990s)
Burma: tens of thousands of people forcibly relocated for the proposed TA Sarong hydroelectric dam and its reservoir, on the Salween River in northeastern Burma (2000).
Russia: the town of Atalanka and others along the the shores of the Angara (in Siberia), intentionally flooded in 1961 as a result of the construction downriver of several dams and the Bratsk hydroelectric station.
China: millions of people are expected to be transplanted from 153 towns and 4,500 villages (and several temples submerged) when the Three Gorges Dam is completed.
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| It Happened at the World's Fair |
According to the comic books, Superman fights for Truth, Justice, and what? | Michael Ansara
Michael Ansara
After reading some of Graham Masterton's horror novels, you wonder why he isn't better known like King and Koontz
Masterton is a terrific writer of supernatural horror novels, the latest being Edgewise
As with many of his horror novels, he taps into ethnic demonic lore for his supernatural horror in this one, just as he did with his first horror novel, The Manitou, written in one week and published in 1975
Like many of his settings, this one takes place in the United States
His short stories have been brought together into three collections
Three were turned into teleplays for the TV series The Hunger
Masterton has won numerous awards, including an Edgar from the Mystery Writer's Guild, a Bram Stoker Award,a Silver Medal from the West Coast Review of Books, Very Best Horror Novel honors from Science Fiction Chronicle, the French Prix Julia Verlanger, and is a World Fantasy Award nominee
Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1946, Graham Masterton at age 24 was executive editor of the British Penthouse and Penthouse Forum magazines
He launched a best-selling series of sex how-to books until that market dried up
Between the books on sex, as well as thrillers, disaster novels, and historical fiction, he has had about 100 books see print
His first book, The Manitou, sets the stage in his frequent use of ethnic demons, with Misquemachus, a Native American medicine man, reborn into present-day New York, planning to seek seek his vengeance against white men by calling up the greatest of Indian demons known as the Great Devourer
Lovecraft, although he doesn't dance around showing you the monster, unlike Lovecraft
The Manitou, in fact, includes a quotation from a Lovecraft story opposite page one with a reference to a medicine man named Misquemachus
A later novel, The Wells of Hell, is a Lovecraftian tribute
Masterton currently lives in a Gothic mansion in Cork, Ireland, with his wife, Wiescka
In Masterton's first horror novel, Harry Erskine tries to stop reborn medicine man Misquemachus from having his revenge
Phenomenally powerful after several reincarnations, Misquemachus is a master of manipulating the manitou, or spirit, that inhabits every thing, including man made objects
The book quickly became a low-budget movie by William Girdler with Tony Curtis, Michael Ansara, Susan Strasburg, Burgess Meredith, and Stella Stevens
It was marred only by an altered Star Wars-inspired ending and Tony Curtis' belligerent tough-guy style which conflicted with the intent of a few of Erskine's important lines
) Plans were underway to follow that up with another of his novels, The Djinn, when filmmaker Girdler died
The best of the three sequels to The Manitou, Masterton beautifully adapted the legendary goal of the Plains Indian Ghost Dance of the late 19th Century which sought to have the gods pull the white man's cities into their realm in exchange for the prairie land and buffalo herds of old
This monster is a Middle American demon brought to New England by a fanatic preacher to scare the flock into toeing the line
Once he's decides he's gotten all he needs from the demon, known as Pariah, he ships him back home, but the ship sinks just off the coast
Present-day treasure-hunters unleash the demon from the ship
Here Masterton taps Indonesian folklore about a shadowy world-between-worlds where dead people go
He sends his grieving hero to engage an Indonesian expert to lead him to his murdered family
Meanwhile, the forces that murdered his family are watching his every move
Her sister learns she died in an alternate world ruled by a ghoulish race
These people cannot be ignored because they seek to influence the many worlds theirs connects with
Another Native American demon, Coyote, generally pictured as mischievous rather than evil
In this book set in a San Francisco residence where he is accidentally unleashed, figure on straight-forward evil
Murders in Warsaw, Poland, are leaving investigators confused
What little evidence is available suggests a monstrous child is involved, but its more than that
A monstrous Nazi plot has been revived, resulting in the series of murders
In Virginia, people are dying in bizarre circumstances, at least one attacked by an invisible killer
It all seems to have something to do with a Confederate officer and a santero who use Caribbean voodoo against Federals and were so brutally successful their own superiors were forced to turn on them
In his latest novel, a desperate woman left for dead in a house fire, hires an Indian medicine man to call up a Wendigo which can unerringly track down her kidnapped children
Unable to pay the medicine man's price, she now becomes the Wendigo's target
I was very impressed when this novel, written under the pen name of Thomas Luke, came out
In it, a Reagan-like presidential candidate signs a deal with Satan himself to win office
A number of diabolical acts are committed, appropriately enough, including the gruesome rape-murders of the other candidate's twin daughters, and he successfully steamrolls his way to the White House
The Pope is secretly recruited to exorcise the demon
And visit his website at which includes some original fiction
This article celebrates bad cinema of the 1970's and there is perhaps no one who represents bad cinema of the 1970's better then a long forgotten director named William Girdler
By all accounts Girdler was just a good ole boy from Kentucky who obsessively loved the movies and wanted to be a filmmaker
Having grown up in a prominent family just outside of Louisville, Girdler would get his chance to make his mark on the world of film
In the 1970's Girdler created nine movies in just six years with his body of work covering genres from the blaxploitation to science-fiction to horror
Girdler served as writer and composer on several of his movies as well
William Girdler had no illusions as to the quality of his movies
He would start each movie one of two ways, with the barest thread of an idea stretched out or, if he had no ideas, would simply take a huge hit of the time and mold it into his own vision
It wasn't the quality Girdler enjoyed so much as it was seeing the film on the big screen
And that is a good thing because it is widely believed that William Girdler was the Ed Wood for the post-Vietnam era
To look at Girdler's films today one is struck by the cheapness of the productions and the awful dialogue most of the characters were forced to speak
One thing Girdler usually had going for him that Wood, and most other below Grade B movie directors didn't have, was his films featured at least one named actor that lent credibility to the proceedings
But it wasn't long into each movie before one realized what they were in for
Girdler felt the need to work fast and cheap because of an almost obsessive pre-occupation with death
From his childhood Girdler believed that he would not live to see the age of thirty so he worked often hoping to cement his name into the annuls of Hollywood history, not knowing that the less then mediocre results might land him in a different circle then he originally anticipated
Girdler was also known as a good man who may have dreamt greater then his abilities could carry him but still remembered those who helped him when in need
When he found himself on hard time's actor Leslie Nielsen invited Girdler to stay in his guest house which Girdler accepted - for more then a year
But Girdler would cast Nielsen in three of his movies thus truly never re-paying the actor fully but instead padding his resume with projects that are long forgotten and better unmentioned
Girdler was somehow allowed to shoot five of his nine movies in Louisville instead of closer to California where producers might have had a better chance of keeping a closer eye on him
When Girdler did shoot away from home he often brought his old friends along as crewman
Let's take a look at the works of William Girdler and if you feel daring enough you may wish to defy odds and try to hunt down some of these titles and have a look for yourself
They may be bad but you can always remind yourself that the films were made with great love and hope that carried beyond the talents of its director
ASYLUM OF SATAN (1972)- Made on a budget of $50,000 Girdler's first film hardly comes close to accomplishing what Orson Welles did with Citizen Kane
Asylum tells the story of a woman held against her will in a mental institution by the psychotic Dr
Specter and his assistant (both played by the same actor)
Soon it becomes apparent the good doctor plans to sacrifice the woman to the devil
Girdler's first effort falls short of true horror thanks in part to the rubber spiders and snakes on display and Girdler's refusal to direct a single scene that wasn't over the top and attempting to be scary
The film first opened in 1972 in Girdler's native Louisville and the reaction was not positive
It would take almost three years before Asylum would get a larger release and that was mostly as a second or third feature at drive-ins
THREE ON A MEATHOOK (1973) - Having learned their lessons the first time around Girdler found some local business owners more then a little hesitant to put up more money for him after losing money the first time around
This time he was only able to scrape up a mere $20,000 but that was more then enough to get the wunderkind moving on his next film
Three on a Meathook opens with four girls taking a leisurely drive out to the country just for the sake of skinny dipping and, wouldn't you know it, their car breaks down
Enter Billy, a weird farm boy who may or may not have a craving for the blood of women
He invites the women back to his house for the night and they eagerly agree as apparently none of them notice anything odd about the young man
Billy's father strenuously objects to these arrangements and we discover it is because Billy has killed before
And before the night is over these women are dead and dad has convinced Billy he did them in
But being a good, protective dad, Billy is sent into downtown Louisville to help the demons escape him for a while
He goes to a bar and meets a lovely lady who apparently is touched by Billy's ability to pass out and urinate in his pants
Before long Billy has wooed his new girlfriend back to dad's with another girl in tow apparently having forgotten about the four women from the night before
Once again dad objects but Billy insists and the film concludes with a "twist" ending that, if you can't anticipate in the first 30 minutes, you dozed, went to the bathroom or raided the refrigerator
Not that you can be blamed for any of those but should have happened to miss a "key" scene early on the twist might play more like The Sixth Sense
Not surprisingly the film didn't exactly pack them into theaters and drive-ins and barely received a wide theatrical release
THE ZEBRA KILLER (1973) - This film is considered Girdler's long lost "classic" that has never been seen on video or DVD
With this film Girdler entered the world of the blaxploitation film and tells the story of a black policeman who can only be described as a straight, serious version of Barney Fife
Our hero is tracking a serial killer who will eventually kidnap the officer's girlfriend who turns out to be so dumb she makes her boyfriend look positively intelligent
This officer is so stupid that the clues Girdler provides him (and the audience) are so obvious that it takes him an hour longer then anyone watching to figure things out
In the meantime he argues and argues and argues with his white partner, hangs out in bars reflecting on his life and even takes a break from the strenuous investigation long enough to eat some fried chicken and watermelon
Happily, after the killer is caught (and the audience has likely left the theater) there is a last scene reminiscent of Dirty Harry in which our hero walks away from the job thus allowing the people in his neighborhood to rest easier knowing one less idiot is employed by the police department
The film barely received a limited release in 1973 and would re-appear in 1974 as the second feature at drive-ins under the title Combat Cops
The title change did little good to mask the garbage that the film is
Girdler's desire for success remained undaunted and his next project would finally take him there thanks to an independent producer he met while shooting this movie
That meeting would lead to William Girdler getting a chance to work for a studio (American International) on a slightly higher budget then he was accustomed
"Anybody should be able to make a good movie with a $20 million budget the way they did on "The Exorcist
" Comparatively speaking, for what we spent on it, "Abby" was probably a better picture then "The Exorcist
ABBY (1974) - Anyone interested in getting to view any of Girdler's films ought to start with this one - if you can find it anywhere
Quite simply Abby is nothing but a shameless rip-off of The Exorcist with an all black cast
Carol Speed, who was one notch below Pam Grier of popular actresses in the blaxploitation genre, starred in the title role as a prim and proper preacher's daughter who is unwittingly possessed by an African sex demon unleashed by her father in-law (William Marshall) while on an archeological dig in Africa
Soon the preacher's daughter begins dropping the F-bomb and taking to bed any man willing while speaking in a deep voice that sounds mixed with Pee Wee Herman
Interestingly audiences swallowed up Abby and the film made over $4 million in its first month of wide release on a budget of just over $100,000
Warner Brothers, distributor of The Exorcist, was none too pleased to see a plethora of rip-offs coming out including Beyond The Door and House of Exorcism along with this film
Warner's sued the makers of all three but only Abby would ultimately be removed from theaters while still in first run as apparently even the law realized this was nothing more then a copy of the classic film
Litigation would continue for the next few years and Girdler never saw a dime of the profits
Undeterred, Girdler then seeked out and found the queen of blaxploitation films
SHEBA, BABY (1975) - Girdler's final film to be shot in Kentucky brought him together with the queen of blaxploitation, Pam Grier
Grier had established herself as a sexy tough you didn't mess with unless she wanted to be messed with in a string of big hits including Coffy, Foxy Brown and Friday Foster
Here Grier played a variation of the same role as a Chicago detective who comes home to Louisville to take on some tough local thugs out to take her father's loan company
Co-writer David Sheldon admitted later that he and Girdler sat down and wrote the whole script in one night and it shows
Girdler evidently never saw the other films that made Grier so popular
While she looks as stunning as ever, Girdler concentrates more on a believable story then action and sex which were staples in Grier's films
Girdler reportedly even went so far as to cut a Grier nude scene to attain a PG rating which was unheard of for this type of film in 1975
Despite the mediocrity of it all Sheba, Baby was another solid hit for both Girdler and Grier
Girdler later admitted he felt this to be his weakest film while Grier refused to re-sign with American International Pictures after this film because, some believe, the poor working relationship she and Girdler had
Her decision would cause her career to take a massive downward spiral until Quentin Tarantino resurrected it twenty years later with Jackie Brown
William Girdler on "Project Kill" before its release in 1975
PROJECT KILL (1975) - As you read this article you may find yourself wondering why you haven't heard of many, if any, of these movies
Shortly after the Kentucky premiere of Project Kill the distributor was found murdered gangland style in what many called a mafia hit thus making the film's title that much more prophetic
After that the film was caught up in an estate dispute for several years and the film saw the light of day only in scattered cities throughout the United States
The film has Girdler's usual cheap look and some takes that the editor must have mistakenly chosen to fight choreography that a nine year old could improve upon
Still some believe this to be Girdler's best film which isn't saying much but it could be reasoned this is the case because Girdler had nothing to do with the writing of the script
One day while grousing about the fate of his latest movie Girdler went to see a new box office sensation called Jaws and soon would create his own (to a lesser degree) box office sensation
GRIZZLY (1976) - The first of the Jaws rip-offs would come less then a year after its initial release and William Girdler spearheaded the production
Girdler came up with the script idea and handed the reigns over to two others to write while he secured financing
) and the financing was in place thanks to a small time producer named Edward Montoro
Unbeknownst to Girdler, Warner Brothers was very interested in doing the movie and allowing Girdler to direct with twice the budget but Girdler had made the deal and was a man of his word
The film turns out to be a shameless cheat from start to finish
The ads proclaimed, 18 Feet of Gut-Crunching Terror but Girdler never shows his actors and the bear in the same shot, instead clumsily editing the attacks with what appears to be a fake grizzly bear paw swinging at the helpless victims
One key scene involving the bear's destruction of a park ranger tower is filmed so poorly as to not notice the strength of the bear but the flimsiness of the tower
As in Jaws the film opens with a helpless naked woman being attacked
The film's similar theme is that the park owners will not close down for fear of severe financial loss
And three men (Christopher George, Richard Jaeckal and Andrew Prine) hunt the mighty beast
Grizzly was a smash it despite the negative critical response
It was the highest grossing independent film of the year making over $30 million on a budget of just $750,000
Unfortunately Girdler never saw any of the profits
Montoro decided to keep all the profits for himself
Girdler, his co-writers and co-producers sued Montoro but Girdler would not live to see a judge side with them
Montoro appealed and in 1985 stole over $1 million from his own studio and was never seen again
DAY OF THE ANIMALS (1977) - Before Girdler knew that Montoro was going to screw him out of Grizzly's profits, the two re-teamed for what many consider a sequel
This time the film concerns a group of vacationing hikers and their guides trying to survive a sudden onslaught on them by any animal alive due to a hole in the ozone layer which has turned the animals into vicious attackers
Christopher George and Richard Jaeckal saddle up again along with Leslie Nielsen, Ruth Roman and Lynda Day George among others
As usual the film is filled with cheap looking shots, bad special effects and fake animals that are a joy for any bad movie lover
The film was a box office disappointment but Girdler, who had already dissolved his work relationship with Montoro during production, had has sights set on what he felt would be his masterpiece
THE MANITOU (1978) - While doing post-production work on Animals, Girdler found Graham Masterson's best selling 1976 novel in an airport bookstore
Girdler read the entire book on his flight and called his associates imploring them to "sell everything" to secure the rights to the film
Girdler got them for $50,000 and within three months was in production
The story tells of a tarot card reading psychic, who happens to be a hustler, who falls for a woman who soon has a tumor growing from her neck that soon grows to epic sized proportions until an Indian medicine man emerges and sets his sights on murder
Girdler adapted the script himself and, sadly, it shows with clunky dialogue and ridiculous situations
The film's big ending is made laughable by its awful special effects
Girdler also served as sole producer for the first and only time but was able to secure a first rate list of actors including Tony Curtis, Michael Ansara, Susan Strasberg, Stella Stevens, Burgess Meredith, Ann Sothern and Jeanette Nolan
Most of them look lost in completely underwritten roles sometimes performing in scenes that could only be described as embarrassing
Despite this Girdler was convinced he had made his masterpiece and believed the film would be a smash hit
Sadly, Girdler never lived to see The Manitou be released in theaters
On January 21, 1978, Girdler was in the Philippines scouting locations for what was to be his next film, The Overlords
The helicopter Girdler was riding in hit power lines electrocuting everyone on board
William Girdler, 30, outlived his premonition of death by just a few months
He returned home one last time to Louisville and was laid to rest
Alas the smash box office results Girdler predicted for his magnum opus was not to be
William Girdler's untimely death robbed the world of what could have been a number of future films
Less then two years after he died the mad slasher film was re-born and one can only wonder what Girdler may have contributed to that genre as well
He may have been a bad director who made bad movies but he shared a love of film that may be unequaled
When you watch his films you may unintentionally laugh but you should also smile because William Girdler tried his hardest to entertain his audience and never worried about box office grosses
In Batman's 70 year history, Batman: The Animated Series will go down in the annals as one of the definitive contributions to the character and his history
Although the series lasted for only 3 seasons (from 1992-1995), it was later retooled as The New Batman Adventures (1997-1999)
The series was modeled after Tim Burton's Batman movies, and borrowed much of the art designs of the movies from Anton First, and the musical undertones and scores from the movies, which were written by Danny Elfman
Another major influence were the Max Fleischer Superman theatrical cartoons of the 1940's
The series was a combination of super hero and 40's film noir movies all rolled into one, reflecting such films as the Naked City or just about any film with actor Robert Mitchum in his heyday
This groundbreaking approach geared this series to be more adult-oriented, suited to appealing to the comic book crowd, who are typically in their 20's and 30's
The animated series was also one of the few TV cartoon series at the time to feature celebrity voice artists and character actors, such as Paul Williams, Mark Hamill, Efrem Zimbalist Jr, Bob Hastings, Adrienne Barbeau, Roddy Mc - Dowall, David Warner, Michael Ansara, and Kevin Conroy as The Bat-Man
The series' producers Paul Dini, Bruce Timm, and Alan Burnett all had the same commitment of excellence in mind for the show— wanting to push the boundaries of what a "kids" cartoon series could be
Batman:TAS did not dilute the comic book material, but instead painted rich tapestries in character development, stories and plots
For that, the series gained praise from comic fans and creators alike, as well as TV critics
The series garnered such prestige that it even influenced some elements in the post Burton Batman films, and even added a few new characters to the DC comics universe, such as the Joker's girlfriend, Harley Quinn, Detective Renee Montoya, and the vigilante Lock-Up
The series had 2 spin-off movies, Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993) which was released in theaters and Batman & Mr
Batman:TAS surley cemented the character in the minds of a new generation, and for generations to come
Batman: The Complete Animated series is available on DVD
DVDs have come a long way since their birth in 1995
Enhanced features like audio and video commentary - not to mention added value content like interviews, documentaries, DVD-Rom and even games - give them new life
Today forward looking movie fans either have the new high definition DVD format Blu-Ray or will purchase a player soon
Old DVDs play on the new players, so don't fear your movie collection becoming obsolete
Fancy features on DVD is fine, but the whole point of renting or buying is getting the most out of the film itself
You may watch your DVD copy of Lord of The Rings with Ian Mc - Kellan or Flight Plan starring Jodi Foster a dozen times and the extra features, but after awhile it's about all you can do to breathe new life into the flick
DVD fans are well aware of the Easter Eggs - little film clips, interviews, deleted scenes and more that are hidden on the disc menu
There are tons of websites devoted to revealing just where the little gems are found, if you don't want to do the work yourself
Well, there's also DVD or movie artwork on the disc that's not always easily found
Vintage movie posters and more are there waiting for you to find them
Each DVD remote control is different, but most have a Chapter Or File Control
By going to your Main Control Menu - the DVD Player one not the movie itself - on many models you can instruct it to display all the files, or even see a file thumbnail of each
A DVD is basically a computer data disc with individual files - just like a computer CD-ROM or DVD-ROM
By accessing the main DVD Player Control Menu, you can view all the files and access them by number
There may be only a few, or there may be many - but in this way you can call up those posters, files or whatever is on the DVD, including those often elusive Easter Eggs
Pausing a scene and magnifying 4-6 times its size reveals details about your movies and TV shows you'd never know playing them at normal size
But there's an even cooler thing you can do with the reduce feature
Depending on a movie's format - Full Screen - Standard - or Wide - Screen - it's sized differently on your TV screen or monitor
Most people think a Widescreen format gives absolutely every bit of information that's on that movie print
The truth is that you're still not getting the whole picture
By using the reduce mode and shrinking the film by say
- you'll be able to see a half inch or even more on either side of the film
Often, cool in jokes are inserted by the art department into a prop
In Star Trek for example, computer monitors often contain funny jokes about cast, crew or other things not remotely related to the show
I've used Reduce Mode to read books and newspapers and more which don't show up in regular size
It reveals little secret jokes that most fans never know about
Also by seeing more on either side of the screen, actors coming into frame sometimes "react" or look as if they're preparing to get into character
In Irwin Allen's "Voyage To The Bottom Of The Sea" the great actor Michael Ansara comes into frame in a very dramatic rescue type situation
When reduced, it's clear to me that Ansara was psyching himself up for the scene as he comes into frame and while there's a hint of it at normal size, the reduction makes it very clear
Rarely, though more common with older DVDs, features are forgotten to be listed on the DVD cover artwork or even sometimes on the DVD movie menu itself
When watching a DVD, toggle the AUDIO or LANGUAGE buttons on your remote - pause and listen
You just may find an audio commentary track that was not listed because of some printing or artwork error
These are sort of like Easter Eggs, but can be much harder to find - if ever - since there's no menu icon
Hundreds of children and fans in Fresno and all over the country tuned in of weekday afternoons and Saturday mornings to see the exciting adventures of the Dark Knight in Batman: The Animated Series
Then, after an impressive 86 episodes and three seasons, the show was cancelled
Bruce Timm and many of his co-creators would go on t leave Fox Kids for Kids' WB, where they created Superman: The Animated Series, which would be just as revolutionary for the Man of Steel as the earlier show was for the Caped Crusader of Gotham City
And yet, despite the success of Superman: The Animated Series, many fans were still not ready to let go of their memories and were secretly wishing for a return of their beloved Batman: The Animated Series
It was a call that, in their third season on the air, Kids' WB decided to answer
During production of Superman: The Animated Series, the network had informed the creators that, in addition to acquiring the right to air reruns of the original Batman: The Animated Series, they also were requesting that several brand new Batman episodes be produced exclusively for them
Despite the understanding that this would mean working on two shows at the same time, Bruce Timm and his crew decided to revisit Gotham City once again
Only this time it would not be the same as the original series at all
After developing the streamlined look of Superman: The Animated Series, Timm had decided that simply going back to the Fleischer-inspired look of Batman: The Animated Series would no longer be satisfying
Instead, it was decided to incorporate the streamlined animation theory of Superman: The Animated Series into this new Batman show, which required a complete redesign of all the characters
Part of the mandate for this was also that the network requested these new Batman episodes be introduced in a team-up episode with Superman, which became “World's Finest”, so the characters therefore needed to be redrawn so that they would not look out-of-place among the Superman characters (some fans use a similar argument for why the Teen Titans animated series cannot be in continuity with the DCAU)
Batman was returned to his original costume with a pocket-based utility belt and the large black bat symbol on his chest without any yellow oval around it; instead of any blue highlights, the black portions of his costume were completely black and therefore could bleed into backgrounds very easily
Bruce Wayne was finally given a new black suit and a much slimmer physic, the intention being to make him look as handsome as women believe he is
Dick Grayson has now grown out of his Robin identity and returned with a new superhero identity called Nightwing, which consisted of a domino mask and a completely black costume save for a large blue bird symbol…and a mullet
Replacing him as Robin was a new, much younger character named Tim Drake, and his Robin costume was not only shrunken to fit his size, but all of the green portions of the costume were repainted black
Batgirl's costume was redesigned to reflect the original black costume with yellow gloves, cape and bat symbol from the comics
Alfred was slimmed down even more that he was before, and Commissioner Gordon was dramatically slimmed down; in addition, the other supporting characters like Detective Harvey Bullock and Renee Montoya (who was now promoted to detective as well) were basically just redrawn in the new style
The villains were all given makeovers as well, some were basically just redrawn in the new look while others were dramatically changed
The Joker was probably the most controversial redesign, not so much because of his somewhat exaggerated facial features or his totally black eyes, but because the animators chose to remove his trademark red lips, or even give him black lips with a small red highlight
Harley Quinn was basically redrawn in the new style and adapted very well; Two Face turned out the same way
Freeze was given a slicker black suit with blue highlights and had his red goggles removed; Catwoman's costumes became totally black and her hair suddenly went from blond to black; Clayface was made much smoother and less complex than his earlier design; Poison Ivy was given an hourglass figure and had her skin tinted light green to make her look more elfish or impish; the Ventriloquist lost most of his hair and both he and Scarface got different colored suits; Bane was given a black leather outfit with spike out it, the Mad Hatter became much more twisted and rat-like, and so on
One of the most satisfying redesigns was the Penguin, who was finally free to get away from the image of Danny Devito's character from Batman Returns and return to his more human appearance in the comics; his webbed fingers were replaced with normal hands and his was much less round looking
On the other hand, the rarely seen redesign of the Riddler is one that this examiner absolutely hates, exchanging her cool green tuxedo appearance from the old show for a green jumpsuit similar to what Frank Gorshin and Jim Carrey wore when they each played the character
But easily the most radical redesign of them all was the Scarecrow, who the creators had redesigned a few times during the original series because he just never seemed scary enough
But the design for this show had almost nothing to do with the original design, instead looking more like a zombie Western preacher with ghoulish gray arms and a face akin to Leatherface from Texas Chainsaw Massacre
Gotham City itself was very similar to old show, just a very little bit more modern and with a constantly blood-red sky, which might have happened once in a while in the old show, but here it happened all the time
But not only were the characters redesigned, but for many of them their motivations evolved from what they were in Batman: The Animated Series
Bruce had become much darker than he was before, amazingly, and yet he is just warmed up enough to allow up to three crime fighting partners now
Dick Grayson, as already mentioned, has grown apart from his mentor and left his Robin identity behind to return as Nightwing, and as his relationship with Batman disintegrated, so too, sadly, did his romance with Barbara Gordon, a
In speaking of Barbara, she became a full member of the team instead of someone who showed up to help in only two stories like in the original series
The new Robin, Tim Drake, was actually a fusion of two Robin characters from the comic books: the actual Tim Drake, and his predecessor Jason Todd
Like Jason, this version of Tim was a street urchin who was ditched by his criminal father and had an somewhat obnoxious attitude, although, like the actual Tim from the comics, he is a good kid at heart and is more likeable than Jason was (which was why the fans eventually voted to have him killed off)
Even some of the villains got deeper: the Scarecrow became scarier and darker than he ever was before; Two-Face's split personality deteriorated even further; Bane became far more intimidating than he was before; the Ventriloquist got a very appropriate wrap-up for his character's schizophrenic problems…or did he
While the Joker was pretty much just as crazy and evil as ever, Harley Quinn's relationship with him is explored in very dark and tragic ways
The Penguin put up the front that he had reformed and was now a gentleman of high society and no longer a criminal, all the while engaging in underground activity in the back room of his new nightclub, the Iceberg Lounge
More significantly, after having his wife cured in Sub - Zero, Mr
Freeze was given new motivation because his condition and reputation made it impossible to reunite with her, so he made it his new mission to do anything he could to bring as much pain and suffering to anyone he could by taking or destroying whatever it was they cared about, his theory being that if he cannot be happy then nobody else could either
As far as episodes this season, Batman: The Animated Series—Volume Four (as the DVD was labeled for the sake of having the same title as its related show) was very much a mixed bag like Superman: The Animated Series—Volume Three; some of the episodes were actually very good, while may of them were wither dismissible or downright awful
The first episode “Holiday Knights” is basically an anthology of three Christmas adventures with these characters that is nothing special at all, while the next episode “Sins of the Father” (which should have been the first episode for the sake of continuity) isn't great but it is okay and is significant for introducing the new Robin and establishing the new dynamic of Batman and his team
“Cold Comfort” is a polarizing episode (no pun intended, I swear) that gave Mr
Freeze his new motivation that some fans liked and others didn't; however, this examiner does admit that the reveal made about the character at the end of the second act is among the most shocking reveals in the entire DCAU
“Double Talk” offers a great look into the twisted and tormented psyche of the Ventriloquist
“Never Fear” is not a great show, but the new Scarecrow makes it worth while, that, and getting to see this new Robin take a stand against Batman when he knows he has to
“Joker's Favor” isn't great either but it does offer an adaptation of a classic issue of the comics from the Dick Sprang era
“Growing Pains” is actually a rather sad episode, while episodes like “Torch Song” and “The Ultimate Thrill” have pretty much no other purpose than to introduce new and uninteresting villains Firefly and Roxy Rocket
We did get episodes like “The Demon Within”, “Girl's Night Out” and “Beware the Creeper” which are memorable for guest starring characters Etrigan, Livewire and Supergirl, and the Creeper, respectively
There are several other poor episodes this season, but the absolute worst of them all, agreed by almost everyone, is the episode called “Critters”; Batman and his allies are challenged by an evil farmer-scientist named Farmer Brown who does genetic experiments on farm animals then releases them on Gotham City…dear sweet lord
Okay, if the reader has never seen these episodes and this review is their first exposure to them, then this set probably doesn't appeal to you much at all
But don't worry; where the episodes are good, they are really good, four episodes in particular shine extremely brightly
The first episode is “Over the Edge” which gives us a glimpse into a world where Batgirl has died and it results in Batman and Commissioner Gordon's partnership being terminated as Gordon leads a ruthless and obsessive manhunt for Batman; it might not be quite what is seems, but despite a controversial ending the episode is so incredibly dramatic and intense that it is was apparently voted by fans as the second best Batman episode ever after “Heart of Ice”
Then there is “Old Wounds”, the episode that reveals what ended the original Batman and Robin partnership and what finally pushed Dick Grayson to leave and become Nightwing, this episode is engaging, serious, and seeing Robin outright slug Batman at the end of the flashback is very powerful
One episode that deserves particular praise from a fan boy perspective is “Legends of the Dark Knight”, which doesn't have a very deep story but it focuses of three kids who are all Batman fans that share their opinions on what he is really like
What follows are a pair of extended fantasy sequences that show alternate visions of Batman; the first representing the campy Dick Sprang incarnation from the fifties (and, ultimately, the Adam West TV series), and the other adapting a sequence directly from Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns
On the commentary for this episode Paul Dini described that many of his friends came to him for wish lists for cells from the Dark Knight sequence, and this examiner cannot blame them because of how awesome it is
But hands down this examiner's favorite episode on this entire set is “Mad Love”, which is adapted from an award-winning one-shot comic book done by Bruce Timm and Paul Dini that first revealed the origin of Harley Quinn and set in stone forever how truly twisted her relationship with the Joker really is, while at the same time serving as a exaggerated commentary on the serious real-time problem of spousal abuse
It's hard to put into words just how good this episode is; you just have to see it to believe it
As for the voice performances; most of the voice actors from Batman: The Animated Series came back to reprise their roles and they do great as usual
Kevin Conroy is as awesome as ever as the voice of Batman, Loren Lester gets to flex his anger and independence as Nightwing, and Efrem Zimbalist, Jr
and Robert Costanzo continue to be great as Alfred Pennyworth and Detective Harvey Bullock, respectively
Bob Hastings is allowed a one-time opportunity to bring incredible weight and power to his portrayal of Commissioner Gordon in the episode “Old Wounds”
Mark Hamill perfects his performance as the Joker yet again this season, as does Arleen Sorkin as Harley Quinn; there performances in “Mad Love” are easily among their best ever
Also returning were Adrienne Barbeau as Catwoman, Paul Williams as the Penguin, John Glover as the Riddler, Richard Moll as Two-Face, Michael Ansara as Mr
Freeze, Diane Pershing as Poison Ivy, Henry Silva as Bane, the late Roddy Mc - Dowall as the Mad Hatter, Ron Pearlman as Clayface, and George Dzundza as the Ventriloquist and Scarface
Replacing some of the previous voice actors are Brooks Gardner as Killer Croc, and Jeffrey Combs as the chillingly soft voice of the Scarecrow
Special features on this set include audio commentary by Bruce Timm, Paul Dini, Dan Riba, Glen Murakami and James Tucker on the episodes "Over the Edge", "Critters", and "Legends of the Dark Knight"
There is also a featurette called "Interactive Arkham Asylum" which, in addition to a introductory retrospective, features individual examinations of eleven of Batman's greatest enemies
Overall, Batman: The Animated Series—Volume Four (or The New Batman Adventures, or Batman: Gotham Knights, or whatever fans want to call it) is anything but a perfect season, containing both some of Caped Crusader's best episodes ever, as well as his absolute worst
Still, this new visual style of Batman ultimately lasted and, along with Superman: The Animated Series, helped set a general animation standard for the rest of the DC Animated Universe
And as this show got further along the episodes did get better, and years later this series would even earn it's own film spinof, Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman
This set is weak in places but is still a welcome addition to any DCAU collection
Even though the show ultimately did not last more than one season, even this would not be the last of the Dark Knight's animated adventures, and what would come next is something that nobody could have expected
And remember, podcast reviews of all the episodes found in this collection, as well as from all cartoons set in the DC Animated Universe, can be found at World's Finest Podcast, hosted by Michael David Sims and James Deaux of Earth-2
While many Elvis Presley supporters claim he could have been a fine actor, given the right material, his detractors point to films such as Harum Scarum as their proof otherwise
Presley had hoped for a Rudolph Valentino-style role, but instead got something much different (and much worse)
Presley stars as Johnny Tyronne, an American action movie star (and singer, of course) who is in the Middle East to promote his new film Sands of the Desert
After singing "Harem Holiday" and "Go East Young Man" for a group of dignitaries, Prince Dragna (Michael Ansara) and his lady Aishah (Fran Jeffries) invite Tyronne to be a guest of Dragna's brother, King Toranshah (Phillip Reed)
After seeing Tyronne karate chop a cheetah in one of his films (It's an Elvis movie, why wouldn't he be able to do that
), they are convinced he is the right man to kill the king
They drug Tyronne and take him to see Sinan, lord of the assassins, who asks Tyronne if he carries death in his hands
Tyronne tells him his skills are used for self-defense and Sinan sends his goons after Tyronne
While in captivity, Tyronne meets Princess Shalimar (Mary Ann Mobley) who is posing as a slave girl, when in reality, she is Toranshah's daughter and therefore royalty
Shalimar gets wind that Sinan has returned and, sensing her father is in danger, helps Tyronne thwart the plot to assassinate him
Presley looks bored out his mind throughout the proceedings and likely was
He was frustrated at the lack of good roles and music for his films and was going through the motions
s such as a child with three mothers named Sapphire, Emerald, and Amethyst, and forgettable songs
Reportedly, even the Colonel was embarrassed and wanted to add a talking camel as narrator as a way of acknowledging the film's cheesiness
For completists only, Harum Scarum is also part of the Elvis: 75th Anniversary DVD Collection
Article first published as DVD Review: Harum Scarum on Blogcritics
The Internet Movie Database seems to have spoiled some of the surprises which were no doubt in store for Arkham Asylum fans at this years Comic - Con potentially leaking several unannounced villains
The unannounced and as yet unconfirmed characters are
Hell, R'as was only there once and wasn't there long, so what could this mean
Two Face, Freeze, Penguin, they've all been in and out of the Asylum more times than I can recount
Barbara Gordon is most likely showing up as Batman's Otacon via some surely hidden bat-codec
If anything I'm sure R'as is showing up to tie this game to the most-likely-happening Arkham sequel
Guess we'll just have to wait 'til Comic - Con and see
In "Jeannie Out of the Bottle", actress Barbara Eden insists that Jeannie, the character whom she played in the 1960's made-for-TV comedy series "I Dream of Jeannie" was never a part of her, not even as her alter ego, though she has never estranged herself from the role
Eden's newly released autobiography is a testament to the affection she continues to have towards the harem-clad kewpie doll character which catapulted the actress into iconic status
In her book she discusses her family lineage, the path she took to becoming a screen actress and live performer, the effect her three marriages have had on her, and the lessons she learned from the love of her life, her son Matthew who passed away in 2001 at the age of thirty-five
Born Barbara Jean Huffman in San Francisco, she provides an overview of her family's lineage which shows she is a descendent of Irish and British ancestry
She can trace her heritage back to her great grandparents who were of working class stock, trained as carpenters and longshoremen for the men and maids for the women
In the twentieth century, the women in her family held clerical jobs while her father worked for the Pacific Bell Telephone wiring cables
There was little evidence in her background to indicate that she would thrive as a stage performer and a screen actress
She tells that her parents afforded her to indulge in her talents as a singer and an actress paying for her education at the San Francisco Conservatory and City College, and later to attend Miss Holloway's Drama School whose alumni includes Carol Channing
It was Miss Holloway who encouraged the young Barbara Jean Huffman to go to Hollywood to further immerse herself in her profession
Unlike what most readers would expect, the golden gates of Hollywood's movie studios did not readily open up for her
She describes that doors were slammed in her face one after the other
It got better when she managed to secure an apartment for herself at the Studio Club in Los Angeles where a number of aspiring actresses, dancers, writers, and other professionals in the field of entertainment resided
It was a type of boarding house for young women who were working towards breaking into show business
She writes that such famous starlets as Marilyn Monroe, Kim Novack, Donna Reed, Rita Moreno, and the author Ayn Rand lived there
The house had a bulletin board where talent scouts posted auditions and other opportunities for women
This was where Barbara acquired her first jobs in Hollywood
It was from another resident in the house who recommended Barbara to audition for the chorus line at the nightclub Ciro's, then owned by George Schlatter who would later produce the TV show "Rowan & Martin's Laugh In"
Her skills as a dancer were marginal by her standards, but Barbara remembers that she was accepted because she was perceived as being pretty, an asset that proved to work in her favor then and now
Still known as Barbara Jean Huffman at this point, she began acquiring small roles in Hollywood that included "I Love Lucy", "Rawhide" which starred Clint Eastwood, and "How To Marry A Millionaire", a TV series based on the movie version starring Marilyn Monroe
A talent agent named Booker Mc - Clay picked up on her and she signed to his roster
Mc - Clay made history when he changed her name to Barbara Eden and set her up on a date with screen actor Michael Ansara who was popular at the time in the TV hit series "Broken Arrow"
She only has kind words and an indelible tenderness towards her first husband, which makes it inconceivable to the reader why she filed for a divorce in 1973
She would tell how she regretted that decision later in life
It would not be until 1964, Eden reveals, when writer Sidney Sheldon would cast her in the role of a lifetime as Jeannie in "I Dream of Jeannie"
Many of her experiences on the set centers around her leading man, Larry Hagman with tales that would make it perfectly clear to the reader how Hagman managed to play J
Ewing so convincingly later in life in the hit TV drama "Dallas"
She narrates that during rehearsals, he was temperamental, irrational, and hostile
, but Eden could always count on him to pull through when it came time to tape the show
She speaks affectionately about the entire cast and considers this time while taping the show from 1964 to 1970 to be the high point of her life in Hollywood
Eden's insight into the politics and inner workings of Hollywood is perceptive
Her ability to rise above it, as her mother enforced in her, kept her from becoming jaded and bitter and made her a kindred spirit with her character Jeannie
It was while she played Jeannie that she also performed in Las Vegas at the Frontier Hotel to supplement her income
It was also at this point that "Broken Arrow" was canceled and she was placed in the position of becoming her family's financial support
She soon found herself in the same predicament as her husband in 1970 when "I Dream of Jeannie" was canceled, which prompted her to turn all of her attention to her live performances and touring
She confronts that it was the strain of being away from her husband that put a rift in her marriage and in her relationship with her son
In 1971, Eden learned that she was pregnant but the strain of touring and performing caused the baby to be stillborn
Unable to cope with her depression and communicating effectively with her husband about her feelings, the marriage broke down and she decided that she wanted to start anew
Ansara gave her the divorce she requested, but he was also given custody of their son which she shares tore her apart
This is the point when Eden really lets the Jeannie out of the bottle, to quote her words, and talks about her attraction and relationship with her second husband Chuck Fegert
She describes that Fegert was the complete opposite of Ansara
While Ansara was steadfast and valued integrity, Fegert was frivolous and honed a playboy image for himself
Fegert sought fame by association and proved to be resentful of Eden's fame because it never garnered his own fame
As she looks back, she realizes that everyone she cared about and valued was unimportant to him
He damaged her relationship with her son further, which showed later to have dangerous repercussions
The realizations that Eden encounters are relatable to people outside of Hollywood
She shows how she was attracted to Fegert's need to party but it took a number of those parties before she woke up to the fact that he abused alcohol and drugs in order to upkeep his happy stamina
She describes a poignant moment at a party when she observed a woman's husband carousing with another female guest
She could not understand why the wife was unaffected by her husband's infidelity
At that moment, it struck Eden that she had put a veil over her own eyes when it came to Fegert and later with her son Matthew
The chapter she devotes to Matthew is heart-wrenching and inspiring
The humanness in her words awakens readers to look inside their own lives and not hide their eyes behind a veil when it comes to problems in a marriage, family or friendships
Her revelations alone make her autobiography qualified for the "Must Read" list
The death of her son from a drug overdose had a profound effect on her choices for films at this point
No longer attracted to roles as a seductress or a prancing sprite, she gravitated to roles that allowed her to play investigators and crime reporters
She thrived in playing realistic women who faced life head on, and it also affected her choice for a third husband, a developer named Jon Eicholtz
Eden ends her book discussing the prospects of another sequel to the "I Dream of Jeannie" series
She revealed on the "Wendy Williams Show" recently that she would like actress Reese Witherspoon to play Jeannie but nothing is concrete
Going through the twists and turns that have shaped Eden's life and following her mission to rise above it, as her mother instilled in her, it becomes evident to the reader that there is more of Jeannie in Barbara Eden than she even knows
Perhaps what makes Jeannie so endearing to audiences is that the woman who plays her also carries her inside through life
Freeze is a classic Batman nemesis and like many others in Batman's rouges gallery, he's one that most people, having read the comics or not, are familiar with
In 1997 he was used as the central antagonist for the live action Joel Shumaker film, Batman & Robin, where he was infamously portrayed as a pun-spewing moron by Arnold Schwarzenegger
To say that film was bad would be a gross understatement
At the time, Batman: The Animated Series was still airing and another feature length film was created to coincide with the release of Batman & Robin, but due to the well deserved panning the film received from critics and audiences alike, Batman & Mr
Freeze: Sub - Zero was kept from release for awhile as an attempt to distance the two movies
Victor Fries (Michael Ansara) in the arctic where he has managed to survive and form a family (of sorts) with an orphaned boy and two polar bears
As a continuation of the back story he was given in the cartoon, his motivations are based on the tragedy of his circumstances: his sick wife is kept frozen in stasis until she can be cured
A submarine unknowingly uses his home as a port and breaks the container that held his wife, causing him to seek a means of curing her back in Gotham City
Freeze needing to give his wife a dangerous organ transplant and kidnapping Barbara Gordon, aka Batgirl (Mary Kay Bergman), because she's one of the few donors with a matching blood type
This is the first Batman animated film since Batman: Mask of the Phantasm and, like that movie, all of the voice actors from the show have returned to play their respective characters
Kevin Conroy plays Batman and, as far as I'm concerned, is the only voice actor who should ever play him when he's animated
He plays both the Bruce Wayne and Batman personas perfectly without making it over-the-top
The rest of the cast delivers solid performances as well, the main characters in particular
The story is well written and paced, considering that the movies' total run-time is 70 minutes; a little over the length of two episodes of the show
What's sort of interesting is the respect given to the character of Barbara Gordon
Considering that somewhat early in the film she's captured by Mr
Freeze and his polar bears, you'd expect her to become a damsel in distress just waiting for her inevitable rescue by Batman and Robin (Loren Lester)
Instead, she proves to be anything but a cooperative captive
She spends most of the movie trying to escape or even fight her captors
When Batman and Robin finally do show up, she's on the verge of escaping by herself
Freeze is another interesting character as he's not entirely evil, but relentless and indifferent to the lives of others in his mission to save his wife
There's always a sympathetic angle with the way he's written and it makes him much more interesting than just an ice-based bad guy
Unfortunately, and this is mostly due to the short length, Batman is the one character to suffer a lack of screen time (which is very disappointing)
Due to his relationship with Barbara, Robin actually has more to do in this story, even getting an entire action sequence all to himself
While it's nice to see Robin taken seriously, it never hurts to have more scenes with Batman
As with Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, this movie was made by many people who worked on the show, although this time Boyd Kirkland is the director instead of Eric Radomski and Bruce Timm
There are also some minor animation differences from the previous film, a minor one being the flesh colored eyes some characters seem to have
For whatever reason, and this doesn't apply to the female characters, most of the male characters (Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson included) no longer have whites in their eyes
It may seem like a mundane detail, but it's noticeable and makes the characters a bit less attractive
The biggest problem with this movie, and the only one that actually detracts from the experience, is the use of computer animation
This movie was made in 1998 and needless to say, the CG is bad
It's obvious from the first CG fish that appear during the opening credits
At the time it might have been more cutting edge to utilize 3D computer animation with the cel animated characters, but it doesn't mix well here and dates this movie significantly
In fact, combining CG with 2D animation is still likely to look bad even today, so you can guess what it looked like in the late '90s
The action scene with Robin on a motorcycle chasing Mr
Freeze in his truck is almost painful to watch because of how poor the animation looks
This is such a shame because the 2D animation is still crisp and stylized, just as it was on the show
The action scenes that are fully reliant on the cel animation are so much better and more satisfying to watch
Freeze: Sub - Zero is still an entertaining Batman story that lives up to the high standards set by the animated series
Just in time for Easter, Paramount Home Entertainment celebrates the 55th anniversary of The Ten Commandments (1956) with a full restoration in high definition
It also includes a rare on-screen introduction by Cecil B
The Ten Commandments tells the epic tale of Moses, played by Charlton Heston
In the biblical story of Exodus, Jewish-born Moses is an adopted Egyptian prince
Once favored in the Pharaoh's household, Moses leaves his privileged life to lead the his people, the Hebrew slaves, to freedom
The set also includes a commemorative photo and archive book, a new 75-minute, in-depth documentary about the film and its impact, original costume sketches, the 1923 silent film The Ten Commandments (also available for the first time on Blu-ray), international premiere photos, production notes from Cecil B
De - Mille, correspondence from Charlton Heston, feature commentary and more
Includes all DVD and Blu-ray Special Features plus:
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Since September, 1992, children in Fresno and all over the world tuned in to Fox Kids every weekday afternoon to watch the ongoing adventures of the Dark Knight in the fan and critically acclaimed Batman: The Animated Series, or as it was later called after going to weekends The Adventures of Batman and Robin
The show helped redefine people's perception of Batman as well as set the standard image for which most Batman-related media would follow in its wake, not to mention that it would ultimately become the first show in what would evolve into the DC Animated Universe
Even though the show's 85 episode run ended in September, 1995, and many of the original creative team moved on to produce Superman: The Animated Series for Kids' WB, the Caped Crusader would still stay with us in the form of a new, redesigned and reformatted series called The New Batman Adventures (or Batman: Gotham Knights as it was originally going to be called)
Even though this new series only last for 24 episodes that ran from September, 1997 to January, 1999, it still helped to further the general public's knowledge of the Batman mythology by deepening some of the character's motifs and endeavors, and even introducing key elements of the more recent years of lore, such as Dick Grayson's transformation from Robin into Nightwing and the introduction of a new, younger Robin named Tim Drake
But no sooner had The New Batman Adventures ended than it was followed up that same month with yet another Batman series…only this time it was something very different
Batman Beyond (or Batman of the Future as it is called overseas) came about after a meeting Bruce Timm and his fellow creators had with Jamie Kellner, the head of programming at the WB at the time
Kellner had voiced his concerns that, even though the network was pleased with The New Batman Adventures, they thought the show skewed a little too old, mainly fans of the original series and even adult comic book fans, and therefore was not appealing enough to the child audience
So, he asked Timm and the others if they could somehow “retro-fit” the Batman character so that there would be guaranteed appeal for kids
Timm did not understand what Kellner had meant at first since the character was what he was and they had already lightened the tone enough by giving him two extra sidekicks
But as the discussions continued Timm and the others realized that Kellner was not suggesting that they restructure The New Batman Adventures at all, but instead to begin production on a completely new show
And then the two words that threw Timm and the rest for a loop: “teenage Batman”
The dumbstruck creators were then asked if they had any ideas of how the network could implement this radical new idea and, naturally, they weren't sure what to say
So, right there off the top of their heads they threw out on the spot the premise of what would become Batman Beyond: 'an aging Bruce Wayne is eventually forced to retire from his quest to rid the world of crime until fifty years later he takes in a teenage apprentice that dons the Batman costume himself, becoming the new “Tomorrow Knight”'
It was not a preplanned outline at all, but Kellner loved the idea nonetheless and gave the bewildered creators an immediate greenlight to start making this new show
But Bruce Timm, Paul Dini, Alan Burnett and the rest of the creators were skeptical about their new assignment
First of all, because they pretty much had it trust upon them they weren't even sure if they wanted to do it
Second, they must have realized that most of the hardcore fans would not find the idea of a sci-fi version of Gotham City where somebody else besides Bruce Wayne (a teenager no less) was wearing the Batsuit
Ultimately, Timm decided to consult Glen Murakami, a former character designer on Batman: The Animated Series and the art director on Superman: The Animated Series, about what he thought of the idea
Murakami showed enthusiasm about it knowing that he would probably do a majority of the design work, and in addition he became a producer on the series himself
This convinced Timm and the others to go ahead with the idea and sure enough as they began plotting the series out more fully and intricately, nailing down how Bruce Wayne got to the position he would find himself in late in his life and fully developing the new protagonist of the series, Terry Mc - Ginnis, the creators found themselves in love with their new show
One of the appeals of Batman Beyond (which by the way was one of several titles under consideration, others being Batman Tomorrow and The Tomorrow Knight) was the idea of tying it directly into the continuity of the previous shows they had been working on; literally, taking the Bruce Wayne character as he was defined in the other shows and showing what his life will become in fifty years: a lonely, grumpy old man living by himself in this foreboding old mansion with only a dog and his memories to keep him company
He has never married any of his old loves, allies like Alfred Pennyworth and Lucius Fox have passed away and James Gordon has retired (if he has not passed away himself), all of his young partners (Robin, Batgirl and Nightwing) have scornfully parted ways with his, and he has even distanced himself from his fellow superheroes like Superman and the Justice League
But even after all that, Bruce's obsession with stopping crime is so deep that something needed to be done to show us why he really hung up the mask
The answer, as seen in the prologue of the first episode, was to jump ahead thirty years where a 60-year old Bruce Wayne dons a new, highly advanced version of the Batsuit to rescue a young girl from a gang of kidnappers and suffering a heart attack during the fight
Beaten and desperate, Bruce is forced to do the one thing he has vowed never to do in his quest…pull a gun on somebody
Horrified and ashamed of what he had almost done, Bruce puts the costume away and closes the cave saying “Never again”
Fast forward another twenty years and Gotham City is no longer the grimy slum we are used to, but is now a bustling and technologically advanced city of the future that may look clean and safe on the outside, but at its heart is still overrun with crime
One of the citizens of the “Neo-Gotham” is Terry Mc - Ginnis, a high school kid that has a rough attitude and a short temper
He lives with his father after his parents' divorce and when he was younger had been part of a street gang, even spending three month in juvenile hall
But he is trying to put that life behind always letting his temper take over and getting into fights at school
One day Terry's dad comes into possession of a disk that contains data about a terrible new weapon being developed by his boss, Derek Powers, the man who years ago had taken control of Wayne's company
Despite being grounded for another fight he started at school, Terry goes out to see his girlfriend Dana, getting him and his dad into another fight where Terry leaves saying some very harsh words
While out at the club, the scene is ruined by the appearance of a street gang called the Jokerz (no, not THAT Joker); Terry gets into a fight with them to protect Dana and ends up fleeing them on a motorcycle where the chase ends at stately Wayne Manor
Terry is about to face the thugs himself when he receives help from the now 80-year old Bruce Wayne
The Jokerz drive away and Terry help take Bruce inside after he gets another heart complication, but before he leaves Terry stumbles across the entrance to the Batcave, for which Bruce furiously throws Terry out
When Terry comes home, he learns to his horror that his father was murdered, supposedly by the Jokerz
Now living with his mother, Mary, and his kid brother, Matt, Terry comes across the disk containing the data on Powers new weapon
Not knowing who else to turn to since Powers probably bought out the cops, he takes the disk back to Wayne, who concludes that the weapon Powers is making is a type of nerve gas that infects people with a deadly virus
But to Terry's dismay, Wayne will not do anything about it himself, and tells Terry to go to the police
Terry leaves disappointed, but after being cornered by Powers and his henchmen Mr
Fixx (the real murderer of Terry's dad), Terry escapes and decides to steal the high-tech Batsuit so he can stop Powers from shipping the virus in time
He succeeds with the reluctant guidance of Wayne himself over a radio receiver inside the Batsuit
The next morning, Terry is shocked to see Wayne at his house so he can offer his a “job”
And so begins their alliance and the career of the new Batman
This examiner apologizes for essentially outlining the entire plot of the first two episodes, but in this case he felt it was necessary
The two-part origin story “Rebirth” had at least three significant things it needed to accomplish
First of all, it needed to make it credible that Bruce would ever be capable of giving up his mission, yet alone leave Gotham to fend for itself for twenty years
Second, it needed to establish Terry as someone who was totally different than Dick Grayson, or Tim Drake, or any of the other young characters that had been linked to the Bat-family in the past
Lastly, and most importantly, they knew that they needed this origin story good enough to capture the attention of all the fans that were going to hate this series merely because of its premise; if they did not open this show with an absolute bang then this show would never have lasted more than those first thirteen episodes
Let's face it, the idea of anyone else but Bruce Wayne being Batman, yet alone a punk teenager, is blasphemy (keep in mind that this was years before Dick Grayson became Batman in the comic books in the wake of Final Crisis)
But to their credit, these first two episodes did an excellent job on all counts
When the viewer sees Bruce pull out that gun in the prologue, that says it all, and you absolutely buy that this is the end of his career
Terry could easily have been an unlikable character with how much of a punk he is, but the viewer still like him and, frankly, if he had been just a good, well-mannered kid that gets into the Batsuit, then it just wouldn't have been interesting (a kid like that probably wouldn't have been able to steal the suit in the first place)
As for the fans, this examiner honestly doesn't know what percentage of them accepted the show or not, but most of them probably came out of the premiere (which aired in primetime as I remember) thinking, “Well, that could have been a million times worse”
But Batman Beyond was much better than the fans ever expected and would build it own fan base that would carry it through a three season, 52 episode run, as well as an epic direct-to-video movie, Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker
One of the reasons the show worked so well was because, for a show that the network intended to appeal to little kids, it was actually extremely mature, perhaps more so even than Batman: The Animated Series
The subject matter was deep, the images would occasionally push the limits of what was aloud on Saturday morning TV (thank goodness Kids' WB was such a lenient network back then), and the violence was often brutal
There was also a level of sophistication with Terry's attitude and the rock music that would come on all the time
It is true that many of the themes that the show dealt with were very teen centric like relationship problems, parental tensions, drug abuse, sibling squabbles, etc
, but somehow these things came across so edgy and adult that it did not feel too much like the typical teenage superhero show like the MTV Spider-Man series, X-Men: Evolution or Iron Man: Armored Adventures
It also played on many of the darker element of the Batman mythos like emotion, personal relations, fear, and the danger of technology, making it significantly darker than most other children's programming at the time
Having said that, there was an attempt by the creators in most of the episodes to add in their own made up future slang, phrases like 'Slag', 'shway' and 'dreg', which while it serves its purpose can still get annoying after a while
Another creative decision that the creators need to be commended for was that, despite about four exceptions, they made a point of not automatically updating every member of the classic Batman rogues gallery
Instead choosing to create a series of original villains, although some of then did very subtly have similar motifs as some of the classic characters
Indeed, the only members of the classic villain gallery that were brought back for this series were Mr
Freeze, Bane, Ra's al Ghul and, inevitably, the Joker
Examples of memorable original villains created for the show's first season include the liquid-like shape-shifter named Inque, the outcast nerd Willie Watt and his giant robot the Golem, the playing card-themed Royal Flush Gang, and the illusion-casting Spellbinder, the villain Shriek who used a sound-generating suit as his weapon, the deadly assassin Curare, and, or course, Terry's arch nemesis, Lex Luthor-inspired business mogul Derek Powers, who at the end of “rebirth” was also transformed into the radioactive supervillain Blight
The first season of Batman Beyond contained thirteen episodes that turned out to be of fairly good quality
As was already said, “Rebirth” was a fantastic plotted and tightly written origin story that beautifully did its job of getting a skeptical audience to embrace this bizarre new vision of Batman
Other memorable episodes this season include “Black Out” which introduced both the villain Inque and the futuristic new Batmobile, as well as show a very disturbing scene where Terry almost gags to death when Inque tries to squirm down his throat
There are also “Golem” and “Dead Man's Hand” which are not brilliant shows but they does introduce Willie Watt and the Golem robot, and the Royal Flush Gang, respectively; the latter episode also has a subplot where Terry finds himself in a possibly relationship with Ten, a member of the Royal Flush Gang
“Spellbound” is a better episode with the fascinating hallucination sequences (one of which involved a swarm of very nasty bug monsters, and another involving creepy-looking zombies), but the motivation revealed for the villain Spellbinder could have been more original
“A Touch of Curare” is a pretty good show, but this examiner has a personal issue with it because this was the episode that first established the idea that Bruce Wayne and Barbara Gordon once had a romantic relationship, which this examiner has stated before that he was never a big supporter of
“Heroes” is another okay episode featuring the Terrific Trio, a team of heroes that pay a no-so-subtle homage to the Fantastic Four, but that same homage can draw it harsh criticism, just as how Terry defeats the trio is questionable
“The Winning Edge” is a surprisingly deep episode that deals with drug addiction and tension between kids and their families, as well as re-introducing classic Batman foe Bane in a very unexpected, yet fittingly sad way
“Meltdown” is a fantastic episode that finally brings the story of Mr
Freeze to a bittersweet conclusion, and it also has Terry's first direct confrontation with Blight; this examiner admits that featuring these two villains in the same episode was a perfect contrast
“Shriek”, which introduced the villain of the same name, is probably the most fascinating episode of the entire series, primarily due to how it plays around with sound and has a completely silent action sequence at the end, and a perfectly tragic final fate for the villain
Unfortunately there are two episodes on this set that are rather questionable
“Disappearing Inque” features the relatively quick return of the unique character, but this time gives her a lousy human sidekick that is disturbingly infatuated with her
The final episode of season one, “Ascension” seems like an epic season finale when you first watch it as a child, but looking at it again as an adult flaws become apparent, not the least of which are moments of poor animation, the motivation of Blight's equally despicable son, Paxton, and worst of all, an ending that foreshadows an eventual return of Blight's character even though was indeed his last appearance in the entire DCAU
Another thing that needs to be mentioned about Batman Beyond is the score
The series features a memorable, yet unexpected, blend of classic orchestral score with rock music to create a surprisingly edgy and intense score by composers like Kristopher Carter, Shirley Walker, Lolita Ritmanis, and Michael Mc - Cuistion
The most memorable bit of score is easily the opening theme against the equally amazing title sequence that lets viewers know right away what completely unique kind of Batman experience they are in for
The first time this examiner heard that theme and saw that opening title he was completely blown away by the sheer awesomeness of it, and both the score and the title sequence hold up to this day
As usual with these DCAU cartoons, the voice cast is excellent throughout
Kevin Conroy is as wonderful as ever, but this time gets to add a perfectly gravelly quality to his voice as he plays an 80-year old Bruce Wayne
But as great of Conroy is, the real star of this show is former Boy Meets World actor Will Friedle, making his voice acting debut as the new Batman, Terry Mc - Ginnis
Friedle's voice has just the perfect amount of attitude and intelligence that completely sells this character and matches perfectly with the design
He also convincingly deepens his voice for scenes in the Batsuit much like Conroy himself did, but does so with a totally different quality that again fits perfectly with the look of this new, younger Batman
Lauren Tom also gets a recurring role as Dan Tang, Terry's girlfriend, but even though her voice fits the role very well her character has never been as active as one might have liked (a problem that has plagued many superhero love interests, sadly)
Michael Gross and Teri Garr play Terry's parents, Warren and Mary Mc - Ginnis, respectively, and Ryan O' Donohue voices Terry's little brother Matt
Stockard Channing plays the part of a much older Barbara Gordon, now taking her father's place as commissioner of the Gotham P
(instead of being crippled and becoming Oracle like in the comics), and you can clearly tell from her performance that the years of working with both Batman and on the force have taken their toll on her and made her a very strong, no-nonsense woman who despite her past is not as willing to work with this new Batman as her father was
There are several other well known actors that have recurring roles in this series such as Paul Winfield as Gordon's husband Sam Young, Melissa Disney as cool-girl Blade Summer, Rachael Lee Cooke as Dana's best friend Chelsea Cunningham, and Seth Green as the school jock Nelson Nash
The main villain of the first season, Derek Powers (a
Blight) was voiced menacingly and slyly by Sherman Howard, who was a fitting choice since Powers was written to be a very Lex Luthor-inspired villain and Howard had already played Luthor on the Superboy series (and, in fact, had auditioned for Luthor on Superman: The Animated Series before Clancy Brown got the part)
Other villain performances this season include Shannon Kenny as Inque, Chris Mulkey as Shriek, Jon Cypher as Spellbinder, Scott Mc - Afee and Willie Watt, Michael Ansara as Mr
Freeze, Bruce Timm himself as the leader of the Jokerz gang (no, not the Joker himself), and the members of the Royal Flush Gang (George Lazenby as King; Amanda Donahue as Queen; Olivia d'Abo as Ten; and Scott Cleverdon as Jack)
Villains like Curare and Ace of the Royal Flush Gang were usually silent except for occasional grunts and fight noises
Special feature on this set include audio commentary by Bruce Timm, Alan Burnett, Paul Dini, Glen Murakami, director Curt Geda, and writer Stan Berkowitz on the episodes “Rebirth Part I” and “Shriek”
The main featurette on this set is “Inside Batman Beyond—Season One”, in which Bruce Timm, Alan Burnett, Glen Murakami and Paul Dini set down and discuss the making of the first season with moderator Jason Hillhouse
There is also “Music of the Knight” in which fans can watch key scenes from the first season with only the score accompanying it
Overall, Batman Beyond—Season One tends to be an underrated collection simply because of the creative liberties it takes with the Batman mythology, but it is still a very strong and fascinating new vision of the Dark Knight that is just as valid as any other Batman comic books series or show or film that came before or after it
It is a worthy and welcome addition to any fans' DCAU collection
And remember, podcast reviews of all the episodes found in this collection, as well as from all cartoons set in the DC Animated Universe, can be found at World's Finest Podcast, hosted by Michael David Sims and James Deaux of Earth-2
Double features are all the rage again with the release of two classic Batman animated features on one DVD
Freeze: Subzero (1997) and Batman: Mask of the Phantasm (1993) give fans a double dose of the caped crusader
Based on the excellent Batman - The Animated Series TV show, both movies feature the voice talents of Kevin Conroy as Batman
Phantasm ups the ante with a number of celebrity voices, including: Dana Delaney as Andrea Beaumont, Mark Hamill as The Joker, and Abe Vigoda as Salvatore "Sal the Wheezer" Valestra
Freeze (played by Michael Ansara) scrambles to find a cure to save his dying wife
She needs an organ donor with the right blood type and would not survive long enough to be put on a waiting list
Gregory Belson (played by George Dzundza) who, after doing a search, discovers that Barbara Gordon - Batgirl (played by Mary Kay Bergman) - is a perfect match
Freeze kidnaps Gordon, who said she'd help if he released her
Not trusting Gordon, Freeze resists releasing her and Batman and Robin (played by Loren Lester) come to her rescue
In the ensuing battle, Freeze is presumed dead of drowning after falling off an oilrig into the water
Meanwhile, Gordon saves Freeze's wife through an organ transplant and the world mourns the fact that while considered a villain, Freeze cared deeply for his wife and didn't live long enough to see that his cryogenic chamber kept her alive long enough to find a cure
The movie ends with Freeze, who survived the fall, back home in the Arctic Circle watching a news report of his wife being saved
Freeze is portrayed in a sympathetic light in this excellent movie as a distraught man willing to do anything to save his spouse
When the mysterious Phantasm - a masked villain with an appearance similar to Batman - kills a group of mobsters, our hero gets framed for murder in Mask of the Phantasm
As Batman attempts to solve these murders and clear his name, an old flame, Andrea Beaumont reappears
We learn through a series of excellent flashbacks that Bruce Wayne was once engaged to Beaumont
She had to leave Gotham City for Europe with her father to flee from the mafia, who were out to collect a debt he owed
Wayne is torn between finding happiness with Beaumont and upholding his promise to his parents to fight crime
One of the shady characters associated with Beaumont's father was The Joker, who, upon learning of the Phantasm's plans, begins fearing for his own life
The Joker confronts the Phantasm and we learn the Phantasm's identity in a surprising twist
The Joker then attempts to blow up Batman and the Phantasm in the film's climactic final battle
Bonus features for Subzero include "The Hunt for Mr
Freeze Game," "Get the Picture: How to Draw Batman," a music montage, cast and crew information, and trailers, including the theatrical version for Phantasm
Both movies adapt the comic books very well - better than some of the live-action Batman films - and this double feature is a must-own in any Batman fan's collection
With whom will you choose to celebrate this excellent occasion
If today is your birthday, then you are in excellent company
(If someone you love is celebrating another year today, why not forward this list to the birthday boy or girl
Click SHARE at the bottom of this page to email the entire article with your "Happy Birthday" message
April 15th was the birth date of several notable (or even notorious) individuals
American Regionalist painter Thomas Hart Benton (Boy Fishing, Cave Spring, Interior of a Farm House, Jesse James and Threshing Wheat), was born on April 15, 1889
Italian Renaissance painter and sculptor Leonardo da Vinci was born on April 15, 1452
Leonardo da Vinci is best remembered for The Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne and The Virgin of the Rocks
Elizabeth Catlett Mora, American printmaker (Sharecropper) and sculptress (Mother and Child), was born on April 15, 1919
American portrait painter Charles Willson Peale was born on April 15, 1741
Charles Willson Peale painted portraits of George Washington and other American Revolutionary War leaders
Jim Timmens, American jazz composer ("Aren't You Glad You're You") and New York's Radio City Music Hall musical director, was born on April 15, 1920
Evelyn Ashford, American track and field star and Olympic gold medalist (1984 and 1992), was born on April 15, 1957
American professional baseball player William Henry (Willie) Davis was born on April 15, 1940
Willie Davis played for the California Angels, Los Angeles Dodgers, Montreal Expos, San Diego Padres, St
Woodrow Thompson (Woody) Fryman, American professional baseball player, was born on April 15, 1940
Woody Fryman played for the Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, Detroit Tigers, Philadelphia Phillies, Pittsburgh Pirates and Montreal Expos
American professional basketball player and Olympic gold medalist (1964) Walter Raphael (Walt) Hazzard was born on April 15, 1942
Walt Hazzard played for the Atlanta Hawks, Buffalo Braves, Golden State Warriors, Los Angeles Lakers and Seattle Supersonics
Edy Hubacher, Swiss bobsledder and Olympic gold medalist (1972), was born on April 15, 1940
American race car driver Mel Kenyon was born on April 15, 1933
Mel Kenyon has been called the Champion of Midget Auto Racing, the King of the Midgets and Miraculous Mel
Sergei Krivokrasov, Russian professional hockey player and Olympic silver medalist (1998), was born on April 15, 1974
Sergei Krivokrasov played for the Chicago Blackhawks
American professional baseball player Richard Louis (Dick) Sharon was born on April 15, 1950
Dick Sharon played for the Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates and San Diego Padres
Ted Crawford Sizemore, American professional baseball player, was born on April 15, 1945
Ted Sizemore played for the Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs, Los Angeles Dodgers, Philadelphia Phillies and St
Angelena Dara Torres, American swimmer and Olympic gold medalist (1984, 1992 and 2000), was born on April 15, 1967
April 15th Birthdays: Famous Authors and Journalists
British Parliamentarian and author Jeffrey Archer (A Matter of Honor) was born on April 15, 1940
American syndicated advice columnist Ponce Kiah Marchelle Heloise Cruse Evans (better known as Heloise) was born on April 15, 1951
Heloise became popular by writing newspaper (The Honolulu Advertiser and King Features Syndicate) and magazine (Good Housekeeping) articles to offer helpful household how-to's in her column, "Hints from Heloise
, American literary critic (Atlantic Monthly) and author (The Ambassadors, The American, The Bostonians, Daisy Miller, The Golden Bowl, The Portrait of a Lady, The Princess Casamassima, Roderick Hudson, The Sacred Fount, The Tragic Muse, The Turn of the Screw, What Maisie Knew and The Wings of the Dove), was born on April 15, 1843
, was the son of Swedenborgian theologian Henry James, Sr
Boris Strugatski, Russian science fiction writer (Tale of Troika), was born on April 15, 1933
Linda Bloodworth-Thomason, American television producer (Designing Women and Murphy Brown), was born on April 15, 1947
American actor Michael Ansara (Broken Arrow and Centennial) was born on April 15, 1922
Claudia Cardinale, Tunisian actress (Blindfold, Henry the IV, Jesus of Nazareth, A Man in Love, Once Upon a Time in the West and The Pink Panther), was born on April 15, 1938
American model and actress Lois Cleveland Chiles was born on April 15, 1947
Lois Chiles appeared in Broadcast News, Coma, Creepshow 2, Dallas, Death on the Nile, Diary of a Hit Man, The Great Gatsby, Moonraker, Speed 2; Cruise Control, Together for Days, The Way We Were and Wish Upon a Star
Roy Clark, American country music banjoist, guitarist, singer, songwriter, comedian and television personality (Hee Haw), was born on April 15, 1933
Roy Clark's most popular songs included "Come and Live with Me," "Somewhere Between Love and Tomorrow," "Thank God and Greyhound You're Gone," "Through the Eyes of a Fool" and "Tips of My Fingers
American actor (The Bullwinkle Show, Bus Stop, Make Room for Daddy, The Monster That Challenged the World, My Friend Irma, Oh God: Book 2 and Tut & Tuttle) and television personality (Fractured Flickers) Hans Conried was born on April 15, 1917
Dave Edmunds, Welsh rock guitarist and singer (Rockpile), was born on April 15, 1944
British pop singer Samantha Fox ("Naughty Girls Need Love Too" and "Touch Me") was born on April 15, 1966
Ben Kasica, American Christian rock guitarist (Skillet), was born on April 15, 1984
American comedian, choreographer (New Jack City) and actor mark Alexander (Flex) Knox was born on April 15, 1970
Flex Knox has appeared in The Cosby Mysteries, Girlfriends
The Hills Have Eyes 2, Homeboys in Outer Space, Juice, Man In The Mirror: The Michael Jackson Story, Moesha, Money Train, New York Undercover, One on One, Sister Sister, Snakes on a Plane, Total Security and Where I Live
Robert Glynn (Bob) Luman, American country music singer, was born on April 15, 1937
Bob Luman's most well known songs included "Every Day I Have to Cry Some, Let's Think About Living," "The Pay Phone" and "Proud of You Baby
American actress Elizabeth Montgomery (Bewitched and Robert Montgomery Presents) was born on April 15, 1933
Alice Braga Moraes, Brazilian actress (Ciudade de Deus and I Am Legend), was born on April 15, 1983
British alternative rock guitarist and singer Edward John (Ed) O'Brien (Radiohead) was born on April 15, 1968
Rolling Stone Magazine has ranked Ed O'Brien among the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time
Daniel (Danny) Pino, American actor, was born on April 15, 1974
Danny Pino has appeared in Cold Case, Flicka, The Lost City, Lucy: The Lucille Ball Story and The Shield
Canadian comedian, voice-over artist (Horton Hears a Who, Kung Fu Panda, Monsters vs
Aliens, Shrek the Third and The Spiderwick Chronicles) and actor (Anchorman, Donnie Darko, Fanboys, Freaks and Geeks, Knocked Up, Observe and Report, Pineapple Express, Step Brothers, Superbad, Undeclared and You Me and Dupree) Seth Rogan was born on April 15, 1982
American blues singer Elizabeth Mae (Bessie) Smith ("Dixie Flyer Blues," "A Good Man is Hard to Find," "I Ain't Got Nobody," "My Man's Blues," "Poor Man's Blues" and "St
Bessie Smith, known as The Empress of the Blues, and with Louis Armstrong and provided the inspiration for the play The Death of Bessie Smith, by Edward Albee
Julie Sommars, American actress (Barnaby Jones, Diagnosis Murder, The Fugitive, The Governor and J
, Matlock, Mc - Cloud, Perry Mason, The Rockford Files and Sex and the Single Parent), was born on April 15, 1942
British actress and Academy Award winner (1992 and 1995) Emma Thompson was born on April 15, 1959
Emma Thompson, who married actors Kenneth Branagh and Greg Wise, has appeared in Angels in America,The Boat That Rocked, Carrington, An Education, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Henry V, Howard's End, In the Name of the Father, Last Chance Harvey, Look Back in Anger, Love Actually, Nanny Mc - Phee, The Remains of the Day, Sense and Sensibility and Stranger than Fiction
Emma Thompson is the daughter of actress Phyllida Law and film producer Eric Thompson
British actress Emma Watson (Ballet Shoes, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone and The Tale of Despereaux) was born on April 15, 1990
John Williams, British actor (Dial M for Murder and Family Affair), was born on April 15, 1903
American actress Amy Wright (The Accidental Tourist, The Amityville Horror, Breaking Away, Crossing Delancey, The Deer Hunter, Final Verdict, Inside Moves, The Scarlet Letter and Wise Blood) was born on April 15, 1950
Leonhard Euler, Swedish mathematician (Euler's Constant), was born on April 15, 1707
German physicist and Nobel Prize winner (1919) Johannes Stark (The Stark Effect) was born on April 15, 1874
Nicholas Tinbergen, Dutch-British biologist, zoologist and Nobel Prize winner (1973), was born on April 15, 1907
April 15th Birthdays: Famous World (and Other) Leaders
Catherine I, Empress of Russia, was born on April 15, 1684
North Korean President Kim II Sung was born on April 15, 1912
Do you know any others who are celebrating birthdays on April 15th
If you know additional notable people (including yourself) who may be celebrating a birthday on April 15th, please indicate so in a comment below
Comic book fans in Fresno and all over the world loved watching the animated adventures of the Dark Knight every week on Batman: The Animated Series during its three season run
There was even a spin-off animated film released in theaters called Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, which, while not very successful at all during its theatrical run, would go on to become a cult classic in the direct-to-video format it was originally intended for
Animation took to heart when it was decided to produced the second film spin-off of Batman: The Animated Series
Brainchild of series producer-director-writer Boyd Kirkland, Batman & Mr
Freeze: Sub - Zero went into production in 1996, as a marketing tie-in with the Joel Schumacher's upcoming film Batman & Robin
The mandate from the studio was to craft a story set in the animated series universe that pitted the three heroes-Batman, Robin and Batgirl-against one of the three villains featured in the upcoming live-action film
The original idea was to feature Bane as the main villain, but after that script was rejected it was decided instead to focus on Mr
But after Batman & Robin was released and turned out to be a critical and financial disaster, (one that ultimate killed the live-action film until Batman Begins came out in 2005) the studio decided to push Sub - Zero's home video release date back until Spring 1998, when it became a critical and commercial success
Sub - Zero was clearly intended to be the final chapter in the evolving story of the Caped Crusader's most tragic villain
Unlike the rest of Batman's major villains who only made frequent appearances that entailed random, unrelated plots they enact in each episode, Mr
Freeze was actually giving his own tragic storyline that evolved throughout each of the character's appearances
He first appeared in the first season episode "Heart of Ice", which is heralded by many fans as being the best episode of the entire series
Freeze's origin and character were completely re-invented, turning him from a one-dimensional mad scientist with a freezing gimmick to a truly tragic figure
Victor Fries was a scientist who specialized in cryogenic research and had been neglected by others his whole life, until the day he met his beloved wife Nora
But Nora later succumbed to a fatal disease for which there was no cure, and unwilling to loose the one bright spot in his life, Victor planned to freeze his wife in a cryogenic sleep until he could discover a cure for her
His plan might have succeeded had it not been for the intervention of his financier Ferris Boyle, who stated a sabotage of the process that exposed Victor to some of the cryogenic chemical and supposedly took away his wife's one chance for survival
Victor Fries was now transformed into a man who, at least in his opinion, was dead to all emotions and could not survive outside a subzero environment unless he wore a special refrigeration suit
He then set out on a quest for cold, emotionless vengeance against those that did wrong to both himself and Nora, which is also what consistently brought him into conflict with Batman
This new vision of the character became so popular that DC Comics officially rebooted the character in the comic books to more accurately reflect the episode
Freeze would make only one more appearance in the original Batman: The Animated Series in its final season, in the second-to-last episode no less
"Deep Freeze" was considered quite underwhelming in comparison to "Heart of Ice", thanks in no small part to the introduction of a secondary character who was, literally, an evil version of Walt Disney; but the episode was still significant in that it reunited Freeze with his frozen wife, who up until this point had been believed dead
Sub - Zero opens in the frozen arctic, an environment cold enough so that Mr
Freeze and a little Inuit boy named Kunac are watching over Nora's body as he continues to search for a cure
But that peace is literally shattered as a Navy submarine cracks through the icy floor of their hideout and the rupture cracks open Nora's containment vessel
Meanwhile, back in Gotham City, Bruce Wayne and his ward Dick Grayson, a
Batman and Robin, are attending a high-class party where we learn that Dick and Commissioner Gordon's daughter Barbara, a
Gregory Belson, a greedy and rude scientist who owes millions of dollars to his investors for a failed discovery he had invested in
Belson was also a former colleague of Victor Fries, who tracks Belson down and demands that he help save Nora
Belson concludes that the only thing that can save her now is an organ transplant, but Nora's blood type is very rare and there are no deceased donors that match
But Freeze is not fazed by this, suggesting they use a live donor instead, knowing full-well that such a donor would die from the operation
They find a perfect match…Barbara Gordon, who Freeze captures and takes with him by force
Now Batman and Robin must find where Barbara is being kept and stop Freeze before he takes her life, even if it is just to help save another life
Opening up with a CG bat-logo being frozen over as we hear a reprise of Danny Elfman's Batman score, Sub - Zero somehow lets us know right away that this will be a much lighter film than Mask of the Phantasm
This does not mean that it is solely a kid's film; the plotline of Freeze and his wife is very heavy and Belson's financial problems might go over the heads of young kids, and then there is the blatant on-screen freezing of the submarine crew, effectively committing murder fight on camera
But despite all this, the film just feels lighter and less deep than its predecessor
One of the biggest problems this examiner noticed on this particular viewing is the animation is quite different that in Mask of the Phantasm
The first film was done by Dong Yang and Spectrum Animation and looked of cinematic quality (as it needed to for its theatrical release), but here it was done by Koko Animation and at times the characters looked very awkward compared to how they usually appear in the series
It is mainly in the eyes where you notice the difference-many of the characters, like Bruce and Dick, don't have white eyes at all, just black dots at a slight black outline on their flesh to indicate their eyes, essentially they have their pupils and that's it
Belson's model looks even more awkward as he has these large blue pupils and no white surrounding it
Again, it doesn't look bad, but it does look awkward
The animation also seems a bit stiff in places, such as the party scene
It is a look that this examiner doesn't mind anymore and would become quite used to seeing in the later shows in the DCAU, but for some reason it just stood out to me this time
But the most dramatic change in the animation is the dynamic use of CG ice and vehicles
Right after the credits we get to see computer-generated icebergs floating underwater alongside hand-animated polar bears
There is also a shot looking up underneath the ice as the CG shadow of a polar bear run across it
Then there are the CG vehicles like the Navy submarine and the Batwing, the latter of which comes complete with a CG turbine flame and launches through a CG tunnel out of the Batcave
Generally these effects look amateurish now and do not blend in with the hand-drawn animation as well as hey may have thought at the time, but at the time seeing these images alongside the hand-drawn characters back then was very unique
The Batwing works especially well during the climax, and the cast shadows created underneath the ice looks great
When this examiner said that the film feels warmer and lighter, he means not only in the animation but also in the score and characterization
Throughout the early part of the movie until Barbara is captured, there's abundance in pop-jazz music, much of which are familiar tunes like "I Only Have Eyes For You" and "Am I Blue
" James Gordon is especially warm in his first scene as he adamantly brags to Dick about how lucky he is to be dating his daughter, and how great Barbara is (he says all this as they cut back and forth between her fighting crime as Batgirl), which is good since his next big scene after this has him in a serious manner that progresses into anger because his daughter has been kidnapped
The romance between Dick and Barbara itself is played like sweet puppy love between two teenagers, and it is really a shame that their relationship ultimately didn't last
Even Bruce Wayne seems a bit lighter than usual, but this is probably because the story does not focus on his parent's deaths of his own life like the last film did
But this is where this examiner's complaining pretty much ends
Despite it nit-picks, Sub - Zero is still an excellent animated Batman film and far superior in every way to the live action Batman & Robin it was made to tie into
The voice acting here is great as usual; Kevin Conroy shines once again as Batman and Loren Lester is fun and dynamic as Robin
As described, Bob Hastings get to play both great warmth and serious fury in his brief role as Commissioner Gordon, while Robert Costner and Efrem Zimbalist, Jr
bring their usual talent to the roles of Harvey Bullock and Alfred Pennyworth, respectively
Liane Schirmer makes a brief appearance as Renee Montoya and so does Jane Alan as Summer Gleeson
Dean Jones does a good job as Belson's broker Dean Arbagast and Marilu Henner makes an appearance as a recurring character from the series named Veronica Vreeland, but one of the most delightful performances is from Rahi Azizi as Mr
But ultimately it is the two villains that steal the show this time
Michael Ansara delivers one of his best performances as Mr
Freeze ever, alongside "Heart of Ice" and the Batman Beyond episode "Meltdown"
He plays the character with so much pathos, love and desperation and yet also comes across as extremely cold, emotionless and unforgiving-a tragic man buried deep within the frozen heart of a monster
George Dzundza plays Belson with a mix of greed, selfishness, and sliminess, not a likable guy at all
Dzundza is a talented voice actor who is also known for playing the Ventriloquist and Scarface in Batman: The Animated Series and later Perry White in Superman: The Animated Series, but here he plays someone the audience knows is a bona fide jerk the moment we meet him
Plot-wise, the only real gripe this examiner has with the story is the frequent aggression that Freeze and Belson show towards Barbara while she is their prisoner
Sure she is resisting them, but they need her alive to save Nora's life, so why is Freeze not afraid to use if freezing gun of her whenever she tries to escape…oh wait, because that's his gimmick and he cannot treat anyone with respect except his wife (man without emotions and all that)
This is one of those times where your villains may be acting in character to what they would do, but in this case it still contradicts the logic of what they should be doing
For all the complaining that this examiner has made about the animation, he has only really noticed it on this latest viewing
For the most part the film looks great, especially at the climax on the oil rig
The animation on the fire looks fantastic and the high-contrast lighting of the characters as flames engulf them are brilliant
One shot in particular as Batman's cape wraps around him as he spins around while hanging off of the Batwing gets to me every time because it looks so fluid
Indeed, for any supposed flaws found he the middle of the film, this ending look nearly flawless
Freeze: Sub - Zero is not a perfect film and this examiner does not agree with Rotten Tomatoes that it should be the #2 best rated Batman film after The Dark Knight; nor does this examiner like it better than Mask of the Phantasm or Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker
But for all its animation flaws and one recurring lap in logic, Sub - Zero is otherwise an excellent animated film that s far better than many of the live-action Batman films being made around the same time
It is great that this film was able to bring the tragic story of Mr
Freeze to a satisfying conclusion…or so we thought
And remember, podcast reviews of all the episodes found in this collection, as well as from all cartoons set in the DC Animated Universe, can be found at World's Finest Podcast, hosted by Michael David Sims and James Deaux of Earth-2
Given that many best-selling books have been made into motion pictures, it makes sense that there would be a film based on the most significant and influential book of all time (No, not 'Lord of the Rings')
Inspired by the biblical story of Exodus, 'The Ten Commandments' (1956) will be presented Saturday, April 23rd at 7 pm on ABC
De - Mille, 'The Ten Commandments' stars Charlton Heston, Yul Brynner, Ann Baxter, Sir Cedric Hardwicke, and Edward G
Although 'The Ten Commandments' won only one Academy Award (Best Visual Effects) it was the highest grossing movie of 1957, and, adjusted for inflation, is the fifth-highest of all time in the U
In ancient Egypt, the entire Hebrew population served as slaves for countless generations
The Egyptian Pharaoh, concerned about a prophecy that suggests that a Hebrew 'Deliverer' had recently been born, orders the slaying of all firstborn male Hebrews
A Hebrew mother casts her infant firstborn down the Nile in a small basket to save him from execution, which results in the young boy being discovered by the daughter of the Pharaoh
Although the young woman is aware the baby is Hebrew, she keeps this a secret, and adopts the boy has her own, and names him Moses
By the time he reaches manhood, Moses (Heston) is a key figure in the royal family, where he and his adoptive brother Rameses II (Brynner) have become rivals for both the favor of the sitting Pharaoh, Seti I (Hardwicke) and the 'throne princess' Nefretiri (Baxter)
Eventually, Moses learns of his true origins, and his admission to the Pharaoh that he would free the Hebrews from bondage if he could leads to his banishment from Egypt
Moses crosses the desert and reaches the land of Midian, where he finds a home and takes a wife
While climbing Mount Sinai, Moses sees the Burning Bush, from which he hears the voice of God
Moses is told that he is the Deliverer, and must lead his people out of Egypt
Although Paramount Studios would claim in its advertising that 'The Ten Commandments' was shot on location throughout the Middle East, much of it was filmed in Paramount's large sound stages, where most of the picture's several special effects were put together
Some of the visual tricks were simple to pull off, such as dropping popcorn on the set to depict hail, pumping red dye through a garden hose to turn water into blood and the use of rubber frogs in place of real ones (the plague of frogs was cut from the final version)
Of course, the most crucial scene was the parting of the Red Sea, which involved building a giant water tank in the Paramount parking lot, with twelve smaller tanks on either side
About 360,000 gallons of water were emptied from the lesser tanks into the large one, which was filmed and edited in slow motion, then shown in reverse
Steven Spielberg calls the Red Sea sequence 'the single greatest special effect in movie history
Notes: 'The Ten Commandments' was the final film directed by Cecil B
De - Mille, who suffered a near fatal heart attack on location in Egypt as a result of climbing a 107 foot ladder while directing the Exodus sequence
De - Mille also directed the 1923 silent film version of the 'Ten Commendments
' In addition to the main cast, several actors who would become notable later on can be spotted throughout the movie, including Clint Walker, Michael Ansara, Robert Vaughn, and Herb Albert
The heath reform law officially known as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (aka Obamacare) was signed into law a little over a year ago but it's still generating a collective throbbing forehead vein of anger from those who believe it's just more government intrusion and too expensive
The text of the law is a daunting read at 1017 pages (but is still shorter than Charlie Sheen's monthly penicillin bill - ba-dum-DUM) so it probably hasn't been read by most Americans
But it's safe to say it doesn't cover any of the following cinematic maternities that are probably best served by a delivery room in Josef Mengele's basement anyway
Director David Cronenberg's remake of the 1958 Vincent Price classic follows Seth Brundle (Jeff Goldblum), a brilliant and eccentric scientist who has developed a working teleporter (think Star Trek transporters and think how pizza delivery times would improve)
After granting an exclusive interview about the project to science magazine reporter Veronica Quaife (Geena Davis), the two become romantically involved
One night while testing the teleporter, Brundle's DNA is accidently melded with that of a fly
Shortly thereafter Brundle begins his transformation into a fly although initially he doesn't exhibit any obvious symptoms
When Brundle figures out what's happening to his body (which resembles an entomological puberty) he tells a mortified Veronica
No word if Oshkosh plans to launch a line of baby larva overalls
Reason for coverage denial: 'What the hell are you doing having unprotected sex with a fly
And would you blame a new man for leaving after telling him you slept with an insect and once gave birth to a larva'
Karen Tandy (Susan Strasberg) is admitted into a San Francisco hospital after she discovers a tumor growing on her neck
After a barrage of tests, doctors discover there's actually a fetus growing inside the tumor
After some bizarre poltergeisty occurrences at the hospital, Dr
Snow (Burgess Meredith) becomes convinced the fetus is actually a reincarnation of a 400 year old Indian Spirit who seeks revenge on those who perpetrated the genocide of North America's native peoples (or perhaps just upset at all the comped casino buffets he's had to dish out)
But before doctors can squeeze it out and hope for the best like a zit on your wedding day, the tumor gives birth to a dwarf shaman
Desperate for help, fortune teller Harry Erskine (Tony Curtis) recruits a witch doctor named John Singing Rock (Michael Ansara) in the hope he can send the evil midget shaman back to wherever these horrible movie premises come from
Reason for coverage denial: 'Your policy does not cover dwarf shaman neck birth'
Newlyweds Rosemary and Guy Woodhouse (Mia Farrow and John Cassavetes)move into a gothic New York City apartment building
Their neighbors Minnie and Roman Castevet (Ruth Gordon and Sidney Blackmer) are the sort of annoying but ultimately harmless elderly couple you'd find on a sitcom about an annoying but ultimately harmless elderly couple
At first Guy can't stand the Castevets but then grows alarmingly close to them
After he gets the lead in a potentially career making play when the actor originally cast inexplicably goes blind, Guy convinces Rosemary that they should try and conceive a baby
But before they can light a few candles and crank up the Barry White, Minnie Castevet shows up with a batch of chocolate mousse
Rosemary soon discovers she's pregnant and discovers the Castevets are part of a satanic coven that recruited Guy to help them impregnate her with the offspring of Satan
Eventually Rosemary's fears are confirmed when the baby is born with glowing red eyes
And not the glowing red eyes you'd get after smoking too much of the medicinal
Reason for coverage denial: 'That's what you get for marrying an ambitious actor willing to sell your womb to Satan for a part in an off-Broadway play
The commercial spaceship Nostromo is hauling 20 million tons of mineral ore on a trip back to Earth
When the ship's computer receives a transmission from an uncharted planet, it awakens its crew of seven from hibernation
After landing on the planet to investigate, a giant chamber of eggs (think giant Cadbury eggs with a gooey alien center) is discovered by Executive Officer Kane (John Hurt)
One of the eggs releases a creature that attaches itself to Kane's face
In a failed attempt to cut off the facehugger, it's revealed the creature has acid for blood
Eventually like most relationships based solely on physical attraction it detaches itself and dies
Initially Kane doesn't exhibit any adverse effects and the crew gathers in the ship's galley for a final meal before reentering hibernation and resuming their journey
After a couple of bites of food, Kane starts choking and violently convulsing before a creature bursts out of his chest, killing him and leaving a bloody mess that would bring the Brawny man to tears with feelings of inadequacy
The creature escapes and eventually starts pegging off members of the crew one by one like so many American Idol contestants
Reason for coverage denial: 'Your policy does not cover the consequences of 4 a
Larry Arbogast (Danny De - Vito) develop a strong fertility drug but are forbidden by order of the FDA to test it on women (probably because with De - Vito involved it has lemon cello as an active ingredient)
Hesse impregnates himself and promptly begins to exhibit all the symptoms of an expectant mother
He eventually carries the baby to term and gives birth via a caesarean section
Hesse then quickly jumps into a time machine and travels into the past on an urgent mission to find and capture the writer of this movie before he can unleash this cinematic abomination - therefore saving humanity
Reason for coverage denial :'We don't cover abortions and by abortions we mean this movie
BURIAL, Graham Masterton, Tor, 1994, 474pp, paperback
This is the best of Graham Masterton's Manitou horror series, in which likable Harry Erskine, New York Tarot reader who makes a living hustling sweet old ladies who worked hard at outliving their rich husbands, confronts the vengeful spirit of an Indian medicine man as cities across the country vanish into the earth
Masterton took the medicine man Misquemachus from an H
Lovecraft reference and turned him loose on a New York hospital more than two decades ago in his first horror novel
I read that book quickly, then immediately reread it
The Manitou was so successful that it spawned a 1978 movie with Tony Curtis as Harry and Michael Ansara as his ally, a modern medicine man, John Singing Rock, who describes Misquemachus as "the greatest medicine man of all
I won't go as far as saying Curtis was entirely miscast as Harry because I really liked him as Erskine, but the actor's penchant for going hostile was occasionally at odds with what the character was trying to do and that made it easy to miss
At one point, he snarls that he's going to call up Gitche Manitou, the Great Spirit, and starts to stalk off to be interrupted by a plot development and every time I see that scene I think, where exactly was he going
Also, I've watched the movie numerous times, but even I admit the ending was changed for the worst with a 2001 into-the-spiraling-computer-screen-kaleidoscope effect (a low budget horror movie with Clint Howard I later saw actually showed the computer screen-as-computer screen so you could see it happen and there went what magic was left in the effect)
I wished they'd used the book's ending, notwithstanding the nudity of the female romantic lead in the film's climactic scene
You have to realize how much I prefer the book's ending when I find myself criticizing the opportunity to view the impresive Susan Strasberg when she is barefoot all over
I know I'm digressing, but I'm writing this, not you
As I was saying, the sequel, Revenge of the Manitou, made less impression on me and I can't recall very much about it except that Singing Rock is killed in a confrontation with the spiritual form of Misquemachus
Sorry to tip you off beforehand, but I'm not exactly recommending this book anyway as anything other than serviceable
In Burial, Masterton's theme is to have the spirit of Misquemachus engineer the destruction of the white man that was the goal of the Ghost Dance movement
It's a delightfully complicated storyline and Harry once again finds himself dragged from his comfortable life into trying to find the means to stop the demonic Misquemachus as skyscrapers are dragged down into the ground
No wishy-washy flicker in the corner of the eye in this story which used to be the standard that The Manitou helped change
Harry is going to meet the Native wonder-worker face to face
It's out of print, so look for it at library book sales, Amazon, or Half
Billed as the final story of a trilogy, one more book actually followed, Manitou Blood, when Masterton obviously found another twist to play with
Counting the two concert documentaries, Elvis Presley appeared in 33 movies during his career
To celebrate what would have been the King's 75th birthday, Warner Brothers has collected roughly half of these films in the largest collection of Elvis movies to date
Simply titled Elvis: 75th Anniversary DVD Collection, the box set features 14 Presley feature films and three documentaries, including: Jailhouse Rock; It Happened At The World's Fair; Kissin' Cousins; Viva Las Vegas; Girl Happy; Tickle Me; Harum Scarum; Spinout; Double Trouble; Stay Away, Joe; Speedway; Live A Little, Love A Little; Charro
; The Trouble With Girls; Elvis: That's The Way It Is; Elvis On Tour; and This Is Elvis
In Jailhouse Rock, Presley stars as Vince Everett, a man sentenced to prison for accidentally killing a man in a fight
While in prison, he learns about the music business from his cellmate Hunk Houghton (Mickey Shaughnessy), himself a former country singer
After Everett's release from prison, he eventually becomes a recording and movie star
His lust for fame and money make him forget everyone who helped him along the way though
Jailhouse Rock features some of Presley's best music, including the famous title song dance sequence and the DVD is supposed to include a commentary, featurette and Dolby Digital 5
None of these bonus features are included on the DVD however, an obvious mistake by Warner Brothers
The Century 21 Exposition is the setting for It Happened At The World's Fair
Presley stars as Mike Edwards, a crop duster whose partner Danny Burke's (a pre-2001: A Space Odyssey Gary Lockwood) gambling problems lead the pair to go hitchhiking cross-country to find work to pay off their debts
They end up at the 1962 World's Fair when a man and his niece Sue-Lin (Vicky Tiu) pick them up along the way
When Sue-Lin's Uncle Walter (Kam Tong) is unable to take Sue-Lin to the fair, Edwards volunteers to do so while Burke offers to go look for his friend Vince Bradley (H
After Sue-Lin eats too much, she gets sick and sees the nurse Diane Warren (Joan O'Brien), who Edwards immediately hits on
When she resists his advances, he pays an uncredited Kurt Russell to kick him in the shin so he is forced to see the nurse
A number of the characters turn on each other, but in typical Elvis movie style, everyone lives happily ever after
" It Happened At The World's Fair is still early enough in Presley's film career that he is focused and into the film
Likewise, the soundtrack is a lot stronger than what was to come
The first is as Army second lieutenant Josh Morgan while the second is as his backwoods cousin, Jodie Tatum
Captain Salbo (Jack Albertson) complains to General Donford (Donald Woods) that he wants a Pentagon tour of duty so he can see his wife more often
Donford agrees, provided he complete Operation Smoky in three days, otherwise he will be shipped to Greenland and take Morgan with him
Operation Smoky involved convincing the Tatums to let the government build a missile base on top of their mountain, something Morgan gets tasked with doing
While there, he falls for his distant cousin Azalea (adorably played by Yvonne Craig) while his cousin Jodie (who looks and sings remarkably like Josh) falls for Army stenographer Midge (Cynthia Pepper)
When Morgan is moving too slowly for Donford's liking, the general shows up with a group of Army troops to try and get the deal settled, only to get forced to eat possum tails, drink moonshine and get assaulted by the "Kittyhawks" - a group of wild women who prey on unsuspecting men
Distant cousins or not, this theme likely wouldn't fly today nor would the stereotypical portrayal of rednecks, but the film has an innocent (and very low budget) feel about it and is not meant to be taken seriously
The title track, "Echoes of Love" and "Once is Enough" are standouts from the fun, but nonessential soundtrack
Presley's focus returns in Viva Las Vegas - often cited as one of his best films
It helps that he had a dynamic costar in Ann-Margret and the chemistry between the two onscreen was such that it fueled rumors of an affair off-screen
Presley stars as Lucky Jackson, a racecar driver headed to Las Vegas to participate in the city's first annual Grand Prix
An Italian driver, Count Elmo Mancini, decides he wants Jackson to drive for him, offering to give up racing so he could be with Rusty Martin (Ann-Margret)
Mancini proceeds to tell Martin about another driver's crash and she worries for Jackson's safety and is upset when he doesn't want to give up racing
Ann-Margret sings "My Rival" at this point and it marks one of the highlights of the film
In spite of the rushed ending, all of the scenes with Presley and Ann-Margret together are great, as is the majority of the soundtrack - save for the bizarre version of "The Yellow Rose of Texas" that Presley was forced to sing
The DVD includes a commentary by Elvis in Hollywood director Steve Pond, a retrospective featurette and Dolby Digital 5
In Girl Happy, Presley portrays Rusty Wells, a singer in a Chicago nightclub band that is about to leave for spring break in Fort Lauderdale to chase women until their boss, Big Frank (Harold J
Big Frank changes his tune when he finds out his daughter Valerie (Shelley Fabares) is gong to Fort Lauderdale for spring break with some girlfriends
He hires Wells and his band to watch her and keep her out of trouble
Wells begins to fall for Valerie and offers to watch her on his own, relieving the band members of their duties
When Valerie tells her father she has fallen for Wells, he is shocked and says that he was only being nice to her because he had paid him
Valerie is crushed and decides to make Wells earn his money by going on wild drinking binges and partying
Fabares is fun and is arguably the highlight of the film
The movie is entertaining, but definitely light-hearted fair and thin on plot
The soundtrack features a couple good songs though, most notably the title track and "Puppet on a String
Presley once again plays a singer in Tickle Me starring as Lonnie Beale
He goes to work taking care of horses at an all-girls spa and ranch
The women there pay $500 per week to essentially be reconditioned into hotties - only in an Elvis film
While there, he meets and falls for fitness instructor Pam Merritt (Jocelyn Lane), who is the victim of several kidnapping attempts due to people knowing she has a map of her grandfather's buried treasure
Merritt sees Beale kissing her boss, Vera Radford (Julie Adams) and leaves, refusing to believe his explanation that she came on to him
She drives into an old abandoned town to look for her treasure and Beale follows her with fellow ranch employee Stanley Potter (Jack Mullaney)
We are treated to a fun flashback scene to the old western days with Presley as the milk-drinking Panhandle Kid
The trio then spends the night in an old wax museum
It is here when Tickle Me becomes almost like a Scooby Doo episode, with its haunted houses and men dressed as monsters
This movie is just strange enough that it works and the soundtrack is filled with recycled old songs, including numbers from the classic Elvis is Back
With Harum Scarum, Presley hoped to deliver a Rudolph Valentino-style role
Sadly the script was a joke and fans instead were treated to one of Presley's worst films
Presley stars as Johnny Tyronne, an American, action movie star visiting the Middle East to promote his new film, Sands of the Desert
Prince Dragna (Michael Ansara) and his lady Aishah (Fran Jeffries) invite him to be a guest of Dragna's brother, King Toranshah (Phillip Reed)
After seeing Tyronne karate chop a cheetah in one of his films (Hey, it's an Elvis film), a group of assassins are convinced of his prowess and drug him
They take him to see Sinan, lord of the assassins, who wants him to kill the king for them
While there, he meets Princess Shalimar (Mary Ann Mobley) who is posing as a slave girl when in reality, she is the king's daughter
When she finds out that Sinan is back, she knows her father is in danger and helps Tyronne thwart the plot to assassinate him
s and forgettable songs and Presley looks bored out of his mind
While not much different that his other films (Presley plays singing racecar driver Mike Mc - Coy) the fun at least returns to Presley films with Spinout
The movie begins with Mc - Coy getting run off the road by a crazed fan but he still makes it to his gig where he performs "Adam and Evil" and "Stop Look and Listen" with his band
These songs, along with the title track, "All That I Am", and "I'll Be Back" were the strongest soundtrack songs Presley had sang in sometime and his enthusiasm for them comes through in the performance
Clair (Diane Mc - Bain) who wants him to be the subject of her book about the perfect American male
Howard Foxhugh (Carl Betz) then approaches Mc - Coy and offers $5,000 for the band to perform at his daughter's birthday party
Mc - Coy caves and the band plays the party only to find out Foxhugh's daughter Cynthia (Shelley Fabares) is the same fan who ran Mc - Coy off the road
She is a spoiled rich girl who wants and expects to marry Mc - Coy while her dad wants Mc - Coy to drive his new racecar, the Foxhugh Five
While this is happening, the band's drummer Les (Deborah Walley) reveals her crush on Mc - Coy
Three women, all with marriage on their mind are seemingly after Mc - Coy
Better music, a better cast and a twist at the end make Spinout a winner
Presley is Guy Lambert - an American singer on tour in England - in Double Trouble
While performing at the club, Lambert meets Jill Conway (Annette Day) a pretty redhead who resists Lambert's advances because, unbeknownst to him, she is not yet 18
She is also set to inherit a large sum of money when she does turn 18, a point of contention with her uncle Gerald Waverly (John Williams) who has been dipping into the inheritance
Her uncle sends her to Belgium for school, which she readily agrees to when she learns that Lambert will be performing there
While on the boat, a pair of thieves takes Lambert's suitcase to smuggle diamonds into the country
Lambert notices that he's had to save Conway twice and that someone tried to run him over
The pair go on the run trying to save their lives and let Conway make it to age 18 to protect her inheritance
This is a decent film with some clever twists and amusing cameos from the Wiere Brothers as bumbling cops and from a talking parrot that inadvertently gives away plot points
Stay Away, Joe stars Presley as Native American bull-rider Joe Lightcloud who manages to convince his congressman to give his family 20 heifers and a quality bull so they can raise them
If they prove to be successful, then the government will help them out
Problems arise from the family though when, at a party celebrating Joe's return, the family in a drunken haze mistakenly cooks the bull
Jones) get a new bull and Hoverty gets one that is supposedly Blue Ribbon, yet when the bull gets there, all he does is sleep
Meanwhile, Joe's father Charlie (Burgess Meredith) has been selling off the cattle to pay for improvements his wife wants made to their home
The government learns what has happened and is not pleased
Meredith's character is an odd sight, with his dark makeup and strange demeanor
Thomas Gomez as Grandpa is depicted as a stereotypical Native American
" The Native Americans in this film were very badly stereotyped, even for 1968 and portrayed as wild, sex-crazed drunks
Presley seems to be enjoying himself and there are some nice scenery shots, but the title of this one seems appropriate
Presley once again plays a racecar driver in Speedway, this time starring as Steve Grayson
Grayson owes the IRS $145,000 due to mistakes in his return by his manager Kenny Donford (Bill Bixby)
Susan Jacks (Nancy Sinatra) shows up at Grayson's trailer and he mistakes her for a fan
Turns out, she is working for the IRS, who are about to audit him
Donford's gambling and fuzzy math have led to the repossession of not only gifts Grayson has bought for others, but many of Grayson's possessions as well
The pair is put on an allowance - $100 per week for Grayson and $50 per week for Donford - until their debts are paid
After wooing Jacks, Grayson manages to get her to convince R
Hepworth at the IRS (Gale Gordon) to let him keep some of his earnings to pay off the innocent people who've had their lives ruined by Donford's stupidity
Light on plot, Speedway is like a poor man's Viva Las Vegas
Bill Bixby is great in his comic role, playing a likable sleazebag and there are a few fun moments on the soundtrack, including "Let Yourself Go" and Sinatra's "Your Groovy Self," the latter being the only time a non-Elvis track appeared on one of his soundtracks
In Live a Little, Love a Little, the focus, as in the last few movies Presley made, was more on the acting than the music
Presley stars as Greg Nolan, a photographer who meets a rich socialite named Bernice (Michele Carey)
After drugging him, he finds out he has lost his job and his apartment due to the extended length of time he has been away
She feels guilty and gets him a new apartment, but it is expensive and he has to take two jobs to pay for it - one at a Playboy-style magazine called Classic Cat and the other for a much more conservative fashion magazine
Mike Lansdown is the Hugh Hefner-esque publisher of the former and doesn't want Nolan wearing a tie because it cuts off the circulation, while Penlow (Rudy Vallee) prefers the sharp-dressed man
This leads to some amusing scenes of Presley changing in the stairwell as both jobs were in the same building
Carey is great as the eccentric Bernice, who places a wooden divider on her bed so she and Nolan can sleep together without him worrying about her advances
Similarly, Dick Sargent is fun as former Bernice love interest Harry and makes a winking nod to his old TV show when he tells Nolan he should get a job in advertising
This film is most notable these days for launching "A Little Less Conversation," which became a hit three decades later
It also features a cool psychedelic dream sequence set to "Edge of Reality
, a man framed for stealing a cannon from the Mexican army
Wade was once part of Vince Hackett's (Victor French) gang and Hackett wanted revenge for Wade not only leaving, but taking his girl Tracey Winters (Ina Balin) with him
They make wanted posters saying Wade is the only identifiable member of the men who stole the cannon as he has a scar on his neck (which was placed there because Hackett had him branded)
Hackett intends to hold the cannon for ransom and he also uses it against the local townspeople when his brother is jailed for shooting the sheriff
nevertheless marks a move to more serious roles for Presley
The only Presley vocal comes from the title song, played over the opening credits
The Trouble With Girls was Presley's penultimate film of the 1960s
He plays a Chautauqua manager who has made his way into smalltown Iowa for the fair
He tries to prevent his pianist Charlene (Marlyn Mason) from organizing the workers into a union
At the same time, he has to deal with nepotism, as the town's mayor wants his daughter cast in the lead role of a play instead of the more talented current lead, and the murder of a local druggist, for which a Chautauqua troop member was initially blamed
When the killer is revealed, he exploits the murder which at first enrages Charlene, but he convinces her it was the only way to get a fair trial
Morality and some fine Presley singing performances, including "Clean Up Your Own Back Yard" and his remake of "Swing Down Sweet Chariot
" Presley gets less screen time than usual in this film, but it is a little different for him and shows what might have been
With his movie contracts fulfilled and the success of the '68 Comeback Special and subsequent live shows in 1969, the time was ripe for a concert documentary
Elvis: That's The Way It Is Special Edition captures material from shows filmed in August of 1970
We see the band in rehearsal, where Presley keeps everyone loose by joking; yet he is clearly in charge
An overlooked aspect of Presley's is his involvement in the musical side of his show
Here we see Presley directing backup singers and helping with arrangements
The songs sounded exactly the way he wanted them to
The live performances show Presley at the peak of his vocal and physical abilities
Highlights include blistering versions of "Polk Salad Annie" and "Suspicious Minds" and the powerful vocal workout of "Just Pretend" that Presley mistakenly says is from his country album
The two-disc special edition includes the original theatrical cut, which includes more fan interviews
Elvis on Tour attempts to recapture the magic of Elvis: That's The Way It Is from two years earlier and largely succeeds
The documentary follows Presley on his 15 cities in 15 nights tour in 1972 and shows candid backstage footage, studio footage and footage of the band rehearsing and singing gospel numbers in their off time
It also features the first-ever performance of "Burning Love," Presley's last top ten hit in the U
It is one of the first films after Woodstock to use the multipanel format and it makes its debut on DVD here
The DVD also contains no extras - disappointing given all that was filmed
This is Elvis chronicles the King's life from his beginnings in Tupelo, MS, to his meteoric rise to the top to his tragic fall and death at a young age
The film goes in chronological order and it mixes reenactments and narration with actual archival footage of Presley, going as far back as his 1956 TV appearances and as recent as images of his funeral procession
It talks about the racism Presley dealt with for his music sounding "too black" and how parents felt threatened by him in general, his move to Hollywood and his return to live performances
It pulls no punches in dealing with Presley's drug use, but overall paints a balanced picture of the man
It's fascinating to watch these movies in order and see the progression from eager young actor to bored formula actor to reenergized stage performer
Elvis Presley was a unique performer and these DVDs show what a talent he was musically and, in some cases, what he could have been on the silver screen
Article first published as DVD Review: Elvis: 75th Anniversary DVD Collection on Blogcritics
With the 12th Star Trek film, Star Trek Into Darkness, set to open Friday, I thought it would be appropriate to highlight the 10 best episodes of the legendary TV series that started it all
"The Devil in the Dark" (1st season, airdate March 9, 1967): This tale is a great illustration of how the lack of communication can lead to horrible consequences
The Enterprise is called to help a mining colony, which has lost a number of its men to an unknown creature
When Kirk (William Shatner) and Spock (Leonard Nimoy) encounter this creature, they discover that it is not the bloodthirsty animal the miners have made it out to be
"The Menagerie" (Parts I and II, 1st season, airdates Nov
17 and 24, 1966): Trek's first pilot, entitled 'The Cage' was rejected by NBC
When the series was in full production, its creator Gene Roddenberry, elected to not have that rejected footage go to waste and cleverly incorporated it into a story about Spock (Nimoy is the only cast member to appear in both 'The Cage' and the series itself) risking his career to take his former captain to a planet they journeyed to years before
This, the only two-parter in the series, was the first of two episodes of the series to win a Hugo Award (science fiction's highest honor)
13, 1966): The episode which introduced the Romulans, who, after 100 years, make themselves known by attacking Federation settlements
This leads to a tense cat-and-mouse game between Kirk and the brutal, yet somewhat sympathetic Romulan commander (Mark Lenard, who would later play Spock's father, Sarek)
20, 1967): The Enterprise finds the wrecked remains of the U
Its captain and sole survivor, Commodore Matt Decker (William Windom), informs them that the damage was caused by a massive weapon which eats planets
His obsession to destroy the machine endangers the Enterprise crew after he takes command of the ship
Windom is fabulous as the Ahab-like commander and Sol Kaplan's musical score adds to the excitement
1, 1968): Although Trek's third and final season is regarded by some as its weakest, some great stories still managed to make their way to the screen and this is one of them
The Enterprise crew lock horns with a Klingon crew led by Kang (Michael Ansara), but, they slowly realize that an outside force is manipulating both sides
This story nicely shows opposing forces putting their differences aside to fight a common foe
16, 1967): Today, one could point to this episode as the most pivotal of the series because its antagonist Khan (Ricardo Montalban) would return in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982), the "Trek" film which ensured that the franchise would thrive for years to come
Khan, a genetically-enhanced tyrant who ruled Earth during the 1990s, is found in suspended animation with his followers aboard a ship and revived by the Enterprise crew
He later expresses his gratitude to Kirk by attempting to take the ship to begin his legacy of conquest anew
"The City on the Edge of Forever" (1st season, airdate April 6, 1967): The second, and best, of the series' three time travel stories, and which won the show its second Hugo Award
Mc - Coy (De - Forest Kelley) is accidentally injected with drugs, which leads him to go through a time portal on a nearby planet and alter history
Kirk and Spock follow him to 1930 New York City and learn that they must take drastic action, involving kind social worker Edith Keeler (Joan Collins), in order to restore the timeline
The story has some of the same plot holes that many (if not all) time travel stories have, but what makes this great is the interplay between Kirk and Spock, with both Shatner and Nimoy arguably giving their finest performances in their signature roles
"The Enterprise Incident" (3rd season, airdate Sept
27, 1968): Things are not what they seem when Kirk rashly orders the Enterprise into Romulan space, where it is promptly captured by Romulans
The Romulan Commander (Joanne Linville) promptly incarcerates Kirk and sets about luring Spock to join her cause; and this is all before the nifty plot twist is revealed
Shatner displays the mannerisms which comedians took to like fish to water, but the episode is an exciting tale
6, 1967): Returning to the Enterprise from a conference, Kirk, Mc - Coy, Scotty (James Doohan) and Uhura (Nichelle Nichols), find themselves in another universe where the ship and their comrades are part of a barbaric, savage society
Nimoy is wonderful as a goateed, dangerous, yet still logical Spock, but the scene-stealer is George Takei, who is clearly having the time of his life playing a Sulu who is the antithesis of the one we know and love
"The Trouble With Tribbles" (2nd season, airdate Dec
29, 1967): This may be the show's finest hour, due to its expert balance of comedy with a serious plot
Kirk reluctantly agrees to supervise the delivery of a vital grain to a colony, while also contending with Klingons and the title creatures, who endear themselves to the crew and have the ability to multiple almost constantly
A brawl pitting Scotty and Chekov (Walter Koenig) against Klingons and Kirk getting buried in a mountain of tribbles are just two of the highlights of this gem
"Star Trek" warps along to the adoration of millions
Since 1966, creator Gene Roddenberry's space opera fascinated Trekkies or Trekkers the world over, and gave fans some of the weirdest bad guys and gals ever on TV or films
Abrams finishes his next trek with launch of a sequel, "Star Trek: Into Darkness" (2013), to his 2009 box office hit, it's fun remembering the baddies
They're cyborg humans, emotionless aliens and even godlike entities
They're played by Oscar winners like Louise Fletcher, who snagged an Academy Award as Nurse Ratched in "One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest", and Christopher Plummer who got Oscar gold for his role in "Beginners"
But no matter the actor or actress, villains make "Star Trek" one of the best Hollywood playgrounds for being downright naughty
Khan Noonien Singh (Ricardo Montalban) - TOS Khan first blasted his way into our hearts as a genetically engineered super mad superman in the classic TV episode, "Space Seed" - way back in 1967
Montalban took a completely devious character on the page - full of depth and deception - and fleshed him out into such a memorable foil for William Shatner's Captain Kirk, that producers brought him back for the big feature film "Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan"
Though still unconfirmed at this writing, speculation is Abrams will shape a new Khan for his forthcoming sequel
Currently, under the "Star Trek: Into Darkness" IMDB entry, it lists British actor Benedict Cumberbatch as Khan
Kang (Michael Ansara) - TOS Kang wasn't the first Klingon to appear on "Star Trek", but he was definitely one of the most memorable
Played by the talented actor Michael Ansara with a powerful speaking voice, Kang and Kirk mix it up on the Enterprise, while a mysterious energy alien - a kind of parasite - feeds of their respective crews
Kang was so well received, all subsequent Klingons have had to measure up to his impressive standard
Ansara was so admired for his performance, he played Kang again for two Trek spin-offs - in episodes of 'Deep Space Nine' and 'Voyager'
Carmel) - TOS Harry Mudd wasn't your true villainous bad guy, but as a profiteering con man and general scallywag, he definitely wouldn't have made Starfleet's best cadet list
In two classic Trek outings, Mudd plied unsuspecting men with the promise of exquisite sexual creatures and dangled the heady lure of eternal life in front of Kirk's crew by promising them android replacement bodies
Sadly, Carmel was scheduled to appear in a first season 'Star Trek: The Next Generation' episode, but passed away before filming
General Chang (Christopher Plummer) - TOS Chang opposed Captain Kirk in the feature film, "Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country"
Chewing up the scenery as colorfully as trek veteran (and fellow Canadian) William Shatner, Plummer infused his Klingon Chang with the same kind of memorable villainous bravado as Ansara's Kang
Complete with eye patch bolted over his eye like a Frankenstein prosthetic, Chang taunted and teased Kirk until the two adversaries met in space battle, and the devious Klingon vowed to blow the good Captain out of the stars
Q (John De - Lancie) - TNG When "Star Trek: The Next Generation" warped into syndicated TV in 1987, some were skeptical a bald Captain Picard could successfully bring new life and a future to things
It all worked out wonderfully of course, and in the pilot episode, the godlike entity Q engaged Picard in a battle royal
Ever since that introduction, actor De - Lancie has teased, tortured and tormented Picard and crew in all sorts of weird ways
He even crossed over into DS9 and appeared opposite Kate Mulgrew as Captain Janeway on Voyager
Soran (Malcolm Mc - Dowall) - TNG Malcolm Mc - Dowall as the devious Soran is known as the man who killed Captain Kirk - you don't get more villainous than that
Tolian Soran in "Star Trek: Generations", Mc - Dowall plays a crazed scientist bent on destroying an entire world just so he can be reunited with the Nexus, an energy ribbon able to bestow nearly any kind of fantasy environment onto those who reside therein
Soran is a fun character on paper, and may have been perfectly fine with another actor, but by casting the mischievously magical Mc - Dowall, a true classic villain was born and is unforgettable
Borg Queen (Alice Krige) - TNG She is the beginning, the end, the one who is many
She's also arguably the most enigmatic, sexy and truly haunting "Star Trek" villain - man or woman - of all time from any TV show or movie
While violently predictable guys like Khan try to kill or imprison enemies, or with darkly playful Q wish to test an adversary, the Borg Queen simply wants to seduce you
In, "Star Trek: First Contact", she plies her charms on the android Data, yet he never succumbs to her predatory gifts
It took hours of painful make-up to bring the Borg Queen to life and was so popular she was brought onto the "Star Trek: Voyager" TV series for several outings, played by another actress, Susanna Thompson
The role ultimately returned to the rightful monarch when Ms
Krige reprised her iconic role for the Voyager finale
Female Changeling (Salome Jens) - DS9 This gal and the Borg Queen have something in common
They both care deeply about the fate and future of their people, but whereas the royal Borg babe assimilates all who cross her path, the ruler of the Founders doesn't want new grunts joining up in her ranks
She employs a powerful army of aliens called Jem H'adar warriors who make Klingons look like boy scouts
Jens plays it with such a haunting grace, that you completely buy her as a being who's lived hundreds of years and can morph and twist herself into any shape, or assume the identity of nearly any humanoid imaginable
Kai Winn (Louise Fletcher) - DS9 She's the spiritual leader of her Bajoran people - a kind of pope with an attitude
It's a sly take on Fletcher's Oscar winning role to again flesh out a character whose well managed rage gets her into all sorts of nasty and colorful conflicts
Her dulcet vocal tones belie unspeakable plans for all who cross her
Above all else, Winn loves to tangle with Kira Nerys (Nana Vistior) of station Deep Space Nine, and finally joins forces with a disguised Cardassian military leader, who rounds out my merry mobster list
Gul Dukat (Marc Alaimo) - DS9 He's the silky voiced, snake-like Cardassian who charms you with a wink, while sizing you up as to where to best stick his battle dagger
Actor Alaimo took a battle hardened character and infused such a refreshing and potent energy, that in each appearance, it feels like we're meeting him for the first time
Dukat acted as steel fisted commander of DS9 (Terok Nor) during the Cardassian occupation of Bajor, and when he battles the Federation to take command back in the show's last season, he's evilly gleeful to be in charge at the helm again
I had the real pleasure of seeing Marc Alaimo in person, when he was featured at a convention where he performed some Shakespeare
He brought the same kind of electricity to the Bard, as he did to being the big baddie of DS9
Honorable Mention Seska (Martha Hackett) - VOY In the future, cosmetic surgery may become so sophisticated, you won't know one's age, let alone race or even species
This is the basic premise behind the character of Seska, who after charming us as a vindictive, mutinous Bajoran, is revealed to be in reality a Cardassian spy who was surgially altered to pass as another race
She didn't make the whole series in one piece, but came back as a mischievious hologram trying to kill as many of her former crewmates as possible
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| i don't know |
The first income tax in the US, 3% of all incomes over US $800, was levied to pay for what war? | History of the Income Tax in the United States
History of the Income Tax in the United States
Source: Tax Foundation.
The nation had few taxes in its early history. From 1791 to 1802, the United States government was supported by internal taxes on distilled spirits, carriages, refined sugar, tobacco and snuff, property sold at auction, corporate bonds, and slaves. The high cost of the War of 1812 brought about the nation's first sales taxes on gold, silverware, jewelry, and watches. In 1817, however, Congress did away with all internal taxes, relying on tariffs on imported goods to provide sufficient funds for running the government.
In 1862, in order to support the Civil War effort, Congress enacted the nation's first income tax law. It was a forerunner of our modern income tax in that it was based on the principles of graduated, or progressive, taxation and of withholding income at the source. During the Civil War, a person earning from $600 to $10,000 per year paid tax at the rate of 3%. Those with incomes of more than $10,000 paid taxes at a higher rate. Additional sales and excise taxes were added, and an “inheritance” tax also made its debut. In 1866, internal revenue collections reached their highest point in the nation's 90-year history—more than $310 million, an amount not reached again until 1911.
The Act of 1862 established the office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue. The Commissioner was given the power to assess, levy, and collect taxes, and the right to enforce the tax laws through seizure of property and income and through prosecution. The powers and authority remain very much the same today.
In 1868, Congress again focused its taxation efforts on tobacco and distilled spirits and eliminated the income tax in 1872. It had a short-lived revival in 1894 and 1895. In the latter year, the U.S. Supreme Court decided that the income tax was unconstitutional because it was not apportioned among the states in conformity with the Constitution.
In 1913, the 16th Amendment to the Constitution made the income tax a permanent fixture in the U.S. tax system. The amendment gave Congress legal authority to tax income and resulted in a revenue law that taxed incomes of both individuals and corporations. In fiscal year 1918, annual internal revenue collections for the first time passed the billion-dollar mark, rising to $5.4 billion by 1920. With the advent of World War II, employment increased, as did tax collections—to $7.3 billion. The withholding tax on wages was introduced in 1943 and was instrumental in increasing the number of taxpayers to 60 million and tax collections to $43 billion by 1945.
In 1981, Congress enacted the largest tax cut in U.S. history, approximately $750 billion over six years. The tax reduction, however, was partially offset by two tax acts, in 1982 and 1984, that attempted to raise approximately $265 billion.
On Oct. 22, 1986, President Reagan signed into law the Tax Reform Act of 1986, one of the most far-reaching reforms of the United States tax system since the adoption of the income tax. The top tax rate on individual income was lowered from 50% to 28%, the lowest it had been since 1916. Tax preferences were eliminated to make up most of the revenue. In an attempt to remain revenue neutral, the act called for a $120 billion increase in business taxation and a corresponding decrease in individual taxation over a five-year period.
Following what seemed to be a yearly tradition of new tax acts that began in 1986, the Revenue Reconciliation Act of 1990 was signed into law on Nov. 5, 1990. As with the '87, '88, and '89 acts, the 1990 act, while providing a number of substantive provisions, was small in comparison with the 1986 act. The emphasis of the 1990 act was increased taxes on the wealthy.
On Aug. 10, 1993, President Clinton signed the Revenue Reconciliation Act of 1993 into law. The act's purpose was to reduce by approximately $496 billion the federal deficit that would otherwise accumulate in fiscal years 1994 through 1998. In 1997, Clinton signed another tax act. The act, which cut taxes by $152 billion, included a cut in capital-gains tax for individuals, a $500 per child tax credit, and tax incentives for education.
President George W. Bush signed a series of tax cuts into law. The largest was the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001. It was estimated to save taxpayers $1.3 trillion over ten years, making it the third largest tax cut since World War II. The Bush tax cut created a new lowest rate, 10% for the first several thousand dollars earned. It also established a slow schedule of incremental tax cuts that would eventually double the child tax credit from $500 to $1,000, adjust brackets so that middle-income couples owed the same tax as comparable singles, cut the top four tax rates (28% to 25%; 31% to 28%; 36% to 33%; and 39.6% to 35%).
The Jobs and Growth Tax Relief and Reconciliation Act of 2003 accelerated the tax rate cuts that had been enacted in 2001, and temporarily reduced the tax rate on capital gains and dividends to 15%. In 2004, the U.S. was forced to eliminate a corporate tax provision that had been ruled illegal by the World Trade Organization. Along with that tax hike, Congress passed a cornucopia of tax breaks, which for individuals included an option to deduct the payment of whichever state taxes were higher, sales or income taxes.
Two tax bills signed in 2005 and 2006 extended through 2010 the favorable rates on capital gains and dividends that had been enacted in 2003, raised the exemption levels for the Alternative Minimum Tax, and enacted new tax incentives designed to persuade individuals to save more for retirement.
| Civil war (disambiguation) |
A general wears stars, a colonel gets an eagle, a Lt. Col gets a silver oak leaf, while a Major gets a gold oak leaf. What insignia does a captain wear? | Tax History Project -- The Civil War
Tax History Museum: 1861-1865
The Civil War
The Civil War represented a watershed moment in the history of American taxation. The quick, limited engagement both sides confidently predicted soon proved a chimera. Instead, the exigencies of protracted, destructive warfare engulfing private property and civilian populations as well as commissioned combatants demanded innovations in government financing. While the outcome of the conflict may be attributed to any number of contingent factors, the varying fiscal strategies undertaken by the Union and Confederate governments undoubtedly influenced the capacity of both societies to sustain the war effort. North and South employed markedly different approaches. The North's proved more efficacious in the long run.
Confederate War Financing
The antebellum south enjoyed one of the lightest tax burdens of all contemporary civilized societies. Local or state governments assessed all obligations. By contrast, the hastily assembled Confederate government lacked the bureaucratic infrastructure to levy or collect internal taxes. Its citizens possessed neither a tradition of compliance nor a means to remit payment. Land and slaves comprised the bulk of southern capital; liquid forms of wealth like specie or paper currency were hard to come by in a predominantly agrarian region.
Efforts to raise war revenue through various methods of taxation proved ineffective. The Confederate Congress enacted a minor tariff in 1861, but it contributed only $3.5 million in four years. That same year, Congress implemented a small direct tax (0.5 percent) on real and personal property. But the government in Richmond was forced to rely on the individual states to collect the levy. Reprising the scenario played out during the Revolutionary War, most states did not collect the tax at all, preferring to meet their quota by borrowing money or printing state notes to cover it.
The Davis administration turned to loans to finance the initial bulk of war debts. Riding a wave of patriotic enthusiasm in 1861, the Treasury earned $15 million selling out their first bond issue. The second issue, however, consisting of $100 million in 8 percent yield bonds, sold slowly. Few southerners had the cash to purchase them, but in addition the year-end 12 percent inflation rate threatened to negate any promise of real financial return. It fell to investors to buy up the remainder of the 8 percent bonds, which they purchased with newly minted Confederate Treasury notes.
By necessity rather than choice, the South turned to the printing press to pay most of its bills. In its first year, the Confederate government derived 75 percent of its total revenue from Treasury notes, less than 25 percent from bonds (purchased, of course, with the notes), and under 2 percent from taxes. While the proportion of the latter two would increase slightly in later years, the foundation of Confederate war financing consisted of over $1.5 billion in paper dollars that began depreciating before the ink had a chance to dry. By refusing to establish the notes as compulsory legal tender, Treasury officials hoped to avoid undermining confidence in the currency. They preferred that the currency be backed by public confidence in the Confederacy’s survival (notes were to be redeemable in specie at face value within two years of the end of the war).
This being the case, various state, county, and city notes also circulated widely, diluting the medium further; the fact that these poorly printed bills were easily counterfeited did not help matters. Ironically, the Confederate decision to turn to paper money in lieu of a system of internal taxation abetted the most odious, regressive form of de facto taxation southern society endured: runaway inflation, appearing in the wake of military reversals in 1862, and topping 9,000 percent by war’s end.
By the spring of 1863, the crushing burden of inflation motivated Richmond to come up with an alternative to fiat money. In April, they followed the Union’s lead and enacted comprehensive legislation that included a progressive income tax, an 8 percent levy on certain goods held for sale, excise, and license duties, and a 10 percent profits tax on wholesalers. These provisions also included a 10 percent tax-in-kind on agricultural products. The latter burdened yeoman more than the progressive income tax encumbered urban salaried workers, since laborers could remit depreciated currency to meet their obligations. Adding to the inequity, the law exempted some of the most lucrative property owned by wealthy planters their slaves from assessment. Lawmakers considered a tax on slaves to be a direct tax, constitutionally permissible only after an apportionment on the basis of population. Since the war precluded any opportunity to count heads, they concluded that no direct tax was possible. Accumulating war debts and heightened condemnation of a "rich man’s war, poor man’s fight" led to revision of the tax law in February 1864, which suspended the requirement for a census-based apportionment of direct taxes and imposed a 5 percent levy on land and slaves. These changes came too late, however, to have any sustained impact on the Confederate war effort.
Union War Financing
In addition to its developed industrial base, the North entered the war with several apparent institutional advantages, including an established Treasury and tariff structure. With the exodus of southern representatives, the Republican-dominated Congress ratcheted up tariff rates throughout the war, beginning in 1862 with the Morill Tariff Act, which reversed the downward trend instituted by the Democrats between 1846 and 1857. Subsequent tariff legislation, especially the 1864 act, raised rates further. Protective tariffs were politically popular among manufacturers, northern laborers, and even some commercial farmers. But Customs duties amounted to about $75 million annually, only nominally more, after adjusting for inflation, than the value of duties collected during the 1850s. Still, the high rate structure established in the Civil War would remain a hallmark of the post-war political economy of the Republican party.
Ideological reservations tempered some of the Treasury’s supposed institutional advantages. Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase, like many northern policymakers, generally distrusted any form of exchange other than specie. They preferred to pay government debts by physically moving gold out of the Treasury instead of transferring funds from demand deposits via check. They also refused to utilize established private banks in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia as repositories for federal funds, further complicating financial transactions. Chase hoped to follow Albert Gallatin’s model of financing the War of 1812, which (initially) emphasized borrowing over taxation. Ultimately, however, mounting debts, a shortage of specie, and the threat of inflation led the Union to adopt innovative plans for both borrowing and internal taxation.
In contrast to the Confederacy, which relied on loans for about 35 percent of its war finances, the Union raised over 65 percent of its revenue this way. Having little personal experience, Chase turned to Philadelphia Banker Jay Cooke to administer the sale of war bonds. Although he expected banks and wealthy citizens to purchase most of them, Cooke employed a sophisticated propaganda campaign to market the bonds to the middling classes as well. Patriotic newspaper advertisements and an army of 2,500 agents persuaded almost one million northerners (about 25 percent of ordinary families) to invest in the war effort; bond sales topped $3 billion. In this way, Cooke previewed the techniques with which governments in the 20thcentury would fund modern wars.
In order for the bond program to be successful, the North needed an unrestricted currency supply for citizens to pay for them and a source of income to guarantee the interest. The Legal Tender Act filled the first requirement. Passed in February 1862, the act authorized the issue of $150 million in Treasury notes, known as Greenbacks. In contrast to Confederate paper, however, Congress required citizens, banks, and governments to accept Greenbacks as legal tender for public and private debts, except for interest on federal bonds and customs duties. This policy allowed buyers to purchase bonds with greenbacks while the interest accrued to them was paid in gold (funded, in part, by specie payments of customs duties). Investors enjoyed a bountiful windfall, since government securities purchased with depreciated currency were redeemed with gold valued at the prewar level. Taxpayers essentially made up the difference. Because most bonds were acquired by the wealthy or by financial institutions, the program concentrated investment capital in the hands of those likely to use it, much as Alexander Hamilton’s debt plan had sought to do.
The Union government’s decision to implement a broad system of internal taxation not only insured a valuable source of income, but shielded the northern economy from the sort of ruinous inflation experienced by the South. Despite another $150 million Greenback issue, the overall northern inflation rate reached only 80 percent, comparable with the domestic rates during World Wars I and II. The Internal Revenue Act of 1862, enacted by Congress in July, 1862, soaked up much of the inflationary pressure produced by Greenbacks. It did so because the Act placed excise taxes on just about everything, including sin and luxury items like liquor, tobacco, playing cards, carriages, yachts, billiard tables, and jewelry. It taxed patent medicines and newspaper advertisements. It imposed license taxes on practically every profession or service except the clergy. It instituted stamp taxes, value added taxes on manufactured goods and processed meats, inheritance taxes, taxes on the gross receipts of corporations, banks, and insurance companies, as well as taxes on dividends or interest they paid to investors. To administer these excise taxes, along with the tariff system, the Internal Revenue Act also created a Bureau of Internal Revenue, whose first commissioner, George Boutwell, described it as "the largest Government department ever organized."
The majority of internal taxes and tariffs duties were regressive, consumption-oriented measures that affected lower income Americans more severely than higher-income Americans. In response, Republicans looked to reinforce the system’s fairness by implementing a supplementary system of taxation that more accurately reflected taxpayers’ "ability to pay." The income tax addressed this need.
The first federal income tax in American history actually preceded the Internal Revenue Act of 1862. Passed in August 1861, it had helped assure the financial community that the government would have a reliable source of income to pay the interest on war bonds. Initially, Salmon Chase and Thaddeus Stevens, Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, wanted to implement an emergency property tax similar to the one adopted during the War of 1812. This way, the government could adapt the administrative system that state and local governments had developed for their own property taxes. But legislators understood such a property tax as a direct tax. Article 1, Section 9 of the Constitution required the federal government to apportion the burden among states on the basis of population rather than property values. Emphasizing population over property value would actually render the tax quite regressive. Residents of lower-density western states, border states, and poor northeastern states stood to bear a greater burden than those of highly-populated urban states, despite the latter’s valued real estate. Their representatives also complained that a property tax would not touch substantial "intangible" property like stocks, bonds, mortgages, or cash.
As an alternative, policy makers sought to follow the example of British Liberals, who had turned to income taxation in order to finance the Crimean War without heavy property taxation. Justin Morrill, (R-VT), Chairman of the Ways and Means Subcommittee on Taxation and the architect of the regressive tariff structure, introduced a proposal for the first federal income tax. Because it did not tax property directly, congressional leaders viewed the income tax as indirect, and thus immune from constitutional strictures.
The first income tax was moderately progressive and ungraduated, imposing a 3 percent tax on annual incomes over $800 that exempted most wage earners. These taxes were not even collected until 1862, making alternative financing schemes like the Legal Tender Act critical in the interim. The Internal Revenue Act of 1862 expanded the progressive nature of the earlier act while adding graduations: It exempted the first $600, imposed a 3 percent rate on incomes between $600 and $10,000, and a 5 percent rate on those over $10,000. The act exempted businesses worth less than $600 from value added and receipts taxes. Taxes were withheld from the salaries of government employees as well as from dividends paid to corporations (the same method of collection later employed during World War II). In addition, the "sin" excise taxes imposed in the 1862 act were designed to fall most heavily on products purchased by the affluent. Thaddeus Stevens lauded the progressivity of the tax system:
"While the rich and the thrifty will be obliged to contribute largely from the abundance of their means . . . no burdens have been imposed on the industrious laborer and mechanic . . . The food of the poor is untaxed; and no one will be affected by the provisions of this bill whose living depends solely on his manual labor."
But the war grew increasingly costly (topping $2 million per day in its latter stages) and difficult to finance. The government’s ability to borrow fluctuated with battlefield fortunes. The Confederate navy harassed northern shipping, reducing customs receipts. And inevitable administrative problems reduced the expected receipts from income and excise tax collection.
In response, Congress approved two new laws in 1864 that increased tax rates and expanded the progressivity of income taxation. The first bill passed in June upped inheritance, excise, license, and gross receipts business taxes, along with stamp duties and ad valorem manufacturing taxes. The same act proceeded to assess incomes between $600 and $5,000 at 5 percent, those between $5,000 and $10,000 at 7.5 percent, and established a maximum rate of 10 percent. Despite protest by certain legislators regarding the unfairness of graduated rates, the 1864 act affirmed this method of taxing income according to "ability to pay." An emergency income tax bill passed in July imposed an additional tax of 5 percent on all incomes in excess of $600, on top of the rates set by previous income tax bills. Congress had discovered that the income tax, in addition to its rhetorical value, also provided a flexible and lucrative source of revenue. Receipts increased from over $20 million in 1864 (when collections were made under the 1862 income tax) to almost $61 million in 1865 (when collections were made under the 1864 act and emergency supplement).
The affluent upper middle classes of the nation’s commercial and industrial centers complied widely with the income tax. 10 percent of all Union households had paid some form of income tax by war’s end; residents of the northeast comprised 15 percent of that total. In fact, the northeast, a sector of American society that owned 70 percent of the nation’s wealth in 1860, provided the most critical tax base, remitting 75 percent of the revenues. In total, the North raised 21 percent of its war revenue through taxation, as opposed to the South, which raised just 5 percent this way.
Federal taxes were also instrumental in instituting a system of national banking during the war. The National Banking Acts of 1863 and 1864 imposed a system of "free banking" — banks established by general incorporation as opposed to specific charters — on a national level. State banks were granted national charters and allowed to issue national bank notes (these notes were separate from Greenbacks). One third of a national bank’s capital had to consist of federal bonds, since the new national notes were to be backed by federal bonds. The National Banking Acts thus served as another means to induce bankers to purchase bonds. In an attempt to avoid increased regulation, however, many state banks declined to seek national charters. To remedy this problem, the 1864 act imposed a 10 percent tax on state bank notes to drive them out of existence. As a result of this tax, the number of national banks tripled by the war’s end, while their purchase of U.S. bonds nearly quadrupled.
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According to the opening narration by one William Shatner, what, in the Star Trek universe, is Space? | Star Trek | Muppet Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Sesamstrasse t-shirt.
The Enterprise in Farscape.
The Star Trek franchise consists of five live-action (and one animated) TV series and thirteen motion pictures, which boldly go where no one has gone before. The franchise began as a TV series on NBC which ran from 1966 until 1969, and was "re-booted" with a successful new feature film series in 2009. The Muppets have spoofed Star Trek on many occasions over the years.
Contents
References
Sesame Street
Sesame Street Episode 3698 is part of a story arc in which Slimey the Worm ventures to the Moon . The episode closes with a mission statement inspired by the narration that begins each episode of Star Trek: The Original Series and Star Trek: The Next Generation. The space shuttle that takes the worms into space, the wormship Wiggleprise , is also a spoof on Star Trek’s Enterprise.
Spaceship Surprise on Sesame Street parodied aspects of the original Star Trek, and the later incarnation Spaceship Surprise: The Next Generation specifically spoofed the cast of Star Trek: The Next Generation.
A Super Morphin Mega Monsters sketch on Sesame Street features the classic "door opening" sound effect used on the original 1960s Star Trek series when Zostic 's minions enter his lair to do his bidding.
Wanda Cousteau 's mission on Sesame Street is a reference to the opening narration from Star Trek. When she announces her mission "to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations -- to boldly go where no fish has gone before!"
Patrick Stewart , famous for playing Captain Jean-Luc Picard in Star Trek: The Next Generation, appeared in a segment with The Count . When The Count has trouble getting a set of Muppet numbers to stay in line, Stewart helps him out by commanding, "Make it so, Number One!" This is a reference to an oft-spoken phrase by his Trek character to his first officer. ( YouTube )
Some German Sesamstrasse merchandise (mainly postcards and posters) has featured Ernie and Bert dressed as Starfleet officers.
Bob greets Elmo and Zoe (who are pretending to be aliens) in Episode 4039 with the Vulcan hand sign while erroneously telling them, " May the force be with you ."
The narrator in the i-Sam segment of A Sesame Street Christmas Carol states: "now your holiday will boldly go where no holiday has gone before," a reference to the Star Trek title sequence. Santa Claus is shown seated in a captain's chair similar to that of the starship Enterprise, with a reindeer as a crew member. Santa says "That's Earth. Warp factor three," to which the reindeer responds "Aye, captain."
Episode 3845 features The Amazing Mumford paraphrasing an oft-quoted line from Star Trek's Dr. McCoy, "I'm a magician, not a contractor!"
When fielding a question from the audience at the NASA Tweetup in 2011, Elmo asked astronaut Mike Massimino to define the word exploration: "It means finding new things, and going someplace no one else has gone before." Elmo responded, "to boldly go where no one has gone before," quoting the famous Star Trek narration. [1]
In the CD-ROM game, Ernie's Adventures in Space , Bert is seen writing a captain's log (a log-shaped book) and quotes the famous Star Trek lines ("Captain's Log, Stardate...")
When Elmo can't count to 10 with his favorite hero Green LanTen at NumericCon in Episode 4504 , Cap-ten Kirk beams in to assist. He speaks in the oft-spoofed cadence made famous by William Shatner's acting style and wears a starfleet uniform from the classic Star Trek series with a 10 on the logo. Asking Elmo if he wants to "boldly go where no monster has gone before," he leads Elmo in a count to 10, the CapTen Kirk way, with dramatic pauses and gestures. Referencing an iconic scene in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, he leaves shouting, "I love it here at NumericCOOOOOOONNN!"
In 2015, when Rubber Duckie was returned to Ernie from space via the Orion Flight Test , he exclaims, "he's been where no duckie has been before!"
In The Furchester Hotel episode " Power Cut ," Funella asks her Scottish husband Furgus to add more lights for a hotel concert. Channeling Scotty, Furgus tells her, "The hotel power canne take it!"
The Muppets
" Pigs in Space " is the Muppet Show spoof of the original Star Trek series. Sketches take place on the Swinetrek , and stories involve its crew traveling through space to the unknown regions of the universe .
The March 1980 cover of Crazy and April 1980 cover of Frantic feature an illustrated crossover involving the Pigs in Space crew and the crew of the U.S.S. Enterprise ( William Shatner and Leonard Nimoy ) from Star Trek: The Motion Picture.
In one installment of The Muppets comic strip (reprinted in Moving Right Along ), Fozzie Bear refers to the daunting task of cleaning his room as "To boldly go where no bear has gone before!", a reference to the title sequence of the original Star Trek television series.
Another installment of The Muppets comic strip (reprinted in On the Town ) features Dr. Julius Strangepork and First Mate Piggy engaged by "Clingons," a popular joke about Star Trek’s alien race of Klingons.
The Summer 1983 issue of Muppet Magazine features what is mostly a Star Wars parody on board a ship resembling the Millennium Falcon. At the end of the comic, the U.S.S. Enterprise shows up to settle an argument with its tractor beam.
The 14th volume of "Gonzo's Weirder Than Me" column in the Spring 1986 issue of Muppet Magazine features a photo of the alien Balok as seen in the 1960s series episode, "The Corbomite Maneuver." Gonzo comments that it's easy to see why this stunning creature made space a place no man had gone before.
In the Winter 1987 issue of Muppet Magazine, Janice reviews Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, commenting that its premise of traveling back in time to 1986 Earth is "gnarly." A photo of William Shatner as Captain Kirk is featured.
The Spring 1988 issue of Muppet Magazine featured an interview with Wil Wheaton who was then starring in the second season of Star Trek: The Next Generation. Photos of the cast and the Enterprise-D illustrate the article as well as a picture of Wheaton being shipped to the Enterprise in a cardboard box.
In the Little Muppet Monsters episode " Space Cowboys ," twice Tug narrates a space log, a common story device in Star Trek. His narrative also mentions ventures into "strange new worlds." Later, Tugs announces "Let's boldly go where no monsters have gone before!" Both quotes are references to the title sequence of the original Star Trek television series.
Gonzo appears in the Jim Henson Hour pitch reel and tells Jim Henson , "Beam me up, Jimmy!" This is a reference to the oft-parodied, but misquoted, line from the original Star Trek in which Captain Kirk would order chief engineer Mr. Scott to transport the landing party back to the Enterprise.
The announcer for the Muppets from Space trailer states, " Columbia Pictures and Jim Henson Pictures take you where no Muppet has gone before."
The score for Muppets from Space incorporates Alexander Courage's music for the original Star Trek during a speech made by K. Edgar Singer , which is reminiscent of the voice-over from the original series. In the same scene, Gonzo supporters carry signs that read, "Beam Me Up, Gonzo," another reference to a famously paraphrased line from the original Star Trek series.
In the Pigs in Space segment of The Muppet Show Comic Book: On the Road #2, Dr. Julius Strangepork offers a solution for how to get the Swinetrek crew back to normal: "According to Roddenberry's Theorum, the time-space continuum will snap back into its normal state if a temporal anomaly is introduced, jump-starting the standard timeline." As this translates in layman's terms, you just have to make a call on your cell phone. Gene Roddenberry was the creator of Star Trek.
When squire Arthur (Kermit) pulls Excalibur from the stone in Muppet King Arthur #1, the sword catches the sunlight. Slim Wilson remarks, "Nice lens flare." His companion replies, "Pfft... Like we didn't get enough of those in Star Trek." This is a reference to what many critics have called an overuse of lens flares by J.J. Abrams in the 2009 film.
In the Muppets Inside CD-ROM game, when Fozzie and Kermit first enter the "Data-Bus", Fozzie places a command: "Ahead, warp factor one, Mr. Sulu."
In Miss Piggy's Rules , Miss Piggy suggests taping your favorite episode of Oprah over your boyfriend's collection of Star Trek episodes.
During their November 17, 2011 appearance on Good Morning America , Lara Spencer asks the Muppets to weigh in on the Star Wars vs Star Trek faux-feud between William Shatner and Carrie Fisher. Kermit responds that he thinks of himself as a Trekkie.
Continuing this narrative on August 20, 2014, when asked asked by Entertainment Weekly about Johnny Depp modeling his Captain Jack Sparrow from Pirates of the Caribbean after Captain Abraham Smollett from Muppet Treasure Island , Kermit replies "I will tell you that the whole time I was doing Captain Smollett, I was thinking of Patrick Stewart in Star Trek, so I was plagiarizing too." [2]
Muppet Babies
Gonzo presents "Weirdo Trek" in " I Want My Muppet TV! " using a combination of footage from the 1960s series and featuring the Babies as Star Trek characters. Gonzo plays Mister Weirdo, Kermit as Captain Kirkmit, Rowlf as Dr. Dogbones, Scooter as Scootie, Skeeter as a Spaceship Secondprise crewmember, and Piggy, Beaker, Bunsen and Fozzie as Static Klingons.
Nanny gets a parrot named Polly on loan from the pet store in " Fine Feathered Enemies ." The bird speaks various television catchphrases including "Beam me up, Scotty" and "Warp factor nine, Mister Sulu."
" The Air Conditioner at the End of the Galaxy " opens with footage of the Enterprise-D and the babies playing their previously-established Star Trek spoof characters. The Secondprise is on its way to the nearest starbase with two Static Klingons (Piggy and Fozzie) as their prisoner.
In " A Punch Line to the Tummy ," Baby Scooter is watching Star Trek: The Next Generation and imagines himself floating in space next to the U.S.S. Enterprise-D (Scooter anticipates the arrival of Captain Kirk, however the captain of the ship as featured is Captain Picard).
In " Muppet Babies: The Next Generation ," Rowlf travels to the Starship Boobieprise in a phone booth and meets his grandson, Lieutenant Woof (spoofing the Klingon character Worf). When Rowlf expects to find Captain Kirkmit and Mr. Weirdo, Woof explains that they're in The Next Generation now, but beams up the former characters anyway. Scooter appears as Geordi La Forge. Additionally, when the gang thinks Rowlf is playing charades, Skeeter guesses "the bath of Kahn".
The Muppet Babies comic book #2 features a spoof of both Star Trek and Star Wars franchises called "The Big Space Adventure." Baby Piggy appears in a Princess Leia costume, while the rest of the babies play her loyal crew in classic Star Trek uniforms, including an upside-down arrowhead badge, reminiscent of the Star Trek logo.
The Muppet Babies comic book #13 included a Star Trek story, "Out of This World". The story featured Kermit as Captain Kermit, Gonzo as Spock, Rowlf as Scotty, Scooter and Skeeter as Sulu and Chekov, and Piggy as a space princess. The Babies' spaceship (which looks a great deal like the Swinetrek ) runs out of fuel on their way to bring Princess Piggy back to her home planet. The ship makes an emergency landing on Jokeville, where everything is a gag. This story was written by Muppet writer Bill Prady .
In the Summer 1987 issue of Muppet Magazine , the Muppet Babies appear in a comic spoof titled Star Cluck.
Other
In the Fraggle Rock episode " Beginnings ", Uncle Traveling Matt refers to Outer Space as "the final frontier for Fraggledom."
In many episodes of the Fraggle Rock animated series , the Fraggles were heard to utter the words "to boldly go where no Fraggle has gone before" (a reference to the famous line uttered by William Shatner and Patrick Stewart).
An animated Enterprise appears in the Farscape episode " Revenging Angel ".
In the Bear in the Big Blue House episode " The View from You ", Tutter attempts to make a sci-fi movie called "Mouse on Mars". Ojo appears on set as an actor in costume, wearing a badge based on the Starfleet insignia.
The original title of Tales of a Sixth-Grade Muppet: When Pigs Fly was Where No Muppet Has Gone Before , a reference to Star Trek's opening narration.
Muppet Mentions
Not Miss Piggy and Darth Vader.
Clare Raymond's descendants as seen in the broadcast version of Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Neutral Zone."
Various sources, including Microsoft's Encarta Encyclopedia, [3] claim that Miss Piggy and Darth Vader can be seen in the 1979 film Star Trek: The Motion Picture. The images appear at 1:36:30 in the film when Spock enters the V'Ger entity. High definition reproductions of the film prove that the images are abstract and any likeness is coincidental.
In the 1988 Star Trek: The Next Generation episode " The Neutral Zone ," a character from the 20th century finds herself 400 years in her future on board the starship Enterprise-D. When researching what has become of her descendants, a graphical family tree shows amongst the names, Kermit T. Frog , Miss Piggy , Mary Richards and several actors who have portrayed the Doctor on Doctor Who . [4] The names were replaced on the remastered 2012 Blu-ray release.
A blooper reel titled "Totally Naked" was produced for a Star Trek: The Next Generation wrap party using outtakes from the show with a few clips from other sources. Kermit , Scooter and Rowlf are shown from " The Magic Store " at the end of The Muppet Movie , as well as a shot of the Swinetrek flying through space from The Muppet Show .
First Mate Piggy was interviewed for the Star Trek 30 Years celebration magazine in 1996 (pg. 74), published by TV Guide . Featured as a famous player sharing Star Trek memories in her role as First Mate of the Swinetrek , she claims to have been far too young to have seen the original series on the air, but that she became a devoted fan in reruns. A mention was also made of her run-in with Star Trek actor Leonard Nimoy who appeared in a " Pigs in Space: Deep Dish Nine " sketch on Muppets Tonight .
In the 1997 documentary Trekkies, Marc Okrand (creator of the Klingon language) states that one of the many songs that fans have translated into Klingon is the " Sesame Street Theme ."
During promotion for Star Trek in 2009, Zachary Quinto (the actor who played Spock) sang the " Fraggle Rock Theme " during press junkets more than once. [5]
In the special features for the Star Trek (2009) home video release, Rachel Nichols appears in the featurette, "To Boldly Go: The Green Girl." Nichols plays Gaila, a green-skinned alien, and is required to undergo hours of green makeup application before filming. While speaking with one of the film's child actors, she jokes that her boyfriends could be the Grinch , the Hulk or Kermit the Frog .
In 2010, Film Score Monthly released a 14-disc boxed set of music composed by Ron Jones for Star Trek: The Next Generation. Disc 4 contains a track from the season one episode "Skin of Evil" titled "It's Not Easy Bein' Slime" referencing " Bein' Green ."
In the "Inside the Writer's Room" discussion panel on the Star Trek: The Next Generation season three Blu-ray release, the writers compare the episode "Rascals," a story that finds four members of the Enterprise crew transformed into adolescent versions of themselves in a transporter accident, to the concept of Muppet Babies .
Connections
Sonia Manzano delivers the Vulcan salute on the Sesame Street set in 2015 (via Alan Muraoka's Facebook page).
F. Murray Abraham played Ahdar Ru'afo in Star Trek: Insurrection (1998, film)
Jason Alexander played Kurros in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Think Tank" (1999)
Kirstie Alley played Lieutenant Saavik in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan (1982, film)
Wayne Allwine edited sound effects for Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1987, film)
Philip Anthony-Rodriguez played Juan in the Enterprise episode "Horizon" (2003)
Michael Berry Jr. played a Romulan tactical officer in Star Trek (2009, film)
Theodore Bikel played Sergey Rozhenko in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Family" (1990)
Olivia Birkelund played Ensign Marla Gilmore in the Star Trek: Voyager two-parter "Equinox" (1999)
Julianne Buescher played the Enterprise Computer voice and other voices in Star Trek Into Darkness (2013, film)
LeVar Burton played Geordi La Forge on Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987-1994)
Kevin Carlson worked as puppeteer for the Exocomps in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Quality of Life" (1993)
Kim Cattrall played Lieutenant Valeris in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991)
Rosalind Chao played Keiko O'Brien on Star Trek: The Next Generation (eight episodes, 1991-1992) and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1993-1999)
John Cho played Hikaru Sulu in the films Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013)
Bill Cobbs played Emory Erickson in the Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Daedalus" (2005)
Joan Collins played Edith Keeler in the original series episode "The City on the Edge of Forever" (1967)
Frank Collison played Gul Dolak in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Ensign Ro" (1991)
James Cromwell played Prime Minister Nayrok on the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Hunted" (1990) and Jaglom Shrek in "Birthright, Parts I & II" (1993), Minister Hanok in the Star Trek: Deep Space 9 episode "Starship Down," and Zefram Cochrane in Star Trek: First Contact (1996, film) and the Star Trek: Enterprise premiere episode.
Benedict Cumberbatch played Khan Noonien Singh in Star Trek Into Darkness (2013, film)
Barry Dennen played voice roles in the videogames Star Trek: Hidden Evil (1999, as Admiral Rotok), Star Trek: Armada II (2001, various), and Star Trek: Bridge Commander (2002, as Gul Oden and Captain Terrik)
Jonathan Dixon played a simulator tactical officer in Star Trek (2009, film) and Ensign Froman in Star Trek Into Darkness (2013, film)
Juliana Donald played Tayna in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "A Matter of Perspective" (1990), Emi in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Prophet Motive" (1995), and Shoreham in Star Trek: Borg (1996, video game)
Paul Dooley played Enabran Tain in four episodes of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.
Michael Dorn , played Lt. Worf on Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987-1994) and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1995-1999)
Jane Espenson wrote the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Accession" (1996)
John Franklyn-Robbins played Macias in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Preemptive Strike" (1994)
Matt Frewer played Berlinghoff Rasmussen in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "A Matter of Time" (1991)
John Glover played Verad in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Invasive Procedures" (1993)
Whoopi Goldberg played Guinan on Star Trek: The Next Generation (1988-1993)
Kelsey Grammer played Captain Morgan Bateson in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Cause and Effect" (1992)
Joel Grey played Caylem in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Resistance" (1995)
Bob Gunton played Captain Benjamin Maxwell in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Wounded" (1991)
Mariette Hartley played Zarabeth in "All Our Yesterdays" (1969)
Teri Hatcher played B. G. Robinson in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Outrageous Okona" (1988)
Ashley Judd played Robin Lefler in two episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation (1991)
Sally Kellerman played Dr. Elizabeth Dehner in the Star Trek episode "Where No Man Has Gone Before" (1966)
Kristanna Loken played Malia in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Favorite Son" (1997)
Gates McFadden played Doctor Beverly Crusher on Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987-1994)
Virginia Madsen played Kellin in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Unforgettable" (1998)
Robert Mandan played Kotan Pa'Dar in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Cardassians" (1993)
Andrea Martin played Ishka in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Family Business" (1995)
Michael McKean played the Clown in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "The Thaw" (1996)
Gary Morgan stunt doubled as the Ferengi Kayron in the Next Generation episode "The Last Outpost" (1987)
Leonard Nimoy played Spock on Star Trek and in subsequent movies from Star Trek: The Motion Picture(1979) to Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991), as well as Star Trek (2009).
Josh Pais played Gaila in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episodes "Business as Usual" and "The Magnificent Ferengi" (1997)
Robert Picardo played the Doctor on Star Trek: Voyager (1995-2001) and a similar holographic doctor in First Contact (1996, film)
Suzie Plakson , played Selar on the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "The Schizoid Man" (1989) and K'Ehleyr in "The Emissary" (1989) and "Reunion" (1990), Female Q on the Star Trek: Voyager episode "The Q and the Grey" (1996), and Tarah in the Enterprise episode "Cease Fire" (2003)
Bill Prady wrote the season five Star Trek: Voyager episode "Bliss"
Zachary Quinto played Spock in the 2009 film reboot and sequels
Rino Romano voiced Alexander Munro in the video game Star Trek: Elite Force II (2003)
Deep Roy played Keenser in the films Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013)
Zoe Saldana played Uhura in the films Star Trek (2009) and Star Trek Into Darkness (2013)
William Schallert played Nilz Barris in the Star Trek episode "The Trouble with Tribbles" (1967) and Varani in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Sanctuary" (1993)
Reiner Schöne played Esoqq in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Allegiance" (1990)
William Shatner played Captain James T. Kirk on Star Trek and in the animated series and subsequent films from Star Trek: The Motion Picture (1979) to Star Trek: Generations (1994).
Sarah Silverman played Rain Robinson in the Star Trek: Voyager 2-part episode "Future's End" (1996)
Michelan Sisti played Tol in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Bloodlines" (1994)
Patrick Stewart played Captain Jean-Luc Picard on Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987-1994)
George Takei played Hikaru Sulu on Star Trek and subsequent films, and voiced various aliens on Star Trek: The Animated Series
Nick Tate played Durgo in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Final Mission" (1990)
Kirk Thatcher worked on Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, as associate producer, composer/singer of the song "I Hate You," voice of the Vulcan computer, and appeared as "Punk on the Bus" in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home.
Brian Tochi played Ray Tsing Tao in the Star Trek episode "And the Children Shall Lead" (1968) and Ensign Kenny Lin in the Star Trek: Next Generation episode "Night Terrors" (1991)
Neil deGrasse Tyson appears in the Star Trek: Voyager season 3 documentary "Real Science" (2004)
Jay Underwood played Mortimer Harren in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Good Shepherd"
Ben Vereen played Dr. LaForge in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode 'Interface" (1993)
David Warner played Ambassador St. John Talbot in Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1987, film), Chancellor Gorkon in Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country (1991, film), and Cardassian Gul Madred in the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Chain of Command, Part I and Part II" (1992)
Frank Welker voiced child Spock's screams in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984, film) and an alien in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Nothing Human" (1998)
Orson Welles provided narration for Star Trek: The Motion Picture advertisements (1979)
Wil Wheaton played Wesley Crusher on Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987-1994)
Paul Williams played Koru in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Virtuoso" (2000)
Kathleen Wirt played an aphasia victim in the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "Babel"
Alfre Woodard played Lily Sloane in Star Trek: First Contact (1996, film)
Sources
| The Final Frontier |
In the world of the machinist, a die is used to create the male portion of the threads (e.g. the screw). What is used to create the female portion (e.g. the nut)? | J.J. Abrams Says That William Shatner Will Likely Never Be Part Of The New 'Star Trek' Films
J.J. Abrams Says That William Shatner Will Likely Never Be Part Of The New ‘Star Trek’ Films
Posted Wednesday, July 20th, 2016 07:00 pm GMT -5 by Jason Motes
Leonard Nimoy appeared in both prior ‘Star Trek’ movies, reprising his role of Spock from the traditional ‘Trek’ universe (He is now referred to as Spock Prime). He even delivered the famous “Space… the final frontier” monologue at the end of the first movie– a narration usually voiced by William Shatner ‘s Captain Kirk. The was a bit jarring but still fitting since Nimoy appeared in a role that seemingly symbolized the passing of the torch from his generation to this new one.
But fans have wondered if Shatner’s Kirk would ever pop up in a cameo in one of the new films. Unfortunately, according to franchise producer J.J. Abrams, it doesn’t sound like that’s going to happen.
“Obviously it’s Star Trek, nearly anything is possible. There’s the fairly simple notion that on the day Kirk was born another timeline began. But in the other timeline, Kirk died onscreen (in Generations). I don’t know how he would come back unless we went into this other reality and we did a timeline and reality jump.
“In all the years we’ve been working on this, I’ve yet to hear a pitch that didn’t sound too contorted and contrived for an audience to swallow. And I’ve talked to him (Shatner) about it. If Kirk had lived there’d be an answer. But there’s something about his having died that makes it impossible.”
For those unfamiliar (or that have forgotten) Shatner made his farewell turn as Kirk in the PREVIOUS passing of the torch, 1994′s ‘Star Trek Generations’ which saw the cast of the TV show ‘Star Trek: The Next Generation’ taking over the film franchise from the aging stars of the 1960s series. In the film, Kirk was killed off with Jean Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) stepping up as the only Captain of the cinematic Enterprise.
And perhaps it’s for the best that the stars of the original version step aside and let the new cast have their moment.
Are you disappointed that Shatner will never likely appear as Kirk in a ‘Star Trek’ film?
| i don't know |
According to Rachel Ray, what is EVOO? | What makes EVOO EVOO? - Rachael Ray
What makes EVOO EVOO?
By how to cook like an italian • May 17, 2009
What makes EVOO EVOO?
We get this question all the time so we decided to ask the experts at Colavita, the makers of Rachael’s EVOO:
A basic definition of EVOO:
First cold produced from select olives, Rachael Ray’s EVOO is the natural juice squeezed from olives one day after the harvest. No heat or chemicals are used in extracting Extra Virgin Olive Oil. “Extra” is the highest grade for the best, unrefined and unprocessed oil of the fruit. To be graded as Extra Virgin, the oil must exhibit superior taste, aroma and color. And to meet the most exacting labeling standards, it must also have less than 1% free oleic acid. Thus, the “Extra” in Extra Virgin Olive Oil means “premium,” or simply, “the best.”
Sometimes the best way to understand the difference between olive oils is to understand the production of EVOO. This FAQ section on our website might be useful.
Another way to help explain EVOO is to compare it to other oils.
Three things make olive oil superior to other oils: taste, nutrition and integrity.
Taste is the most obvious difference between olive oil and the commercially popular vegetable oils such as corn, soybean and canola oils. These oils are tasteless fats. You would not want to eat a piece of bread dipped in vegetable oil; for the same basic reason, many chefs refrain from adding tasteless fat to the foods they prepare. When you cook with oil, get the most flavor and texture you can. Olive oil, especially extra virgin olive oil, adds a flavor and textural dimension lacking in other oils, making it a suitable substitute for butter and margarine in almost any recipe. In fact, more and more restaurants are serving Extra Virgin Olive Oil, both plain or flavored with salt and pepper, as an alternative to butter for bread.
Nutritionally, olive oil contains more monounsaturated fat than any of the popular vegetable oils. Monounsaturated Fats increase the HDL (good) cholesterol and reduce LDL (bad) cholesterol levels. It also contains “0g” of Trans Fat and Carbohydrates and less saturated fat than butter and no cholesterol. Olive Oil naturally contains beta-carotene, Vitamin A and E and other antioxidants. Consumption of olive oil is linked to lower incidences of certain forms of cancer. Olive oil is very well tolerated by the stomach. It can help protect against ulcers and gastritis and lowers the incidence of gallstone formation. Olive Oil can lower the risk of coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis by reducing blood cholesterol levels. Olive oil can reduce the risk of diabetes and, possibly, a delayed onset of complications in established diabetes.
Moreover, vegetable oils are industrial, processed foods. Vegetable oils are generally extracted by means of petroleum-based chemical solvents, and then must be highly refined to remove impurities. Along with the impurities, refining removes taste, color and nutrients. Extra Virgin Olive Oils are not processed or refined. It is said that you do not make Extra Virgin Olive Oil, you find it. Extra Virgin Olive Oil is essentially “fresh squeezed” from the fruit of the olive tree, without alteration of the color, taste, and nutrients or vitamins. Because of the integrity of the product, and its antioxidant components, olive oil will keep longer than all other vegetable oils.
You can find Rachael’s EVOO along with other pantry items in our SHOP
More from Rachael's World
| Olive oil |
What desert consists of ice cream placed in a pie dish lined with slices of sponge cake and topped with meringue, which is baked in a very hot oven just long enough to firm the meringue? | Rachel Ray's EVOO habit, not a great one
Rachel Ray cooks with EVOO, should you?
April 4, 2016
By Rebecca • This post contains affiliate links
EVOO- the acronym made famous by chef and TV personality Rachel Ray.
Is Extra Virgin Olive Oil everything she says it is? Should you be eating it?
My Mimi and I were having a chat this past week about food. We love to talk about food in this family! The conversation turned to olive oil. So, today I want to share with my readers what I shared with my Mimi. I have only ever watched Rachel Ray at my Mimi and Uncle Ronnie’s house and have many fond memories of spending time with them. Since we don’t have cable or satellite tv I do not have a chance to watch her shows at home. I have browsed her cookbooks at the book store a few times, but I do not own any. I enjoy her 30 minute meals, but there is one thing that I wish she would catch up on and stop spreading unhealthy information about.
EVOO. Extra Virgin Olive Oil. Olives are a fruit that grow on a tree and are considered a very healthy part of a Mediterranean diet. Refined olive oil is simply olive oil that has had it’s certain components removed. However, those refined oils are unfortunately missing the important antioxidants and anti-inflammatories that make extra-virgin oil so incredibly healthy. Olive oil is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), which are found in both plant and animal sources, such as olives and olive oil, nuts and seeds, and avocado. According to research, those whose diets were higher in monounsaturated fats (compared to polyunsaturated fats) showed less frequent incidence of breast cancer. Some of the positive actions of this type of fat include: 8
Decreased breast cancer risk – A study of women in Sweden found that those whose diets were higher in monounsaturated fats (compared to polyunsaturated fats) showed less frequent incidence of breast cancer.
Reduced LDL or “bad” cholesterol level
Lower risk for heart disease and stroke – Diets high in MUFAs are linked to a healthy heart and fewer strokes.
Weight management – Research has found that switching to monounsaturated fat from diets with trans fat resulted in weight loss.
Less severe pain and stiffness for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) sufferers
Reduced belly fat – A study by the American Diabetes Association linked diets with monounsaturated fat with better belly fat loss than high carbohydrate diets.
So let’s cook everything with EVOO, right? Wrong.
While EVOO is ideal as a salad dressing it should not be used for cooking, as it can be easily damaged by heat. Polyunsaturated fats, (which include common vegetable oils such as corn, soy, safflower, sunflower, and olive oil) should not be used in cooking. Although mainstream media and TV Chefs like Rachel Ray portray olive oil or EVOO as the healthiest oil, unfortunately this title does not extend to cooking! So, no matter what Rachel Ray says, don’t reach for the olive oil when cooking.
You see, because olive oil is primarily a monounsaturated fat, (simply stated: it has one double bond in its fatty acid structure). Think of oxidation in your body like rust on your car. Oxidation can create “free radicals,” which can often cause damage that can raise our risk for heart attack, stroke, cancer and other problems. Ironic isn’t it? EVOO is heart healthy yet the very act of heating it too much can cause heart disease. Now don’t get me wrong, please understand EVOO can be healthy, but only when consumed properly. So, how do you use it in a way that promotes health instead of destroying your health?
While olive oil is a smart fat to include in your diet in a non-heated form like in a salad dressing, when it is heated to over 200 to 250F it runs the risk of creating oxidized oil that can do more harm than good in your body.
If you’re cooking over high heat, do not choose olive oil. Olive oil has a lower smoke point—the point at which an oil literally begins to smoke (olive oil’s is between 365° and 420°F)—than some other oils. When you heat olive oil to its smoke point, the beneficial compounds in oil start to degrade, and potentially health-harming compounds form.( 1 )
It’s not as easy as just grabbing some canola or vegetable oil, either. Most of the canola oil in the United States is made from genetically-modified canola seeds so let us skip the canola oil. ( 2 ) The majority of vegetable oils available in the US are made from genetically engineered crops, and they’re heavily processed on top of that. So not only are the polyunsaturated fats being oxidized, but these oils also contain other toxins, such as glyphosate and Bt toxin found in genetically engineered corn and soy. Glyphosate is the active ingredient in the broad-spectrum herbicide Roundup, which is used in very large amounts on all of these crops. So there are a number of reasons for avoiding vegetable oils, but the fact that they’re oxidized is clearly a high-priority one. ( 5 )
Another important factor in choosing the right oil for cooking is that most vegetable oils are high in omega-6 fats and it is the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fats that plays a powerful role in determining many illnesses. So if you are consuming large amounts of vegetable oils you will seriously distort this vital ratio and increase your risk of many degenerative diseases.
What should you be cooking with?
If you are preparing a dish with an Asian flair try using toasted Sesame oil. Sautéing vegetables for a stir fry, why not try coconut oil?
What’s wrong with butter? Absolutely nothing! Believe it or not, butter is better for your brain! According to Sally Fallon, author of Nourishing Traditions, butter provides the brain with the nutrients it needs. Nutrients such as:
Cholesterol: The highest concentration of cholesterol occurs in the brain, where it plays an especially important role in memory formation. Seniors with the highest cholesterol levels have the best memory function. Cholesterol also plays a major role in regulating serotonin levels in the brain – low cholesterol levels are associated with depression, anti-social behavior and even suicide.
Saturated Fats: The brain contains high levels of saturated fats, both in the cell membranes and in the mitochondria. Saturated fats are stable and don’t create damage in the brain like poly-unsaturated fats do.
Arachidonic Acid: Eleven percent of your brain is composed of arachidonic acid (AA), a type of omega-6 fatty acids found exclusively in animal fats like butter. A supply of AA is critical to neurological development in the infant.
Vitamin A plays a key role in vision and all sensory perception. Butter is an excellent source of vitamin A.
Vitamin D is critical to neurological function and protection against depression. Butter provides vitamin D.
Vitamin K supports neurological function and learning. Butter provides vitamin K.
DHA is an omega-3 fatty acids especially concentrated in the brain. Seafood is a good source, but butter provides it also.
Choline is critical for the formation of glial cells. Butter is an excellent source.
Butter substitutes like margarine and spreads do not supply these critical nutrients (although many brands have vitamins A and D added); in addition, these industrial products contain rancid oils that can really damage your brain and interfere with learning ability in growing children. ( 6 )
How to select and purchase olive oil:
Purchase your olive oil in a smaller container. Research studies have shown compromise in the nutritional quality of olive oil after two months’ period of time, even when the oil was properly stored.
Purchase your olive oil in a dark container, that way it will not be affected by light, which can cause it to oxidize.
Purchase olive oil that has not been blended with other oils. Check the “ ingredients ” section!
Make sure to check the dates on your olive oil container, some will list the harvest date, try to find one that is within the last two years. You really need to know the when, who, where of your oil! So check for the harvest date, the producers name, and where the olives were grown. Again, olives are fruit and like with any other fruit, air, heat, and light will cause olive oil to turn rancid.So look for the harvest date, buy in small dark containers and use within a few months.
What other oils can I cook with?
Ghee is another wonderful cooking fat. Infused with the rich flavor of butter minus the milk solids. Ghee is very versatile and can be used in high temperature cooking. It has been used as a traditional Indian cooking fat for thousands of years. Excellent for baking.
Coconut oil is a highly stable saturated fat known for it’s antioxidant, antimicrobial, antibacterial and anti fungal properties. In addition, coconut oil can help with insulin control as well as protect against liver damage. There are so many ways to use coconut oil besides cooking, but I especially like it for baking.
You might want to try macadamia nut oil if you don’t like the taste of coconut. Macadamia nut oil is very mild in flavor and can be used in cooking.
Avocado oil has a very high smoke point and a mild taste. I have used it in cooking as well as making homemade mayonnaise, however, I prefer using grape-seed oil when making homemade mayo as the health benefits are wonderful in this often little known about oil.
Red Palm oil is also a healthy oil, I use it in stir-fry dishes… so yummy! Totally safe to heat and eat.
Now, I know my relatives love watching some good ole’ Rachel Ray, and that’s fine. She undoubtedly has some great cooking skills and is a very creative chef, but please don’t follow her example by cooking with olive oil!
Please help me spread the word, pin this post!
| i don't know |
What can be a NATO phonetic alphabet letter, a landform at the mouth of a river, or a plumbing fixture company? | Appendix:Glossary of U.S. Navy slang - Wiktionary
Appendix:Glossary of U.S. Navy slang
Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Wikipedia
The following are some examples of the slang of the United States Navy , you will also see references to the United States Marine Corps as well because of their use of naval terminology sometimes also referred to as NAVSpeak. Note that in the Navy, many ships and units have nicknames; these are listed separately, in Appendix:Glossary of U.S. Navy slang/Unit nicknames .
0-9[ edit ]
0-dark-hundred , 0'dark-hundred (pronounced "oh dark hundred", because the "zero" in time expressions was verbally pronounced "oh" in the US Navy and US Army as late as the 1980s: Midnight, 12AM. "We have to get up at 0-dark-hundred."
0-dark-thirty , 0'dark-thirty: One half-hour after 0'dark-hundred, 12:30AM.
13 button salute: When a sailor in dress pants pulls down on the top two corners and all 13 buttons come unbuttoned at once, usually done just before sex.
1D10T: A mythical substance that new Sailors are sent in search of as a joke. Pronounced as "one dee ten tee" or "idiot".
1MC: The General Announcing system on a ship.
1st Division: The division, in most aviation and afloat commands, which is responsible for the material condition and cleanliness of the ship. On ships equipped with small boats, the First Lieutenant or "First" (First Division Officer or Deck Department Head) is in charge of these boats and the sailors who maintain and run them. On small boats, the "First" is in charge of boatswain mates and deck seaman. On larger ships, the "First" may be in charge of air crew. Work for 1st division varies among ships depending on size. Small ships only have one division, while larger ships like carriers or amphibs can have 5 or more.
2JV: Engineering sound-powered circuit.
2MC: Engineering loudspeaker circuit.
21MC: Ships command intercom circuit, mainly used between the bridge, combat, and flight decks. Also known as the Bitch Box.
2-10-2: A female, perceived to be unattractive otherwise, out at sea on a ship which has many more males than females and who is consequently paid more attention than she would be paid on land. "She was a 2 before going to sea, a 10 out at sea, and back to a 2 when she returned."
2-6-10: Abbreviation of "It's gonna take 2 surgeons 6 hours to remove 10 inches of my boot from your ass." Used to motivate someone who is not pulling their weight.
43P-1: Work center Maintenance manual; prior to OPNAV numbering the current guidance 4790/4(series) it was 43P. The series of books; 43P-1, 43P-2, 43P-3 & 43P-4 were separate books covering all aspects of maintenance. The 43P-2, 43P-3 & 43P-4 books were replaced in the mid 1980's with one book. the new book was a three ring binder, blue in color and had "3-M" all across the front & side. The 43P-1 book containing MIPs stayed in the work center and was a deep red color with 43P-1 across the cover. Officially no longer named the 43P-1, the fleet continues to name and refer to their work center maintenance manual as the 43P-1.
4JG: Communications circuit used by V4 Fuels Division to coordinate flight deck fueling operations between the flight deck and below decks pump and filter rooms. Also used to pass information between a flight deck fuel station and flight deck control as to status of fueling operations for individual aircraft. Found on aircraft carriers and similar vessels.
4MC: Emergency communications circuit that overrides sound powered phone communications to alert controlling stations to a casualty.
5MC: A circuit similar to the 1MC, except that it is only heard on the flight deck of an air-capable ship and in engineering spaces. It is EXTREMELY loud to overcome the jet noise on the flight deck. Do not stand near one of the speakers without hearing protection.
8 (or) 6 boat. Preferred term by Amphib sailors for LCM-8 or LCM-6 boats, as opposed to "Mike" boat.
90 Day Wonder, 90 Day Miracle: OCS graduate (as opposed to a graduate of four-year Naval Academy or ROTC training).
96er: A period of five nights and four days off of work due to special liberty or holiday. Very rarely occurs due to duty.
180° Amnesia: Occurs when a sailor has been deployed and selective memory is desired to deal with questions asked by his or her significant other. "Whatever happens on WESTPAC stays on WESTPAC."
4 acres of sovereign U.S. soil: An aircraft carrier.
A[ edit ]
Abu Dhabi (used attributively / as an adjective): Labeled in Arabic aboard a ship; used of any product, but especially soda cans. "We've been home from cruise for 8 months and we still have Abu Dhabi Cokes in the vending machines!" (More common synonym: Hadji.)
Acey-Deucey Club: A recreational facility that serves alcohol for first and second class petty officers, or any Enlisted Club that caters mostly to First and Second Class Petty Officers, but still allows all enlisted personnel.
Admin: Aviation,Pre-arranged meeting point, or shared hotel in-port.
Admin Warfare Specialist (humorous, sometimes derisive): A yeoman , personnelman or holder of another Navy administrative rating. Used especially of a sailor who does not have a warfare pin.
ADSEP: ADministrative SEParation: Release from Naval Service for administrative reasons. (The list of reasons is very extensive and can be found in BUPERSINST 1900.8C, Enclosure (2).)
AD: Aviation Machinist Mate, one who throws wrenches at aircraft and prays to mech gods for a favorable outcome.
A-Farts: (AFRTS)American Forces Radio & Television Service. A-Farts is received via satellite all over the world and offers a variety of shows. Some of the most entertaining offerings are the propaganda commercials it frequently airs since regular advertising is not permitted.
AFTA: Advanced First Term Avionics: Part of the advanced electronics schooling package, reserved for AT's AQ's and AX's for advanced training. Basically, they taught the PO2 exam for 6 months.
A-Gang: The Auxiliaries Division of the Engineering Department. Members are known as "A-Gangers." Also called "Fresh Air Snipe."
Ahead Flank Liberty: The fictitious speed at which a ship travels after a mission or patrol is completed with high marks and the ship is headed into very nice foreign ports that cater to visiting US Forces.
AIMD: Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department. A department on aircraft carriers and Naval Air Stations responsible for maintaining aircraft sub assemblies. On an aircraft carrier, this consists of 5 divisions: IM1 - AIMD Admin, IM2 - Airframes and Power Plants, IM3 Avionics, IM4 Ground Support Equipment (GSE) and Aviation Ordnance, IM5 IMRL.
Air Department: Consists of 5 divisions, usually manned by Aviation Boatswains Mates. V0 Division: Admin offices. V1 Division: Aircraft Handlers on the flight deck. V2 Division: Maintenance of Catapults and Arresting Gear. V3 Division: Aircraft Handlers on the Hangar Deck. V4 Division: Aviation Fuels.
Air Boss: Air Officer. His assistant is the "Mini Boss."
Air Force Gloves: Pockets. Used when a sailor has his hands in his pockets.
Air Force Salute, Airman Salute, Airedale Salute: An "I don't know" shrug of the shoulders. Also called an Ensign Salute.
Airedale: A sailor who works on or around aircraft.
Airstart: (1) An attempt to restart an aircraft's engine(s) after in-flight failure. (2) A blowjob.
Air Wing: The aviation element on board an aircraft carrier consisting of various squadrons.
A.J. Squared Away: (name for) a sailor who is always "squared away," meaning always having a perfect shave, perfectly ironed uniform, spit-shined shoes, haircut with less than 1mm of hair, spotless uniform, etc. Anyone who has been designated with this nickname is most likely a lifer who has no life outside the navy. Compare to "dirtbag." The more derogatory "A.J. Squared the fuck Away" is often used by those that can't attain A.J.'s high standards.
All Ahead Bendix: Attempt more than full speed ahead, e.g. by bypassing limiters or subjecting the engine motors to overvoltage , on the assumption that the risk of defeat would otherwise outweigh the risk of engine damage.
Alpha Inspection: Formal inspection of uniforms and living spaces. Often performed with a white glove and a black sock.
Alpha Mike Foxtrot: Adios, motherfuckers.
Aluminum Cloud: The F-14 Tomcat.
Already Broke: The USS Arliegh Burke.
Anchors and Spurs: The famous dance club at NAVSTA San Diego where many a lonely Navy wife has broken the seventh commandment. Many sailors find this amusing until it happens to them. Also called "Cankers and Sores."
Angles and Dangles (Submarine Service): (a reference to) placing a submarine at crazy angles and in crazy positions soon after leaving port, to see if anything breaks loose. Known as "at sea" by the surface Navy.
"Another Fine Navy Day!": An expression said (in a very cheery manner) on occasions when, in fact, it is not a Fine Navy Day at all.
Anymouse (adjective): Anonymous. Used to describe the safety system whereby sailors can drop anonymous recommendations into a locked box.
AO: Aviation Ordnanceman, personnel assigned to Aircraft Carriers, Helicopter Carriers and Aviation Squadrons that store, handle, assemble, transport and load all weapons and drop tanks along with electronic counter measure pods, dispensers and sono-bouys on Navy and Marine Corps aircraft. Other duties include storing and maintaining unit small arms as well as training and qualifying squadron member in their use and the use of deadly force. Aviation Ordnancemen are expected to have a broad knowledge base of the rate and and be able to perform any duties of the rate.
AOCS: Aviation Officer Candidate School; since discontinued pre-commissioning program at NAS Pensacola, FL that trained both prior service and non-prior service college graduates to become naval officers and to subsequently qualify as either Naval Aviators, Naval Flight Officers, Air Intelligence Officers, or Aircraft Maintenance Duty Officers - program merged into Officer Candidate School at NETC Newport, RI in the late 1990s
AOL: Absent Over Leave; Navyspeak for AWOL. See UA, the correct Naval term.
AOM: All Officers Meeting, held for a variety of reasons like training, port calls, mess issues, etc.
Armpit of the Med: Naples, Italy. So called on account of its unique smell and the overall (un)cleanliness of the city.
ASH Receiver: An "ash tray." Newbie sailors are sometimes sent all over base to locate an ASH Receiver as a joke.
ASMO: Assignment Memorandum Orders. Mostly issued in boot camp to set a recruit back in training due to poor performance.
Assholes and elbows: The only things which should be seen by a boatswains mate when deck hands are on their hands and knees holystoning a wooden deck.
Asshole of the Navy: Norfolk, Virginia, home of the fabled "DOGS AND SAILORS KEEP OFF THE GRASS!" sign. The cold shoulders from civilians persist in certain Navy towns. See also "NoFuck, Vagina."
ASVAB: The Navy's enlisted entrance exam. (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery)
ASWOC: Anti-Submarine Warfare Operations Center - shore-based briefing/debriefing/analysis/operational control center for VP aviation. See also TSC.
Aviation Queer: The enlisted rating AQ, Aviation Fire Control Technician; since merged into Aviation Electronics Technician (AT).
AW: The enlisted rating previously known as Aviation Anti-submarine Warfare Operator, now known as Aviation Warfare Operator; sometimes preceded by the adjective "fuckin'" by non-aircrew sailors
AWOL: Absent Without Official Leave; this is a US Army and USAF term, not a Navy term, see UA.
AX: The enlisted rating Aviation Anti-Submarine Warfare Technician; since merged into AW rating (often forgotten but masterful to behold).
Aye: Yes (I understand)
Aye, aye: Yes (I heard the order, I understand the order, and I intend to obey/carry out the order). "I understand and I will comply."
B[ edit ]
B1RD: Pronounced: Bravo One Romeo Delta. Nomenclature used to identify a bird to boot sailors. Similar to CGU-11.
Baby Beater: A small sledge hammer
Baby Birdfarm: A helicopter carrier/amphibious assault ship.
Baboon Ass: Corned beef. The nickname is based on its color and flavor. See also Monkey Butt.
Back Alley: Card game of trump played by 2 to 4 players (mostly "snipes"). Players are first dealt 1 card each then 2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13, 13-12-11-10-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1. Players bid on the number of tricks to be taken, trump is determined by draw. Score is kept by awarding 3 points for bids made and taken and 1 point for each additional trick. A player unable to make their bid goes set 3 X the bid. Game can be played by partners.
Bag (noun): Flight suit.
Bag (verb): To issue demerits at the Naval Academy.
Bag of Dicks: An unwanted or extremely tedious task, e.g. one that is given one hour before shift change and will require at least 3 hours to complete. Someone who has been given a "Bag of Dicks" has been "bagged."
Bag Nasty: A pre-packaged bag lunch usually consisting of a cold cut sandwich, piece of fruit, and juice box or can of soda. Served at galleys in lieu of regular chow for sailors on the go.
Bagger: A sailor who is chronically late for watch relief. Also known as a "shit bag."
Ball Button: The fourth button down on the new Service Uniforms, so called because it has a tendency to come undone.
Balls O'Clock: Any unspecified time late at night when it is absurd to be awake and having to do things, be on watch, etc.
Balls Thirty: (1) The time 00:30, when there is a security sweep on some bases. (2) Any time late at night.
Balls to Two: A short watch stood from 0000-0200. Not generally seen outside of Boot Camp.
Balls to Four: A four hour watch technically stood from 0000-0400, though in practice begining at 2345 and ending at 0345. Most commonly seen on a "Dogged Watch" schedule.
Balls To The Wall: see Wiktionary's mainspace entry on the term " balls to the wall "
Bandit: An aircraft which has been positively identified as hostile.
Bar fine: Fee paid to the manager ("mamasan") of a bar (generally adjacent to the former Naval Base Subic, former Naval Air Station Cubi Point, or former Clark Air Base in the Philippines) for letting a "hostess" take the night off. If a longer term "relationship" is desired by both parties, the "bar fine" can be paid in advance as "steady papers." Sex is universally expected, although technically not required. The hostess will expect some entertainment (dancing, dinner, etc.)
Barely Trainable: Derogatory term for a Boiler Technician (BT).
Barney Clark: A slider topped with a fried egg. Also called a "One-Eyed Jack." Named, due to its apparent high cholesterol content, for Mr. Barney Clark, who in 1982 received a "Jarvik" artificial heart.
Barricade, Barrier: The huge nylon net strung across the landing area of a carrier to arrest the landing of an aircraft with damaged gear or a damaged tailhook.
Bar Stool Technician: A term labeled to the former AQ rating, Aviation Fire Control Technician. The rating badge icon looked like a bar stool.
Batphone: A dedicated outside telephone line (not for personal use) typically for shore power or security purposes. Sometimes used to connect CIC to Engineering.
Battle Group (BG): A group of warships and supply ships centered around a large deck aircraft carrier and that carrier's airwing. Usually consists of one cruiser, one supply ship, and one or two destroyers, frigates, and submarines. More recently referred to as a Carrier Strike Group (CSG).
Battle Racks: (term for) when mission-exhausted Aviators are allowed to sleep through General Quarters.
Battle rattle: body armor and helmet.
Battlewagon: Battleship.
B.B. Stacker: Crew that handles and maintains the air launched weapons, Aviation Ordnancemen (Red shirts)
BCG's: Birth Control Glasses: Standard Navy-issue corrective eyewear for non-flight crew and non-flight deck personnel. So named because they are so thick and hideous that one is guaranteed never to have sex while one is wearing them. Term has become obsolete due to more normal looking frame choices now offered (outside of enlisted recruit training, at least). (Also known as CGL's — Can't Get Laids.)
B.D.N.W.W.: Broke Dick No Worky-worky. See Broke Dick.
Beer Day: On many navy ships, even in the present day, all hands are given 2 beers if they are underway without a port call for a given period of time — generally 45 days. Both beers are opened when they are given to the crewmember to prevent them from being hoarded.
Beans, bullets, and black oil: Supplies of all sorts needed by a warship.
Bells:
Naval method of indicating the time of day aboard ship, usually over the 1MC. One bell corresponds to 30 minutes past the hour. Bells will only be rung as a single strike, or a closely spaced double strike, with a maximum of eight bells (4 sets of 2). Bells repeat themselves every 4 hours. For example 2 sets of 2 bells, followed by a single bell (5 total) could be 0230, 0630, 1030, 1430, 1830, or 2230.
Method of requesting speed changes from the Engine Room using the Engine Order Telegraph (EOT), normally from the Bridge. (example: 1/3, 2/3, Full, Standard, Flank, B1/3, B2/3, BI, BEM)
Benny: A treat or reward, derived from "Benefit."
Benny Suggs: The Navy's Beneficial Suggestions program, a method where DON employees, and Navy and Marine personnel can make suggestions to improve various programs and operations.
Bent Shitcan:
Someone below Naval standards.
An angry or particularly unpleasant attitude, such as one might have if their only job onboard was to collect and retain everyone else's refuse, and then on top of that some asshole got mad and kicked him, leaving a big, ugly dent in his side. "We got a new XO and he had an attitude like a Bent Shitcan."
Big Chicken Dinner: Slang for a Bad Conduct Discharge, a punishment awarded to a sailor who has committed a serious infraction of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
Bilge Juice: Non-sanctioned alcoholic beverage created while on long deployments by mixing yeast, water and sugar.
Bilge Rat: Someone who works in the engineering spaces.
Bilge Troll: Engine room lower level watchstander; junior enlisted nuke machinist mate on sub.
Bilge Turd: Derogatory term for "Boiler Technician", typically from Machinist Mates who attend the identical A school
BINGO: Minimum fuel needed to return to base (RTB).
Binnacle List: The daily list of ship's crew who are sick in quarters (see below). So called because in the old days of sailing, this list was posted on the binnacle, the casing that housed the ship's compass.
Bird: Aircraft.
Birdfarm: Aircraft Carrier.
Bitchbox: Intercom or amplified circuit used to communicate between spaces of a ship. (example: 2MC, 5MC, 23MC, 26MC)
Bitching Betty: The computer generated female voice heard in an aviator's headset when something is not as it should be. She is usually worried about unsafe flight conditions or an enemy threat.
Black beret: Worn by Swift Boat and PBR Sailors, originally in Vietnam. The tradition has sporadically been followed by modern small boat sailors. (See "Brown Water Navy.")
Black box: Repair, in primarily for electronic equipment, where an entire card or subsystem is replaced, rather than individual components. As a noun the said card.
Black and Decker Pecker Wrecker (derogatory): A female who has braces.
Black gang: A ship's engineers.
Black Hole, The Black Hole: The Navy's main base at Norfolk, Virginia, so called because "it's where sailors' careers go to die."
Black Pants: An enlisted sailor below the rank of E-7 (Chief Petty Officer). So named because of the black and khaki working uniform. See also "Blue Shirt."
Black Shoe: Sometimes shortened to just "Shoe." Term used to describe shipboard or 'surface' officers and senior enlisted members, due to the black footwear worn while in khaki uniform. See also BROWN SHOE
Blanket Party: A beating administered to someone whose head has been covered with a blanket (to prevent that person from identifying the attackers), in boot camp (and usually at night), because the individual is perceived to have harmed the group by not being squared away.
Blivit (or Blivet) (derogatory): A person who is full of shit; ten pounds of shit in a five pound sack.
Blowing the ___ Fleet: Performing oral sex on a prostitute (in reference to the fact that said prostitute may have had sex with the entirety of the named fleet). "You just blew the 7th Fleet."
Blowing Shitters: An act by which an HT uses straight firemain pressure on a clog in the sewage line (CHT/VCHT) that cannot be removed by ordinary means. Normally a last resort, yet used more often than not, that when not done properly causes one hell-of-a mess… especially on CHT lines when some unfortunate soul is on the crapper when the full force of the firemain comes through.
Blowing a Shitter (Submarine Service): Inadvertently "flushing" a toilet (see "Shitter," below) while San Tanks are being blown overboard.
Blue Falcon: (Also known as a "Bravo Foxtrot") Slang term for "Buddy Fucker", also, "Noble Order of the Blue Falcon" for those who are true masters of Blue Falconry.
Bluejacket: An enlisted sailor below the rank of E-7 (Chief Petty Officer).
Bluejacket's Manual: The handbook of seamanship issued to recruits.
Blue Roper (also: Blue Rope): A sailor that is in training to be a Recruit Division Commander, so called because of the blue rope they wear on the right sleeve.
Blue Side: The figurative side one is stationed at if one is stationed at a Naval Command; contrasted with the "Green Side" (Marine Corps Command).
Blue Shirt: Aviation Boatswain's mate, usually seen chocking and chaining birds to the deck. Precursor to Yellow Shirt. Same as Bluejacket, referring to the blue utility shirt worn by those personnel.
Bluenose: An individual who has crossed the Arctic Circle .
Blue Dick: The Navy, AKA (I've been f-ed by the Blue Dick again)
Blue on Blue: (1) Fratricide, friendly fire, so called because blue is the color associated with friendly forces during "workups" and exercises, while the fictional enemy country is usually orange. (2) (in port) A girl-on-girl stripper scene, porn scene, etc.
Blue Tile: An area of the aircraft carrier on the starboard main passageway, O-3 level, where the Battle Group (now called Carrier Strike Group) admiral and his staff live and work. As the name implies, the deck is indeed blue tile there. Passing through, especially by junior enlisted sailors, is highly discouraged. During wartime, armed guards may be posted on both sides of the blue tile. Pictures of bare-assed drunken aviators standing on the blue tile during port calls are highly prized keepsakes.
Blue Water: Deep water far from land. Only larger, self-sufficient ships can operate on these waters. Also called the "high seas." See "Brown Water."
BMOS: Big Man On Ship: Often refers to the ship's Captain. The closest civilian equivalent is BMOC (Big Man On Campus).
BMW: Big Maine Woman: One of the large women in the Brunswick/Bath Maine area who like to pick up sailors from the former Naval Air Station Brunswick or pre-commissioning destroyers at the Bath Iron Works in local bars.
Boat:
Boats list (lean to the inside of a turn), Ships heel (lean to the outside of a turn). "Turn to Port, heel to Starboard" Word passed from the bridge to PriFly indicating a turn and to warn the flight deck crew of deck angle changes.
A water craft small enough to be carried on a ship (ships themselves may only be called boats by members of the crew who have completed a deployment).
A submarine (submarines are called boats, with only limited exceptions).
Boat Goat: A female sailor onboard a ship.
Boat School: Nickname for the United States Naval Academy (USNA) at Annapolis, MD.
Boats: A sailor in the Boatswain's Mate rating or the Aviation Boatswain's Mate rating, or the ship's Bosun or Air Bosun, the latter usually a CWO or LDO.
B.O.C.O.D: "Beat Off Cut Off Date": The date prior to returning home from a deployment on which a man should stop masturbating in order to save himself up for his wife or girlfriend.
Bogey: An unknown aircraft which could be friendly, hostile, or neutral.
B.O.H.I.C.A.: (Bend Over, Here It Comes Again). Often used when situations, as can be normal, repeat themselves but more often when you just know you are about to get it again from the Command.
B.O.H.I.C.A Key — Naval Air Station Key West was located on Boca Chica Key, Florida.
BOHICA Boat — Derogitory name for USS NIMITZ (CVN-68) BOHICA our screws never stop. A ships bumper sticker was authorized by the CO and were printed by the thousands until the CO found out what BOHICA meant. Circa 1981.
Bolter: Failed attempt at an arrested landing on a carrier by a fixed-wing aircraft. Usually caused by a poor approach or a hook bounce on the deck, this embarrassing event leads to a go-around and another attempt to "board."
Bonnie Dick: USS BONHOMME RICHARD * (CV/CVA 31, LHD 6)
Boomer: Ballistic Missile Submarine (SSBN)
Boomer Fag: Crewmember of a Ballistic Missile Submarine (SSBN)
Boondockers: The standard workday steel-toed boots.
Boondoggle: An inefficient meeting, event, or evolution; one that it is more fun than productive.
Boopdiddley: All-purpose, virtually meaningless expression, used as an exclamation i.e. "Boopdiddley!" or " Aw, Boop!" (1974)
Boot Camp: Term used to refer to the eight week basic training course held at Recruit Training Command, Great Lakes, Illinois. Can also refer to a green or inexperienced sailor, officer or enlisted person, e.g. "Boot ensign."
Boot Chief: Nickname given to a Chief during their first year as a Chief. Only used Chief to Chief.
Booter (usually derisive): Any sailor who has very little time in, or a lot less time than the speaker.
Boot Topping: Black paint used to paint the water line on ships.
B.O.S.N.I.A.: Big Ol' Standard Navy-Issue Ass (from the apparent widening of the hips due in part to the cut of the working uniforms)
Bosun's Punch: New sailors on ship are sometimes assigned to find this mythical tool in the office of one of the ship's Bosuns ( Boatswain ). The sailor is then typically punched very hard in the shoulder by the Bosun in question.
Bottom blow:
To open valves in the mud drum to allow boiler pressure to force accumulated sludge out of the boiler.
To take a shit.
Bounce Pattern: When several aircraft are practicing touch and go landings at the same airfield.
Boxing your coffee: Using two paper cups and pouring back and forth to mix creamer and/or sugar.
Box kicker: Supply clerk.
Box of Rocks: Derogatory term for more than one sailor that has performed their work in an unsatisfactory manner.
Brain Fart: A condition when, under stress, one cannot recall or perform something that would normally be easy or second nature.
Brain Housing Group (chiefly in the USMC): A skull.
Branch: Lowest organizational level in most naval commands. Below department and division.
Bravo Bozo: Derisive term that is the opposite of Bravo Zulu. Given for something done poorly. Also used when a sailor gets a BZ from the command, shipmates will call it a Bravo Bozo award.
Bravo Zulu: Originally, "BZ" was a signal meaning "Well Done." It is sometimes used by seniors praising subordinates in one form or another. ( [1] )
Breakaway Music: Music played over the 1MC after "breaking" away from an oiler following UNREP. Can be outdated classic rock that was never really popular in the first place, or cool music, depending on the ship's commanding officer. It is played to "motivate" the crew after an UNREP, VERTREP, etc. Usually played at a level that would normally get you a ticket in town and is so distorted as to make it impossible to identify the song.
Bremerlo: A husky (large) female. Derives from Bremerton, Washington, where there is a base at and around which such females are common.
Bremerton: How much a Bremerloe weighs.
Brig: Jail.
Brig Chaser: The sailor who escorts a prisoner to the brig.
Broke-dick: Technical term describing malfunctioning or inoperable equipment. Example: "The fuckin' aux drain pump is fuckin' broke-dick."
Brown bagger: Married sailor who brings his lunch from home in a paper bag.
Brown Nose: Sailor trying a "little too hard" to make rate by sucking up to superiors. Can also refer to those who wear khakis (Chiefs, Officers) since it is assumed that most have "brown-nosed" to obtain their present position. Mythical rates include "Chief Brownnose" and "Brownose First Class." Also known as a "Butt Shark."
Brown Shoe: Term used to describe aviation community officers and senior enlisted members, due to the dark brown footwear worn with khaki uniforms and aviation winter working green uniforms.
Brown Trout: Occurs when some Hull Tech blasts the sewer lines, causing raw sewage to be disbursed onto the decks of lower level berthing areas. Called that for the fact the turds look like fish.
Brown Water: Shallow water close to land; littoral water in which smaller ships can operate. Sometimes specifically: the portion of Vietnam where Navy patrol boats operated.
Brown Water Navy (Sailor): Any Sailor who operates a small boat in inshore areas.
Brown Water Puddle Pirate: Affectionate name given to the US Coast Guard by their brethren blue water sailors.
Bubble (or The Bubble):
The edge of passing or failing at something, or " the fence ": when someone is on the edge of passing or failing at something, or is undecided, that person is "on the bubble."
(Submarine Service) The indication of the ship's angle fore and aft. The Diving Officer of the Watch (DOOW, pronounced "Dive") controls the angle on the ship by various means. The original ship's angle gages were liquid filled glass tubes with an air bubble that indicated the trim angle. If the angle becomes too large, he will be ordered "mind your bubble." In rough weather near the surface, maintaining the angle on the ship can be very difficult. When the Dive can no longer control the angle on the ship by the means at his disposal, he is said to have "lost the bubble." (3) The area on an aircraft carrier where the Catapult Launch Officer sits. So called because it is raised only a few inches above the flight deck and has angled windows. (4) (in the expressions "have the bubble" and "lose the bubble") A grasp of the situation; understanding or control of what is going on.
Bubblegummer: A newbie or young sailor just out of boot camp or school.
Bubblehead: A sailor in the Submarine service.
Budweiser: Nickname for the SEAL Trident insignia.
Buddy Fucker: Someone who fucks over their shipmates, and who is not to be trusted with any information or watch swap.
Buffer Tech: A junior enlisted who polishes the deck with a buffer, a duty normally assigned to shore duty personnel or those attending "A" School.
Bug Juice:
The Kool-Aid-like beverage dispensed on the messdeck , in the CPO Mess, the Officer's Wardroom or the Flag Mess. Typically Orange or Red. Before the turn of the century, bug juice was also used to clean decks when cleaning agents were not available. It is still used for removing corrosion from brass fittings. Allegedly also because the powder used to make the juice attracted bugs.
(USMC) A 50/50 solution of Skin-So-Soft & alcohol used during drill to repel sand fleas at Paris Island.
Bug Juice Sunrise: Orange with a splash of Red.
Building 1: USS Brooke (FFG-1), so called because she had so many problems with her P-fired boilers that she was regularly unable to get underway from her long-occupied berth at NAVSTA San Diego. When she did get underway she was typically towed back in, whereupon she was referred to as "USS Broke".
Building 20: Derogatory term used to describe the U.S.S. Mt. Whitney (LCC-20), as it rarely goes to sea.
Building 36: The USS Bryce Canyon (AD-36). Home ported at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, she left port only on rare occasions (so her crew could collect sea pay); when she did, she had to be towed back in.
Building 39 (1990s-era Norfolk slang): The USS Emory S. Land (AS-39). So called because, during that time period, she rarely left port.
Building 38: The USS Puget Sound (AD-38).
Bulkhead: Wall.
Bulkhead remover: A fictional substance veteran sailors often task new sailors with getting, as a joke.
Bull, Bull Ensign: The seniormost Ensign onboard a surface ship, a submarine, or in an aviation squadron other than in the Training Command. This Ensign is charge of various wardroom duties, often including mentoring the juniormost Ensign (see "George") and setting up the wardroom's movie night while at sea. Originated during World War II when Admiral "Bull" Halsey designated one officer to oversee wardroom functions.
Bull Nuke (Submarine Service): The senior most enlisted nuclear sailor, usually the Engineering Department Senior Enlisted Advisor.
Bullet Sponge: U.S. Marine.
Bully Big Dick: The USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71). The name is a corruption of "Bully Big Stick", the Roosevelt's shipboard news program.
C[ edit ]
Cadillac: A mop bucket, usually with wheels and a wringer. See also "Swab."
CAG: Title used when addressing the carrier air wing commander. It is a holdover from the days when air wings were called air groups and stood for Commander Air Group. Can also refer to the air wing itself, as in CAG-1, CAG-5 or CAG-14. See "air wing."
Cal PO: Calibration Petty Officer: Collateral duty position, typically filled by the most junior and inept sailor in a division, responsible for ensuring a division's test equipment is delivered to the cal lab on time.
Carl Prison: "America's Favorite Carrier," the USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70).
Captain's Asshole: The XO. In general, the CO makes policy, the XO enforces it, hence the name.
CASREP: Casualty Report: Report to higher authority something which is inoperative, OOC (out of commission), and the impact on readiness. Often jocularly applied to broken minor items not requiring any report, or to personnel who are on the binnacle list. Also applied to those who have been killed.
CAVU: Ceiling and Visibility Unlimited: Perfect flying weather.
CF (pronounced Charlie Foxtrot): clusterfuck .
C-GU11 (pronounced "See-Gee-You-Eleven"): Seagull. Similar to the code for "bulkhead remover." A common joke is to ask inexperienced personnel on watch to "keep an eye out for signs of C-GU11s in the area, over." Sometimes spelled C-6U11, Z-6UL1 or various 1337 -like combinations.
CAG: Title used when addressing the airwing commander. It is a holdover from the days when airwings were called air groups, and stands for Commander Air Group. Can also refer to the airwing itself, as in CAG-14. See "airwing."
Cake Eater: Sailor who reenlists. So called because most commands present sailors with cake at their ceremonies if they reenlist.
D[ edit ]
Dago: San Diego or Diego Garcia.
Dammit: Proper way to read an exclamation point quietly. "You are a shitbag!" becomes "You are a shitbag, dammit."
Dain Bramaged: The USS Bainbridge.
Danger nut: A "fun" game in which one or more sailors place a washer or nut around a rod or similar metal device and then hold it to a steam vent. The washer or nut spins wildly due to the high pressure of the steam. Once it reaches a high enough speed, the rod is turned so that the steam blows the object completely off the rod and likely at another sailor, who then has to dodge the "danger nut."
D.B.F.: Diesel Boats Forever: (marking on an) unauthorized pin showing a non-nuclear submarine.
Dear John (or Jane) Letter: A letter (or nowadays, e-mail) that a sailor receives in which his or her significant other breaks up with or leaves him or her whilst the latter is deployed.
Deck: Floor.
F[ edit ]
FAG: (1) Fighter Attack Guy: F/A-18 Hornet/Super Hornet pilot or naval flight officer ("NFO"). (2) Former Action Guy: Any SO, SB, EOD, ND, or FMF Recon Corpsman or any other parachute-qualified member who is in a position where they cannot maintain their jump quals, or goes into a different warfare community. (3) ("Submarine Service") Forward Area Gentleman: A crewman serving in the forward part of the submarine, a non-Nuke.
Family Gram: A 40-word personal communication from the family members of an Officer or Sailor on a Strategic Deterrent Patrol assigned to a Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarine. Each crewman was allocated a limited number of these messages during each 3-month patrol and they were severely censored to protect the submariner from news that could negatively effect the emotional condition of the recipient. All Family Grams were screened by the CO/XO upon receipt, prior to distribution to the individual. A similar system was used for surface ships.
Fan Room (see "X-Ray fitting"): (1) A room with a fan or blower, A "closed" space which is often utilized for general mischief away from watchful eyes.
F.A.W.C.U. (pronounced "fuck you") (Submarine Service): Focused After Watch Clean Up, usually between 1 to 2 hours of "Field Day" after every watch rotation.
Fart sack: Canvas mattress cover (In cold conditions sailors sleep inside them for extra warmth.) or a dirt sailor's sleeping bag.
Fart Suit: Dry suit worn by aviators when flying over cold water. So called because of the rubber seals at the neck and wrists which keep water out in the event of water entry. These seals also keep all flatulence inside the suit, where it remains hot and mixes with ball sweat, pitstink, and various other foulness. This foul air is released by removing the suit, or more amusingly by pulling one of the wrist seals open while squatting and pointing at an unsuspecting individual, thus forcing all the stench in his direction.
Farting dust: Getting old.
Fashion Show: A series of individual personnel inspections conducted in each uniform the sailor owns. Usually this form of Extra Military Instruction is reserved for the most severe dirtbags who are either consistently failing uniform inspection or look like crap on a daily basis.
FASOTRAGRULANT/PAC: Fleet Aviation Specialized Operational Training Group, Atlantic and Pacific. Specialized training for Aviation Administration (AZ) and Aviation Anti Submarine Warfare Operators (AW) ratings.
Fast Cruise: Pretending to be underway while moored to a pier. Usually an all day event to get the crew ready for a real underway.
Fat Boy: Derogatory term for Amphibious Ships used by bridge officers on cruisers and destroyers. "We better slow down or the fat boys won't be able to keep up."
Fat boy program: FEP (see below).
FEP: Fitness Enhancement Program. Mandatory physical training regimen designed to return sailors to within physical readiness standards. Also refers to sailors who are enrolled in the program... Fat Enlisted People / Forced Exercise Program. See "Chub Club."
FFG: Forever Fucking Gone: A Guided Missile Frigate which spends more time underway than in port.
Field Day: All hands clean-up. Usually lasts on a good day about 3-4 hours. (30 min of cleaning and 2-4 hours of fucking off.)
FIDO: Fuck It! Drive On! An expression used in the face of adversity, meaning that regardless of the setback you are going to continue anyway!
Field expedient ___: Anything that is made or done ad hoc in the field. E.g. a "field expedient Frappuccino" might be made by putting all the MRE coffees, sugars, and creamers into a 2-liter bottle and mixing.
Field Survey: The nominal survey taken before discarding a worn-out item "in the field" (often off the end of the pier) instead of submitting it for a proper, formal "survey" to determine if it should be redistributed or disposed of. (Sometimes, a field survey results in an item being handed down to a needier local unit, thrown off the fantail at sea, or sold ashore for booze money.)
F.I.I.G.M.O.: Fuck It, I Got My Orders: A refusal of a long or tough assignment near the end of a duty rotation. Also seen as a name badge at this time, so officers/petty officers will forget the wearer's real name.
FIG: An FFG is called a FIG.
Fighting gear: Eating utensils.
Five by five: nonstandard Radio speech indicating "loud and clear." Derived from an arcane method of reading signal strength.
Five and Dimes: A watch rotation where the sailor or watch team stand five hours of watch, then have ten hours off (to clean, perform maintenance, train, get qualified, conduct drills, take care of divisional business or their collateral duty, eat, shower, and occasionally sleep). This follows from a three-section watch rotation, and results in the sailor standing watch at a different time every day and night, repeating every three days.
Fish (Submarine Service): See Dolphins, above. Also "torpedo."
Fit Boss: Officer designated by the Commanding Officer to be responsible for the command Physical Readiness Program. Can be a collateral duty for a commissioned officer or more frequently, a civilian contractor's primary duty.
Flag, Flag Officer: Rear Admiral (Lower half) and higher ("flag" rank, because they are entitled to show a flag with an appropriate number of stars on their car, ship, building, etc.) A person with such a rank can also be referred to by number of stars they have; so a "three star" is a Vice Admiral, and so forth.
Flag Deck, Flag Bridge: Command level on large ships for Admirals if they are present, see Flag.
Flare to Land, Squat to Pee: Navy pilot's derisive description of aircraft landing technique used by (primarily) Air Force aviators; used in comparison to the nerve-wracking controlled crash that is the typical carrier landing.
Flattop: Aircraft carrier. Also the haircut worn by truly motivated sailors.
Flavor Extractor: Standard equipment in all Navy galleys.
Fleet Up: When a second in command takes his senior's place upon that senior's transfer, retirement, or other re-assignment.
Flight Deck Buzzard: Chicken (food).
Flight Line: The area on a ship or station where aircraft are made ready for flight. Also used as a prank on gullible new sailors, as in "Go get me 100 feet of flight line from the crash shack."
Float Check (also Flotation Testing, Float test): Throwing something overboard. "Take that and give it the float test"
Floating Bellhop: Derisive Army term for sailor.
Flying the Bravo: Menstruating; from the signal flag, which is all-red, one meaning of which is "I am discharging dangerous goods." Also used to indicate one who is in a bad mood "What's wrong with him?" "Oh, he's just flying the Bravo"
Flux capacitor: New members of a CVN's MMR will be sent to retrieve the "flux capacitor" from the OOW in the reactor control room. A flux capacitor ran the time machines, particularly in the car, in the Back To The Future movies...
Forecastle: (Pronounced "foc-sull") Forward most part of a ship.
forecastle zoo: Game of naming everything on the forecastle which has an animal name, e.g. "Bull nose," "Wildcat," "Pelican hook," "rat guard, rat lines," "deck Apes."
Foc's'le Follies: A gathering of all the aviators in the airwing in the carrier's foc's'le (forecastle). The CAG, ship's CO, and battle group admiral are also usually invited and present. The "official" reason for this event is to hand out awards to the top aviators. The most enjoyable parts are the "roll calls" from each squadron, and the skits that two or three of the squadrons perform. If the roll call or the skit fails to amuse the rest of the airwing, the offending squadron is booed and belittled mercilessly. Follies are held about every 6 to 8 weeks while on deployment.
FM: Frequency modulation, or Fucking Magic, sometimes referred to as the FM Principle
FNG: Fuckin' New Guy — self-explanatory
FOAD: Acronym, Fuck Off And Die, traditional response to MARF see below.
FOD: Foreign Object Damage. Caused by Foreign Object Debris, such as nuts, bolts, or anything that could be sucked into a jet engine, damaging it. At aviation commands, FOD can also describe a worthless individual, i.e. "If Airman Smith isn't in this shop in 5 minutes, write that piece of FOD up."
FOD Walk Down: A periodic, organized search on an aircraft carrier flight deck or hangar deck looking for debris that a jet engine might ingest. The OIC of this evolution is sometimes referred to as "the FOD-father."
Four (4) by Eight (8) Watch: The worst watch section to be in because one's first watch is 0400 to 0800, then one works one's duty station until 1600, followed by second watch 1600 to 2000, every day. Note, on some ships, the 0400-0800 is the 0400-0700, see "Seven to forever" below.
Fourballs: Midnight, entered as 0000 when writing logs; The "Fourballs watch" is midnight to 0600 when underway on a submarine, using a 3 person x 6 hour shift, 18 hour rotation "day" for each watchstation. Most engineering daily chores are performed on the 0000 watch, after which one is relieved at 0530 for chow, followed by drills at 0700, chow at 1200, followed by drill review at 1300, collateral duties at 1500, chow at 1700, followed by the 1800 watch; a very long "day" underwater — 24+ hours. The Sub equivalent to the Four by Eight watch mentioned above.
Freeball : To wear no skivvies.
Freeboard: On a ship or boat, this is the vertical distance between the waterline and the "gunwale" (see below).
F.R.E.D.: Fucked Up Ridiculous Educational Device: The computer that graded the teletype capabilities of those going through Radioman "A" School. So called because it used to grade based on keystrokes rather than words per minute.
Fresh Water Navy (derogatory) members of the US Coast Guard.
Fried Calamari: A sailor who has been electrocuted. This term derives from the nickname "squid", meaning "sailor."
Fried horse cock: Fried baloney.
Frocked: Advanced in rank or rate with no pay increase. See BOHICA.
Frog Hog: A female who hangs around Navy SEALs.
Fruit Salad: Numerous ribbons on a dress uniform.
FTN: Fuck the Navy (common epithet used when complaining about naval policies or regulations). Often scrawled on the walls of toilet stalls by sailors who have been assigned to clean it for a reason. Also can refer to "Free The Nukes," referring to sailors in the nuclear power field. Also refers to a mythical rate or ship type an "FTN Striker" says he/she is trying to get in (i.e. Fleet Tug-Nuclear, Fire Technician-Nuclear). Also stands for "Fun Time Navy" around higher chain of command to save face in front of said chain of command, yet "secretly" means "Fuck the Navy." In nuclear commands, can sometimes be seen as KEY when over-nuked (the last letters of the same three words are used.)
FTN Striker: Sailor whose stated goal/desire is to get discharged.
F.U.B.A.R. : Fouled up beyond all repair, Fucked up beyond all recognition. ( Foobar )
F.U.B.I.J.A.R.: Fuck You Buddy, I'm Just A Reservist
F.U.B.I.S.: "Fuck You Bitch I'm Short": Slogan indicating lack of care since the one uttering it or wearing it will be leaving soon.
Fuhgowee's: Code word for ditching work and going home at lunch time, so as not to be suspected by PO1, Chiefs, etc (used in Newport News Drydock). Sailor 1: "What are you having for chow?" Sailor 2: "Fuhgowee burger sandwiches."
Fulmer: A sailor that desperately tries to win various games (ping pong, pool, etc.), but does not have the skills to compete successfully.
FUNGUS: Fuck You, New Guy, You Suck.
F.U.P.A. (pronounced "foop-uh"): Fat Upper Pelvic Area: The buldge that protrudes from ill-fitting pants worn by an overweight sailor, or by extension, the sailor him- or herself. (When describing a female, it may stand specifically for "Fat Upper Pussy Area"; when describing a male, "Fat Upper Penis Area.")
FuckingNuke (always one word): A sailor who is trained to operate the boat/ship nuclear power plant.
Fuckface: Any person or thing which has a face.
Fuck the mission, clean the position: Break out the swabs .
Fuck You, strong message follows: Seen on a numerical list of epithet substitutions (the unauthorized "Falcon Code," derived from the "Charlie Echo" code), especially transmitted over radio, which has to stay clean
[A] Full up round: Operational or (of a person) fit for duty, a fully operational projectile to be fired from a gun.
Fun Boss: Morale, Welfare and Recreation Officer.
F.U.R. (derogatory): Fucked Up Recruit: A boot camp recruit who constantly makes mistakes.
Fuzznuts: A young sailor, one not long out of puberty.
G[ edit ]
Gaff Off: To ignore or purposely fail to show proper respect to someone more senior, such as by blowing off an assigned task, by not saluting, or by using improper forms of address.
Garden Party: A semi-formal social gathering requiring dress whites from the waist down and dress blues from the waist up.
Gator: Gator Navy vessel or sailor. Or, the ship's navigator.
Gator-Freighter: A ship used in amphibious warfare, or generally the transportation of Marines and their equipment, especially, a carrier-like vessel ( amphibious assault ship ) whose primary purpose is to put ass in the grass.
Gator Navy: The part of the surface Navy that exclusively supports embarked Marines and amphibious operations. Conducts operations near shore. Contrast with the "Blue Water" Navy or "CRU-DES." Note, an amphibious command ship may also coordinate supporting arms from non-gators, such as destroyers or aircraft.
Gator squares: Putting a square on a chart, often 3 miles by 3 miles, in the middle of a body of water, and steaming around in it for hours. Common overnight activity for ships underway. "Do we have any nighttime evolutions this underway?" "No, just gator squares."
Galley: Crews' mess, or dining area. Place where food is prepared for consumption.
GCE: Gross Conceptual Error, an instructor's comment on student work wherein the student has clearly misunderstood a concept.
Gear adrift: (1) (said when there is) loose or unsecured gear or equipment. (2) (said of) an incompetent sailor, one who has a screw loose. "Seaman Jones is gear adrift!"
Geedunk: (1) Candy, or a place that sells candy (namely Gedunk bars ). (2) Ice cream. From the Harold Teen comic strip. From the sound that a coin makes when put into a candy machine.
General Quarters (GQ): Set to prepare a ship for battle or during a serious casualty such as a main engineering space fire. Every sailor has an assigned duty station to be manned; the ship is set for maximum water tight integrity. On submarines, the term "Battle Stations" is used.
George: The juniormost officer onboard a surface ship. Also spelled "JORG", meaning Junior Officer Requiring Guidance, or "JORGE," meaning Junior Officer Requiring General Education.
George jobs: Nit-picking paperwork jobs given to George because no one else wants them. Examples: Morale Officer, Mess Officer.
H[ edit ]
HAC: (pronounced "hack") Helicopter Aircraft Commander: the pilot in command of a helo.
Hack: Unofficial punishment where an officer is confined to his stateroom, usually during a port call. During this time, the officer is not allowed to leave the ship (all officers must have permission from the Commanding Officer, or his appointed delegate before debarking the ship at any port call, including their home port).
Hall of Fame Company: A recruit company during boot camp that maintains perfect marks through the entire eight-week evolution; harder to get than Color Company, the company that rates Hall of Fame Status is given three days special liberty, as well as the week prior to shipping out to the fleet as downtime. They are also given the privilege of wearing their winter blue, or summer white uniforms, or, as an alternate, their dress uniforms, for the week before shipping out to the fleet. Hall of Fame Companies are also given precedence above Color Company, and are given the honor to be the first recruit company to Pass in Review.
Haji: Racial epithet for a Middle Eastern individual, or anything Middle Eastern. For instance, pull-tab sodas are referred to as "Haji Sodas" due to their ubiquitous presence in the Fifth Fleet AOR.
Halfway-Night (Submarine Service): Party night on predetermined 1/2 length of boat’s patrol. Tenderloin and lobster, frozen, but good.
Happy Hour: The hour during which the ship is cleaned every day.
Hamster: Chicken cordon bleu, a common chow entree.
Haole: Pronounced "How-Lee" Hawaiian term for non-native. A dangerous thing for a sailor to be around Pearl Harbor, as some of the natives see them as easy targets for crime, especially when local law-enforcement doesn't seem to care.
Happy Sock: A sock used for masturbation.
Hatch: Any watertight door on a Naval vessel. Sailors call all doors "hatches," but the term literally means only the watertight ones.
Have a Navy Day: Has two separate meanings. 1.)"Have a great day"! From your Navy superiors. 2.) “Get Fucked or Fuck-Off” from your Navy equals and lower in rank.
Haze Grey: The color painted on Navy ships.
Haze Grey Motherfucker: Sailor (or CO) who prefers to be under way as much as possible, or a ship and crew that spends a great deal of time under way—e.g, “We were haze grey motherfuckers.”
Heads and Beds: An inspection performed daily at sea by the XO or a designated replacement, usually the MAA.
HCO: Helo Control Officer, talks to each pilot as he makes his approach to a small boy (See LSO)
Head: Bathroom (the term comes from the days of sail, because wind would blow from the rear of the ship forward the bathroom would be located at the front “head” of the ship to carry the foul smell of excrement away from the crew). “Head call” means to use the head.
Helmet Fire: When a pilot becomes so task saturated in the cockpit that he loses the big picture and situational awareness (SA). Often leads to mistakes that can produce lethal results.
Helo (pron. hee-low): Term applied to all naval helicopters (from the standard message abbreviation HELO). Calling a naval helicopter anything other than a helo, and especially a “chopper,” is grounds for a serious beat-down.
Helo Dunker: Dreaded training device that all naval aircrew and pilots must endure every few years when they complete water survival training, or “swims.” Designed to simulate crashing a helo at sea, it is basically a huge metal drum with seats and windows that is lowered into a pool and then flipped upside down with the “passengers” strapped into it. There are generally four runs that must be successfully completed. Two of these are blindfolded. It is not fun and even scares the hell out of Marines. (F)AWs enjoy it though.
Here today, GUAM tomorrow: Received orders from one island to another island, as in ADAK to GUAM.
Hinge: Slang for an O-4, or lieutenant commander (LCDR). So called because of the lobotomy that is supposedly mandated as soon as a naval officer is promoted to this rank, in which half of his brain is removed. A hinge is then inserted that allows for reattachment of the removed gray matter later. The hinge also limits the LCDR’s head movement to the fore–aft axis. This is clearly demonstrated as the O-4 is constantly nodding in the affirmative and saying, “Yessir, yessir” when in the presence of the CO.
H.M.F.I.C. : Head Mother Fucker In Charge. Refering to the senior ranking person for an assigned duty or task.
Hockey pucks: Swedish meatballs (also, trail markers, porcupines, road apples).
Hollywood Shower: To take a long shower that wastes water (See Navy Shower). It is permissible to take one when a ship is pierside connected to pier water and sewer, if no one else is waiting for the shower.
Holy stone: The stone or the act of using one. A pumice stone for cleaning a wooden deck. The name derives from the sailor stating that "anything that would cause a seasoned sailor to bend his knees, and curse the name of his maker must surely be holy."
Honch ("the Honch"): Entertainment district just outside the main gate of Yokosuka Naval Base. Famous for masagi girls, karaoke and Kirin beer.
Honey-ko: A reference to a male sailor or his “girlfriend” for the evening. It is expected that the sailor will not have another “girlfriend” that same evening and not get caught with another on a subsequent evening. Used primarily at the former Subic Bay and Clark bases in the Philippines. “Cheating” was not allowed, and some how would be found out quickly by means of the "honey-ko telegraph."
Hooch : (1) A living environment, such as a tent, made more comfortable by innovation. (2) Illicit homemade alcohol.
Hooligan Navy: WWII Navy pejorative for the Coast Guard, from its flexibility in enlisting men discharged from other services to rapidly expand for Prohibition. (Term endures within CG.)
Hot Footed: Carefully placing matches under the toenails of a sleeping shipmate and then lighting them all at the same time, after which the perpetrator(s) immediately hide or attempt to look innocent, leaving the victim to wonder what asshole did this to him.
Hoover: The S-3B Viking, mostly due to its unique engine noises
Horse Cock: Large log of baloney or overcooked kielbasa usually put out for lunch or midrats. Horse Cock sandwich is one of the least favorite boxed lunches served to helo crews when visiting other ships.
Hot box: Ship's engines are lit off, but ship is not underway. Refers to the shape of a gas turbine module.
Hot Dog: A sexually active male sailor.
Hot Racking or Hot Bunking: Submariners share racks. When one goes off, the other takes his place (three men share two racks). In the aviation community, “hot racking” refers to an individual who has not taken a shower before retiring to his bunk, usually after working a 12-hour shift on the flight deck.
HR Puff and Stuff: A nickname given to Hospital Corpsmen who regularly appear for duty in a disheveled manner with their uniform in disarray. It is a combination of a rank (Hospital Recruit, the most junior Hospital Corpsman rank) and a name that connotes the obesity and stresses placed on the uniform of just such an overweight and careless sailor. Also used as an admonishment to junior Corpsmen and Dental Techs in order to motivate them to perform regular uniform maintenance.
HTC: Known as a Hull Tech Chief or slang for "Head Turd chaser" or “Home Town Civilian,” a term designated to any active-duty sailor about to retire.
HT Punch: A mythical tool newbies are asked to fetch from the engineering spaces. They usually return with a sore arm, courtesy of a Hull Technician who is in on the joke.
Hummer: Slang for the E-2C Hawkeye, mostly for the sound of its props. May also be used to describe a blowjob.
Humped the bunk: Screwed up. Also known as pounded the pooch or popped the puppie.
I[ edit ]
'I Believe' Button: A fictitious button to be pressed when complex technical details are not immediately understood, but there is not time to go into laborious explanation. "Just press the 'I believe' button for now and we'll talk about it later."
IBM (Instant Boatswain's Mate). Term used to describe a sailor who has just failed out of a rather difficult A-School (Nuc, ET, AT) and will now head to the fleet (and obvious deployment) undesignated. Phraseology: Instant Boatswain's Mate, just add water.
Ice Cream Social: Ice cream that is typically served at 2100 on the mess decks on Sundays when underway.
ID10T: Idiot, pronounced "Eye-Dee-Ten-Tango." Similar to "bulkhead remover," an inexpensive way to derive enjoyment from inexperienced personnel. "Recruit, go get me an ID10T form, and step on it!"
IFNAG: (Derogatory) Ignorant Fucking Naval Academy Graduate.
Ikeatraz: Derogatory term used to describe the U.S.S. Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69).
Irish Pennant: Loose thread on uniform.
Iron Bottom Sound: A term used to this day to describe the waters between Guadalcanal, Savo Island, and Florida Island in the Solomon Island chain, because of the large number of ships sunk in that area during World War II. It is considered by the Navy as sacred waters, and, every year during the commeration of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, a ship in the area will put out to sea, and drop a wreath in the area to honor the dead.
INT WTF: Letters Pronounced Individually. INTerrogative What The Fuck. See WTFO . Usually used in a text/teletype medium where WTFO is over voice communications.
I Want One Jammed In My Ass, Little Pricks Hurt 2. The USS IWO JIMA LPH-2
IYAOYAS: Unofficial acronym commonly found on the uniforms of airedales who specialize in ordnance handling. Read as "If you ain't ordnance, you ain't shit" Pronounced "eye-OH-yahs" and yelled out during ceremonies; also known as "If you're ordnance, your ASVAB sucked."
J[ edit ]
Jack-o'-the-Dust: A ship's cook in charge of keeping track of the ship's food stores. Originally referred to the night baker who would often be seen by waking crew members covered in flour from his nightly duties.
Jack Off Curtain: The small privacy curtain hanging on the outside of a rack. Usually the only small bit of privacy found on a ship. Also known as a "Splash guard."
JAFO: "Just Another Fucking Observer," given to new recruits who are fresh in the fleet and have not cleared any training.
Jarhead: U. S. Marine.
JARTGO: Just Another Reason To Get Out. "A grain of sand on the beach of reasons to get out of the Navy."
JANFU: Joint Army/Navy Fuck Up.
JEEP- Junior Enlisted Expendable Personnel- Submarines- Slang for Casualty Assistance Team members — "Send in the JEEPs."
The Jellystone: USS Yellowstone.
Jesus Nut: The assembly which keeps the rotary wing attached to a helicopter.
Jim Jim: The nickname for the computer that aided avionics ratings through Basic Electronics and Electricity (B double E) and AVA's self paced courses.
JO: Junior Officer
JO Jungle: Pronounced "J-O Jungle; term for the berthing assignments of Junior Officers which consist up eight racks and associated berthing facilities. Due to the [more] lax treatment of officers, termed a jungle because of their constant disarray.
JO-JO: Pronounced "joe-joe." Derragoratory term for a JO.
Jody: (1) (generic name for) the guy who is imagined to be seeing one's partner while one is underway. (2) Any of the songs (which all have the same rhythm/melody, and three notes) which are "talksung" during a quicktime march in order to keep cadence.
Joe (Cup of Joe): (A cup of) coffee. One popular folk etymology suggests that the name derives from Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels' reforms of the Navy, specifically his abolition of the officers' wine mess and institution of coffee as the strongest drink available on Navy ships. For more, see joe .
Joe Shit-in-the-rag Man / Joe Shit the Rag man / Joe Shit Charlie the Rag Man: An under-performing sailor.
Joe Navy: Another term for a lifer with no life outside the Navy.
Johnny Cash's: The (defunct) Winter Working Blue uniform; so called due to the fact that they were all black (black being called navy blue) and Johnny Cash was the man in black.
John Wayne: (1) A can opener supplied with "C" rations. Often still used by a "dirt sailor." (2) Somewhat derogatory reference to a sailor that takes too many chances, or attempts to constantly play the hero. "John Wayne it." (3) to John Wayne (a helmet): To leave one's helmet's chin strap undone, the way John Wayne often did in movies.
John Wayne toilet paper: Toilet paper that is rough, tough, and takes shit from no one.
JOPA: Junior Officer Protection Association. An ad-hoc organization of young division officers onboard some surface ships and in most aviation squadrons, assembled to provide a means of guidance and escape from overly-demanding Department Heads. When JOPA is unified it can control some wardroom social functions, but little else.
JORG: Junior Officer Requiring Guidance (see "George")
JORP: Junior Officer Rest Period. See also SERP.
Jughead: US Marine, so called because their "high and tight" haircuts make their heads look like inverted jugs in profile. Also "Jarhead."
Junior Chief: Pejorative term to describe junior enlisted person who is kissing ass for a promotion or on a power trip, or both.
Junk on the Bunks: A type of inspection wherein a Marine places all of his/her issued clothing and 782 gear on a bunk (bed) so that an inspector can verify they have a full complement of uniform items (a full seabag).
K[ edit ]
Kamikaze: A hetero male Marine who is so gung-ho that he can only be sexually satisfied by another male Marine.
Khakis: Term used to describe senior enlisted members (E-7 and above) or officers, due to the khaki-colored working uniform typically worn by them.
Khaki Brigade: chiefs who start taking over an engineering casualty or going over to see what is going on. "Here comes the khaki brigade."
Khaki Clad Bastards: See Khakis.
Khaki Sacker: See Brown bagger
Kick start (a deck seaman): Surreptitious corporal punishment applied by driving one's boot down the shin of the offending seaman to encourage better and faster work.
Kiddy cruise: officially a 'minority enlistment'. Enlisting at 17. Active duty obligation expires the day before the enlistee's 21st birthday.
Killer Tomato: A large reddish-orange inflated ball used in gunnery practice at sea.
King Neptune: Neptunus Rex, Ruler of the Raging Main, Ancient Order of the Deep. Signs the card of slimy pollywogs after crossing the line, making them Trusted Shellbacks.
Kiss the Camel: To fall between ship and pier onto the camel, a floating log chained to the pilings as a fender. Such a mishap is frequently fatal.
Klingon Death Watch (Submarine Service): The 6 hour watch following 12 hours of continuous drills.
Knee-deep navy: Epithet (usually friendly) for the Coast Guard or coastal patrol vessels . Also knee-deep sailor, or just knee-deep(s).
Knee-knockers: A passageway opening through a bulkhead. The lower lip of the opening sits at shin height.
Knuckle Box: A medium sized, usually red, rectangular metal box widely used in the navy to move supplies to/from the ship. These boxes seem to have been designed by some sadist for maximum difficulty when carrying them aboard ship. They have small, useless metal handles on the side, and are perfectly sized so that one has to turn them at an angle to get through a knee knocker without grazing one's knuckles.
Knuckle Buster: A pneumatic tool for removing perfectly good paint from steel.
Knuckle Dragger: A member of the engineering department or a mechanic on a nuclear powered vessel. Usually used to describe a Boatswain's Mate on a surface vessel.
M[ edit ]
MAA: Master-at-Arms. A rate in the Navy similar in duties to a police officer.
MAD Boom surfing: Struggling to complete or barely passing required evolutions in training on the P-3 Orion Patrol Aircraft. Named for the Magnetic Anomaly Detector that sticks out from the tail of the aircraft. Variations include clinging to the MAD boom or water-skiing from the MAD Boom.
Mae West: (Old) term for a life jacket.
Mad Shitter (AKA Phantom Shitter): A sailor who does not flush a toilet. A prankster who defecates in public areas of a ship.
Mail Buoy: A fictitious bouy that mail for a ship is left on. Usually new sailors are given a mail buoy watch for the entertainment of the more seasoned sailors.
Magic Smoke: Substance that makes naval electronics work. Equipment failure is usually caused by letting the smoke out.
Mags: Place to store ammunition and weapons in warships and fortifications.
Mamasan: Proprietor of a bar or other such establishment where sex may be procured or negotiated. Generally found in the Western Pacific. A "madame."
Man Pleaser: Mouth
Manatee: A dependent wife, usually in Pensacola or Jacksonville that is Manatee fat even though her husband has maintained the same basic size during their marriage. Related to the Whidbey Whale.
Mandatory Fun: Any command sponsored social event that everyone HAS to attend, or get into big trouble.
Mando Commando: Sailor assigned mandatory physical training (Mando PT) for being overweight or failing the Physical Readiness Test.
MARF: Acronym used by a superior to a roving watchstander, means Make Another Round, Fucker. Also Modifications and Additions to Reactor Facility, an unusual and impractical research reactor in NY, later turned into a training platform (also phrased as My Ass is Royally Fucked.) (FOAD is what most nuke students wish the platform would do.)
Marine: A Sailor who failed to evolve.
MARINE: Acronym for Marines Always Ride in Navy Equipment...or Muscles are Required Intelligence Not Essential... or My Ass Really Is Navy Equipment..or My Ass Rides In Navy Equipment...or Muscles are Required Intelligence Not Expected.
Marine Dinner Tray: Derogatory description (to the "eldest service branch") of an enlisted sailor's 13 button flap on the front of his dress blue uniform trousers.
Marine Mattress: A female who likes to "socialize" with the Marines.
Marine Shower: No soap and water, just deodorant and cologne
Marine Table Cloth: See Marine Dinner Tray
Masagi Girl: A prostitute (typically Chinese) found in the Honch. So-called because they urgently whisper "Masagi?" as sailors wander past in search of libations.
M.A.S.H.: Make A Sailor Hurt: (used in boot camp to describe) any physical training on the time of the Company Commander. Such training usually resulted in the recruit hitting the rack with several aches and pains he would not normally have had.
Mast: Common abbreviated form of "Captain's Mast" or "Admiral's Mast." A form of non-judicial punishment in which a sailor finds himself standing tall in front of the old man when he has really screwed the pooch. Green felt is usually abundant.
Mast Crank: A fictitious crank, usually impersonated by a Bull Gear crank from engineering, which is to be collected by a junior enlisted to crank down the mast while passing under a short bridge. It is typically made to disappear 30 seconds before it is needed, sending junior enlisted crewmembers into a panic that the mast will hit the bridge under which the ship is about to pass.
Material condition: Status open or closed, of various fittings, hatches, etc, which are denoted by a letter. Generally X(X-ray): always closed, Y(Yoke): closed while underway, Z(Zebra): closed while at GQ. ("Set material condition Zebra throughout the ship" is part of the standard GQ alarm.)
Mat Man: Electronics Maintenance Man.
Maverick Can: The perfect place to sleep in a weapons magazine.
"M-Crud" MCRD: Marine Corps Recruit Depot
Meat Gazer: Unlucky individual designated to make sure the urine in a "Whiz Quiz" actually comes from the urinator's body. This is accomplished by spending all day meat gazing, or looking at dicks while guys are pissing. Also a man who stares at or is perceived to stare at another man's genitals in a communal shower.
Meat Identifier: A side dish during chow that helps in identifying usually nondescriptive looking main dishes. i.e. Applesauce: Indicative of pork chops, Horseradish: Prime Rib Beef...etc.
Meatball: (1) Fresnel Lens Optical Landing System, a visual landing aid used by naval aviators landing on a carrier. Aviators "call the ball" as a reference guide to their positioning in the landing sequence. (2) The pennant flown to denote the ship has won the Battle "E" competition.
MEDCRUISE: A float (operational cruise) in the Mediterranean Sea. Atlantic Fleet equivalent to a Pacific Fleet WESTPAC.
Mess Crank or Mess Bitch (pejorative): A sailor who works on the mess deck, not rated as a cook.
Mess Decks: Chow Hall or Eating Establishment on board ship.
Mess Deck Intelligence: Rumors (mostly false) that spread throughout the ship like wildfire. Often concern radical changes to the ship's schedule. See "Rumor Control" or "Scuttlebutt."
Mess line: The straight line of the buttoned shirt over the fly of the trousers. Also, a joke played on new sailors, who are told to obtain a coil of it (line being the Navy word for rope).
Mid: Midshipman at the US Naval Academy or Naval ROTC; "Middie" is considered derogatory.
Midnight Ops: The best time to get something done when there are not as many witnesses around.
Midnight Requisition: To "borrow" (with varying degress of consent) a needed item from another unit. Often condoned when essential to get underway.
MidShitHead: Enlisted common term for a Naval Academy or ROTC Midshipman on their summer cruise on a ship or a command, gaining real Navy experience between academic class years.
Mid-Rats: Short for midnight rations. Food served to the midwatch. Generally leftover lunch and/or dinner.
Mid-Watch: Watch from 0000-0400 (2345-0345), usually results in no sleep before or after this watch.
Mighty Battle Pig: Nickname for USS WS Sims (FF-1059) — "Mighty Battle Frigate."
Mighty Mo: Nickname for the USS Missouri (BB-63), now a museum ship at Pearl Harbor.
Mike boat: see "8-boat."
Missile Sponge: Usually a frigate or destroyer with limited air defense capability stationed on the outer ring of a battlegroup, as they are the ships most likely to be hit in a convoy.
Miss Shit Can: The USS Michigan (SSGN-727).
Mobile Chernobyl: USS Enterprise (CVN-65) , due to it being the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. See "Quarter Mile Island" below.
Monkey Butt: same as civilian usage; rash or other anal condition caused by less than sanitary field conditions.
Monkey and a football: Short for "A monkey trying to fuck a football, and the football is winning." An utterly epic goatrope ( quod vide ), more serious even than a clusterfuck.
Monkey cum: White scrubbing liquid used to clean grease pencil from status boards.
Monkey fist: A knot tied in a rope useful for handling said rope.
Monkey Mate: Derogatory term used by Boiler Technicians to describe their brethren in the much cooler Engineroom on the other side of bulkhead from their Fireroom. "Being a Monkey Mate is a lot easier than being a BT."
Monkey shit: (1) A mix of a clay and fibers, used to plug up small holes around cables as they pass through a bulkhead. (2) A type of putty used to seal the large steel access panels to the air casing on a steam boiler.
Motrin: A magical pill dispensed by hospital corpsmen capable for minor owies or to hypochondriacs; "take two aspirin and call me in the morning." Also called Vitamin M and Grunt Candy, the latter especially when dispensed to Marines.
Mouse House (Submarine Service): (1) (Ballistic Missile Submarine description of) those areas which are usually occupied by Missile Technicians. (2) MCC (Missile Control Center).
Mung (Submarine Service): Any dark green/brown plant residue with snot-like consistency found in/on scuppers (mostly in engineering spaces).
Mustang: An Officer who came from the Enlisted ranks.
Mystery Shitter: An intoxicated sailor who returns from the beach and is unable to safely reach the head, defecates in random locations prior to climbing into his or her rack to sleep it off.
N[ edit ]
NAMI Whammy: Slang for the incredibly in-depth two-day flight physical given to all prospective aviators at the Naval Aeromedical Institute at NAS Pensacola. Called the Whammy b/c many aspiring naval flight careers are ended before they even begin due to some unknown ailment.
NAMTRADET: Naval Aviation Maintenance Training Detachment. Specialized training for Avaition maintainers.
Nasty City: Slang for National City, California , just outside the gate of Naval Station San Diego . Its cheap dive bars were a noted hangout of "West-Pac Widows." Also answers to the name "National Shitty."
NAVCIVLANT/NAVCIVPAC: Described as where a soon to be departing sailor from active duty's next station will be.
NAVCOMM: Navigator/Communicator. Usually the junior NFO on a patrol aircraft.
NFG: Non-Functioning Gear: Used typically on Tags placed on electronics indicating malfunction description. Also called No F'n Good.
NFO: Naval Flight Officer: flies alongside the pilot as weapons officer. Also referred to as a "talking kneeboard." No Fuckin' Option is term used for NFOs who would rather be pilots, but don't qualify.
NAVY: acronym used by disgruntled sailors for "Never Again Volunteer Yourself","Need Any Vaseline Yet."(Naval Air wing) “No Aviator Values You”.
Naval Infantry: Derogatory term for the U.S. Marines, although historically some of the original colonies/early states had "naval infantry" or "naval militia."
Navy Shower: Not a form of punishment. While underway, fresh water must be manufactured. A common-sense way of saving it is to wet down while taking a shower and then TURN OFF THE WATER. Lather up and wash. Finally, TURN ON THE WATER to rinse off. Continual disregard WILL attract a punishment shower with scrub brushes.
Navy World: RTC Orlando was referred to as "Navy World" on its water tower due to Disney World and Sea World being close by.
NEC: The Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) system, of which the NEC coding system is a part, supplements the enlisted rating structure in identifying personnel on active or inactive duty and billets in manpower authorizations. NEC codes identify a nonrating wide skill, knowledge, aptitude, or qualification that must be documented to identify both people and billets for management purposes.
Night-Ops: The throwing of trash or other unneeded items overboard at night to avoid the longer process of properly getting rid of it.
NMOP: (common on Boomer Subs) No More Patrols Ever. Some times worn on T-Shirts by sailors who are on the last patrol and getting out or going to shore duty. (see EAOS above and Short timer below.)
NON: "Needs of the Navy" a priority over anything to do with one's family or person; as in God, Country, Family.
NQP: "Non-Qual-Puke": A non-qualified crewman who is not yet able to stand watch. Also applies in the Submarine Service to a crewman who is not yet qualified in submarines.
No Balls: An expression used to suggest that a person does not have the balls / guts to do what he (or she) is boasting he (or she) will do.
NO Boat: The USS New Orleans (LPH-11).
No-Fuck, Vagina (pejorative): The city, rather than the base, of Norfolk, Virginia . For the base, see "Black Hole."
No Load: A useless sailor. One who does not pull his share of the load. Named for the maintenance catapult shots where only the shuttle is moved down the track with no aircraft attached. Also possibly named to represent a generator that is providing no power to the system and therefore not taking on its share of the load. (Onboard Submarines, often used as part of the phrase "Air Breathing No Load," meaning a useless sailor or rider who is using up resources and providing nothing in return.)
Non-Comm: A non-commissioned officer, E4-E9.
Non-skid: A rough epoxy coating used for grip on weather decks.
Nonskid Wax: A fictitious substance used for waxing non-skid decks, something junior sailors are sent looking for.
Non-Qual (Submarine Service): A sailor who has not yet earned his Submarine Warfare Qualification (Dolphins).
Noodle: Commonly referred to as a goofy, borderline retarded sailor with a big head (like a meatball) and a small body like a noodle. Sometimes used especially of the sailors from the USS Mathers.
Noodle-winger: Helicopter pilot.
Norfucked: What you are when you get orders to Norfolk, Virginia. "[I/You] just got Norfucked!"
Noted: Usually passed down from an officer to a blue shirt, when the blue shirt tells the officer of something that will have little or no positive effect on the officer, but may have a great effect on the blue shirt. "Sir, if we do this thing now I can go home as soon as it's done." Officer: "Noted." Can also be said to an officer, but beware of over-usage.
No-Shitter: A sea story which is mostly (never completely) fictional, and unverifiable as well. Examples: "Hey, this is no shit, but I once blah blah blah..." or "Hey this is a no-shitter, I got a buddy who once blah blah blah..."
NUG: New Useless Guy. Term referred to newly reported sailors with no qualifications or experience. Usually tasked with dirty and nasty jobs often referred to as "Shit Work."
Nugget: First tour aviator
NUB:
Non-Useful Dody) A sailor who has not completed any qualifications and is therefore of no use to their division.
A sailor that has not yet earned their Submarine Warfare Qualification (Dolphins).
Nuclear Waste: A pejorative term for sailors who exit the Nuclear Power training program without successful completion.
Nuke (or "Nuc") (Submarine Service, CVNs): Engineering Department crewmember responsible for turning main shaft via atom-splitting. Also refers to ordnance type that is neither confirmed nor denied, which may or may not be handled by a different Department (See "Weaponettes," below). Also describes nerds (generally anyone who is/was a candidate for Naval Nuclear Power Training Command).
Nuke it out (or simply "nuke it"):
To overthink an easy task. Alternately, often used by nukes to suggest someone ought to put forth at least a little thought before giving up on a problem.
The act of solving a problem by applying numbers and units and various known and assumed quantities to calculate an approximate answer.
Nuke Milk: A disgusting powdered milk used when the fresh milk runs out. Said to be preserved by irradiation.
Nuke Striker: Perjorative term used by nukes to describe a coner that asks endless questions about the operations of the nuclear power plant. Strikers are sailors that enlist without a guaranteed rate (job), with the intention of floating around until they find a department where they fit in. However, one can't strike for Nuclear Field.
Numb Nuts (Derogatory) Nick Name for the USS Nimitz (CVN68)
Nut to butt: Standing in line, close quarters, body to body, each man's chest pressed to the back of the man ahead, or "nut to butt."
O[ edit ]
OBA: Oxygen Breathing Apparatus. Used mostly to supply breathing air to shipboard firefighters before civilian firefighter equipment was approved and adopted. Before OBAs the Navy developed and used RBAs--Rescue Breathing Apparatus.
OBE: Overcome By Events. Moot.
OBNOB: Only Black Nuke Onboard. Self-explanatory. Usually only found on submarines due to a significantly smaller number of nukes stationed onboard a submarine vis-à-vis a carrier.
Occifer (derogatory, pronounced "ossifur"): Any officer, especially a junior officer.
Officer's Candy: Urinal cakes.
Officer's Country: The area of the ship where the Officer's berthing area and Wardroom are located; Enlisted men are not allowed into Officer's Country without permission, with certain rating exceptions.
O-Gang: The wardroom. Officers are O-Gangers. See also A-Gang.
O I (wish I was asleep): Derogatory remark made by any non-OS rate whenever a OS complains about how bad they have it while underway, because OS's are almost always "Port & Starboard" when underway. OS's constitute "OI Division."
Old Man: The Commanding Officer or Admiral in command. The term is used, regardless of the officer's age or gender, when the officer has gained the respect of subordinates. RADM Grace Hopper is a female "Old Man."
Old Salt: A naval veteran. See also "Salty," below.
On my six: Naval aviation expression referring to having someone or thing at my back, on my tail, directly behind me, relative to the hours of a clock; 12-dead ahead, 3-starboard or to the right, 6 aft or behind and 9-port or to the left.
O-N-O-F-F actuator (or switch): The on/off button or switch on any device, usually used in the context of a subordinate not grasping how to power a device up or down.
One-eyed Jack: See "Barney Clark" A. tasty treat served at midrats consisting of a slider topped with a fried egg.
OOC: Pronounced "oh oh see." Used to describe a piece of equipment that no longer functions and is "out of commission."
OOD: officer of the deck
Operation GOLDENFLOW: A command-wide urinalysis test.
OPS: Operations Officer: Head of the Operations Department on board a ship or shore command. The Operations Officer is usually third in command behind the Captain and the Executive Officer.
OS trainer (derogatory): A large popsicle; so called because Operations Specialists are expected to "brown-nose" with officers more than other ratings.
Oscar: The buoyant dummy used during man-overboard drills. Named for the Oscar flag that is flown during a man overboard evolution. If a sailor is "nominated for an Oscar", someone has suggested that sailor be thrown overboard.
Oscar Sierra: Radio brevity code for a nuclear weapons mishap. Supposedly from the first letters of the words "Oh Shit."
Ouija Board/Wee-Gee Board: Flat board with small airplanes, bolts, etc. that can be moved around to indicate aircraft position and status on an aircraft carrier
Out of sight hi/lo: Steam boiler casualty in which the water level in the steam drum gauge glass goes out the top/bottom, requiring the boiler to be immediately shut down to prevent water hitting the turbine blades (hi) or melting boiler tubes (lo). If operating on one boiler at the time of the casualty, the ship then goes "dark and quiet" as all power and propulsion is lost.
Overhead: Ceiling.
P[ edit ]
P-way: A passageway or a hall.
Package Check (Submarine Service): A common form of greeting where one man shakes another man's crotch. This is done not only to test the 'mettle' of the one receiving the greeting but also as a sign of comraderie. However, ever since hazing became increasingly unpopular over the last few years this greeting has occurred less often. Much more common in the submarine service due to the impossibility of discharge while underway.
Paddles: Code word for the LSO (see above)
Papa Chuck: The P-3C Orion patrol aircraft. Also called "Four fans of freedom," a desirable platform for airedales who have no wish to spend any time whatsoever at sea.
Paper Assholes: Gummed Reinforcements (office supplies); Paper Ensigns.
P.A.P.E.R.C.L.I.P.: People Against People Ever Reenlisting Civilian Life Is Preferable. Term used to show dissatisfaction with enlistment or unity amongst a brotherhood of bitter and disaffected sailors, specifically submariners. Often symbolized by the wearing of a paperclip on the uniform in varying levels of prominence to indicate the sailor's level of disgruntlement. May also be burned into the skin. C.L.I.P. also used as Civilian Life Incentive Program.
Pass in Review: The ceremony of graduation from boot camp into Navy life. Pass in Review ceremonies are always held on a Friday, meaning that there is a Pass in Review held every week, except during federal holidays i.e. Christmas, New Year's Day, Easter, etc.
Patrol Sock: See "Cruise sock."
P.B.: Short for Pacific Beach, California , suburb of San Diego
P.C.O.D.: "Pussy Cut Off Day": The last day of a long deployment on which male sailors can get laid and still obtain Venereal Disease cures from the Hospital Corpsman, and have those cures be effective, before returning to their partners at home.
PCU: Pre Commissioning Unit: What a ships company is called before a ship is commissioned. These personnel go on to become Plank Owners.
PD-8: Fictitious valve requested to be found by junior sailor in order for an engineering qualification to be signed off. Valves are named with the initials of the system they belong to, ie Seawater valve 1 is SW-1. PD-8 is actually a chemical additive used in the evaporator to aid distillation of fresh water. As opposed to other in-joke shipboard goose chases, this one can go one for weeks while the nub spends his free time poking around the distillation plant.
Peanut Butter Shot: A painful shot normally given in the back of the hip or gluteus maximus.
Pecker-Checker: The Hospital Corpsman.
Pencil whip: (1) Filling out a form with mostly imaginary data or fluff. (2) Editing a poorly worded memo or document for clarity.
Penis Anus: Puget Sound Naval Shipyard (PSNS).
Penis Machinist: The Hospital Corpsman.
Periscope liberty (Submarine Service) : Looking through the periscope to see the world outside after being underwater for a long time. Surface equivalent: "Eyeball Liberty."
Permanent Help: Slang for a PH (Photographer's Mate) in a fighter squadron.
PFA: Physical Fitness Assessment: new name for PRT. Situps, pushups and a run/bike/swim/elliptical trainer.
PFM: "Pure Fucking Magic", term applied to when things work, but one doesn't know how or why — but they work. Other usage: "PFM circuit" for electronics in depot level repair only equipment whose inner workings are not required to be known. See also "Black box."
Phantom Shitter: A freaking weirdo that thinks it's funny to shit in the shower, or to take a shit in the shitter and not flush.
Phrog: CH-46 Sea Knight helo. Also referred to as the "Whistling Shitcan of Death" or a "Flying Anvil."
Piece: Rifle, as used in manual-of-arms (rifle drill)
Pier 20: Derogatory term used to describe the U.S.S. Mt. Whitney(LCC-20), as it rarely goes to sea.
PIERPAC: Pretending to be on deployment while moored to a pier. (like WESTPAC referring to a Western Pacific deployment.)See Fast Cruise.
Pier-Queer: Air Force term for "Sailor." (The Navy term for Air Force personnel is simply "Queer.")
Pier tender: A ship that never gets under way. See "USS Neversail."
Pigs in a Bucket, Fuck it: Colorful rhyming term used when a sailor wants to forget what they have heard, seen, or done.
Pillows of Death: Canned ravioli, usually burned, served for midrats.
Piped Aboard: (of a CO, VIP or other dignitary) Recognized upon entering a ship or land installation by the Boatswain's Mate blowing 2 notes (low, then high) on a boatswain's pipe, followed by sets of two bells, depending on the rank. After the musical introduction, the dignitary's rank and sometimes name is announced, followed by "Arriving" or "Departing." The Commanding Officer and embarked Admiral are piped aboard with the Ship's name or the Group name. For other dignitaries, the office is used (e.g. "Department of Defense, Arriving"). Senior officers may be "bonged on board" as a courtesy; in this case, the introduction refers to their rank and service only, e.g. "Colonel, United States Marine Corps, arriving." The CO of the particular ship [and the embarked Flag Officer] or installation gets a "stinger", a single bell ring after "arriving"/"departing." Bells may be used alone (without a pipe) in the absence of a boatswain's mate.
Pirate Navy: Small boy crafts generally referring to the smallest of the vessels, such as Minesweepers, Coastal Patrol boats, and sometimes Frigates.
Piss Cutter: A folding uniform cap.
Pisser: (1) A urinal (not a toilet). (2) An unpleasant situation "that's a pisser."
Pit: A sailor's rack or bunk. Usually used among those who aren't particularly pleased with shipboard life.
Pit Sword: A sword-shaped device that protrudes below the ship to measure it's actual speed.
Pineapple Fleet: The Pacific Fleet, usually refers to the Seventh Fleet (in the western Pacific) and specifically to ships stationed in Pearl Harbor . Somewhat confusing term, as Pearl Harbor is considered part of the Third Fleet's area, and not the Seventh.
Ping: To emit a pulse of sound energy from a SONAR transmitter.
Ping Jockey: Term used to describe Sonar Techs
Plank Owner: Term used for original crew personnel assigned to ships company during commissioning. Plank Owners are "Piped Aboard" when shown proper certification.
Plastic Fantastic: F/A-18 used in the 1980's.
POD (Plan of the Day): An official document issued by a command that states all activities going on that day, from 0000 to 2359. Also contains the Uniform of the Day. Also called the Possibilities of the Day or Plan of Deception because the plan can change without notice.
POG: (Person Other than Grunt) A term often used by Marine Infantry (Grunts) to refer to anyone who is not them. Specifically anyone in an Admin Field. Originally, "pogue".
Pogey Bait: Candy, sweets, ice cream, etc., so called because such items are used as "bribes" for a pogue.
Pogue: A homosexual who may be called a "twink", usually under-aged. This term may be used pejoratively (see Pogey bait), as no one but Marines are interested in pogues or baiting homosexuals.
Polish a Turd: Make the most of a bad situation e.g. Karlene Golding wearing make-up.
Pollywog: An individual who has not crossed the Equator , who must go through rituals, that sometimes cross the line to be hazing , to become a shellback. This practice can be traced back hundreds of years and is conducted in many countries' Navies across the globe. See crossing the line .
Poopsick: Anything undesirable, specifically feeling seasick
Poopysuit: Blue overalls worn when deployed out to sea. May also refer to the anti-exposure suits used by aircrews in the case of a water landing in cold environments.
The Pond: The Deep Blue Sea. Where deep-water sailors ply their craft, "The Pond" may be Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, or Other. Used in slang expressions such as "Talk to me when you've got some Time On The Pond."
PQS: Personnel Qualification Standards, a card carrying various qualifications for a warfare badge or similar. Must be signed off by a superior or expert.
Port: Left side of the boat or ship (when facing the bow). Left side of an aircraft when facing the nose from inside. Place of arrival for ships.
Port and Starboard: A rotation of two duty sections or watch teams, one designated port, and the other starboard. Generally not considered to be a good situation. (Usually six hours on duty, six hours off duty. During the six hours off you eat and sleep. The usual cycle is: get up, eat, go on watch, get off watch, eat, go to bed. This results in about four hours of sleep per cycle.)
Port and Report: A watch stood without relief. One designated Port, and the other... there is no other, only Port once again, hence the term re-Port.
Portable Air Sample (Submarine Service): A snipe hunt gag inflicted on "newbies." Normally, portable air samples are regularly collected by a hand-held device operated by a highly qualified crewmember. In this snipe hunt gag, however, a plastic garbage bag is inflated like a balloon and sealed, sometimes with "official" forms taped to the exterior; the newbie is then dispatched to take this important atmospheric sample to the Executive Officer (NEVER the Skipper). Depending on that particular XO's sense of humor, the newbie could possibly come back with interesting counter-orders.
PosMo: Positive Motivation. Punishment for screwing up or being a Rock. Also known as Extra Military Instruction (EMI).
Powder Monkey: Term referring to a sailor sent back and forth for an item, usually tasked to retrive something from below-decks; derives from young boys who served on wooden ships that retrieved powder for broadside firing.
Power troll: A name for any officious person, usually used by engineers. Comes from the Powertrol valve used in AFFF firefighting systems.
PPC: Patrol Plane Commander. Usually the senior pilot on a patrol aircraft, having been previously designated a 2P (second pilot). 3Ps are relatively new pilots in a patrol aircraft. No-Ps are pilots who have not qualified for 3P.
Pri-Fly: Primary Flight Control. A room located high in an aircraft carrier's island where the Air Boss and Mini-Boss run all flight operations within a five mile radius of the ship.
PRT: Physical Readiness Test. A sailor is required to perform a certain number of situps, pushups, and a 1.5-mile run in a given time (which varies based on age and gender). Replaced with the PFA.
PT: Physical Training. A required exercise regimen.
The Pubic Mound: USS Puget Sound.
Pucker Factor: Tension caused by high stress during a difficult or dangerous evolution. So named because one's sphincter tends to tighten up or "pucker" involuntarily during such times. Example: Pucker factor was high when he landed that Turkey single engine with complete AC power failure at night.
Puddle Pirate (derogatory): A members of the US Coast Guard.
Pull chocks (verb): To leave.
Pump and Dump: A term in Boot Camp, normally used by RDCs allowing Recruits time to use the Head. This was normally either 5 or 10 minutes in duration (never long enough). Sometimes used to call for pumping bilges and waste tanks overboard outside coastal limits. Originally used in reference to the daily order for a ship underway to go out past the 50-mile-from-shore line in order to legally pump oily water from bilges and dump trash, this can no longer be done.
Pushbutton: Term applied to a 6 year enlistee with advanced schooling. The Enlistee is immediately granted E-3 rank upon completion of basic training, and E-4 rank upon completion of "A" school. Frequently the Enlistee also has an opportunity to extend to 8 years, and immediately gain E-5 rank within 2-3 years total service, like "pushing a magic button to gain rank."
Pussy patch: Transdermal scopolamine patch for seasickness.
Pussy pills: Seasickness pills.
Q[ edit ]
Q: (prefix denoting) (1) The BEQ [Bachelor Enlisted Quarters]/Unaccompanied military personnel housing. (2) The Quartermaster rating.
Quack: Hospital Corpsman
Quadball: Any sailor with a 0000 NEC. See "Quadzip" below.
Quadzip: Four numeral zero's in a row. Example: 100007 would be read aloud as "one quadzip seven." Also refers to sailors who have yet to attend any schools that assign NEC (Navy Enlisted Classification) codes upon graduation. The untrained sailors have a quad zip NEC of 0000.
Quarterdeck: Ceremonial area of the ship used while in port for either boarding, or disembarking the ship, usually found at the main deck level, midship.
Quarter Mile Island: CVN-65, USS Enterprise, and all eight of her reactors.
Quarters: A gathering of all the people in the organization. Quarters can be for the entire command, or just the department, division, or branch. Quarters is used to present awards, pass information, and make every sailor squeeze into their ill-fitting, rarely-worn uniforms at least once a year. "Quarters" also refers to the daily morning muster for each division, announced as "Quarters...Quarters...All hands to Quarters for muster, instruction, and inspection."
Queer: Nickname for the EA-6B Prowler. Also Air Force Personnel.
R[ edit ]
R2D2: Dome-shaped Phalanx CIWS system, after the visually similar Star Wars droid. Also called "R2D2 with a hard-on."
Rack: Bed.
Rack Burns: Reddish marks seen on the face of a sailor who has just emerged from sleeping in his/her rack. Scorned upon if he/she was not supposed to be there.
Rack Hound (derogatory but usually with a hint of envy): Sailor that spends more than his/her fair share of time in the "Rack." Usually spoken when seeing somebody with Rack Burns. "You are such a Rack Hound!"
RADCON Math:
Term used by Nukes to describe a method of estimation to arrive at an answer.
Used to prove a desired numerical answer with substantiated math, either correct or incorrect. Example: Watch Officer-"What is pH?" ELT-"What do you want it to be?"
Radioactive Rudolph: Reindeer meat brought onboard in Scandanavian Ports, especially soon after the Chernobyl meltdown. Now, just Rudolph.
Radiogirls: Derogatory term for Radiomen used by personnel in engineering ratings who do not believe they do any "real work." OSs, STs and other Twidgets that don't, for example, stand any rate-related watches in port (in the days of steam ships especially) get even less respect.
Radioing the logs (Submarine Service): Recording engineering log data via mental telepathy (see "Xoxing Logs" below). (Surface ships sometimes use the term "blazing the logs" or "gundecking.")
Rain Locker: Shower.
Raisin: Recruit or junior sailor, predominantly heard at Naval Training Commands. This is used in boot camp to refer to those boots who have received their dungaree uniforms so recently that they haven't been ironed, just washed, they are therefore wrinkled, like a raisin. Usually used by seasoned boots to refer to sailors with one or more weeks less time in service. Fleet equivalent is "Nub," "Newbie," or "Hey Shitbird."
Ramp Strike: When an aircraft gets drastically low while attempting to land on a carrier and strikes the "round down," or stern of the ship, with devastating results.
RAS: Replenishment At Sea: The act or process of moving cargo and fuel from a supply ship to a warship via cable while underway.
Rate Grabber: Enlisted member with the goal of (and succeeding in) making rate (promotion) quickly.
Rating: Refers to an Enlisted man's job description, i.e. Radioman, Electronic's Technician, etc., usually denoted as part of the rank insignia, found in the center of the rank device on the summer, and winter uniforms only.
RATT Shop: Place for flight deck personnel to cool off in the AC and take a nap while they get their "RATT" fixed.
'Rats: Short for "mid-rats"
Ready Roller: a sailer who wakes up, "rolls" out of his rack- without washing or brushing- "ready" to head to the Mess Hall to start his day. Ready Rollers are generally thought of in a negative scense due to their poor hygene and lack of respect for themselves, while in close quarters or proximity to other shipmates.
Ready Room: Large space aboard a carrier that is the focal point for each of the squadrons in the airwing. Each squadron has one on the O-3 level, and each pilot has his own seat. Used for a variety of reasons such as training, "AOM's," "Roll-ems," etc...
Red-Roper: Slang for a Recruit Division Commander (RDC), in reference to the red rope worn around the left shoulder. Used to be called "Company Commander."
Red-Tag, also known as "Tag Out" (verb): (1) (of a Calibration AT with no nuclear training) to do something to a piece of nuclear reactor machinery which should put part of the plant down. (2) To de-energize a piece of electrical equipment or to cease usage of any tool or machine.
Red-Tag (noun): The tag placed on a piece of electrical equipment to prevent it being energized and injuring someone.
Red Wagon:
Reefer: (1) A refrigeration ship carrying frozen foods. (2) A large freezer of the type found on most ships, usually in auxiliary spaces.
Render honors to port/starboard: A custom in the Navy to honor a ship passing with a salute, it is also used when passing by the Arizona Memorial, an announcement is made "Prepare to render honors to port/starboard," a Bo'sun's pipe signal is then given to stand at attention, to salute, to drop the salute, and finally to "carry on." Honors are rendered from the junior to the senior by referencing the Lineal Number of the Commanding Officer.
Rent-A-Crow: A sailor advanced to E-4 because they graduated top of their "A" school class. The Navy "rents" them for an extra year in return for promoting them. The term is also used of sailors who enlist in Advanced Electronics or Nuclear training tracks, as these also require a 6 year commitment.
Reveille: An announcement over the 1MC at 0600 local time, bugle call, trumpet call or pipes call, most often associated with the military; it is chiefly used to wake military personnel at sunrise. The name comes from "réveillé" (or "réveil"), the French word for "wake up."
Rick, Ricky: A "recruit" or sailor-to-be who is still in boot camp.
Rickety Rocket: USS Richmond K. Turner (CG-20) Commissioned 1963, decommissioned 1995, sunk as a target 1998 by USS Enterprise Battle Group.
Ricky Boxing: Masturbation. The term is used in boot camp to refer to male masturbation. Compare "Ricky Fishing."
Ricky Fishing: Masturbation. The term is used in boot camp to refer to female masturbation. Compare "Ricky Boxing."
Ricky Forklift: A boot camp term for a dust pan.
Ricky Girlfriend: A male sailor's hand, used to masturbate.
Ricky Crud: (1) A one-night sickness which sailors acquire in bootcamp after receiving their smallpox vaccinations. (2) The constant cold that sailors suffer from in bootcamp because they spend 8 weeks confined with 80 people from all walks of life.
Ricky Dive: Fast, effective method of cleaning in boot camp, consisting of wearing smurf suits inside-out and sliding, or being dragged, on the floor to pick up dust.
Ricky Heaven: A number of restaurants and entertainment venues found in a single building at boot camp, so called because only graduates of boot camp may go there.
Ricky Iron: Using one's right hand to press one's uniform flat.
Ricky Lawnmower: Nailclippers, used to trim stray threads from uniforms. See "Irish Pennant."
Ricky Ninja: Within minutes of lights out, the entire division is asleep, except for the Ricky Ninjas, dressed in their ski masks and sweaters, sliding from rack to rack, Gullivering, dirty-dicking, and spitting in the RPOC's canteen.
Ricky Ray-Gun: The cheap, disposable flashlights Recruits use while standing night watch in the barracks.
Ricky Sweep: Use of a bare hand to gather dustbunnies and other dirt from a deck.
Ricky Rocket: A boot camp "energy drink" made from an assorted mix of sodas, sports drinks, coffee, sugar and artificial sweetners used to help keep the recruit awake. Also known as "Go-Go Juice." Or half a glass of coffee, half chocolate milk and a shit ton of sugar.
Rider: (1) Most often associated with the submarine service; an individual aboard a submarine not a member of the crew who is assigned to the sub for a period of time to perform a specific mission; usually intelligence related. (2) On surface ships, any member of the ship's company who is not assigned to the Engineering Department. "There are two kinds of people on a ship: Engineers and Riders. When the Engineers cause the ship to move through the water, everyone else goes along for the ride."
Ring Knocker: A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy. Used pejoratively if the officer in question is overly proud of this fact.
River Rat: Crew member of a brown water boat or patrol craft.
Roach Coach: A snack or lunch truck that stops at each pier where the ships are berthed. Usually announced over the 1MC — "Navy Exchange Mobile Canteen is on the pier" or at great risk to the announcer: "The Roach Coach is making its approach."
Road Mark: Also referred to as a "Street Mark," a form of point deduction during Boot Camp, when a sailor is either out of step during marching, failure to salute an officer, or an RDC, or any other form of noticeable infraction, the infraction usually results in a deduction of five points form the company's overall score.
R.O.A.D. Program: Retired On Active Duty, refers to someone who is approaching retirement so they don't care about getting any real work accomplished.
Roast Beast: Roast Beef, or any meat served aboard the ship that even the cooks who prepared it don't know what it is.
Rock: Term used to describe a sailor that acts as though he hasn't learned anything.
Roger That: A term of understanding and acceptance when given an order or other information. Can be used with varying inflection and tone without consequence to signify enthusiasm or disgruntlement without stepping outside the bounds of professionalism.
Roll-em's: Movie night, usually shown in the ready room or the wardroom
Rollers: Hot dogs.
Rope and Choke: Highly advanced and ultra accurate way the Navy determines the body mass index of people who are deemed too heavy for their height. Consists of an overweight fitness "guru" measuring one's waist and neck.
Ropeyarn: Original-Taking an afternoon off, usually a Wednesday, to take care of personal matters, such as repairing one's uniforms. Today- taking an afternoon off to take care of 'personal matters'.
Rot-Cee: Slang for ROTC, Reserve Officer Training Corps. Also "Neurotic" for a midshipman in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC).
Rot-Cee Nazi: Derogatory slang term for an ROTC member who has let power go to his or her head; primarily used when such ROTC members board a ship for training, and start pushing around enlisted sailors, who hold higher ranks and/or have had more time on active duty.
Round Turn: To put some elbow grease into it; to work hard at it and make a strong effort to finish the job
Rotor Head: Sailor who flies or maintains rotary-winged aircraft (helicopters).
Royal Baby: Originally the fattest man on the ship, chosen as part of Neptune's court during Shellback initiation.
RPOC: Recruit Chief Petty Officer (RCPO or RPOC). A recruit chosen in boot camp to "be in charge" when the Company Commander, or other authority figure, are not present.
R.T.F.M. : Read The Fucking Manual, or "Read Those Fine Manuals" if you are talking to your mother.
Rubber Hooeys: Condoms
Rumor Control: The often wildly inaccurate rumors that concern fictitious changes to the ship's schedule. Usually takes the form of "Hey, did you hear (insert ship name here) had a fire in their main machinery room and can't get underway so our cruise got extended by a month?" See also "Mess Deck Intelligence."
T[ edit ]
TACCO: Tactical Coordinator. Usually the senior NFO on a patrol aircraft.
"Tack on crow": (Hazing) When promoted in rank, senior and equivalent ranks would tack the crow (solidly punching) patch on one's arm as good luck so it does not "fall off." Marines have an equivalent "tack" on each side. Can be "simulated" for a non-hazing by equal connotation. May be followed by a "wetting down."
TAD or TDY: Temporary Additional Duty or Temporary Duty
"Take suction on a seat cushion:" alternative form of "pucker factor."
Tango Uniform: See Tits Up
Tape Zebra: Maddening condition aboard ship, especially aircraft carriers, where passageways are "taped off" so that they may be waxed, dried, and buffed in the middle of the night. It seems that the passageways are purposely chosen to maximize delay and frustration when a pilot has to do an 0-dark-thirty preflight or some other duty. Junior enlisted sailors take special delight in denying officers access to these passageways, and relish in their disgruntled detours. Likewise, junior officers thoroughly enjoy when a man overboard or general quarters is called in the middle of the night, and they rush to get to the head of the line so as to crash through tape zebra and trample through the wet wax.
TAPS: Announced over the 1MC at 2200 local time, "Taps, Taps...lights out, all hands turn into your bunks, maintain silence about the decks." "Taps" is a musical piece sounded at dusk, and at funerals, particularly by the U.S. military. It is sounded during flag ceremonies and funerals, generally on bugle or trumpet.
T.A.R.F.U.: Things Are Really Fucked Up.
Target (Submarine Service): Term to describe any ship or boat on the surface.
TDU (Submarine Service): Trash Disposal Unit. Sophisticated AN-DEEP-6 weapons system.
The Boat: Airdale term for the ship their airwing is attached to. "We're going to The Boat for a few weeks."
The Hole: Main machinery space where an engineer works. "What do you do onboard?" "I work in The Hole." Also "The Pit."
Three steel balls: Meant to be humorous but oddly accurate reference to a sailor or situation acting like a sailor: "Put a sailor in a room with three steel balls. Come back an hour later: one will be missing, one will be broken, and one will be in his pocket." In an alternative version one will be pregnant.
Tiger Team: Junior enlisted of all ratings (E-3 and below) who are tasked to clean the engine room prior to inspection, such as GITMO Refresher training or evaluation.
Tin can: Destroyer . Designated Driver, from DD.
Tin Chicken: US Merchant Marine Officer Insignia on a US Naval Officers uniform, often worn above the SWO pin. The beak of the eagle can be used as an emergency bottle opener.
Titivate: To spruce up or clean up the ship and its company.
Titless Wave: Male clerical personnel such as yeomen, storekeepers, personnelmen, and other desk jockeys, pencil pushers, etc. See "sea pussy."
Tits Machine: Old-school term for a kick-ass aircraft, usually a fighter, that consisted of little more than an airframe, minimal avionics, and a huge engine or two. The F-8 Crusader was universally accepted as a tits machine. The F-14 Tomcat was also widely accepted. Today's modern electronic video game fighters like the F/A-18 will never be in the same ballpark.
Tits Up: Broke-dick, inoperable, dead (from some piece of equipment being "flat on its back"). Sometimes referred to as "Tango Uniform"
TLD (Nuclear): Thermo-Luminescent Dosimeter. More Affectionately "Tiny Little Dick." Worn by nukes and submarine crewmembers to measure radiation received over time. Often a good source of humor for when the topsiders ask what they are for.
Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club: Those elements of the Pacific Fleet which operated in the referenced waters 1965-1975.
Topsider: (Carrier) Anyone who is not a nuke. On other surface ships, it can also be a reference to non-engineers.
Torpedo Sponge: Similar to "Missile Sponge", this refers to the smaller ships in a convoy, whose duty it is to protect the carrier, to the point of taking the torpedo hit for the carrier if needed.
Training Anchorage (TRANCH): A frustrating, fuel-saving method of practicing battle tactics electronically among ships while at anchor, usually within sight of an attractive liberty port.
Transistor Theory: Naval explanation for how electrons travel backwards and holes actually carry electrical current. Just press the I Believe button. (Often referred to by civilian instructors when explaining to baffled sailors the haphazard components that seem to work by sheer magic such as transistors, zener diodes, joint effect field effect transistors, shockley diodes, metal oxide field effect transistors, etc.)
Trap: A fixed-wing arrested landing on an aircraft carrier. In the helo world, the Rapid Securing and Transfer (RAST) on the deck of a "small boy."
Trice Up a rack. "All hands heave out and trice up." Or jump out of your rack and make it. (Originally referred to hammocks, in days of yore before berthing spaces.). More correctly, the "trice" is the bottom (third) rack, being built to fold up against the bulkhead/stanchion (see above), so when the command "Trice-up" was given, the rack would be folded up, allowing compartment cleaners to sweep and swab under that bottom rack.
Triced Up: Trapped in a rack more cramped then usual, as a result of shipmates opening one's rack while one is sleeping in it (after they discover one forgot to secure it shut before getting in). (It is usually impossible to be triced up in a top rack, as top racks usually have no ceiling.)
Trident: Special Warfare Insignia earned by Navy SEALS.
Tronchaser: Those in the AT (primarily I Level) rate who work on Navy avionics.
TSC: Tactical Support Center, shore-based briefing/debriefing/analysis and operational control center for VP (patrol aviation) missions. See also ASWOC.
Tube steak: Hot dogs (also, called "dangling sirloin").
Turd Chasers: Nickname for individuals assigned to the Hull Maintenance Technician (HT) and Seabees Utilities Man (UT) rating because their shipboard and base duties include plumbing. An E-7 HT is an HTC, "Head Turd Chaser".
Turkey: Slang for the F-14 Tomcat
Turn-to: Get to work.
Tweek and Peak: To fine tune something (uniform, rack, hair, etc); usually for inspection preparation.
Tweeker: (1) (Submarine Service) An electronics rating; any engineering rating not gronking a wrench. (Rarely applied to rates such as ET and AT who "tweek" electronic components to make them work again.) (2) (Aviation) An AT who spends most of his time complaing about how cold it is in the AIMD tunnel to those that work in open air spaces in or around the desert.
Tweener (Submarine Service): Affectionate term for Missile Technicians on Ballistic Missile Submarines. Usually called out during the "Coner" and "Nuke" throwbacks, since the Missile Compartment is "between" the Forward (Coner) and Engineering (Nuke) spaces.
Twidget: Sailor in the Electronics or Electrical fields of job specialties.
Twig: Medical Service Corps officer. So named for the slanting stem attached to their device.
Two-block: To have all the work one can handle. Derived from when the blocks on a block and tackle are together and can not lift any higher. "My guys are two-blocked."
Two-Digit Midget: Sailor with 99 or less days until his/her "End of Active Obligated Service", or EAOS.
Tubes (Submarine Service): (nickname for) the senior torpedoman (now MM-Weapons) onboard. This individual is in charge of the torpedoes and the torpedo tubes, hence the name.
Tuna Boat: A sub tender or other non-combat ship that is crewed primarily by female sailors. See also "Love Boat." "We're going to have great liberty this port: A tuna boat just pulled in!"
Turn 'n' Burn: "Hurry up! Let's get going!" The term alludes to the practice of bombers over enemy territory turning after they have dropped their bombs and igniting their afterburners so as to exit hostile territory more quickly.
TWAT: (old term for) a TWT.
TWT: Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier : A component used in DECM/ECM equipment.
Tweak: An Aviation Electronics Technician or AT.
V[ edit ]
VA Veterans Administration / Department of Veterans Affairs: A department of the US Federal Government that assists military veterans with medical care, educational benefits for college of technical training, home loans, burial, etc.
VA: Fixed wing attack Aircraft Squadrons. No longer in use, see VFA
VAQ: Fixed Wing Electronic Attack aircraft Squadrons.
VAW: Fixed Wing Carrier Airborne Early Warning aircraft Squadrons.
Vampire Liberty: A day off one gets for donating a pint of blood.
VASTARD: Sailors that work with the AN/USM247(V) Versatile Avionics Shop Test (VAST) operational from 1972-2006. Used for testing Weapons Replaceable Assemblies (WRA's) on E-2C Hawkeyes, F-14 Tomcats, and S-3 Vikings. Typically these shops are found on aircraft carriers just forward of hangar bay 1 on the 01 level. Part of the Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department (AIMD), IM3 (Avionics) division.
VBSS: Visit, Board, Search, Seizure: Marinetime boarding actions and tactics.
VC: Viet Cong: Guerilla forces in South Vietnam allied with the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) during the Vietnam War. Also called "Charlie" from phoenetic "Victor Charlie."
VC: Fixed Wing Composite aircraft squadrons.
VD: Venereal Disease, also know as the clap, Gonnorea or syphillis.
VERTREP: Vertical Replenishment: The taking of supplies (resupply) from a supply ship via helo pick-up and drop-off. Historically, the CH-46 Sea Knight (see "Phrog") was used for such resupply, although any aircraft with a cargo hook installed can do. Differs from "UNREP."
Very well: Expression of acknowledgement a senior gives a subordinate.
VF: Fixed Wing Fighter Aircraft Squadrons. No longer in use, see VFA
VFA: Fixed Wing Strike Fighter Squadron, made up of Legacy F/A-18C or D model Hornets or F/A-18E,F or G model Super Hornets.
Vitamin M: Motrin, which is occasionally used to combat the various aches/pains/headaches associated with military service. Compare "Corpsman Candy."
VP: Fixed Wing Patrol Aircraft Squadrons.
VS: Fixed Wing Anti Submarine Squadrons. With the retirement of the S-3B Viking all VS squadrons have been decommissioned.
VT: Fixed Wing Training Squadrons.
VX: Fixed Wing Experimental Aircraft Squadrons.
Vulcan Death Watch: 12 hours of drills separated by 3 rotations of watches. If one is on Vulcan Death Watch, one is up oncoming as drill team, on watch then offgoing as casualty response team, potentially followed by another 6 hour watch.
Vultures' Row: The place from which people can watch flight operations without being in the way, typically the O-7 to O-9 level on an aircraft carrier's island.
W[ edit ]
Walking, Talking Road Mark: Used during boot camp to refer to a recruit that is a complete loss at military bearing, appearence, and formalities, a recruit that causes his company to constantly lose points at inspections, drills, etc. These recruits usually end up getting ASMO'ed to a company that is earlier in training.
Wardroom: Officer's mess, or dining room. Also used to collectively refer to all the officers at a command.
Warm Blood: An individual who has not crossed the Arctic Circle or Antartic Circle, who must go through rituals, that sometimes cross the line to be hazing, to become a Blue Nose or Red Nose, respectively. See crossing the line, shellback, and pollywog.
Warrant: A warrant officer. In the navy warrants are generally older and more experienced in a particular area of expertise than a commissioned line officer, much like an "LDO." Warrants are competitively selected from the senior (E7–E9) enlisted ranks. By definition are technical specialists.
Watch: A period of duty, usually of four-hours duration, six-hours on submarines. The day at sea has long been divided into watches, which are called: Midwatch or Balls to 4 (0000 to 0400); morning or rev (reveille) watch (0400 to 0800); forenoon watch (0800 to 1200); afternoon watch (1200 to 1600); dog watches (1600-1800 and 1800-2000); and the first watch (2000 to 2400).
Watch condition: Ship's readiness condition:(Denoted by Roman numerals) I: maximum readiness (GQ) all hands at their battle stations, material condition Zebra set (maximum damage control readiness.) IA: ("One Alpha") Modified GQ to conduct amphibious operations. IE or Modified GQ, relaxed GQ condition during extended GQ period, primarily to allow chow; II: Similar to IA, for extended Naval Gunfire Support; III: Wartime cruising, higher state of readiness with some battle stations manned; IV: normal (peacetime) underway watch.
Water wars: Water fights in the engineering spaces, including the use of hot brine, disassembling ventilation ducting, rigging temporary air hoses, and dumping trash cans full of water on the deck. An important component of the war on boredom.
Water Wings: Derogatory term used (usually by Naval Aviators), for the Surface Warfare Officer qualification badge.
WAVES: Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Services.
Wayspouse: Sailors' spouses waiting on the pier, if sufficiently overweight that they could be used as navigation waypoints.
WEFT: Typically it stands for "Wings, Exhaust (or Engine, for prop aircraft), Fuselage, Tail" and is a method by which ship's lookout stations can visually identify aircraft within the vicinity. However, since training for this tends to be spotty at best, identification of aircraft is often incorrect, leading to the second definition: "Wrong Every Fucking Time."
Welded to the Pier: A Ship being in an extended period of refit at a shipyard or naval base, which prevents it from making ready for sea for several months or longer. Can also refer to a ship that rarely goes to sea.
WESTPAC: While this usually refers to the western Pacific area of operations, it can also refer to a type of deployment in which a unit heads to multiple locations throughout said area. Often used in, "Damn, we just did a six-month WESTPAC, barely got home for a week, and now we're heading out again?"
WESTPAC widow: Sailor's wife looking for a temporary fling, often with another sailor.
Wet Suit Camel Toe: A disturbing sight caused by a (usually older and) fatter rescue swimmer attempting to squeeze into his wet suit for SAR duty. Often seen entering and exiting helos that are providing SAR services.
Wet Willie: Joke played on a sleeping sailor by licking a finger, and sticking it into the unsuspecting sleeping sailor's ear to mimic the feel of a penis being inserted into the ear, usually met with several groans by onlookers.
Wetting down: Party celebrating a promotion/advancement or warfare qualification. Traditionally the metal device is dropped in a beer glass, and "wet down."
Wheels: A Quartermaster (QM).
Wheel Book: Green covered pocket-sized government issue notebook carried by most Petty Officers and Chiefs.
Whidbey Whale: A dependent wife that is Orca fat even though her husband has maintained the same basic size during their marriage
Whistling Shit Can of Death: CH-46 Seaknight Helicopter, described as such because of the whistling sound the engines make, and because the CH-46 has been prone to failures, and has killed its share of air crews.
White Rats: Tampons which appear after a sewage leak in the female head. Also, a sound powered telephone amplifier.
Whiz Quiz: "Piss Test," urinalysis.
Widow/Widower: Describes wives (and now husbands) with spouses on deployment. Single, for all intents and purposes, until the day their spouse returns from deployment. Prefaced by the type or theater of service the deployed spouse is in, e.g. "WESTPAC widow" or "Boomer Widow."
Wings: Naval Aviator or Naval Flight Officer breast insignia. Also the Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist breast insignia.
Wing-nut: See airdale.
Wire Biter: An electrician.
Wizzard: Topsider insult for a nuc. Refers to nucs' insistance to dress like Morpheus from the Matrix and propensity for playing Magic (The Gathering) and World of Warcraft endlessly.
Wolf Ticket: Highly suspect information. Can refer to malicious "scuttlebutt," exaggerated "no-shitters," or blatently phony sea stories.
Woop: A cadet at the US Military Academy (West Point).
Workups: 1- to 6-week periods preceding a deployment during which the ship and/or its airwing practice and prepare. Widely known workups involving the carrier and the airwing are TSTA, COMPTUEX, and RIMPAC. Airwing only workups include trips to NAS Fallon and NAS Key West.
Wrinkle Bomb: A uniform worn by a sailor that is wrinkled so badly that it looks like the sailor slept in it. See "Raisin."
"Wrong answer, RPOC!": What Company Commanders in boot camp would scream at the RPOC when he/unit screwed up. Immediately followed by, "Push up, position, Shitbags!" Example: "WHY THE FUCK DID YOU LET THEM MARCH BACK FROM CHOW?!?" "I thought you wanted us back early for the inspection, Sir!" "Wrong answer, RPOC!"
WTF (pronounced "Whiskey Tango Foxtrot" using the phonetic alphabet): "What the Fuck?" What just happened? Can also be in written form WTF K (with a line over the K) meaning "WTF Over"
Weaponette (Submarine Service): A member of a submarine's Weapons Department (used by members of the Navigation/Operations Department or Engineering Department, usually when they want their stolen tools back).
Wog: Short for "pollywog", as in "wog ceremony."
Wog Dog: Sailor acting as a vicious dog and part of the "Royal Party" during Shellback initiation.
Word Shitter: Another name for those embossing label makers. They "shit" words out when one squeezes the handle.
Working Party: When there is loading of supplies, the Quarterdeck will call for a "working party" to be manned by each division of the ship, the number depending on the task.
Would you like a kick to help you get airborne?: Seen on a numerical list of epithet substitutions, especially transmitted over radio, which has to stay clean.
W.U.N.A: World´s Ugliest Naval Aviator.
X[ edit ]
XO: Executive Officer: The second-in-Command of a ship, aviation squadron or shore command, second in authority to the Commanding Officer.
XOI: Executive Officer's Inquiry: A step in the non-judicial punishment process in which the wayward sailor appears before the executive officer (XO). After hearing the details of the case, the XO may recommend dismissal or refer it to the Commanding Officer (CO) for "Mast."
XO's Happy Hour: A daily, hour-long mandatory cleaning evolution. Usually introduced by XO on the 1MC.
X-Ray Fitting : (1) A hatch, scuttle or the like which in normal condition is closed both in-port and at-sea. (See material condition) (2) (see "Fan room") A room where contraband may be hidden or for sexual relations while at-sea (3) Historically, where a chief petty officer would take subordinates to "make" them comply (using several punches to the face).
Xox (verb): To enter engineering log data suspiciously similar to the previous hour's log data. Derived from " xerox ."
Y[ edit ]
Yardbird: A civilian shipyard worker.
YARFO: "You Ain't Reactor? Fuck Off." This slogan was adopted by Reactor Departments on CVNs in response to the Aviation Ordinace slogan "IYOYAS."
YGFBKM: "You've Got to Fucking Be Kidding Me!"
YGTBSM: "You've Got To Be Shitting Me!"
Z[ edit ]
Zero: Officer. Usually applied to a young junior officer, such as an O-1 (ENS / 2ndLt), and O-2 (LTJG / 1stLt) or an O-3 (LT / Capt).
Zippo: (1) A flame thrower attached to a small boat, or a boat so equipped. (2) (Derogatory) Nickname for the USS Forrestal (CV 59) after the fire on 29 July 1967 that killed 134 sailors and injured 161 on the aircraft carrier.
Zoomie: (1) An aviator; generally refers to a USAF pilot or navigator/combat systems officer. (2) (especially in the plural, " zoomies ") On a nuclear ship, a (nonstandard) unit of radiation, such as is present in a compartment containing or near nuclear weapons or a naval nuclear reactor. "I wouldn't go back there unless you want to get some zoomies!" Also used of radiation picked up on one's personal dosimeter (the radiation measuring devices worn by weapons- or nuclear-trained personnel). "How many zoomies did you get today?" (3) A cadet at the US Air Force Academy.
Zone inspection: A formal inspection of spaces conducted by a team headed by the XO.
ZUG: Negative. An obsolete / unofficial procedure signal. Retired RMs may often use ZUG in place of "no" or "negative."
ZUT: CW (Morse radiotelegraphy): "forever." An obsolete / unofficial procedure signal. Retired RMs may have a ZUT certificate or even a ZUT tattoo.
| Delta |
Although made by a variety of manufacturers, what is the name of the appliances sold by Sears? | Appendix:Glossary of U.S. Navy slang - Wiktionary
Appendix:Glossary of U.S. Navy slang
Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Wikipedia
The following are some examples of the slang of the United States Navy , you will also see references to the United States Marine Corps as well because of their use of naval terminology sometimes also referred to as NAVSpeak. Note that in the Navy, many ships and units have nicknames; these are listed separately, in Appendix:Glossary of U.S. Navy slang/Unit nicknames .
0-9[ edit ]
0-dark-hundred , 0'dark-hundred (pronounced "oh dark hundred", because the "zero" in time expressions was verbally pronounced "oh" in the US Navy and US Army as late as the 1980s: Midnight, 12AM. "We have to get up at 0-dark-hundred."
0-dark-thirty , 0'dark-thirty: One half-hour after 0'dark-hundred, 12:30AM.
13 button salute: When a sailor in dress pants pulls down on the top two corners and all 13 buttons come unbuttoned at once, usually done just before sex.
1D10T: A mythical substance that new Sailors are sent in search of as a joke. Pronounced as "one dee ten tee" or "idiot".
1MC: The General Announcing system on a ship.
1st Division: The division, in most aviation and afloat commands, which is responsible for the material condition and cleanliness of the ship. On ships equipped with small boats, the First Lieutenant or "First" (First Division Officer or Deck Department Head) is in charge of these boats and the sailors who maintain and run them. On small boats, the "First" is in charge of boatswain mates and deck seaman. On larger ships, the "First" may be in charge of air crew. Work for 1st division varies among ships depending on size. Small ships only have one division, while larger ships like carriers or amphibs can have 5 or more.
2JV: Engineering sound-powered circuit.
2MC: Engineering loudspeaker circuit.
21MC: Ships command intercom circuit, mainly used between the bridge, combat, and flight decks. Also known as the Bitch Box.
2-10-2: A female, perceived to be unattractive otherwise, out at sea on a ship which has many more males than females and who is consequently paid more attention than she would be paid on land. "She was a 2 before going to sea, a 10 out at sea, and back to a 2 when she returned."
2-6-10: Abbreviation of "It's gonna take 2 surgeons 6 hours to remove 10 inches of my boot from your ass." Used to motivate someone who is not pulling their weight.
43P-1: Work center Maintenance manual; prior to OPNAV numbering the current guidance 4790/4(series) it was 43P. The series of books; 43P-1, 43P-2, 43P-3 & 43P-4 were separate books covering all aspects of maintenance. The 43P-2, 43P-3 & 43P-4 books were replaced in the mid 1980's with one book. the new book was a three ring binder, blue in color and had "3-M" all across the front & side. The 43P-1 book containing MIPs stayed in the work center and was a deep red color with 43P-1 across the cover. Officially no longer named the 43P-1, the fleet continues to name and refer to their work center maintenance manual as the 43P-1.
4JG: Communications circuit used by V4 Fuels Division to coordinate flight deck fueling operations between the flight deck and below decks pump and filter rooms. Also used to pass information between a flight deck fuel station and flight deck control as to status of fueling operations for individual aircraft. Found on aircraft carriers and similar vessels.
4MC: Emergency communications circuit that overrides sound powered phone communications to alert controlling stations to a casualty.
5MC: A circuit similar to the 1MC, except that it is only heard on the flight deck of an air-capable ship and in engineering spaces. It is EXTREMELY loud to overcome the jet noise on the flight deck. Do not stand near one of the speakers without hearing protection.
8 (or) 6 boat. Preferred term by Amphib sailors for LCM-8 or LCM-6 boats, as opposed to "Mike" boat.
90 Day Wonder, 90 Day Miracle: OCS graduate (as opposed to a graduate of four-year Naval Academy or ROTC training).
96er: A period of five nights and four days off of work due to special liberty or holiday. Very rarely occurs due to duty.
180° Amnesia: Occurs when a sailor has been deployed and selective memory is desired to deal with questions asked by his or her significant other. "Whatever happens on WESTPAC stays on WESTPAC."
4 acres of sovereign U.S. soil: An aircraft carrier.
A[ edit ]
Abu Dhabi (used attributively / as an adjective): Labeled in Arabic aboard a ship; used of any product, but especially soda cans. "We've been home from cruise for 8 months and we still have Abu Dhabi Cokes in the vending machines!" (More common synonym: Hadji.)
Acey-Deucey Club: A recreational facility that serves alcohol for first and second class petty officers, or any Enlisted Club that caters mostly to First and Second Class Petty Officers, but still allows all enlisted personnel.
Admin: Aviation,Pre-arranged meeting point, or shared hotel in-port.
Admin Warfare Specialist (humorous, sometimes derisive): A yeoman , personnelman or holder of another Navy administrative rating. Used especially of a sailor who does not have a warfare pin.
ADSEP: ADministrative SEParation: Release from Naval Service for administrative reasons. (The list of reasons is very extensive and can be found in BUPERSINST 1900.8C, Enclosure (2).)
AD: Aviation Machinist Mate, one who throws wrenches at aircraft and prays to mech gods for a favorable outcome.
A-Farts: (AFRTS)American Forces Radio & Television Service. A-Farts is received via satellite all over the world and offers a variety of shows. Some of the most entertaining offerings are the propaganda commercials it frequently airs since regular advertising is not permitted.
AFTA: Advanced First Term Avionics: Part of the advanced electronics schooling package, reserved for AT's AQ's and AX's for advanced training. Basically, they taught the PO2 exam for 6 months.
A-Gang: The Auxiliaries Division of the Engineering Department. Members are known as "A-Gangers." Also called "Fresh Air Snipe."
Ahead Flank Liberty: The fictitious speed at which a ship travels after a mission or patrol is completed with high marks and the ship is headed into very nice foreign ports that cater to visiting US Forces.
AIMD: Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department. A department on aircraft carriers and Naval Air Stations responsible for maintaining aircraft sub assemblies. On an aircraft carrier, this consists of 5 divisions: IM1 - AIMD Admin, IM2 - Airframes and Power Plants, IM3 Avionics, IM4 Ground Support Equipment (GSE) and Aviation Ordnance, IM5 IMRL.
Air Department: Consists of 5 divisions, usually manned by Aviation Boatswains Mates. V0 Division: Admin offices. V1 Division: Aircraft Handlers on the flight deck. V2 Division: Maintenance of Catapults and Arresting Gear. V3 Division: Aircraft Handlers on the Hangar Deck. V4 Division: Aviation Fuels.
Air Boss: Air Officer. His assistant is the "Mini Boss."
Air Force Gloves: Pockets. Used when a sailor has his hands in his pockets.
Air Force Salute, Airman Salute, Airedale Salute: An "I don't know" shrug of the shoulders. Also called an Ensign Salute.
Airedale: A sailor who works on or around aircraft.
Airstart: (1) An attempt to restart an aircraft's engine(s) after in-flight failure. (2) A blowjob.
Air Wing: The aviation element on board an aircraft carrier consisting of various squadrons.
A.J. Squared Away: (name for) a sailor who is always "squared away," meaning always having a perfect shave, perfectly ironed uniform, spit-shined shoes, haircut with less than 1mm of hair, spotless uniform, etc. Anyone who has been designated with this nickname is most likely a lifer who has no life outside the navy. Compare to "dirtbag." The more derogatory "A.J. Squared the fuck Away" is often used by those that can't attain A.J.'s high standards.
All Ahead Bendix: Attempt more than full speed ahead, e.g. by bypassing limiters or subjecting the engine motors to overvoltage , on the assumption that the risk of defeat would otherwise outweigh the risk of engine damage.
Alpha Inspection: Formal inspection of uniforms and living spaces. Often performed with a white glove and a black sock.
Alpha Mike Foxtrot: Adios, motherfuckers.
Aluminum Cloud: The F-14 Tomcat.
Already Broke: The USS Arliegh Burke.
Anchors and Spurs: The famous dance club at NAVSTA San Diego where many a lonely Navy wife has broken the seventh commandment. Many sailors find this amusing until it happens to them. Also called "Cankers and Sores."
Angles and Dangles (Submarine Service): (a reference to) placing a submarine at crazy angles and in crazy positions soon after leaving port, to see if anything breaks loose. Known as "at sea" by the surface Navy.
"Another Fine Navy Day!": An expression said (in a very cheery manner) on occasions when, in fact, it is not a Fine Navy Day at all.
Anymouse (adjective): Anonymous. Used to describe the safety system whereby sailors can drop anonymous recommendations into a locked box.
AO: Aviation Ordnanceman, personnel assigned to Aircraft Carriers, Helicopter Carriers and Aviation Squadrons that store, handle, assemble, transport and load all weapons and drop tanks along with electronic counter measure pods, dispensers and sono-bouys on Navy and Marine Corps aircraft. Other duties include storing and maintaining unit small arms as well as training and qualifying squadron member in their use and the use of deadly force. Aviation Ordnancemen are expected to have a broad knowledge base of the rate and and be able to perform any duties of the rate.
AOCS: Aviation Officer Candidate School; since discontinued pre-commissioning program at NAS Pensacola, FL that trained both prior service and non-prior service college graduates to become naval officers and to subsequently qualify as either Naval Aviators, Naval Flight Officers, Air Intelligence Officers, or Aircraft Maintenance Duty Officers - program merged into Officer Candidate School at NETC Newport, RI in the late 1990s
AOL: Absent Over Leave; Navyspeak for AWOL. See UA, the correct Naval term.
AOM: All Officers Meeting, held for a variety of reasons like training, port calls, mess issues, etc.
Armpit of the Med: Naples, Italy. So called on account of its unique smell and the overall (un)cleanliness of the city.
ASH Receiver: An "ash tray." Newbie sailors are sometimes sent all over base to locate an ASH Receiver as a joke.
ASMO: Assignment Memorandum Orders. Mostly issued in boot camp to set a recruit back in training due to poor performance.
Assholes and elbows: The only things which should be seen by a boatswains mate when deck hands are on their hands and knees holystoning a wooden deck.
Asshole of the Navy: Norfolk, Virginia, home of the fabled "DOGS AND SAILORS KEEP OFF THE GRASS!" sign. The cold shoulders from civilians persist in certain Navy towns. See also "NoFuck, Vagina."
ASVAB: The Navy's enlisted entrance exam. (Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery)
ASWOC: Anti-Submarine Warfare Operations Center - shore-based briefing/debriefing/analysis/operational control center for VP aviation. See also TSC.
Aviation Queer: The enlisted rating AQ, Aviation Fire Control Technician; since merged into Aviation Electronics Technician (AT).
AW: The enlisted rating previously known as Aviation Anti-submarine Warfare Operator, now known as Aviation Warfare Operator; sometimes preceded by the adjective "fuckin'" by non-aircrew sailors
AWOL: Absent Without Official Leave; this is a US Army and USAF term, not a Navy term, see UA.
AX: The enlisted rating Aviation Anti-Submarine Warfare Technician; since merged into AW rating (often forgotten but masterful to behold).
Aye: Yes (I understand)
Aye, aye: Yes (I heard the order, I understand the order, and I intend to obey/carry out the order). "I understand and I will comply."
B[ edit ]
B1RD: Pronounced: Bravo One Romeo Delta. Nomenclature used to identify a bird to boot sailors. Similar to CGU-11.
Baby Beater: A small sledge hammer
Baby Birdfarm: A helicopter carrier/amphibious assault ship.
Baboon Ass: Corned beef. The nickname is based on its color and flavor. See also Monkey Butt.
Back Alley: Card game of trump played by 2 to 4 players (mostly "snipes"). Players are first dealt 1 card each then 2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13, 13-12-11-10-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1. Players bid on the number of tricks to be taken, trump is determined by draw. Score is kept by awarding 3 points for bids made and taken and 1 point for each additional trick. A player unable to make their bid goes set 3 X the bid. Game can be played by partners.
Bag (noun): Flight suit.
Bag (verb): To issue demerits at the Naval Academy.
Bag of Dicks: An unwanted or extremely tedious task, e.g. one that is given one hour before shift change and will require at least 3 hours to complete. Someone who has been given a "Bag of Dicks" has been "bagged."
Bag Nasty: A pre-packaged bag lunch usually consisting of a cold cut sandwich, piece of fruit, and juice box or can of soda. Served at galleys in lieu of regular chow for sailors on the go.
Bagger: A sailor who is chronically late for watch relief. Also known as a "shit bag."
Ball Button: The fourth button down on the new Service Uniforms, so called because it has a tendency to come undone.
Balls O'Clock: Any unspecified time late at night when it is absurd to be awake and having to do things, be on watch, etc.
Balls Thirty: (1) The time 00:30, when there is a security sweep on some bases. (2) Any time late at night.
Balls to Two: A short watch stood from 0000-0200. Not generally seen outside of Boot Camp.
Balls to Four: A four hour watch technically stood from 0000-0400, though in practice begining at 2345 and ending at 0345. Most commonly seen on a "Dogged Watch" schedule.
Balls To The Wall: see Wiktionary's mainspace entry on the term " balls to the wall "
Bandit: An aircraft which has been positively identified as hostile.
Bar fine: Fee paid to the manager ("mamasan") of a bar (generally adjacent to the former Naval Base Subic, former Naval Air Station Cubi Point, or former Clark Air Base in the Philippines) for letting a "hostess" take the night off. If a longer term "relationship" is desired by both parties, the "bar fine" can be paid in advance as "steady papers." Sex is universally expected, although technically not required. The hostess will expect some entertainment (dancing, dinner, etc.)
Barely Trainable: Derogatory term for a Boiler Technician (BT).
Barney Clark: A slider topped with a fried egg. Also called a "One-Eyed Jack." Named, due to its apparent high cholesterol content, for Mr. Barney Clark, who in 1982 received a "Jarvik" artificial heart.
Barricade, Barrier: The huge nylon net strung across the landing area of a carrier to arrest the landing of an aircraft with damaged gear or a damaged tailhook.
Bar Stool Technician: A term labeled to the former AQ rating, Aviation Fire Control Technician. The rating badge icon looked like a bar stool.
Batphone: A dedicated outside telephone line (not for personal use) typically for shore power or security purposes. Sometimes used to connect CIC to Engineering.
Battle Group (BG): A group of warships and supply ships centered around a large deck aircraft carrier and that carrier's airwing. Usually consists of one cruiser, one supply ship, and one or two destroyers, frigates, and submarines. More recently referred to as a Carrier Strike Group (CSG).
Battle Racks: (term for) when mission-exhausted Aviators are allowed to sleep through General Quarters.
Battle rattle: body armor and helmet.
Battlewagon: Battleship.
B.B. Stacker: Crew that handles and maintains the air launched weapons, Aviation Ordnancemen (Red shirts)
BCG's: Birth Control Glasses: Standard Navy-issue corrective eyewear for non-flight crew and non-flight deck personnel. So named because they are so thick and hideous that one is guaranteed never to have sex while one is wearing them. Term has become obsolete due to more normal looking frame choices now offered (outside of enlisted recruit training, at least). (Also known as CGL's — Can't Get Laids.)
B.D.N.W.W.: Broke Dick No Worky-worky. See Broke Dick.
Beer Day: On many navy ships, even in the present day, all hands are given 2 beers if they are underway without a port call for a given period of time — generally 45 days. Both beers are opened when they are given to the crewmember to prevent them from being hoarded.
Beans, bullets, and black oil: Supplies of all sorts needed by a warship.
Bells:
Naval method of indicating the time of day aboard ship, usually over the 1MC. One bell corresponds to 30 minutes past the hour. Bells will only be rung as a single strike, or a closely spaced double strike, with a maximum of eight bells (4 sets of 2). Bells repeat themselves every 4 hours. For example 2 sets of 2 bells, followed by a single bell (5 total) could be 0230, 0630, 1030, 1430, 1830, or 2230.
Method of requesting speed changes from the Engine Room using the Engine Order Telegraph (EOT), normally from the Bridge. (example: 1/3, 2/3, Full, Standard, Flank, B1/3, B2/3, BI, BEM)
Benny: A treat or reward, derived from "Benefit."
Benny Suggs: The Navy's Beneficial Suggestions program, a method where DON employees, and Navy and Marine personnel can make suggestions to improve various programs and operations.
Bent Shitcan:
Someone below Naval standards.
An angry or particularly unpleasant attitude, such as one might have if their only job onboard was to collect and retain everyone else's refuse, and then on top of that some asshole got mad and kicked him, leaving a big, ugly dent in his side. "We got a new XO and he had an attitude like a Bent Shitcan."
Big Chicken Dinner: Slang for a Bad Conduct Discharge, a punishment awarded to a sailor who has committed a serious infraction of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
Bilge Juice: Non-sanctioned alcoholic beverage created while on long deployments by mixing yeast, water and sugar.
Bilge Rat: Someone who works in the engineering spaces.
Bilge Troll: Engine room lower level watchstander; junior enlisted nuke machinist mate on sub.
Bilge Turd: Derogatory term for "Boiler Technician", typically from Machinist Mates who attend the identical A school
BINGO: Minimum fuel needed to return to base (RTB).
Binnacle List: The daily list of ship's crew who are sick in quarters (see below). So called because in the old days of sailing, this list was posted on the binnacle, the casing that housed the ship's compass.
Bird: Aircraft.
Birdfarm: Aircraft Carrier.
Bitchbox: Intercom or amplified circuit used to communicate between spaces of a ship. (example: 2MC, 5MC, 23MC, 26MC)
Bitching Betty: The computer generated female voice heard in an aviator's headset when something is not as it should be. She is usually worried about unsafe flight conditions or an enemy threat.
Black beret: Worn by Swift Boat and PBR Sailors, originally in Vietnam. The tradition has sporadically been followed by modern small boat sailors. (See "Brown Water Navy.")
Black box: Repair, in primarily for electronic equipment, where an entire card or subsystem is replaced, rather than individual components. As a noun the said card.
Black and Decker Pecker Wrecker (derogatory): A female who has braces.
Black gang: A ship's engineers.
Black Hole, The Black Hole: The Navy's main base at Norfolk, Virginia, so called because "it's where sailors' careers go to die."
Black Pants: An enlisted sailor below the rank of E-7 (Chief Petty Officer). So named because of the black and khaki working uniform. See also "Blue Shirt."
Black Shoe: Sometimes shortened to just "Shoe." Term used to describe shipboard or 'surface' officers and senior enlisted members, due to the black footwear worn while in khaki uniform. See also BROWN SHOE
Blanket Party: A beating administered to someone whose head has been covered with a blanket (to prevent that person from identifying the attackers), in boot camp (and usually at night), because the individual is perceived to have harmed the group by not being squared away.
Blivit (or Blivet) (derogatory): A person who is full of shit; ten pounds of shit in a five pound sack.
Blowing the ___ Fleet: Performing oral sex on a prostitute (in reference to the fact that said prostitute may have had sex with the entirety of the named fleet). "You just blew the 7th Fleet."
Blowing Shitters: An act by which an HT uses straight firemain pressure on a clog in the sewage line (CHT/VCHT) that cannot be removed by ordinary means. Normally a last resort, yet used more often than not, that when not done properly causes one hell-of-a mess… especially on CHT lines when some unfortunate soul is on the crapper when the full force of the firemain comes through.
Blowing a Shitter (Submarine Service): Inadvertently "flushing" a toilet (see "Shitter," below) while San Tanks are being blown overboard.
Blue Falcon: (Also known as a "Bravo Foxtrot") Slang term for "Buddy Fucker", also, "Noble Order of the Blue Falcon" for those who are true masters of Blue Falconry.
Bluejacket: An enlisted sailor below the rank of E-7 (Chief Petty Officer).
Bluejacket's Manual: The handbook of seamanship issued to recruits.
Blue Roper (also: Blue Rope): A sailor that is in training to be a Recruit Division Commander, so called because of the blue rope they wear on the right sleeve.
Blue Side: The figurative side one is stationed at if one is stationed at a Naval Command; contrasted with the "Green Side" (Marine Corps Command).
Blue Shirt: Aviation Boatswain's mate, usually seen chocking and chaining birds to the deck. Precursor to Yellow Shirt. Same as Bluejacket, referring to the blue utility shirt worn by those personnel.
Bluenose: An individual who has crossed the Arctic Circle .
Blue Dick: The Navy, AKA (I've been f-ed by the Blue Dick again)
Blue on Blue: (1) Fratricide, friendly fire, so called because blue is the color associated with friendly forces during "workups" and exercises, while the fictional enemy country is usually orange. (2) (in port) A girl-on-girl stripper scene, porn scene, etc.
Blue Tile: An area of the aircraft carrier on the starboard main passageway, O-3 level, where the Battle Group (now called Carrier Strike Group) admiral and his staff live and work. As the name implies, the deck is indeed blue tile there. Passing through, especially by junior enlisted sailors, is highly discouraged. During wartime, armed guards may be posted on both sides of the blue tile. Pictures of bare-assed drunken aviators standing on the blue tile during port calls are highly prized keepsakes.
Blue Water: Deep water far from land. Only larger, self-sufficient ships can operate on these waters. Also called the "high seas." See "Brown Water."
BMOS: Big Man On Ship: Often refers to the ship's Captain. The closest civilian equivalent is BMOC (Big Man On Campus).
BMW: Big Maine Woman: One of the large women in the Brunswick/Bath Maine area who like to pick up sailors from the former Naval Air Station Brunswick or pre-commissioning destroyers at the Bath Iron Works in local bars.
Boat:
Boats list (lean to the inside of a turn), Ships heel (lean to the outside of a turn). "Turn to Port, heel to Starboard" Word passed from the bridge to PriFly indicating a turn and to warn the flight deck crew of deck angle changes.
A water craft small enough to be carried on a ship (ships themselves may only be called boats by members of the crew who have completed a deployment).
A submarine (submarines are called boats, with only limited exceptions).
Boat Goat: A female sailor onboard a ship.
Boat School: Nickname for the United States Naval Academy (USNA) at Annapolis, MD.
Boats: A sailor in the Boatswain's Mate rating or the Aviation Boatswain's Mate rating, or the ship's Bosun or Air Bosun, the latter usually a CWO or LDO.
B.O.C.O.D: "Beat Off Cut Off Date": The date prior to returning home from a deployment on which a man should stop masturbating in order to save himself up for his wife or girlfriend.
Bogey: An unknown aircraft which could be friendly, hostile, or neutral.
B.O.H.I.C.A.: (Bend Over, Here It Comes Again). Often used when situations, as can be normal, repeat themselves but more often when you just know you are about to get it again from the Command.
B.O.H.I.C.A Key — Naval Air Station Key West was located on Boca Chica Key, Florida.
BOHICA Boat — Derogitory name for USS NIMITZ (CVN-68) BOHICA our screws never stop. A ships bumper sticker was authorized by the CO and were printed by the thousands until the CO found out what BOHICA meant. Circa 1981.
Bolter: Failed attempt at an arrested landing on a carrier by a fixed-wing aircraft. Usually caused by a poor approach or a hook bounce on the deck, this embarrassing event leads to a go-around and another attempt to "board."
Bonnie Dick: USS BONHOMME RICHARD * (CV/CVA 31, LHD 6)
Boomer: Ballistic Missile Submarine (SSBN)
Boomer Fag: Crewmember of a Ballistic Missile Submarine (SSBN)
Boondockers: The standard workday steel-toed boots.
Boondoggle: An inefficient meeting, event, or evolution; one that it is more fun than productive.
Boopdiddley: All-purpose, virtually meaningless expression, used as an exclamation i.e. "Boopdiddley!" or " Aw, Boop!" (1974)
Boot Camp: Term used to refer to the eight week basic training course held at Recruit Training Command, Great Lakes, Illinois. Can also refer to a green or inexperienced sailor, officer or enlisted person, e.g. "Boot ensign."
Boot Chief: Nickname given to a Chief during their first year as a Chief. Only used Chief to Chief.
Booter (usually derisive): Any sailor who has very little time in, or a lot less time than the speaker.
Boot Topping: Black paint used to paint the water line on ships.
B.O.S.N.I.A.: Big Ol' Standard Navy-Issue Ass (from the apparent widening of the hips due in part to the cut of the working uniforms)
Bosun's Punch: New sailors on ship are sometimes assigned to find this mythical tool in the office of one of the ship's Bosuns ( Boatswain ). The sailor is then typically punched very hard in the shoulder by the Bosun in question.
Bottom blow:
To open valves in the mud drum to allow boiler pressure to force accumulated sludge out of the boiler.
To take a shit.
Bounce Pattern: When several aircraft are practicing touch and go landings at the same airfield.
Boxing your coffee: Using two paper cups and pouring back and forth to mix creamer and/or sugar.
Box kicker: Supply clerk.
Box of Rocks: Derogatory term for more than one sailor that has performed their work in an unsatisfactory manner.
Brain Fart: A condition when, under stress, one cannot recall or perform something that would normally be easy or second nature.
Brain Housing Group (chiefly in the USMC): A skull.
Branch: Lowest organizational level in most naval commands. Below department and division.
Bravo Bozo: Derisive term that is the opposite of Bravo Zulu. Given for something done poorly. Also used when a sailor gets a BZ from the command, shipmates will call it a Bravo Bozo award.
Bravo Zulu: Originally, "BZ" was a signal meaning "Well Done." It is sometimes used by seniors praising subordinates in one form or another. ( [1] )
Breakaway Music: Music played over the 1MC after "breaking" away from an oiler following UNREP. Can be outdated classic rock that was never really popular in the first place, or cool music, depending on the ship's commanding officer. It is played to "motivate" the crew after an UNREP, VERTREP, etc. Usually played at a level that would normally get you a ticket in town and is so distorted as to make it impossible to identify the song.
Bremerlo: A husky (large) female. Derives from Bremerton, Washington, where there is a base at and around which such females are common.
Bremerton: How much a Bremerloe weighs.
Brig: Jail.
Brig Chaser: The sailor who escorts a prisoner to the brig.
Broke-dick: Technical term describing malfunctioning or inoperable equipment. Example: "The fuckin' aux drain pump is fuckin' broke-dick."
Brown bagger: Married sailor who brings his lunch from home in a paper bag.
Brown Nose: Sailor trying a "little too hard" to make rate by sucking up to superiors. Can also refer to those who wear khakis (Chiefs, Officers) since it is assumed that most have "brown-nosed" to obtain their present position. Mythical rates include "Chief Brownnose" and "Brownose First Class." Also known as a "Butt Shark."
Brown Shoe: Term used to describe aviation community officers and senior enlisted members, due to the dark brown footwear worn with khaki uniforms and aviation winter working green uniforms.
Brown Trout: Occurs when some Hull Tech blasts the sewer lines, causing raw sewage to be disbursed onto the decks of lower level berthing areas. Called that for the fact the turds look like fish.
Brown Water: Shallow water close to land; littoral water in which smaller ships can operate. Sometimes specifically: the portion of Vietnam where Navy patrol boats operated.
Brown Water Navy (Sailor): Any Sailor who operates a small boat in inshore areas.
Brown Water Puddle Pirate: Affectionate name given to the US Coast Guard by their brethren blue water sailors.
Bubble (or The Bubble):
The edge of passing or failing at something, or " the fence ": when someone is on the edge of passing or failing at something, or is undecided, that person is "on the bubble."
(Submarine Service) The indication of the ship's angle fore and aft. The Diving Officer of the Watch (DOOW, pronounced "Dive") controls the angle on the ship by various means. The original ship's angle gages were liquid filled glass tubes with an air bubble that indicated the trim angle. If the angle becomes too large, he will be ordered "mind your bubble." In rough weather near the surface, maintaining the angle on the ship can be very difficult. When the Dive can no longer control the angle on the ship by the means at his disposal, he is said to have "lost the bubble." (3) The area on an aircraft carrier where the Catapult Launch Officer sits. So called because it is raised only a few inches above the flight deck and has angled windows. (4) (in the expressions "have the bubble" and "lose the bubble") A grasp of the situation; understanding or control of what is going on.
Bubblegummer: A newbie or young sailor just out of boot camp or school.
Bubblehead: A sailor in the Submarine service.
Budweiser: Nickname for the SEAL Trident insignia.
Buddy Fucker: Someone who fucks over their shipmates, and who is not to be trusted with any information or watch swap.
Buffer Tech: A junior enlisted who polishes the deck with a buffer, a duty normally assigned to shore duty personnel or those attending "A" School.
Bug Juice:
The Kool-Aid-like beverage dispensed on the messdeck , in the CPO Mess, the Officer's Wardroom or the Flag Mess. Typically Orange or Red. Before the turn of the century, bug juice was also used to clean decks when cleaning agents were not available. It is still used for removing corrosion from brass fittings. Allegedly also because the powder used to make the juice attracted bugs.
(USMC) A 50/50 solution of Skin-So-Soft & alcohol used during drill to repel sand fleas at Paris Island.
Bug Juice Sunrise: Orange with a splash of Red.
Building 1: USS Brooke (FFG-1), so called because she had so many problems with her P-fired boilers that she was regularly unable to get underway from her long-occupied berth at NAVSTA San Diego. When she did get underway she was typically towed back in, whereupon she was referred to as "USS Broke".
Building 20: Derogatory term used to describe the U.S.S. Mt. Whitney (LCC-20), as it rarely goes to sea.
Building 36: The USS Bryce Canyon (AD-36). Home ported at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, she left port only on rare occasions (so her crew could collect sea pay); when she did, she had to be towed back in.
Building 39 (1990s-era Norfolk slang): The USS Emory S. Land (AS-39). So called because, during that time period, she rarely left port.
Building 38: The USS Puget Sound (AD-38).
Bulkhead: Wall.
Bulkhead remover: A fictional substance veteran sailors often task new sailors with getting, as a joke.
Bull, Bull Ensign: The seniormost Ensign onboard a surface ship, a submarine, or in an aviation squadron other than in the Training Command. This Ensign is charge of various wardroom duties, often including mentoring the juniormost Ensign (see "George") and setting up the wardroom's movie night while at sea. Originated during World War II when Admiral "Bull" Halsey designated one officer to oversee wardroom functions.
Bull Nuke (Submarine Service): The senior most enlisted nuclear sailor, usually the Engineering Department Senior Enlisted Advisor.
Bullet Sponge: U.S. Marine.
Bully Big Dick: The USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71). The name is a corruption of "Bully Big Stick", the Roosevelt's shipboard news program.
C[ edit ]
Cadillac: A mop bucket, usually with wheels and a wringer. See also "Swab."
CAG: Title used when addressing the carrier air wing commander. It is a holdover from the days when air wings were called air groups and stood for Commander Air Group. Can also refer to the air wing itself, as in CAG-1, CAG-5 or CAG-14. See "air wing."
Cal PO: Calibration Petty Officer: Collateral duty position, typically filled by the most junior and inept sailor in a division, responsible for ensuring a division's test equipment is delivered to the cal lab on time.
Carl Prison: "America's Favorite Carrier," the USS Carl Vinson (CVN-70).
Captain's Asshole: The XO. In general, the CO makes policy, the XO enforces it, hence the name.
CASREP: Casualty Report: Report to higher authority something which is inoperative, OOC (out of commission), and the impact on readiness. Often jocularly applied to broken minor items not requiring any report, or to personnel who are on the binnacle list. Also applied to those who have been killed.
CAVU: Ceiling and Visibility Unlimited: Perfect flying weather.
CF (pronounced Charlie Foxtrot): clusterfuck .
C-GU11 (pronounced "See-Gee-You-Eleven"): Seagull. Similar to the code for "bulkhead remover." A common joke is to ask inexperienced personnel on watch to "keep an eye out for signs of C-GU11s in the area, over." Sometimes spelled C-6U11, Z-6UL1 or various 1337 -like combinations.
CAG: Title used when addressing the airwing commander. It is a holdover from the days when airwings were called air groups, and stands for Commander Air Group. Can also refer to the airwing itself, as in CAG-14. See "airwing."
Cake Eater: Sailor who reenlists. So called because most commands present sailors with cake at their ceremonies if they reenlist.
D[ edit ]
Dago: San Diego or Diego Garcia.
Dammit: Proper way to read an exclamation point quietly. "You are a shitbag!" becomes "You are a shitbag, dammit."
Dain Bramaged: The USS Bainbridge.
Danger nut: A "fun" game in which one or more sailors place a washer or nut around a rod or similar metal device and then hold it to a steam vent. The washer or nut spins wildly due to the high pressure of the steam. Once it reaches a high enough speed, the rod is turned so that the steam blows the object completely off the rod and likely at another sailor, who then has to dodge the "danger nut."
D.B.F.: Diesel Boats Forever: (marking on an) unauthorized pin showing a non-nuclear submarine.
Dear John (or Jane) Letter: A letter (or nowadays, e-mail) that a sailor receives in which his or her significant other breaks up with or leaves him or her whilst the latter is deployed.
Deck: Floor.
F[ edit ]
FAG: (1) Fighter Attack Guy: F/A-18 Hornet/Super Hornet pilot or naval flight officer ("NFO"). (2) Former Action Guy: Any SO, SB, EOD, ND, or FMF Recon Corpsman or any other parachute-qualified member who is in a position where they cannot maintain their jump quals, or goes into a different warfare community. (3) ("Submarine Service") Forward Area Gentleman: A crewman serving in the forward part of the submarine, a non-Nuke.
Family Gram: A 40-word personal communication from the family members of an Officer or Sailor on a Strategic Deterrent Patrol assigned to a Fleet Ballistic Missile (FBM) submarine. Each crewman was allocated a limited number of these messages during each 3-month patrol and they were severely censored to protect the submariner from news that could negatively effect the emotional condition of the recipient. All Family Grams were screened by the CO/XO upon receipt, prior to distribution to the individual. A similar system was used for surface ships.
Fan Room (see "X-Ray fitting"): (1) A room with a fan or blower, A "closed" space which is often utilized for general mischief away from watchful eyes.
F.A.W.C.U. (pronounced "fuck you") (Submarine Service): Focused After Watch Clean Up, usually between 1 to 2 hours of "Field Day" after every watch rotation.
Fart sack: Canvas mattress cover (In cold conditions sailors sleep inside them for extra warmth.) or a dirt sailor's sleeping bag.
Fart Suit: Dry suit worn by aviators when flying over cold water. So called because of the rubber seals at the neck and wrists which keep water out in the event of water entry. These seals also keep all flatulence inside the suit, where it remains hot and mixes with ball sweat, pitstink, and various other foulness. This foul air is released by removing the suit, or more amusingly by pulling one of the wrist seals open while squatting and pointing at an unsuspecting individual, thus forcing all the stench in his direction.
Farting dust: Getting old.
Fashion Show: A series of individual personnel inspections conducted in each uniform the sailor owns. Usually this form of Extra Military Instruction is reserved for the most severe dirtbags who are either consistently failing uniform inspection or look like crap on a daily basis.
FASOTRAGRULANT/PAC: Fleet Aviation Specialized Operational Training Group, Atlantic and Pacific. Specialized training for Aviation Administration (AZ) and Aviation Anti Submarine Warfare Operators (AW) ratings.
Fast Cruise: Pretending to be underway while moored to a pier. Usually an all day event to get the crew ready for a real underway.
Fat Boy: Derogatory term for Amphibious Ships used by bridge officers on cruisers and destroyers. "We better slow down or the fat boys won't be able to keep up."
Fat boy program: FEP (see below).
FEP: Fitness Enhancement Program. Mandatory physical training regimen designed to return sailors to within physical readiness standards. Also refers to sailors who are enrolled in the program... Fat Enlisted People / Forced Exercise Program. See "Chub Club."
FFG: Forever Fucking Gone: A Guided Missile Frigate which spends more time underway than in port.
Field Day: All hands clean-up. Usually lasts on a good day about 3-4 hours. (30 min of cleaning and 2-4 hours of fucking off.)
FIDO: Fuck It! Drive On! An expression used in the face of adversity, meaning that regardless of the setback you are going to continue anyway!
Field expedient ___: Anything that is made or done ad hoc in the field. E.g. a "field expedient Frappuccino" might be made by putting all the MRE coffees, sugars, and creamers into a 2-liter bottle and mixing.
Field Survey: The nominal survey taken before discarding a worn-out item "in the field" (often off the end of the pier) instead of submitting it for a proper, formal "survey" to determine if it should be redistributed or disposed of. (Sometimes, a field survey results in an item being handed down to a needier local unit, thrown off the fantail at sea, or sold ashore for booze money.)
F.I.I.G.M.O.: Fuck It, I Got My Orders: A refusal of a long or tough assignment near the end of a duty rotation. Also seen as a name badge at this time, so officers/petty officers will forget the wearer's real name.
FIG: An FFG is called a FIG.
Fighting gear: Eating utensils.
Five by five: nonstandard Radio speech indicating "loud and clear." Derived from an arcane method of reading signal strength.
Five and Dimes: A watch rotation where the sailor or watch team stand five hours of watch, then have ten hours off (to clean, perform maintenance, train, get qualified, conduct drills, take care of divisional business or their collateral duty, eat, shower, and occasionally sleep). This follows from a three-section watch rotation, and results in the sailor standing watch at a different time every day and night, repeating every three days.
Fish (Submarine Service): See Dolphins, above. Also "torpedo."
Fit Boss: Officer designated by the Commanding Officer to be responsible for the command Physical Readiness Program. Can be a collateral duty for a commissioned officer or more frequently, a civilian contractor's primary duty.
Flag, Flag Officer: Rear Admiral (Lower half) and higher ("flag" rank, because they are entitled to show a flag with an appropriate number of stars on their car, ship, building, etc.) A person with such a rank can also be referred to by number of stars they have; so a "three star" is a Vice Admiral, and so forth.
Flag Deck, Flag Bridge: Command level on large ships for Admirals if they are present, see Flag.
Flare to Land, Squat to Pee: Navy pilot's derisive description of aircraft landing technique used by (primarily) Air Force aviators; used in comparison to the nerve-wracking controlled crash that is the typical carrier landing.
Flattop: Aircraft carrier. Also the haircut worn by truly motivated sailors.
Flavor Extractor: Standard equipment in all Navy galleys.
Fleet Up: When a second in command takes his senior's place upon that senior's transfer, retirement, or other re-assignment.
Flight Deck Buzzard: Chicken (food).
Flight Line: The area on a ship or station where aircraft are made ready for flight. Also used as a prank on gullible new sailors, as in "Go get me 100 feet of flight line from the crash shack."
Float Check (also Flotation Testing, Float test): Throwing something overboard. "Take that and give it the float test"
Floating Bellhop: Derisive Army term for sailor.
Flying the Bravo: Menstruating; from the signal flag, which is all-red, one meaning of which is "I am discharging dangerous goods." Also used to indicate one who is in a bad mood "What's wrong with him?" "Oh, he's just flying the Bravo"
Flux capacitor: New members of a CVN's MMR will be sent to retrieve the "flux capacitor" from the OOW in the reactor control room. A flux capacitor ran the time machines, particularly in the car, in the Back To The Future movies...
Forecastle: (Pronounced "foc-sull") Forward most part of a ship.
forecastle zoo: Game of naming everything on the forecastle which has an animal name, e.g. "Bull nose," "Wildcat," "Pelican hook," "rat guard, rat lines," "deck Apes."
Foc's'le Follies: A gathering of all the aviators in the airwing in the carrier's foc's'le (forecastle). The CAG, ship's CO, and battle group admiral are also usually invited and present. The "official" reason for this event is to hand out awards to the top aviators. The most enjoyable parts are the "roll calls" from each squadron, and the skits that two or three of the squadrons perform. If the roll call or the skit fails to amuse the rest of the airwing, the offending squadron is booed and belittled mercilessly. Follies are held about every 6 to 8 weeks while on deployment.
FM: Frequency modulation, or Fucking Magic, sometimes referred to as the FM Principle
FNG: Fuckin' New Guy — self-explanatory
FOAD: Acronym, Fuck Off And Die, traditional response to MARF see below.
FOD: Foreign Object Damage. Caused by Foreign Object Debris, such as nuts, bolts, or anything that could be sucked into a jet engine, damaging it. At aviation commands, FOD can also describe a worthless individual, i.e. "If Airman Smith isn't in this shop in 5 minutes, write that piece of FOD up."
FOD Walk Down: A periodic, organized search on an aircraft carrier flight deck or hangar deck looking for debris that a jet engine might ingest. The OIC of this evolution is sometimes referred to as "the FOD-father."
Four (4) by Eight (8) Watch: The worst watch section to be in because one's first watch is 0400 to 0800, then one works one's duty station until 1600, followed by second watch 1600 to 2000, every day. Note, on some ships, the 0400-0800 is the 0400-0700, see "Seven to forever" below.
Fourballs: Midnight, entered as 0000 when writing logs; The "Fourballs watch" is midnight to 0600 when underway on a submarine, using a 3 person x 6 hour shift, 18 hour rotation "day" for each watchstation. Most engineering daily chores are performed on the 0000 watch, after which one is relieved at 0530 for chow, followed by drills at 0700, chow at 1200, followed by drill review at 1300, collateral duties at 1500, chow at 1700, followed by the 1800 watch; a very long "day" underwater — 24+ hours. The Sub equivalent to the Four by Eight watch mentioned above.
Freeball : To wear no skivvies.
Freeboard: On a ship or boat, this is the vertical distance between the waterline and the "gunwale" (see below).
F.R.E.D.: Fucked Up Ridiculous Educational Device: The computer that graded the teletype capabilities of those going through Radioman "A" School. So called because it used to grade based on keystrokes rather than words per minute.
Fresh Water Navy (derogatory) members of the US Coast Guard.
Fried Calamari: A sailor who has been electrocuted. This term derives from the nickname "squid", meaning "sailor."
Fried horse cock: Fried baloney.
Frocked: Advanced in rank or rate with no pay increase. See BOHICA.
Frog Hog: A female who hangs around Navy SEALs.
Fruit Salad: Numerous ribbons on a dress uniform.
FTN: Fuck the Navy (common epithet used when complaining about naval policies or regulations). Often scrawled on the walls of toilet stalls by sailors who have been assigned to clean it for a reason. Also can refer to "Free The Nukes," referring to sailors in the nuclear power field. Also refers to a mythical rate or ship type an "FTN Striker" says he/she is trying to get in (i.e. Fleet Tug-Nuclear, Fire Technician-Nuclear). Also stands for "Fun Time Navy" around higher chain of command to save face in front of said chain of command, yet "secretly" means "Fuck the Navy." In nuclear commands, can sometimes be seen as KEY when over-nuked (the last letters of the same three words are used.)
FTN Striker: Sailor whose stated goal/desire is to get discharged.
F.U.B.A.R. : Fouled up beyond all repair, Fucked up beyond all recognition. ( Foobar )
F.U.B.I.J.A.R.: Fuck You Buddy, I'm Just A Reservist
F.U.B.I.S.: "Fuck You Bitch I'm Short": Slogan indicating lack of care since the one uttering it or wearing it will be leaving soon.
Fuhgowee's: Code word for ditching work and going home at lunch time, so as not to be suspected by PO1, Chiefs, etc (used in Newport News Drydock). Sailor 1: "What are you having for chow?" Sailor 2: "Fuhgowee burger sandwiches."
Fulmer: A sailor that desperately tries to win various games (ping pong, pool, etc.), but does not have the skills to compete successfully.
FUNGUS: Fuck You, New Guy, You Suck.
F.U.P.A. (pronounced "foop-uh"): Fat Upper Pelvic Area: The buldge that protrudes from ill-fitting pants worn by an overweight sailor, or by extension, the sailor him- or herself. (When describing a female, it may stand specifically for "Fat Upper Pussy Area"; when describing a male, "Fat Upper Penis Area.")
FuckingNuke (always one word): A sailor who is trained to operate the boat/ship nuclear power plant.
Fuckface: Any person or thing which has a face.
Fuck the mission, clean the position: Break out the swabs .
Fuck You, strong message follows: Seen on a numerical list of epithet substitutions (the unauthorized "Falcon Code," derived from the "Charlie Echo" code), especially transmitted over radio, which has to stay clean
[A] Full up round: Operational or (of a person) fit for duty, a fully operational projectile to be fired from a gun.
Fun Boss: Morale, Welfare and Recreation Officer.
F.U.R. (derogatory): Fucked Up Recruit: A boot camp recruit who constantly makes mistakes.
Fuzznuts: A young sailor, one not long out of puberty.
G[ edit ]
Gaff Off: To ignore or purposely fail to show proper respect to someone more senior, such as by blowing off an assigned task, by not saluting, or by using improper forms of address.
Garden Party: A semi-formal social gathering requiring dress whites from the waist down and dress blues from the waist up.
Gator: Gator Navy vessel or sailor. Or, the ship's navigator.
Gator-Freighter: A ship used in amphibious warfare, or generally the transportation of Marines and their equipment, especially, a carrier-like vessel ( amphibious assault ship ) whose primary purpose is to put ass in the grass.
Gator Navy: The part of the surface Navy that exclusively supports embarked Marines and amphibious operations. Conducts operations near shore. Contrast with the "Blue Water" Navy or "CRU-DES." Note, an amphibious command ship may also coordinate supporting arms from non-gators, such as destroyers or aircraft.
Gator squares: Putting a square on a chart, often 3 miles by 3 miles, in the middle of a body of water, and steaming around in it for hours. Common overnight activity for ships underway. "Do we have any nighttime evolutions this underway?" "No, just gator squares."
Galley: Crews' mess, or dining area. Place where food is prepared for consumption.
GCE: Gross Conceptual Error, an instructor's comment on student work wherein the student has clearly misunderstood a concept.
Gear adrift: (1) (said when there is) loose or unsecured gear or equipment. (2) (said of) an incompetent sailor, one who has a screw loose. "Seaman Jones is gear adrift!"
Geedunk: (1) Candy, or a place that sells candy (namely Gedunk bars ). (2) Ice cream. From the Harold Teen comic strip. From the sound that a coin makes when put into a candy machine.
General Quarters (GQ): Set to prepare a ship for battle or during a serious casualty such as a main engineering space fire. Every sailor has an assigned duty station to be manned; the ship is set for maximum water tight integrity. On submarines, the term "Battle Stations" is used.
George: The juniormost officer onboard a surface ship. Also spelled "JORG", meaning Junior Officer Requiring Guidance, or "JORGE," meaning Junior Officer Requiring General Education.
George jobs: Nit-picking paperwork jobs given to George because no one else wants them. Examples: Morale Officer, Mess Officer.
H[ edit ]
HAC: (pronounced "hack") Helicopter Aircraft Commander: the pilot in command of a helo.
Hack: Unofficial punishment where an officer is confined to his stateroom, usually during a port call. During this time, the officer is not allowed to leave the ship (all officers must have permission from the Commanding Officer, or his appointed delegate before debarking the ship at any port call, including their home port).
Hall of Fame Company: A recruit company during boot camp that maintains perfect marks through the entire eight-week evolution; harder to get than Color Company, the company that rates Hall of Fame Status is given three days special liberty, as well as the week prior to shipping out to the fleet as downtime. They are also given the privilege of wearing their winter blue, or summer white uniforms, or, as an alternate, their dress uniforms, for the week before shipping out to the fleet. Hall of Fame Companies are also given precedence above Color Company, and are given the honor to be the first recruit company to Pass in Review.
Haji: Racial epithet for a Middle Eastern individual, or anything Middle Eastern. For instance, pull-tab sodas are referred to as "Haji Sodas" due to their ubiquitous presence in the Fifth Fleet AOR.
Halfway-Night (Submarine Service): Party night on predetermined 1/2 length of boat’s patrol. Tenderloin and lobster, frozen, but good.
Happy Hour: The hour during which the ship is cleaned every day.
Hamster: Chicken cordon bleu, a common chow entree.
Haole: Pronounced "How-Lee" Hawaiian term for non-native. A dangerous thing for a sailor to be around Pearl Harbor, as some of the natives see them as easy targets for crime, especially when local law-enforcement doesn't seem to care.
Happy Sock: A sock used for masturbation.
Hatch: Any watertight door on a Naval vessel. Sailors call all doors "hatches," but the term literally means only the watertight ones.
Have a Navy Day: Has two separate meanings. 1.)"Have a great day"! From your Navy superiors. 2.) “Get Fucked or Fuck-Off” from your Navy equals and lower in rank.
Haze Grey: The color painted on Navy ships.
Haze Grey Motherfucker: Sailor (or CO) who prefers to be under way as much as possible, or a ship and crew that spends a great deal of time under way—e.g, “We were haze grey motherfuckers.”
Heads and Beds: An inspection performed daily at sea by the XO or a designated replacement, usually the MAA.
HCO: Helo Control Officer, talks to each pilot as he makes his approach to a small boy (See LSO)
Head: Bathroom (the term comes from the days of sail, because wind would blow from the rear of the ship forward the bathroom would be located at the front “head” of the ship to carry the foul smell of excrement away from the crew). “Head call” means to use the head.
Helmet Fire: When a pilot becomes so task saturated in the cockpit that he loses the big picture and situational awareness (SA). Often leads to mistakes that can produce lethal results.
Helo (pron. hee-low): Term applied to all naval helicopters (from the standard message abbreviation HELO). Calling a naval helicopter anything other than a helo, and especially a “chopper,” is grounds for a serious beat-down.
Helo Dunker: Dreaded training device that all naval aircrew and pilots must endure every few years when they complete water survival training, or “swims.” Designed to simulate crashing a helo at sea, it is basically a huge metal drum with seats and windows that is lowered into a pool and then flipped upside down with the “passengers” strapped into it. There are generally four runs that must be successfully completed. Two of these are blindfolded. It is not fun and even scares the hell out of Marines. (F)AWs enjoy it though.
Here today, GUAM tomorrow: Received orders from one island to another island, as in ADAK to GUAM.
Hinge: Slang for an O-4, or lieutenant commander (LCDR). So called because of the lobotomy that is supposedly mandated as soon as a naval officer is promoted to this rank, in which half of his brain is removed. A hinge is then inserted that allows for reattachment of the removed gray matter later. The hinge also limits the LCDR’s head movement to the fore–aft axis. This is clearly demonstrated as the O-4 is constantly nodding in the affirmative and saying, “Yessir, yessir” when in the presence of the CO.
H.M.F.I.C. : Head Mother Fucker In Charge. Refering to the senior ranking person for an assigned duty or task.
Hockey pucks: Swedish meatballs (also, trail markers, porcupines, road apples).
Hollywood Shower: To take a long shower that wastes water (See Navy Shower). It is permissible to take one when a ship is pierside connected to pier water and sewer, if no one else is waiting for the shower.
Holy stone: The stone or the act of using one. A pumice stone for cleaning a wooden deck. The name derives from the sailor stating that "anything that would cause a seasoned sailor to bend his knees, and curse the name of his maker must surely be holy."
Honch ("the Honch"): Entertainment district just outside the main gate of Yokosuka Naval Base. Famous for masagi girls, karaoke and Kirin beer.
Honey-ko: A reference to a male sailor or his “girlfriend” for the evening. It is expected that the sailor will not have another “girlfriend” that same evening and not get caught with another on a subsequent evening. Used primarily at the former Subic Bay and Clark bases in the Philippines. “Cheating” was not allowed, and some how would be found out quickly by means of the "honey-ko telegraph."
Hooch : (1) A living environment, such as a tent, made more comfortable by innovation. (2) Illicit homemade alcohol.
Hooligan Navy: WWII Navy pejorative for the Coast Guard, from its flexibility in enlisting men discharged from other services to rapidly expand for Prohibition. (Term endures within CG.)
Hot Footed: Carefully placing matches under the toenails of a sleeping shipmate and then lighting them all at the same time, after which the perpetrator(s) immediately hide or attempt to look innocent, leaving the victim to wonder what asshole did this to him.
Hoover: The S-3B Viking, mostly due to its unique engine noises
Horse Cock: Large log of baloney or overcooked kielbasa usually put out for lunch or midrats. Horse Cock sandwich is one of the least favorite boxed lunches served to helo crews when visiting other ships.
Hot box: Ship's engines are lit off, but ship is not underway. Refers to the shape of a gas turbine module.
Hot Dog: A sexually active male sailor.
Hot Racking or Hot Bunking: Submariners share racks. When one goes off, the other takes his place (three men share two racks). In the aviation community, “hot racking” refers to an individual who has not taken a shower before retiring to his bunk, usually after working a 12-hour shift on the flight deck.
HR Puff and Stuff: A nickname given to Hospital Corpsmen who regularly appear for duty in a disheveled manner with their uniform in disarray. It is a combination of a rank (Hospital Recruit, the most junior Hospital Corpsman rank) and a name that connotes the obesity and stresses placed on the uniform of just such an overweight and careless sailor. Also used as an admonishment to junior Corpsmen and Dental Techs in order to motivate them to perform regular uniform maintenance.
HTC: Known as a Hull Tech Chief or slang for "Head Turd chaser" or “Home Town Civilian,” a term designated to any active-duty sailor about to retire.
HT Punch: A mythical tool newbies are asked to fetch from the engineering spaces. They usually return with a sore arm, courtesy of a Hull Technician who is in on the joke.
Hummer: Slang for the E-2C Hawkeye, mostly for the sound of its props. May also be used to describe a blowjob.
Humped the bunk: Screwed up. Also known as pounded the pooch or popped the puppie.
I[ edit ]
'I Believe' Button: A fictitious button to be pressed when complex technical details are not immediately understood, but there is not time to go into laborious explanation. "Just press the 'I believe' button for now and we'll talk about it later."
IBM (Instant Boatswain's Mate). Term used to describe a sailor who has just failed out of a rather difficult A-School (Nuc, ET, AT) and will now head to the fleet (and obvious deployment) undesignated. Phraseology: Instant Boatswain's Mate, just add water.
Ice Cream Social: Ice cream that is typically served at 2100 on the mess decks on Sundays when underway.
ID10T: Idiot, pronounced "Eye-Dee-Ten-Tango." Similar to "bulkhead remover," an inexpensive way to derive enjoyment from inexperienced personnel. "Recruit, go get me an ID10T form, and step on it!"
IFNAG: (Derogatory) Ignorant Fucking Naval Academy Graduate.
Ikeatraz: Derogatory term used to describe the U.S.S. Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69).
Irish Pennant: Loose thread on uniform.
Iron Bottom Sound: A term used to this day to describe the waters between Guadalcanal, Savo Island, and Florida Island in the Solomon Island chain, because of the large number of ships sunk in that area during World War II. It is considered by the Navy as sacred waters, and, every year during the commeration of the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, a ship in the area will put out to sea, and drop a wreath in the area to honor the dead.
INT WTF: Letters Pronounced Individually. INTerrogative What The Fuck. See WTFO . Usually used in a text/teletype medium where WTFO is over voice communications.
I Want One Jammed In My Ass, Little Pricks Hurt 2. The USS IWO JIMA LPH-2
IYAOYAS: Unofficial acronym commonly found on the uniforms of airedales who specialize in ordnance handling. Read as "If you ain't ordnance, you ain't shit" Pronounced "eye-OH-yahs" and yelled out during ceremonies; also known as "If you're ordnance, your ASVAB sucked."
J[ edit ]
Jack-o'-the-Dust: A ship's cook in charge of keeping track of the ship's food stores. Originally referred to the night baker who would often be seen by waking crew members covered in flour from his nightly duties.
Jack Off Curtain: The small privacy curtain hanging on the outside of a rack. Usually the only small bit of privacy found on a ship. Also known as a "Splash guard."
JAFO: "Just Another Fucking Observer," given to new recruits who are fresh in the fleet and have not cleared any training.
Jarhead: U. S. Marine.
JARTGO: Just Another Reason To Get Out. "A grain of sand on the beach of reasons to get out of the Navy."
JANFU: Joint Army/Navy Fuck Up.
JEEP- Junior Enlisted Expendable Personnel- Submarines- Slang for Casualty Assistance Team members — "Send in the JEEPs."
The Jellystone: USS Yellowstone.
Jesus Nut: The assembly which keeps the rotary wing attached to a helicopter.
Jim Jim: The nickname for the computer that aided avionics ratings through Basic Electronics and Electricity (B double E) and AVA's self paced courses.
JO: Junior Officer
JO Jungle: Pronounced "J-O Jungle; term for the berthing assignments of Junior Officers which consist up eight racks and associated berthing facilities. Due to the [more] lax treatment of officers, termed a jungle because of their constant disarray.
JO-JO: Pronounced "joe-joe." Derragoratory term for a JO.
Jody: (1) (generic name for) the guy who is imagined to be seeing one's partner while one is underway. (2) Any of the songs (which all have the same rhythm/melody, and three notes) which are "talksung" during a quicktime march in order to keep cadence.
Joe (Cup of Joe): (A cup of) coffee. One popular folk etymology suggests that the name derives from Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels' reforms of the Navy, specifically his abolition of the officers' wine mess and institution of coffee as the strongest drink available on Navy ships. For more, see joe .
Joe Shit-in-the-rag Man / Joe Shit the Rag man / Joe Shit Charlie the Rag Man: An under-performing sailor.
Joe Navy: Another term for a lifer with no life outside the Navy.
Johnny Cash's: The (defunct) Winter Working Blue uniform; so called due to the fact that they were all black (black being called navy blue) and Johnny Cash was the man in black.
John Wayne: (1) A can opener supplied with "C" rations. Often still used by a "dirt sailor." (2) Somewhat derogatory reference to a sailor that takes too many chances, or attempts to constantly play the hero. "John Wayne it." (3) to John Wayne (a helmet): To leave one's helmet's chin strap undone, the way John Wayne often did in movies.
John Wayne toilet paper: Toilet paper that is rough, tough, and takes shit from no one.
JOPA: Junior Officer Protection Association. An ad-hoc organization of young division officers onboard some surface ships and in most aviation squadrons, assembled to provide a means of guidance and escape from overly-demanding Department Heads. When JOPA is unified it can control some wardroom social functions, but little else.
JORG: Junior Officer Requiring Guidance (see "George")
JORP: Junior Officer Rest Period. See also SERP.
Jughead: US Marine, so called because their "high and tight" haircuts make their heads look like inverted jugs in profile. Also "Jarhead."
Junior Chief: Pejorative term to describe junior enlisted person who is kissing ass for a promotion or on a power trip, or both.
Junk on the Bunks: A type of inspection wherein a Marine places all of his/her issued clothing and 782 gear on a bunk (bed) so that an inspector can verify they have a full complement of uniform items (a full seabag).
K[ edit ]
Kamikaze: A hetero male Marine who is so gung-ho that he can only be sexually satisfied by another male Marine.
Khakis: Term used to describe senior enlisted members (E-7 and above) or officers, due to the khaki-colored working uniform typically worn by them.
Khaki Brigade: chiefs who start taking over an engineering casualty or going over to see what is going on. "Here comes the khaki brigade."
Khaki Clad Bastards: See Khakis.
Khaki Sacker: See Brown bagger
Kick start (a deck seaman): Surreptitious corporal punishment applied by driving one's boot down the shin of the offending seaman to encourage better and faster work.
Kiddy cruise: officially a 'minority enlistment'. Enlisting at 17. Active duty obligation expires the day before the enlistee's 21st birthday.
Killer Tomato: A large reddish-orange inflated ball used in gunnery practice at sea.
King Neptune: Neptunus Rex, Ruler of the Raging Main, Ancient Order of the Deep. Signs the card of slimy pollywogs after crossing the line, making them Trusted Shellbacks.
Kiss the Camel: To fall between ship and pier onto the camel, a floating log chained to the pilings as a fender. Such a mishap is frequently fatal.
Klingon Death Watch (Submarine Service): The 6 hour watch following 12 hours of continuous drills.
Knee-deep navy: Epithet (usually friendly) for the Coast Guard or coastal patrol vessels . Also knee-deep sailor, or just knee-deep(s).
Knee-knockers: A passageway opening through a bulkhead. The lower lip of the opening sits at shin height.
Knuckle Box: A medium sized, usually red, rectangular metal box widely used in the navy to move supplies to/from the ship. These boxes seem to have been designed by some sadist for maximum difficulty when carrying them aboard ship. They have small, useless metal handles on the side, and are perfectly sized so that one has to turn them at an angle to get through a knee knocker without grazing one's knuckles.
Knuckle Buster: A pneumatic tool for removing perfectly good paint from steel.
Knuckle Dragger: A member of the engineering department or a mechanic on a nuclear powered vessel. Usually used to describe a Boatswain's Mate on a surface vessel.
M[ edit ]
MAA: Master-at-Arms. A rate in the Navy similar in duties to a police officer.
MAD Boom surfing: Struggling to complete or barely passing required evolutions in training on the P-3 Orion Patrol Aircraft. Named for the Magnetic Anomaly Detector that sticks out from the tail of the aircraft. Variations include clinging to the MAD boom or water-skiing from the MAD Boom.
Mae West: (Old) term for a life jacket.
Mad Shitter (AKA Phantom Shitter): A sailor who does not flush a toilet. A prankster who defecates in public areas of a ship.
Mail Buoy: A fictitious bouy that mail for a ship is left on. Usually new sailors are given a mail buoy watch for the entertainment of the more seasoned sailors.
Magic Smoke: Substance that makes naval electronics work. Equipment failure is usually caused by letting the smoke out.
Mags: Place to store ammunition and weapons in warships and fortifications.
Mamasan: Proprietor of a bar or other such establishment where sex may be procured or negotiated. Generally found in the Western Pacific. A "madame."
Man Pleaser: Mouth
Manatee: A dependent wife, usually in Pensacola or Jacksonville that is Manatee fat even though her husband has maintained the same basic size during their marriage. Related to the Whidbey Whale.
Mandatory Fun: Any command sponsored social event that everyone HAS to attend, or get into big trouble.
Mando Commando: Sailor assigned mandatory physical training (Mando PT) for being overweight or failing the Physical Readiness Test.
MARF: Acronym used by a superior to a roving watchstander, means Make Another Round, Fucker. Also Modifications and Additions to Reactor Facility, an unusual and impractical research reactor in NY, later turned into a training platform (also phrased as My Ass is Royally Fucked.) (FOAD is what most nuke students wish the platform would do.)
Marine: A Sailor who failed to evolve.
MARINE: Acronym for Marines Always Ride in Navy Equipment...or Muscles are Required Intelligence Not Essential... or My Ass Really Is Navy Equipment..or My Ass Rides In Navy Equipment...or Muscles are Required Intelligence Not Expected.
Marine Dinner Tray: Derogatory description (to the "eldest service branch") of an enlisted sailor's 13 button flap on the front of his dress blue uniform trousers.
Marine Mattress: A female who likes to "socialize" with the Marines.
Marine Shower: No soap and water, just deodorant and cologne
Marine Table Cloth: See Marine Dinner Tray
Masagi Girl: A prostitute (typically Chinese) found in the Honch. So-called because they urgently whisper "Masagi?" as sailors wander past in search of libations.
M.A.S.H.: Make A Sailor Hurt: (used in boot camp to describe) any physical training on the time of the Company Commander. Such training usually resulted in the recruit hitting the rack with several aches and pains he would not normally have had.
Mast: Common abbreviated form of "Captain's Mast" or "Admiral's Mast." A form of non-judicial punishment in which a sailor finds himself standing tall in front of the old man when he has really screwed the pooch. Green felt is usually abundant.
Mast Crank: A fictitious crank, usually impersonated by a Bull Gear crank from engineering, which is to be collected by a junior enlisted to crank down the mast while passing under a short bridge. It is typically made to disappear 30 seconds before it is needed, sending junior enlisted crewmembers into a panic that the mast will hit the bridge under which the ship is about to pass.
Material condition: Status open or closed, of various fittings, hatches, etc, which are denoted by a letter. Generally X(X-ray): always closed, Y(Yoke): closed while underway, Z(Zebra): closed while at GQ. ("Set material condition Zebra throughout the ship" is part of the standard GQ alarm.)
Mat Man: Electronics Maintenance Man.
Maverick Can: The perfect place to sleep in a weapons magazine.
"M-Crud" MCRD: Marine Corps Recruit Depot
Meat Gazer: Unlucky individual designated to make sure the urine in a "Whiz Quiz" actually comes from the urinator's body. This is accomplished by spending all day meat gazing, or looking at dicks while guys are pissing. Also a man who stares at or is perceived to stare at another man's genitals in a communal shower.
Meat Identifier: A side dish during chow that helps in identifying usually nondescriptive looking main dishes. i.e. Applesauce: Indicative of pork chops, Horseradish: Prime Rib Beef...etc.
Meatball: (1) Fresnel Lens Optical Landing System, a visual landing aid used by naval aviators landing on a carrier. Aviators "call the ball" as a reference guide to their positioning in the landing sequence. (2) The pennant flown to denote the ship has won the Battle "E" competition.
MEDCRUISE: A float (operational cruise) in the Mediterranean Sea. Atlantic Fleet equivalent to a Pacific Fleet WESTPAC.
Mess Crank or Mess Bitch (pejorative): A sailor who works on the mess deck, not rated as a cook.
Mess Decks: Chow Hall or Eating Establishment on board ship.
Mess Deck Intelligence: Rumors (mostly false) that spread throughout the ship like wildfire. Often concern radical changes to the ship's schedule. See "Rumor Control" or "Scuttlebutt."
Mess line: The straight line of the buttoned shirt over the fly of the trousers. Also, a joke played on new sailors, who are told to obtain a coil of it (line being the Navy word for rope).
Mid: Midshipman at the US Naval Academy or Naval ROTC; "Middie" is considered derogatory.
Midnight Ops: The best time to get something done when there are not as many witnesses around.
Midnight Requisition: To "borrow" (with varying degress of consent) a needed item from another unit. Often condoned when essential to get underway.
MidShitHead: Enlisted common term for a Naval Academy or ROTC Midshipman on their summer cruise on a ship or a command, gaining real Navy experience between academic class years.
Mid-Rats: Short for midnight rations. Food served to the midwatch. Generally leftover lunch and/or dinner.
Mid-Watch: Watch from 0000-0400 (2345-0345), usually results in no sleep before or after this watch.
Mighty Battle Pig: Nickname for USS WS Sims (FF-1059) — "Mighty Battle Frigate."
Mighty Mo: Nickname for the USS Missouri (BB-63), now a museum ship at Pearl Harbor.
Mike boat: see "8-boat."
Missile Sponge: Usually a frigate or destroyer with limited air defense capability stationed on the outer ring of a battlegroup, as they are the ships most likely to be hit in a convoy.
Miss Shit Can: The USS Michigan (SSGN-727).
Mobile Chernobyl: USS Enterprise (CVN-65) , due to it being the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. See "Quarter Mile Island" below.
Monkey Butt: same as civilian usage; rash or other anal condition caused by less than sanitary field conditions.
Monkey and a football: Short for "A monkey trying to fuck a football, and the football is winning." An utterly epic goatrope ( quod vide ), more serious even than a clusterfuck.
Monkey cum: White scrubbing liquid used to clean grease pencil from status boards.
Monkey fist: A knot tied in a rope useful for handling said rope.
Monkey Mate: Derogatory term used by Boiler Technicians to describe their brethren in the much cooler Engineroom on the other side of bulkhead from their Fireroom. "Being a Monkey Mate is a lot easier than being a BT."
Monkey shit: (1) A mix of a clay and fibers, used to plug up small holes around cables as they pass through a bulkhead. (2) A type of putty used to seal the large steel access panels to the air casing on a steam boiler.
Motrin: A magical pill dispensed by hospital corpsmen capable for minor owies or to hypochondriacs; "take two aspirin and call me in the morning." Also called Vitamin M and Grunt Candy, the latter especially when dispensed to Marines.
Mouse House (Submarine Service): (1) (Ballistic Missile Submarine description of) those areas which are usually occupied by Missile Technicians. (2) MCC (Missile Control Center).
Mung (Submarine Service): Any dark green/brown plant residue with snot-like consistency found in/on scuppers (mostly in engineering spaces).
Mustang: An Officer who came from the Enlisted ranks.
Mystery Shitter: An intoxicated sailor who returns from the beach and is unable to safely reach the head, defecates in random locations prior to climbing into his or her rack to sleep it off.
N[ edit ]
NAMI Whammy: Slang for the incredibly in-depth two-day flight physical given to all prospective aviators at the Naval Aeromedical Institute at NAS Pensacola. Called the Whammy b/c many aspiring naval flight careers are ended before they even begin due to some unknown ailment.
NAMTRADET: Naval Aviation Maintenance Training Detachment. Specialized training for Avaition maintainers.
Nasty City: Slang for National City, California , just outside the gate of Naval Station San Diego . Its cheap dive bars were a noted hangout of "West-Pac Widows." Also answers to the name "National Shitty."
NAVCIVLANT/NAVCIVPAC: Described as where a soon to be departing sailor from active duty's next station will be.
NAVCOMM: Navigator/Communicator. Usually the junior NFO on a patrol aircraft.
NFG: Non-Functioning Gear: Used typically on Tags placed on electronics indicating malfunction description. Also called No F'n Good.
NFO: Naval Flight Officer: flies alongside the pilot as weapons officer. Also referred to as a "talking kneeboard." No Fuckin' Option is term used for NFOs who would rather be pilots, but don't qualify.
NAVY: acronym used by disgruntled sailors for "Never Again Volunteer Yourself","Need Any Vaseline Yet."(Naval Air wing) “No Aviator Values You”.
Naval Infantry: Derogatory term for the U.S. Marines, although historically some of the original colonies/early states had "naval infantry" or "naval militia."
Navy Shower: Not a form of punishment. While underway, fresh water must be manufactured. A common-sense way of saving it is to wet down while taking a shower and then TURN OFF THE WATER. Lather up and wash. Finally, TURN ON THE WATER to rinse off. Continual disregard WILL attract a punishment shower with scrub brushes.
Navy World: RTC Orlando was referred to as "Navy World" on its water tower due to Disney World and Sea World being close by.
NEC: The Navy Enlisted Classification (NEC) system, of which the NEC coding system is a part, supplements the enlisted rating structure in identifying personnel on active or inactive duty and billets in manpower authorizations. NEC codes identify a nonrating wide skill, knowledge, aptitude, or qualification that must be documented to identify both people and billets for management purposes.
Night-Ops: The throwing of trash or other unneeded items overboard at night to avoid the longer process of properly getting rid of it.
NMOP: (common on Boomer Subs) No More Patrols Ever. Some times worn on T-Shirts by sailors who are on the last patrol and getting out or going to shore duty. (see EAOS above and Short timer below.)
NON: "Needs of the Navy" a priority over anything to do with one's family or person; as in God, Country, Family.
NQP: "Non-Qual-Puke": A non-qualified crewman who is not yet able to stand watch. Also applies in the Submarine Service to a crewman who is not yet qualified in submarines.
No Balls: An expression used to suggest that a person does not have the balls / guts to do what he (or she) is boasting he (or she) will do.
NO Boat: The USS New Orleans (LPH-11).
No-Fuck, Vagina (pejorative): The city, rather than the base, of Norfolk, Virginia . For the base, see "Black Hole."
No Load: A useless sailor. One who does not pull his share of the load. Named for the maintenance catapult shots where only the shuttle is moved down the track with no aircraft attached. Also possibly named to represent a generator that is providing no power to the system and therefore not taking on its share of the load. (Onboard Submarines, often used as part of the phrase "Air Breathing No Load," meaning a useless sailor or rider who is using up resources and providing nothing in return.)
Non-Comm: A non-commissioned officer, E4-E9.
Non-skid: A rough epoxy coating used for grip on weather decks.
Nonskid Wax: A fictitious substance used for waxing non-skid decks, something junior sailors are sent looking for.
Non-Qual (Submarine Service): A sailor who has not yet earned his Submarine Warfare Qualification (Dolphins).
Noodle: Commonly referred to as a goofy, borderline retarded sailor with a big head (like a meatball) and a small body like a noodle. Sometimes used especially of the sailors from the USS Mathers.
Noodle-winger: Helicopter pilot.
Norfucked: What you are when you get orders to Norfolk, Virginia. "[I/You] just got Norfucked!"
Noted: Usually passed down from an officer to a blue shirt, when the blue shirt tells the officer of something that will have little or no positive effect on the officer, but may have a great effect on the blue shirt. "Sir, if we do this thing now I can go home as soon as it's done." Officer: "Noted." Can also be said to an officer, but beware of over-usage.
No-Shitter: A sea story which is mostly (never completely) fictional, and unverifiable as well. Examples: "Hey, this is no shit, but I once blah blah blah..." or "Hey this is a no-shitter, I got a buddy who once blah blah blah..."
NUG: New Useless Guy. Term referred to newly reported sailors with no qualifications or experience. Usually tasked with dirty and nasty jobs often referred to as "Shit Work."
Nugget: First tour aviator
NUB:
Non-Useful Dody) A sailor who has not completed any qualifications and is therefore of no use to their division.
A sailor that has not yet earned their Submarine Warfare Qualification (Dolphins).
Nuclear Waste: A pejorative term for sailors who exit the Nuclear Power training program without successful completion.
Nuke (or "Nuc") (Submarine Service, CVNs): Engineering Department crewmember responsible for turning main shaft via atom-splitting. Also refers to ordnance type that is neither confirmed nor denied, which may or may not be handled by a different Department (See "Weaponettes," below). Also describes nerds (generally anyone who is/was a candidate for Naval Nuclear Power Training Command).
Nuke it out (or simply "nuke it"):
To overthink an easy task. Alternately, often used by nukes to suggest someone ought to put forth at least a little thought before giving up on a problem.
The act of solving a problem by applying numbers and units and various known and assumed quantities to calculate an approximate answer.
Nuke Milk: A disgusting powdered milk used when the fresh milk runs out. Said to be preserved by irradiation.
Nuke Striker: Perjorative term used by nukes to describe a coner that asks endless questions about the operations of the nuclear power plant. Strikers are sailors that enlist without a guaranteed rate (job), with the intention of floating around until they find a department where they fit in. However, one can't strike for Nuclear Field.
Numb Nuts (Derogatory) Nick Name for the USS Nimitz (CVN68)
Nut to butt: Standing in line, close quarters, body to body, each man's chest pressed to the back of the man ahead, or "nut to butt."
O[ edit ]
OBA: Oxygen Breathing Apparatus. Used mostly to supply breathing air to shipboard firefighters before civilian firefighter equipment was approved and adopted. Before OBAs the Navy developed and used RBAs--Rescue Breathing Apparatus.
OBE: Overcome By Events. Moot.
OBNOB: Only Black Nuke Onboard. Self-explanatory. Usually only found on submarines due to a significantly smaller number of nukes stationed onboard a submarine vis-à-vis a carrier.
Occifer (derogatory, pronounced "ossifur"): Any officer, especially a junior officer.
Officer's Candy: Urinal cakes.
Officer's Country: The area of the ship where the Officer's berthing area and Wardroom are located; Enlisted men are not allowed into Officer's Country without permission, with certain rating exceptions.
O-Gang: The wardroom. Officers are O-Gangers. See also A-Gang.
O I (wish I was asleep): Derogatory remark made by any non-OS rate whenever a OS complains about how bad they have it while underway, because OS's are almost always "Port & Starboard" when underway. OS's constitute "OI Division."
Old Man: The Commanding Officer or Admiral in command. The term is used, regardless of the officer's age or gender, when the officer has gained the respect of subordinates. RADM Grace Hopper is a female "Old Man."
Old Salt: A naval veteran. See also "Salty," below.
On my six: Naval aviation expression referring to having someone or thing at my back, on my tail, directly behind me, relative to the hours of a clock; 12-dead ahead, 3-starboard or to the right, 6 aft or behind and 9-port or to the left.
O-N-O-F-F actuator (or switch): The on/off button or switch on any device, usually used in the context of a subordinate not grasping how to power a device up or down.
One-eyed Jack: See "Barney Clark" A. tasty treat served at midrats consisting of a slider topped with a fried egg.
OOC: Pronounced "oh oh see." Used to describe a piece of equipment that no longer functions and is "out of commission."
OOD: officer of the deck
Operation GOLDENFLOW: A command-wide urinalysis test.
OPS: Operations Officer: Head of the Operations Department on board a ship or shore command. The Operations Officer is usually third in command behind the Captain and the Executive Officer.
OS trainer (derogatory): A large popsicle; so called because Operations Specialists are expected to "brown-nose" with officers more than other ratings.
Oscar: The buoyant dummy used during man-overboard drills. Named for the Oscar flag that is flown during a man overboard evolution. If a sailor is "nominated for an Oscar", someone has suggested that sailor be thrown overboard.
Oscar Sierra: Radio brevity code for a nuclear weapons mishap. Supposedly from the first letters of the words "Oh Shit."
Ouija Board/Wee-Gee Board: Flat board with small airplanes, bolts, etc. that can be moved around to indicate aircraft position and status on an aircraft carrier
Out of sight hi/lo: Steam boiler casualty in which the water level in the steam drum gauge glass goes out the top/bottom, requiring the boiler to be immediately shut down to prevent water hitting the turbine blades (hi) or melting boiler tubes (lo). If operating on one boiler at the time of the casualty, the ship then goes "dark and quiet" as all power and propulsion is lost.
Overhead: Ceiling.
P[ edit ]
P-way: A passageway or a hall.
Package Check (Submarine Service): A common form of greeting where one man shakes another man's crotch. This is done not only to test the 'mettle' of the one receiving the greeting but also as a sign of comraderie. However, ever since hazing became increasingly unpopular over the last few years this greeting has occurred less often. Much more common in the submarine service due to the impossibility of discharge while underway.
Paddles: Code word for the LSO (see above)
Papa Chuck: The P-3C Orion patrol aircraft. Also called "Four fans of freedom," a desirable platform for airedales who have no wish to spend any time whatsoever at sea.
Paper Assholes: Gummed Reinforcements (office supplies); Paper Ensigns.
P.A.P.E.R.C.L.I.P.: People Against People Ever Reenlisting Civilian Life Is Preferable. Term used to show dissatisfaction with enlistment or unity amongst a brotherhood of bitter and disaffected sailors, specifically submariners. Often symbolized by the wearing of a paperclip on the uniform in varying levels of prominence to indicate the sailor's level of disgruntlement. May also be burned into the skin. C.L.I.P. also used as Civilian Life Incentive Program.
Pass in Review: The ceremony of graduation from boot camp into Navy life. Pass in Review ceremonies are always held on a Friday, meaning that there is a Pass in Review held every week, except during federal holidays i.e. Christmas, New Year's Day, Easter, etc.
Patrol Sock: See "Cruise sock."
P.B.: Short for Pacific Beach, California , suburb of San Diego
P.C.O.D.: "Pussy Cut Off Day": The last day of a long deployment on which male sailors can get laid and still obtain Venereal Disease cures from the Hospital Corpsman, and have those cures be effective, before returning to their partners at home.
PCU: Pre Commissioning Unit: What a ships company is called before a ship is commissioned. These personnel go on to become Plank Owners.
PD-8: Fictitious valve requested to be found by junior sailor in order for an engineering qualification to be signed off. Valves are named with the initials of the system they belong to, ie Seawater valve 1 is SW-1. PD-8 is actually a chemical additive used in the evaporator to aid distillation of fresh water. As opposed to other in-joke shipboard goose chases, this one can go one for weeks while the nub spends his free time poking around the distillation plant.
Peanut Butter Shot: A painful shot normally given in the back of the hip or gluteus maximus.
Pecker-Checker: The Hospital Corpsman.
Pencil whip: (1) Filling out a form with mostly imaginary data or fluff. (2) Editing a poorly worded memo or document for clarity.
Penis Anus: Puget Sound Naval Shipyard (PSNS).
Penis Machinist: The Hospital Corpsman.
Periscope liberty (Submarine Service) : Looking through the periscope to see the world outside after being underwater for a long time. Surface equivalent: "Eyeball Liberty."
Permanent Help: Slang for a PH (Photographer's Mate) in a fighter squadron.
PFA: Physical Fitness Assessment: new name for PRT. Situps, pushups and a run/bike/swim/elliptical trainer.
PFM: "Pure Fucking Magic", term applied to when things work, but one doesn't know how or why — but they work. Other usage: "PFM circuit" for electronics in depot level repair only equipment whose inner workings are not required to be known. See also "Black box."
Phantom Shitter: A freaking weirdo that thinks it's funny to shit in the shower, or to take a shit in the shitter and not flush.
Phrog: CH-46 Sea Knight helo. Also referred to as the "Whistling Shitcan of Death" or a "Flying Anvil."
Piece: Rifle, as used in manual-of-arms (rifle drill)
Pier 20: Derogatory term used to describe the U.S.S. Mt. Whitney(LCC-20), as it rarely goes to sea.
PIERPAC: Pretending to be on deployment while moored to a pier. (like WESTPAC referring to a Western Pacific deployment.)See Fast Cruise.
Pier-Queer: Air Force term for "Sailor." (The Navy term for Air Force personnel is simply "Queer.")
Pier tender: A ship that never gets under way. See "USS Neversail."
Pigs in a Bucket, Fuck it: Colorful rhyming term used when a sailor wants to forget what they have heard, seen, or done.
Pillows of Death: Canned ravioli, usually burned, served for midrats.
Piped Aboard: (of a CO, VIP or other dignitary) Recognized upon entering a ship or land installation by the Boatswain's Mate blowing 2 notes (low, then high) on a boatswain's pipe, followed by sets of two bells, depending on the rank. After the musical introduction, the dignitary's rank and sometimes name is announced, followed by "Arriving" or "Departing." The Commanding Officer and embarked Admiral are piped aboard with the Ship's name or the Group name. For other dignitaries, the office is used (e.g. "Department of Defense, Arriving"). Senior officers may be "bonged on board" as a courtesy; in this case, the introduction refers to their rank and service only, e.g. "Colonel, United States Marine Corps, arriving." The CO of the particular ship [and the embarked Flag Officer] or installation gets a "stinger", a single bell ring after "arriving"/"departing." Bells may be used alone (without a pipe) in the absence of a boatswain's mate.
Pirate Navy: Small boy crafts generally referring to the smallest of the vessels, such as Minesweepers, Coastal Patrol boats, and sometimes Frigates.
Piss Cutter: A folding uniform cap.
Pisser: (1) A urinal (not a toilet). (2) An unpleasant situation "that's a pisser."
Pit: A sailor's rack or bunk. Usually used among those who aren't particularly pleased with shipboard life.
Pit Sword: A sword-shaped device that protrudes below the ship to measure it's actual speed.
Pineapple Fleet: The Pacific Fleet, usually refers to the Seventh Fleet (in the western Pacific) and specifically to ships stationed in Pearl Harbor . Somewhat confusing term, as Pearl Harbor is considered part of the Third Fleet's area, and not the Seventh.
Ping: To emit a pulse of sound energy from a SONAR transmitter.
Ping Jockey: Term used to describe Sonar Techs
Plank Owner: Term used for original crew personnel assigned to ships company during commissioning. Plank Owners are "Piped Aboard" when shown proper certification.
Plastic Fantastic: F/A-18 used in the 1980's.
POD (Plan of the Day): An official document issued by a command that states all activities going on that day, from 0000 to 2359. Also contains the Uniform of the Day. Also called the Possibilities of the Day or Plan of Deception because the plan can change without notice.
POG: (Person Other than Grunt) A term often used by Marine Infantry (Grunts) to refer to anyone who is not them. Specifically anyone in an Admin Field. Originally, "pogue".
Pogey Bait: Candy, sweets, ice cream, etc., so called because such items are used as "bribes" for a pogue.
Pogue: A homosexual who may be called a "twink", usually under-aged. This term may be used pejoratively (see Pogey bait), as no one but Marines are interested in pogues or baiting homosexuals.
Polish a Turd: Make the most of a bad situation e.g. Karlene Golding wearing make-up.
Pollywog: An individual who has not crossed the Equator , who must go through rituals, that sometimes cross the line to be hazing , to become a shellback. This practice can be traced back hundreds of years and is conducted in many countries' Navies across the globe. See crossing the line .
Poopsick: Anything undesirable, specifically feeling seasick
Poopysuit: Blue overalls worn when deployed out to sea. May also refer to the anti-exposure suits used by aircrews in the case of a water landing in cold environments.
The Pond: The Deep Blue Sea. Where deep-water sailors ply their craft, "The Pond" may be Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, or Other. Used in slang expressions such as "Talk to me when you've got some Time On The Pond."
PQS: Personnel Qualification Standards, a card carrying various qualifications for a warfare badge or similar. Must be signed off by a superior or expert.
Port: Left side of the boat or ship (when facing the bow). Left side of an aircraft when facing the nose from inside. Place of arrival for ships.
Port and Starboard: A rotation of two duty sections or watch teams, one designated port, and the other starboard. Generally not considered to be a good situation. (Usually six hours on duty, six hours off duty. During the six hours off you eat and sleep. The usual cycle is: get up, eat, go on watch, get off watch, eat, go to bed. This results in about four hours of sleep per cycle.)
Port and Report: A watch stood without relief. One designated Port, and the other... there is no other, only Port once again, hence the term re-Port.
Portable Air Sample (Submarine Service): A snipe hunt gag inflicted on "newbies." Normally, portable air samples are regularly collected by a hand-held device operated by a highly qualified crewmember. In this snipe hunt gag, however, a plastic garbage bag is inflated like a balloon and sealed, sometimes with "official" forms taped to the exterior; the newbie is then dispatched to take this important atmospheric sample to the Executive Officer (NEVER the Skipper). Depending on that particular XO's sense of humor, the newbie could possibly come back with interesting counter-orders.
PosMo: Positive Motivation. Punishment for screwing up or being a Rock. Also known as Extra Military Instruction (EMI).
Powder Monkey: Term referring to a sailor sent back and forth for an item, usually tasked to retrive something from below-decks; derives from young boys who served on wooden ships that retrieved powder for broadside firing.
Power troll: A name for any officious person, usually used by engineers. Comes from the Powertrol valve used in AFFF firefighting systems.
PPC: Patrol Plane Commander. Usually the senior pilot on a patrol aircraft, having been previously designated a 2P (second pilot). 3Ps are relatively new pilots in a patrol aircraft. No-Ps are pilots who have not qualified for 3P.
Pri-Fly: Primary Flight Control. A room located high in an aircraft carrier's island where the Air Boss and Mini-Boss run all flight operations within a five mile radius of the ship.
PRT: Physical Readiness Test. A sailor is required to perform a certain number of situps, pushups, and a 1.5-mile run in a given time (which varies based on age and gender). Replaced with the PFA.
PT: Physical Training. A required exercise regimen.
The Pubic Mound: USS Puget Sound.
Pucker Factor: Tension caused by high stress during a difficult or dangerous evolution. So named because one's sphincter tends to tighten up or "pucker" involuntarily during such times. Example: Pucker factor was high when he landed that Turkey single engine with complete AC power failure at night.
Puddle Pirate (derogatory): A members of the US Coast Guard.
Pull chocks (verb): To leave.
Pump and Dump: A term in Boot Camp, normally used by RDCs allowing Recruits time to use the Head. This was normally either 5 or 10 minutes in duration (never long enough). Sometimes used to call for pumping bilges and waste tanks overboard outside coastal limits. Originally used in reference to the daily order for a ship underway to go out past the 50-mile-from-shore line in order to legally pump oily water from bilges and dump trash, this can no longer be done.
Pushbutton: Term applied to a 6 year enlistee with advanced schooling. The Enlistee is immediately granted E-3 rank upon completion of basic training, and E-4 rank upon completion of "A" school. Frequently the Enlistee also has an opportunity to extend to 8 years, and immediately gain E-5 rank within 2-3 years total service, like "pushing a magic button to gain rank."
Pussy patch: Transdermal scopolamine patch for seasickness.
Pussy pills: Seasickness pills.
Q[ edit ]
Q: (prefix denoting) (1) The BEQ [Bachelor Enlisted Quarters]/Unaccompanied military personnel housing. (2) The Quartermaster rating.
Quack: Hospital Corpsman
Quadball: Any sailor with a 0000 NEC. See "Quadzip" below.
Quadzip: Four numeral zero's in a row. Example: 100007 would be read aloud as "one quadzip seven." Also refers to sailors who have yet to attend any schools that assign NEC (Navy Enlisted Classification) codes upon graduation. The untrained sailors have a quad zip NEC of 0000.
Quarterdeck: Ceremonial area of the ship used while in port for either boarding, or disembarking the ship, usually found at the main deck level, midship.
Quarter Mile Island: CVN-65, USS Enterprise, and all eight of her reactors.
Quarters: A gathering of all the people in the organization. Quarters can be for the entire command, or just the department, division, or branch. Quarters is used to present awards, pass information, and make every sailor squeeze into their ill-fitting, rarely-worn uniforms at least once a year. "Quarters" also refers to the daily morning muster for each division, announced as "Quarters...Quarters...All hands to Quarters for muster, instruction, and inspection."
Queer: Nickname for the EA-6B Prowler. Also Air Force Personnel.
R[ edit ]
R2D2: Dome-shaped Phalanx CIWS system, after the visually similar Star Wars droid. Also called "R2D2 with a hard-on."
Rack: Bed.
Rack Burns: Reddish marks seen on the face of a sailor who has just emerged from sleeping in his/her rack. Scorned upon if he/she was not supposed to be there.
Rack Hound (derogatory but usually with a hint of envy): Sailor that spends more than his/her fair share of time in the "Rack." Usually spoken when seeing somebody with Rack Burns. "You are such a Rack Hound!"
RADCON Math:
Term used by Nukes to describe a method of estimation to arrive at an answer.
Used to prove a desired numerical answer with substantiated math, either correct or incorrect. Example: Watch Officer-"What is pH?" ELT-"What do you want it to be?"
Radioactive Rudolph: Reindeer meat brought onboard in Scandanavian Ports, especially soon after the Chernobyl meltdown. Now, just Rudolph.
Radiogirls: Derogatory term for Radiomen used by personnel in engineering ratings who do not believe they do any "real work." OSs, STs and other Twidgets that don't, for example, stand any rate-related watches in port (in the days of steam ships especially) get even less respect.
Radioing the logs (Submarine Service): Recording engineering log data via mental telepathy (see "Xoxing Logs" below). (Surface ships sometimes use the term "blazing the logs" or "gundecking.")
Rain Locker: Shower.
Raisin: Recruit or junior sailor, predominantly heard at Naval Training Commands. This is used in boot camp to refer to those boots who have received their dungaree uniforms so recently that they haven't been ironed, just washed, they are therefore wrinkled, like a raisin. Usually used by seasoned boots to refer to sailors with one or more weeks less time in service. Fleet equivalent is "Nub," "Newbie," or "Hey Shitbird."
Ramp Strike: When an aircraft gets drastically low while attempting to land on a carrier and strikes the "round down," or stern of the ship, with devastating results.
RAS: Replenishment At Sea: The act or process of moving cargo and fuel from a supply ship to a warship via cable while underway.
Rate Grabber: Enlisted member with the goal of (and succeeding in) making rate (promotion) quickly.
Rating: Refers to an Enlisted man's job description, i.e. Radioman, Electronic's Technician, etc., usually denoted as part of the rank insignia, found in the center of the rank device on the summer, and winter uniforms only.
RATT Shop: Place for flight deck personnel to cool off in the AC and take a nap while they get their "RATT" fixed.
'Rats: Short for "mid-rats"
Ready Roller: a sailer who wakes up, "rolls" out of his rack- without washing or brushing- "ready" to head to the Mess Hall to start his day. Ready Rollers are generally thought of in a negative scense due to their poor hygene and lack of respect for themselves, while in close quarters or proximity to other shipmates.
Ready Room: Large space aboard a carrier that is the focal point for each of the squadrons in the airwing. Each squadron has one on the O-3 level, and each pilot has his own seat. Used for a variety of reasons such as training, "AOM's," "Roll-ems," etc...
Red-Roper: Slang for a Recruit Division Commander (RDC), in reference to the red rope worn around the left shoulder. Used to be called "Company Commander."
Red-Tag, also known as "Tag Out" (verb): (1) (of a Calibration AT with no nuclear training) to do something to a piece of nuclear reactor machinery which should put part of the plant down. (2) To de-energize a piece of electrical equipment or to cease usage of any tool or machine.
Red-Tag (noun): The tag placed on a piece of electrical equipment to prevent it being energized and injuring someone.
Red Wagon:
Reefer: (1) A refrigeration ship carrying frozen foods. (2) A large freezer of the type found on most ships, usually in auxiliary spaces.
Render honors to port/starboard: A custom in the Navy to honor a ship passing with a salute, it is also used when passing by the Arizona Memorial, an announcement is made "Prepare to render honors to port/starboard," a Bo'sun's pipe signal is then given to stand at attention, to salute, to drop the salute, and finally to "carry on." Honors are rendered from the junior to the senior by referencing the Lineal Number of the Commanding Officer.
Rent-A-Crow: A sailor advanced to E-4 because they graduated top of their "A" school class. The Navy "rents" them for an extra year in return for promoting them. The term is also used of sailors who enlist in Advanced Electronics or Nuclear training tracks, as these also require a 6 year commitment.
Reveille: An announcement over the 1MC at 0600 local time, bugle call, trumpet call or pipes call, most often associated with the military; it is chiefly used to wake military personnel at sunrise. The name comes from "réveillé" (or "réveil"), the French word for "wake up."
Rick, Ricky: A "recruit" or sailor-to-be who is still in boot camp.
Rickety Rocket: USS Richmond K. Turner (CG-20) Commissioned 1963, decommissioned 1995, sunk as a target 1998 by USS Enterprise Battle Group.
Ricky Boxing: Masturbation. The term is used in boot camp to refer to male masturbation. Compare "Ricky Fishing."
Ricky Fishing: Masturbation. The term is used in boot camp to refer to female masturbation. Compare "Ricky Boxing."
Ricky Forklift: A boot camp term for a dust pan.
Ricky Girlfriend: A male sailor's hand, used to masturbate.
Ricky Crud: (1) A one-night sickness which sailors acquire in bootcamp after receiving their smallpox vaccinations. (2) The constant cold that sailors suffer from in bootcamp because they spend 8 weeks confined with 80 people from all walks of life.
Ricky Dive: Fast, effective method of cleaning in boot camp, consisting of wearing smurf suits inside-out and sliding, or being dragged, on the floor to pick up dust.
Ricky Heaven: A number of restaurants and entertainment venues found in a single building at boot camp, so called because only graduates of boot camp may go there.
Ricky Iron: Using one's right hand to press one's uniform flat.
Ricky Lawnmower: Nailclippers, used to trim stray threads from uniforms. See "Irish Pennant."
Ricky Ninja: Within minutes of lights out, the entire division is asleep, except for the Ricky Ninjas, dressed in their ski masks and sweaters, sliding from rack to rack, Gullivering, dirty-dicking, and spitting in the RPOC's canteen.
Ricky Ray-Gun: The cheap, disposable flashlights Recruits use while standing night watch in the barracks.
Ricky Sweep: Use of a bare hand to gather dustbunnies and other dirt from a deck.
Ricky Rocket: A boot camp "energy drink" made from an assorted mix of sodas, sports drinks, coffee, sugar and artificial sweetners used to help keep the recruit awake. Also known as "Go-Go Juice." Or half a glass of coffee, half chocolate milk and a shit ton of sugar.
Rider: (1) Most often associated with the submarine service; an individual aboard a submarine not a member of the crew who is assigned to the sub for a period of time to perform a specific mission; usually intelligence related. (2) On surface ships, any member of the ship's company who is not assigned to the Engineering Department. "There are two kinds of people on a ship: Engineers and Riders. When the Engineers cause the ship to move through the water, everyone else goes along for the ride."
Ring Knocker: A graduate of the U.S. Naval Academy. Used pejoratively if the officer in question is overly proud of this fact.
River Rat: Crew member of a brown water boat or patrol craft.
Roach Coach: A snack or lunch truck that stops at each pier where the ships are berthed. Usually announced over the 1MC — "Navy Exchange Mobile Canteen is on the pier" or at great risk to the announcer: "The Roach Coach is making its approach."
Road Mark: Also referred to as a "Street Mark," a form of point deduction during Boot Camp, when a sailor is either out of step during marching, failure to salute an officer, or an RDC, or any other form of noticeable infraction, the infraction usually results in a deduction of five points form the company's overall score.
R.O.A.D. Program: Retired On Active Duty, refers to someone who is approaching retirement so they don't care about getting any real work accomplished.
Roast Beast: Roast Beef, or any meat served aboard the ship that even the cooks who prepared it don't know what it is.
Rock: Term used to describe a sailor that acts as though he hasn't learned anything.
Roger That: A term of understanding and acceptance when given an order or other information. Can be used with varying inflection and tone without consequence to signify enthusiasm or disgruntlement without stepping outside the bounds of professionalism.
Roll-em's: Movie night, usually shown in the ready room or the wardroom
Rollers: Hot dogs.
Rope and Choke: Highly advanced and ultra accurate way the Navy determines the body mass index of people who are deemed too heavy for their height. Consists of an overweight fitness "guru" measuring one's waist and neck.
Ropeyarn: Original-Taking an afternoon off, usually a Wednesday, to take care of personal matters, such as repairing one's uniforms. Today- taking an afternoon off to take care of 'personal matters'.
Rot-Cee: Slang for ROTC, Reserve Officer Training Corps. Also "Neurotic" for a midshipman in the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC).
Rot-Cee Nazi: Derogatory slang term for an ROTC member who has let power go to his or her head; primarily used when such ROTC members board a ship for training, and start pushing around enlisted sailors, who hold higher ranks and/or have had more time on active duty.
Round Turn: To put some elbow grease into it; to work hard at it and make a strong effort to finish the job
Rotor Head: Sailor who flies or maintains rotary-winged aircraft (helicopters).
Royal Baby: Originally the fattest man on the ship, chosen as part of Neptune's court during Shellback initiation.
RPOC: Recruit Chief Petty Officer (RCPO or RPOC). A recruit chosen in boot camp to "be in charge" when the Company Commander, or other authority figure, are not present.
R.T.F.M. : Read The Fucking Manual, or "Read Those Fine Manuals" if you are talking to your mother.
Rubber Hooeys: Condoms
Rumor Control: The often wildly inaccurate rumors that concern fictitious changes to the ship's schedule. Usually takes the form of "Hey, did you hear (insert ship name here) had a fire in their main machinery room and can't get underway so our cruise got extended by a month?" See also "Mess Deck Intelligence."
T[ edit ]
TACCO: Tactical Coordinator. Usually the senior NFO on a patrol aircraft.
"Tack on crow": (Hazing) When promoted in rank, senior and equivalent ranks would tack the crow (solidly punching) patch on one's arm as good luck so it does not "fall off." Marines have an equivalent "tack" on each side. Can be "simulated" for a non-hazing by equal connotation. May be followed by a "wetting down."
TAD or TDY: Temporary Additional Duty or Temporary Duty
"Take suction on a seat cushion:" alternative form of "pucker factor."
Tango Uniform: See Tits Up
Tape Zebra: Maddening condition aboard ship, especially aircraft carriers, where passageways are "taped off" so that they may be waxed, dried, and buffed in the middle of the night. It seems that the passageways are purposely chosen to maximize delay and frustration when a pilot has to do an 0-dark-thirty preflight or some other duty. Junior enlisted sailors take special delight in denying officers access to these passageways, and relish in their disgruntled detours. Likewise, junior officers thoroughly enjoy when a man overboard or general quarters is called in the middle of the night, and they rush to get to the head of the line so as to crash through tape zebra and trample through the wet wax.
TAPS: Announced over the 1MC at 2200 local time, "Taps, Taps...lights out, all hands turn into your bunks, maintain silence about the decks." "Taps" is a musical piece sounded at dusk, and at funerals, particularly by the U.S. military. It is sounded during flag ceremonies and funerals, generally on bugle or trumpet.
T.A.R.F.U.: Things Are Really Fucked Up.
Target (Submarine Service): Term to describe any ship or boat on the surface.
TDU (Submarine Service): Trash Disposal Unit. Sophisticated AN-DEEP-6 weapons system.
The Boat: Airdale term for the ship their airwing is attached to. "We're going to The Boat for a few weeks."
The Hole: Main machinery space where an engineer works. "What do you do onboard?" "I work in The Hole." Also "The Pit."
Three steel balls: Meant to be humorous but oddly accurate reference to a sailor or situation acting like a sailor: "Put a sailor in a room with three steel balls. Come back an hour later: one will be missing, one will be broken, and one will be in his pocket." In an alternative version one will be pregnant.
Tiger Team: Junior enlisted of all ratings (E-3 and below) who are tasked to clean the engine room prior to inspection, such as GITMO Refresher training or evaluation.
Tin can: Destroyer . Designated Driver, from DD.
Tin Chicken: US Merchant Marine Officer Insignia on a US Naval Officers uniform, often worn above the SWO pin. The beak of the eagle can be used as an emergency bottle opener.
Titivate: To spruce up or clean up the ship and its company.
Titless Wave: Male clerical personnel such as yeomen, storekeepers, personnelmen, and other desk jockeys, pencil pushers, etc. See "sea pussy."
Tits Machine: Old-school term for a kick-ass aircraft, usually a fighter, that consisted of little more than an airframe, minimal avionics, and a huge engine or two. The F-8 Crusader was universally accepted as a tits machine. The F-14 Tomcat was also widely accepted. Today's modern electronic video game fighters like the F/A-18 will never be in the same ballpark.
Tits Up: Broke-dick, inoperable, dead (from some piece of equipment being "flat on its back"). Sometimes referred to as "Tango Uniform"
TLD (Nuclear): Thermo-Luminescent Dosimeter. More Affectionately "Tiny Little Dick." Worn by nukes and submarine crewmembers to measure radiation received over time. Often a good source of humor for when the topsiders ask what they are for.
Tonkin Gulf Yacht Club: Those elements of the Pacific Fleet which operated in the referenced waters 1965-1975.
Topsider: (Carrier) Anyone who is not a nuke. On other surface ships, it can also be a reference to non-engineers.
Torpedo Sponge: Similar to "Missile Sponge", this refers to the smaller ships in a convoy, whose duty it is to protect the carrier, to the point of taking the torpedo hit for the carrier if needed.
Training Anchorage (TRANCH): A frustrating, fuel-saving method of practicing battle tactics electronically among ships while at anchor, usually within sight of an attractive liberty port.
Transistor Theory: Naval explanation for how electrons travel backwards and holes actually carry electrical current. Just press the I Believe button. (Often referred to by civilian instructors when explaining to baffled sailors the haphazard components that seem to work by sheer magic such as transistors, zener diodes, joint effect field effect transistors, shockley diodes, metal oxide field effect transistors, etc.)
Trap: A fixed-wing arrested landing on an aircraft carrier. In the helo world, the Rapid Securing and Transfer (RAST) on the deck of a "small boy."
Trice Up a rack. "All hands heave out and trice up." Or jump out of your rack and make it. (Originally referred to hammocks, in days of yore before berthing spaces.). More correctly, the "trice" is the bottom (third) rack, being built to fold up against the bulkhead/stanchion (see above), so when the command "Trice-up" was given, the rack would be folded up, allowing compartment cleaners to sweep and swab under that bottom rack.
Triced Up: Trapped in a rack more cramped then usual, as a result of shipmates opening one's rack while one is sleeping in it (after they discover one forgot to secure it shut before getting in). (It is usually impossible to be triced up in a top rack, as top racks usually have no ceiling.)
Trident: Special Warfare Insignia earned by Navy SEALS.
Tronchaser: Those in the AT (primarily I Level) rate who work on Navy avionics.
TSC: Tactical Support Center, shore-based briefing/debriefing/analysis and operational control center for VP (patrol aviation) missions. See also ASWOC.
Tube steak: Hot dogs (also, called "dangling sirloin").
Turd Chasers: Nickname for individuals assigned to the Hull Maintenance Technician (HT) and Seabees Utilities Man (UT) rating because their shipboard and base duties include plumbing. An E-7 HT is an HTC, "Head Turd Chaser".
Turkey: Slang for the F-14 Tomcat
Turn-to: Get to work.
Tweek and Peak: To fine tune something (uniform, rack, hair, etc); usually for inspection preparation.
Tweeker: (1) (Submarine Service) An electronics rating; any engineering rating not gronking a wrench. (Rarely applied to rates such as ET and AT who "tweek" electronic components to make them work again.) (2) (Aviation) An AT who spends most of his time complaing about how cold it is in the AIMD tunnel to those that work in open air spaces in or around the desert.
Tweener (Submarine Service): Affectionate term for Missile Technicians on Ballistic Missile Submarines. Usually called out during the "Coner" and "Nuke" throwbacks, since the Missile Compartment is "between" the Forward (Coner) and Engineering (Nuke) spaces.
Twidget: Sailor in the Electronics or Electrical fields of job specialties.
Twig: Medical Service Corps officer. So named for the slanting stem attached to their device.
Two-block: To have all the work one can handle. Derived from when the blocks on a block and tackle are together and can not lift any higher. "My guys are two-blocked."
Two-Digit Midget: Sailor with 99 or less days until his/her "End of Active Obligated Service", or EAOS.
Tubes (Submarine Service): (nickname for) the senior torpedoman (now MM-Weapons) onboard. This individual is in charge of the torpedoes and the torpedo tubes, hence the name.
Tuna Boat: A sub tender or other non-combat ship that is crewed primarily by female sailors. See also "Love Boat." "We're going to have great liberty this port: A tuna boat just pulled in!"
Turn 'n' Burn: "Hurry up! Let's get going!" The term alludes to the practice of bombers over enemy territory turning after they have dropped their bombs and igniting their afterburners so as to exit hostile territory more quickly.
TWAT: (old term for) a TWT.
TWT: Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier : A component used in DECM/ECM equipment.
Tweak: An Aviation Electronics Technician or AT.
V[ edit ]
VA Veterans Administration / Department of Veterans Affairs: A department of the US Federal Government that assists military veterans with medical care, educational benefits for college of technical training, home loans, burial, etc.
VA: Fixed wing attack Aircraft Squadrons. No longer in use, see VFA
VAQ: Fixed Wing Electronic Attack aircraft Squadrons.
VAW: Fixed Wing Carrier Airborne Early Warning aircraft Squadrons.
Vampire Liberty: A day off one gets for donating a pint of blood.
VASTARD: Sailors that work with the AN/USM247(V) Versatile Avionics Shop Test (VAST) operational from 1972-2006. Used for testing Weapons Replaceable Assemblies (WRA's) on E-2C Hawkeyes, F-14 Tomcats, and S-3 Vikings. Typically these shops are found on aircraft carriers just forward of hangar bay 1 on the 01 level. Part of the Aircraft Intermediate Maintenance Department (AIMD), IM3 (Avionics) division.
VBSS: Visit, Board, Search, Seizure: Marinetime boarding actions and tactics.
VC: Viet Cong: Guerilla forces in South Vietnam allied with the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) during the Vietnam War. Also called "Charlie" from phoenetic "Victor Charlie."
VC: Fixed Wing Composite aircraft squadrons.
VD: Venereal Disease, also know as the clap, Gonnorea or syphillis.
VERTREP: Vertical Replenishment: The taking of supplies (resupply) from a supply ship via helo pick-up and drop-off. Historically, the CH-46 Sea Knight (see "Phrog") was used for such resupply, although any aircraft with a cargo hook installed can do. Differs from "UNREP."
Very well: Expression of acknowledgement a senior gives a subordinate.
VF: Fixed Wing Fighter Aircraft Squadrons. No longer in use, see VFA
VFA: Fixed Wing Strike Fighter Squadron, made up of Legacy F/A-18C or D model Hornets or F/A-18E,F or G model Super Hornets.
Vitamin M: Motrin, which is occasionally used to combat the various aches/pains/headaches associated with military service. Compare "Corpsman Candy."
VP: Fixed Wing Patrol Aircraft Squadrons.
VS: Fixed Wing Anti Submarine Squadrons. With the retirement of the S-3B Viking all VS squadrons have been decommissioned.
VT: Fixed Wing Training Squadrons.
VX: Fixed Wing Experimental Aircraft Squadrons.
Vulcan Death Watch: 12 hours of drills separated by 3 rotations of watches. If one is on Vulcan Death Watch, one is up oncoming as drill team, on watch then offgoing as casualty response team, potentially followed by another 6 hour watch.
Vultures' Row: The place from which people can watch flight operations without being in the way, typically the O-7 to O-9 level on an aircraft carrier's island.
W[ edit ]
Walking, Talking Road Mark: Used during boot camp to refer to a recruit that is a complete loss at military bearing, appearence, and formalities, a recruit that causes his company to constantly lose points at inspections, drills, etc. These recruits usually end up getting ASMO'ed to a company that is earlier in training.
Wardroom: Officer's mess, or dining room. Also used to collectively refer to all the officers at a command.
Warm Blood: An individual who has not crossed the Arctic Circle or Antartic Circle, who must go through rituals, that sometimes cross the line to be hazing, to become a Blue Nose or Red Nose, respectively. See crossing the line, shellback, and pollywog.
Warrant: A warrant officer. In the navy warrants are generally older and more experienced in a particular area of expertise than a commissioned line officer, much like an "LDO." Warrants are competitively selected from the senior (E7–E9) enlisted ranks. By definition are technical specialists.
Watch: A period of duty, usually of four-hours duration, six-hours on submarines. The day at sea has long been divided into watches, which are called: Midwatch or Balls to 4 (0000 to 0400); morning or rev (reveille) watch (0400 to 0800); forenoon watch (0800 to 1200); afternoon watch (1200 to 1600); dog watches (1600-1800 and 1800-2000); and the first watch (2000 to 2400).
Watch condition: Ship's readiness condition:(Denoted by Roman numerals) I: maximum readiness (GQ) all hands at their battle stations, material condition Zebra set (maximum damage control readiness.) IA: ("One Alpha") Modified GQ to conduct amphibious operations. IE or Modified GQ, relaxed GQ condition during extended GQ period, primarily to allow chow; II: Similar to IA, for extended Naval Gunfire Support; III: Wartime cruising, higher state of readiness with some battle stations manned; IV: normal (peacetime) underway watch.
Water wars: Water fights in the engineering spaces, including the use of hot brine, disassembling ventilation ducting, rigging temporary air hoses, and dumping trash cans full of water on the deck. An important component of the war on boredom.
Water Wings: Derogatory term used (usually by Naval Aviators), for the Surface Warfare Officer qualification badge.
WAVES: Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Services.
Wayspouse: Sailors' spouses waiting on the pier, if sufficiently overweight that they could be used as navigation waypoints.
WEFT: Typically it stands for "Wings, Exhaust (or Engine, for prop aircraft), Fuselage, Tail" and is a method by which ship's lookout stations can visually identify aircraft within the vicinity. However, since training for this tends to be spotty at best, identification of aircraft is often incorrect, leading to the second definition: "Wrong Every Fucking Time."
Welded to the Pier: A Ship being in an extended period of refit at a shipyard or naval base, which prevents it from making ready for sea for several months or longer. Can also refer to a ship that rarely goes to sea.
WESTPAC: While this usually refers to the western Pacific area of operations, it can also refer to a type of deployment in which a unit heads to multiple locations throughout said area. Often used in, "Damn, we just did a six-month WESTPAC, barely got home for a week, and now we're heading out again?"
WESTPAC widow: Sailor's wife looking for a temporary fling, often with another sailor.
Wet Suit Camel Toe: A disturbing sight caused by a (usually older and) fatter rescue swimmer attempting to squeeze into his wet suit for SAR duty. Often seen entering and exiting helos that are providing SAR services.
Wet Willie: Joke played on a sleeping sailor by licking a finger, and sticking it into the unsuspecting sleeping sailor's ear to mimic the feel of a penis being inserted into the ear, usually met with several groans by onlookers.
Wetting down: Party celebrating a promotion/advancement or warfare qualification. Traditionally the metal device is dropped in a beer glass, and "wet down."
Wheels: A Quartermaster (QM).
Wheel Book: Green covered pocket-sized government issue notebook carried by most Petty Officers and Chiefs.
Whidbey Whale: A dependent wife that is Orca fat even though her husband has maintained the same basic size during their marriage
Whistling Shit Can of Death: CH-46 Seaknight Helicopter, described as such because of the whistling sound the engines make, and because the CH-46 has been prone to failures, and has killed its share of air crews.
White Rats: Tampons which appear after a sewage leak in the female head. Also, a sound powered telephone amplifier.
Whiz Quiz: "Piss Test," urinalysis.
Widow/Widower: Describes wives (and now husbands) with spouses on deployment. Single, for all intents and purposes, until the day their spouse returns from deployment. Prefaced by the type or theater of service the deployed spouse is in, e.g. "WESTPAC widow" or "Boomer Widow."
Wings: Naval Aviator or Naval Flight Officer breast insignia. Also the Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist breast insignia.
Wing-nut: See airdale.
Wire Biter: An electrician.
Wizzard: Topsider insult for a nuc. Refers to nucs' insistance to dress like Morpheus from the Matrix and propensity for playing Magic (The Gathering) and World of Warcraft endlessly.
Wolf Ticket: Highly suspect information. Can refer to malicious "scuttlebutt," exaggerated "no-shitters," or blatently phony sea stories.
Woop: A cadet at the US Military Academy (West Point).
Workups: 1- to 6-week periods preceding a deployment during which the ship and/or its airwing practice and prepare. Widely known workups involving the carrier and the airwing are TSTA, COMPTUEX, and RIMPAC. Airwing only workups include trips to NAS Fallon and NAS Key West.
Wrinkle Bomb: A uniform worn by a sailor that is wrinkled so badly that it looks like the sailor slept in it. See "Raisin."
"Wrong answer, RPOC!": What Company Commanders in boot camp would scream at the RPOC when he/unit screwed up. Immediately followed by, "Push up, position, Shitbags!" Example: "WHY THE FUCK DID YOU LET THEM MARCH BACK FROM CHOW?!?" "I thought you wanted us back early for the inspection, Sir!" "Wrong answer, RPOC!"
WTF (pronounced "Whiskey Tango Foxtrot" using the phonetic alphabet): "What the Fuck?" What just happened? Can also be in written form WTF K (with a line over the K) meaning "WTF Over"
Weaponette (Submarine Service): A member of a submarine's Weapons Department (used by members of the Navigation/Operations Department or Engineering Department, usually when they want their stolen tools back).
Wog: Short for "pollywog", as in "wog ceremony."
Wog Dog: Sailor acting as a vicious dog and part of the "Royal Party" during Shellback initiation.
Word Shitter: Another name for those embossing label makers. They "shit" words out when one squeezes the handle.
Working Party: When there is loading of supplies, the Quarterdeck will call for a "working party" to be manned by each division of the ship, the number depending on the task.
Would you like a kick to help you get airborne?: Seen on a numerical list of epithet substitutions, especially transmitted over radio, which has to stay clean.
W.U.N.A: World´s Ugliest Naval Aviator.
X[ edit ]
XO: Executive Officer: The second-in-Command of a ship, aviation squadron or shore command, second in authority to the Commanding Officer.
XOI: Executive Officer's Inquiry: A step in the non-judicial punishment process in which the wayward sailor appears before the executive officer (XO). After hearing the details of the case, the XO may recommend dismissal or refer it to the Commanding Officer (CO) for "Mast."
XO's Happy Hour: A daily, hour-long mandatory cleaning evolution. Usually introduced by XO on the 1MC.
X-Ray Fitting : (1) A hatch, scuttle or the like which in normal condition is closed both in-port and at-sea. (See material condition) (2) (see "Fan room") A room where contraband may be hidden or for sexual relations while at-sea (3) Historically, where a chief petty officer would take subordinates to "make" them comply (using several punches to the face).
Xox (verb): To enter engineering log data suspiciously similar to the previous hour's log data. Derived from " xerox ."
Y[ edit ]
Yardbird: A civilian shipyard worker.
YARFO: "You Ain't Reactor? Fuck Off." This slogan was adopted by Reactor Departments on CVNs in response to the Aviation Ordinace slogan "IYOYAS."
YGFBKM: "You've Got to Fucking Be Kidding Me!"
YGTBSM: "You've Got To Be Shitting Me!"
Z[ edit ]
Zero: Officer. Usually applied to a young junior officer, such as an O-1 (ENS / 2ndLt), and O-2 (LTJG / 1stLt) or an O-3 (LT / Capt).
Zippo: (1) A flame thrower attached to a small boat, or a boat so equipped. (2) (Derogatory) Nickname for the USS Forrestal (CV 59) after the fire on 29 July 1967 that killed 134 sailors and injured 161 on the aircraft carrier.
Zoomie: (1) An aviator; generally refers to a USAF pilot or navigator/combat systems officer. (2) (especially in the plural, " zoomies ") On a nuclear ship, a (nonstandard) unit of radiation, such as is present in a compartment containing or near nuclear weapons or a naval nuclear reactor. "I wouldn't go back there unless you want to get some zoomies!" Also used of radiation picked up on one's personal dosimeter (the radiation measuring devices worn by weapons- or nuclear-trained personnel). "How many zoomies did you get today?" (3) A cadet at the US Air Force Academy.
Zone inspection: A formal inspection of spaces conducted by a team headed by the XO.
ZUG: Negative. An obsolete / unofficial procedure signal. Retired RMs may often use ZUG in place of "no" or "negative."
ZUT: CW (Morse radiotelegraphy): "forever." An obsolete / unofficial procedure signal. Retired RMs may have a ZUT certificate or even a ZUT tattoo.
| i don't know |
Although the younger of the two leagues by 25 years (and sometimes called the Junior Circuit), which league has won 62 of the 106 World Series games played since 1903? The National League? Or the American league? | Eephus League Official Handbook by Bethany Heck - issuu
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THE OFFICIAL BASEBALL MINUTIAE HANDBOOK
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E “Baseball? It’s just a game - as simple as a ball and a bat. Yet, as complex as the American spirit it symbolizes. It’s a sport, business - and sometimes even religion.” – Ernie Harwell
B
aseball is a living, breathing entity. It has its own traditions, language and rules. And this entity is always growing. Baseball has remained relatively unchanged throughout its history, but new players, coaches, commentators and fans pass through each day and add to its culture. Baseball is obsessed with record keeping. Every pitch, out and hit is recorded by hundreds of people each day. Anyone who has ever lived in the land of baseball has been immortalized and codified on a stat sheet. The Eephus League of Baseball Minutiae is an offshoot of that spirit of codification and history making. This handbook is designed to be a stepping stone for those seeking to build a knowledge base of baseball minutiae. It is filled with quotes, trivia, facts and
diagrams regarding every part of our game, covering oddities and intricacies from the earliest days of the sport. The handbook is divided into 5 sections of information. The Framework chapter is dedicated to the history, rules and equipment in the game. The Language chapter covers the unique verbal facets of the game, from nicknames to colorful jargon. The Numbers section contains an overview on how to keep score, as well as a glossary of statistics. The National and American League chapters have brief histories of every current Major League team as well as information about their ballparks. Each section contains a wealth of illustrations and trivia to enrich your knowledge of the game. We hope you find this to be an invaluable resource in your quest for more baseball knowledge.
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Framework Introduction
1 “The game of base ball has now become beyond question the leading feature of the outdoor sports of the United States ... It is a game which is peculiarly suited to the American temperament and disposition; … in short, the pastime suits the people, and the people suit the pastime.”
B
aseball evolved from the British game of rounders, and is a cousin to cricket in that it also involves two teams that alternate on defense and offense and involve throwing a ball to a batsman who attempts to “bat” it away and run safely to a base. The first documentation of base ball is in 1838, but there are references to a game of base ball going back to the late 1700s. The first published rules of baseball were written in 1845 for a New York base ball club called the Knickerbockers. The author, Alexander Joy Cartwright, is one person commonly known as “the father of baseball.” Cartwright laid out rules for playing the game
for the first time, and made one important change. No longer could an out be recorded by “plugging” a runner (hitting him with the ball). The rules required fielders to tag or force the runner, which is still the rule today. Many of these original rules are still in effect today. The first professional team was formed in 1869 (the Cincinnati Red Stockings), and it gained in popularity to become United States’ “national pastime” in the late 1800s. The two major leagues were formed in 1876 (National League) and 1903 (American League) and the first modern World Series, pitting the two champions of the leagues against each other at the end of the season.
Framework Introduction
4
Balls
“No game in the world is as tidy and dramatically neat as baseball, with cause and effect, crime and punishment, motive and result, so cleanly defined.” – Paul Gallico
THE HISTORY Because of the equipment, baseball in the 19th century was very different than today. Balls were “dead” and didn’t travel as far, and players were looser with the rules involving spitballs and other tactics that are no longer legal. With the birth of the World Series and the two major leagues, baseball embarked on a golden age in the early 20th century. From 1900-1919, the “dead ball” was still used, and was a game dominated by great pitchers such as Walter Johnson, Christy Mathewson and Cy Young. A rule change in 1920 prohibited doctoring of the ball by pitchers, and a new era began. One player, Babe Ruth, changed the game forever by introducing the power hitter to baseball. The basic rules for the game of baseball are quite simple, and have remained fairly static from the days of Ruth. There are nine innings in professional baseball games, and each inning is divided in half to the top of the inning (when the visiting team hits and the home team plays defense) and the bottom of the inning (when the home team hits and the visiting team plays defense). Each team gets three outs in each half of every inning.
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History
Each team has nine players in its batting order, and they must stick to that order throughout the game (players may substitute in for other players). A play begins with a batter waiting to hit a pitch from the pitcher. If the batter hits the ball into the field of play, the batter runs to first base and can run to as many bases as he or she deems fit without getting “out.” A batter gets three strikes (a swing and a miss or a ball over the plate in what’s deemed the “strike zone” by an umpire) or he or she is out. If there are four balls (a pitch that is not in the “strike zone”), the batter is automatically allowed to go to first base. A batter gets a “hit” when he or she reaches a base without getting out, or forcing another runner to get out (and without the defense making an error). Runs are scored when a player completes a circuit of the diamond before there are three outs in the inning. The following page contains Alexander Carwright’s original Knickerbocker rules, written in 1845. Many of the precendents established then are still in effect today, though the rules have shifted decidely towards an increase in the ease of creating offensive production, which has helped the sport’s popularity.
The KNICKERBOCKER RULES 1st Members must strictly observe the time agreed upon for exercise, and be punctual in their attendance. 2nd When assembled for exercise, the President shall appoint an Umpire, who shall keep the game in a book provided for that purpose, and note all violations of the By-Laws and Rules during the time of exercise.
3rd The presiding officer shall designate two members as Captains, who shall retire and make the match to be played.
11th Three balls being struck at and missed and the last one caught, is a hand-out; if not caught is considered fair, and the striker bound to run.
The Bouncing Ball To understand how much of an emphasis was put on defense in the early days of baseball, one only has to glance at the original rules. Balls caught on the first bounce were considered outs, and balls that bounced over the fence yeiled only one base, instead of the 2 granted in modern play.
So Far off Base
12th If a ball be struck, or tipped, and caught, either
The distance between bases on the diamond changed several times in the sport’s early years. 80 feet favored the offense too greatly and 100 the defense, so 90 feet was accepted as a happy medium.
13th A player running the bases shall be out, if the ball is in the hands of an adversary on the base, or the runner is touched with it before he makes his base; it being understood, however, that in no instance is a ball to be thrown at him.
4th The bases shall be from “home� to second base, forty-two paces. 5th No stump match shall be played on a regular day
of exercise.
6th
If there should not be a sufficient number of members of the Club present, gentlemen not members may be chosen in to make up the match.
7th If members appear after the game is commenced, they may be chosen in if mutually agreed upon.
8th The game to consist of twenty-one counts, or aces; but at the conclusion an equal number of hands must be played. 9th The ball must be pitched, not thrown. 10th A ball knocked out of the field, or outside the range of the first and third base, is foul.
flying or on the first bound, it is a hand out.
14th A player running who shall prevent an adversary from catching or getting the ball before making his base, is a hand out.
15th Three hands out, all out. 16th Players must take their time to strike in regular
turn.
17th All disputes and differences relative to the game, to be decided by the Umpire, from which there is no appeal. 18th No ace or base can be made on a foul strike. 19th A runner cannot be put out in making one base, when a balk is made on the pitcher.
20th But one base allowed when a ball bounds out of the field when struck.
History
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6 Shortstop 6. 7 Left Fielder 7. 8 Center Fielder 8. 9 Right Fielder 9.
“When you're in a slump, it's almost as if you look out at the field and it's one big glove.” – Vance Law
Position breakdown Each baseball player on the field has his own unique set of skills and responsibilities. Different positions are best played by players with diffent talents. Middle infielders are quick on their feet and tend to be lesser offensive players, while the corner infielders are more stationary, with less defensive ability, and hit for more power. The center fielder is the swiftest of any of the outfielders. Catchers take abuse on every play, and have a large impact on the strategy of the game. The different positions also require different sets of equipment, most notably gloves. Infielders use small
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Position Breakdown
gloves that they have a lot of control over with small pockets, allowing the ball to be retrieved quickly as they try to throw out baserunners. First basemen and catchers use mitts to protext their hands as they receive dozens of hard thrown ball every night. Outfielders gloves have large pockets to help them make running grabs. Pitchers always use closed web gloves to conceal their grip on pitches as the wind up. Catcher’s obviously have the most specialized set of equipment in an attempt to protect themselves. The following is a basic overview of the responsibilities of each position, both on offense and defense.
1st Base The First Baseman’s main role is receiving throws on force plays to first base, resulting in him being involved in more plays than any players other than the pitcher and the catcher. First Basemen are traditionally power hitters, and speed as not as important a factor as it is with other infield positions. 2nd Base
The Second Baseman, being a middle infielder, needs to be quick on his feet and able to get rid of the ball quickly, as he is usually the key player when turning a double play. Second basemen are not usually power hitters, and tend to be smaller players.
3rd Base The Third Baseman has to make the longest throws of any of the infield positions, so a strong arm is very important. Third base is often referred to as the “Hot Corner” because of the frequency of hard hit balls to the position. Third Basemen has evolved into a power hitting position, much like first base. Shortstop The Shortstop is an evolution of a “short fielder”, someone who played very shallow in the outfield. Shortstops are the most mobile of the infielders and are usually the best athletes, needing to be quick on their feet and good fielders. Shortstops are usually not power hitters, and try to use bat control and speed to get on base. Pitcher The Pitcher is expected to attempt to field any ball hit up the center of the field. Pitchers are rarely considered good hitters in the National League, and in the American League, a Designated Hitter bats in place of the pitcher.
The Tenth Man On January 11, 1973, the American League owners voted 8-4 to approve the designated hitter as a replacement for a hitting pitcher for a three-year trial run. Almost 30 years later, the position is a mainstay for the American League, but has not been accepted in the National League.
Catcher The Catcher is the most unique defensive
position on the baseball field. In addition to fielding pitches from the pitcher, the catcher has to try to throw out potential base stealers. Most catchers do not excel at the offesnive aspects of baseball.
Left Fielder The Left Fielder typically has the weakest arm of any of the outfield positions, because left field is usually the most shallow part of a ballpark. Left fielders are usually good hitters who don’t have the defensive skills to play any other position.
Always Helping Out
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Tris Speaker, an American League Center Fielder who played from 1907-1928 holds the record for most assists in a year by an outfielder.
Center Fielder The Center Fielder has the most ground to cover in the outfield, so center fielders are usually fast runners and have good throwing arms. Center fielders are usually not power hitters, making up for a lack of offensive skills with defensive prowess. Right Fielder The Right Fielder typically has the
strongest arm of any of the outfield positions, because right field is usually the deepest part of a ballpark. Right Fielders are traditionally power hitters, and usually the best offensive outfielders play in right field.
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“Well, boys, it’s a round ball and a round bat and you got to hit the ball square.” – Joe Schultz, 1969
The equipment Among all the major sports, baseball allows for the most personal customization amonst positions and individual players. Different positions require different gloves, different catchers prefer certain mask styles, and almost every player has his own personalized bat. There is a large amount of equipment required for a game of baseball. Obviously, a major league sanctioned ball is needed, as well as gloves for all 9 players. A baseball diamond with 3 bases and home plate is also a must, though the variation in park sizes is immense.
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Catchers need special mitts to handle the high speed pitches from the pitcher, as well as protection for their body, and umpires have their own mask preferences and option in protective gear. This section is a general overview of the most used equipment in baseball games, and why all the variation has crept into the game. Though the rules of baseball have remained relatively static throughout its history, the equipment is one of the most dynamically evolving aspects of the game.
The Ball The materials and methods used used to create baseballs has changed drastically since the sport’s inception, particularily the tightness with which the ball is wound, and the material used to make up the core of the ball. Early baseballs were not wound as tightly as modern balls, causing them to deaden the force inflicted on them, resulting in far less offense than is seen in modern baseball. Baseballs have traditionally had cork cores, however, during material shortages due to WW2, rubber centers were used for a time.
Short Life of a Ball 1. Cork Core The core of the baseball is a small sphere of cork that forms the central part of the ball.
2. Rubber Layers Approximately 600,000 baseballs are used by all Major League teams combined during the course of a season. The average baseball remains in play for only four to seven pitches in a Major League game. In the early years of the sport, only one ball was typically used in each game, unless it was too damaged to be usable; balls hit into the stands were retrieved by team employees in order to be put back in play, as is still done today in most other sports. Over the course of a game, a typical ball would become discolored due to dirt, and often tobacco juice and other materials applied by players; damage would also occur, causing slight rips and seam bursts. However, after the 1920 death of batter Ray Chapman after being hit in the head by a pitch, an effort was made to keep clean, undamaged balls in play. The cover of the ball was traditionally horsehide through 1973, but due to dwindling supplies cowhide was introduced in 1974. Under the current rules, a major league baseball weighs between 5 and 5.25 ounces, and is 9 to 9.25”
Two layers of rubber are molded around the surface of the cork center.
3. Yarn Winding Yarn wound around the center of the ball to give it an increased circumference and added weight.
4. Leather Cover The ocver of a baseball is made from two piece of white leather that are stitched together, often with red yarn. in circumference, which translates to a diameter of 2 7/8” to 3”. There are 108 double stitches on a baseball Today, several dozen baseballs are used in a typical professional game, due to scratches, discoloration, and undesirable texture that can occur during the game. Balls hit out of the park for momentous occasions (record setting, or for personal reasons) are often requested to be returned by the fan who catches it, or donated freely by the fan. Usually the player will give the fan an autographed bat and/or other autographed items in exchange for the special ball.
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Bats Baseball bats in the early days of baseball came in all shapes and sizes. In the 1850’s baseball was an extremely young sport and batters made their own bats and experimented with bats of all varieties (long, short, flat, heavy). They quickly learned that bats with rounded barrels seemed to work the best. Because bats of all shapes and sizes were being used, a rule was made in 1859 that bats could be no larger than 2.5 inches in diameter, although they could be of any length. Ten years later in 1869, another rule was added that stated the baseball bat could be no longer than 42 inches in length - the same maximum length allowed today. At this time there was no rule regarding the shape of the bat. In fact, some players sometimes used bats with flat surfaces when bunting. Although using a stick to hit a ball is a somewhat simple concept, the bat is a complex object. It is
Sawed Off
Bats rapidly wear down over the course of a season, flaking away through constant use and often breaking on poor swings, which result in the ball striking the bat away from the sweet, wide spot of the bat. On average a player will go through approximately 100 bats over the course of a season.
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30oz - 34” = -4 The bat drop of a baseball bat is its weight (in ounces) minus its length (in inches). For example the bat that Ted Williams used was a 30-ounce, 34 inch long bat has a bat drop of minus 4 (30 - 34 = -4). Larger bat drops help to increase swing speed. Bats with smaller drops create more power. carved or constructed very carefully to allow for a quick, balanced swing while providing power. The bat is divided into several regions. The barrel is the thick part of the bat, where the bat is meant to hit the ball. The part of the barrel best for hitting the ball, according to construction and swinging style, is often called the sweet spot. The end of the barrel is not part of the sweet spot, and is simply called the tip or end of the bat. The barrel narrows, and becomes the handle. The handle is very thin, so that batters can comfortably set the bat in their fingers. Sometimes the handle is wrapped with a rubber or cloth grip. Finally, next to the handle is the knob of the bat, a wider piece that keeps the bat from sliding out of a batter’s hands. Over the centuries, the baseball bat’s form has become more refined. During the 19th century, many shapes were experimented with, as well as handle designs. Today, the baseball bat is much more uniform in design.
Barrel
Narrowing
Tip
“Well, boys, it’s a round ball and a round bat and you got to hit the ball square.” – Joe Schultz, 1969 Most wooden bats are made from ash. Other natural materials used include maple tree wood, hickory wood, and bamboo. Hickory has fallen into disfavor because it is much heavier than other woods, while maple bats have become more popular recently. This ascent in popularity followed the introduction of the first major league sanctioned maple baseball bat in 1997, by craftsman Sam Holman, founder of Sam Bat. The first player to use it was Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays. Barry Bonds used the bats the season that he broke Mark McGwire’s single-season home run record in 2001 and Hank Aaron’s career home run record in 2007. Recently, Major League Baseball has debated whether maple bats are safe to use, due to the tendency for them to shatter. Within the standards set by the various leagues, there is ample latitude for individual variation, and many batters settle on an individual bat profile, or occasionally adopt a profile used by another batter. Formerly, bats were hand-carved to a template obtained from a fixed number of calibration points; today, they are machine-turned to a precise metal template: these
templates are kept in the bat manufacturers’ vaults; for example, Babe Ruth’s template, which became understandably popular among major-league players, is R43 in the Louisville Slugger archives. Once the basic bat has been turned, it is then branded by burning, with the manufacturer’s name, the serial number, and often the signature of the player for whom it was made: the brand is applied to the hard side of the bat, allowing the batter visual control of the hardness of the surface hitting the ball; the burn residue is then sanded off. (The first player to endorse and sign a bat was Honus Wagner.) The next step is the finishing of the head: bats are more often given a rounded head, but some 30% of players prefer a “cup-balanced” head, in which a cup-shaped recess is made in the head; this lightens the bat and moves its center of gravity toward the handle. Finally, the bat is stained in one of seven standard colors, which include natural white, red stain, black, and a two-tone blue and white stain. The baseball bat is a very personal object to any baseball player, just as much as their uniform or glove, and one that they have extraordinary control over, from weight, to length, material and even color.
The Equipment
1900’s
1940’s
The Uniform In addition to the tools ballplayers use to play the game of baseball, there is another crucial set of equipment they all have: a uniform. The New York Knickerbockers were the first baseball team to wear uniforms, taking the field on April 4, 1849 in pants made of blue wool, white flannel shirts and straw hats. The practice of wearing a uniform soon spread, and by 1900, all Major League Baseball teams had adopted them. By 1882 most uniforms included stockings, which covered the leg from foot to knee, and were used to differentiate one club from another. The uniforms themselves had different colors and patterns that reflected the different baseball positions. In the late 1880s, the Detroit Wolverines and Washington Nationals of the National League and the Brooklyn Bridegrooms of the American Association were the first to wear striped uniforms. By the end of the 19th century, teams began the practice of wearing one of two different uniforms, one when they played in their own baseball stadium and a different one when they played on the road. It became common to wear white at home and one of gray, solid dark blue, or black on the road. An early examples of this is the Brooklyn Superbas, who started to use a blue pattern for their road uniforms in 1907. In 1916, on the Giants’ road uniforms, purple lines gave their uniforms a tartan-like effect and another kind of road uniform was a solid dark blue or black material with white around this time. Some teams used light blue for their road uniforms from the 1970s to the early 1990s. Early striped patterns developed into long stripes along the length of the uniforms, called
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pinstriping. This was first worn on some major league baseball team’s uniforms in 1907, and the pinstripes were then widened in 1912, so that the crowd could see them more clearly.
Away from Home N AME
8
N AME
8
Traditionally, home uniforms are predominantly white, and road uniforms are grey or black. The Brooklyn Bridegrooms started to use pinstriping in 1907, 1916 and 1917. Satin and other items were added soon after pinstripes were added. Pinstripes were commonly worn on the uniforms of the New York Yankees. Legend had it that the stripes were adopted to make Babe Ruth look slimmer, but since the Yankees had already been wearing pinstripes a few years before Ruth played for them in 1920, the legend was found to be a myth. In 1916, the Cleveland Indians became the first team to add numbers on their uniforms, positioned on the left sleeve of the home uniforms only. In 1929, numbers were first added on the backs of uniforms by the New York Yankees and the Cleveland Indians. By 1932, all major league baseball teams had numbers on their players’ uniforms. The Brooklyn
The Red Hatter PITCHERS CATCHERS 1ST BASE 2ND BASE 3RD BASE SHORTSTOP LEFT FIELDER CENTER FIELDER RIGHT FIELDER
Light Blue Scarlet Scarlet with White Stripes Orange with Black Stripes Blue with White Stripes Maroon White Red with Black stripes Grey
but some persisted with flat-topped caps, such as the Giants in 1916, and the Pittsburgh Pirates as recently as during the 1979 World Series. In recent years, baseball caps have changed very little, although over time, the peak has enlarged slightly to further protect the player’s eyes from the sun.
Vanishing Stirrups
In the early days of baseball, the position that a person played was marked by what color hat their wore. Dodgers, in 1952, became the first baseball team to add numbers to the fronts of their uniforms. Major league teams typically assign the highest numbers (#50 and above) in spring training to the players who are not expected to make the regularseason roster; hence the lower numbers are considered more prestigious, although there are many veterans who wear high numbers anyway. Two Hall of Famers who wore high numbers are Don Drysdale, who wore #53 for the Brooklyn and Los Angeles Dodgers and Carlton Fisk, who wore #72 for the Chicago White Sox. Caps, or other types of headgear with eye-shades, have been a part of baseball uniforms from the beginning. Baseball teams often wore full-brimmed straw hats or no cap at all since there was no official rule regarding headgear. From the 1840s to the 1870s, baseball players various types of hats, such as straw hats, boating caps, jockey caps, and even cycling caps. Caps, or other types of headgear with eye-shades, have been a part of baseball uniforms since the beginning. The Brooklyn Excelsiors were the first team to wear what would later become the baseball cap, with its distinctive rounded top and peak, in the 1860s. By the early years of the twentieth century, it became common for players to wear hats with rounded tops,
Once an integral part of the baseball uniform, stirrup socks have become a rarity in the sport, only worn by a handful of modern day players. Inspired by the Cincinnati Red Stockings, the stocking colors of teams in the 1860s onward were a principal device in distinguishing one team from another (hence team names such as Chicago White Stockings, St. Louis Brown Stockings (or Browns), etc.). Except for a few “candy-cane” varieties (particularly by the Giants, St. Louis Cardinals and Washington Senators), striping was quite minimal during the 1920s and, in contrast, a revival of other sorts in the early ‘30s. By the 1990s, new styles of close-trimmed pants legs made it possible for players to wear pants that ran clear to the shoetops, in lieu of the traditional kneebreeches style that had prevailed for generations, and into the 21st century, players began favoring a looser cut of the full length pant, and the once standard practice of wearing stirrup socks has slowly died out, leaving only a few players wearing them.
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“I can sit in a ballpark after a game and love looking at the field. Everybody’s gone, and the ballpark is empty, and I’ll sit there. I sit there and think, ‘Is this as close to heaven as I’m going to get?’ Or, ‘If I get to heaven, will there be baseball?” – Kim Braatz-Voisard
The Diamond The baseball field is one of the most unique facets of the game of baseball. While there are elements to the field which remain uniform across each stadium, every ballpark is extremely unique, with it’s own design aesthetics, playing surfaces and dimensions. The basic layout of the diamond has been little changed since the original Knickerbocker Rules of the 1840s. The distance between bases was already established as 90 feet, which it remains to this day. Through trial and error, 90 feet had been settled upon as the optimal
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The Diamond
distance. 100 feet would have given too much advantage to the defense, and 80 feet too much to the offense. As athleticism has improved on both sides of the equation, 90 feet remains the appropriate balance between hitting and fielding, as it continues to provide frequent tests between the speed of a batter-runner and the throwing arm of a fielder. Outisde of the diamond is considered fair game and the configurations allowed are very diverse, with different ballparks having a wild vareity of space, wall distances and shapes in both fair and foul territory.
Mound to Plate It is the pitching distance, and other aspects of the pitcher’s mound, and of pitching itself, that have been tinkered with from time to time over the many decades, in an effort to keep an appropriate balance between pitching and hitting. In contrast to the distance between the bases, which seems natural enough, the very specific pitching distance of 60 feet 6 inches is one of those sports oddities that seems like a mistake unless one knows the history: By the time major league baseball began in the 1870s, the pitcher was compelled to pitch from within a “box” whose front edge was 45 feet from the “point” of home plate. Although he had to release the ball before crossing the line, as with bowlers in cricket, he also had to start his delivery from within the box; he could not run in from the field as bowlers do. Furthermore,
he had to throw underhand. By the 1880s, pitchers had mastered the underhand delivery quite well. The year 1880 saw two perfect games within a week of each other. In an attempt to “increase the batting”, the front edge of the pitcher’s box was moved back 5 feet in 1881, to 50 feet from home plate. The greater distance between the pitcher’s box and home plate allowed for better pitch recognition and more reaction time. The size of the box was tinkered with over the next few years. Pitchers were allowed to throw overhand starting in 1884, and that tilted the balance of power again. In 1887, the box was set at 4 feet wide and 5 1/2 feet deep, with the front edge still 50 feet from the plate. However, the pitcher was compelled to deliver the ball with his back foot at the 55 1/2 foot line of the box, thus somewhat restricting his ability to “power” the ball with his overhand delivery. In 1893, the box was replaced by the pitcher’s plate. Exactly 5 feet was added to the point the pitcher had to toe, again “to increase the batting” (and hopefully to increase attendance, as fan interest had flagged somewhat), resulting in the peculiar pitching distance of 60 1/2 feet.
‘45
1887
1893
The distance between the pitcher’s mound and home plate was changed several times during the early years of baseball.
Originally, the pitcher threw from flat ground, but over time the mound was developed, tipping the balance back towards pitching dominance somewhat. The dirt path between the pitcher and the catcher was once as wide as the pitchers box and resembled the “pitch” area used in the game of cricket. Sometimes this path extended through the batting area and all the way to the backstop. Once the rounded pitcher’s mound was developed, the path became more ornamental than practical, and was entirely abandoned by the late 1940s, although some recent teams (such as the Detroit Tigers) re-created the path in their new ballparks, for nostalgic reasons.
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Home Plate In addition to the variations to the distance from pitcher to hitter, something that was also constantly evolving in early baseball was the shape of home plate. The base went through several different iterations before arriving at the iconic shape we know today. The modern day design offers a number of advantages, including being safer than harder materials as well as making it easier for umpires to determine balls and strikes.
During the Winter of 1899/1900 The Rules Committee elected to re-design the configuration of home plate, introducing the five-sided figure in use today. This design is a 17” square with the plate’s left and right far corners eliminated. The stated intent of the design change was to provide the pitcher with a larger target at which to aim. An unintended side effect provided the umpire with a better view of whether or not the pitch cut the plate.
During the early stages of baseball, home plate was circular in shape. Whatever object was available could and would be used (wood, cast iron, stone, white marble), and sometimes the object was a dish. Thus, the name plate came into use. In 1869 "home base" was transformed into a 12-inch square shape. The square was put into the ground with one point directed towards the pitcher and the opposite point directed toward the catcher. The disadvantage of the square shape was that it was difficult for both the umpires and the pitchers to pinpont the strike zone.
Going Home
There must have been a significant number of injuries from players sliding across a hard plate because in 1885 the American Association directed that home plate be made of rubber that year; The National League mandated the conversion to a rubber plate two years later (1887).
Pre-1866 Wood, Cast Iron or Stone 12” diameter
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1869-1885 Stone or White Marble 12” Square
It is remarkable how similar the 19th century baseball batters area is to the modern design, even with a different home plate shape.
1885-1899 White Rubber 16” across
1899-Present White Rubber 17” across
17” 8.5”
15”
15”
“Ninety feet between home plate and first base may be the closest man has ever come to perfection.” ~Red Smith
The Infield Bases The first written mention of the dimensions of the bases was mentioned in the 1857 playing rules. It was specified that the bases were to cover one square foot, made of canvas, painted white and filled with sand or saw-dust. The design of a baseball base has not changed since the proliferation of baseball in the mid-nineteenth century. It began as a white canvas bag with a soft filling. While the location of baseball bases have been moved around the field a little since then, the components of baseball bases retain a similar appearance. Baseball bags are slightly larger now and some are made of rubber rather than canvas, but they are essentially the same. Traditional baseball bases are wrapped in a white canvas or rubber covering. The official rulesonly stipulate that bases contain soft-filling. Historically, sawdust and sand have been popular materials. In recent years, foam has become a common filling for bases. Modern professional bases have a stanchion that is used to
attach the bases to the playing field. A stanchion is similar in appearance to a spike and is inserted into a corresponding hole on the playing field. Some cheaper bases have a hard plastic waffled bottom that grips the playing field to keep it in place. According to Eric Miklich at the website 19th Century Baseball, the oldest known baseball base specifications were written in 1857. Bases were to be canvas bags filled with sand or sawdust. The bags would be painted white, attached to the field at the corners, and their dimensions were required to be one square foot. The overall size of a baseball base hasmorphed over time. It is now 15 inches square and between three to five inches thick. These three bases combine with home plate to form the ouline of the baseball diamond, where the majority of the action occurs. The pitcher’s mound rests directly in the middle of the diamond.
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The Outfield The outfield is made from thick grass or artificial turf. It is where the outfielders play. The positions to play in the outfield are right, center, and left field (named in relation to the batter’s position; thus left field is beyond third base and right field is beyond first base). Outfields vary in size and shape depending on the overall size and shape of the playing field. The warning track typically refers to the strip of dirt in front of the home run fence. Because the warning track’s color and feel differs from the grass outfield, an outfielder can remain focused on a fly ball near the fence and take his proximity to the fence into consideration while attempting to catch the ball safely. It is also used for grounds maintenance so as to not drive on the grass field. A warning track is also a common feature along the left and right sides of a field. A warning track’s width varies from field to field. It is generally designed to give about three steps of warning to the highest level
Going Yard
542’
The first ballpark used by the American League in New York City was Hilltop Park. The park got its name because it was situated on the top of a hill overlooking the Hudson River. The deepest part of the park was just left of center field and was over 540 feet from home plate, making it one of the deepest parts of any park in baseball history.
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players using the field. Typical widths run from about six feet for Little League fields to about 10–15 feet for college- or professional-level play. The track can be composed of finely ground rock particles such as cinders, which is why announcer Bob Wolff called it the “cinder path” rather than the “warning track”. The idea of a warning track originated in Yankee Stadium, where an actual running track was built for use in track and field events. When ballpark designers saw how the track helped fielders, it soon became a feature of every ballpark. Despite the warning track’s presence, it is common to see outfielders crash into the wall to make a catch, due either to a desire to field the play regardless of the outcome or because they fail to register the warning. For this reason, outfield walls are typically padded for extra safety, where feasible. Wrigley Field’s brick wall is covered only by ivy, which is not especially soft. There are pads on the walls of the tight left and right field corners in foul ground. Warning-track power is a derogatory term for a batter who seems to have just enough power to hit the ball to the warning track for an out, but not enough to hit a home run. The term more generally refers to someone or something that is almost but not quite good enough for something. The outfield wall is the wall that separates the outfield from the out of play zone. Certain ballparks give up more home runs depending on the height of their walls. Fenway Park’s left field wall, the “Green Monster”, is the tallest of these walls at 37 ft. Many ballparks have padding on the walls for the protection of outfielders trying to make plays and some others are covered by chain link fences or even organic materials, such as ivy. Many modern ballparks feature LED scoreboards embedded within the outfield walls, which are covered
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Wall Depth
with a fencing material to allow outfielders to climg it without damanging the electronics. Besides Fenway Park, there are other stadiums with unique outfield walls. Wrgley Field is famous for its outfield walls which are covered by ivy. In the first weeks of the baseball season, the ivy has not leafed out, and all that is visible are the vines on which it grows. However, as the baseball season progresses further into spring, the ivy grows thick and green, disguising the hard brick surface of the outfield wall. In San Diego’s Petco Park, The Western Metal Supply Co. building, a hundred-year old brick structure that had been scheduled for demolition to make way for the baeball park, was saved and incorporated into the design of the ballpark. The building was renovated and contains the team store, private suites, a restaurant and rooftop
Fenway Park is the best baseball stadium to reference when showing the amount of variety in wall heights and depths in each major league park. The famous “Green Monster”, the main wall in left field, is both the highest wall (at 37 feet, 2 inches) and the shortest distance between a wall and home plate (310 feet) in the majors. To contrast, the center field area, known as “the Triangle” is 420 feet deep at it’s greast distance from home plate.
seating. The southeast corner of the building serves as the left field foul pole, and is protected by a strip of bright yellow angle iron. At Minute Maid Park, the dead-center wall is 436 ft (133 m) from home plate. Fielding is a challenge there as well, due to the 90-foot (27 m) wide center field incline known as Tal’s Hill. No two outfields are the same shape or depth, and many teams are built around the characteristics of the stadium they play in. Certain fields favor right or left handed hitters, and certain fields favor the offensive or defense. Ballpark fields are also differentiated by the type of grass grown in the field, and certain fields even use an artificial surface. In the middle of the 20th century, Astroturf was a common playing surface for indoor parks. Baseball diamonds are by far the most unique and varied sport fields.
The Diamond
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Language Introduction
2 “Baseball is an allegorical play about America, a poetic, complex, and subtle play of courage, fear, good luck, mistakes, patience about fate, and sober self-esteem.” – Saul Steinberg
C
learly, no other sport has contributed more words to American English than baseball. As Tristram Potter Coffin observed in The Old Ball Game (1971), “The true test comes in the fact that old ladies who have never been to the ballpark, coquettes who don’t know or care who’s on first, men who think athletics begin and end with a pair of goal posts, still know and use a great deal of baseball-derived terminology.” And “right off the bat,” of those terms, a few (just a “ballpark figure”) spring to mind. At one time or another, we’ve all been “shut out,” “caught flat-footed,” and then “left on the bench.” Invariably, just when we thought we were “batting a thousand,” we “choked” in the “clutch” and “struck out.” Oh, once we might have tried to “play the field,” maybe even “got to first
base.” But failing to keep an “eye on the ball,” we found ourselves “out in left field” or even “out of our league” altogether. “In a pinch,” we’ve probably “gone to bat” for a friend who had “taken his licks” and already had “two strikes against him.” This booklet is a starting point to get you familiar with some of the many intricacies in the language of baseball, from idioms that we use in everyday life to the jargon used by players and coaches. In addition to this world of vocabulary, there is also information about common superstitions that make up the more abstract anf fantastical nature of baseball. The last section is a look into the rich tradition of bestowing nicknames to players, based on physical attributes, playing style and even dietary preferences.
Language Introduction
HIT A GRAND SLAM Call in a pinch hitter Play ball
We need THEM to knock the cover off the ball
We’re down to our last out
“Go on and step up to the plate, pitch a shutout, swing for the fences, avoid any curveballs, knock it out of the park, cover your bases and play hardball.”
IDIOMS Baseball is important to Americans. In fact, it’s officially the “national pastime”. Most Americans grow up having a basic grasp of the game. Many American English idioms also are derived from the game of baseball. Chances are you use idioms derived from baseball on a daily basis and don’t even realize it. Baseball is so engrained in our culture that no one bats an eyelash when someone says “Step up to the plate!” It is a testament to the longetivity of baseball that these phrases are still such an integral part of our language.
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Idioms
Paul Dickson says in his introduction to The New Dickson Baseball Dictionary, “The influence of baseball on American English at large is stunning and strong.” No other sport has contributed so richly to American English as baseball. Slang terms (as distinct from jargon) have evolved a usage and meaning independent of baseball and are often used by those with little knowledge of the game. Many of these terms are deeply entrenched in the American psyche; many have spread to other dialects of English, such as Canadian English.
“I would say that number is in the ballpark.” Ballpark “Ballpark” has been used to mean a broad
area of approximation or similarity, or a range within which comparison is possible. A “ballpark figure” or “ballpark estimate”, one that is reasonably accurate, dates to 1967. The meaning of “out of the ball park” is to hit a home run; its non-baseball equivalent is to do something well or exactly as it should be done.
Bat Getting an opportunity to contribute; your opportunity to shine. Also can mean stepping in for someone as a substitute, being an aid to someone in need. “Going to bat” for someone. See also “Pinch Hitter”.
ball league and therefore its players (as in bush-league pitcher etc.). Oxford English Dictionary cites its first baseball use as 1906, non-baseball in 1914.
cat bird seat an advantageous position. It is a popular expression among baseball broadcasters as they sit high above the ballpark. Charley horse sudden stiffness or cramp in the leg. Of unknown etymology; CDS cites its first use c. 1887 as baseball slang; Oxford English Dictionary states such cramps occur “especially in baseball players” and cites this usage to 1888. Cover One’s Bases Ensure safety. In baseball, a defensive player covers a base by standing close to it, ensuring a runner can not reach it safely. In business, covering one’s bases means being prepared for every possible contingency.
Batting A Thousand Getting everything in a series of items right. In baseball, someone with a batting average of one thousand (written as 1.000) has had a hit for every at bat in the relevant time period (e.g. in a game). AHDI dates its non-baseball usage to the 1920s.
“That problem was a real curveball, I was surprised.”
“This is the Big Leagues, it’s time to play ball.”
Curveball A surprise, often completely and totally unexpected, and usually unpleasant. The curveball is a pitch in baseball designed to fool the batter by curving unexpectedly. AHDI dates this usage to the mid-1900s.
Big Leagues at the highest level; used as a noun (“You’re in the big leagues now”) or an adjective (“bigleague lawyer”). Oxford English Dictionary cites “big league” as specifically American major-league baseball, and cites its first use in 1899. Brush Back
To subvert or threaten verbally. In baseball, a nickname for any pitch intended to establish a pitcher’s command of the inside portion of the strike zone, usually involving throwing a pitch at or near a hitter who may be covering that portion of the strike zone.
Bush-League amateur, unsophisticated, unprofessional. From the baseball term for a second-rate base-
Down To The Last Out To have just one last chance, to be near the end of the competition. Also sometimes expressed as “down to the last strike”, or similarly, “the bottom of the ninth.”
“He put his foot in the bucket and failed.” Foot In The Bucket To act timidly or cowardly. A batter who steps away from home plate with his leading foot (in fear of being struck by a pitched ball) instead of a straight-ahead stride is said to be “stepping in the bucket”.
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“It ain’t over till it’s over!” Yogi Berra
Grand Slam Any sudden sweeping victory. A batter who hits a home run with bases loaded has hit a fourrun “grand slam”, a term originally borrowed from contract bridge for winning thirteen tricks. Aside from baseball, the term now refers to a situation which may or may not end badly for the protoganist but from which he emerges as an obvious winner.
“It’s time to start playing some real hardball.” Hardball (Be or act) tough, aggressive. Refers to the comparison between balls in baseball and softball. As a synonym for baseball, Oxford English Dictionary dates this use of “hardball” to 1883. Heavy Hitter A powerful or commanding person, a leader. In baseball a heavy hitter is a slugger, someone who hits a lot of extra base hits or home runs. In business, the heavy hitters may be those who draw the most clients or make the most sales, or who serve a leadership role in the organization. Knock It Out Of The Park To achieve complete or even a spectacular success; compare home run, below. A home run is automatically scored when a batter strikes the ball with such force as to hit it out of the stadium or playing field. Hit Or Miss To either achieve success or completely fail. Referencing a baseball batter’s swing at a pitched ball, and the two results that could occur.
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“It was a great success, a real home run.” Home run A complete success (opposite of strike out); often used in the verb phrase “hit a home run”. Synonymous with “knocking it out of the park”. inside baseball Within the sport, “inside baseball” refers to the stratagems that managers use to get their team to score runs, perhaps not as obvious as simply getting players to hit home runs or to catch the ball, but to do the little things that move runners towards home plate. Akin to the idea of playing small ball. Outside the game, “inside baseball” may refer to the behind-the-scenes machinations of politicians, bankers, or other professionals. “It ain’t over till it’s over!”
A famous quotation from baseball player Yogi Berra; one of many yogiisms. In sports, it means that a game is not over until time expires, the final out is registered, etc., and that the players need to stay mentally focused until the game is officially over.
“It’s like déjà vu all over again!”
Another famous (attributed) yogiism. It’s a redundant way of saying “Here we go again!” It has come into general circulation in the language to describe any situation that seems to be observably repeating itself.
Knock The Cover Off The Ball to succeed beyond expectation. Derived from the act of hitting
the ball exceptionally hard, so as to make the leather covering come off. Tearing the cover off the ball was possible in the early days of baseball, since a single ball was often used for the entire game (as also used to be the case in the game of cricket). Possibly derived from the poem Casey at the Bat, which features the verse, “And Blake, the much despis-ed, tore the cover off the ball.”
leadoff hitter In baseball, a leadoff hitter is a batter who bats first in the lineup. It can also refer to any batter who bats first in an inning. In other fields of endeavor the leadoff hitter is the one who goes first in a series.
Off Base Unawares or by surprise, usually in the phrase “caught off base”. Meaning misguided, mistaken, or working on faulty assumptions, this usage dates to 1940. Both of these uses derive from the situation of a runner being away from a base and thus in a position to being put out. On Deck Next in line to face a particular challenge. In baseball, a batter emerges from the dugout and loosens up in preparation of his at bat.
One step at a Time
“That really came out of left field, I was surprised.” Left Field Unusual, unexpected, or irrational. Rumored to originally describe fans who came to Yankee Stadium to see Babe Ruth (a right fielder, and also a left-handed hitter whose home runs most frequently went to right field) but who bought tickets for the wrong side of the field. Mendoza line — a line marking a very poor performance, referring to the Mendoza line of a .200 batting average in baseball. Ninth Inning An expression that an event or process is near the end – in the last of a nine-inning game. Referring to a trend in market expansion, a financial analyst may say “We’re in the eighth or ninth inning.”
“I took an O-fer today, I didn’t have any luck.” O-fer If a baseball batter gets 0 hits in 4 at-bats in a game, he’s said to have an “o-fer.” In business, an “o-fer” would be failing to make any sales.
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One Base At A Time In baseball a manager may adopt a strategy of moving runners along one base at a time rather than emphasizing power hitting and high scoring innings. In other walks of life, such a step-bystep approach may also be referred to as a one-base-ata-time approach.
“I am struggling with this proposal, I need a pinch hitter to help out.” Pinch Hit to act as a substitute or stand-in for someone, especially in an emergency. In baseball, sometimes a substitute batter would be brought in, especially at a crucial point in the game. A pinch hitter is someone who preforms a duty as a substitute to someone else.
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Pitch A Shutout to not allow an opponent any wins. In baseball, a shutout occurs when a pitcher does not allow the opponent any runs.
“It’s time to play ball and get this deal wrapped up very soon.” Play Ball To get going, or to start. Before every baseball game, and after a dead ball situation such as a foul ball or a time-out, the umpire traditionally shouts “play ball” in order to (re-)start the game. Rain check a ticket given to a spectator at an outdoor event providing for a refund of his or her entrance money or admission at a later date, should the event be interrupted by rain, or a (sometimes vague) promise to accept a social offer at an unnamed later date. rhubarb
A heated argument or noisy dispute; especially, between players on a playing field. Originally the word traditionally muttered by actors in a play to provide background noise. Online Etymology Dictionary attributes the “loud squabble on the field” usage to broadcaster Garry Schumacher in 1938, while Oxford English Dictionary and CDS both credit sportscaster Red Barber at a baseball game in 1943.
Right off the bat immediately; without any delay. “Say it ain’t so, Joe!” An expression of disbelief. A reference to the Black Sox scandal of 1919, when several members of the Chicago White Sox conspired
with gamblers to lose the World Series on purpose. When Shoeless Joe Jackson was implicated in the scandal, an apocryphal story says that a young fan approached him and said, “Say it ain’t so, Joe!”
Screwball Eccentric, zany, or crazy; Oxford English Dictionary dates this usage to 1933. The screwball is a rarely used pitch (because of its effect on the arm) that is intended to behave erratically — it “breaks” in the opposite direction a curveball would break. Step up to the plate To rise to an occasion in life. Refers to when a player must approach home plate to take a turn at batting. Oxford English Dictionary cites baseball usage in 1875, general usage in 1919.
“I’m afraid I really struck out on that date.” Strike In baseball, a strike is when the batter swings at and misses a pitch, or when the pitch crosses the strike zone without the batter swinging. The word strike has crept into common English usage to mean a failure or shortcoming. When a person has “gotten three strikes” and “struck out”, they have failed completely. The “three strikes laws” refer to more severe punishments for criminals with a third conviction. Someone seeking romance with another person may “strike out” and fail to impress on a first meeting. Swing And Miss To try and fail, like swinging a bat and missing the ball. This phrase is normally reserved for smaller mishaps and events that are not considered critical.
“Say it ain’t so, joe!” 042
Idioms
“You should always be on bases, and avoid being off of them. bases should also be touched and covered whenever possible.” Swing For The Fences To try for a substantial gain; to make big score. In baseball, to swing for the fences is to try to hit a home run. Occassionally this produces negative results. Switch-Hitter Refers to baseball players who are capable of hitting as a left-handed or right-handed batter. “Switch-hitting” can refer to an ability to perform double functions or roles. Switch hitters are excellent multitaskers and excel is a variety of roles.
“She took some nasty cuts at me yesterday.” Take Cuts At Someone
Touch Base
To ensure everyone has the same information. In baseball, a player who is touching a base is not in danger of being put out. Another explanation is that a player briefly touches each of the bases when he runs around after hitting a home run; therefore “touching base” is briefly checking in.
“This is right in my wheelhouse.” Wheelhouse
It is derived from the term for a batter’s power zone, usually waist high and over the middle of the plate. Pitches that are in a hitters wheelhouse are usually “grooved” down the middle of the plate at belt height.
In baseball, a batter swinging the bat at a ball is sometimes said to “take cuts” at the ball. A person who “takes cuts” at somebody else may be taking a verbal swing or striking a blow at the person’s reputation.
Whiff
Took The Collar
whole new ball game
from the phrase for failing to get any hits, leaving a zero on the scorecard, which resembles a collar. It can be used to indicate failure at something.
from the baseball term for when a batter swings and misses a pitch, often creating a “whiffing” sound from the bat speed.
In the most common usage, a “whole new ball game” or “brand new ball game” signifies a drastic turn of events, a completely altered situation.
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“That poor guy is a butcher in the field. I wish he would learn to dig it out. That banjo hitter slapped a daisy cutter right at him and he booted it into left field.”
Jargon In addition to the language that everyday people use that comes from baseball, those who coach, manage and play the game have a massive vocabulary of their own jargon. Paul Dickson’s “Baseball dictionary” contains over 7,000 words and phrases specific to baseball. Baseball jargon has become a universal language, recognized, understood and used routinely around the baseball world. Most players interpret very specific meanings from terms like “Cheese”, “Rabbit ears”, and “Fencebuster”. Coaches, managers and veteran players introduce these terms to younger players, who keep the terms alive by passing them on themselves as time passes.
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The boys of summer use it profusely. The crowd out at the ballpark hear baseball talk and terms which makes baseball seem like a festive live wire account of life being lived to the fullest.Many of the terms date back over 50 years, reflecting the respect for history and the longetivity of baseball. Baseball players are determined to keep the tradition alive and lend their sport with just a little more soul than your average athletic event. It’s these colorful pieces of language that flesh out a sport that could easily be dominated by numbers, statistics and math and make baseball the unique entity that it is.
5.5 hole The space between the third baseman and shortstop on the field. San Diego Padres icon Tony Gwynn made hitting balls through the 5.5 hole routine.
Butcher A very poor fielder.
Grocers & Baseball
Air Mail Slang for a fielder’s errant throw that sails
high over the player to whom he intended to throw it.
Aspirin Tablet Slang for a fastball that is especially hard to hit due to its velocity and/or movement. To batters who are in a slump, a pitched ball may appear to be much smaller than its actual size. Baltimore Chop
A short downward swing intended to make the ball rebound off home plate or the packed dirt immediately in front of the plate. The goal is to produce a bounce high enough so that, even if the ball can be fielded by an infielder the batter will reach first for a base hit. This was a tactic of the Baltimore Orioles of the National League in the 1890s. John McGraw is supposed to have had the earth in front of home plate compacted for this purpose.
“Listen to the twang of that bat, he’s a Banjo Hitter.” Banjo Hitter A batter who lacks power. The name
is said to come from the twanging sound of the bat at contact, like that of a banjo.
Bottom Dropped Out of It Sometimes said of a sinker or drop ball, implying that a pitch suddenly moved downward as if it fell through a trap door. Buck & Change A player batting between .100 and .199 is said to be batting “a buck and change” or, more specifically, the equivalent average in dollars (bucks) and cents (change). A batter batting .190 is said to be batting “a buck ninety”. bust him in To throw a fastball in on the hitter’s hands to back him off the plate or jam him.
Corn
Corn
Corn
When small markets were prevalent with just one grocer, the canned corn would be stored on the top shelves because it lasted for a long time. The common way to retrieve them was take a broomstick and knock the can toward you, catching it in the apron.
Can of Corn An easily-caught fly ball. Supposedly comes from a general store clerk reaching up and dropping a can from a high shelf. Captain Hook A manager who often takes a pitcher out of the game at the first sign of trouble. Sparky Anderson is perhaps the best example of a “Captain Hook” at the major league level. See hook. Cement Mixer A baseball pitched with the intent to break out of the strike zone that fails to break and ends up hanging in the strike zone; an unintentional slow fastball with side spin resembling a fixed-axis spinning cement mixer.
“Go give hime some high cheese, Ace!” Cheese A fastball, particularly one that reaches the mid- to upper-90s in velocity. Chin music A high and tight, up and in pitch meant to knock a batter back from home plate to avoid being hit on the chin. Also known as a brush-back pitch.
Jargon
Strike
2
Crackerjack A player or team with power and whom are exceptionally skilled. crank To hit a ball for extra bases, typically a home run. Also, a turn of the century (19th century) euphemism for baseball spectators, referring to the cranking of the turnstiles as they pass into the ballpark. Crooked number A number other than a zero or a one, referring to the appearance of the actual number. Daisy Cutter A hard-hit ground ball, close enough to the grass to theoretically be able to lop the tops off any daisies that might be growing on the field. Dance The term used to describe the erratic movement that defines a well-thrown knuckleball.
“Our Ace is really dealing some heat today.” Deal Delivery of a pitch, commonly used by play-byplay announcers as the pitcher releases the ball, e.g., “Smith deals to Jones”. Deuces Wild When a large quantity of the number “2” appears on the scoreboard at the same time: 2 baserunners, 2 outs, 2 balls and 2 strikes on the batter. Derived from poker term “deuces are wild”.
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Out
2
Dig it Out To field a ball on or near the ground. Usually a first baseman taking a low throw from another infielder. To “dig it out of the dirt.” Someone who digs it out would not be said to have “stone fingers”, or to be a “butcher”. Dirt-nap When a player trips or falls in the outfield or on the base paths. A blown save may also be referred to as a dirt-nap. Also used when two outfielders collide into each other on a play.
“He must be double parked with how fast he’s working this afternoon!” Double Parked A pitcher who is getting a lot of quick outs. Implies that he has parked his car illegally and is trying to get back to it and avoid a ticket, and this is why he is trying to get outs quickly. Duck Snort A softly hit ball that goes over the infielders and lands in the outfield for a hit. Originally called a “duck fart,” the term was popularized by White Sox announcer Hawk Harrelson to make it more family friendly. Ducks on the Pond Said when there are Runners on base. Used most frequently when the bases are
loaded and there are many runners on base. “His batting average is .350 when there are lots of ducks on the pond.”
2 Hours Difference
Eephus A very slow pitch with a high arcing trajectory. Invented by 1930s Pittsburgh Pirates hurler Rip Sewell and still seen occasionally in modern baseball. Elephant Ear(s) When the lining of a player’s pockets are sticking out of the pockets. Excuse Me Swing When a batter inadvertently makes contact during a check swing.
“That curveball really fell off the table.” Fall Off The Table A pitch is said to “fall off the
table” when it starts in the strike zone or appears hittable to the batter and ends low or in the dirt.
Fencebuster A slugger. Fastball Happy When a pitcher relies too much
on his fastball.
Fat Pitch A pitch that is located exactly where the
hitter is expecting it. The ball may look bigger than it actually is, and the batter may hit it a long way.
“Put away your calculator, Figger Filbert, and try .”
Fencebuster
Punch & Judy
Five o’clock Hitter A hitter who hits really well during batting practice, but not so well during games. These were formerly known as “ten o’clock hitters” or “two-o’clock hitters” back when there were no night games and games were played in the early afternoon. Four-Fingered Salute An intentional walk. The umpire holds up four fingers to signify the four balls. Go Yard To “go yard” is to hit a home run, i.e., to hit the ball the length of the baseball field or “ball yard”.
“He really grooved that fastball” Groove a Pitch When a pitcher throws a pitch down the middle of the plate (“the groove”). The results are often poor. Guess Hitter A hitter who may not be the best at reading what kind of pitch is coming toward him so he guesses what the next pitch is going to be.
Figger Filbert An old-fashioned and more colorful way of saying “numbers nut”, for a fan with a nearobsessive interest in the statistics or “figures” of the game of baseball.
Handcuff A hard-hit ground ball that bounces directly at an infielder may be difficult for him to get his hands up in time to grab. Also used to describe an awkward swing on an inside pitch to a hitter.
Five & Dive A derogatory term referring to a starting pitcher who is unable to go beyond 5 innings before wearing out.
Hit the Ball on the Screws To hit the ball even center with measured force, often resulting in a loud crack of the bat. The phrase derives from golf.
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“He dumped a Humpback Liner into Left Field.” Humpback Liner A term frequently used to describe a ball hit deep in the infield that has a trajectory in between that of a fly ball and a line drive. They would often fall in for hits, but the extra topspin on the ball makes them take a dive before they can get to the outfield. Ice Cream Cone Colorful term used to describe the appearance of a baseball caught in the tip of the webbing of a glove. The partially protruding white ball contrasted with the tan-colored glove resembles a large waffle cone. This phenomenom is also referred to as a “snow cone” catch.
“He got up in his kitchen with that fastball.” In the Kitchen Another term used to describe pitching in on the hitter’s hands. Jelly Legs
When a batter is fooled by a pitch (normally an off-speed or curve ball heading at an unusual angle) and departs from a good batting stance.
laugher A game in which one team gets a large lead, perhaps early in the game, and it appears that the other team has no chance at all of catching up. With nothing to worry about, the manager and team can relax. An easy win; a romp; a blowout. LOOGY
A mildly derogatory nickname for a lefthanded specialist. An acronym for “Lefty One Out GuY,” a left-handed pitcher who may be brought into the game to pitch against just one or two left-handed batters to take extreme advantage of platoon effects.
Mustard Refers to a high amount of velocity on a throw or pitch. A player may be exhorted to “put some (extra) mustard on it”.
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Nickel curve A slider. Also used to mean an average or possibly “hanging” slider. Hitters look at the spin on a ball when it is released by the pitcher, so the “dot” (circle which is created from the pitcher’s rotation on the ball that the batter sees to identify a pitch as a slider out of the pitcher’s hand) is said to be “nickel sized.” Nintendo To strike out a batter on three pitches. Alternatively, to strike out on three pitches.
On the Road
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On the Interstate A player batting between .100 and .199 is said to be “on the interstate.” The term refers to the fact that a batting average in the .100s can resemble an interstate name (e.g. .195 resembles I-95). A hit to put an average above .200 gets a batter “off the interstate.” A batter whose average is below .100 is sometimes said to be “off the map”. Payback If after the pitcher from one team tries to bean or otherwise hit a batter, the opposing pitcher retaliates by trying to hit a batter from the first pitcher’s team, it’s a “payback.” Punch and Judy hitter A hitter with very little
power or slugging ability.
Rabbit Ears Indicates a participant in the game who hears things perhaps too well for his own good.
Stick it in his ear!!! A player who becomes nervous or chokes when opposing players or fans yell at or razz him is said to have “rabbit ears”.
Room Service A ball hit directly to a fielder such that he hardly has to move to get it. Stick it in his Ear “Stick it in his ear!” is a cry that that may come from fans in the stands, appealing to the home team pitcher to be aggressive (throw the ball at the opposing batter).
“Our shortstop has stone fingers.” Stone Fingers A player who often misplays easy
ground balls.
tablesetter A player placed high in the batting
order for his tendency to hit for average and steal bases is said to “set the table” for the power hitters behind him in the lineup.
take the hill When a pitcher moves to his defen-
two-way player A term borrowed from American
football to describe either a player who can pitch and hit well, or a player who can pitch and play another defensive position well. The most famous Major League ballplayer who was truly a two-way player was Babe Ruth.
“Whoa! There goes an Ugly Finder into the dugout.” Ugly Finder A foul ball hit into a dugout, presumably destined to “find” someone who is ugly, or to render him that way if he fails to dodge the ball. Uncle Charlie A slang term used to describe a looping curveball.
uppercut When instead of being horizontal or level, a batter’s swing moves in an upward direction as the bat moves forward. up the elevator shaft A pop-up that travels straight upwards off the bat, very easy to catch.
sive position on the mound he is said to “take the hill.”
yacker A curveball with a big break.
Tea Party
through the wickets When a batted ball passes
Zeroes A no-hitter or perfect game, so-called because
Conference on the mound, involving more players than just the pitcher and catcher, and sometimes coaches and managers.
through the legs of a player in the field it’s often said, “That one went right through the wickets.” The term refers to the metal hoops (called wickets) used in the game of croquet through which croquet balls are struck (resembling a pair of legss).
A sharp-breaking curveball. Supposedly named after the yellowhammer bird and its apparent habit of diving steeply to catch prey.
the line score shown on the scoreboard is 0–0–0, though it is subjective when referring to a no-hitter and perfect games, because the opposing team can make errors. However, it will normally show as 0–0–0 (no runs, no hits, no errors) on the scoreboard.
Jargon
5:00 pm
5:00 pm
“Just one (superstition). Whenever I hit a home run, I make certain I touch all four bases.” – Babe Ruth
Superstitions Of all the major sports, baseball players are certainly the most superstitius. These superstitions stretch form on field behavior, to diet and the way a player wears his socks (or how often he washes them). This atmosphere is not limited to players, as managers, coaches, announcers and fans all carry their own superstitious tendencies. Fans turn their caps inside out to create a “rally cap”, announcers refuse to mention a no hitter in progress, and coaches refuse to tarnish the white chalk along the foul line. Baseball superstitions have been around for as long as the game itself. In the 1870s, Cap Anson refused to speak to his starting pitcher on the day that he was pitching. The 1894 Baltimore Orioles sat down
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Superstitions
together one hour before batting practice and chugged glasses of turkey gravy. Hall of Fame third baseman Wade Boggs ate fried chicken before every game. It worked: Boggs won five batting titles, two Gold Gloves, a World Series and collected 3,000 hits. Baseball has always held a sort of ehtereal status in our culture, so perhaps that is why superstitions have such staying power. There must be forces beyond the players in the field watching each game and swaying things in one direction or another, so players err on the side of caution. The following is a list of the most common superstitions. Most ballplayers believe in at least one of these anti-jinx methods, no matter how silly, disgusting or unhealthy.
“Superstition is good for a ballplayer… It keeps a player’s mind revolving around baseball.” – Lefty O’Doul
01
05
09
Not stepping on the foul line when taking the field, thus disturbing the chalk line. Pitchers and managers are always very cautious not to touch that foul line.
Refusing to wash a piece or part of an entire uniform during a hot playing streak, including equipment like bats and helmets.
Tapping one’s bat on home plate before an at-bat. This has become a very common habit among major league hitters.
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10
Not talking about the outcome of a 7 game series before it is over. This is similar to rules 2 and 3, and is supposed to avoid jinxes.
Drawing in the batter’s box before each at-bat. Different players draw different things, such as crosses or their initials.
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11
Not shaving after a first post season win. This superstitious practice was first done by the 1908 Chicago White Sox on their run to the World Series title.
Eating the same thing at the same place at the same time before every game. Most players have regimented meals before games.
02 Not talking about a no-hitter or perfect game in progress. Mentioning the feat might risk jinxing the acheivment.
03 “Statting” a player by mentioning his excellent statistics in this situation is seen to jinx that player.
04 Holding on to a lucky bat or glove, no matter how old, chipped, wornout, or covered with pine tar that piece of equipment may be.
08 Chewing only one wad of gum per game. Because any more than that would just be greedy.
12 Sitting in the same place in the dug out. Players tend to sit in a specific area in the dugout with the same group of guys.
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Hello, My name is
“The Flying Dutchman” “Flea was hung on me by Del Baker, a former manager of the Detroit Tigers in Beaumont, Texas, in 1933. I was a good sized flea at 5’11”, and 165 pounds. If you have ever been bitten by a Sand Flea, you know why I got my name.” – Herman Clifton
Nicknames Baseball nicknames have become an integral part of the sport’s culture: “In no sport are nicknames more pervasive than baseball.” Receiving a nickname is immortalizing in many aspects, lending the players a larger than life heft to their persona. Did you know that Joe DiMaggio was introduced in ballparks (after his Major League career) by another nickname — “The Greatest Living Ballplayer!” James Galvin, who was better known as Pud, had another great nickname which was probably better suited to his pitching skill. Walter Johnson, pitcher for the Washington Senators, was nicknamed the Big Train. Sportswriter Grantland Rice gave him the nickname because of his size and the speed of his fastball. Johnson played professional baseball from 1907 to 1927. He was one of the first
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players inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1936. Dennis “Oil Can” Boyd was known for his fiery temper on the mound. Boyd earned his nickname in his native Mississippi, where “oil” is slang for beer. The name stuck and Boyd went on to become one of Boston’s most popular athletes in the 1980s. The stroeies of the origins of nicknames are just as wild and colorful as the nicknames themselves. Many nicknames have been bestowed upon hundreds of people for well over a century. Baseball will never be without a large share of “Docs”, “Lefties” and “Reds”. NIcknames are given based on a players background, his hair color, fashion sense and athletic abilities. Some were given by plays and some were carried onto the baseball diamond from childhood. The wide variety of nicknames are just another layer of color and history that enriches the baseball watching experience.
“Scoops” George Carey (1895-1903) Carey was
a fancy fielding first baseman known for his ability to scoop throws out of the dirt.
“Mad Dog”
Joseph Zdeb (1977-79) Zdeb was nicknamed by Royal’s manager Whitey Herzog during spring training camp in 1977. It refers to his all out hustle. It looked as if he was playing mad.
“Jeep” Roy Hughes (1935-46)
“Jeep” referred to Hughes’ speed. He was also called “Sage” referring to his knowledge and “Whispering” because he talked softly and close to the listener’s ear.
“Monk.” John Cline (1882-91) Cline did not smoke or drink. At 5’3” and 140 pounds, he was one of the smallest of all baseball outfielders.
“The Walking Man.” Edward Yost (1944-62)
Yost, usually a lead-off man, earned his nickname by an uncanny ability to attract walks. Just an average hitter with a career batting average of .254 and with only modest power, 139 home runs in 18 campaigns, Eddie accounted for 1,614 bases on balls. He ranks seventh on the all-time list. Yost led the American League in walks six times. His highest total achieved was 151 in 1956. Only Ruth and Williams drew more bases on balls in a season than “The Walking Man.”
“The Mighty Mite.” Miller Huggins (1904-16)
Miller Huggins stood 5’61/2” and weighed 140 pounds. He played second base in the National League for 13 years, 1904-16. He began his career in organized baseball however, in 1899, with the Mansfield, Ohio, team in the Inter-State League, using the name of “Proctor,” since he was attending college at the time. While playing for the St. Louis Cardinals, his size and ability to get on base, steal bases, and score runs earned him the nickname of “Rabbit.” Most often, however, he was addressed as “Hug.” His worst finish was seventh place in 1925. Between 1921-28 he won six pennants and three World Series with the New York Yankees. It was during his years with the Yankees when he had to control the strong-willed Yankee players such as Babe
The Mighty Mite
5’6” Miller Huggins, a second baseman who played from 1904 – 1916 stood at an intimidating 5 feet six inches. Contrast that with Jon Rauch, a pitcher who broke into the majors in 2006, who was six feet, eleven inches tall. The average height of a major league player is six feet tall.
Ruth, Joe Bush, and Joe Dugan, that “the Mighty Mite” sobriquet was most appropriate.
“Zaza.”
Erwin Harvey (1900-02) Tom Shea reports that Harvey had red hair. “Zaza” was a popular theater play of the time in which Mrs. Leslie Carter was the heroine and she had red hair.
“Hippity.” John Hopp (1939–52) Hopp was called
“Cotney” by his godparents as a child because of his light blond hair. “Hippity” is a response to both cotton as in tail (bunny) and to the last name of Hopp.
“Duck Eye”
Myles Thomas (1926-30) Thomas’ eyes were slightly flattened at the top lids, while the bottom was generously curved. Duck’s eyes are constructed this way, only more so. Babe Ruth gave Thomas his nickname, because he could not remember his name. Ruth had great difficulty with names.
“The Count”
John Montefusco (1974-86) He received his nickname while playing for Amarillo in the Texas League. His last name reminds one of the
Nicknames
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character in the novel by Alexander Dumas, The Count of Monte Cristo. An El Paso, Texas, sportswriter called him “Count Monte.”
“Owl”
Robert Thurman (1955-59) Thurman’s teammates nicknamed Thurman “Owl” because his eyes gave an owl appearance.
Seeing Red
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There are over 138 documented players with the nickname “Red” in major league history, making it one of the most common nickname in baseball history.
“Red” Samuel Camnitz (1904-15) The nickname
refers to hair color. Tom Shea states that Camnitz was known as “The Kentucky Rosebud,” a place nickname.
“Handsome Jack”
John Carney (1889-91) Carney was considered one of the most handsome players of his time.
“Bugs”
It was actually quite common at the turn of the century for aspiring doctors to play baseball professionally for a few years to fund their schooling.
“Doc” James McJames (1895-1901) McJames was
a practicing physician who worked his way through medical school by pitching major league baseball.
“Highpockets” Benjamin Hunt (1910-13) Hunt had unusually long legs on his 6’1” frame.
“Twiggy”
Charles Hartenstein (1965–77) Hartenstein was nicknamed by Chicago Cub teammate, Dick Radatt, after the thin English model who was popular during the mid-1960s.
“Boots” Albert Hollingsworth (1935-46) Before
he became a pitcher, Hollingsworth played first base. He booted so many ground balls, players called him · “Boots” even after he started pitching.
“Put Put”
Don Ashburn (1948–62) Richie, as Ashburn was addressed, was a speedster in the outfield and on the base paths. Ted Williams once reparked, “That Put Put has twin motors on his pants.” He was also called “The Cornhusker Express” denoting his speed and home, Tilden, Nebraska. “Whitey” was a third nickname, describing Ashburn’s hair color.
“Rip” Virgin Cannell (1904-05) Cannell was a good
minor league hitter and earned the nickname of”Rip” a much more acceptable baseball tag than the first name, Virgin.
Moran, Carl William (1974 P) Moran was nicknamed after the famous Chicago gangster “Bugs” Moran. The nickname meant that he was a little strange. Before his first major league game, Carl Moran asked if they played the national anthem or taps! He was a notoriously odd character
“Sundown” Yowell, Carl Columbus (1924-25) It
“Rifle Jim”
“Alphabet” Craig Smajstrea (1988-) Smajstrea
James Middleton (1917-21) The nickname refers to the strength of his pitching arm.
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was said Yowell did his best pitching during twilight hours at sunset.
is of Czech descent. The pronunciation of his name
The Great Bambino the Wali of Wallop the Rajah of Rap The Colossus of Clout The Behemoth of Bust The Colossus Of Crash The Kid of Crash the home run king
the Caliph of Clout the Wazir of Wham Maharajah of Mash The King of Clout The King Of Swing The Terrible Titan The Jovial Giant
“Plowboy” Torn Morgan (1951-63) Morgan was
nicknamed “Plowboy” because he took so long walking to the mound.
“Bluejacket”
James Smith (1914-22) Smith was discharged from the navy because of bad eyes. When he showed up at the Bartlesville, Oklahoma, team in 1908, the only clothing he had were old navy uniforms, so a reporter dubbed him “Bluejacket”.
“Flop Ears” Julian Wera (1927–29) Wera was a
Babe Ruth had a hard time remembering names, so he frequently gave his teams nicknames instead. Ruth himself can claim the most nicknames of any player.
reserve third baseman with the 1927 Yankees. Babe Ruth could not remember his name and called him “Flop Ears” because of his protruding ears.
had PA announcers befuddled. Manager Hal Lanier nicknamed him “Alphabet,” but his Houston Astro teammates simply call him “Smash.”
MacGillicuddy
“God”
Douglas Harvey (1962–77, 79-88) According to Tony Kubeck, “God” was used out of respect for Harvey. He was also called “Silver” when he first started umpiring because of his premature grey hair.
Gone Fishing
At 13 letters long, Connie Mack’s given name was quite a mouth (and jersey) full. In 2007, Jarrod Saltalamacchia was called up by the Atlanta Braves, with a surname with 14 letters, making his last name the longest in baseball history.
“The Tall Tactician”
Cornelius Mack (188696) Mack was born Cornelius MacGillicuddy, but changed his name so that it would fit more easily into a box score. Through the good years and poor years Connie Mack was a master of baseball strategy, earning him the nickname of “The Tall Tactician.” It was Mack who said, “Pitching is 70% of baseball.”
“Flea” Herman Clifton (1934–37) “A strong wind
There have been three players with the nickname “Catfish”, most famously Catfish Hunter, a pitcher for the Yankees.
“Catfish”
George Metkovitch (1943-54) According to William Mead, in 1940 Metkovitch caught a three-foot catfish off a bridge.
could blow Flea Clifton from one corner of the diamond to the other.”Clifton himself claimed; “Flea was hung on me by Del Baker, a former manager of the Detroit Tigers in Beaumont, Texas, in 1933. I was a good sized flea at 5’11”, and 165 pounds. If you have ever been bitten by a Sand Flea, you know why I got my name.”
“Dad Gum”
William Atwood (1936-40) “Dad Gum” was the strongest expletive the mild mannered Atwood ever used.
Nicknames
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Numbers Introduction 060
3 “A baseball fan has the digestive apparatus of a billy goat. He can, and does, devour any set of diamond statistics with insatiable appetite and then nuzzles hungrily for more.” – Arthur Daley
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ost baseball historians point to a single man as being the cornerstone of how we have recorded baseball scores throughout its history. Henry Chadwick (1824-1908) was born in England and grew up following Cricket. After moving to Brooklyn with his family and following cricket for years as a reporter, Chadwick encountered baseball and became involved in the statistics of the sport.
As baseball grew, scorekeeping became more complex from both additional counting statistics such as Runs Batted In as well as mathematical equations to determine things such as batting averages. Baseball fans have adopted these new measurements into the linguistics of baseball and they are all crucial to fans, managers and players when analyzing players, teams and strategy.
Chadwick is credited with devising the baseball box score (which he adapted from the cricket scorecard) for reporting game events. The first box score was a grid with nine rows for players and nine columns for innings. The basic format and structure of the box score has changed little since the earliest of ones designed by Chadwick.
To start an overview of numbers in baseball, you have to start where the numbers are first recorded; the scorebook. This practice is the foundation for all of the statistical worship that happens on the baseball diamond. This section will begin with an overview of the basics of scorekeeping, then will discuss the various statistics, from simple to advanced.
Numbers Introduction
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playoffs
“No thirty six inch bat ever made as many hits as the scorer’s little pencil.” – Richard McAnn
Scorekeeping Overview Though many people are intimidated by the idea of scoring a game, the process is quite simple and easy for anyone to pick up. All that is required is a scoresheet, a pencil, and a basic grasp of scorekeeping shorthand. Scores are kept using a fairly uniform set of abbreviations, allowing for lots of detail with minimal notation. Many fans who choose to keep score claim that making a record of the evets of the game as it happens allows them to recall it more swiftly and with more detail. Keeping score makes any fan an active participant in the game, and requires them to pay closer attention
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Socrekeeping Overview
and become more absorbed in the sport. Nearly every sportscaster keeps score as they call each game. Though there are a wide range of scorekeeping techniques and systems, there are several shared devices between them. Position players are designated a number, corresponding to the position they play, making it easy to keep track of who was responsible defensively for outs made in the field. For example, a groundout to the third baseman is designated 5-3, five for the third baseman, who fielded the ball, and 3 for the first baseman, who received the throw from the
third baseman and caused the force out of the runner. This system prevents confusion by avoiding terms such as “1B” or “3B”, because those abbreviations are commonly used to denote singles and triples. It is often asked why the shortstop is designated with a 6 and not a 5, which would make logical sense in a counterclockwise progression. Some have suggested that it originated from early opinion that the shortstop was more of a short outfielder, since he was not designated a base. This shorthand is the foundation to scorekeeping, making it simple for anyone to jot down a play with great detail and little effort. Being comfortable with the abbreviations for players and actions on the field is crucial for effective scorekeeping.
This lined diagram is helpful in remembering which postitions are designated by which numbers in a scorebook.
In addition to keeping track of the players on the field, a good scorekeeper needs to know the shorthand for any of the plays that could happen out on the field. There are simple abbreviations for any play that happens on the field, no matter how rare. Each type of hit has an abbreviation, including special cases like ground rule doubles. In addition, methods of creating an out are listed, as well as things such as balks, errors and interference.You can combine these outcome abbrevia-
tions with the positional numbers to record any even on the field. A double play turned by the shortstop, second baseman and first baseman could be written “6-4-3 DP”. These simple shorthand methods will cover almost any instance on the field, and can be used to deduce common patterns among players. It’s easy to tell if a hitter likes to pull the ball simply by noting where the balls he has hit in the game have traveled. That is the beauty of keeping score.
1B
1B
Whenever a player scores a run, the diamond is filled in.
Once you are familiar with the designations used for plays and positions, you are ready to fill out the scorecard. The final step in filling out a scorecard is illustrating the actions of each at bat on paper. There are notation methods used to add a final layer of detail in addition to the position designations and outcome shorthand. The examples show how a wide variety of information can easily be recorded and referenced in a scorecard. Some scorekeepers like to include a line or arrow showing the path a base hit took, making for a more personal and more illustrative scorecard. Another way of recording where a ball is hit would be to put the numerical designation for the part of the field the ball was hit in the upper left corner of the box. For example, a single to right field would be designated with a “9”.
In this example, the hitter reached base by hitting a single to left, then stole second base.
Almost no two people keep score in the same manner, with different people preferring different methods and scorecard layouts.The one thing in common among all scorecards in the intention and the result. Looking at five scorecards from the same game will yield five very different looking documents, but they all reveal the same set of information. As early as 1874 Henry Chadwick, the “Father” of scoring observed: “It is about time that one system of scoring should be adapted throughout the country.” Then as now, there is no single system of scoring, and Chadwick’s call for unity has gone unheeded. However, the urge to score and keep track of the game remains keen, for baseball begs to be recorded and recalled in shorthand.
Socrekeeping Overview
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4
Seemingly every ballpark promotes a different set of symbols and scorecard layout. The one featured by the Eephus league is a combination of features from multiple designs, resulting in a simple and visually interesting hybrid you can easily manage and use for reference. Players in the lineup are listed vertically, and there is a space in the scorecard to account for their plate appearance in every inning. The first column on the scorecard is for the numerical designation of the player, which is immedaitely followed by a space to jot down the players name. The real meat of the scorecard is the middle section, which is where the inning by inning action is recorded by the fan.
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H
BB
1. The Player’s Position 2. The Player’s Name 3. This is where you diagram what happens in each players plate appearance in each inning 4. This section is for tallying the game totals for At Bats, Runs, Hits and Walks
The basic template on a scorecard includes a box for each player and each inning. There is an outline of a baseball diamond as well as a circle to note the outs in the inning at the time of the plate appearance. As each player comes to bat, his actions are recorded in the space dedicated to him for that particular inning. If a player reaches base, lines are drawn around the perimeter of of diamond to mark his progression on the basepaths. If a player manages to come all the way around to home, the diamond is filled in to signify the scoring of a run. A diagonal slash is made on the lower right corner of a box when the third out is made for the inning.
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4
K
The right side of the scorecard has columns for tallying certain individual stats for each player at the end of a game, including at-bats, runs scored, hits and walks. Most scorecards will provide space for you to compile these stat totals for the entire team for the game. Many scorecards also provide space to keep track of pitchers and their stats, such as innings pitched, batters faced and runs allowed. Scorekeeping can be as simple or complicated as the participant chooses to make it. It is one of the most personalized experiences in the game, and brings thousands of fans together every afternoon.
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“Baseball statistics are like a girl in a bikini. They show a lot, but not everything.” – Toby Harrah, 1983
Statistics Baseball is the most well documented sport in America. Since the flow of a baseball game has natural breaks to it, the sport lends itself to easy record-keeping and statistics. Statistics have been kept for professional baseball since the creation of the American League and National League, now part of Major League Baseball. The practice of keeping records of player achievements was started in the 19th century by Henry Chadwick.Based on his experience with cricket, Chadwick devised the predecessors to modern day statistics including batting average, runs scored, and runs allowed. Traditionally, statistics such as batting average (the number of hits divided by the number of at bats) and earned run average (approximately the number of runs allowed by a pitcher per nine innings) have dominated attention in the statistical world of baseball. However, the recent advent of sabermetrics has created statistics drawing from a breadth of player performance measures and playing field variables. Sabermetrics and comparative statistics attempt to provide an improved measure of a player’s performance and contributions to his team from year to year, frequently against a statistical performance average.
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Statistics
This section is dedicated to the dozens of statistics used to dissect baseball. Stats can be divided into two major categories. “Counting stats” are actions that happen on the field that are added one by one, such as at bats or hits. “Forumla stats” are stats that take a variety of factors and distill them into a percentage or number. Throughout much of modern baseball, several core statistics have been traditionally referenced—batting average, RBIs, and home runs. To this day, a player who leads the league in these three statistics is referred to as the “Triple Crown” winner. For pitchers, wins, ERA, and strikeouts are the most often cited traditional statistics, with a pitcher leading a league in these statistics referred to as a “Triple Crown” winner. General managers and baseball scouts have long used the major statistics, among other factors and opinions, to understand player ability. Managers, catchers and pitchers use statistics of batters against opposing teams to develop pitching strategies and set defensive positioning on the field. Managers and batters study opposing pitcher performance and motion in attempts to improve hitting, making statistics valuable not only for record keeping, but for tactics.
Batting Satistics
BsR Base Runs Another run estimator, like Runs Created; a favorite of writer Tom Tango
1B Single Hits on which the batter reached first base
FC Fielder’s choice The times reaching base when a fielder chose to try for an out on another runner
2B Double Hits on which the batter reached second
GO/AO Ground ball fly ball ratio The number of
safely without the contribution of a fielding error.
base safely without the contribution of a fielding error.
ground ball outs divided by number of fly ball outs
3B Triple Hits on which the batter reached third base safely without the contribution of a fielding error.
GDP Ground into double play Number of ground balls hit that became double plays
AB At bat Total number of batting appearances, not including bases on balls, hit by pitch, sacrifices, interference, or obstruction.
GPA Gross Production Average 1.8 times on-base percentage plus slugging percentage, divided by four
AB/HR At bats per home run At bats divided by
GS Grand Slam A home run with the bases loaded,
The Georgia Peach
H Hits The total number of times a player reached base because of a batted, fair ball without an error by the defense.
total home runs.
366 > 275
Ty Cobb, also known as “The Georgia Peach” is the all time career batting average leader, with a career mark of .366. The all-time major league batting average is .275, which sheds light on how incredible Cobb’s achievement was.
BA Batting average (also abbreviated AVG) Hits divided by at bats. BB Base on balls (also called a “walk”) Times receiving four balls and advancing to first base
BABIP Batting average on balls in play Frequency of which a batter reaches a base after putting the ball in the field of play. Also a pitching category. BB/K Walk-to-strikeout ratio Number of base on balls divided by number of strikeouts.
resulting in four runs scoring, and four RBI credited to the batter.
HBP Hit by pitch Times touched by a pitch and awarded first base as a result
The Real Long Ball The longest verifiable home run ever hit in the majors traveled about 575 feet off the bat of Babe Ruth, to straightaway center field at Tiger Stadium (then called Navin Field and prior to the double-deck). The ball landed nearly across the intersection of Trumbull and Cherry on on July 18, 1921.
HR Home runs Hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a fielding error. IBB Intentional base on balls The number of times a player is awarded first base on balls (see BB above) deliberately thrown by the pitcher. Also known as IW (intentional walk).
Statistics
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K Strike out (also abbreviated SO) Number of times that strike three is taken or swung at and missed, or bunted foul.
The Triple Crown
LOB Left on base Number of runners not out nor scored at the end of an inning. OBP On base percentage Times reached base (H +
BB + HBP) divided by at bats plus walks plus hit by pitch plus sacrifice flies (AB + BB + HBP + SF).
OPS
On-base plus slugging On-base percentage plus slugging average.
PA Plate appearance The total umber of completed batting appearances.
R Runs scored Number of times a player crosses home plate.
SB% Stolen base percentage The percent of bases
OBP x Total Bases
SF Sacrifice fly Number of fly ball outs to the outfield
This statistic was originally created by Bill James to measure a player’s total offensive production. By combining the two statistical (OBP and TB which are listed on this page) results you can determine that desired production.
stolen successfully. (SB) divided by (SBA).
which allow a runner already on base to score.
SH Sacrifice hit: Number of sacrifice bunts which allows another runner to advance on the basepaths.
SLG Slugging average Total bases divided by total number of at-bats.
RC Runs created Statistic that attempts to measure
TA Total average Total bases, plus walks, plus hit by
RP Runs produced Statistic that attempts to measure how many runs a player has contributed.
TB Total bases One added for each single, two for each double, three for each triple, and four for each home run hit.
how many runs a player has contributed to his team. This is a popular stat among sabremetrics fans.
RBI Run batted in Number of runners who scored due to a batters’ action, except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error.
RISP
Runner In Scoring Position The batter’s batting average when at the plate with runners in scoring position.
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The Triple Crown is awarded to a player if he finishes the season leading the league in batting average, RBI, and home runs. Pitchers can win the award if they lead in wins, strikeouts and ERA. Only 14 hitters have won the offensive Triple Crown, while 35 pitchers have claimed the pitching Triple Crown.
Statistics
pitch, plus steals, minus caught stealing divided by at bats, minus hits, plus caught stealing, plus grounded into double play.
TOB Times on base Times reaching base as a result of hits, walks, and hit-by-pitches.
XBH Extra base hits Doubles plus triples plus home runs added together.
Baserunning statistics CS Caught stealing Times tagged out while attempting to steal a base. DI Defensive Indifference If the catcher does not
attempt to throw out a runner (usually because the base would be insignificant), the runner is not awarded a steal.
R Runs scored The number of times reached home base legally and safely.
Stolen Property
pitching action or other illegal action while in contact with the pitching rubber, thus allowing baserunners to advance one base.
BS Blown save Number of times entering the game in a save situation, and being charged the run (earned or not) which eliminates his team’s lead. CERA Component ERA An estimate of a pitcher’s ERA based upon the individual components of his statistical line (K, H, 2B, 3B, HR, BB, HBP). CG Complete game Number of games where player was the only pitcher for his team.
DICE Defense-Independent Component ERA An estimate of a pitcher’s ERA based upon the defenseindependent components of his statistical line (K, HR, BB, HBP). ER Earned run Number of runs that did not occur as a result of errors or passed balls.
There have been forty-nine instances of a player stealing second base, stealing third base, and then stealing home during the same inning by thirty-nine different ballplayers.
SB Stolen base Number of bases advanced other than on batted balls, walks, or hits by pitch.
Pitching statistics
BB Base on balls (also called a “walk”) Times pitching four balls, allowing the batter-runner to advance to first base.
The Starting Point
( ER x 9 ) / ( IP ) ERA is the most commonly cited and utilized statistic when measuring a pitcher’s success. A number of variations have been developed in sabermetrics, such as ERA+ and Adjusted ERA.
BB/9 Base on balls per 9 Base on balls times nine
ERA Earned run average Total number of earned
BF Total batters faced The opponent’s total number
ERA+ Adjusted ERA+ Earned run average adjusted for the ballpark and the league average.
BK Balk Number of times pitcher commits an illegal
FPOM First Pitch Outs Made The number of outs
divided by innings pitched.
runs (see “ER” above), multiplied by 9, divided by innings pitched.
Statistics
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earned where the batter creates an out by flying or grounding out on the first pitch.
G Games The number of times a pitcher pitches and appears in a game in a season. GIDP Double Plays Induced Number of double play groundouts induced.
Four Finger Salute Barry Bonds holds most of the records for intentional walks, including four in a nine-inning game (2004), 120 in a season (2004), and 668 in his career (more than the next two players on the all-time list, Hank Aaron and Willie McCovey, combined).
G/F Ground ball fly ball ratio Ground balls allowed
IBB Intentional base on balls The number of times a pitcher deliberately walks a hitter.
GS
IP Innings pitched The number of outs recorded while pitching divided by three.
H Hits allowed Total hits allowed.
IP/GS Innings Pitches per Game Average number
divided by fly balls allowed.
Starts Number of games pitched where player was the first pitcher for his team.
H/9 Hits per nine innings Hits allowed times nine
divided by innings pitched.
Plunking Bag
$%@#*!!! The all-time record for a player being hit by a pitch is held by Hughie Jennings, who was hit by 287 pitches between 1891 and 1903. The modern-day record is held by Craig Biggio of the Houston Astros, who had 285 when he retured in 2007.
of innings pitched per game.
IR
Inherited runners The number of runners on base when the pitcher enters the game.
IRA Inherited runs allowed The number of inherited runners a pitcher who enters the game allowed to score while he was on the mound.
K
Strikeout The number of batters who received strike three.
K/9 Strikeouts per nine innings Strikeouts times nine divided by innings pitched.
K/BB
Strikeout-to-walk ratio The number of strikeouts divided by number of base on balls to create a ratio.
HB Hit batsman Times hit a batter with pitch, allowing runner to advance to first base.
L
HLD (or H) Hold Number of games entered in a save situation, recorded at least one out, did not surrender the lead, and did not complete the game.
OBA Opponents batting average The number of
HRA Home runs allowed Total home runs allowed.
Loss The number of games where pitcher was pitching while the opposing team took the lead, never lost the lead, and went on to win.
hits allowed divided by at-bats faced.
PIT Pitches thrown The number of pitches thrown by a pitcher.
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RA Run average Number of runs allowed times nine divided by innings pitched.
Fielding statistics
A Assists The number of outs recorded on a play where
Wash, Rinse, Repeat
CI Catcher’s Interference The times a catcher makes contact with bat.
Shutout Number of complete games pitched with no runs allowed.
a fielder touched the ball, except if such touching is the putout.
The record for the most strikouts in a game was set on September 12, 1962 by Tom Cheney, who as a Washington Senator fanned 21 Baltimore Orioles in 16 innings, throwing 228 pitches to reach the mark.
DP Double plays One for each double play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist.
SO Strikeout Also may be notated as “K”.
play he should have made with common effort, and the offense benefits as a result.
SV Save Number of games where the pitcher enters a game led by the pitcher’s team, finishes the game without surrendering the lead, is not the winning pitcher, and the lead was three runs or less when the pitcher entered the game.
E Errors Number of times a fielder fails to make a FP Fielding percentage Total plays (chances minus errors) divided by the number of total chances.
PB Passed ball Charged to the catcher when the ball is dropped and one or more runners advance.
W Win Number of games where pitcher was pitching while his team took the lead and went on to win (also related: winning percentage).
PO Putout Number of times the fielder tags, forces, or
WHIP
WP Wild pitches Charged when a pitch is too high,
TC Total chances Assists plus putouts plus errors.
Walks and hits per inning pitched The average number of walks and hits allowed by the pitcher per inning.
low, or wide of home plate for the catcher to field, thereby allowing one or more runners to advance.
appeals a runner and he is called out as a result.
Range factor 9*(putouts + assists)/innings played. Used to determine the amount of field that the player can cover.
TP Triple play One for each triple play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist.
Statistics
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National League Introduction
4 “It breaks your heart. It is designed to break your heart. The game begins in spring, when everything else begins again, and it blossoms in the summer, filling the afternoons and evenings, and then as soon as the chill rains come, it stops and leaves you to face the fall alone.” – A. Bartlett Giamatti
T
he National League of Professional Baseball Clubs, known simply as the National League (NL), is the older of two leagues constituting Major League Baseball, and the world’s oldest extant professional team sports league. Founded on February 2, 1876, to replace the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, it is sometimes called the Senior Circuit. The two league champions of 1903 arranged to meet in the World Series and, after the 1904 champions failed to do likewise, the two leagues have arranged to meet in that annual culmination of the American baseball season, failing to do so only in the strike-shortened
1994 season. National League teams have won 43 and lost 62 of the 105 World Series played between these two leagues from 1903 to 2009. The Philadelphia Phillies are the defending National League champions, winning the NL Pennant in 2008 and 2009. The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers lead the league with 21 National League Titles while the St. Louis Cardinals are the National League team with the most World Series wins, 10. This booklet contains an overview of the 16 teams that make up the current National League, as well as information on the history and capacities of the stadiums they play in.
National League Introduction
Team History
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he Braves franchise is one of the two original members of the National League that is still in existence today, originally known as the Boston Red Stockings. The “Braves” name was first used while the team was still in Boston in 1912. The franchise moved to Milwaukee from 1953 to 1965, before finally ending up in Atlanta in 1966. The Braves won the National League East division a record 14 consecutive years from 1991–2005, which is a Major League record.
TURNER FIELD Opened:
Capacity:
50,096
Turner Field was originally built to host the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, and was converted into a baseball stadium the following year. The park features numerous state of the art audio visual technologies, including a massive video board in center field that is 78 feet wide and 71 feet tall.
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New York Mets Established: 1962
Team History
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he New York Mets were an early National League expansion team in 1962. They have appeared in more World Series than any other expansion team and have won the Series twice. The Mets were a return to National League baseball for the city of New York. In 1957, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants relocated from New York to California, leaving the largest city in the United States with no National League franchises. With the threat of a New York team in a third league, the National League expanded, adding the New York Mets. The new team took as its primary colors the blue of the Dodgers and the orange of the Giants.
Citi field Opened:
Team History
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he Florida Marlins are a National League expansion team founded in 1993. They won the World Series both times they made the playoffs, the only team to do so. They have never won the National League East Division, advancing in 1997 and 2003 as a Wild Card team. The Marlins name originates from the fish species, and from Miami’s former minor league team of the same name. The team is nicknamed “The Fish.” The Marlins are the first team in Major League Baseball to have a dance/ cheer team: “The Marlins Mermaids.” Debuting in 2003, the “Marlin Mermaids” quickly gained national exposure, and have influenced other MLB teams to develop their own cheer/dance squads.
sun life stadium Opened:
Team History
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he Washington Nationals were established in 1969 as the Montreal Expos, the first Major League team based in Canada. They were relocated to Washington D.C. in 2005 and took on the “Nationals� name that was used by previous D.C. located teams. The franchise is one of three teams (along with the Rangers and Seattle Mariners) never to have played in a World Series. As the Montreal Expos, the team won a division championship, and advanced to the National League Championship Series in their only playoff appearance during the strike-shortened 1981 season.
Nationals park Opened:
Capacity:
41,888
Nationals Park is the home of the Washington Nationals, and opened in 2008. The park was designed to allow visitors to see certain monuments in the D.C. area, such as the U.S. Capitol. The name of the park references an early 20th century baseball park in the same area. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES Year
Team History
T
he Philadelphia Phillies were established in 1883, and are the oldest franchise to stay in the same city under the same name. Because of this long history, the Phillies have more losses than any other sports franchise. The Phillies have won two World Series championships (against Kansas City in 1980 and Tampa Bay in 2008) and seven National League pennants, the first of which came in 1915. The franchise has also experienced long periods of struggle.
CITIZENS BANK PARK Opened:
Capacity:
46,528
Citizens Bank Park is the home of the Philidelphia Phillies. The park opened in 2004 and has seen excellent attendance figures. Citizens Bank Park is considered on of the most hitter friendly parks in the league, despite several modifications made after the 2005 season. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
Team History
T
he Houston Astros were established in 1962 as the Colt .45s, before taking on the “Astros” moniker in 1965. The name of the team and their then state-of-the-art domed stadium, the Astrodome, were in reference to Houston’s involvement in the US’s space program. The Astros are the oldest team to remain in the same city throughout their existence to never win a World Series. Their only World Series appearance came in 2005. The original Houston team was named the Colt .45s after a “Name The Team” contest was held. The name “Colt .45s” won out, as the Colt .45 was well-known as “the gun that won the west.”[3] The colors selected were navy blue and orange.
minute maid park Opened:
Capacity:
40,950
Minute Maid Park opened in 2000 as the home of the Houston Astros. The stadium features a retractable roof to shield players and fans from the harsh weather in Houston, and the playing surface is grass. The park is known to be hitter friendly, with short wall distances along the foul lines. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
Team History
T
he Cincinnati Reds were established in 1882 as the Cincinnati Red Stockings, a name that referenced the first professional baseball team. They took on the “Reds” name in 1890, thought they briefly changed it to the “Redlegs” through 1953-1958 to avoid association with the Communist party. Relative to other teams in the National League, the Reds have enjoyed success over their 120-plus years. They are tied with the San Francisco Giants and Pittsburgh Pirates for sixth-most World Series victories, with 5.
Great american ballpark Opened:
Capacity:
42,271
The Great American Ballpark opened in 2003 and is the home of the Cincinnati Reds. The park is located next to the Ohio River. The park has a long list of features for visitors to enjoy and has state of the art audio and visual technology.
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
St. Louis Cardinals Established: 1882
Team History
T
he St. Louis Cardinals are a National League team that despite several name changes, has always remained in St. Louis. The Cardinals began in 1882 as a part of the American Association with the name of the St. Louis Brown Stockings. The Cardinals main rivalry is with the Chicago Cubs, a fellow member of the NL Central Division. They have won more World Series than any other NL team, and more than any Major League team outside of the New York Yankees. The Cardinals finished their inaugural season in the new Busch Stadium by winning the 2006 World Series, becoming the first team since the 1923 New York Yankees to win the World Series in their first season in a new ballpark.
Busch stadium Opened:
Capacity:
43,975
Busch Stadium is the home of the St. Louis Cardinals and opened in 2006. The park is a homage to early ballpark designs with an open view of the downtown area. The seats in the park are red to honor the main color of the home team. This ballpark is the third stadium in St. Louis to have the Busch name attached to it. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
Team History
T
he Chicago Cubs are one of two teams that were founded during the creation of the National League in 1870. The Cubs are the oldest active team still in their original city. They took on the “Cubs” name in 1902. The Cubs have not won a World Series in over 100 years, the longest drought in Major League baseball. Al Spalding, who also owned Spalding sporting goods, played for the team for two seasons under club founder William Hulbert. After Hulbert’s death Spalding owned the club for twenty one years, after which the Cubs were purchased by Albert Lasker and Charles Weeghman. That pair were followed by the Wrigley family, owners of Wrigley’s chewing gum.
wrigley field Opened:
Capacity:
42,157
Wrigley Field, the home of the Chicago Cubs, is the second oldest ballpark in baseball. It opened in 1916. The park is known as “The Friendly Confines”. The surrounding area of town is known as “Wrigleyville”. Wrigley Field is one of the smaller ballparks in the Major Leagues with a capacity of 41,160. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES Year
Team History
T
he Milwaukee Brewers originated in 1969 as the Seattle Pilots, before being relocated and renamed in 1970. The team was initially in the American League, but was moved into the National League in 1998. The team’s only World Series appearance came in 1982. In 2008, the Brewers achieved their first postseason berth in the 26 years since their World Series appearance as the wildcard team in the National League. They were eliminated in the NLDS by the eventual World Series champion Philadelphia Phillies. They have had only 3 playoff berths in their 40 year history.
miller park Opened:
Capacity:
41,900
Miller Park is the home of the Milwaukee Brewers, and was opened in 2001 after 6 years of construction. The stadium features a retractable roof, so the stadium can be covered during bad weather. The playing surface is still grass, despite the roof, and grass growth is aided by numerous windows allowing in light. The park is praised for its excellent design and atmosphere.
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
Team History
T
he Pittsburgh Pirates were established as the Pittsburgh Alleghenys in 1882. They joined the National League in 1887 and played in the first World Series. Despite a successful history with 5 World Series championships, the current team has suffered 17 consecutive losing seasons. The franchise joined the National League in its sixth season in 1887 and was competitive from its early years, winning three National League titles from 1901 to 1903, winning a World Series in 1909 behind Honus Wagner. The Pirates have had many ups and downs during their long history, most famously winning the 1960 World Series on a walk-off home run by Bill Mazeroski, the only time that Game 7 of the World Series has ever ended with a home run.
PNC PARK Opened:
Capacity:
38,496
PNC Park, which opened in spring 2001, is an intimate, classic-style ballpark that embraces the progressiveness of Pittsburgh while saluting the spirit of early ballpark originals. Its prime location along the shore of the Allegheny River takes advantage of scenic vistas of the downtown skyline and riverfront, creating an exciting and dramatic urban sports venue.
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
San Fransisco Giants Established: 1886
Team History
T
he San Fransisco Giants were established as the New York Gothams in 1883, were renamed the Giants, and then moved to their current city in 1958. The Giants played in New York City through the 1957 season, after which they moved west to California to become the San Francisco Giants. As the New York Giants, they won 17 pennants and 5 World Championships. The Giants have not won a World Championship since 1954, and have never done so in San Francisco, for the third-longest championship drought among MLB teams behind those of the Chicago Cubs and Cleveland Indians (who were defeated by the Giants in the 1954 Series). The Giants have won three pennants in San Francisco.
AT&T PARK Opened:
Capacity:
41,915
AT&T Park is the home of the San Fransisco Giants. The ballpark has several unique design characteristics; the right field wall is 24 feet tall in reference to famous Giant, Mille Mays, and the mass of water beyond the wall is known as McCovey Cove, after former first baseman Willie McCovey. Home runs that land in the cover are known as “Splash Hits�, and there have been over 70 such home runs since the park opened.
092
Team History
T
he Arizona Diamondbacks are a National League expansion team, founded in 1998. They became the quickest team to win their first World Series in 2001, just four seasons into their existence. Between 1940 and 1990, Phoenix jumped from the 99th largest city in the nation to the 9th largest; currently 5th largest today. As such, it was frequently mentioned as a possible location for either a new or relocated MLB franchise. Baseball had a rich tradition in Arizona long before talk of bringing a big-league team even started. The state has been a frequent spring training site since 1946.
CHASE FIELD Opened:
Capacity:
49,033
Chase Field opened in 1998, coinciding with the establishment of the Diamondbacks. The park was the first in the United States to have a retractable roof, which has been exceptionally useful in the extreme arizona heat. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES Year
Team History
T
he Colorado Rockies are a National League expansion team, established in 1993, playing in the Western Division. They are based out of Denver, Colorado, and the high altitude has made their current ballpark, Coors Field, notoriously hitter friendly. The team went to its first World Series in 2007 after winning 21 of 22 games at the end of the season. There were multiple previous failed attempts to bring the Major League Baseball to Colorado (most notably the Pittsburgh Pirates nearly relocating to Denver following the Pittsburgh drug trials in 1985).
Coors Field Opened:
Capacity:
50,445
Coors Field opened in 1995 and serves as the home ballpark for the Colorado Rockies. The park is one of only two that features an underground heating system. The seats in the upper deck of the stadium are over 1 mile above sea level. Because of lower air density, the park has very large outfield dimensions, which has led to it becoming a hitter friendly park.
N
San Diego Padres Established: 1969
Team History
T
he San Diego Padres were founded in 1969. The team was named after an early 20th century Pacific Coast League team, and the name “Padres” references the spanish friars who founded San Diego in the 18th century. The Padres have won the National League Pennant twice, in 1984 and 1998, losing in the World Series both times. The Padres adopted their name from the Pacific Coast League team which arrived in San Diego in 1936. That minor league franchise won the PCL title in 1937, led by then-18-year-old San Diegan Ted Williams. The team’s name, Spanish for “fathers”, refers to the Spanish Franciscan friars who founded San Diego in 1769.
Petco field Opened:
Capacity:
42,445
PETCO Park is the ballpark of the San Diego Padres, opening in 2004. The stadium has been incorporated into the downtown area, and the Western Metal Supply Co. building rests against the left side of the park. There is also a “Park at the Park” beyond the outfield, a grassy and inexpensive area for fans to watch the game.
N
Los Angeles Dodgers Established: 1883
Team History
T
he Los Angeles Dodgers were established in 1883 as the Brooklyn Dodgers, and moved to Los Angeles in 1958. The Dodgers have won more National League pennants than any other team and have also appeared in more World Series than any National League team, winning 6 times. The Dodgers were originally founded in 1883 as the Brooklyn Atlantics, taking the name of a defunct team that had played in Brooklyn prior to them. The team joined the American Association in 1884 and won the AA championship in 1889 before joining the National League in 1890. The team was known alternatively as the Bridegrooms, Grooms, Superbas, Robins, and Trolley Dodgers before officially becoming the Dodgers in the 1930s.
dodger stadium Opened:
Capacity:
56,000
Dodger Stadium is the home of the Los Angeles Dodgers and opened in 1962, making it the 3rd oldest ballpark in use. Dodger Stadium has the highest seating capacity of any Major League park. The park was one of the last stadiums built specifically for baseball use before the rash of multipurpose stadiums in the 60′s and 70′s.
N
102
American League Introdution
5 “The designated hitter rule is like letting someone else take Wilt Chamberlain’s free throws. “ – Rick Wise, 1974
T
he American League of Professional Baseball Clubs, or simply the American League (AL), is one of two leagues that make up Major League Baseball in the United States and Canada. It developed from the Western League, a minor league based in the Great Lakes states, that eventually aspired to major league status. The league is often called the Junior Circuit because it was elevated to Major League status in 1901, 25 years after the formation of the National League (the “Senior Circuit”). The American League champion plays in the World Series against the National League champion after the end of every season. Through the
2009 season, American League teams have won 62 of the 105 World Series played since 1903, with 27 of those coming from the New York Yankees alone. The New York Yankees are currently the defending American League and World Series champions. The New York Yankees have won 40 American League titles, the most in the league’s history, followed by the Oakland Athletics (15) and the Boston Red Sox (12). The American League is also notable for the fact that instead of allowing the pitcher to hit, there is a designated hitter who bats in place of the pitcher in the lineup, essentially making it a 10 man starting lineup instead of 9.
American League Introdution
New York Yankees Established: 1901
Team History
T
he New York Yankees are the most successful baseball franchise. They have more championships than any other franchise in North American professional sports history, passing the 24 Stanley Cup championships by the Montreal Canadiens in 1999. The team began in 1901 as the Baltimore Orioles, then moved to New York in 1903 as the Highlanders, until taking the “Yankees� name ten years later. The Yankees have achieved notoriety through their continued success and their extremely high payrolls. The Yankees have a fierce rivalry with the Red Sox, beginning with the sale of Babe Ruth from the Red Sox to the Yankees in 1919.
New Yankee Stadium Opened:
Boston Red Sox Established: 1901
Team History
T
he Boston Red Sox are one of the most recognized teams in Major League Baseball. The franchise has remained in Boston from its inception. The Red Sox won the very first World Series in 1903 and saw great success until the 1918-2004 championship drought that is commonly attributed to the “Curse of the Bambino”. The Red Sox and the New York Yankees have a decades old rivalry that is one of the most storied in sports. The Red Sox are consistently one of the top MLB teams in average road attendance, while the small capacity of Fenway Park prevents them from leading in overall attendance. Every home game since May 15, 2003 has been sold out—a span of over seven years and an MLB record.
fenway park Opened:
Capacity:
37,402
Fenway Park is one of the most iconic venues in baseball. The park opened in 1912, making it the oldest baseball park still in use. The park has notoriously unconventional dimensions in the outfield, with a multitude of wall heights and odd angles. The most famous landmark in the stadium is the left field wall, known as the “Green Monster”.
N
Team History
T
he Baltimore Orioles were established in 1894 as the Milwaukee Brewers, and moved to St. Louis in 1902 as the Browns before ending up in Baltimore in 1954 as the Orioles. The franchise was one of the 8 original members of the American League. The Orioles experienced their greatest success from 1964-1983, winning 7 Divisional Championships (1969-1971, 1973-1974, 1979 and 1983), 6 pennants (1966, 1969-1971, 1979 and 1983), 3 World Championships (1966, 1970 and 1983), and 4 Most Valuable Player awards.
Oriole Park Opened:
Capacity:
48,876
Oriole Park at Camden Yards is the home of the Baltimore Orioles. The park opened in 1992 was intended to be a homage to earlier park designs, as opposed to the multipurpose stadiums that had become common in the years before. The park incorporates the architecture of the B&O warehouse and other landmarks in the downtown area.
N
Toronto Blue Jays Established: 1977
Team History
T
he Toronto Blue Jays are an expansion team created in 1977. They have always resided in Toronto, and are currently the only Major League team based out of Canada. They are the only team outside the United States to win a World Series, the first team to win a World Series in Canada, the first team from Canada to appear in the World Series, and the fastest American League expansion franchise to win a World Series (winning in their 16th year, beating the Kansas City Royals’ record by one year). With the fellow Canadian franchise Montreal Expos relocating to Washington, D.C. after the 2004 season, and becoming the Washington Nationals, the Blue Jays are currently the only MLB team outside the United States.
Rogers Centre Opened:
Capacity:
49,539
Rogers Centre is the home ballpark of the Toronto Blue Jays. It is a multipurpose stadium, also hosting football games. It was the first stadium with a motorized fully retractable roof. Another unique feature is the hotel attached to the back of the stadium.
N
Tampa Bay Rays Established: 1998
Team History
T
he Tampa Bay Rays are an expansion team created in 1998, and were originally named the Tampa Bay Devil Rays. The city went through a long waiting process before they got their team, but the Rays made the wait worthwhile in 2008 when they advanced to the World Series. The Rays have a well documented rivalry with the Boston Red Sox involving several team brawls on the field. In November 2007, majority owner Stuart Sternberg made significant changes to his franchise’s image, changing the club’s name from the Tampa Bay Devil Rays to the “Tampa Bay Rays”.
Tropicana Field Opened:
Capacity:
36,973
Tropicana Field is the home ballpark of the Tampa Bays Rays. The park opened in 1990, and the Rays adopted it when they were created in 1998. The stadium has a covered roof, so it uses FieldTurf, an artificial surface. There are catwalks above the playing field which have interfered with gameplay on a few occasions, and the stadium has no protected bullpens for relievers to warm up in.
N
Kansas City Royals Established: 1969
Team History
T
he Kansas City Royal were established in 1969 as an American League expansion team. The team was created to fill the void left when the Kansas City Athletics left the town. The “Royals” name was selected in reference to the annual American Royal livestock show. They won their first and only World Series in 1985. The franchise was established following the actions of Stuart Symington, then-United States Senator from Missouri, who demanded a new franchise for the city after the Athletics—Kansas City’s previous major league team from 1955 to 1967—moved to Oakland, California.
kauffman stadium Opened:
Capacity:
38,177
Kauffman Stadium opened in 1973 and is the home of the Kansas City Royals. Multi-purpose stadiums were popular at the time of its construction, but Kauffman Stadium is a baseball specific facility. It is the 6th oldest park in baseball and recently underwent renovations such as more seating, hi-resolution video boards and more food and entertainment options for their fans.
N
Team History
T
he Cleveland Indians were established in 1894 as the Grand Rapids Rustlers, and moved to Cleveland as the Lake Shores in 1900. After several name changes, the team settled on the “Indians” name in 1915. The “Indians” name originates from a request by the club owner to decide on a new name, following the 1914 season. In reference to the Boston Braves (now the Atlanta Braves), the media chose “the Indians”. They are nicknamed “the Tribe” and “the Wahoos”. The franchise was one of the 8 original teams in the American League.
Progressive Field Opened:
Capacity:
45,199
Progressive Field is the home ballpark of the Cleveland Indians. The park opened in 1994 and hosted the All Star game in 1997. Between 1995 and 2001, 455 consecutive games at the park were sold out, which is a Major League record.
N
Team History
T
he Minnesota Twins were established in 1894 as the Kansas City Blues. The team moved to Washington D.C. in 1901 to become the Senators, which was one of the 8 original members of the American League. The team finally landed in Minnesota in 1961. The “Twins� name is a reference to the Twin Cities area of St. Paul and Minneapolis. The team was founded in Kansas City in 1894 as a Western League team and would move to Washington, D.C. in 1901 as one of the eight original teams of the American League, named the Washington Senators or Washington Nationals.
target field Opened:
Detroit T igers Established: 1894
Team History
T
he Detroit Tigers were established in 1894 and became one of the original members of the American League. They have kept the same name and are one of only four franchises who have remained in the same town throughout their existence. Detroit’s first major league entry was the Detroit Wolverines, a member of the National League from 1881 through 1888. The nickname, now associated with the University of Michigan, came from Michigan’s nickname, “The Wolverine State”.
comerica park Opened:
Capacity:
41,782
Comerica Park is the home of the Detriot Tigers, which opened in 2000. Comerica Park is very pitcher friendly, as opposed to the stadium it replaced, Tiger Stadium. In 2003 the left field wall was brought in over 20 feet to make the park more hitter friendly.
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
Chicago White Sox Established: 1894
Team History
T
he Chicago White Sox are one of two Major League teams in the city of Chicago. The team originated as the Sioux City Cornhuskers in 1894, then moved to St. Paul until 1900 when the team landed in Chicago. The White Sox were one of the 8 initial members of the American League. The White Sox and the Chicago Cubs share an inter-league rivalry. The White Sox were a strong team during their first two decades, winning the 1906 World Series with a defense-oriented team dubbed “the Hitless Wonders”, and the 1917 World Series led by Eddie Cicotte, Eddie Collins, and Shoeless Joe Jackson.
u.s. cellular field Opened:
Capacity:
40,615
U.S. Cellular Field has been the home park of the Chicago Whitesox since 1991. It was the first sporting arena built in Chicago since 1929, and replaced Comiskey Park, which was at the time the oldest ballpark in use. U.S. Cullular Field was one of the last stadiums built before the rash of “old baseball” stadiums were constructed in the 90’s and 2000’s.
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
Team History
T
he Texas Rangers are the current incarnation of the 1961 Washington Senators, based out of Washington D.C. The team moved to Arlington, Texas in 1972 and adopted the “Rangers” name. The franchise is the oldest to have never played in a World Series, and is the only Major League team to have never won a playoff series. The franchise originated in 1961 as the Washington Senators, an expansion team awarded to Washington, D.C. after the that city’s first American League team, the original Washington Senators, relocated to Minnesota and became the Twins. After the 1971 season, the Senators were moved to Arlington, Texas and became the Rangers the following year.
Rangers ballPark Opened:
Capacity:
49,170
Rangers Ballpark is the home for the Texas Rangers. The park opened in 1994 as a replacement to Arlington Stadium. The park was designed as a “retro” stadium and references several older ballparks. Rangers Ballpark is known as being hitter firendly, with short walls and swirling winds.
N
Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim Established: 1961
Team History
T
he Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim were established in 1961 as the Los Angeles Angels. The team was known as the California Angels from 1965 to 1996, when they relocated to Anaheim. The team had yet another name change in 2005 when they were named the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in an effort to take advantage of the large LA market. An expansion franchise, the club was founded in Los Angeles in 1961 as the Los Angeles Angels, and played their home games at Los Angeles’ Wrigley Field (not to be confused with Chicago’s stadium of the same name).
Angel Stadium Opened: Opened:
April19, 4, 1966 1997 April
50,096 45,050
Capacity: Capacity:
N
Angel Stadium is the home of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The park was built in 1966 and is the 4th oldest active Major League park. For a time, the stadium was used to host football games as well as baseball events.
ATTENDENCE FIGURES Year
Team History
T
he Seattle Mariners are an expansion team in the American League, established in 1977. The Mariners did not have a winning season until 1991, and have never advanced to the World Series. The Mariners hold the Major League Record for wins in a season, with 116 in 2001. The “Mariners” name originates from the prominence of marine culture in the city of Seattle. They are nicknamed “the M’s”, a title featured in their primary logo from 1987 to 1992. The current team colors are navy blue, Northwest Green (as known as dark cyan), and metallic silver, after having been royal blue and gold from 1977 to 1992.
safeco field Opened:
Capacity:
47,116
Safeco Field opened in 1999 and is the home of the Seattle Mariners. It is a “retro-baseball” park, with features that hearken back to the early 20th century, with asymmetrical field dimension and a brick facade. The park is known for its wide variety of food options, including sushi and barbecue. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES
Team History
T
he Oakland Athletics were established in 1901 as the Philadelphia Athletics, and after moving to Kansas City in 1955, finally settled in Oakland in 1970. They are one of the 8 original franchises in the American League. The “Athletics” name originates from the late 19th century “athletic clubs”, specifically the Athletic (Baseball Club) of Philadelphia. They are most prominently nicknamed “the A’s”, in reference to the Gothic script “A”, a trademark of the team and the old Athletics of Philadelphia. They are also known as “the White Elephants” or simply “the Elephants”, in reference to then New York Giants’ manager John McGraw’s calling the team a “white elephant”.
Oakland Coliseum Opened:
Capacity:
35,067
Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum is the home of the Oakland Athletics. The facility was built in 1966 and the Athletics started using it in 1968. The stadium is built to host a variety of sporting events, including football and soccer. N
ATTENDENCE FIGURES Year
| American League |
What was the name of the Federal building destroyed by total asshats Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols in Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995? | 2016 MLB season previews: Outlooks, predictions for all 30 teams | SI.com
2016 MLB season previews: Outlooks, predictions for all 30 teams
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SI.com Staff
Friday March 25th, 2016
The start of the 2016 MLB season is almost here, as all 30 teams are gearing up for the 162 games ahead, including the chase for the playoffs and the World Series. But who will be this year's favorites to win it all, and who will come up short in the quest for a championship?
To get ready for another year of baseball, check out SI.com's individual season previews for all 30 clubs, featuring scouting reports, detailed analysis and more. In each preview, one of SI.com's baseball experts gives the case for and case against each team contending for a title, including the X-factor and number to know for 2016, as well as a scout's takes on the most overrated and underrated player on each roster. Each preview also includes the team's projected finish for the coming season, as we reveal our No. 1 team for 2016. And below, you'll find SI's full projected standings, playoff picks and World Series champion.
Want more exclusive and cutting-edge MLB content? Then pick up a copy of SI's baseball preview issue, now on newsstands; follow SI's MLB coverage on Twitter and Facebook ; and subscribe to The Strike Zone podcast, SI.com's weekly discussion of all things baseball.
AL EAST
2016 MLB season preview: Atlanta Braves
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Cliff Corcoran
Monday March 21st, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 30: the Atlanta Braves.
2015 Record and Finish:
67–95 (.414), fourth place in National League East (28th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
61–101 (.376), fifth place in NL East
The Case For
Deep at the bottom of a rebuild, the Braves are a near lock to post a losing record for the third straight season, forcing them to re-define success for the coming year. One possible positive outcome for 2016—most paradoxically but perhaps also most obviously—would be posting the worst record in baseball, thereby securing the top pick in next year's draft. That would give Atlanta top-three picks in three straight years, as the team traded this off-season for 2015's No. 1 selection, Dansby Swanson, and holds the third pick in this year's draft. That would represent a tremendous influx of elite talent for a farm system raising the expectations for their eventual return to contention in the years to come.
The Braves don’t necessarily need to get the top pick, either. Cubs third baseman Kris Bryant and Twins centerfielder Byron Buxton were No. 2 picks; Orioles third baseman Manny Machado was a No. 3 selection; and there are those who believe that last year’s third pick, high school shortstop Brendan Rodgers, is a better prospect than Swanson (Baseball Prospectus has Rodgers seven spots ahead of Swanson on its Top 101 prospects list for 2016). Three straight top-three picks would fast track Atlanta back toward a meaningful and potentially lasting contention.
Taking a more conventional approach, the Braves could measure success by the progress made by the players they hope will be a part of that next winning team. On the farm, that means a successful jump to the high minors by Swanson. Sean Newcomb, the potential front-of-the-rotation lefty acquired in the Andrelton Simmons deal, needs to show improved command at Triple A. Slick-fielding shortstop prospect Ozzie Albies needs a good showing at the plate at high A ball, and top 2015 draft picks Austin Riley and Kolby Allard need strong full-season debuts.
At the major league level, righthander Aaron Blair, who came over from the Diamondbacks with Swanson, must make a solid big-league debut. Hector Olivera needs to make a smooth transition to leftfield and prove his ability to hit major league pitching. Arodys Vizcaino has to take over the closer job, likely in the wake of Jason Grilli being dealt at the non-waiver deadline. Julio Teheran must bounce back from a disappointing 2015 campaign. Ender Inciarte needs to improve against lefthanded pitching and establish himself as a quality everyday centerfielder. Freddie Freeman has to turn in a healthy and productive season. If all of those things happen, the Braves may win a few too many games to get that elite draft pick, but they won’t need the consolation prize nearly as much.
The Case Against
The worst thing that could happen to the Braves is that they have a surprisingly successful major league season due to some fluky, last-gasp performances from their veterans. Winning roughly 77 games could drop them out of the top ten in the draft, and their pick subsequently wouldn’t be protected, limiting their ability to make free-agent upgrades for their move to their new ballpark next season.
Winning games because some combination of shortstop Erick Aybar, righthander Bud Norris, catcher A.J. Pierzynski, Grilli, utility man Kelly Johnson, third baseman Gordon Beckham, reliever Jim Johnson, centerfielder Michael Bourn and utility infielder Emilio Bonifacio—all of whom will be free agents at the end of the year—had surprising seasons would be a total disaster for Atlanta. Fortunately for the Braves, that’s extremely unlikely to happen.
Willie J. Allen, Jr./AP
X-Factor: Hector Olivera, LF
Of the players projected to make the Braves’ Opening Day roster, Olivera is the biggest unknown. Signed to a six-year, $62.5 million contract by the Dodgers last May, the Cuban defector (who has five years and $32.5 million remaining on his contract) was acquired by the Braves last July in the three-team,13-player trade that sent lefty Alex Wood and infield prospect Jose Peraza to the Dodgers. Primarily a second baseman in Cuba, Olivera played third base exclusively in his first major league opportunity with the Braves last September but is being moved to leftfield full time this season.
Red flags abound. For starters, Olivera will turn 31 on April 5. Concerns over the state of his right (throwing) elbow prompted the Dodgers to include language in his contract adding a $1 million option for 2021 if he needs Tommy John surgery at any time prior to that season. He has no experience in the outfield, and his bat is unproven. Early scouting reports suggest that the move to left will be a rough one for Olivera and that, while he does have good hand-eye-coordination and the ability to make contact at the plate, he does not have a ton of power and is overly aggressive at the plate; he's unlikely to add to his value by drawing walks. Given that the Braves gave up four years of control over Wood and six over Peraza, they need Olivera to pan out for that trade not to look like a massive blunder, but his ceiling seems limited.
Number To Know: 20
This will be the 20th and final season for the Braves at Turner Field before they move into the new, suburban SunTrust Park next year. That’s significant for many reasons. They will become the first major league team to abandon a stadium built during what can roughly be described as the Bud Selig-era stadium explosion. It also marks the shortest tenure for a major league team in a steel-and-concrete, baseball-only stadium in which they were the initial tenants—not counting the many newer ballparks still in use, all of which are expected to remain in use past their twentieth seasons. After the Braves’ final game in Turner Field on Sunday, Oct. 2, Turner Field will be converted into a football stadium by Georgia State University, which bought the rights to the stadium and the surrounding land in December .
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Nick Markakis, RF
“Markakis was such a good player with Baltimore, but with his neck, his shoulder, he has really battled injuries. He can rake some doubles out there, but he doesn’t drive a ton of balls. He has no power left. He has lost some speed. He has lost some arm strength in rightfield. You’re not getting typical rightfield production. He can still hit a little bit, and he’s really good in the clubhouse, but his body is definitely trending down.”
Most Underrated: Freddie Freeman, 1B
“I think this guy can be an MVP candidate if he gets some guys around him in the lineup. He’s still only 26 years old, and you watch him and you see bat speed, you see power, you see leverage. This guy has some kind of thunder in that bat. If he can stay healthy, this guy’s got a chance to hit 30 home runs and hit close to .300. When he gets pitched so carefully, he really has to be selective at the plate and have some discipline, but if they start building around him [and] getting him some protection, he has a chance to be an impact bat.”
0:51 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Oakland Athletics
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Kenny Ducey
Monday March 21st, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 29: the Oakland Athletics.
2015 Record and Finish:
68–94 (.420), fifth place in American League West (27th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
63–99 (.389), fifth place in AL West
The Case For
The A’s have been going through a tough breakup for the better part of two years, sitting on their recliner with a tub of ice cream in their laps and tears streaming down their faces. A heart-breaking 1–0 loss to the Royals in the 2014 AL wild-card game and a disastrous campaign last year have left a dismal mood in Oakland. But while there's not exactly plenty to look forward to this season for the A's, there is some promise on the horizon.
Marcus Semien, 25, is slowly building himself up into a legitimate starting shortstop. Centerfielder Billy Burns has been a pleasant surprise, and righthander Jesse Hahn was about as consistent as 25-year-olds come before his elbow injury last season. Semien, in particular, could be poised to break out in 2016: His defense is much-improved, and he finished last year on a high-note at the plate, hitting .283/.352/.478 with seven homers from Aug. 1 through the end of the season.
Old friend Jed Lowrie is back after a rough season in Houston to rescue the A’s from their second base issues, replacing the jettisoned Brett Lawrie, and he will join newly-acquired outfielder Khris Davis toward the front of the order. Between Davis, rightfielder Josh Reddick and catcher Stephen Vogt, the meat of Oakland's lineup hit a combined 65 home runs last year. You can say this about Oakland—there’s the potential for ‘boom,’ but ‘bust’ isn’t likely in the cards. At the very least, the team's offense will be average.
Oakland's rotation is also fascinating, if nothing else. Lefthander Rich Hill (signed to a one-year, $6 million deal this winter) is the club’s new No. 3 starter after a magical 2015 with Boston that saw him post a 1.55 ERA in 29 innings. Hill hasn’t been bad in his short major-league stints over the past two years—injuries have been his downfall, not performance—and if he can re-create what he did in a short stint with the Red Sox, then the Athletics will get a lot of bang for their buck.
Even if Hill can't contribute that much, the A's should survive. Hahn will be back from injury, and you could ask for much worse out of your No. 4 than Kendall Graveman, who was roughly league average last season (99 ERA+ in 115 2/3 innings) but still has room to grow at 25. And the A's still have the right arm of Sonny Gray, who last year posted a 2.73 ERA, 147 ERA+ and 5.8 Wins Above Replacement, good for seventh among all pitchers in 2015.
The Case Against
There’s reasonable doubt that Hahn will shake his elbow injury and return to the starter that he was last summer. In order to try to stay healthy, he’s eliminated the slider from his arsenal and will opt to lean on his changeup more, but he could very well be limited this season and in years to come.
Betting on Hahn and Hill to solidify the second and third spots in the rotation is bold, and there’s not much behind them either. Oakland’s bullpen ERA of 4.63 was third-worst in the bigs last year, and while righthanders Ryan Madson and Liam Hendricks were solid additions this off-season, it's asking a lot for them to shrink that number substantially. The success of this unit will rest on the left shoulder of closer Sean Doolittle, whom the Athletics hope to get a full season out of after he missed most of last year with a slight rotator cuff tear.
If you must find a weak spot on Oakland's offense, it’s probably with the declining Billy Butler. He’s still under contract for two more years and $20 million and was borderline useless at the plate last year, hitting a meager .251/.323/.390 with just 15 home runs in 601 plate appearances. ‘Country Breakfast’ is getting cold.
Jason O. Watson/Getty Images
X-Factor: Billy Burns, CF
The 26-year-old Burns, taken in the 32nd round of the 2011 draft by the Nationals and acquired by the A's for lefty reliever Jerry Blevins after the '13 season, was a revelation for Oakland last year. He hit .294/.334/.392 in 555 plate appearances, stole 26 bases and scored 70 runs. That, coupled with a solid glove in centerfield, made him worth 2.8 WAR last year, good for second among hitters on the team behind Reddick and Vogt (who tied for first).
Burns will look to take a giant leap this season, taking lessons from Hall of Famer Rickey Henderson on base stealing and further refining his offensive game. Considering the A’s are paying him next to nothing (he won't be arbitration eligible until 2018), he could turn into one of the best value outfielders in the game. If he can get on base frequently, the middle of the Athletics' order will have no issues driving him in. Burns will be instrumental to Oakland's success.
Number To Know: 2.9
That’s all the Athletics have received in return (in WAR) for reigning AL MVP Josh Donaldson, who was traded to the Blue Jays before last season. The combined efforts of Lawrie, Graveman and lefthander Sean Nolin paled in comparison to what Donaldson did in a career year for Toronto, posting 8.8 WAR. Two pieces of that deal are already gone: Lawrie was traded to the White Sox in December for two minor leaguers, and Nolin was released over the winter to make room for Davis (and subsequently signed with the Brewers). The fourth player sent to Oakland, shortstop Franklin Barreto, is still a while away from being pro-ready; the 20-year-old topped out at high A ball for the A's last year, albeit performing well (.302/.333/.500 in 364 plate appearances).
It’s safe to say this trade hasn’t worked out for the Athletics so far, and with half of the return already elsewhere, it's hard to see Oakland recouping much of the value it gave up. An ascension up the rotation from Graveman would help the Athletics live with the deal, but they shouldn't be holding their breath.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Billy Butler, DH
"He’s a $30 million one-trick pony, and if you run out of that one trick, you can't hide him."
Most Underrated: Sonny Gray, SP
"I think if he were on a championship-quality team, he could've perhaps been a Cy Young winner last year. I don't think the world knows how good Sonny Gray is."
0:53 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Philadelphia Phillies
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Jon Tayler
Monday March 21st, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 28: the Philadelphia Phillies.
2015 Record and Finish:
63–99 (.389), fifth place in National League East (30th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
65–97 (.401), fourth place in NL East
The Case For
After three straight seasons of diminishing returns, Philadelphia bottomed out in 2015, losing 99 games for the team’s worst finish in almost two decades. But heading into 2016, there’s plenty to suggest that the Phillies are heading in the right direction. The team has a new front office that is led by president Andy MacPhail, a longtime executive for multiple teams, and general manager Matt Klentak, an ex-Angels assistant GM, and it has placed a long overdue emphasis on analytics. The roster is young and full of promise, albeit short on players with a history of production at the major league level. Philadelphia also boasts the No. 1 pick in this year’s draft, giving it another blue-chip prospect to add to a farm system that ranks among the game’s best, and another top-five selection likely awaits after this season.
The contending teams built (and subsequently neglected by) departed general manager Ruben Amaro Jr. are long gone, but a new, young nucleus is being put in place. Leading the charge is third baseman Maikel Franco, who burst onto the scene last year by posting a 127 OPS+ and 1.7 Wins Above Replacement in 80 games before a fractured left wrist in August put an early end to his season. Franco, 23, bashed 14 homers in just 335 plate appearances last season, and he’ll be the main power threat for a lineup that will have 24-year-old speedster Odubel Herrera up top and 29-year-old slugger Darin Ruf as a potential impact bat. The rotation, meanwhile, is led by 22-year-old Aaron Nola, who posted a 111 ERA+ and a strikeout rate of 7.9 per nine in 77 2/3 innings, and 23-year-old Vince Velasquez, who was acquired from the Astros in the Ken Giles trade and fanned 58 in 55 2/3 frames for Houston last year.
As exciting as those players are, the farm system boasts perhaps more promise. Shortstop J.P. Crawford, the team’s top prospect, should be starting in Philadelphia by midseason. Last season’s Cole Hamels trade with the Rangers landed Nick Williams, who could be the Phillies’ centerfielder of the future; righthander Jake Thompson, a potential mid-rotation starter; and catcher Jorge Alfaro, who has arguably the most power of anyone in Philadelphia’s system. There's also 2011 second-round pick Roman Quinn (a .791 OPS as a 22-year-old centerfielder in Double A last season) and ‘15 first-round selection Cornelius Randolph (a .425 on-base percentage as an 18-year-old in rookie ball). For the first time in years, the Phillies and their fans have every reason to be excited about the future.
The Case Against
The future may be bright, but the present isn’t very sunny in Philadelphia, as this year’s Phillies simply lack talent. Aside from Franco, Herrera and possibly Ruf, the lineup is bereft of above-average hitters, and the rotation is equally thin behind Nola. Prospects like Crawford, Williams, Thompson, starter Jerad Eickhoff and outfielder Aaron Altherr will eventually bring some upside to the lineup and rotation, but until then, the majority of Philadelphia’s roster is a collection of washed-up veterans and back-end options miscast as everyday starters. While Phillies fans wait for the kids, they’ll have to suffer through the final painful days of first baseman Ryan Howard and catcher Carlos Ruiz and lackluster innings and at-bats from fill-ins like reliever David Hernandez, starter Jeremy Hellickson and shortstop Freddy Galvis. A losing season is a lock and 90-plus losses are a guarantee, with 100 or more not out of the question.
To be fair, there should be no expectation of the 2016 Phillies contending or even coming close to it. The lineup is too weak, the rotation lacks depth, and with Giles now closing in Houston, the bullpen is also a question mark. On top of that, Amaro and Klentak have stripped the roster down to the nuts and bolts, leaving little if nothing that could be used to acquire additional prospects. The Phillies’ future will thrive or die on the strength of the young players and prospects already assembled; injuries or poor performance on their part will push back that contention timetable, perhaps for a very long time.
Chris O'Meara/AP
X-Factor: Mark Appel, SP
Of all the top prospects brought to Philadelphia in the last year, none is more compelling or mystifying than Appel, the No. 1 pick in 2013 who was acquired in the Giles trade. Plagued by inconsistent velocity and results, the 24-year-old righthander stumbled through three seasons in Houston, getting plastered across multiple levels (his minor-league ERA is an unsightly 5.12), and his inclusion in the deal felt more like an afterthought. Given his age and lack of results, the odds are against him being a contributor to the Phillies at any level.
So why tab him as Philadelphia’s X-factor? Because if Appel can somehow rediscover the form and stuff that made him the best pitcher in college baseball from his time at Stanford, he could give the Phillies an unexpected boost in a rotation (or bullpen) lacking in impact arms. And at this point, no one is counting on anything from Appel, making him a perfect fit for a team seemingly built out of lottery tickets. If he busts, he’ll be a footnote in Philadelphia’s long climb out of its Amaro-created hole. But if he hits, he’ll be yet another young player ready to make the Phillies contenders once more.
Number To Know: $24.7 million
You can count the number of Phillies with guaranteed contracts for 2017 on one hand: Howard, Ruiz, lefty starter Matt Harrison and righty starter Charlie Morton. Together, that quartet will earn just under $25 million next year, and it’s likely that all four will be paid not to play in Philadelphia: Howard and Ruiz have team options that will not be picked up, Morton’s $9.5 million mutual option will likely be declined, and Harrison probably won’t be pitching for much longer due to a persistent and chronic back condition. The team’s new core, meanwhile, will be drawing below-market paychecks for quite some time, giving the Phillies almost limitless payroll room in free agency.
That won’t have much of an impact in the 2017 off-season market, when there will be few (if any) available franchise players on the right side of 30. But that lack of long-term commitments should come in handy for 2018, when superstars like Bryce Harper, Jose Fernandez and Matt Harvey will be looking to cash in as best they can. If Philadelphia’s group of young talent can play up to potential, that combination of performance and available money could entice some big-market free agents, which would substantially accelerate the Phillies’ rebuild.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Carlos Ruiz, C
“He’s really slowed down, and he’s probably going to end up backing up Cameron Rupp more than Rupp backs him up. You can see his age and all the games he caught during that run have taken their toll. His body is a lot more sluggish offensively and defensively.”
Most Underrated: Odubel Herrera, CF
“I don’t think people have figured him out offensively yet because he is a good hitter. He’s got good bat speed. His one weakness might be discipline, but it’s not always a weakness. There are times he gets himself out, but he’s starting to mature into a guy who isn’t doing that, which could be dangerous for a guy who has the weapons he has.”
0:54 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Cincinnati Reds
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Ted Keith
Monday March 21st, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 27: the Cincinnati Reds.
2015 Record and Finish:
64–98 (.395), fifth place in National League Central (29th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
68–94 (.420), fifth place in NL Central
The Case For
It's hard to be too optimistic about a team that lost 98 games and traded away its second-best position player, its ace and its closer and lost another key starter to free agency, but here goes. To start, the Reds still have first baseman Joey Votto, who finished third in the NL MVP voting and posted an even 1.000 OPS while leading the league in walks last season. He alone should be worth the price of admission at Great American Ballpark. And Cincinnati saw subtle, if notable, improvement from speedster Billy Hamilton, whose stolen base percentage jumped from 70.9% in 2014 to 87.7% last year, even though he only stole one more base (57, second-best in the Senior Circuit). Hamilton also led NL centerfielders in assists for the second straight year, giving him a potent combination of arm strength and range that could make him a Gold Glove candidate.
The pitching staff boasts a wealth of young, if unproven, arms (more on which below), but if even a couple of those guys turn into above-average starters, the Reds will have the foundation of a quality starting staff. Otherwise, the best sign of a successful season will be seeing how their efforts to rebuild the farm system progress; what kind of success they have in the draft (they hold the No. 2 pick); and, perhaps, whether or not they can play spoiler for the rivals in their loaded division. Last year, the NL Central sent three teams—the Cardinals, Cubs and Pirates—to the playoffs. Cincinnati faces those teams, plus the equally woebegone Brewers, in its final 23 games of the season. If the Reds can't go to the postseason, perhaps they can ensure that one or more of their rivals don't get there either.
The Case Against
Last year the Reds ended the longest streak among the four major North American team sports by finishing in last place for the first time in 32 years. It won't take that long for them to finish there again. Off-season trades that sent All-Star third baseman Todd Frazier to the White Sox and All-Star closer Aroldis Chapman to the Yankees not only depleted the talent on the major league club but also didn't do as much as might have been expected to replenish the farm system. Of the seven players who came to Cincinnati in those deals, only one—infielder Jose Peraza, who had been with the Dodgers, the third team involved in the Frazier deal—was considered a top-10 prospect with his former ballclub.
Those deals came on the heels of a mid-summer trade that saw ace Johnny Cueto moved to Kansas City. The Reds almost shipped out another star over the winter, but second baseman Brandon Phillips reportedly used his rights as a 10-and-5 player to block a couple of trades, one that would have sent him to Washington and another that had him ticketed for Arizona. Cincinnati would be wise to try dealing Phillips again during the season, and to do the same with outfielder Jay Bruce. That would make an already bad team even worse, but those players aren't going to be a part of whatever future success there will be in Cincinnati.
The bullpen is also a mess in the wake of Chapman's departure. Righty J.J. Hoover is expected to take over Chapman's role as closer, but he possesses neither his predecessor's fearsome fastball nor his track record of success. Hoover has just five saves in his first four major league seasons, and he saw a decline in his strikeout-to-walk ratio and his strikeouts per nine that indicate he won't be able to rely, as Chapman did, on pure stuff to lock down games.
Michael Thomas/Getty Images
X-Factor: Homer Bailey
Hard as it is to believe, Bailey is still just 29 years old. A one-time top-10 draft pick by the Reds back in 2004, he didn't make 30 starts in a season at the major league level until four years ago. At his best, he was good enough to throw two no-hitters, rank seventh in the NL in strikeouts in 2013 and for the Reds to sign him to a six-year, $105 million contract before the '14 season. Since then, however, he's made only 25 starts, just two of which came last year before he was shut down and underwent Tommy John surgery.
Bailey should be back in the rotation before the All-Star break, by which time it's likely the Reds will be long buried in the standings, but his return will be more about seeing what the team can expect from him in the back half of that contract. If he's good, he could provide the rotation anchor Cincinnati so desperately needs; if he's very good, he might even become a possible trade option, if not in 2016 then perhaps sometime in the next year or so. Barring an unexpected turnaround in the Reds' fortunes, they would surely love to get out from under the $63 million he's owed in guaranteed money from 2017 to '19.
Number To Know: 64
That's how many consecutive starts were made by rookie pitchers for Cincinnati to end last season, a major league record. Overall, the Reds gave the ball to a first-year pitcher in 110 games, the second-highest number in major league history. With Mike Leake traded to the Giants at last year’s deadline and the aforementioned Bailey still recovering from Tommy John surgery, Cincinnati will again be forced to call upon those same pitchers to carry its rotation.
Anthony DeSclafani, a righthander who turns 26 in mid-April, had the best season of the bunch and should be in line for an improvement over his 9–13 record and 4.05 ERA. It's harder to know what to expect from Raisel Iglesias (3–7, 4.15 ERA) and Michael Lorenzen (4–9, 5.40). The most intriguing option might be Brandon Finnegan, who made a name for himself as a key bullpen option for the Royals during their run to the 2014 World Series just a few months after he'd pitched in the College World Series for TCU. Traded to Cincinnati in the Cueto deal last July, Finnegan got the first four starts of his major league career, and though he still fared far better coming out of the bullpen (2.67 ERA, .597 OPS against) than as a starter (4.71, .847), he has a versatile enough offering of pitches (particularly a developing changeup) that the team sees him as an option. The Reds will certainly have the luxury of being patient with all of their young arms, and they can afford to figure out exactly which roles work best for which players as they begin building for their next run at contention.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Joey Votto, 1B
"I hate to throw Joey Votto under the bus, he just is what he is, but I wish he would drive in more runs—or lead them off. There’s your on base guy."
Most Underrated: Michael Lorenzen, SP
"He’s got a great arm and he’s a great athlete. I think he’s going to be a good starting pitcher."
1:05 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Baltimore Orioles
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Jay Jaffe
Monday March 21st, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 26: the Baltimore Orioles.
2015 Record and Finish:
81–81 (.500), third place in American League East (16th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
69–93 (.426), fifth place in AL East
The Case For
On the heels of a modest season that many feared would be the last in Baltimore for first baseman Chris Davis and catcher Matt Wieters, the Orioles managed to retain both this winter thanks to Davis signing a contract with a significant amount of deferred money and Wieters joining the first wave of players to accept a qualifying offer. Davis, who rebounded to 47 homers last year after restoring his therapeutic use exemption for an ADHD drug, should continue to lead a power parade that includes third baseman Manny Machado (35 homers), centerfielder Adam Jones (27 homers) and second baseman Jonathan Schoop (15 homers in 86 games) as well as newcomers Mark Trumbo (22 homers despite a partial-season exile in Seattle) and Pedro Alvarez (27 homers with Pittsburgh). At worst, only one of that aforementioned pair of new Birds will have to play the field at any given time, minimizing the damage they can cause.
Of that group, the biggest promise belongs to Machado, who is coming off a season unencumbered by knee woes and put up across-the-board career bests: .286/.359/.502 with a 131 OPS+, 20 steals to go with those homers, and 7.1 Wins Above Replacement (baseball-reference.com version). He doesn't turn 23 until July 6, so it's entirely possible that the best is yet to come from him.
Meanwhile, the team also retained reliever Darren O'Day, who has paired with closer Zach Britton to become the game's most valuable one-two bullpen punch over the past two seasons. Manager Buck Showalter's use of that duo and his facility with handling the rest of his bullpen should help mitigate some of the question marks in the Orioles' rotation.
The Case Against
Even in a division that's decidedly short on top-shelf starting pitching, the Orioles' rotation scares nobody. Their only starter to qualify for the ERA title and turn in a mark below 4.00, lefty Wei-Yin Chen, skipped town and is now a Marlin. The team's fussing with former top prospect Kevin Gausman and the decline of Chris Tillman have raised questions about the way Baltimore develops pitching from within. Both Ubaldo Jimenez and Yovani Gallardo probably have their best days behind them, and Miguel Gonzalez's terrible peripherals have finally caught up to him.
On the offensive side, for all the power that the team boasts, getting on base could be a real problem. Trumbo and four returning starters (including catcher Caleb Joseph, who may well catch more games than Wieters) are coming off seasons with on-base percentages of .310 or lower, and there's no guarantee they get more than that from their collection of question marks in leftfield (Korean import Hyun-soo Kim, Rule 5 pick Joey Rickard and veteran holdover Nolan Reimold).
Patrick Semansky/AP
X-Factor: Chris Tillman, SP
Over the past half-decade or so, the Orioles' track record in converting their blue-chip pitching prospects into viable major leaguers leaves something to be desired. Jake Arrieta needed a trade to Chicago to unlock his potential; Britton and lefty Brian Matusz had to move to the bullpen; and Dylan Bundy and Hunter Harvey have been derailed by injuries.
Tillman was the exception to the rule for 2 1/2 seasons, pitching to a 3.42 ERA (118 ERA+) from mid-2012 though '14, earning All-Star honors in '13 and topping 200 innings twice despite a gaudy home run rate of 1.2 per nine. Alas, his shaky peripherals—which produced a 4.22 FIP over the span in question—caught up to him in 2015, less in the form of his home-run rate than in his converging strikeout and walk ratios. Where he had whiffed 7.1 per nine and walked 2.8 in those 2 1/2 seasons, he slipped to 6.2 strikeouts and 3.3 walks per nine in 2015. He finished with a 4.99 ERA, second-highest among qualified AL starters, and a 4.45 FIP. One reason for his collapse may have been mechanical. As Baseball Prospectus 2016 noted, "Tillman has had one of baseball's tallest release points for the past few years, reaching almost seven feet of vertical distance, but in 2015, the arm slot dropped to a release four inches lower."
Tillman did have some encouraging stretches last season, including a nine-start span from June 28 to Aug. 22 during which he pitched to a 2.35 ERA with a 3.7 strikeout-to-walk ratio, double that of his overall one. During that time, he added a sinker and improved his changeup, but the success proved fleeting. If the Orioles are to contend, he'll have to find a way to rebound to his 2012–14 form, particularly given a rotation that offers no sure things.
Number To Know: 8.8
That's Schoop's strikeout-to-walk ratio; he whiffed 79 times in 321 plate appearances and drew just nine free passes for the majors' highest ratio. As bad as that is, it does represent a slight improvement over his 2014 ratio of 9.4 (122 strikeouts and 13 walks in 481 PA). Not many players can get away with that kind of imbalance, but at least for the moment, the 24-year-old Schoop still offers plenty of promise thanks to his combination of power (32 homers in 817 PA at the big league level) and defensive ability (+10 Defensive Runs Saved at second base in 2014, though down to -3 last year), which has drawn positive notice from scouts.
Schoop swings at everything short of hot dog wrappers wafting in the summer breeze. At the 300 PA cutoff, he swung at the AL's highest percentage of pitches in the zone (83.5%) and the fifth-highest percentage of pitches outside the zone (44.6%). Teammate Jones outranked him in that latter category, and the two players had very similar slash lines (.279/.306/.482 for Schoop, .269/.308/.474 for Jones). That's not ideal, but it does offer something of a template for where Schoop is heading, as power and solid defense from an up-the-middle position player is always welcome. Still, he does need to cut down his whiff rate, particularly against offspeed stuff; via Brooks Baseball , he swung and missed at least 39% of the time against sliders, curves and changeups.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Matt Wieters, C
“If people think he's a star player, well, he's not. It'll be almost impossible for him to get that big contract. His arm is coming back from the Tommy John surgery, but it's not back yet, and he's never been a real great offensive player. He's going to have to work to take the full-time job back, because Caleb Joseph is coming on like crazy.”
Most Underrated: Jonathan Schoop, 2B
“Schoop is a plus defender, almost Gold Glove-caliber—one of the better second basemen in all of baseball. He still chases breaking balls out of the zone and has to learn the strike zone better, but he's got power and offensive skills that very few second basemen have.”
1:03 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Milwaukee Brewers
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Ben Reiter
Monday March 21st, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 25: the Milwaukee Brewers.
2015 Record and Finish:
68–94 (.420), fourth place in National League Central (25th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
70–92 (.432), fourth place in NL Central
The Case For
You have to squint. Maybe leftfielder Ryan Braun, at 32 and with five years and $105 million left on his contract, will return to MVP form after a few seasons compromised by a PED suspension and injuries to his thumb and his back. Maybe his dinged-up running mate, catcher Jonathan Lucroy, will be healthy, too. Maybe first baseman Chris Carter, signed as a free agent after being non-tendered by the Astros, will hit 37 home runs again, as he did two years ago.
Maybe toolsy 6’5” outfielder Domingo Santana, another former Astro—there’s a theme for new general manager David Stearns, formerly Jeff Luhnow’s assistant in Houston—will break out at 23. Maybe centerfield prospect Brett Phillips (another key piece in last July’s trade that sent Carlos Gomez and Mike Fiers to Houston) will arrive ahead of schedule to save the club from the prospect of regular at-bats for Kirk Nieuwenhuis. Maybe defensively gifted, 21-year-old shortstop Orlando Arcia—sixth on MLB.com’s top 100 prospects list , after batting .307 in Double A—will also force his way into the majors early.
Maybe Matt Garza will surpass 200 innings for the first time since 2010. Maybe hard-throwing, 26-year-old starters Jimmy Nelson and Wily Peralta will suddenly develop into a credible one-two punch for a rotation that ranked 28th in ERA last year, at 4.79. Maybe.
The Case Against
Here is a list of players whom the Brewers have traded since the last day of August in 2014, when they were 73–63 and tied atop the NL Central: reliever Jonathan Broxton, outfielder Khris Davis, Gomez, Fiers, first baseman Adam Lind, outfielder Gerardo Parra, third baseman Aramis Ramirez, closer Francisco Rodriguez and shortstop Jean Segura. You can’t blame them, as a 9–17 September left Milwaukee six games out of even a wild-card spot two years ago, before last season’s disaster.
It was time to rebuild, and the Brewers have the right man to do it in the 31-year-old Stearns, a central strategist in Houston’s successful effort. Now, though, the team is right in the middle of the teardown, and its immediate fortunes won’t be helped by the fact that the Brewers, like the equally beleaguered Reds, play in a division with three of the majors’ best clubs—the Cardinals, Cubs and Pirates. “That’s crazy in one division, especially when you’re playing them over and over,” says one rival scout. “Poor Reds and Brewers, these three teams!”
Mike McGinnis/Getty Images
X-Factor: Jonathan Lucroy, C
Lucroy wasn’t just the best catcher in baseball in 2014; he was one of the best players in baseball. His 6.2 Wins Above Replacement (FanGraphs version) ranked him eighth among regulars, sandwiched between the Marlins' Giancarlo Stanton and the Indians' Michael Brantley, and he finished fourth in the NL MVP balloting. He paired elite hitting (a .301 average, 13 homers, a league-high 53 doubles) with similar receiving skills behind the plate; he was such a good pitch framer that he could turn a finger-painting hurler into Rembrandt. Last year, though, Lucroy missed a month and a half with to a broken toe suffered in mid-April and then a couple more weeks in September due to a concussion. He finished with a .264 average, seven homers and a .717 OPS, a drop of 120 points from 2014.
Catching is a grueling gig, and the 29-year-old Lucroy hasn’t done it in a major league game since last Sept. 8, when he took that fateful foul tip to the mask. But the Brewers need him to return to form and his natural position to have any shot to compete. Realistically, though, they’ll need him to do so in a sustained way in order to reestablish his trade value—which could be extremely high, as he’s due less than $10 million in salary over the next two years and because several contenders (including the Astros, Nationals and Rangers) have clear holes at catcher. A healthy, productive and catching Lucroy is the type of trade chip that could significantly shorten any rebuilding plan. A Lucroy who is limited to playing first base would have much less value, both to the Brewers and to suitors.
Number To Know: 20
That’s how many spots the Brewers have risen on Baseball America’s organization talent rankings list over the past two seasons, going from 29th to ninth. Only the Braves have made a bigger jump, from 26th to third, and they’ve been strip-mined to a degree that Milwaukee hasn't quite. Aside from the aforementioned Arcia and Phillips, the Brewers have four other prospects who have made at least one of the big three top-100 prospects lists: catcher Jacob Nottingham, outfielder Trent Clark and starters Jorge Lopez and Josh Hader. Unless something truly unexpected develops in Milwaukee, 2016 will really be about '17 and beyond.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Scooter Gennett, 2B
“He’s the only regular left from their competitive days aside from Braun and Lucroy, but he’s a little inconsistent with his offense. Not a real fluid defender at second. Doesn’t do the pivot well. For me, not a solid, everyday player. You’re always going to be looking for something a little better. I know he plays the game hard, but he’s stiff and he struggles against lefthanded pitching.”
Most Underrated: Will Smith, RP
“When he’s going good and not overused, Smith is one of the better lefthanded relievers in the game. I just think he’s a valuable setup guy that has quality stuff: a plus fastball, a hard breaking ball, a breaking slider with sharp bite and depth. He could pitch on anybody’s staff in baseball, even in the Royals’ bullpen. He's one of Milwaukee’s best assets.”
1:03 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Los Angeles Angels
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Erin Flynn
Tuesday March 22nd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 24: the Los Angeles Angels.
2015 Record and Finish:
85–77 (.525), third place in American League West (11th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
72–90 (.444), fourth place in AL West
The Case For
Any team that has Mike Trout is bound to stumble upon some degree of success, but the presence of one phenom on a roster is never enough to carry an entire team (see: the 2015 Nationals). The four-time All Star has put in MVP-caliber work every year since his first full season with the Angels in 2012—including his lone win in '14—but postseason success in that period has been sparse to nonexistent. In 2014, Los Angeles finished with baseball's best record but was swept out of the ALDS by the Royals—its only trip to October so far with Trout. Last year, the Angels finished with the best record of teams that didn’t make the playoffs, and a wild-card berth dangled just out of their grasp until the season’s final days. Trout, catcher Carlos Perez and then-third baseman David Freese all did their part by hitting over .300 in the season’s final month, but the rest of the starting lineup hit a collective .233, and the Halos missed the second wild-card spot by just one game. The theme of Trout receiving little backup at the plate was present throughout the Angels' entire season, and that will be the crux of whether Los Angeles can max out its present potential in 2016.
Despite Trout’s best efforts, the team’s season slash line of .246/.307/.396 sat at the bottom of the AL, and Los Angeles' 4.1 runs per game ranked 20th. The Angels will need more consistent production from prolific but aging first baseman Albert Pujols, who hit .244/.307/.480 in 2015 but reminded us he isn’t an old man quite yet by clubbing 40 home runs in his climb up the all-time leader board. In the best case scenario for the Angels, new additions Andrelton Simmons and Yunel Escobar turn in career years at the plate; Pujols defies age and injury once again; Kole Calhoun, Daniel Nava and Craig Gentry do an above-average job at flanking Trout in the outfield; and the rotation behind righty ace Garrett Richards keeps the Angels in games. But without making many improvements in the areas they were lacking—catcher, second base, leftfield, designated hitter—it will be tough to contend in the AL West against the offense-heavy Rangers, the rebuilt Astros and the overhauled Mariners.
The Case Against
The prognosis looks grim for Los Angeles. Missing a playoff berth by so little was disheartening, but the Angels may not even come that close this year. Acquiring a second baseman, corner outfielder and starting pitcher could have turned this team into a powerhouse, but instead, the Halos will be entreating the baseball gods with prayers for uncharacteristically productive seasons from every player on their roster just to give them hope for a wild-card spot.
At second base, the Angels will stick with Johnny Giavotella despite his middling offense (96 OPS+) and awful defense (-12 Defensive Runs Saved) last year. In left, the duo of Nava (.194/.315/.245 in 166 plate appearances for the Red Sox and Rays) and Gentry (six hits in 26 forgettable games for the A's) will form arguably the least productive platoon in the majors. Barring a miracle or a midseason change, those positions will be persistent black holes for the Angels' offense—and that doesn't include the equally problematic options at designated hitter (C.J. Cron, 106 OPS+), catcher (Perez, 82 OPS+) and shortstop (Simmons, 86 OPS+). As it stands, Trout, Calhoun and Pujols are the only above-average regulars in Los Angeles' lineup; they will have to carry an incredibly heavy load.
Things aren't much better on the mound. The Angels' pitching hung near average in 2015 with a 3.94 ERA, and no significant acquisitions were made to improve the ailing starting rotation, most of which will be found in the training room rather than on the mound come Opening Day. Their starters (3.98 ERA) did a good job of limiting hits (.247 opponent's batting average) but gave away the second-most free passes in the AL (303 walks). The bullpen was average (3.86 ERA), though it benefited from a nearly full season from closer Huston Street, who was shut down in September with a groin injury, missing the final nine games of the season. Street has a long and unpleasant history of injuries, and the Angels' bullpen behind him would struggle to pick up the slack if he goes down for any significant length.
Mark J. Terrill/AP
X-Factor: Andrew Heaney, SP
With C.J. Wilson and Tyler Skaggs already set to begin the season on the disabled list (Wilson is out indefinitely with a shoulder problem and Skaggs is recovering from Tommy John surgery) and Jered Weaver potentially not far behind as he deals with degenerative changes in his vertebrae, the stage has been set for Heaney, a 24-year-old lefthander, to emerge as a leader in the rotation. Heaney owns a 4.00 ERA over two career seasons but showed promise in the 18 starts he made for the Angels last year. He finished with a 6–4 record and a 3.49 ERA, and his 1.7 WAR was just a tenth of a point behind those of Richards and All-Star Hector Santiago in the rotation. He will likely follow those two in the order again, and the Angels will rely heavily on him to pitch up to his prospect potential while the rest of their pitching staff mends.
Number To Know: 5.5
That's how many miles per hour Weaver has lost off his fastball since his rookie season. His diminishing velocity was a concern going into last season, and it remains a problem entering this season. Weaver's ERA has gone up every year since he finished second in Cy Young voting in 2011, and his average fastball velocity has correspondingly decreased; he finished last year with his fastball clocking in at 84.9 mph and his ERA at 4.64. According to FanGraphs, only five other non-knuckleball pitchers who have thrown more than 150 innings per season over the past 14 years have had a slower average fastball velocity than Weaver did in 2015. As he sluggishly brings up the rear in the starting pitching parade, he will need to find new ways to outsmart hitters, as blowing balls by them seems to no longer be an option.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Craig Gentry, OF
"You've got a fifth outfielder you're considering to be an everyday player. At that position you're expecting power numbers. He has not performed at that level."
Most Underrated: Kole Calhoun, RF
"He just keeps getting better. Playing with the best player on the planet, I think people miss how much damage he’s doing there next to Trout."
1:05 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Colorado Rockies
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Jay Jaffe
Tuesday March 22nd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 23: the Colorado Rockies.
2015 Record and Finish:
68–94 (.420), fifth place in National League West (27th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
73–89 (.451), fourth place in NL West
The Case For
On the heels of a 94-loss season, the Rockies didn't make any high-impact moves, and they're no threat to win the NL West. Still, that's not to say that they'll be completely unwatchable or incapable of producing some level of success this year. For one thing, they've got one of the game's elite defenders in Nolan Arenado, a spectacular third baseman who has won three Gold Gloves in three years and led the league in both homers (42) and RBIs (130) in 2015 as well. For the moment at least, they've got a healthy Carlos Gonzalez coming off career highs in games played (153) and homers (40), though with two years remaining on his contract, the team would be well-served by marketing him for a trade this summer.
Perhaps the most interesting facet of the roster is the quartet of young pitchers—Jonathan Gray, Eddie Butler, Jordan Lyles and Tyler Matzek—who are all in their age-25 seasons or younger. Sure, they've taken their lumps in the big league thus far; all but Matzek have career ERAs above 5.00, and Matzek has the additional challenge of dealing with an anxiety issue that remains unresolved . All four are former first-round (or supplemental first-round) picks who since being drafted have each spent multiple seasons on top prospect lists, cracking the top 50 at some point before getting their rude introduction to the majors. They won't all pan out to the same extent, and keeping them healthy has been a challenge thus far, but if the team hits on a couple of those pitchers, respectability may not be far away.
The Case Against
Last year was the Rockies' fifth straight below .500 and third out of the last four with at least 94 losses. Over that span, only the Astros have had a worse record, and they're coming off a 2015 playoff appearance, with a full season from AL Rookie of the Year Carlos Correa on tap. Colorado has a strong farm system, but the team doesn't have that kind of organizational savior on the way. The Rockies also didn't add anyone this winter who will make them particularly more compelling to watch, unless subbing in Gerardo Parra for Corey Dickerson, Jake McGee for Rex Brothers, or Jason Motte for John Axford moves the needle for you (if it does, seek help). It may be that general manager Jeff Bridich has a plan for how to build a winner at high altitude, but so far, the best that can be said for his tenure is that it's still early, as he took over in October 2014.
Doug Pensinger/Getty Images
X-Factor: Chad Bettis, SP
Between the aforementioned young pitchers and grizzled 35-year-old staff ace Jorge De La Rosa is Bettis, a soon-to-be-27-year-old righty coming off a breakout 2015 season. A second-round pick out of Texas Tech back in 2010, he grazed prospect lists in '12 before missing all of that season due to a rotator cuff injury, and his exposure to the big leagues in '13–14—a total of 69 1/3 innings, with a 6.88 ERA and 5.14 FIP—was not positive.
But after beginning his 2015 season at Triple A Albuquerque, Bettis pitched well enough to be promoted to the majors in mid-May. Aside from a 10-run drubbing by the Angels on July 7 and a five-week stint on the disabled list due to elbow inflammation, he was a pleasant surprise, pitching to a 4.23 ERA (110 ERA+) and 3.85 FIP in 115 innings. Among the nine pitchers who made at least nine starts for the team, both his 0.7 homers per nine and his 7.7 strikeouts per nine ranked second. As Baseball Prospectus 2016 noted, "Bettis did a better job consistently burying his slider low and away to righthanders, giving him two secondary pitches (the changeup is the other) that drew whiffs 20% of the time and produced two grounders for every three balls put in play."
Extending that encouraging 20-start performance across a full season is no small challenge, particularly given that Bettis's elbow troubles probably had something to do with ramping up his workload (he threw just 80 innings in 2014). If he can pull it off, however, he'll lessen the pressure on the younger pitchers, a group that also includes Tyler Chatwood, who despite having just turned 26 is coming off his second Tommy John surgery.
Number To Know: TBD
As in "To Be Determined," the length of Jose Reyes's suspension under the game's new domestic violence policy. The 32-year-old shortstop, who was acquired from the Blue Jays in the Troy Tulowitzki blockbuster in late July, was arrested in Hawaii last Halloween on charges of domestic abuse; his wife reportedly suffered injuries to her neck, face and leg. Reyes pled not guilty and is scheduled to go to trial on April 4. Commissioner Rob Manfred, who has not yet imposed a suspension in this case, placed him on paid administrative leave as of Feb. 23 and will make his decision as to further discipline upon the completion of the case. Given Aroldis Chapman's 30-game suspension for an incident in which no charges were actually filed, it's reasonable to assume that unless the facts of the case differ considerably from what has been reported thus far, Reyes will receive a longer ban.
As to what the Rockies do without Reyes, 23-year-old prospect Trevor Story, who hit .279/.350/.514 with 20 homers split between Double and Triple A, is viewed by some as needing more seasoning before he can claim a major league job. While there's no real reason to start his service clock before he's ready, he’s made a strong impression thus far this spring, and the odds of him making the team have increased even further with the news of Daniel Descalso’s fractured left hand.
The 29-year-old Descalso and 24-year-old Cristhian Adames are the top alternatives to Story. Descalso has five-plus major league seasons under his belt and has shown that he's a terrible hitter (.238/.309/.339 overall, including .205/.283/.324 for a 55 OPS+ in 209 plate appearances last year) for whom shortstop is a stretch (-19 Defensive Runs Saved in 999 1/3 innings there, around two-thirds of a season). Adames has just 33 games and 73 plate appearances in the majors; he hit .311/.362/.438 with 11 homers at Albuquerque last year, but beyond those altitude-inflated stats, his profile is that of a defense-first utility man who's probably a better bet for shortstop. He's out of options, which could work in his favor to start the year as well, assuming Reyes isn't available.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Gerardo Parra, OF
"The trade for him was confusing. It doesn’t solve the all-lefthanded outfield problem, and at this stage of his career, he’s really more of a good platoon guy. And the guy they gave up [Dickerson] had a higher ceiling offensively. It just didn’t make sense with any type of long-term plan."
Most Underrated: Chad Bettis, SP
"He’s really settling in for two reasons: He finally has a defined role after bouncing back and forth as a reliever and a starter, and the club helped fix his delivery this time last year. I think he’s going to be the guy they wanted when they drafted him."
1:00 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: San Diego Padres
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Beth Maiman
Tuesday March 22nd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 22: the San Diego Padres.
2015 Record and Finish:
74–88 (.457), fourth place in National League West (23rd overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
73–89 (.451), fourth place in NL West
The Case For
Change can sometimes be a good thing. Certainly that wasn’t the case for last year’s Padres, even with many calling general manager A.J. Preller the champion of the off-season after he made numerous high-profile moves that ultimately didn’t end with winning results. But after underperforming last season, San Diego could finish higher in the standings than many predict if the team can find a groove and get career years from several players.
The real question is whether that can happen with the roster the Padres currently have. There are a few potential difference makers on the team. Rightfielder Matt Kemp, who rebounded from a slow start with a fantastic second half (.868 OPS after the All-Star break), could be vital for the Padres if he can provide a consistent performance throughout the year. San Diego also dealt with an injured Wil Myers last season and the lack of a regular shortstop; Myers is back and healthy to man first base, and Alexei Ramirez will take over as the everyday starter at short after getting released by the White Sox.
In the rotation, the Padres still have righthander Tyson Ross, who led the starting five with a 112 ERA+ and boasts a fantastic 9.7 strikeout-per-nine ratio. One key here will be righthander Andrew Cashner, who is coming off a tough 2015 in which he went 6–16 with a 4.34 ERA, 84 ERA+ and -0.9 Wins Above Replacement. If Cashner can turn around his performance and return to his 2013–14 form (2.87 ERA, 119 ERA+ in 298 1/3 innings), the Padres' pitching rotation will certainly be stronger.
The Case Against
As they did last year, the Padres will enter the season with a roster that looks markedly different from the previous year's edition, but whereas 2015 was about trying to build a contender on the fly, '16 will be simply about rebuilding. Gone is leftfielder Justin Upton, who led the team in home runs with 26 and is now with the Tigers. Also departed: righthander Ian Kennedy, first baseman Yonder Alonso and second baseman Jedd Gyorko. The latter three won't be missed much, but San Diego failed to replace Upton's power this winter, leaving a sizable hole in the middle of what is already a thin lineup.
The pitching rotation for the Padres could also be problematic. Although James Shields and Ross are reliable, the bottom half of the rotation is still in the works. At this point, it looks like righthanders Brandon Maurer and Colin Rea and lefty Robbie Erlin could be filling those spots. Maurer, who served as the Padres' setup man last season, is 4–12 with a 6.62 ERA in his career as a starter. He also last pitched on Aug. 9 and was shut down for the season after dealing with shoulder inflammation. Rea made his major league debut in 2015 and tallied six solid starts, going 2–2 and striking out 26 in 32 2/3 innings, but he's never thrown more than 139 innings in a season. All three pitchers will likely face some growing pains in their starting roles, and San Diego lacks veteran options should they falter.
If the Padres do find themselves in close games, the bullpen situation could be brutal. San Diego traded away closer Craig Kimbrel, who recorded 39 saves last season, and setup reliever Joaquin Benoit. Even with Kimbrel and Benoit, San Diego’s bullpen struggled last season, accumulating a 4.02 ERA, which ranked 13th in the NL. It's hard to imagine that number improving without those two.
David Zalubowski/AP
X-Factor: Wil Myers, 1B
Dealing with a wrist injury throughout the season, Myers was unable to contribute the way the Padres had hoped after the team acquired him from the Rays for top prospect Trea Turner. Myers played in just 60 games for San Diego last season, spending prolonged stints on the disabled list. Myers did contribute when healthy, hitting .253/.336/.427 for a 114 OPS+ in 253 plate appearances, but those stats were still a far cry from his Rookie of the Year-winning form in 2014.
With the addition of former Cardinals centerfielder Jon Jay, Myers will move out of the outfield and over to first base, and with Upton gone, he'll be counted on as a potential run producer in the middle of the Padres' lineup. Now 25 years old and entering his fourth season, Myers’s experience and growth as a player will be crucial for San Diego. If he is able to stay healthy, he could provide the kind of impact the Padres need to return to contention.
Number To Know: 44
In his first year behind the plate for San Diego, catcher Derek Norris led the majors in runners thrown out trying to steal with 44, nabbing an impressive 34% of would-be base stealers. That's the most runners thrown out by a catcher in a single season since Gerald Laird caught 40 when he was with the Tigers in 2009. Norris also set a career-high in starts at catcher with 116 last season, and he graded out positively in Baseball Prospectus' catcher defense metrics. With a lot of questions facing the Padres this season, one certainty is that San Diego will have stability behind the plate.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Andrew Cashner, SP
"The guy that’s the puzzle is Andrew Cashner. For throwing as hard as he does, he just can’t get through five innings. I saw a game where he had 96 pitches in 3 1/3 innings. His fastball moves, it’s 95–96 [mph], [but] when things go wrong, he doesn’t handle it well. He should be better."
Most Underrated: Wil Myers, 1B
"Wil Myers has been hurt, but he has real power. We loved him in high school. He can run. And he said he likes first base."
1:06 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Minnesota Twins
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Jay Jaffe
Tuesday March 22nd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 21: the Minnesota Twins.
2015 Record and Finish:
83–79 (.512), second place in American League Central (14th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
74–88 (.457), fifth place in AL Central
The Case For
In their first year under manager Paul Molitor, the Twins snapped a streak of four straight seasons with at least 92 losses and remained in the AL wild card hunt until the second-to-last day of the season. This time around, they'll go wire-to-wire with both righthander Ervin Santana, who missed the first 80 games of last season due to a PED suspension, and new rightfielder Miguel Sano, who bopped 18 homers in 80 games as a rookie. They might also get a full season of Byron Buxton, the consensus No. 2 prospect in the game and the likely Opening Day centerfielder given the trade of Aaron Hicks, with holdover Eddie Rosario (who's entering his age-24 season) and newcomer John Ryan Murphy (entering his age-25 season) augmenting the youth movement. Meanwhile, veteran Joe Mauer—whose production has sagged in two seasons since moving to first base—is using sunglasses to help combat vision problems that have lingered since the 2013 concussion that ended his catching career.
As for the pitching, the rotation can look forward to the arrival of righty Jose Berrios (one of the game's top prospects) at some point in the season, though he’ll start the year in the minors and will have to force his way to the Twin Cities given the depth of the rotation. Barring injuries, that starting five will consist of Santana, righties Phil Hughes, Kyle Gibson and Tyler Duffey and either southpaw Tommy Milone or veteran righty Ricky Nolasco. In the bullpen, Glen Perkins should be able to resume closer duties after a bulging disc in his neck contributed to an 8.22 ERA in 7 2/3 innings in September, with power arms Kevin Jepsen and Trevor May in support.
The Case Against
Last year's Twins were a lousy offensive team, ranking dead last in the league in on-base percentage (.305) and in the bottom four in both batting average and slugging percentage (.247 and .399, respectively). Sano (146 OPS+) was the only player substantially above league average, with six regulars or part-timers in the 95–104 range, all but one of whom (Hicks) is returning. Buxton has tremendous upside, but he struggled mightily (.209/.250/.326 in 138 plate appearances) in his first exposure to major league pitching, and Rosario's 7.9 strikeout-to-walk ratio and .289 OBP were both appalling. At least to start the season, it appears that Murphy will take a back seat to Kurt Suzuki, who's not only a poor hitter but also one of the game's worst pitch framers .
As ever, the Twins will struggle to miss bats. The team ranked last in the league in strikeouts, with back-rotation candidates Duffey and Nolasco the only ones to whiff even 7.0 per nine; Perkins, Jepsen and May were the only relievers who topped 8.0 per nine. Fewer missed bats mean more balls in play, and that isn't necessarily a plus for a team that was tied for the league's fourth-worst defensive efficiency mark (.687) and tied for third worst in Defensive Runs Saved (-21). The potential improvement offered by a full-time Buxton could be offset at least somewhat by the learning curve that Sano must scale in rightfield, though to be fair, Torii Hunter was rather brutal there (-8 DRS) in his final season before retirement.
Ron Schwane/AP
X-Factor: Phil Hughes, SP
Hughes was a revelation in his first year in Minnesota, setting career bests with a 3.52 ERA in 209 2/3 innings and leading the league in both home run rate (0.7 per nine) and strikeout-to-walk ratio (11.6, a record). The Twins were so happy with his performance that they converted the final two years of his initial three-year, $24 million deal into a new five-year, $58 million deal. While his salary was still a comparatively modest $9.2 million in 2015, he wasn't exactly a bargain.
Between tinkering with his repertoire and arm slot, losing five weeks in August and September due to a back injury and shedding around two mph in velocity, Hughes was a different pitcher. In just 155 1/3 innings, he led the league in homers allowed (29, a rate of 1.7 per nine), and his strikeout rate plummeted from 8.0 per nine to 5.4. His ERA rose by nearly a run to 4.40, and his FIP rose by more than two runs, from 2.65 to 4.70; meanwhile, his Wins Above Replacement sank from 4.3 to 1.8. Had he replicated that 2014 season, the Twins would have been within a whisker of the second wild-card spot, as the Astros finished just three wins ahead.
Which Hughes will the Twins get? The question is all too familiar to Yankees fans, for sure. Like Josh Beckett and Bruce Bochy's Giants, Hughes has fallen into a pattern of being good in even-numbered years (averaging 192 innings, a 3.94 ERA and 2.7 WAR in 2010, '12 and '14) and lousy in odd ones (averaging 125 innings, a 4.98 ERA and 0.4 WAR in '11, '13 and '15). To his credit, he showed up to camp having lost a reported 15–18 pounds, but it's too early to tell whether he can reclaim the mantle of staff ace. Obviously, the Twins' chances of contending are much better if he does.
Number To Know: 2.76
That's Mauer's rate of ground balls to fly balls in 2015, a career high and well above his career mark of 1.99. Unfortunately, that's not a good thing at all, because Mauer's inability to get the ball off the ground translated into a career-worst .265/.338/.380 line and a 96 OPS+, the first time in his 12 seasons that he'd been below league average. On the 275 ground balls that Mauer put into play, he hit just .207 and slugged .215, lacking enough mustard even to meet his career marks of .248 and .258, respectively. On the 206 line drives and fly balls he produced, however, he hit .483 and slugged .811—numbers right in line with his career marks (.487 and .813, respectively).
As noted above, Mauer finally conceded that the foul tip-induced concussions that drove him out from behind the plate were causing blurred vision and difficulty tracking pitches, saying , "There are times I’ve gone up to the plate and I just couldn’t pick up the ball." If the sunglasses he's using can help him track pitches better, he can back off his attempts to pull the ball more often, which didn't bear much fruit. Where the average AL lefty hit .330 and slugged .610 when pulling the ball, Mauer hit .298 and slugged just .412. On the other hand, where the average AL lefty hit .322 and slugged .478 when going to the opposite field, even this less-than-mint Mauer hit .420 and slugged .636. He just needs to do it more often.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Trevor Plouffe, 3B
"He's an okay third baseman, but they think he's a power bat. He hit 22 home runs last year, but he didn't hit all that much [for average]. They're counting on him to be a big-time player, but I don't think he is, personally."
Most Underrated: Brian Dozier, 2B
"Dozier is a great, underrated player, an All-Star second baseman because his offense is so good, and he works so hard on defense."
0:58 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Chicago White Sox
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Cliff Corcoran
Tuesday March 22nd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 20: the Chicago White Sox.
2015 Record and Finish:
76–86 (.469), fourth place in American League Central (21st overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
77–85 (.475), fourth place in AL Central
The Case For
The White Sox have been aggressive the last two off-seasons, clearly laboring under the illusion that they were just a few key players away from a return to contention. I haven’t shared that optimism, but I understand its source. They do indeed possess a trio of elite players in key roles—Chris Sale as The Ace, Jose Abreu as The Bat, David Robertson as The Closer—and have some valuable complementary pieces in centerfielder Adam Eaton and No. 2 starter Jose Quintana. I wasn’t terribly enthusiastic about Chicago’s addition of righthander Jeff Samardzija (since departed as a free agent), outfielder Melky Cabrera and Robertson (whom I saw as lipstick on a pig) last winter. But this off-season’s new additions—third baseman Todd Frazier and second baseman Brett Lawrie—represent more essential and significant upgrades (as detailed below).
With those two in place, you can follow the train of logic that might lead the White Sox to believe they can contend this season. If Cabrera, who hit .309/.351/.458 (125 OPS+) from 2011 to '14, can bounce back from his lousy South Side debut, that should boost the offense. Avisail Garcia taking that long-awaited big step forward in his age-25 season would help even more. Chicago's new catching tandem of Alex Avila and Dioner Navarro must make up with its bats what it will take away with its gloves. Adam LaRoche’s surprise retirement , meanwhile, could prove to be a blessing in disguise if it allows the White Sox to upgrade their outfield defense by using Austin Jackson with regularity in the corners.
In the rotation and bullpen, more optimism is required. Carlos Rodon must fix his control problems and pitch like the front-of-the rotation horse his draft position in 2014 (No. 3 overall) suggests he should be. Chicago also needs to hope that Erik Johnson really did fix his mechanics ; that John Danks or Mat Latos can turn back the clock; that righty setup man Nate Jones can stay healthy; and that the rest of the bullpen can pitch more like they did in 2014 than in '15.
If all of that happens, everyone stays healthy, and the other teams in the division match the White Sox’s stunning good fortune with an equal measure of misfortune, then yes, Chicago could be a surprise playoff team this year. But what are the chances of so much going right for one team in a single season?
The Case Against
If none of those “ifs” is answered affirmatively and at least one key player (Sale, Abreu, or Frazier) suffers a major injury, the White Sox will likely remain stuck at the bottom of the division.
Ross D. Franklin/AP
X-Factor: The catchers
The White Sox overhauled their catching situation this off-season, non-tendering Tyler Flowers, allowing Geovany Soto to depart as a free agent and signing Navarro and Avila to take their places. The hope is that they will get more production at the plate from their new tandem, but I think they should have paid more attention to the performances they were likely to get behind the dish. Flowers was the best pitch framer in the AL last year according to Baseball Prospectus’ numbers, saving 16.7 runs with his framing alone—a contribution worth nearly two full wins—and Soto was close to average at -0.6 framing runs. Navarro and Avila, however, were a combined 12.1 framing runs below average in 1,463 fewer chances than Flowers had on his own. That’s more than a three-win swing in the wrong direction, and that doesn’t factor in the injury risk associated with Avila, who has a history of concussions (including three in the 2013 and ’14 seasons combined) and arguably shouldn’t be catching any more for his own good.
As for their hitting: Over the last two years, Navarro and Avila combined to hit .240/.323/.365, and Flowers, who is a year older than Avila but two years younger than Navarro, hit .240/.296/.378. It’s difficult to see how making an unnecessary change in personnel behind the plate won’t undermine the team’s attempts to improve elsewhere, not least of all when it comes to Rodon’s attempts to find the strike zone more often.
Number To Know: .222/.276/.326
That’s the combined line for Chicago’s second and third basemen in 2015. Over 162 games, every player the White Sox ran out at those two positions combined for 371 total bases last year. Meanwhile, in 157 games last year, Frazier collected 308 total bases on his own. He and Lawrie combined to hit .257/.304/.455 last year, and a simple average of their career lines produces a .260/.319/.442 line. On their own, those Frazier/Lawrie lines may not look terrible impressive, but compared to what the White Sox got at second and third base last year, they represent a massive upgrade at two spots in the lineup.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Carlos Rodon, SP
"This guy made some nice strides last year and has some big upside. But let's calm down anointing him as a future No. 1. Let's see him do it first. He had so much fanfare around him in college, was going to be the top overall pick out of college, but he struggled his junior year for one reason or another. In college, we were concerned there was a problem with his back—he’s not an overly athletic guy, his delivery is not strong and loose, and I still have concerns that he just can't have great command with it. No doubt, his pure stuff is so good that he can get away with it at times—but not at this level. He needs to make more adjustments to reach that upper echelon people think he'll get to. I have my doubts."
Most Underrated: Jose Quintana, SP
"This guy is Mr. Underrated. And he is Exhibit A why wins don’t tell the whole story—he hasn’t won more than 10 games but has three straight 200-inning seasons with an ERA that’s around 3.40. I’ll take that any day. He gets lost in the shuffle behind Chris Sale and now Rodon, too. His fastball doesn't exactly capture your imagination. And he's not going to be on billboards in your city. But he is a No. 2 on most teams. He's done this at one of the more hitter-friendly ballparks in the majors. He's signed to one of the better contracts out there, too."
1:01 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Miami Marlins
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Erin Flynn
Tuesday March 22nd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 19: the Miami Marlins.
2015 Record and Finish:
71–91 (.438), third place in National League East (24th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
78–84 (.481), third place in NL East
The Case For
Starting last year with a 12–12 record, the Marlins managed to hang at the top of the NL East standings for the first month of the season as spectators were left wondering how the Fish were besting the division favorites. But by mid-May, Miami's glimmer of hope was gone, as the Marlins resumed losing and assumed their familiar position near the bottom of the pile. Their streak of consecutive years with a losing record reached six in 2015, but '16 could be the year they break from tradition.
Full seasons from Giancarlo Stanton and Jose Fernandez will give the team pillars around which to build. Fernandez enjoyed a successful return to the mound from 2014 Tommy John surgery, posting a 2.92 ERA over 11 starts in the back half of the season. But as one star returned, another departed: Stanton’s season ended just before Fernandez’s began due to a broken hand. Before that, however, the burly rightfielder clobbered 27 home runs and kept the Marlins’ offense among the top half of teams for the first three months of the season. Positive production from both Stanton and Fernandez this season will be vital to the Marlins’ chances at winning.
Miami stayed busy in the off-season, bringing in pitchers Wei-Yin Chen and Edwin Jackson to absorb the loss of Henderson Alvarez, who was by far the team’s most valuable pitcher in 2014 before a shoulder injury derailed his '15 season. But even more important than any on-field acquisitions were the changes to the coaching staff. Former Dodgers manager Don Mattingly brings five years of managerial experience and a 446–363 career record to Miami, and former slugger Barry Bonds was hired to revitalize the Marlins’ bats as a hitting coach alongside veteran journeyman Frank Menechino. Expect Bonds and Menechino to encourage increased patience at the plate (in 2001, Bonds and Menechino swung at the lowest percentage of pitches of all major leaguers and still reached base at a combined .447 rate). The Marlins were among the top 10 teams most inclined to swing at the first pitch last season but had just a .299 on-base percentage when they swung compared with a .314 OBP when they watched the first pitch go by. Bonds’s influence could coax greatness out of the Marlins’ young lineup (their average age of 27.5 ranks tenth-youngest of teams), with players already expressing their excitement at the opportunity to learn from him.
Though the division is presumably the Nationals' or the Mets' to take, a winning record is an incredibly achievable goal for Miami. The off-season changes could go a long way toward separating the Marlins from the middling Braves and Phillies at the bottom of the division and showing they can contend with the top teams in the East.
The Case Against
Each year the Marlins seem to improve, and yet each year they somehow find a way to disappoint. Miami finished last season with a .260/.310/.384 slash line, with its team batting average ranking in the top 10 but the lineup's on-base and slugging percentages lagging in the bottom third. Getting hits doesn’t matter if those players never score, and the Marlins averaged just 3.8 runs per game, second worst in baseball just ahead of the Braves. They didn’t sign any big bats to help boost those numbers, and expecting big jumps in their stats after just a few months of hitting lessons from Bonds seems unrealistic. That offense could sag even further with regression from last year’s batting champion, Dee Gordon. A career .272 hitter before logging last season’s NL-best .333 average, Gordon is likely to trend back toward his career norm.
On the pitching side, the Marlins' ERA sat at 4.02, with the starters contributing a 4.25 mark and the relievers finishing at 3.66. The starting ERA should drop this year thanks to the presence of Fernandez and Chen, but we still don’t know what to expect from Fernandez’s arm in his first full season since Tommy John. The bullpen, meanwhile, seemed to be in decent shape until the Marlins announced earlier this month that flame-throwing reliever Carter Capps, who posted a 1.16 ERA over 30 games last season, would be lost for the year after suffering a torn elbow ligament of his own.
There are still several question marks hovering over this Marlins team, and while no one would be surprised or disappointed with a third-place finish, it will be the number of games separating them from the top and bottom of the division that shows whether they are evolving into true contenders. Last season, the Marlins finished much closer to the 63–99 Phillies (eight games ahead) than they did to the division champion Mets (19 games behind). If they can keep pace with the Mets and the Nationals this year, it could foretell an upset in the dynamic of the division in the seasons to come.
Joe Robbins/Getty Images
X-Factor: Giancarlo Stanton, RF
Whether Stanton can remain healthy this season will make all the difference for the Marlins. In 2014—his closest to a full season since '11—he played in 145 games, led the league in home runs, finished second in the NL MVP voting and was worth 6.5 Wins Above Replacement. The electricity Stanton provides to the Marlins when he is healthy enough to remain in the lineup is undeniable, but the Marlins’ $300 million man has averaged just 114 games over his past four seasons. He strained a hamstring in 2013, took a fastball to the face in '14 and broke his hand last year, and also underwent bone chip removal surgery in his knee in '12; lingering knee pain has slowed his start this spring.
If Stanton's trend of bad injury luck reverses, Miami fans could be in for a treat. Stanton hit a home run every tenth at-bat in 2015, finishing with 27 homers in 74 games. Extrapolated over an entire season, Stanton could have reached 60 home runs last season, easily surpassing NL MVP Bryce Harper and Rockies third baseman Nolan Arenado, who finished at the top of the NL with 42. Bemoan small sample sizes all you want, but we’ve already seen the damage Stanton can do to a baseball when he is healthy. The key will be keeping him that way.
Number To Know: 4.1
That was Fernandez's WAR (FanGraphs version) in 2013, his only full season in the majors. Miami's rotation as a whole put up 8.6 WAR that season; in other words, Fernandez singlehandedly accounted for almost half of the starting five's value to the team. Last year, the Marlins' rotation posted a WAR of 6.8. Double that, and Miami would likely find itself among the playoff teams. At 23 years old, Fernandez’s full potential is still unknown, but his value to the team cannot be denied.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Justin Bour, 1B
"This guy came out of nowhere last year, crushing 23 home runs, and doing some damage in that graveyard in Miami is impressive. He’s a mammoth and can swing the pole, [and] if you make a mistake to him, he's going to crush it. But now we’ll see if he can make adjustments—I’m saying he won’t. The guy hit all his home runs against righties last year—I think this guy is pretty hopeless against lefties. He'll hit a bomb and everyone will go crazy, but then he'll have 20 at-bats where he looks pretty lost. He's a poor man's Matt Stairs."
Most Underrated: Adeiny Hechavarria, SS
"Say what you want about defensive metrics—and I’ll say they’re full of s---—Hechavarria is a guy who can play on the defensive side. I don't think this guy gets enough love for his glove: He's one of the better fielders out there. He’s maturing as a hitter, too, cutting down on his strikeouts. This guy gets lost in the shuffle with all the flash on this team, but he does a little of everything well, and as he's hitting his prime—he's still just 26. I think there's some nice upside here."
1:00 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Detroit Tigers
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Cliff Corcoran
Wednesday March 23rd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 18: the Detroit Tigers.
2015 Record and Finish:
74–87 (.460), fifth place in American League Central (22nd overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
80–82 (.494), third place in AL Central
The Case For
The Tigers won the AL Central every year from 2011 to '14, and it’s not difficult to see how they could return to the playoffs this year after an off-season in which they filled the three biggest holes on their roster with star-quality players in ace Jordan Zimmermann, slugger Justin Upton and closer Francisco Rodriguez, all without sacrificing a player from their 40-man roster. If Justin Verlander can build off his strong finish to 2015 (2.27 ERA over his final 14 starts), he, Zimmermann and a healthy Anibal Sanchez could be a formidable trio backed up by the league-average ground-balling of winter addition Mike Pelfrey and the high ceiling of 23-year-old lefty Daniel Norris. Rodriguez and fellow new arrivals Mark Lowe and lefty Justin Wilson give the Tigers a quality top three in the bullpen, as well, with a slimmed-down and rededicated Bruce Rondon as another potentially dominant short reliever.
On the other side of the ball, healthy seasons from Miguel Cabrera and Victor Martinez along with prime-age seasons from Upton and J.D. Martinez, continued growth and maturity from third baseman Nick Castellanos, catcher James McCann, centerfielder Anthony Gose and shortstop Jose Iglesias, and continued good work from Ian Kinsler make for a promising attack. Opposing pitchers should have their work cut out for them facing a top five of Kinsler, Upton, Cabrera and the Martinezes.
The Case Against
The yawning gap between the quality of the name on the jersey and the performance of the player within swallows this team whole. Victor Martinez is a 37-year-old with bad knees who posted an 85 OPS+ last year. Kinsler turns 34 in June. Cabrera will be 33 in April and has proven increasingly fragile in recent seasons. Upton’s contact and strikeout rates have been trending in the wrong direction in recent seasons, and he represents a significant defensive downgrade from Yoenis Cespedes, who won a Gold Glove for four moths of work in Detroit last year. Worse, the young players in the lineup (Castellanos, et al.) all appear to have limited ceilings.
Pitching-wise, things are equally iffy. Sanchez hasn’t made 30 starts since 2012 and has never thrown 200 innings in a season. Verlander is 33, has lost at least two miles per hour off his peak fastball and can no longer dominate with his stuff the way he did in his late-twenties peak. Norris has great stuff and a bright future, but has yet to show he can translate either to a major league mound with consistency. Lowe threw all of 18 2/3 major league innings in the two seasons before 2015 and will turn 33 in June, and Rondon is completely unproven.
Tony Dejak/AP
X-Factor: Age
Not just advanced age—though that’s certainly a concern with the team’s biggest stars—but also excessive youth. The Tigers have very few players in their natural peak seasons. A third of the lineup is 33 or older, and another third of their lineup is still adjusting to the majors, with McCann and Gose in just their second full major league seasons and Castellanos a mere 24 years old. Of the top three men in the rotation and bullpen, Verlander, Sanchez, Rodriguez and Lowe are 32 or older, and the two starters appear even older due to injury and decline. Rounding out the rotation, Pelfrey is also 32; Norris is the youngest player on the team at 23.
Zimmermann, J.D. Martinez, Upton, Iglesias and Wilson are in their respective primes, but the rest of the team is outside of that sweet spot. Correspondingly, they're less likely to deliver peak-quality performance in 2016.
Number To Know: 19
That’s how many blown quality starts—a start in which a pitcher finishes the sixth inning or beyond with a quality start but remains in the game to give up a fourth run—the Tigers have had in Brad Ausmus’s two seasons as manager, according to Baseball Prospectus, and they led the league both years, with nine in 2014 and ten last season. A blown quality start is a measure of a manager’s failure to capitalize on a winning situation—either his failing to (or perhaps in Ausmus’s case, reluctance to) call in fresh arms out of the bullpen when his pitcher is tiring, or his inability to detect a decline in his starter’s performance.
Ausmus’s slow hook has resulted in another dubious distinction. In his first two years with Detroit, he has allowed one of his pitchers to throw 50 or more pitches in an inning on four occasions, including letting the 22-year-old Norris throw 54 in the first inning of a game against the Rangers on Sept. 30 last year. The rest of the league has combined for just one 50-pitch inning in those two seasons (by the Royals’ James Shields in 2014); Ausmus has overseen 22% of the 50-pitch innings in the last seven years despite managing in only two of those seasons. Given the fragility of the arms in his charge, including the overworked Verlander, the fragile Sanchez, the surgically repaired Zimmermann and the still-developing Norris, the hope is that Ausmus will have increased confidence in his relief corps this year.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Justin Upton, LF
“I think this guy is in a slight decline right now. The body’s getting big. He’s just slowing down a little bit. He’s been terrible in spring training. He’s been chasing high fastballs. He’s been chasing sliders out of the strikezone. I know it’s spring training and it’s early, but you get frustrated because the guy is unbelievably talented.”
Most Underrated: James McCann, C
“This guy is a good player. He can hit. He can catch. For me, he’s going to be one of the better catchers in the American League. I’m excited about this one. I expect big things from this guy.... In the minor leagues, they weren’t sure about his defense, but he has gradually gotten better with his receiving, his throwing and everything. His bat is surprising. You stick him down in the bottom of this lineup, and he’s going to do some damage. You can’t forget about this guy.”
1:10 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Arizona Diamondbacks
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Cliff Corcoran
Wednesday March 23rd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 17: the Arizona Diamondbacks.
2015 Record and Finish:
79–83 (.488), third place in National League West (18th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
81–81 (.500), third place in NL West
The Case For
In our Wait ‘Til Next Year series in September, I wrote that the Diamondbacks “could be a front-end starter away from a return to contention in 2016.” Well, it’s next year, and the Diamondbacks have added not one but two significant arms to their rotation in 2015 NL Cy Young runner-up Zack Greinke and 25-year-old righty Shelby Miller, the latter of whom posted a 124 ERA+ in 205 1/3 innings for the Braves last year. Those two will combine with Patrick Corbin—who made a strong, 16-start return from Tommy John surgery last year—to form an excellent top three in Arizona's rotation.
Behind that trio, the Diamondbacks have more talent on the way, with 24-year-old sophomore Robbie Ray likely to land one of the final two spots after an impressive rookie season and 23-year-old Archie Bradley and 24-year-old Braden Shipley as potential midseason reinforcements. Mix in a quality bullpen buoyed by the addition of veteran setup ace Tyler Clippard, and the Diamondbacks appear to have assembled a pitching staff worthy of their impressive young lineup.
That lineup, led by a pair of MVP-quality studs in Paul Goldschmidt and A.J. Pollock, was outscored by only the park-assisted Rockies last year. It also doesn’t include a single player who will have reached his thirties by the end of the coming season and has its own potential prospect reinforcements in infielder Brandon Drury and outfielder Peter O’Brien. Put that all together, and there are many reasons for optimism in the desert this season.
The Case Against
As strong as that lineup is, Arizona is going to miss Ender Inciarte—who was part of the package sent to Atlanta for Miller—more than it realizes, as will the pitching staff. The speedy Inciarte made 536 plate appearances in one of the top two positions in the batting order last year, posting a .343 on-base percentage and scoring 70 runs from those spots. He was also an elite defender, and those combined contributions made him worth more than five Wins Above Replacement per baseball-reference.com.
In Inciarte's place this season, the Diamondbacks will trot out fellow 25-year-old Yasmany Tomas, whose middling performance at the plate and brutal play in the field (both in the outfield and at third base) made him more than a win below replacement level in 2015. Moving off third base and having that rookie season and the associated adjustments both to the major leagues and life in the United States under his belt could help Tomas take a meaningful step forward this season, but that has not been the pattern for his fellow Cuban defectors. Among Cuban hitters who did not spend prolonged time in the minors (Tomas played a grand total of five games there), Yoenis Cespedes, Yasiel Puig, Jose Abreu, Yunel Escobar, Alexei Ramirez and Dayan Viciedo were all better in their rookie seasons than in their second major league campaigns. Even if Tomas is able to pull himself up to replacement level this season, simply swapping out Inciarte for Tomas could result in five-win drop in value for the Diamondbacks in the outfield, if not more.
Beyond that single disastrous decision, sandwiching Pollock between the defensively challenged Tomas and David Peralta in the outfield and forcing him to cover far more territory than a year ago could have a detrimental impact on his overall game. There is little optimism to be had about the offense of the team’s middle infielders, regardless of where or how much new addition Jean Segura plays. Having averaged 73 appearances per season for the last six years, Clippard may be at the end of his rope, a concern elevated by his struggles in September and October of last season and again this spring. Finally, while the Diamondbacks undeniably upgraded their rotation this winter, both Greinke and Miller will be undermined somewhat by the move to a far less friendly home ballpark and, in Greinke’s case, the loss of an ace pitch-framer in Yasmani Grandal. Add that all up, and the Diamondbacks’ big winter may not have actually improved the team that much at all.
Rick Scuteri/AP
X-Factor: Team defense
According to park-adjusted defensive efficiency, the Diamondbacks were merely an average defensive team in 2015, ranking 15th in the majors with a nearly league-average rate of turning balls in play into outs. That’s surprising given that two of their outfielders, Pollock and Inciarte, and their four primary infielders—Goldschmidt, second baseman Chris Owings, shortstop Nick Ahmed and third baseman Jake Lamb—all rated above average individually, with Ahmed, Enciarte and Pollock all ranking among the best fielders in baseball at their respective positions. That gives you an idea of just how poor Arizona’s other fielders were, and how much damage Tomas was able to do in just 92 starts in the field.
This year, Enciarte is gone, to be replaced full-time by Tomas, and Ahmed may lose a significant amount of playing time to Segura, who is a good defender but not on Ahmed’s elite level. Having Welington Castillo behind the plate for a full season will bring stability and a respectable performance to the lineup, but he is a sub-par pitch framer who cost his teams (the Cubs, Mariners and Diamondbacks) more than a win in lost strikes alone last season per Baseball Prospectus’ Framing Runs statistic. It’s not clear that the Diamondbacks are a good enough team to overcome all the runs they are likely to give away in the field this year.
Number To Know: 2.1
That was the top WAR total by a Diamondbacks pitcher in 2015, and it belonged to 35-year-old submarining closer Brad Ziegler. Greinke, Miller and Corbin all stand a good chance to surpass that figure this season, and Greinke could easily more than double it. For all of the concerns about Arizona's shortcomings and questionable decision making, it’s important to remember that the team's pitching staff—and its starting rotation, specifically—is indeed dramatically better this season than it was a year ago.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Yasmany Tomas, OF
"He is more of a one-dimensional player—he has power—that would fit better in the American League. They thought coming into camp last year he was going to play third. That didn't last long. He's adequate at best defensively. In leftfield, he's going cost you some out there. He had to get his body under control last year, but reports are he's in better shape. There were strides toward the end of the year—his patience, his pitch recognition, his power started showing up. He's the guy they've got money into, but he just doesn't have the versatility to move him around defensively."
Most Underrated: Paul Goldschmidt, 1B
"He's arguably the best in the game at that position and he doesn’t quite get the love he should. He's as good as it gets on both sides of the ball. He has special hands to hit. His bat control is elite. He's able to use the whole field. He doesn't try to do too much—he'll hit the mistakes for power and hit pitchers' pitches the other way. He has above-average range, very good hands, good feet around the bag. I've got no reason to think he's not going to be in the mix for MVP—and he's just scratching the surface and entering his prime."
1:09 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Seattle Mariners
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Kenny Ducey
Wednesday March 23rd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 16: the Seattle Mariners.
2015 Record and Finish:
76–86 (.469), fourth place in American League West (20th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
82–80 (.506), third place in AL West
The Case For
Poised to break what is now the longest postseason drought in the majors at 15 years, Seattle had a productive off-season under new general manager Jerry Dipoto. The club signed Nori Aoki and Leonys Martin to bolster what was a weak outfield, and both should fit in nicely on the bookends of what is, on paper, a strong lineup. Fellow winter addition Wade Miley will provide stability in the back end of the rotation.
Aside from Nelson Cruz and his career-high 44 round-trippers in 2015, there wasn’t a whole lot to be excited about from an offensive standpoint with the Mariners last year. That should change this season with a healthy Robinson Cano, who battled a stomach ailment and a sports hernia for most of last year. Kyle Seager, meanwhile, saw a slight regression in his production despite a solid line-drive rate; he should see a return to form if he can get some better luck on batting average on balls in play (his .276 mark last year was 20 points under the league average).
In the rotation, Dipoto gave Felix Hernandez some needed support with the re-signing of Hisashi Iwakuma and the addition of Miley. King Felix posted a putrid 4.48 ERA in the second half last year, which could be the beginning of an ugly decline. But if those post-All-Star break struggles were merely a speed bump in what's been a dominant career, then this season should be a fruitful one for the team’s rotation.
The Case Against
There does exist the possibility that Hernandez is worn out. The veteran righthander will be 30 in April, and he’s thrown an ungodly amount of innings over the course of the last seven seasons, including a league-leading 249 2/3 in 2010 and more than 230 frames in five out of the last seven years. Decline happens to everyone, and it’s only a matter of time before King Felix decides to abdicate his throne.
While a bad season from Hernandez is a tough sell, a wobbly campaign for the Mariners' bullpen is not. Steve Cishek blew five of the nine save opportunities he had last season with Miami before the Marlins demoted him, rookie righthander Mayckol Guaipe is unproven, and while Joaquin Benoit has held off Father Time for years, asking a 38-year-old to be your top reliever is certainly a gamble. It’s time for someone here to break out, whether it’s Guaipe, lefty Charlie Furbush (who missed a large chunk of last season with a rotator cuff injury and will start the season on the disabled list) or hard-throwing righty Tony Zych.
Ted S. Warren/AP
X-Factor: Taijuan Walker, SP
It seems like Walker has been on the verge of breaking out for three years now, but he’s only 23. Packaged as a future ace, the flamethrower came up at the age of 20 in 2013 and hummed along in short stints before finally taking on, and fumbling, a big workload last season. Walker had his flashes, but ultimately his 4.56 ERA left already-depressed Mariners fans sinking deeper in their chairs.
Considering the end to Hernandez’s 2015, Walker looking the part of a future No. 1 would settle many stomachs in Seattle. After starting with a 7.33 ERA in seven starts, he did post a 1.68 ERA over his next seven, and his 169 2/3 innings did feature 157 strikeouts. He got hit hard last season, there’s no way around it, but if he can cut down the gopher balls (1.3 per nine) and retain what was a solid strikeout-to-walk ratio (3.93), he should be fine. Walker is firmly in the conversation for the league’s biggest breakout of 2016.
Number To Know: 79
In 2015, Cano drove in just 79 runs, a seven-year low, and the 33-year-old has seen his season RBI totals deteriorate since his move to Seattle from New York. The addition of Aoki coupled with the consistent production of Seager, however, should help Cano return to the RBI levels to which he is accustomed.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: James Paxton, SP
"This is a guy they raved about with a big arm, they thought he could pitch in the middle of the rotation, but he just hasn't been able to live up to expectations. He could find himself in the bullpen."
Most Underrated: Kyle Seager, 3B
"This dude hits third or fourth in most lineups. He may not get the notoriety he probably deserves."
0:59 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: New York Yankees
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Jon Tayler
Wednesday March 23rd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 15: the New York Yankees.
2015 Record and Finish:
87–75 (.537), second place in American League East (ninth overall), first place in AL wild card (lost wild-card game to Astros)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
83–79 (.512), fourth place in AL East
The Case For
Do what you want to the Yankees: Lock them in a safe and toss it into the ocean, tie them to railroad tracks ... it simply doesn’t matter. New York will stagger its way toward contention every season anyway. The Yankees proved that once more last year, when an aging roster full of question marks nonetheless found its way to 87 wins and a wild-card spot—and that was only after a red-hot Blue Jays team knocked New York out of first place in the AL East late in the year.
Little has changed from 2015. The veteran core that drove that team remains in place, led by the seemingly ageless Alex Rodriguez, who shocked the league by hitting a team-high 33 home runs at age 40. At 35, Mark Teixeira pulled out of his late-career nosedive to bash 31 homers and lead the team in OPS+ (147) and Wins Above Replacement (3.8). Carlos Beltran, 38, suffered through an abysmal April (.162/.216/.265), then posted an .862 OPS from May 1 onward. Brian McCann, in his age-31 season, saw a modest uptick from his uninspiring debut year in pinstripes, hitting 26 homers and improving his on-base percentage by nearly 40 points. Everyone is a year older, but all remain dangerous and capable hitters in a lineup with no easy outs.
It’s not just the old guard that kept the Yankees chugging forward. For the first time in what felt like ages, New York got an injection of youth in its lineup and rotation, particularly with Didi Gregorius at shortstop and with Luis Severino in the starting rotation. The 25-year-old Gregorius struggled mightily in his first six weeks as Derek Jeter’s replacement, but he rebounded to finish third on the team in WAR with 3.3. The 22-year-old Severino, meanwhile, made his major league debut in August and provided a huge boost to a thin rotation, with a 137 ERA+ and 8.1 strikeouts per nine in his 62 1/3 innings down the stretch. Both will be counted on heavily this season.
To that young group, the Yankees add Starlin Castro, just 26 years old and now manning second base instead of shortstop. A three-time All-Star for the Cubs, Castro was a revelation for Chicago in the second half after moving to the keystone, hitting .353 from Aug. 11 onward. He wasn’t a fit in the Cubs’ crowded infield, but in New York, he could be the solution at a position that has been in flux since Robinson Cano left for Seattle after the 2013 season.
The youth parade doesn’t stop there. The Yankees’ farm system bore fruit last year, as Severino, outfielders Mason Williams and Slade Heathcott, infielder Rob Refsnyder and first baseman Greg Bird—the latter two of whom started the team’s wild-card game loss to the Astros—all made their big-league debuts. There’s more talent headed to the Bronx in the coming seasons. Outfielder Aaron Judge, 23, is a 6’7” monster boasting the kind of raw power that makes scouts drool; shortstop Jorge Mateo, 20, is a lightning-fast runner with an aggressive bat. Together with 2015 first-rounder James Kaprielian, a righthanded pitcher out of UCLA, and catching prospect Gary Sanchez, they provide minor league depth should New York’s veteran horses stumble this summer.
But the Yankees’ greatest strength lies in the three men who will make opposing lineups come to dread the late innings: Aroldis Chapman, Andrew Miller and Dellin Betances. Together, those three—each among the best strikeout artists in baseball—should dramatically shorten games, and if New York once again defies age to make the playoffs, that trio could have a Royals-like impact for manager Joe Girardi in October.
The Case Against
Despite reaching the playoffs for the first time since 2012, the Yankees’ age did seem to catch up with them, even before they were easily dispatched from the postseason by Houston. Rodriguez, after a blistering start, wheezed his way to a .216/.344/.448 line in the second half as the grind of his first season of more than 150 games since 2008 seemed to wear him down. Teixiera once again was unable to avoid injury, suffering a season-ending broken leg in late August. Injuries also spoiled Jacoby Ellsbury’s season, as the centerfielder posted a career-worst .663 OPS and just 1.9 WAR in the third year of what’s looking like a colossally bad eight-year, $153 million contract for the 32-year-old outfielder with a history of injury problems.
It’s hard not to be concerned about the durability and productivity of a lineup in which Castro and Gregorius are the only hitters under 30 and that features such injury-prone players as Teixeira, Ellsbury and Brett Gardner (who has been dealing with a persistent wrist ailment this spring). Depth will be crucially important to this year’s Yankees, and while the likes of Judge and Sanchez could help, they’re still unproven. Worse, the one young hitter who did get an extended taste of the majors last season—Bird—will miss the season after injuring his shoulder, robbing New York of a competent fill-in at first base or designated hitter if either Teixiera or Rodriguez go down.
Durability and depth are the key concerns in the rotation as well, where Girardi will have to cobble together 1,000 innings out of the quintet of Severino, Masahiro Tanaka, Michael Pineda, Nathan Eovaldi and CC Sabathia. Whether anyone in that group will even break the 175-inning mark is up in the air. Tanaka and Pineda have been stellar when healthy, but their careers to date have been been as notable for MRIs as ERAs. Both Sabathia’s physical condition and velocity are in steep decline, and it will be something of a minor miracle if he can make it through the season in one piece. That puts a heavy load on the young arms of Eovaldi, 26, and Severino, and while the latter has fantastic stuff, his peripherals (a 4.37 FIP and 1.3 home runs per nine last year) are a scary sight.
Chris O'Meara/AP
X-Factor: Starlin Castro, 2B
New York’s biggest (and only) off-season addition to the starting lineup, Castro wore out his welcome in Chicago’s North Side after six frustrating seasons. There’s no denying his talent, but there’s also no denying these uninspiring factors: a career 97 OPS+; a .321 on-base percentage and 4.9% walk rate; an alarming propensity for bad base running decisions; lackluster defense; and an at-times poor attitude. While the cost for acquiring Castro wasn’t high, the Yankees did have to surrender a useful arm in righthander Adam Warren, who gave New York valuable innings out of the bullpen and in the rotation last year.
The move off shortstop last August seemingly reinvigorated Castro, but he’s still a largely unproven second baseman with a history of mental lapses and a less-than-sterling clubhouse reputation who was one of the NL’s least productive hitters over the last three years (his 89 OPS+ in that span ranks 17th-lowest in the Senior Circuit among hitters with at least 1,000 plate appearances). Castro represents a major project for the Yankees, albeit one who offers immense upside. It’s hard to tell if his resurgence was the result of a real change at the plate or simply a small-sample-size success story. But if Girardi and his coaches can get Castro properly motivated and back on track, he can be a difference maker.
Number To Know: 0
For the first time in the four decades of free agency, the Yankees went an entire off-season without signing a single player on the open market to a major league contract. Instead, all of New York’s winter shopping came via trades or minor league deals, with Castro, Chapman and reserve outfielder Aaron Hicks (acquired from the Twins for backup catcher John Ryan Murphy) as general manager Brian Cashman’s lone additions to the big-league roster. The reasons for Cashman’s apparent disinterest in the free-agent market make sense (the money could be better spent on 2018’s potential winter bonanza, and ownership has made no secret of its desire to get the team’s perennially bloated payroll under the luxury tax limits). But regardless of why the Yankees weren’t as active on the hot stove as they have been since the dawn of time, the results are the same: New York enters the season with much the same roster as it had last year.
It’s hard to argue against the idea that signing over-30 free agents to nine-figure deals for multiple years is a fool’s gambit, especially for a team that’s been burned by that approach countless times. For proof, look at the money still being handed out to Sabathia ($25 million guaranteed this year and, if he reaches his vesting option, next), Rodriguez ($20 million each of the next two years), Teixeira ($22.5 million this season) or Ellsbury ($105 million through 2020). With the contracts for the first three of those players set to expire no later than the end of 2017, Cashman and his team are well set up for future free-agent runs at young superstars like Bryce Harper and Jose Fernandez. But the top players on this past winter’s market, like starting pitcher David Price and outfielder Jason Heyward, could have helped the Yankees right now, turning what looks like an also-ran into a true World Series contender.
Time will tell if Cashman’s strategy will pay off, but it’s odd to see a winter go by without the Yankees spending millions like Montgomery Brewster. And if the team falls short once again this season and the championship window for New York’s veterans shrinks by one more year, that spending clampdown could feel like an instance of being penny wise but pound foolish.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Michael Pineda, SP
“I don’t think he’s overrated, but he’s underachieved—his inability to go out and give them what they thought they were going to get on a regular basis.”
Most Underrated: Dellin Betances, RP
“What he’s done has been amazing. Two years ago at this time, he was out of options and throwing just okay, and now he’s an All-Star who averages 15 strikeouts per nine innings.”
1:10 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Cleveland Indians
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Jay Jaffe
Wednesday March 23rd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 14: the Cleveland Indians.
2015 Record and Finish:
81–80 (.503), third place in American League Central (15th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
83–79 (.512), second place in AL Central
The Case For
The Indians have amassed a core of quality players under 30 years old, both in their lineup and pitching staff, and while injuries and slow starts have derailed them in recent years, the AL Central race appears to be wide open. Both the FanGraphs and Baseball Prospectus projection systems pick Cleveland to win the division, with the latter forecasting them for the best record in the entire AL at 93–69.
With a full season of shortstop Francisco Lindor—simply one of baseball's brightest young stars as he heads into his age-22 season—and the additions of Juan Uribe and Mike Napoli at the corners, the infield defense should be much improved over the unit that effectively buried the team last April. Add that to a high-strikeout rotation featuring Corey Kluber, Danny Salazar, Carlos Carrasco and Trevor Bauer (more on which below), and this team could be even better than last season's, which ranked fourth in the league in run prevention at 3.98 per game. Meanwhile, a healthy season from catcher Yan Gomes, who sank to a 74 OPS+ after an early-season MCL tear following two years of exceptional production, could provide an additional boost on the offensive side.
The Case Against
The projection systems were notoriously wrong when it came to the AL Central last season, severely underestimating the Royals. Some other folks— we can't remember who —were just as far off base when it came to picking the Indians to win it all.
The lineup already has some issues. Abraham Almonte, who provided a significant upgrade in centerfield over the final two months in place of the traded Michael Bourn, will miss the first 80 games of the season due to a PED suspension. Michael Brantley, the offense's top full-time player last year with a 130 OPS+, tore his right labrum last September and underwent surgery in November; his Opening Day availability is in question, though his progress has quelled fears that he might not return until May. If Brantley starts the year on the disabled list, the likely season-opening outfield of Will Venable, Rajai Davis and Lonnie Chisenhall—with Collin Cowgill and Joey Butler also in the picture—includes just two players who managed a 100 OPS+ last year (Davis and Butler), both in limited duty.
As for the infield, Napoli and Uribe are both in their mid-30s and coming off seasons that fell short of their 2014 performances. Lindor, who hit .313/.353/.482 and finished with 4.6 Wins Above Replacement in 99 games—that prorates to 7.5 for a 162-game season, lest your calculator be out of reach— bunts too often for manager Terry Francona’s tastes, having led the league with 13 despite not debuting until June 14.
Jason Miller/Getty Images
X-Factor: Carlos Santana, DH
Santana once ranked among the game's most promising young players—a convert to catcher whom the Indians stole from the Dodgers, then watched blossom into a lineup staple who averaged 22 homers and 4.0 WAR from 2011 to '13, his age 25–27 seasons. Once it was clear he'd reached his ceiling as a catcher, the team's decision to move him back to the infield did not go smoothly. He struggled to hit during the first two months of 2014 while splitting time between third base and catching, and while he rebounded to finish with 27 homers and a 122 OPS+, his defense at both third and first base—previously his haven when he wasn't catching—suffered, and his value dipped to 3.0 WAR. Serving as the team's primary first baseman in 2015, he declined to .231/.357/.395 with 19 homers and career worsts in OPS+ (104) and WAR (1.1).
Now that he's slated to serve as the team's regular DH, Santana's level of production isn't really an asset, yet his numbers in the field (-8 DRS at first base in 215 games over the past two seasons) don't support the idea that he should be spending much time with the leather, particularly as he was part of that record-setting pace for the lowest defensive efficiency in the past century. Underlying his offensive slide is a pull-happy approach from the left side that has been increasingly counteracted by defensive shifts, depressing his batting average on balls in play into the .230-ish range over the past two seasons; his .255 BABIP overall in that span is the majors' sixth-lowest among players with at least 800 plate appearances. Given their other offensive question marks, the Indians could certainly use a return to form here.
Number To Know: 23.8%
That's the rate at which Indians pitchers struck out opposing hitters last year, breaking the all-time AL record set just the year before by the Rays (23.44%, barely edging the Indians' own 23.41%). With strikeout rates continually on the rise, that's in part a sign of the times, but the extent to which the organization has turned things around over the past half-decade is impressive nonetheless.
From 2009 to '12, the Indians' pitching staff ranked among the league's bottom three in strikeout rate every year and among the bottom four in run prevention each time; they finished below .500 in all four seasons, losing at least 93 games three times. Since then, trades for high-strikeout hurlers Kluber, Carrasco and Bauer have come to fruition alongside the successful development of the homegrown Salazar and closer Cody Allen, with others such as Ubaldo Jimenez and Scott Kazmir coming and going as well. The team has placed ether second (2013 and '14) or first in the league in strikeout rate and their run prevention has climbed into the league's upper half. As a result, they've finished above .500 three years in a row for the first time since 1999–2001. Last year, Carrasco ranked second in the league among qualified starters in strikeout rate at 29.6%, with Kluber fourth at 27.7, Salazar sixth at 25.8 and Bauer ninth at 22.7. Of course, there's more to run prevention than just missing bats, but the first three of those hurlers were at least 18% better than league average in ERA.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Trevor Bauer, SP
Most Underrated: Cody Allen, RP
"Cody Allen’s got really good stuff. Nobody really knows about him. He throws hard, he’s got a quick, hard breaking ball. He’s a real closer."
1:03 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Washington Nationals
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Jon Tayler
Wednesday March 23rd, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 13: the Washington Nationals.
2015 Record and Finish:
83–79 (.512), second place in National League East (13th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
83–79 (.512), second place in NL East
The Case For
So long as Bryce Harper wears a Nationals uniform, Washington will contend. That was proven last year, when a dysfunctional and inconsistent team stayed in the race for the National League East title almost solely thanks to Harper’s superhuman season. The 22-year-old outfielder put together the kind of historic year we’ve been waiting for since his 2012 debut: .330/.460/.649 in 654 plate appearances, with his on-base and slugging percentages leading the majors; an NL-high 42 home runs; 124 walks; a major league-best 195 OPS+; 9.9 Wins Above Replacement; and a unanimous first-place finish in the NL MVP voting. Mike Trout may still be the best player in the game, but Harper’s ascendance into superstardom has made it a true debate.
For as good as Harper is, the team around him isn’t bad, either. The Nationals have a top-five starter in Max Scherzer and a former No. 1 pick in Stephen Strasburg to anchor one of the best rotations in baseball. Anthony Rendon returns healthy after losing most of 2015 to oblique and knee injuries; if he can get back to his near-MVP form from ‘14 (125 OPS+, 6.6 WAR), he and Harper will give the lineup a tremendous 1-2 punch.
That lineup has started to sag a bit thanks to injuries and age, but it still boasts plenty of power between Harper, Rendon, Wilson Ramos, Danny Espinosa and new addition Daniel Murphy. Fellow free-agent signee Ben Revere, meanwhile, will act as the table setter, something that last year’s team routinely lacked due to Denard Span’s inability to stay healthy.
That’s not the youngest group of players (Harper and Rendon aside), but the Nationals’ deep and productive farm system ( ranked fifth by Baseball America this winter ) should help fill in where needed. In particular, shortstop Trea Turner and righthander Lucas Giolito will be big pieces for this year’s Washington team. Turner, the organization’s top positional prospect, got a cup of coffee last season and, after a stint in Triple A, should be up by the second half as the everyday starter who will provide speed, defense and solid hitting. The upside for Giolito is even higher: Arguably the best pitching prospect in the game, Giolito mixes an outstanding fastball and curveball and projects as a No. 1 starter—not a bad piece of depth for the Nats.
The Case Against
For as brilliant as Harper and Scherzer were last year, they couldn’t do it alone. Picked by many to run away with the NL East, win the pennant and finally capture the first World Series title in franchise history, Washington instead sputtered and flailed its way to a barely-above-.500 record and an embarrassing second-half collapse. Arguably the biggest story during the Nationals’ season wasn’t Harper’s dominance on the field, but his being assaulted in the dugout by closer Jonathan Papelbon, who put his hand around the throat of the team’s superstar during a dugout skirmish in late September.
Though his $13 million salary for 2016 made him tough to trade, it’s inexcusable that Papelbon remains with Washington. Manager Matt Williams, however, is gone, having been replaced by 66-year-old Dusty Baker, a veteran skipper who should help fix what was a fractured, miserable clubhouse . But even if Baker can get his players to put their bad feelings aside (and avoid overtaxing his starting pitchers, which has been a problem for him), he still has to contend with an aging lineup that will likely be Washington’s downfall. Jayson Werth (36) and Ryan Zimmerman (31) broke down last season, with Werth managing just 88 games, an 84 OPS+ and -1.6 WAR, and Zimmerman limited to 95 games, a 105 OPS+ and 0.7 WAR. Despite their advancing years and increasing fragility, the Nationals opted to stick with their veterans; aside from Murphy and Revere, the team made no other notable additions to the roster, hoping instead that last year’s group would bounce back and play up to its potential.
That’s a safe bet with Harper and a healthy Rondon, but that decision could backfire terribly if Werth, Zimmerman and the rest of the veterans in the lineup get hurt again or simply fail to produce. The same is true in the bullpen, where Washington stuck by the irascible Papelbon and dealt displaced and disgruntled former closer Drew Storen to the Blue Jays. Whether Storen was a fit on this roster and in the eighth inning is an open question, but Washington’s shaky relief corps has been thinned out his by loss. Scherzer, Strasburg and Gio Gonzalez will be counted on to carry a heavy load in the rotation, and for the injury-prone Strasburg and command-challenged Gonzalez, that may be too big of an ask.
Greg Fiume/Getty Images
X-Factor: Trea Turner, SS
Giolito’s path to the big leagues is complicated by a full rotation (though injuries or a failure by either Tanner Roark or Joe Ross to handle a full-season workload could open the door). Turner, too, has a major leaguer standing in his way in the form of Espinosa, but taking his spot shouldn’t be too difficult. Espinosa’s defense at shortstop is merely average, and his bat hasn’t been much better, as he has just an 87 OPS+ across six seasons. The mustachioed 28-year-old does have pop (13 home runs last year), but he lacks plate discipline and struggles to make contact.
All of Espinosa’s failings make it more than likely that, should Turner handle Triple A pitching this spring, the Nationals will turn to him to be their second-half starter at shortstop. That’s not a given, but Turner fared well in his first taste of the International League last season, slashing .314/.353/.431 in 205 plate appearances at just 22 years of age. If he can replicate or better those efforts, he’ll move up to Washington, where he’ll get a chance to put his game-changing speed ( 70 on the 20–80 scout grading scale ), strong bat and solid defense on display. For a team that just lost its starting shortstop of the past six seasons in Ian Desmond, Turner could provide an immediate boost this year and cement himself as the shortstop of the future.
Number To Know: .533
That was Daniel Murphy’s slugging percentage from Aug. 1 through the end of the season with the Mets—a figure that doesn’t include his historic power barrage in the postseason, when he bashed seven home runs in 14 games. It was an unexpected outburst from Murphy, a longtime fixture in New York who had been known more for his inconsistent defense and line-drive style of hitting before he transformed into the second coming of Babe Ruth. But something clearly changed for Murphy in the second half last season, and the Nationals bet the next three years and $37.5 million this winter on it being permanent.
That Murphy, who turns 31 on April 1, will blossom into a 30-homer power threat at his age is about as likely as him winning a Gold Glove at second base. But the Nationals don’t need him to do that. They just need him to maintain the approach that was so essential to his increased production. A closer look at the numbers suggests that Murphy was simply putting better swings on balls: His slugging percentage on four-seam fastballs jumped from .424 before Aug. 1 to .586 afterward. He did the same on sinkers (.500 to .660), sliders (.425 to .821) and especially curveballs (.206 to .586). The result? More fly balls in the second half (39.4% of balls put in play compared to 32.3 before the All-Star break) and more home runs (9.5% to 6.8).
Is that kind of increase repeatable? It is if Murphy sticks to the swing change implemented by Mets hitting coach Kevin Long before the 2015 season, one that Murphy credits for his October heroics. With Washington’s lineup desperately needing another power bat, Murphy could be crucial to getting the Nationals back to the postseason—and perhaps derail his old team’s chances along the way.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Stephen Strasburg, SP
"He has not reached where he should be, and he's going into his free agency year. He's still a third starter [despite] that stuff."
Most Underrated: Anthony Rendon, 3B
"Maybe it's because he had the big year two years ago and then last year he was hurt, but I don't think the world knows how good of a hitter he has got a chance to be."
1:12 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Tampa Bay Rays
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Cliff Corcoran
Thursday March 24th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 12: the Tampa Bay Rays.
2015 Record and Finish:
80–82 (.494), fourth place in American League East (17th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
84–78 (.518), third place in AL East
The Case For
Truth be told, this ranking—11th in the majors, third in the AL East, third in the wild card and missing the playoffs on both fronts—is as optimistic as I can manage to be about this year’s Rays. That optimism starts with their starting rotation and is led by Chris Archer, who finished fifth in the AL Cy Young voting last year and enters 2016, his age-27 season, as one of the best pitchers in baseball thanks to arguably the best slider in the game. Behind Archer, Matt Moore appears ready to reassert himself as a front-of-the-rotation starter. After losing much of the last two seasons to Tommy John surgery. he has been dominant this spring, showing improved mechanics and command. Moore, who will turn 27 in June, is nine months younger than Archer, and the two of them could form one of the most compelling young, righty/lefty combinations in baseball.
If Moore can be the No. 2, that would allow Jake Odorizzi and Drew Smyly to settle into the middle spots, giving the Rays another impressive righty/lefty combination. Erasmo Ramirez, who posted a 105 ERA+ in 163 1/3 innings last year in his age-25 season, rounds out the starting five, and top prospect Blake Snell, the 12th-best prospect in all of baseball this spring per Baseball America , looms in Triple A to fill any holes that might emerge as the season progresses. Factor in a pitching-friendly home ballpark and the fact that centerfielder Kevin Kiermaier graded out as the best defensive player in baseball at any position last year, and the Rays have an tremendous foundation for their first winning season since 2013.
To that, you can add Corey Dickerson’s bat, a healthy Desmond Jennings, a full season of catcher Curt Casali, potential improvement from fellow sophomore Steven Souza, Jr., a possible rebound from Evan Longoria after a pair of disappointing seasons, and the chance for improved production at first base from a platoon of new additions Logan Morrison and Steve Pearce and at shortstop from trade acquisition Brad Miller. But given the quality of the competition in the division, I still can’t quite see Tampa Bay being a playoff team in 2016.
The Case Against
It’s much easier to see the Rays collapsing than surging into the playoffs. Start with the possibility that Moore’s strong spring could give way to another disappointing regular season. Mix in the injury history of the team’s mid-rotation starters—Moore had Tommy John surgery in April 2014, Smyly had a torn labrum last spring that he rehabbed rather than getting surgically repaired, Odorizzi missed a month with a strained oblique last year—and that impressive young rotation appears to be far from a sure thing. Meanwhile, the team’s underwhelming bullpen, which has already lost incumbent closer Brad Boxberger until mid-May following core muscle surgery, will likely require manager Kevin Cash to rely more heavily on the young arms in his rotation than he may otherwise have done.
The biggest concern, however, is the offense. The Rays were 14th out of 15 AL teams in runs scored last year, besting only the White Sox with 3.98 runs scored per game. Dickerson is the biggest bat the team added this off-season, but he has had a quiet spring and is a .249/.286/.410 career hitter outside of Coors Field and a .246/.299/.377 career hitter against lefthanded pitching. Miller should improve the plate production of the team’s shortstops, but only if the throwing issues he has displayed this spring don’t force him off the position or into a bench role. Morrison and Pearce combined for 32 home runs in 2015, but the former's .225 batting average and .302 on-base percentage both bested the latter's marks. Speaking of on-base percentage: Casali had a .304 mark last year, Kiermaier was at .298, and Tim Beckham (the primary alternative to Miller at shortstop) finished at .274.
Then there’s the fact that playing Morrison and Pearce over James Loney at first base will downgrade the defense beyond whatever damage Miller does in the field. Similarly, off-season addition Hank Conger, who was brought in to help upgrade the plate production of the team’s catchers, has done nothing to suggest that his 1-for-43 performance in attempting to throw out attempting base stealers last year was a fluke. He may no longer be viable behind the plate.
As for the hope of a Longoria rebound in his age-30 season, it’s minimal. His power has been markedly down the last two years, from an isolated power of .238 in his first six seasons to .158 the last two. One scout I talked to this spring said that his bat has slowed noticeably.
Jim Rogash/Getty Images
X-Factor: Defensive shifts
Yes, defensive shifts are widespread in the game today, with the number of them having increased 752% from 2011 to '15. But even with the strategy having gained mainstream acceptance within the game, no team shifted more in 2015 than the Rays. Per John Dewan in The Bill James Handbook, Tampa Bay led the majors with 1,462 defensive shifts in 2015 and saved 23 runs as a result. In the current run-scoring climate (in which nine runs are roughly equal to one win), the Rays improved themselves by 2 1/2 wins last year via the shift alone.
Tampa Bay was not the most effective shifting team, however. Per Dewan, the Orioles saved a major league-best 29 runs with just 899 shifts. That suggests that the Rays, who are clearly dedicated to the strategy, could benefit even more from the shift in the coming season; a boost in excess of three wins from shifting alone is a clear possibility.
Number To Know: 12
That’s where Longoria ranked among third basemen in Wins Above Replacement last year. He wasn’t close to 11th, either: His 3.2 WAR was well shy of the 3.9 of the Cardinals' Matt Carpenter and the Dodgers' Justin Turner. In fact, Longoria was as close to 14th place (Trevor Plouffe, 2.5 WAR) as he was to 11th. Longoria ranked 12th in WAR among third basemen in 2014, as well, and both years, he was just 0.1 wins away from Martin Prado in terms of total value.
Entering his age-30 season, this appears to be who Longoria is now. He is still a capable and competent everyday third baseman, but he’s no longer a star, never mind a potential MVP candidate. Rather, he’s very nearly the perfect league-average third baseman. Over the last two years, Longoria has hit .261/.324/.419, and the average third baseman has hit .264/.324/.431; correcting for pitching-friendly Tropicana Field, both of those lines work out to a 109 OPS+.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Evan Longoria, 3B
“It’s a huge contract, and he’s just not that player anymore. He has seven years left, $93 million, and he’s in a slight decline. He’s still a good fielder. At third base you don’t have to be the quickest or anything, his defense is still good, but just the bat, he’s just slowing down. It’s not the power or the same bat speed he had.”
Most Underrated: Kevin Kiermaier, CF
"Kiermaier has a chance to take off.... He’s a very aggressive hitter, but he’s an athletic kid. He’s got strength. He can hit. He just has to see more pitches. He’s just super-aggressive. He probably gets himself out a lot by swinging at pitchers’ pitches. That’s kind of the final piece, to walk more and get on base. But he definitely has strength. He has bat speed. He can steal bases, and he’s the best centerfielder I think I’ve ever seen.... He’s fast, but he is just a tremendous centerfielder, long strides to cover ground, it’s really fun to watch him go get balls in the gap. Great instincts, great athleticism. He’s got the whole package. Got the arm.... I just think he’s a guy who can really impact the game defensively, and he’s getting better offensively.”
1:19 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Pittsburgh Pirates
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Albert Chen
Thursday March 24th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 11: the Pittsburgh Pirates.
2015 Record and Finish:
98–64 (.605), second place in National League Central, first place in NL wild card (second overall); lost NL wild-card game to Cubs
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
87–75 (.537), third place in NL Central
The Case For
The Pirates are one of the best-run organizations in baseball. That much is clear after a remarkable three-year stretch in which they have made three playoff appearances and won 98, 88, and 94 games; only the Dodgers and the Cardinals have won as much. During that span, the Pirates spent a fraction of what rival league contenders have: Pittsburgh’s payrolls from 2013 to '15 totalled $270 million (the Dodgers, over the same time, shelled out $713 million). The front office under general manager Neal Huntington also have proven to be one of the best organizations at finding cheap, undervalued talent, but the core talent in Pittsburgh is also as good as any in the league.
Pittsburgh has one of the game’s true superstars in Andrew McCutchen, in his prime. Together with Starting Marte, who enjoyed a breakout season at age 26 last year (he was actually Pittsburgh’s top player as measured by Wins Above Replacement) and 24-year-old Gregory Polanco (who has all the tools to be a star), the Pirates have a dynamic supporting cast in the outfield around Cutch. They also have a rotation anchored by Gerrit Cole, who emerged as a bona fide ace last year after becoming the first Pittsburgh starter since 1991 to finish in the top five in Cy Young voting, as well as a terrific back-end bullpen combo in Mark Melancon and Tony Watson, who anchored the best bullpen in the majors (yes, better than the Royals).
Last year, the Pirates were arguably the No. 1 team in baseball—they posted the majors’ best record from May 9 on—and all the key components will be back to make another run and try to avoid that deathtrap wild-card game. The Pirates have the talent to make a fourth straight postseason, but we all know what they must do this year: Take the division and avoid that play-in game against Madison Bumgarner, Clayton Kershaw, Max Scherzer, Zack Greinke or Jake Arrieta.
The Case Against
Huntington faced a significant challenge this winter, with nine arbitration-eligible players—a situation that played a role in the team parting ways with Neil Walker and Pedro Alvarez and limited its spending in the free-agent market, where Pittsburgh could certainly have spent money on a starter. And so the outcasts, misfits and reclamation projects that were in camp this spring included a pitcher who was not good enough to make his team’s playoff rotation last October (Jonathon Niese); a 38-year-old who has a 4.63 ERA since 2013 (Ryan Vogelsong); a former All-Star closer who posted a 6.38 ERA last year (Neftali Feliz); a 29-year-old with hard stuff but no control (Juan Nicasio); and a former ace setup man who hasn’t thrown a pitch in the majors in 2 1/2 years (Daniel Bard).
Those players may seem like Powerball tickets, but after a winter without an impact acquisition and after losing A.J. Burnett to retirement and J.A. Happ and Charlie Morton to free agency, the Pirates’ season depends on hitting big on one or two. Perhaps most critical of all is Niese, who is being counted on to log impact innings in the rotation behind Cole, Francisco Liriano and Jeff Locke. We’re used to pitching coach Ray Searage working his magic, but this year it may take a miracle for the Pirates to cobble together a staff that is good enough to keep up with the Cubs and Cardinals.
Joe Robbins/Getty Images
X-Factors: Tyler Glasnow and Jameson Taillon, SP
Glasnow, a 6'8" righthander with a power fastball and a hammer curve, dominated the lower minors and reached Triple A in 2015; all signs point to him joining the rotation at some point this season. Across three levels, he was 7–5 with a 2.39 ERA and 136 strikeouts in 109 1/3 innings. Taillon is a 6'5" righthander who also has a power fastball and big-time curve, but the 24-year-old underwent Tommy John surgery in 2014 and hernia surgery in '15, and he hasn’t thrown a professional pitch in almost three years. While it’s hard to predict where Taillon will end up this season, all indications are that he will be good to go to start the season and could be ready to make the Show at some point this year as well. If the Pirates need help in the rotation this summer, they’ll have two very intriguing options available down on the farm.
Number To Know: 43
That's the number of home runs lost with the departures of Alvarez and Walker, who accounted for 31% of the Pirates’ home run total a year ago and were Pittsburgh’s most reliable sources of power in recent seasons. The Pirates, who ranked 23rd in the majors in homers and 21st in slugging percentage last year, are hoping that new acquisitions John Jaso and David Freese can add some thump to a power-starved lineup.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: John Jaso, C/1B
"Two years, $8 million, [but] no power, no speed, no position. He’s got good strike zone discipline and he’s got some on-base percentage. He’s always been a guy that walks a good 12, 14, whatever the percent. He doesn’t strike out a lot, either. He’s not a middle-of-the-lineup bat, but he’s a guy that can get on base, and hopefully those guys are driving him in. It’s a risk.... I don’t think it was a bad get, but at the same time, I just never was a fan of the guy."
Most Underrated: Jung-ho Kang, SS
"This guy, if he’s playing every day [and] getting 600-plus at-bats, I think he’s going to hit over 20 home runs. This guy is a threat with the bat. I don’t think a whole lot of people know about this guy, but scouts know about him. One thing that was impressive about him last year, he struggled his butt off in spring training, but you never saw him with poor body language or pout or anything. That guy played his butt off in spring training and he was struggling his butt off and, sure enough, it paid off. I’m sure if you ask [manager] Clint Hurdle and Neal Huntington, he’s an important part of their lineup. When they lost him, that really hurt them last year."
1:08 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Texas Rangers
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Albert Chen
Thursday March 24th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 10: the Texas Rangers.
2015 Record and Finish:
88–74 (.543), first place in American League West (eighth overall); lost AL Division Series to Blue Jays
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
88–74 (.543), second place in AL West, second place in AL wild card
The Case For
You could make the argument that the Rangers, who were under .500 as late as Aug. 13, lucked into the postseason dance last year. They outperformed their third-order wins by nearly eight wins and posted the AL’s seventh-best run differential. There’s no denying, however, that by summer’s end, Jeff Banister’s crew—with Cole Hamels stepping into the role of staff ace, with Shin-soo Choo and Adrian Beltre healthy, with Prince Fielder and Mitch Moreland raking, with a lights-out bullpen—looked like one of the most dangerous teams in the AL; Texas was, after all, one win from reaching the ALCS.
When the Rangers added Hamels at the trade deadline (a deal that at the time seemed aimed at 2016 and beyond), they knew they were getting a front-line starter, and the lefty was as advertised after arriving from the Phillies. With Hamels back in a rotation that by late May should include Yu Darvish, Martin Perez and Derek Holland, the Rangers have a chance to have one of their deepest rotations in years—maybe ever—if everything breaks right. Never in previous playoff runs did Texas have a one-two punch of the caliber of Hamels and Darvish, who is on schedule to return from Tommy John surgery in May and, when healthy, is as filthy as any pitcher on the planet.Hamels at the trade deadline (a deal that at the time seemed aimed at 2016 and beyond), they knew they were getting a front-line starter, and the lefty was as advertised after arriving from the Phillies. With Hamels back in a rotation that by late May should include Yu Darvish, Martin Perez and Derek Holland, the Rangers have a chance to have one of their deepest rotations in years—maybe ever—if everything breaks right. Never in previous playoff runs did Texas have a one-two punch of the caliber of Hamels and Darvish, who is on schedule to return from Tommy John surgery in May and, when healthy, is as filthy as any pitcher on the planet.
The bullpen should be a strength as well. A big reason for the Rangers’ surge late last season was—and this is where the work of Banister, the AL manager of the year, stood out—the remarkable improvement in the relief staff, which went from the worst in the AL to the sixth best after the All-Star break. The unit could be elite again, with Shawn Tolleson, Sam Dyson, Jake Diekman and Keone Kela all returning.
The Case Against
The Rangers finished, somewhat unexpectedly, third in the league in runs, thanks to career performances from the likes of Moreland, Delino DeShields, Jr., and Robinson Chirinos. While all three are regression candidates, the biggest reason to be nervous comes with the veterans in the lineup: Perpetually injured Josh Hamilton turns 35 in May (the hope is that he will be able to come off the disabled list at the start of that month), Choo turns 34 in July, Fielder will be 32 in May, and future Hall of Famer Beltre, approaching his age-37 season, is showing signs of slowing down (last season, he posted his worst OPS+ in six years). But you can put Darvish, who’s made a total of 22 starts over the last two years, at the top of the Rangers’ long list of injury concerns; if there are any issues in his recovery, Texas’ chances to repeat as division champs obviously take big hit.
The Rangers went from a 91-win team to a 75-win team two years ago when they were completely decimated by injuries—in 2014, Texas players lost a remarkable 2,100 days to the disabled list. While bad luck on that scale is unlikely, staying healthy will clearly be key for a team full of players who can’t seem to stay healthy.
Lisa Blumenfeld/Getty Images
X-Factor: Joey Gallo, 3B/OF
To much fanfare, Gallo made his arrival in Arlington last summer, and the faithful were immediately treated to a Ruth-ian show, as the 22-year-old masher (who has hit 105 home runs in the minors since 2013) blasted monster home runs in his first two games. The raw Vegas-bred power was jaw-dropping, but the problems in his approach quickly became obvious, too. Gallo struck out way too much: 57 times in just 108 at-bats, and according to Fangraphs, he posted the highest swinging strike rate of anyone with at least 100 plate appearances over the last five years. But despite all his flaws, Gallo remains one of the most fascinating prospects out there because of his power.
Gallo will start the season in the minors, at Triple A Round Rock, and he could very well stay there most of the season. But because the Rangers have injury-prone and aging starters at third base and in left and rightfield, Gallo—like fellow youngsters Nomar Mazara and Jurickson Profar—could also be taking meaningful cuts in Arlington this summer.
Number To Know: 16
That's how many home runs were hit by Rougned Odor, the second most ever by a second baseman under the age of 22 (Bill Mazeroski, at 21, had 19 in 1958.) Odor was the Rangers’ big breakout player of 2015, and he left a mark on the postseason, too, becoming the third-youngest player to homer in his first playoff game. Odor was probably rushed to the majors in 2014, at 20 years old, and he struggled to start '15 before he was sent to Triple A in May. After his June recall, he hit a superb .292/.334/.527, and he could be on the verge of a star-making season.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Elvis Andrus, SS
"He has not fulfilled the potential that most baseball people thought he would—he has the talent and skill set to be a superstar."
Most Underrated: Colby Lewis, SP
"Any time a guy is a 17-game winner and he's still considered a fifth starter? There are No. 1s who don't win 17 games."
1:14 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: San Francisco Giants
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Albert Chen
Thursday March 24th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 9: the San Francisco Giants.
2015 Record and Finish:
84–78 (.518), second place in National League West (12th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
88–74 (.543), second place in NL West, second place in NL wild card
The Case For
Yes, all you believers in the power of the #EvenYear mystique: The Giants, off a postseason-less 2015, are right where they want to be heading into '16. But let’s also not overlook just how good the Giants were last year: They were only four games worse than the 2014 title team, and their plus-69 run differential was fourth best in the NL (and just three behind the Dodgers) and matched that of the '12 championship.
We’re accustomed to this team winning games with sterling pitching, but the Giants revealed themselves last year as much more than the Madison Bumgarner Show. A potent offense is fueled by an impressive core of young homegrown hitters, with the unexpected emergence of 25-year-old third baseman Matt Duffy to go with the core of Buster Posey (who turns 29 on March 27), Brandon Crawford (29), Joe Panik (25) and Brandon Belt (27). San Francisco's suddenly scary offense led the league in batting average and on-base percentage and was fourth in OPS and fifth in runs scored. Given his track record, Duffy is a regression candidate, but Hunter Pence, who played in just 52 games last year, should be healthy. So should Belt, who mostly avoided the injury bug last year and played in 137 games. There’s no reason why the offense can’t be just as good, or even better, this go around—and not just because we’re in an even year.
The Case Against
The Giants had to find a way to replace the 335 innings they got from the departed trio of Tim Hudson, Tim Lincecum and Ryan Vogelsong, so they went and shelled out $210 million for two veterans, Johnny Cueto and Jeff Samardzija. A year ago, those additions to a rotation headed by Bumgarner would have given the Giants a starting five that would look like the finest in the galaxy, but heading into this season, there are some real concerns as to whether it was money well spent.
On the surface, Samardzija seems like a big bounce-back candidate, as he goes from the bandbox in the South Side of Chicago to spacious AT&T Park. But it’s hard to ignore just how bad he was in 2015, when he had a disastrous season with the White Sox under the tutelage of noted pitching guru Don Cooper and posted career lows in strikeout and ground-ball rates while leading the majors in hits and earned runs allowed. The Shark’s wobbly spring—his velocity has been reportedly down this spring—only adds to the concern. Cueto may be an even bigger enigma. His ERA over the last five seasons (2.71) is second only to Clayton Kershaw’s among pitchers with at least 500 innings, but he was so inconsistent during his time in Kansas City last year that there were real concerns that he was hurt. The truth is, no one has any idea which Johnny will show up in San Francisco.
With the big question marks surrounding old horses Jake Peavy and Matt Cain in the rotation, the Giants need quality seasons from their two new hurlers. If they get the bad versions of Cueto and Samardzija, they’ll be in trouble.
Brad Mangin/Getty Images
X-Factor: Matt Cain, SP
Cain was once as reliable as they came: With six straight seasons of 200 or more innings and over 30 starts in each, he lived up to his nickname, The Horse. Then bone spurs sidelined him in late 2014, followed by a miserable, injury-riddled '15 season. The statistically minded have always been skeptical of this particular fly-ball pitcher’s ability to keep the ball in the park, and perhaps his recent struggles have something to do with that luck catching up to him. Whatever the case, the Giants still owe Cain $50 million, so they have big hopes he can become a top-of-the-rotation starter once again. If he does, behind Bumgarner, the Giants will be hard to beat.
Number To Know: 32
That's how old Denard Span is—and he's the youngest of San Francisco’s starting outfielders, a unit that suddenly seems very injury prone. Pence was once an ironman, playing 162 games in both 2013 and '14 (and at least 154 games every season before that), but he suddenly found himself hobbled by numerous injuries last year (a broken forearm, wrist tendinitis and an oblique injury). Angel Pagan did manage to stay mostly healthy last season, but the 34-year-old showed signs that he may be slowing down as a base-stealing threat (he stole just 12 last year) after dealing with knee injuries over the years. Span, meanwhile, played in just 61 games last year and is returning from hip surgery; he also may never again be the stolen base threat that he once was. Fourth outfielder Gregor Blanco is 34, and beyond him, the Giants' bench is thin. One or two injuries to the outfield, and the Giants could have some serious problems.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Johnny Cueto, SP
"He had a pretty hefty price tag, and there’s enough red flag indicators to wonder if they’re going to get value on that one. The ballpark should help him. He banks on deception. The margin for error isn’t as much as it used to be because his stuff ain’t as good as it once was. His velocity ticked back a little—it used to be mid-90s, now it's 92 or 93—and his slider's not as tight. He’s had to come up with more tricks. You wonder if all the stuff in his delivery has taken away from his stuff, too."
Most Underrated: Hunter Pence, OF
"He is my favorite guy on this team. I just don't know how he does it. It’s the most unconventional approach. To create the impact that he does is a little bit freakish to me. You watch his practice swing, and it's so awkward. I'd like to ask the scout who found him, 'How did you ever figure this would work?' I think he’s the glue guy, too. They can’t afford to lose his production or what he brings to the clubhouse."
1:04 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: St. Louis Cardinals
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Jay Jaffe
Thursday March 24th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 8: the St. Louis Cardinals.
2015 Record and Finish:
100–62 (.617), first place in National League Central (first overall); lost NL Division Series to Cubs
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
90–72 (.555), second place in NL Central, first place in NL wild card
The Case For
With six postseason appearances in the past seven seasons and a thriving player development system, the Cardinals are as close to a perpetual contention machine as there exists in baseball. The rotation should be a stronger one than they finished the year with: Adam Wainwright is recovered from last year's torn Achilles tendon, both Carlos Martinez and Michael Wacha are more able to handle full complements of innings after some late-2015 growing pains, and Mike Leake is aboard to replace Lance Lynn, who underwent Tommy John surgery in the fall. Korean reliever Seung-hwan Oh, who led the Japan Central League in saves in each of the past two seasons, should bolster the bullpen, and he's already got two great nicknames: "The Final Boss" and "Stone Buddha."
As for the lineup, St. Louis still has one of the game's most underrated players in Matt Carpenter atop it, and while there's no getting around the loss of Jason Heyward to the division rival Cubs, the increased playing time for Stephen Piscotty, Randal Grichuk and Tommy Pham should help to minimize it. The team can hope that both Matt Adams and Matt Holliday bounce back from injury-plagued seasons, and the acquisition of Brayan Pena gives them the Cardinals their most capable backup catcher of Yadier Molina’s tenure, and in turn, a better chance at keeping their 33-year-old, four-time Platinum Glove-winning starter healthy.
The Case Against
The Cardinals ended last season quite banged up, and they're already dealing with injuries again, having lost Jhonny Peralta until around the All-Star break due to a torn ligament in his left thumb that required surgery. With just-signed Ruben Tejada and off-season acquisition Jedd Gyorko likely to be his primary replacements at shortstop, the team’s offense and defense will both take a hit. Meanwhile, Molina is trying to come back from a pair of surgeries to his own left thumb, putting his Opening Day availability in question. That won't make it any easier to rebound from his worst season at the plate since 2006, and it may be that the 33-year-old backstop's days as a significant piece of the offense are at an end, though his defensive value and ability to handle pitchers are hardly in question.
Adams is coming back from a severe quad injury that required surgery, and the 36-year-old Holliday is trying to recover from quad problems that limited him to 73 games; there's no guarantee the pair will account for 35–40 homers as they did in 2013 and '14. For as impressive as Grichuk, Piscotty and Pham were in limited duty last year, none has a full major league season under his belt, and with Heyward, Jon Jay and Peter Bourjos gone, the team's considerable outfield depth has been depleted.
Dilip Vishwanat/Getty Images
X-Factor: Kolten Wong, 2B
The recent recipient of a five-year, $25.5 million extension, the 25-year-old Wong is a solid player but still has some significant holes in his game. In his second full season, he hit .262/.321/.386 with 11 homers, 15 steals and a 92 OPS+, right in line with the average NL second baseman (.266/.319.384). In the field, he was five runs above average according to Defensive Runs Saved en route to 2.2 Wins Above Replacement.
There's no shame in any of that, but there's plenty of room for Wong to improve in several areas—or for manager Mike Matheny to lessen his exposure and minimize the impact of his deficiencies. Wong's 5.5% unintentional walk rate was the lowest among the team's regulars and hardly befitting a player who made nearly half his plate appearances in either the leadoff or No. 2 spot in the order. His 65% success rate in stolen bases (eight times caught stealing in 23 attempts) was subpar, and a significant drop from his 83% in 24 attempts in 2014. He also tailed off badly in the second half (.238/.292/.322) after a strong start (.280/.343/.434 before the All-Star break) as he pulled the ball with less frequency and saw significant declines in his batting average on balls in play and power. Finally, he was just dreadful (.229/.275/.277 in 178 plate appearances) against southpaws despite plenty of exposure.
The acquisition of the lefty-mashing Gyorko was aimed at offsetting that last problem, but he may wind up playing a significant amount of shortstop in Peralta's absence. Among their other shortstop/utility options who could free him up for a platoon, the righty-swinging Tejada has hit .281/.363/.355 against lefties in his career for an OPS about 90 points better than against righties, and minor leaguer Aledmys Diaz, who got a long look in spring training, hit .371/.431/.621 in 137 PA against lefties at Double and Triple A in 2015. In other words, the team has options to work around Wong’s issues against lefties, though the superiority of his glove work may carry the day, increasing the need for him to shore up his other flaws.
Number To Know: 15
That's where the Cardinals' first basemen ranked on offense in the NL last year, with a .702 OPS via a .238/.310/.392 line. Adams was hitting just .243/.281/.375 with four homers when he strained his right quad trying to run out a double on May 26—an injury that required surgery, cost him 3 1/2 months and limited him to just 31 plate appearances upon returning in September. The team used six other players at that spot, including the since-departed Mark Reynolds, deadline acquisition Brandon Moss, midseason callup Piscotty and others, but collectively, they were a drag on that offense in that capacity.
The easiest way to upgrade that spot would be for Adams to recapture his 2013–14 form (a combined .287/.327/.474 for a 121 OPS+ with 32 homers), though a platoon complement is still a necessity given his career .197/.230/.317 line in 230 plate appearances against southpaws. The team has put the righty-swinging Piscotty's further dalliance at the position on hold ; meanwhile, Holliday showed up to camp having taken the initiative to start learning the position over the winter, and the early returns have been encouraging. With Peralta out in favor of what will inevitably be a lighter-hitting replacement and Molina in decline, the Cardinals simply can't punt offense at first base and expect to win 100 games again.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Brandon Moss, 1B/OF
"He strikes out way too much, and the league will make adjustments to him."
Most Underrated: Mike Leake, SP
"He will give this team tons of innings and keep them in every game he starts."
1:00 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Kansas City Royals
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Ben Reiter
Thursday March 24th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 7: the Kansas City Royals.
2015 Record and Finish:
95–67 (.586), first place in American League Central (fourth overall); won World Series
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
90–72 (.555), first place in AL Central
The Case For
Modern baseball economics are supposed to preclude something like the Royals’ re-signing of Alex Gordon from happening. Having established himself as a truly top-shelf outfielder—fourth in Wins Above Replacement among outfielders since 2011, after only Mike Trout, Andrew McCutchen and Jose Bautista—a player like Gordon is supposed to leave behind the mid-market club that nurtured him for every dollar he can get once he hits free agency, and no one would blame him. But that Gordon agreed to return for four years and $72 million is this winter’s biggest development for the Royals. (That other suitors were wary of his 32 years of age might have combined with Gordon’s fondness for Kansas City to result in that lower-than-expected figure.) While Lorenzo Cain is almost certainly the Royals' best player now, Gordon provides their heart and their identity, as his career—from struggling to star—has tracked their own rise to world champions.
Gordon’s return means that the Royals will be able to win in the same way as last year. They’ll do it via a relentless lineup, one led not only by Cain and Gordon but also by finally bloomed former top prospects Eric Hosmer and Mike Moustakas—one that refuses to wilt to modern peer pressure that suggests striking out is okay. The Royals whiffed just 15.9% of the time least year, making them the majors’ best contact club by a long shot and, in fact, the best since 2011. And they’ll win with a bullpen that is every bit as dominant as it was last year: Wade Davis is the game’s best closer, and Joakim Soria—the team’s closer between 2007 and '11—has returned to serve as one of the game’s best eighth-inning men behind Kelvin Herrera, who is one of the game’s best seventh-inning men. Projections systems still don’t like it—Baseball Prospectus’ PECOTA system has Kansas City winning just 76 games—but two straight World Series appearances seem like reasonable evidence that the Royals’ style works.
The Case Against
If the Gordon signing was universally praised, that of Ian Kennedy was just as widely scorned. Five years and $70 million does seem like a lot for a 31-year-old who had a 4.28 ERA last year, but it might not be so bad, for a few reasons. Kennedy surpassed 200 strikeouts just two years ago, and he goes from pitching in front of one of the majors' worst defenses (the Padres’) to its clear best. The Royals also desperately needed someone who could start games, after post-deadline rental Johnny Cueto’s departure. Other than Kennedy, they’ve got a No. 3 starter masquerading as an ace in Edinson Volquez; a No. 2 starter with an ace’s stuff who had a 4.08 ERA last year even in front of that great defense in Yordano Ventura; and the severely injury prone (though effective when healthy) Chris Young and Kris Medlen. The Royals’ rotation wasn’t great last year (a 22nd-ranked 4.34 ERA) and they won it all regardless, but if it’s much worse this year, no amount of clutch contact hitting, fielding and bullpen work will save them in a division with four other teams that all appear to be improved.
Ronald C. Modra/Getty Images
X-Factor: Second base
Last July’s trade of pitchers Sean Manaea and Aaron Brooks for Ben Zobrist couldn’t have worked out any better for the Royals. Zobrist batted .284 with seven homers, 23 RBIs and an OPS of .816 in 59 regular-season games with Kansas City, then kept ripping doubles in the gap in October—eight of them in 16 postseason games, during which he batted .303 with an .880 OPS.
As expected, though, the 35-year-old Zobrist left in free agency, and now second base is an issue again. Omar Infante, the likely starter, hasn’t aged nearly as well as Zobrist: He’s 34, but his .220 batting average and near complete lack of power led him to finish last year with a negative WAR (-0.8). Christian Colon, the fourth pick in the 2010 draft, could win the job, but he hasn’t developed much of a bat either, with a .744 OPS in parts of four Triple A seasons. The solution might be Raul Mondesi, Jr., who is mostly known for having made his MLB debut during last year’s World Series but whose talent should soon render that fact a footnote. Mondesi doesn’t turn 21 until July, but plays older. “He has the ingredients—a switch hitter with plus bat speed from both sides, a 70 runner with a 60 arm, a premier defender with Gold Glove actions,” says one scout. “Yeah, I think he’ll be up this year.”
Number To Know: 39.2%
That was the percentage of balls Moustakas pulled last year, according to FanGraphs—a career-low and a significant decline from 2014, when it was 50.5%. The third baseman’s change in approach was extreme: Two years ago, among players with 500 plate appearances, he was the ninth most pull-happy hitter in baseball, but last year he was 74th, below the median. Dead red power was what made Moustakas the No. 2 pick in the draft as a California high schooler in 2007, but his decision to become a better all-around hitter eight years later paid dividends. After a 2014 in which he hit .212, he set career highs last season not just in batting average (.284) but also in homers (22) and RBIs (82). The new Moustakas should only continue to improve.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Yordano Ventura, SP
“A lot of hype, but he’s just got to be more efficient with his pitches [and] get deeper into games if he wants to be a true front-of-the-rotation guy. He gets too emotional at times. Every year in the minor leagues, they had to put their thumb on him to keep him down. Suspended him, had him skip starts for discipline reasons. They’ve managed him pretty good—he could have really unraveled at times. He’s a little like Pedro [Martinez] with his height and weight, but Pedro could command everything. When he’s on, he’s a freak, but I don’t know if he’ll ever be the guy that gives you 200-some innings—and to be a one or two, you've got to do that.”
Most Underrated: Alcides Escobar, SS
“Plays every day, Gold Glove defender. Grinds out at-bats. I know he doesn’t have that great an on-base percentage, but you know what? They win when he’s at the top of the order. They tried to have other guys with better OBPs leading off, but [manager] Ned Yost has even said it: We win when he leads off. Statistically, it’s an anomaly. You can’t always explain the numbers, but the end result, you can’t ignore. They seem to play with more energy with him up there. Maybe it puts the rest of the hitters in their lineup in a better order.”
0:58 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Boston Red Sox
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Jay Jaffe
Friday March 25th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 6: the Boston Red Sox.
2015 Record and Finish:
78–84 (.481), fifth place in American League East (19th overall)
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
92–70 (.568), second place in AL East, first place in AL wild card
The Case For
En route to their third last-place finish in four seasons, the Red Sox shook things up, bringing in former Expos/Marlins/Tigers general manager Dave Dombrowski as president of baseball operations, a move that resulted in the resignation of general manager Ben Cherington and, eventually, the promotion of Mike Hazen to GM. Over the winter, the new regime made two high-impact moves to shore up an underachieving pitching staff whose rotation and bullpen both ranked third-to-last in the AL in ERA: Signing David Price to a record-setting seven-year, $217 million deal and trading four prospects to the Padres for closer Craig Kimbrel. Along with those moves, Boston added setup man Carson Smith via trade, and the Sox will also get a full season of Eduardo Rodriguez, with youngsters such as Henry Owens and Brian Johnson pushing for spots in the rotation. All of that should make the team much better in run prevention.
Hanley Ramirez and Pablo Sandoval, the two free agents whose shortcomings—summarized neatly in their combined -2.2 Wins Above Replacement, around nine wins short of what they provided their previous employers in 2014—played no small part in precipitating the regime change, can't help but be better than last year on both sides of the ball. Pulling Ramirez out of leftfield, where he was 19 runs below average, and moving him to first base can only help. The Sox can hope to get more than last year's total of 93 games from Dustin Pedroia, and the last lap for age-defying David Ortiz will be must-see given his penchant for rising to the occasion. The lineup is awash in young talent as well, including a trio of elite defenders in the outfield in Mookie Betts, Jackie Bradley Jr. and Rusney Castillo; 2015 breakout Xander Bogaerts at shortstop; and a promising catching tandem in Blake Swihart and Christian Vazquez (who could start in the minors as he returns from Tommy John surgery).
The Case Against
Starters Rick Porcello and Joe Kelly are coming off dismal seasons, with ERAs near 5.00; the latter has been roasted for a 4.60 ERA and 4.31 FIP since arriving from St. Louis in July 2014. The range of outcomes for Clay Buchholz—from unhittable staff ace to tomato can to disabled list denizen—is almost limitless. Aside from Price, none of the rotation's candidates made 30 starts or threw more than 172 innings last year, and Rodriguez is already slated to start the year on the DL after dislocating his right kneecap in a fielding drill in late February. In other words, the team's considerable pitching depth will quickly be tested.
Meanwhile, Castillo was a dud at the plate last year and still has to prove that he can hit breaking pitches and avoid mental errors on the basepaths. Bradley's breakout at the major league level amounts to one red-hot August (.354/.429/.734 in 91 plate appearances) propping up mediocre-or-worse stretches, some of them admittedly small in sample size. It's asking a lot to count on Ramirez to take to first base given the lack of zeal he's shown for previous position moves (though to be fair, the early reports have been good), and it's quite possible that neither he nor Sandoval will ever rebound to their All-Star caliber levels.
Finally, it's worth keeping an eye on manager John Farrell. Leaving aside the encouraging news that he's back in the dugout and cancer-free after missing the final six weeks of the 2015 season due to a diagnosis of non-Hodgkins lymphoma, not many managers retain their jobs after back-to-back last-place finishes and a regime change. If the team struggles, it wouldn't be a surprise if Dombrowski makes a switch to install a manager of his own choosing.
Charles Krupa/AP
X-Factor: Rick Porcello, SP
Acquired in a December 2014 swap that sent Yoenis Cespedes to Detroit, the Red Sox liked Porcello—who was coming off what appeared to be a breakout season (3.43 ERA, 3.67 FIP, 4.0 WAR)—so much that they signed him to a four-year, $82.5 million extension for 2016–19 nearly a full year in advance. Expectations were high that he could build on his 2014 performance to provide the Sox with some semblance of frontline pitching in the absence of a true ace, but needless to say, things didn't go so well. Though he posted the highest strikeout rate of his career (7.8 per nine), Porcello tied his career high with a 4.92 ERA and set a career high in home-run rate (1.3 per nine) as his ground-ball rate fell to a career-low 46%. While he pitched to a 3.14 ERA with 0.8 homers per nine and a ground-ball rate above 50% over his final eight starts after missing four weeks due to a triceps strain, his 0.6 WAR wound up as his worst showing since 2011.
Underlying Porcello's woes to at least some extent were a whole lot of sinkers that didn't sink. Throwing his two-seamer 39.1% of the time, he allowed six homers and a gaudy .441 slugging percentage on the pitch, the latter mark up from .367 the year before. Meanwhile, his changeup, which he threw 10.6% of the time, was tattooed for six homers and a .611 slugging percentage, up from two homers and a .352 slugging percentage the year before.
The Sox need Porcello to get back to pitching somewhere closer to his 2014 form, or they'll have another expensive dud on their hands. Hopefully, with a full spring with pitching coach Carl Willis (who replaced the fired Juan Nieves last May), he can build on his late-season run.
Number To Know: .195/.271/.300
That's Bradley's career batting line in his 694 plate appearances apart from his aforementioned August tear, which actually carried over into September before being offset by a .138/.247/.263 showing over his final 94 plate appearances. That “all-but-August” showing also includes 197 strikeouts, a 28% rate that’s hardly offset by his production. The 26-year-old Bradley is a spectacular defender, and if he's the one covering centerfield—the team experimented with various configurations during Ramirez's absences but now appears set with Castillo in left and Betts in right—then he doesn't have to hit all that much to justify his place in the lineup. Still, Bradley will have to find consistency at the plate and make contact more often to utilize his speed in order to hold onto a regular job.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Pablo Sandoval, 3B
"Sandoval is as fat as ever, and his body can betray him in a heartbeat. Making the money he's making, supposedly he was going to come into camp in better shape. Well, he hasn't. He's just an adequate offensive player now, not what he was with the Giants in any way. I don't expect more than the 10 home runs he hit last year. If he doesn't get back to hitting home runs, he's useless to them at third base."
Most Underrated: Brock Holt, IF/OF
"Holt is one of my favorite players on this team. He's very valuable because he can play everywhere in the infield, and he's a good hitter. He can fill in for anybody."
1:08 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Los Angeles Dodgers
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Ben Reiter
Friday March 25th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 5: the Los Angeles Dodgers.
2015 Record and Finish:
92–70 (.568), first place in National League West (sixth overall); lost NL Division Series to Mets
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
93–69 (.574), first place in NL West
The Case For
The Dodgers came a one-run Game 5 loss away from beating the ace-loaded Mets and advancing to last year’s NLCS despite the fact that their lineup—the NL’s fourth-most prolific during the regular season—had by October sustained more arrow strikes than St. Sebastian. Yasmani Grandal, the catcher who batted .282 with 13 homers and 36 RBIs before the All-Star break, was virtually debilitated by a shoulder injury that ruined his second half and on which he had surgery over the winter. Howie Kendrick was enduring the lingering effects of a badly strained hamstring. Yasiel Puig, also with an injured hamstring, had one hit after Aug. 27. Even Justin Turner, the third baseman who nearly single-handedly kept the Dodgers in the series by batting .526, was playing with a bum left knee that would shortly thereafter require a microfracture procedure.
In 2016, though, Los Angeles’ offense should return mostly intact, both in health and composition; the re-signing of Kendrick to a two-year, $20 million deal means that it will feature nary a new face. It will, however, have a fresh one: 21-year-old shortstop Corey Seager, baseball’s consensus top prospect, who batted .337 with four homers, 17 RBIs and a .986 OPS after his promotion last September. Much more, too, can be expected of Puig, who batted a massively disappointing .255 with 11 homers, 38 RBIs and three steals in 79 regular-season games. Puig, though, retains all the skills that made him an immediate sensation in 2013—and perhaps, at 25, a newfound wisdom. “Supposedly he’s more mature on the field and off the field,” says a rival scout. “You would hope so. He’s a freak. He could be Yoenis Cespedes, he could be Mike Trout, he could be Bryce Harper if he could play under control [and] calm down a little bit.”
With the steady Adrian Gonzalez still cleaning up, the Dodgers’ offense should again look like the one you’d expect from baseball’s highest-paid club, though the team announced in late March that outfielder Andre Ethier will miss up to three months due to a fractured tibia. Even so, a fourth straight playoff berth—this one under new manager Dave Roberts—could be just the start.
The Case Against
Clayton Kershaw stands alone, no matter what. But on the Dodgers’ staff, at least in the early going, he’ll be out there on his own island. The loss of Zack Greinke—he of the 1.66 ERA last year—to the Diamondbacks was always going to hurt, but now, says one scout, “You got question marks in your rotation.” Brett Anderson, re-signed in free agency, had back surgery in early March that will keep him out three to five months, and Brandon McCarthy, Frankie Montas and Hyun-jin Ryu might also be out until mid-summer. Even would-be–fill-in fifth man Mike Bolsinger is likely to miss the start of the season with a strained oblique.
The Dodgers’ wealth allowed them to load up on pitching depth to try to counteract the departure of the singular Greinke, but the season-starting rotation behind Kershaw—free-agent signings Scott Kazmir and Kenta Maeda and underwhelming returnee Alex Wood and, for awhile, Carlos Frias or Zach Lee—isn’t at all intimidating. Neither is the bullpen behind closer Kenley Jansen, as Los Angeles added only Louis Coleman and Joe Blanton to a group that ranked 11th in the NL in ERA, at 3.91. It might turn out that even a club with a $250 million payroll can’t have enough pitching.
Christian Petersen/Getty Images
X-Factor: Julio Urias, SP
If only all scouting trips were as productive as the one the Dodgers’ staff took to Mexico in June of 2012. That excursion yielded not only Puig, who held a series of showcases south of the border, but also Urias, who is now baseball’s best pitching prospect. The southpaw has mostly dominated in the minors, pitching to a 2.77 ERA with 10.7 strikeouts per nine over his three seasons, thanks to an advanced three-pitch repertoire that includes a fastball that sits at 94 mph, a sharp curveball and a precocious changeup. He is the exact type of weapon a pitching-thin, would-be contender might immediately turn to, except for a couple of things. For starters, he only turned 19 in August, and he’s yet to throw more than 87 2/3 innings in a professional season. Second, he worked only 80 1/3 frames last year, due in part to a mid-season operation on a benign mass in his left eye—a condition that has long rendered it nearly closed, though he says he can see out of it.
Mostly, though, Urias’s light workloads are due to the desire of the Dodgers' brain trust to handle its prize with white gloves. But if Los Angeles’ early-season starting pitching proves woeful, might the team prove unable to resist the temptation to call on Urias, with the idea that he could be sent back down later to curtail his workload and service time? It’s unlikely, but possible. It’s been 36 years since Fernandomania swept Southern California, and it could prove time to unleash another 19-year-old lefthanded Mexican phenom.
Number To Know: 2.11
That’s Kershaw’s ERA over the past five years, a stretch during which he’s thrown 1,128 innings. It’s the lowest over that period by a full 60 points—Johnny Cueto is second, at 2.71—meaning Kershaw has been 22% better than any other pitcher in baseball for half a decade. In other words, he was Steph Curry before Steph Curry—and the two were born in the same week in March of 1988.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Joc Pederson, OF
“Just because of the strikeouts, the inconsistent play. This is a guy that plays out of control a lot. He can take erratic routes and just drive you crazy. There’s a lot of ball that you’re like, dang, that’s probably a catchable ball and a play your centerfielder should make. He strikes out at such a high, alarming rate that I don’t know if he can be a winning type of player. Two things kill me: walks when you’re a pitcher and high-strikeout guys. They just make it very hard to win. It’s tough for your everyday centerfielder to have 170 strikeouts and hit .210. He’s swinging from his ass, trying to hit it not just out but out of the world, into the next universe. He does get some walks, but .210 is .210.”
Most Underrated: Justin Turner, 3B
“Last year he really helped them when they were going good. A grinder, [he] came up with clutch hit after clutch hit. He played short for them at times, [but he's] obviously much better at third. His recovery from his knee injury is going to be huge. They need him. He’s the heart and soul of that lineup—an old-fashioned, throwback baseball player. He’s better than a journeyman now. He’s a winning-type player that can play on any team.”
1:06 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Toronto Blue Jays
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Cliff Corcoran
Friday March 25th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 4: the Toronto Blue Jays.
2015 Record and Finish:
93–69 (.574), first place in American League East (fifth overall); lost AL Championship Series to Royals
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
93–69 (.574), first place in AL East
The Case For
The Blue Jays fell two games shy of winning the AL pennant last season and are returning this year with 2015’s most prolific offense not only intact but also arguably improved. Full seasons from deadline addition Troy Tulowitzki and leftfielder Michael Saunders, who combined to start just 49 regular-season games for Toronto last year, should help. Toronto also hopes to get four healthy months from sophomore second baseman Devon Travis, who was active for just three months last season and fighting a left shoulder injury (one that was surgically repaired in November) for much of that time. The Jays can also reasonably expect improvement at the plate from centerfielder Kevin Pillar, who is coming off his first full major league season, in his age-27 campaign. Surely there will be some regression elsewhere, most likely from the first base platoon of Chris Colabello and Justin Smoak, but Toronto has every reason to expect to lead the majors in runs scored for a second consecutive season.
Meanwhile, a full season of Tulowitzki will also improve the Jays in the field, and a full season of Marcus Stroman, who made just four starts last year due to a torn knee ligament suffered in spring training, could give Toronto the front-of-the-rotation ace it lacked for the first four months of 2015. In the bullpen, the Blue Jays spent the early part of last year trying to establish a closer before finally landing on rookie Roberto Osuna. This year, both Osuna and veteran Drew Storen enter the season with closer experience, and each is capable of dominating in the eighth or ninth inning. Their presence will allow the Jays to keep lefty Brett Cecil in the setup role for which he is best suited and gives Toronto an impressive Big Three in the bullpen, something the team lacked until the final two months of last year.
You may have noticed a pattern above. The Blue Jays were a different team after last year’s trading deadline, when they added Tulowitzki, David Price, leftfielder Ben Revere and relief help. This year, they more closely resemble that post-deadline version of the team heading into the season, with Tulowitzki still in place, Stroman replacing Price, Saunders replacing Revere and Storen replacing free agent Mark Lowe. Tulowitzki was the first of those reinforcements to arrive last July, and from his first game with the Jays on July 29 through the end of the regular season, Toronto went 43–18—three games better than any other team in the AL—and posted a .705 winning percentage, or a 114-win pace over 162 games. The Jays won’t be that dominant this season, but they have as much of a chance as any other team of leading the league in wins and winning the pennant—and possibly even taking home their first championship since 1993.
The Case Against
“A full season of Troy Tulowitzki” is as hoary a spring training cliché as a player being “ in the best shape of his life .” Expecting Tulo, Saunders (who has appeared in just 87 games over the last two years) or Travis to avoid the disabled list beyond the latter's remaining two months of rehab is cockeyed optimism.
I already mentioned the likelihood of regression from the platoon of Smoak and Colabello, who hit a combined .277/.334/.496 with 33 home runs last year. The Jays are also likely to see some regression from defending AL MVP Josh Donaldson and fellow sluggers Jose Bautista and Edwin Encarnacion, all of whom hit 39 or more home runs with an OPS+ of 149 or better last year. Donaldson turned 30 in December. Encarnacion turned 33 in January and seems to be constantly suffering from one nagging injury or another, including an oblique strain this spring that could threaten his availability for Opening Day. Bautista is 35 and has had his share of injuries as well since leading the majors in home runs in 2010 and '11. Bautista and Encarnacion, meanwhile, are both entering their walk years amid unsatisfactory extension talks with the Blue Jays, but age, injury and the simple difficulty of repeating the level of production they provided last year seem more likely to factor into their 2016 performances than their next contract. Speaking of age, catcher Russell Martin is 33 and has had postseason innings added onto his full-time–regular-season workload in seven of his last eight seasons.
In the rotation, Stroman, who is 5’8” and will turn 25 in May, has never thrown more than 166 1/3 innings in a professional season and threw just 54 last year including his minor league rehab assignment and the postseason. Marco Estrada and J.A. Happ are middling journeymen in their early thirties coming off spikes in performance that they seem unlikely to repeat. R.A. Dickey is a 41-year-old knuckleballer who has been a perfectly league-average innings eater in his three years in Toronto (100 ERA+, 654 2/3 innings pitched). As for the fifth spot, that seems likely to be claimed by sophomore Aaron Sanchez, who posted a lousy 1.14 strikeout-to-walk ratio in 11 starts last year before landing on the disabled list and being repurposed as a setup reliever. His backup for that spot includes Drew Hutchison (5.47 ERA in 28 starts last year), veteran Gavin Floyd (14 starts and 92 major league innings pitched in the last three years due to a variety of injuries) and swing-man Jesse Chavez (4.37 ERA in 26 starts for the Athletics last year while benefiting from a far friendlier home ballpark). The bullpen, meanwhile, gets pretty thin after that top three of Osuna, Storen and Cecil with Sanchez likely in the rotation, lefty Aaron Loup currently down with a flexor strain and Liam Hendriks and 2015 deadline additions Lowe and LaTroy Hawkins all having departed for one reason or another.
With the Red Sox ascendant, the Yankees still relevant and no clear patsy in the division, the Blue Jays could have a much tougher to the postseason in 2016 than they had a year ago.
Jim McIsaac/Getty Images
X-Factor: The starting rotation
Even if they do suffer injuries and regression, the Blue Jays are going to hit the snot out of the ball and score a ton of runs. They are also going to play outstanding defense (they led the majors in park-adjusted defensive efficiency in 2015 and, again, should be better at shortstop this year), and they have enough back-end talent in the bullpen to expect a good performance from that unit—one that is the most malleable part of any team via in-season reinforcements and affordable deadline acquisitions, as they Jays themselves demonstrated last year.
The biggest question facing the 2016 Blue Jays, then, is the performance of their starting rotation. There is clearly upside there with Stroman as a potential ace, Sanchez as a former top prospect in his age-23 season with 125 1/3 innings of major league exposure, Dickey as a reliable innings eater and Estrada and Happ as wily veterans who appeared to make late-career gains last year. Indeed, I’ve heard praise for the Jays’ rotation from multiple sources this spring. It seems every bit as likely, however, that all three veterans will post an ERA+ below league average and that Stroman and Sanchez will combine to make fewer than 30 starts due to a combination of injury and poor performance. Simply put, the collapse potential in Toronto's rotation is tremendous, and it's why I stop short of considering them the favorite to win the pennant this season.
Numbers To Know: 29% and 17%
I undersold the dominance of the 2015 Blue Jays’ offense. Toronto didn’t just lead the majors in scoring last year; it scored 29% more runs than the major league average and 17% more runs than the second-place Yankees. The last team to outscore the major league average by 29% or more was the 1976 Reds, better known as the Big Red Machine and widely regarded as one of the best teams in major league history. To find the last team to outscore the runner-up in run scoring by 17% or more, you have to go all the way back to the 1931 Yankees of Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig, who outscored that year’s Indians by 20% with 1,067 runs, good for 6.88 runs per game.
Those 1931 Yankees are the only team in the Live Ball era to outscore the second-place team in runs by as much or more than the 2015 Blue Jays. In fact, since the 1953 Dodgers outscored the second-most potent offense in baseball by 16%, only two other teams have bested the second-place offense by as much as 11%: the '55 Dodgers and those '76 Reds. That is the company the 2015 Blue Jays kept: The Big Red Machine, the "Boys of Summer" Dodgers, Ted Williams’s Red Sox and the Ruth-Gehrig-DiMaggio-era Yankees (see table below). Those are the greatest offenses in major league history, and the 2015 Blue Jays ranked among them despite getting just 183 plate appearances from Tulowitzki, 239 from Travis and 36 from Saunders.
Most runs scored per game as a percentage of league average in Live Ball era (1920-present):
year
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: J.A. Happ, SP
“I’m not sold. What did he get, three years, $36 million? That’s what No. 4 starters are going for, $12 million a year. So they figure they got a pretty good deal and they’re hoping he can stay healthy and provide some innings, but we’re just going to have to see. It’s just an entirely different league. I think he’s probably more suited to the National League. In 2014 [the Blue Jays] were counting on him, but he just underachieved. We’ll see how he does in the American League.”
Most Underrated: Marcus Stroman, SP
“He got a lot of hype last year because he came back from his knee surgery quick, but I really think this guy has a chance to win a Cy Young this year. Just because he’s 5’8” or 5’9”, people don’t realize how good this guy is. I heard about him. Then when I saw him pitch live, I was like, ‘Wow.’ I was really kind of blown away. It’s better stuff than I expected. Usually smaller guys like that, they have issues with deception, with the angle or leverage, but he overcomes all that stuff. He really is a special talent.”
1:19 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: New York Mets
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Jon Tayler
Friday March 25th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 3: the New York Mets.
2015 Record and Finish:
90–72 (.556), first place in National League East (seventh overall); lost World Series to Royals
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
95–67 (.586), first place in NL East
The Case For
Four men will be the difference between the Mets repeating as NL East champions and making a run at their second straight World Series berth or spending October watching the playoffs from home: Matt Harvey, Jacob deGrom, Noah Syndergaard and Steven Matz. Thanks to the best rotation in baseball, New York pulled off its surprising division title and NL pennant in 2015, and that rotation will once again be the basis for the team's contention hopes this year.
The debate over which of those four pitchers has the best stuff or is the Mets’ true ace could go on all season, but in reality, it doesn’t matter. All four are legit top-of-the-rotation pitchers who boast elite velocity, control and command, and any team would be lucky to have any one of them, much less all four. Having that quartet gives the Mets a gigantic advantage—a group that will keep them in the playoff hunt almost regardless of what else happens. New York is also welcoming back former top prospect Zack Wheeler, who underwent Tommy John surgery in early 2015 and will likely join the team at midseason.
Luckily for the Mets, there are plenty of other positives on their roster beyond the starting five. The lineup is potent, particularly now that New York will get full seasons out of Cuban superstar Yoenis Cespedes, who was acquired in a July 31 trade with the Tigers and re-signed as a free-agent during the off-season, and highly productive rookie Michael Conforto, who made his major league debut one week before Cespedes arrived. Along with Curtis Granderson, who experienced a resurgence last season (a 125 OPS+, his highest mark since 2011), they give the Mets one of the NL’s best outfields. Travis d’Arnaud is one of the league’s better-hitting catchers, and first baseman Lucas Duda and second baseman Neil Walker (acquired this winter for reserve starter Jonathon Niese) provide plenty of power on the right side of the infield.
A healthy season from David Wright would help give that lineup more punch as well. Wright was limited to 38 games last season because of a hamstring injury and a degenerative spinal condition, but he was able to come back in time for the stretch run and the postseason and put up solid production (.277/.381/.437 from Aug. 24 onward). Should he return in form, then New York will be able to put out a batting order with all nine hitters likely producing at league average or better—a far cry from the hopeless group that slept walk through the first half of last season.
The Case Against
For as strong as New York’s rotation is, the heavy workloads logged by the top trio of Harvey, deGrom and Syndergaard in the pursuit of a championship are worrisome. Harvey, coming off 2013 Tommy John surgery, blew past his Scott Boras-suggested innings limit of 180 to throw 216 last year between the regular season and playoffs. Syndergaard and deGrom, meanwhile, both set career highs in innings (the former with 169 in the regular and postseasons, the latter with 216), and by wide margins, too. Matz is the lone youngster of the group who didn’t go above and beyond his previous limits—but that’s only because a string of injuries kept him from doing so.
The addition of Wheeler and the presence of veteran stalwart Bartolo Colon should help Terry Collins manage his starters’ innings, but there’s no doubt that, to reach the postseason again, the Mets will have to lean on their top four. A thin bullpen won’t help matters. Closer Jeurys Familia is an ace in the ninth inning, but Collins was forced to call on him often throughout the season and especially in the playoffs, possibly decreasing his effectiveness this year. Worse, there are few other pitchers Collins can trust in his relief corps. Off-season addition Antonio Bastardo is a quality arm, but the losses of Jenrry Mejia and Tyler Clippard leave the Mets lacking an impact righthander. All of that will force Collins to ask a lot of his young starters and Familia, which could leave them exhausted by the time October rolls around.
As for the lineup, the injury-prone ways of Wright, d’Arnaud and Duda could create some serious depth issues if any of them is forced to miss a substantial amount of time. Already, New York is dealing with the absence of Asdrubal Cabrera at shortstop—something exacerbated by the front office’s parsimonious decision to release slick-fielding infielder Ruben Tejada in the middle of spring training. Perhaps more than any other team, the Mets need their stars to stay healthy.
Al Behrman/AP
X-Factor: Zack Wheeler, SP
It’s almost unfair that a team with Harvey, deGrom, Syndergaard and Matz should get to add a fifth top starter to its rotation. But that’s where the Mets will likely find themselves in the summer when Wheeler makes his return. His loss in spring training last year was a potential disaster, but the emergence of Syndergaard and Matz helped paper over his injury. New York came close to giving up Wheeler for good last July in the aborted trade that would have sent him and Wilmer Flores to the Brewers for Carlos Gomez—one called off at the last minute because of the Mets’ concerns over Gomez’s health. Instead, the team got Cespedes and made its run, and now it gets to have Wheeler as a potential impact addition in the second half.
Before blowing out his elbow, Wheeler showed terrific velocity (averaging 95 mph on his four-seam fastball) and outstanding swing-and-miss stuff (9.08 strikeouts per nine and a swinging-strike rate of 10%) in 2014. One potential issue was his shaky command: He averaged 3.84 walks per nine in that last healthy season, and control often takes some time for Tommy John recipients to regain. On top of that, New York will likely want to be cautious with him the way it was with Harvey. One possibility: Turning to a six-man rotation, which the Mets briefly experimented with last season when Matz was called up. That could help keep the innings down for all of the team’s important young arms and still let New York reap the benefits of having five elite pitchers. All of that is contingent on Wheeler coming back healthy, but if he can, the already-pitching-rich Mets will get even richer.
Number To Know: 69
That’s how many games d’Arnaud has averaged in his first three seasons with the Mets, largely due to injury (aside from his rookie year in 2013, when he played in 31 games after being called up in August). In 2014, he managed just 108 games thanks to a concussion and right elbow soreness; last year, a left elbow sprain and a fractured right pinkie finger limited him to 67 contests. The 27-year-old catcher’s injury history is problematic, to say the least: To that litany of ailments at the major league level, you can add a left knee sprain and left foot fracture suffered in the minors. And while d’Arnaud has avoided injury so far this spring, it feels like only a matter of time before he gets hurt again.
The Mets are making an effort to do what they can to reduce d’Arnaud’s exposure to injury, including talk of having him play first base and the outfield , and of having rookie Kevin Plawecki take more time behind the plate. Whether or not putting d’Arnaud in unfamiliar situations or handing additional at-bats to Plawecki (.219/.280/.296 in 258 plate appearances for the Mets last year as a 24-year-old) are good ideas remain to be seen. But doing what it takes to keep d’Arnaud healthy and on the field is a good call on New York’s part. When able, d’Arnaud has shown game-changing offensive ability—he posted a 128 OPS+ in limited action last year—and strong skills behind the plate. Catcher has been a revolving door for the Mets since the last days of Mike Piazza; d’Arnaud could be the rock behind the plate that New York has been searching for at the position for a decade, but only if he can avoid the injury bug that has marked his career to date.
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Yoenis Cespedes, OF
“I think they could have been okay without him. I wonder if at some point the players there get tired of the first six or eight days of spring training, a different $100,000 car every day … the whole Yoenis Cespedes show.”
Most Underrated: Travis d'Arnaud, C
“The value he brings of handling those four pitchers, how well he does that, calling the games, leads to a lot of their success. He also can do a little bit of damage offensively.”
1:06 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Houston Astros
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Ben Reiter
Friday March 25th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 2: the Houston Astros.
2015 Record and Finish:
86–76 (.531), second place in American League West, second place in AL wild card (10th overall); lost AL Division Series to Royals
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
96–66 (.592), first place in AL West
The Case For
Your 2017 World Series Champs? For a while last season, it seemed as if our cover prediction from June of 2014 —scorned by many—might prove two years too conservative. After six straight losing seasons, the rebuilt and reestablished Astros ranked sixth in runs scored (729) and sixth in runs allowed (618) for a run differential of +111 (the majors’ third best), suggesting that they were in fact unlucky to win only 86 games and the second wild card spot. Houston's Pythagorean record was 93–69, which would have tied them for the AL’s second-best finish were the game played by Pythagoras. In any event, the Astros topped the Yankees in the wild-card game and made it to the ALDS, taking a 2–1 series lead on the eventual champion Royals before falling in five games.
Houston had such a season despite receiving only part-time work from two of its three best regulars. Jose Altuve played 154 games and received MVP votes for the second straight year after batting .313 with 15 homers, 66 RBIs and 38 steals. George Springer, though, suffered a broken wrist in July and played in only 102 games, hitting .276 with 16 homers, 41 RBIs and 16 steals. Carlos Correa, the 21-year-old shortstop and former No. 1 draft pick, played in only 99, as he didn’t debut until June 8. The precocious Rookie of the Year hit .279 with 22 homers, 68 RBIs and 14 steals and immediately became the club’s unquestioned leader—their Derek Jeter in Yeezys and a fedora .
Had both Correa and Springer played a full season’s worth of games, their Wins Above Replacement project to over 6.0 apiece, a figure topped by just 15 regulars in 2015. Full seasons and another year of maturity should allow them to surpass that mark for real, and to lead an Astros team that remains a legitimate threat for a ring—still a year early, according to some.
The Case Against
Lance McCullers—picked 41st in the same 2012 draft that produced Correa—was also a revelation as a rookie in 2015, pitching to a 3.22 ERA over 125 2/3 innings and striking out seven hard-to-whiff Royals in 6 1/3 innings in Game 4 of the ALDS. He was armed with a mid-90s fastball and a hard curve against which batters hit .148—one that helped him maintain a strikeout-to-walk ratio of 3:1. But McCullers’s efforts meant a 56.7% jump in total innings pitched from the year before despite the Astros’ attempts to limit his use. That makes him a prime candidate to suffer from the Year-After Effect —my colleague Tom Verducci's attempt to identify young hurlers with a heightened injury risk due to significantly increased work.
Well, McCullers already has a sore shoulder, and the Astros have announced that he will miss the start of the regular season. That’s a concern for an Astros rotation that already resembles a kiddie pool: shallow and lacking heat. In fact, not one of the five men who will now comprise the early rotation—returnees Dallas Keuchel, Collin McHugh, Mike Fiers and Scott Feldman and bargain free agent Doug Fister—averages even 91 mph with his fastball. Of course, a paucity of pace hardly affected Keuchel, last year’s Cy Young winner, and the rest have experienced significant stretches of success in recent seasons. But if there’s one thing that could hold back the Astros’ ascent, a soft-tossing rotation that is now stretched thin could be it.
Brynn Anderson/AP
X-Factor: Tyler White, 1B
Who? The unfamiliar White could quite possibly be the Astros’ Opening Day first baseman. With last year’s starter, Chris Carter, non-tendered after batting .196, the competition for the job this spring was supposed to be between Jon Singleton—the 24-year-old, four-time veteran of Baseball America’s Top 100 list—and A.J. Reed, whose 34 bombs made him minor league baseball’s home run king last year and who is currently BA’s 11th-ranked prospect. But Singleton’s traditional struggles at the major league level have continued this spring, as he started off with three hits in his first 27 at-bats. Now, says a rival scout, “I think it’s closer between Reed and White.”
While Reed was the first pick of the second round in 2014, White wasn't taken until the 33rd round the year before, out of Western Carolina. But he’s hit at every level, including a .362 average with a 1.026 OPS in 56 games at Triple A Fresno last season. As he is a righthanded-hitting first baseman with doubles power, scouts struggle to come up with a comp for the 5’11”, 225-pound White. “Billy Butler, but less thump,” says one, before he is reminded that Butler has averaged only 12 home runs the past two years. “Billy Butler, then?” White might not have the pedigree of the Astros’ other first base prospects, but after hitting .370 through his first 10 spring games, he might get the job that was supposed to be theirs.
Number To Know: 7.1
That is the difference in miles per hour between the average fastballs of Houston's top two closer candidates, Ken Giles (96.5) and Luke Gregerson (89.4). While the job will likely belong to the 25-year-old Giles (given the five-player cost the Astros paid to acquire him from the Phillies this winter), Gregerson’s deceptive repertoire is also very effective, as he had 31 saves in 37 opportunities last season. If he doesn't stick as the closer, he would then return to his old setup role as part of a bullpen that was sixth overall in ERA (3.27) and is now even deeper and more versatile. “It’s a strong bullpen, a strike-throwing bullpen,” the scout says. “Got some power, got some funk.”
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Scout’s Takes
Most Overrated: Colby Rasmus, OF
“I know he hit 25 bombs last year and was great in the playoffs. But he’s still high strikeout, low walk and can be pitched to. Yeah, 25 homers and 23 doubles, but only 61 RBIs. Does a lot of his damage with the bases empty. I just think he’s never really fulfilled his potential. It’s almost like he’s always been stuck in between being a power guy and a pure hitter. He’ll probably get a few more days off this year, could be headed to a platoon role against righties, which is probably what he’s best suited for.”
Most Underrated: Luis Valbuena, IF
“Altuve, obviously, has gotten some publicity, so he’s not really underrated much anymore. Valbuena provides that lefthanded power threat, mixes well into that lineup. Kind of a guy that once you finagle your way through Altuve, Springer, Correa, [Evan] Gattis, all of a sudden you got Valbuena, and he damages you. He’s the kind of guy you sleep on and then he parks one. He doesn’t have the profile or salary of Rasmus, but I prefer him.”
1:05 | MLB
2016 MLB season preview: Chicago Cubs
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Ben Reiter
Friday March 25th, 2016
This week, SI.com is previewing all 30 MLB teams for the 2016 season, counting down to the No. 1 team in the league. At No. 1: the Chicago Cubs.
2015 Record and Finish:
97–65 (.599), third place in National League Central, second place in NL wild card (third overall); lost to Mets in NL Championship Series
2016 Projected Record and Finish:
99–63 (.611), first place in NL Central
The Case For
“They’ve sent in their ring sizes already,” says a scout for a rival team. “I don’t even know why we’re playing the season!” He’s being sarcastic, but not entirely. Every statistical projection system— and Las Vegas, too —agrees: The Cubs, having been assiduously engineered to break a championship-free streak that stretches back to 1908, are the preseason favorite to win it all.
Last year, when the club exceeded expectations by reaching the NLCS only to be swept away by the Mets, Chicago ranked just sixth in the NL in runs scored at 4.3 per game. That deserves some parsing, though. After the All-Star break—when Rookie of the Year Kris Bryant and fellow first-year slugger Kyle Schwarber had settled in—the Cubs ranked second behind the Mets at 4.7 runs per game. That upward trend should only continue. An even more comfortable Bryant and Schwarber will be joined by star free-agent signings Jason Heyward (eight years, $184 million) and Ben Zobrist (four years, $56 million), each of whom declined more money from other suitors to play for manager Joe Maddon on the North Side. First baseman Anthony Rizzo, who led the club with 30 homers and 101 RBIs last year, is firmly entering his prime at 26; a scout says he wouldn’t be surprised if Rizzo hit .300 with 40 homers, a combination only Nelson Cruz and Bryce Harper reached in 2015. The lineup is so stacked that no one even talks about shortstop Addison Russell, the game’s No. 3 prospect just last spring, much any more.
Baseball Prospectus’ PECOTA system projects the Cubs to score not just the most runs (749) in the NL, but more than any AL team save the Blue Jays—and that’s while having pitchers bat once every nine times. One of those pitchers is Jake Arrieta, who won the NL Cy Young award after going 22–7 with a 1.77 ERA. While it might be too early for Jostens or Balfour to put their championship jewelry into production, it might not be a bad idea to start designing diamond-encrusted “C’s.”
The Case Against
At least one prominent and loud voice isn’t buying into the hype. “I’ll start taking ads telling them all what a rotten job they’re doing with the Chicago Cubs,” Donald Trump said in late March of the Ricketts family, the owners of the Cubs and, apparently, among the presidential aspirant’s many political antagonists. The Ricketts have done such an awful job that their club had the third most wins in the majors last year—though that was only good for third place in the NL Central, behind the Cardinals and Pirates. They’ve done such an awful job that Vegas pegs them as the 2:1 favorite to win a title. If the Ricketts have any desire to run counterattack ads against The Donald, they shouldn’t be particularly hard to produce.
A postseason miss would be deeply shocking for the Cubs, even considering their unusually stacked division, but another year without a ring wouldn’t be. Those heady 2:1 odds translate to about a 33% probability of success. Chicago is built to dominate the regular season, but doing similarly in baseball’s winding, small-sample-size-driven playoff structure might prove another story. Since the playoffs expanded to three rounds in 1995, the club with the best regular-season record has won the World Series just three times, most recently the 103-win Yankees in 2009.
The Cubs’ undoing in October could be the same as last year’s, when the Mets outscored them 21–8 in the NLCS: a pitching disadvantage. They targeted David Price, the top free agent on the market, but club president Theo Epstein has said that they fell some $50 million short of the Red Sox’ winning $217 million offer. They had to settle for John Lackey, on a two-year, $32 million deal—a proven winner, but one who is unlikely to repeat his career best 2.77 ERA at the age of 37. Other than Lackey, the staff is much the same as last year: a strong top two of Arrieta and Jon Lester; an average bottom two, in Jason Hammel and Kyle Hendricks; and a bullpen, in front of closer Hector Rondon, largely composed of intermittently successful swingman types, like Trevor Cahill and Travis Wood and, now, Adam Warren.
Loud bats can be muffled in the postseason. The Cubs’ bats scream, but their pitching staff, as presently constituted, might be at best the NL’s fourth strongest, behind those of the Mets, the Nationals and perhaps the Giants. In advance of election day, Nov. 8, it isn’t impossible to imagine the GOP frontrunner taking some time out of his campaign schedule to rip off a gloating tweet: "THE PATHETIC RICKETTS FAMILY HAS SCHLONGED THE LOSER CUBS FOR THE 108TH STRAIGHT YEAR. SAD."
Charles Rex Arbogast/AP
X-Factor: Theo Epstein
All of a sudden, Epstein is in the final season of the five-year, $18.5 million deal he signed back in October of 2011. Given how well his tenure as team president has gone, it would be a surprise if he were not re-upped by ownership at a significantly increased salary. First, though, he’ll have some in-season tinkering to do. There’s little chance that the Cubs’ formidable Opening Day roster will prove identical to the one it fields in October.
Pitching is likely to be a deadline focus. While the Cubs’ farm system has matured, it retains enough pieces to get sellers interested, like 19-year-old top prospect Gleybar Torres, a shortstop; catcher Wilson Contreras; and outfielder Albert Almora. Combine a couple of those with one of the graduated former phenoms who now appear destined for the bench in Javier Baez or Jorge Soler, and Chicago might have its pick of the market. While the top free agent to-be, Stephen Strasburg, will likely be busy trying to get the Nationals into the playoffs, the Padres’ Andrew Cashner and the Rockies’ Jorge De La Rosa should be free. Of particular interest, albeit requiring even more of a return, should be one of the Indians’ hard-throwing duo of Carlos Carrasco and Danny Salazar, each of whom can be controlled through 2020. That means either could become a centerpiece of not just this year’s drive to break the curse but also of four more after it.
Number To Know: 119
That’s Heyward’s cumulative Defensive Runs Saved since his rookie year in 2010, the most of any fielder at any position over that six-year period. Is Ultimate Zone Rating your preferred advanced defensive metric? He’s first in that one, too, by an even greater margin. Heyward would have almost certainly been an above-average asset in centerfield, where for most of the off-season it looked as if he’d be playing. Dexter Fowler isn’t great in center—scouts say that he has a propensity for making the spectacular play but sometimes muffs the routine ones. But his surprise late February re-signing wasn’t just important as far as the superlative on-base skills he will provide the lineup, but also in that it will allow Heyward to return to rightfield, a position at which his impact is second to none.
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April 19, 1987 saw the debut of The Simpsons as series of shorts on what prime time Fox series? | 12 “Simpsons” Shorts From “The Tracey Ullman Show” |
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You probably already know that the long-running TV show “The Simpsons” started as a series of shorts on “The Tracy Ullman Show” — but did you know that a total of 48 shorts were created? From April of 1987 until May of 1989, Tracy Ullman’s variety show featured America’s favorite animated family, with the final short airing just seven months before “The Simpsons” made its prime-time debut on Fox.
Related:
Top 10 Most Annoying Cartoon Characters of All Time
Sadly, not many of the shorts have been officially released. Though collectors and die-hard fans of the show would be glad to get their hands on the complete series, only several have leaked out onto DVD and YouTube. Here are 12 shorts that give you a glimpse of the Simpson family’s humble beginnings.
| The Tracey Ullman Show |
The most popular breed in the United States, what horse was bred to excel at sprinting short distances, of a quarter mile or less, and has been clocked at speeds up to 55 mph? | The Simpsons | Simpsons Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Dolby Digital 5.1 (2009–present)
Original Run
December 17, 1989 – present
The Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening and produced by the Fox Broadcasting Company . The main characters are a satire of a working-class family, consisting of Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa and Maggie. The series lampoons many aspects of American culture, society, politics and history.
The cartoon made its debut as 60-second animated bumpers for the The Tracey Ullman Show, with the first short airing on April 19, 1987. The shorts were then expanded into a full-length 30-minute television spin-off by 20th Century Fox, first airing on December 17, 1989. As of 2016, 27 seasons of the series have been produced, with the 28th season premiered on September 25, 2016.
The series currently holds the record for the longest-running prime-time sitcom in the US, running for 27 years since 1989, and becoming the longest-running program on FOX.
Contents
Main article: History of The Simpsons
The Simpsons were conceived in the lobby of James L. Brooks ' office by Matt Groening .He was asked to do a series of animated shorts, and decided to do his Life in Hell series; but since he realized that animating Life in Hell would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life's work, he chose another approach and formulated his version of a dysfunctional family. He named the characters after his own family, and substituted Bart for his own name; as it was an anagram of 'brat'.
The Original Simpsons: Left to Right, Maggie , Lisa , Marge , Homer and Bart .
The Simpsons first appeared to the world on April 19, 1987 on The Tracey Ullman Show . Groening submitted crudely drawn sketches of the family to the animators, assuming they would clean them up in production. However, the animators just re-traced over his drawings; that is why the Simpsons appear crudely drawn in the shorts. UK: 20th Century Fox. In 1989, a team of production companies adapted the Simpsons into a half-hour primetime series for FOX. FOX was initially nervous to air the Simpsons, as there hasn't been a cartoon in primetime since The Flintstones, and that they were unsure if they could keep the audience's attention for the duration of the episode. They proposed doing three seven-minute shorts and four specials until the audience adjusted, but the producers gambled for thirteen half-hour episodes for the series. The Simpsons was originally to premiere in the fall of 1989, with " Some Enchanted Evening ," but when the episode came back from animation in Korea, it had major, major problems with it. James L. Brooks was extremely dissatisfied with the product and called for many parts of the episode to be redone. The producers then agreed to just go ahead and air " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire ," on December 17, 1989 as a Christmas Special.
Production
Executive Producers
Through the entire show's history, Matt Groening and James L. Brooks have served as the show's executive producers. Sam Simon was also in this position, although not credited. When Simon left in 1993, he arranged a deal to be credited as executive producer as well as get profits even though he no longer works on the show.
Writers
The first team of writers for The Simpsons was assembled by Sam Simon. These were: John Swartzwelder , Jon Vitti , George Meyer , Jeff Martin , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky . Newer Simpsons writing teams usually have 16 writers and episode ideas are thought of and proposed in early December. The main writer writes the first draft and the group changes it, adding in jokes and removing parts they don't like. This can sometimes change a script entirely. Up until 2004, the head of these groups was George Meyer , who apparently wrote a lot of the best lines from episodes. But the idea of all this came from the magic hand of Matt Groening who invented the pictures
Voice Actors
Mr. Burns , Smithers , Ned Flanders , Rev. Lovejoy , Kent Brockman , Dr. Hibbert , Lenny , Principal Skinner , Otto , Rainier Wolfcastle , and many others.
Dan Castellaneta and Julie Kavner were already members of The Tracey Ullman Show . Rather than hire more actors for voices for the Simpsons animated shorts, the producers asked both Castellaneta and Kavner to provide the voices of characters Homer and Marge . Yeardley Smith originally wanted to play the role of Bart , but the producers found her voice too "girlish". Instead, she was given the role of Bart 's sister, Lisa Simpson . Bart was voiced by Nancy Cartwright , who originally auditioned for the role of Lisa but chose to be the voice of Bart instead after finding out that Lisa had a lack of personality at the time, while the character of Bart was "devious, underachieving, school-hating, irreverent, and clever".
Hank Azaria was a voice actor for the short-lived cartoon "Hollywood Dog" at the time. The casting director of the cartoon was also casting director of The Simpsons, and Hank signed up for the role of Moe Szyslak . Later, he voiced several other characters, including Chief Wiggum and Apu . Harry Shearer was reluctant to be a voice actor on the show but was convinced by James L. Brooks to join the cast "after three phone calls."
The Main Characters
Homer Simpson is the main protagonist of The Simpsons franchise and film. He is a loving, lazy, fun-spirited and thrill seeking man with three mischivieous children that go on crazy adventures with his family and works at a power plant.
Marge Simpson is the deuteroagonist of The Simpsons franchise and film. She is a motherly, hard working woman that is the wife of Homer and the mother of Bart, Lisa and Maggie.
Bart Simpson , Lisa Simpson , and Maggie Simpson are the tritagonists of The Simpsons franchise and film. Bart is a mischievous boy that loves pulling pranks on his close friends and loved ones and has a hidden alter ego called El Barto. Lisa is the smartest and sweetest child of her other two siblings. Maggie is the youngest sibling and a very adorable, sweet but sometimes violent baby.
Abraham Simpson II is the tetartaginist of The Simpsons franchise and film. He is the father of Homer and his other siblings, the father-in-law of Marge Simpson, and the grandfather of Bart, Lisa, and Maggie Simpson.
Charles Montgomery Burns and Waylon Smithers, Jr. are the main antagonists and at times anti-heroes of The Simpsons franchise. Mr. Burns is the rich, snobbish employer/rival of Homer Simpson and Waylon Smithers is his second-in-command.
The Terwilliger family are the secondary antagonists of The Simpsons series and the archenemies of The Simpson family and they are a family of homicidal maniacs who want to kill the son of the family, Bart Simpson .
Kodos and Kang are the tertiary antagonists of The Simpsons series who are aliens that want to take over the world and destroy it and enslave the human race.
Nelson Muntz is the quinary antagonist of The Simpsons series and film. He is the bully and archrival of Bart Simpson who is known for bullying Bart and his laugh.
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Characters
All characters from The Simpsons
The Simpsons are a typical family who live in a fictional Middle American town of Springfield. [1] Homer, the father, works as a safety inspector at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , homer simpson is pronouned for being lazy and untidy as he is not a perfect role model to bart. position at odds with his careless, buffoonish personality. He is married to Marge Simpson, a stereotypical American housewife and mother. They have three children: Bart, a ten-year-old troublemaker; Lisa, a precocious eight-year-old activist; and Maggie , a baby who rarely speaks, but communicates by sucking on a pacifier. The show continuously resets time so the characters have the same amount of age. The family owns a dog, Santa's Little Helper , and a cat, Snowball V , renamed Snowball II in " I, (Annoyed Grunt)-Bot ". Both pets have had starring roles in several episodes. Despite the passing of yearly milestones such as holidays or birthdays, the Simpsons do not physically age and still appear just as they did at the end of the 1980s. Although the family is dysfunctional, many episodes examine their relationships and bonds with each other and they are often shown to care about one another. [2] The show includes an array of quirky characters: co-workers, teachers, family friends, extended relatives, townspeople and local celebrities. The creators originally intended many of these characters as one-time jokesters or for fulfilling needed functions in the town. A number of them have gained expanded roles and subsequently starred in their own episodes. According to Matt Groening, the show adopted the concept of a large supporting cast from the comedy show "Second City Television". [3]
Homer
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Setting
The show mainly takes place in the fictional town of Springfield , which was partially based on Matt Groening 's hometown of Portland, Oregon , [4] but according to the producers, it was supposed to represent any town in the United States of America. The state that Springfield is in located is never mentioned in the series, a fact that has become an joke throughout the series. David Silverman once jokingly claimed that the state was "North Takoma". This may have been so during one scene when the Simpsons' car is visible from the rear, and that state's registration tag reads "NT". [5]
Hallmarks
See also Couch gag , Chalkboard gag , Billboard gag
The opening sequence is one of the most memorable hallmarks and running jokes of the series. The opening sequence differs from episode to episode. Prior to the show's transition to HD format, three elements of the opening sequence constantly change: a Chalkboard gag, Lisa's saxophone solo, and a Couch gag. The Chalkboard gag involves Bart writing a sentence repeatedly on a chalkboard at Springfield Elementary , and the Couch gag involves the Simpsons family sitting on the couch in the living room, usually accompanied with a visual joke, i.e. the couch turning into a giant octopus and eating the entire family. Lisa's saxophone solo in the opening sequence is different each episode.
After the show's transition to HD format, the opening sequence was changed heavily to fit the new format, including the addition of many recurring characters into the sequence. An additional gag was added: a Billboard, which changes each episode.
Seasons
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Following the sinking of the USS Maine, April 23, 1898 saw the beginning of what conflict when war was declared on the United States following a 2 day naval blockade of Cuba? | Spanish-American War USS Maine Explosion
USS Maine Explosion - Conflict:
The explosion of the USS Maine contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in April 1898.
USS Maine Explosion - Date:
USS Maine exploded and sank on February 15, 1898.
USS Maine Explosion - Background:
Since the late 1860s, efforts had been underway in Cuba to end Spanish colonial rule. In 1868, the Cubans began a ten-year rebellion against their Spanish overlords. Though it was crushed in 1878, the war had generated widespread support for the Cuban cause in the United States. Seventeen years later, in 1895, the Cubans again rose up in revolution. To combat this, the Spanish government dispatched General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau crush the rebels. Arriving in Cuba, Weyler began a brutal campaign against the Cuban people which involved the use of concentration camps in rebellious provinces.
This approach led to the death of over 100,000 Cubans and Weyler was promptly nicknamed "the Butcher" by the American press.
Stories of atrocities in Cuban were played up by the "yellow press," and the public put increasing pressure on Presidents Grover Cleveland and William McKinley to intervene. Working through diplomatic channels, McKinley was able to defuse the situation and Weyler was recalled to Spain in late 1897. The following January, supporters of Weyler began a series of riots in Havana. Concerned for American citizens and business interests in the area, McKinley elected to send a warship to the city.
USS Maine Explosion - Arriving in Havana:
After discussing this course of action with the Spanish and receiving their blessing, McKinley passed his request to the US Navy. To fulfill the president's orders, the second-class battleship USS Maine was detached from the North Atlantic Squadron at Key West on January 24, 1898. Commissioned in 1895, Maine possessed four 10" guns and was capable of steaming at 17 knots. With a crew of 354, Maine had spent the entirety of its brief career operating along the eastern seaboard. Commanded by Captain Charles Sigsbee, Maine entered Havana harbor on January 25, 1898.
Anchoring in the center of the harbor, Maine was afforded the usual courtesies by the Spanish authorities. Though the arrival of Maine had a calming effect on the situation in the city, the Spanish remained wary of American intentions. Wishing to prevent a possible incident involving his men, Sigsbee restricted them to the ship and no liberty was given. In the days after Maine's arrival, Sigsbee met regularly with the US Consul, Fitzhugh Lee. Discussing the state of affairs on the island, they both recommended that another ship be sent when it was time for Maine to depart.
USS Maine Explosion - Loss of Maine:
At 9:40 on the evening of February 15, the harbor was lit by a massive explosion that ripped through the forward section of Maine as five tons of powder for the ship's guns detonated. Destroying the forward third of the ship, Maine sank into the harbor. Immediately, assistance came from the American steamer City of Washington and the Spanish cruiser Alfonso XII, with boats circling the burning remains of the battleship to collect the survivors. All told, 252 were killed in the blast, with another eight dying ashore in the days that followed.
USS Maine Explosion - Investigation:
Throughout the ordeal, the Spanish showed great compassion for the injured and respect for the dead American sailors. Their behavior led Sigsbee to inform the Navy Department that "public opinion should be suspended until further report," as he felt that the Spanish were not involved in the sinking of his ship. To investigate the loss of Maine, the Navy swiftly formed a board of inquiry. Due to the state of the wreck and a lack of expertise, their investigation was not as thorough as subsequent efforts. On March 28, the board announced that the ship had been sunk by a naval mine.
The board's finding unleashed a wave of public outrage across the United States and fueled calls for war. While not the cause of the Spanish-American War, shouts of Remember the Maine! served to accelerate the approaching diplomatic impasse over Cuba. On April 11, McKinley asked Congress for permission to intervene in Cuba and ten days later ordered a naval blockade of the island. This final step led to Spain declaring war on April 23, with the United States following suit on the 25th.
USS Maine Explosion - Aftermath:
In 1911, a second inquiry was made into the sinking of Maine following a request to remove the wreck from the harbor. Constructing a cofferdam around the ship's remains, the salvage effort permitted investigators to probe the wreck. Examining the bottom hull plates around the forward reserve magazine, investigators found that they were bent inward and back. Using this information they again concluded that a mine had been detonated under the ship. While accepted by the Navy, the board's findings were disputed by experts in the field, some of whom put forward a theory that the combustion of coal dust in a bunker adjacent to the magazine had sparked the explosion.
The case of USS Maine was reopened in 1976, by Admiral Hyman G. Rickover who believed that modern science might be able to provide an answer to the ship's loss. After consulting experts and reexamining the documents from the first two investigations, Rickover and his team concluded that the damage was inconsistent with that caused by a mine. Rickover stated that the most likely cause was a coal dust fire. In the years after Rickover's report, his findings have been disputed and to this day there has been no final answer as to what caused the explosion.
Selected Sources
| Spanish–American War |
“Listen, my children, and you shall hear of the midnight ride of”? | Remember The Maine - Prelude to the Spanish American War
"I was enclosing my letter in its envelope when the explosion came," Captain Sigsbee later testified. "It was a bursting, rending, and crashing roar of immense volume, largely metallic in character. It was followed by heavy, ominous metallic sounds. There was a trembling and lurching motion of the vessel, a list to port. The electric lights went out. Then there was intense blackness and smoke.
"The situation could not be mistaken. The Maine was blown up and sinking. For a moment the instinct of self-preservation took charge of me, but this was immediately dominated by the habit of command."
Marine Private William Anthony was on the weather deck when the Maine literally erupted. Captain Sigsbee's orderly, his first concern was for his captain. Though the darkness of the harbor was now awash with flame, the passageways inside the ship had been plunged into total darkness, save for flames here and there that flickered amid a heavy pall of smoke. With no concern for his own safety, Anthony search the passage ways until he found his Captain, moving towards the deck of the listing and rapidly sinking battleship. In the dim flicker of the flames, Anthony calmly saluted his captain and reported, "Sir, I have to inform you that the ship has blown up and is sinking." Both men then quickly proceeded to the weather deck, where Captain Sigsbee directed Lieutenant Commander Richard Wainwright to immediately post sentries around the ship. The first inclination was that the Maine was under attack.
Lieutenant Catlin later testified that he heard the sound like the "crack of a pistol and (then) the second (was) a roar that engulfed the ship's entire forward section." Indeed the entire forward section of the Maine had broken almost entirely in half.
On the weather deck the officers began to organize the survivors. All but two officers survived the explosion, their quarters being located aft on the battleship. The enlisted seamen and Marines were quartered below deck, most of them in the forward section where the explosion had occurred and just two decks above the powder magazines. Lieutenant Hood had witnessed the explosion from his vantage point on the deck with Lieutenant Blandon. He later described the scene. "The whole starboard of the deck, with its sleeping berth, burst out and flew into space, as a crater of flame came through, carrying with it missiles and objects of all kinds, steel, wood, and human. (After the explosion) all was still except for the cries of the wounded, the groans of the dying, and the crackling of flame in the wreckage."
Lieutenant Blandon foggily remembered an explosion from the port side, followed by "a perfect rain of missiles of all descriptions, from huge pieces of cement to blocks of wood, steel railings, fragments of gratings, and all the debris that would be detachable in an explosion." A block of cement struck Blandon in the head, but he recovered quickly and joined Lieutenant Hood on the poop deck, now ankle-deep in water, to begin lowering boats.
There were no Marine guards for Lieutenant Commander Wainwright to post about the ship per his Captain's orders. Nearly three-fourths of the Marines were killed in the explosion. The U.S.S. Maine was beyond hope, almost severed at the bow, and sinking badly. Reluctantly, Captain Sigsbee ordered the few survivors on the decks to abandon ship. As the waters of the harbor continued to reach out to claim the body of the American battleship, Sigsbee directed its evacuation. When no one else was left alive, the Captain was the last to depart.
By the time gigs from the nearby City of Washington and Alfonso XII could be dispatched to the scene of the disaster, little of the Maine remained above water. Through the darkness of the night the small boats searched the debris-covered waters of the harbor for survivors, Captain Sigsbee standing in one of them calling into the blackness: "If there is anyone living on board, for God's sake say so!" His desperate cries met only silence.
As morning dawned across the harbor, only 103 members of the crew of the U.S.S. Maine had survived. Two of the ship's 26 officers went down with the ship, along with 222 sailors and 28 Marines. Of the 103 survivors, 59 were wounded, 8 of them so severely that they later died as a result of their wounds. Total losses for the once proud battleship reached 260 dead or missing, a casualty rate of 75%. Among the missing was Fifer Newton whose last, memorable rendition of "Taps" had been played not only for his comrades now at rest in the deep, but for himself. In a sense it had been his own haunting eulogy.
Across the waters of the harbor, little remained of the 319-foot battleship. Only a small pile of twisted metal and the protruding mast of the U.S.S. Maine, still proudly "displaying the Colors".
In the hours after the explosion aboard the Maine, the small gigs from the American passenger steamer and the Spanish warship Alphonso XII had given good account of themselves in braving the darkness, fires and secondary explosions of the sinking American battleship in search of survivors. Having witnessed this first-hand, Captain Sigsbee was reluctant to immediately blame the Spanish. In his first telegram to Washington he reported details of the event, then closed with the observation that "Public opinion should be suspended until further report."
There would indeed be further reports, both officially and unofficially. Two days after the explosion the Navy created the "Sampson Board", an official inquiry into the cause of the disaster. On February 21 the Naval Court of Inquiry began their 4-week investigation in Havana. Simultaneously, the Spanish began their own inquiry into the matter.
It would not be an easy process. Captain Sigsbee remembered "a bursting, rending, and crashing roar of immense volume... followed by heavy, ominous metallic sounds."
Lieutenant Blandon remembered a single explosion on the port side, followed by "a perfect rain of missiles of all descriptions." Lieutenant Hood, who had been next to Blandon to witness the explosion first hand remember the explosion on the starboard side.
Marine Lieutenant Catlin reported what he thought to be TWO explosions, the first sounding like the "crack of a pistol and the second a roar that engulfed the ship's entire forward section." Some survivors heard one explosion, others a deep rumble followed by one loud explosion, still others a series of explosions. Reaching any kind of reasonable determination as to what caused the destruction of the Maine would be a challenge not only to the official Board of Inquiry, but to historians for the following century.
Back in the United States there were few questions about what had caused the Maine to suddenly explode in the darkness of night, killing 260 American men. Two days after the indicent the headline in the New Your World read: "MAINE EXPLOSION CAUSED BY BOMB OR TORPEDO?"
The New York Journal was more specific: "THE DESTRUCTION OF THE WAR SHIP MAINE WAS THE WORK OF AN ENEMY." Artists created renditions showing how Spanish saboteurs had fastened an underwater mine to the hull of the Maine, then detonated it from shore. Randolph Hearst offered a $50,000 reward for "Conviction of the Criminals" and announced that "Naval Officers (were) Unanimous That the Ship Was Destroyed on Purpose".
On March 6th the Spanish government requested the recall of U.S. Cuban Consul Fitzhugh Lee. In the United States citizens gathered solemnly at Capitol Hill and outside the White House to mourn the loss of 260 lives. Tensions continued to mount while the Navy conducted its official inquiry. In a Broadway bar in New York City a patron lifted his glass and said, "Gentlemen, remember the Maine!" A reporter from the Journal happened to be in the bar and wrote about the incident. When it was published America had a new slogan..."Remember The Main". Spaniards were burned in effigy in cities and town across America and soon the slogan became a war cry:
"Remember the Maine, and To Hell with Spain!"
To be sure there were cooler heads, even as the tensions mounted. Amid the cries of the firebrands and the warhawks, U.S. Speaker of the House Thomas B. Reed said, "A war will make a large market for gravestones." Popular author Samuel Clemmens (Mark Twain) continued to speak out against any possible war, urging the United States not to become embroiled in the affairs of distant nations.
Ten days after the explosion, Under Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt cabled Commodore George Dewey with the U.S. Pacific fleet in Hong Kong. "Keep in full coal," the communiqu� stated. "In the event of declaration of war with Spain, your duty will be to see that the Spanish squadron does not leave the Asiatic coast and then offensive operations in Philippine Islands." Itching for a fight and convinced of the truth of his earlier remarks about the glory of war to the Naval War College, Roosevelt went so far as to refer to President McKinley as a "milquetoast".
McKinley, who had served in the Civil War and participated at the tragic battle at Antietam in the earliest days of that war, told one visitor to the White House: "I have been through one war; I have seen the dead piled up; and I do not want to see another."
But the makings of war could not be avoided. As a matter of preparedness, President McKinley requested a $50 million dollar war fund. On March 8th the U.S. Congress stunned Spanish observers when it unanimously approved the request. In San Francisco on the western coast, the battleship Oregon was dispatched for the Caribbean. On March 14 the Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera began steaming for the Cape Verde Islands. Throughout the period the yellow journalism of competing newspapers inflamed the public with more and more stories. (During the period the New York Journal printed an unprecedented 8 pages each day related to the U.S.S. Maine disaster.)
Late in March the Spanish concluded its official inquiry and delivered the findings to the U.S. government on March 25. On the same day the Spanish government informed Washington that their investigators had determined the Maine had been destroyed by "internal combustion", the President announced the results of his recently received Sampson Inquiry. When he announced to the American public that the Naval Board of Inquiry had determined that the Maine was destroyed "by an external explosion (presumably a mine)", the war cries hit a feverish pitch.
Two days later President McKinley sent these findings to Spain. He also issued Spain his final terms:
Declare an armistice
End the reconcentration policy in Cuba initiated by General Weyler
Begin the process of granting Cuba independence
Meanwhile, Navy Secretary John Davis Long ordered the peacetime white hulls of American warships to be painted with a dull battle gray. A song titled "My Sweetheart Went Down With the Maine" became the tune-of-the-day. Marine Private William Anthony, who had braved the explosions and fire of the Maine to seek out his captain was brought home to a hero's welcome. Honored by both the Navy and Marines, he was promoted to sergeant and hailed as the first true hero of the war that was still looking for an excuse to happen.
The Spanish responded with some concessions, but stopped far short of granting Cuban Independence. From without, the President received pressure from the Ambassadors of England, Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Russia to avoid war with Spain. On April 6th the Pope indicated to the President that he would enter negotiations with Spain, requesting that the President delay any actions pending the outcome. The the cry from within for retaliation and U.S. support for the "freedom fighters" of Cuba continued to push the United States towards war. On April 4th the New York Journal dedicated an edition to the war brewing in Cuba and called upon the U.S. to intervene. The press-run was one million copies.
Finally, bowing to the rapidly deteriorating events in Cuba and the overwhelming cries for war at home, President McKinley asked Congress on April 11th to authorize American intervention to end the revolution in Cuba. Five days later the road to war was cleared in Congress when an amendment offered by Colorado Congressman Henry Teller was ratified. Designed to quiet the fears of those who opposed a war based upon an American imperialistic effort to annex Cuba, the Teller Amendment stated that the United States:
"Hereby disclaims any disposition of intention to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction, or control over said island (Cuba) except for pacification thereof, and asserts its determination, when that is accomplished, to leave the government and control of the island to its people."
On April 20th, while Congress still debated the request for war, President McKinley signed a Joint Resolution for war with Spain, an ultimatum that was promptly forwarded to Madrid with a call for Cuban independence. The Spanish Minister to the United States promptly demanded his passport and, with his Legation, left Washington for Canada.
The following day McKinley received his answer from Madrid...General Steward Woodford, the U.S. Minister to Spain was handed his passport and told to leave the country. The Spanish government considered McKinley's ultimatum a declaration of war. With diplomatic relations suspended, President McKinley ordered a blockade of Cuba while the Spanish forces in Santiago began mining Guantanamo Bay.
The U.S. Naval fleet departed Key West, Florida on April 22nd to carry out the President's order for a blockade of Cuba. The American Navy was well prepared for war, especially against the aging Spanish fleet. But the Spanish had at least 80,000 soldiers stationed in Cuba that would require a ground war. The U.S. Army, with only 25,706 enlisted men and 2,116 officers, was not prepared for war. On April 23 the U.S. President issued a call for 125,000 volunteers. After months of patriotic fervor generated by tales of Spanish sabotage and atrocity, the recruiting stations were immediately swamped with eager young American would-be soldiers.
On April 25, 1898 the war that had been looking for an excuse to happen, finally became official. The U.S. Congress passed a resolution declaring the United States to be at war with Spain. The Naval blockade of Cuba already underway, Congress made the declaration of war effective as of April 21, thereby legitimizing military actions undertaken in the previous four days.
Under Admiral William Sampson, who had earlier headed up the inquiry into the cause of the explosion on the U.S.S. Maine, the blockade of Cuba was already successfully underway. On the same day that war was declared, American ships bombarded the Spanish at Matanzaras, Cuba.
On the other side of the globe, the U.S. Pacific fleet under Admiral George Dewey was already prepared for war as per the February 25th communiqu� from Navy Undersecretary Roosevelt. Cuba in the Caribbean was not the only vestige remaining of the old Spanish Empire...Spain also held much of the series of 700 islands in the Pacific known as the Philippine Islands...which had been under the rule of Madrid since Ferdinand Magellan discovered the vast Archipelago in 1521.
While few Americans gave little notice or concern to events in the Pacific Islands, and even President McKinley confessed that he could not locate the Philippine Islands "within 2000 miles", American Naval planners had long considered the value of the natural port at Manila on Luzon, the largest of the islands. War with Spain was destined to become a global conflict, and while Admiral Sampson's ships conducted their blockade in the Caribbean, on April 27th Admiral Dewey sailed his ships out of Mirs Bay, China and set their course for Manila. The Spanish-American war would become a battlefield on two, widely separated fronts.
Back home Marine Sergeant William Anthony struggled with his new role as an American hero. On a horrible night in Havana harbor he had, as the public would loudly proclaim, been a brave and daring young leatherneck. Anthony didn't think about his heroics too often, instead his nights and his nightmares were filled with the agonizing cries of his fellow Marines and sailors as they perished in a moment of terror. Those nightmares, and the pressures of an adoring public that could never understand the true horror of war, pushed him to drink. He may have been the first "hero" of the Splendid Little War but he would not be the LAST.
By the time the brief war ended, William Anthony would be discharged from service and overcome by his past as well as his present. Despondent and unemployed, his body was found in Central Park on November 24, 1899. He committed suicide at the age of 46. For the politicians who fought their wars from comfortable desks, there might be something SPLENDID in war. For the young men who fight in the field, WAR is HELL.
| i don't know |
A precursor to today's United Nations, what inter-governmental organization was pushed by President Woodrow Wilson and disbanded itself on April 20, 1946? | A history of the humanitarian system: Western origins and foundations | Eleanor Davey - Academia.edu
A history of the humanitarian system: Western origins and foundations
Eleanor Davey
A history of the humanitarian system Western origins and foundations Eleanor Davey, with John Borton and Matthew Foley HPG Working Paper June 2013 About the authors Eleanor Davey is a Research Officer at the Humanitarian Policy Group (HPG). John Borton is a Senior Research Associate at HPG. Matthew Foley is Managing Editor at HPG. Acknowledgements This Working Paper is part of HPG’s research project ‘A Global History of Humanitarian Action’. As with the project in general, it is the product of a vibrant research team, and the authors are indebted to a number of colleagues for their input and assistance. For comments on various stages of the drafting process, the authors would like to thank Sara Pantuliano, Margie Buchanan-Smith, Eva Svoboda, Lilianne Fan and Samir Elhawary. Thanks also to Ilena Paltzer for her work in reviewing key literature, and to Katia Knight for production assistance. The authors would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Vincent Bernard (ICRC), Davide Rodogno (University of Geneva) and Peter Walker (Feinstein International Center, Tufts University). In addition, Edward Clay (Senior Research Associate, ODI), John Mitchell (ALNAP) and Roland Burke (University of Latrobe) provided feedback focusing on chapters 2, 3 and 4 in particular. Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute 203 Blackfriars Road London SE1 8NJ United Kingdom Tel. +44 (0) 20 7922 0300 Fax. +44 (0) 20 7922 0399 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.odi.org.uk/hpg ISBN: 978 1 909464 36 0 © Overseas Development Institute, 2013 Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce materials from this publication but, as copyright holders, ODI requests due acknowledgement and a copy of the publication. This and other HPG Reports are available from www.odi.org.uk/hpg. Contents Acronyms Chapter 1 An introduction to humanitarian history 1.1 History and humanitarian action 1.2 Working Paper methodology and outline Chapter 2 Humanitarian history: an overview 2.1 From the beginnings of the system until the First World War 2.2 The Wilsonian period and Second World War reforms 2.3 Engagement in the global South during the Cold War 2.4 From the fall of the Iron Curtain to the close of the century Chapter 3 Early institutions for emergency food aid 3.1 The CRB and ARA during and after the First World War 3.2 Colonial famine relief in Bengal and Indochina 3.3 UNRRA and NGOs during the Second World War Chapter 4 Evolving norms during decolonisation 4.1 Wars of liberation and international humanitarian law 4.2 UNHCR, global emergency and refugee frameworks 4.3 Decolonisation, development and human rights Chapter 5 The emergence of a humanitarian knowledge community 5.1 Knowledge and information sharing following the world wars 5.2 Institutional innovation in operations, research and funding 5.3 Knowledge formation: the example of the post-disaster shelter and housing sector Chapter 6 Conclusion Annex Selected chronology Bibliography iii 1 1 2 5 5 7 10 12 17 17 19 20 23 23 24 26 29 29 31 32 35 37 41 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper ii HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Acronyms AFRO ALNAP AMRO ARA ARAECF ARC ARTIC AU BELRA CAP CDC CENDEP CERF CIDA COBSRA CRB CRED CRS DA DANIDA DHA DRC DRC EC EMRO ERC EU EURO FAO FAR FIC FNLA FRELIMO FTS HAP HCR IASC African Regional Office Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action American Regional Office (see also PAHO) American Relief Administration American Relief Administration European Children’s Fund American Red Cross Appropriate Re-construction Training and Information Centre African Union (originally Organisation of African Unity) British Empire Leprosy Relief Association Consolidated Appeals Process Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centre for Development and Emergency Practice Central Emergency Revolving Fund Canadian International Development Agency Council of British Societies for Relief Abroad Commission for the Relief of Belgium Centre for the Research and Epidemiology of Disasters Catholic Relief Services Danish Friends of Armenians Danish International Development Agency Department of Humanitarian Affairs Democratic Republic of Congo Disaster Research Center European Community Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office Emergency Relief Coordinator European Union European Regional Office Food and Agriculture Organisation Rwandan Armed Forces Famine Inquiry Commission National Liberation Front of Angola Liberation Front of Mozambique Financial Tracking System Humanitarian Accountability Partnership High Commissioner for Refugees (of the League of Nations) Inter-Agency Standing Committee iii HPG Working Paper HPG working paper ICC ICCPR ICESCR ICISS ICRC IDI IDP IDS IFRC IHB IHL ILO IOM IRFED IRO IRU IVS IVS-GB JCRA LNHO LRCS LRW LTG LWF MEP MOPR MSF NGO NIEO NPA OAU OCHA OHCHR OLS PAHO PL POC POW RENAMO RPF iv International Criminal Court International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty International Committee of the Red Cross International Disaster Institute internally displaced person Institute of Development Studies International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent International Health Board (of the Rockefeller Foundation) International Humanitarian Law International Labour Organisation International Organisation for Migration Institut international de recherche et de formation en vue du développement harmonisé International Refugee Organisation International Relief Union International Voluntary Services International Voluntary Service Jewish Committee for Relief Abroad League of Nations Health Organisation League of Red Cross Societies Lutheran World Relief London Technical Group Lutheran World Federation Malaria Eradication Programme International Red Aid Médecins Sans Frontières non-governmental organisation New International Economic Order Norwegian People’s Aid Organisation of African Unity (now African Union) United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Operation Lifeline Sudan Pan American Health Organisation (see also AMRO) Public Law Protection of Civilians prisoner of war Mozambican National Resistance Rwandan Patriotic Front HPG working paper RSC SAIMR SCF SCHR SCI SEARO SIDA SPLM/A UCMA UN UNAMIR UNDRO UNEPRO UNESCO UNHCR UNICEF A history of the humanitarian system Refugee Studies Centre South African Institute for Medical Research Save the Children Fund Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response Service Civil International South-East Asia Regional Office Swedish International Development Agency Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army Universities’ Mission to Central Africa United Nations (originally United Nations Organisation) United Nations Assistance Mission to Rwanda United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator United Nations East Pakistan Relief Organisation United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (now United Nations Children’s Fund) UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation UNIHP United Nations Intellectual History Project UNKRA United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force UNROD United Nations Relief Operations Dacca UNRRA United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East USAID United States Agency for International Development VCS Vietnam Christian Service WASH water supply, sanitation and hygiene WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organisation WIR Workers International Relief HPG Working Paper HPG working paper vi HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 1 An introduction to humanitarian history While the humanitarian gesture – the will to alleviate the suffering of others – is centuries old and genuinely global, the development of the international humanitarian system as we know it today can be located both geographically and temporally. Its origins are in the Western and especially European experience of war and natural disaster, yet it is now active across the world in a range of operations: responding to needs in situations of conflict or natural disasters, supporting displaced populations in acute and protracted crises, risk reduction and preparedness, early recovery, livelihoods support, conflict resolution and peace-building. Over time, the efforts of the most prominent international actors – states, nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), international agencies, the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement – have coalesced into a loosely connected ‘system’, with links on the level of finances, operations, personnel and values (ALNAP, 2012: 15).1 They work in collaboration, complementarity or competition with other providers of humanitarian assistance, such as affected communities themselves, diaspora groups, religious organisations, national actors, militaries and the private sector. its identity and better prepared for engagement with the world in which it operates. The benefits of a greater historical perspective within the international humanitarian system can be understood in three mutually reinforcing ways. First, a fuller awareness of the challenges that humanitarian action has faced in the past – the mistakes made, as well as the successes – will aid reflection upon the challenges facing practitioners today, and help in the development of more appropriate practical responses. This is the element that bears the closest relationship to ‘lessons learned’ evaluations, though at a greater remove and on a more systemic level. Second, greater attention to the past will generate a more informed critical perspective on processes of operational and organisational change and the evolution of new norms. By shedding light on the factors that have encouraged or inhibited changes in practice and in the normative frameworks that make practice possible, historical analysis can inform reflection upon the changes that may take place now and in the future. Third, a stronger engagement with history will help those that make up the system to more accurately perceive its origins and identity in a broader global perspective.2 In being more aware of its own past and recognising the specificity of that experience, the international sector will have a sounder basis from which to engage with those who were shaped by a different set of historical experiences (Davey, 2012a). The idea of using history to shed light upon the present has already found support within the humanitarian community. It is evident in a recent claim by Valerie Amos, United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC), who stated that ‘to shape our future, we must understand our past’ (OCHA, 2012: iii). Or, as Peter Walker and Daniel Maxwell (2009: 13) put it: ‘understanding the history of humanitarian action helps understand why it is the way it is today, and helps identify how it can, and maybe should, change in the future’. It should be clear that this is not history as prediction, but as preparation. The study of the past is not an answer to the difficulties of reflecting and operating today, but it is a resource that should not be neglected when forming analyses and directing responses. Towards this end, others have called for practitioners to ‘become as familiar as possible with the mistakes made and the lessons learned from past disasterresponse efforts, both domestic and international’ (Waldman and Noji, 2008: 461). 2 This study is part of a wider project entitled ‘A Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’, which includes a series of regional studies designed to offset the tendency to focus on Western experiences. See http://www.odi. org.uk/hpg. 1.1 History and humanitarian action In the first two decades of the twenty-first century, the international humanitarian architecture has been confronted by challenges to both its composition and its presumed universality. Civil wars in Sri Lanka and Syria have highlighted the lack of consistent political solutions to situations of extreme violence and restricted humanitarian access, while highly destructive natural disasters such as the earthquake in Haiti in 2010 have raised questions about the effectiveness of international assistance. Long-term instability and conflict persist in Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan and Afghanistan despite national and international efforts to bring peace and stability to these troubled states. In these and other contexts, the humanitarian system has been confronted with actors with little interest in its work. The criminalisation of non-state actors designated by certain governments as terrorist groups has erected additional barriers between affected populations and international humanitarian actors. At such a juncture, a renewed regard for the history of the humanitarian system offers the prospect of a more balanced reflection upon its future. At the core of HPG’s project on ‘A Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’ is the belief that a better understanding of the past will help ensure a humanitarian system that is more self-aware, clearer about 1 See also the definition of the ‘formal international humanitarian system’ given by Hugo Slim (2006: 19): ‘the mainly Western-funded humanitarian system which works closely within or in coordination with the international authority of the United Nations and Red Cross movements’. HPG Working Paper HPG working paper sectors featured in the Sphere Handbook – largely remains to be written. Crucially, more work needs to be done to integrate historical perspectives into discussions of policy and practice. Yet policy-related debates rarely extend their historical frameworks beyond a decade or two. As Michael Barnett and Thomas Weiss (2008: 29–30) emphasise, ‘many contemporary accounts convey the impression that humanitarianism began with the end of the Cold War, failing to demonstrate much historical memory and thus restricting any capacity for meaningful comparisons across periods’. A case in point is the study by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) cited above, in which Amos made her call for a greater attention to history, yet which began its historical analysis with the 1990s. Amongst practitioners, the emphasis on rapid action has meant that thinking about the past is often considered a luxury (Slim, 1994: 189). The high rate of turnover in personnel, while not unique to the humanitarian system, has also contributed to the tendency to overlook past experiences. Changes in knowledge transfer techniques, improvements in professionalisation and training and the development of beneficiary-led accountability mechanisms may have offset some of the worst effects of this rapid churn. However, the lack of historical, institutional and operational memory is a persistent problem. In recognition of this fact, some humanitarian actors have begun to encourage historical research. The UN launched its Intellectual History Project (UNIHP) in 1999, producing analytical works and an oral history library. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) have instigated research projects to encourage the analysis of past policy and its evolution, and have gone some way to opening their archives to researchers. The Rift Valley Institute has promoted an increased historical consciousness through its Sudan Open Archive, which brings together aid and peace-process literature, along with scholarly studies on and from Sudan and South Sudan. Numerous NGOs have been the subject of official and unofficial ‘biographies’ (albeit these studies have often been constrained by a lack of independence or treat their subject in isolation, focusing on internal documentation or organisational issues).3 To this work can be added a growing body of academic literature on humanitarian action. In the 1980s, pioneering publications traced the evolution of international humanitarian frameworks (Kent, 1987; Macalister-Smith, 1985; Rufin, 1986). More recently, work on issues such as conflict response, natural disasters, refugees and displacement and humanitarian intervention has greatly added to our understanding of significant actors and moments.4 Full-length, wide-reaching and rigorous histories, nonetheless, remain scarce.5 Many of the large-scale works focus on political questions and the practical or operational history of humanitarian action – a history, so to speak, of the 3 See for example Black, 1992 and 1996; Moorehead, 1998; Shaw, 2009 and 2011; Vallaeys, 2004. 4 See for example Collingham, 2011; Shephard, 2010; Caron and Leben, 2001; Mauch and Pfister, 2009; Gatrell, 2005 and 2013; Skran and Daughtry, 2007; Simms and Trim, 2011; Wheeler, 2000. 5 Two notable recent additions to scholarship are Michael Barnett’s Empire of Humanity: A History of Humanitarianism (2011) and Philippe Ryfman’s Une histoire de l’humanitaire (2008). 1.2 Working Paper methodology and outline This Working Paper provides an introduction to the history of the international humanitarian system, in large part a Western history and in particular a European and North American one. This is not meant to suggest that the history of humanitarian action is exclusively Western – far from it – but it is intended to provide a basis for reflection on the origins and nature of the formal international system as one part of a broader humanitarian landscape. This Working Paper provides a foundation from which HPG’s ‘Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’ project as a whole will build an account of the history of humanitarian action that is more inclusive of the evolution of humanitarian action in other areas and regions. The Working Paper therefore focuses on the Western history in order to facilitate the construction of a more inclusive narrative that can be truly global. The definition of the term ‘humanitarian’ adopted for the purposes of this account is a broad one. As analysed in a related HPG Working Paper, although the term dates from the nineteenth century, ‘a historical investigation of the term “humanitarian” is made problematic by the fact that it was only in the last decade of the twentieth century that it came into wide and frequent circulation’ (Davies, 2012: 1). In effect, the understanding of ‘humanitarian’ that became dominant in the 1990s has sought to define ‘humanitarianism’ as ‘the impartial, independent, and neutral provision of relief to those in immediate danger of harm’ (Barnett, 2005: 724; 733). In contrast, this Working Paper eschews restrictive definitions, preferring an approach that allows for the great variety of forms that the humanitarian gesture has taken. The account given here can only be selective and limited. Its aim is to introduce, to a non-specialist audience, some of the academic research that has been produced on the history of the international system and indicate key issues raised by this work. As one facet of a larger, global history of humanitarian action, it is hoped that this paper will encourage greater historical perspective and self-awareness in policy and practice-oriented debates, as well as identifying further avenues for future investigation. A chronology of significant dates is provided as an Annex, and the bibliography has been divided into categories in order to serve as a guide for further reading. A note on the structure: this first chapter has outlined the aims of the ‘Global History’ project and the Working Paper itself, placing them within a brief review of existing studies on humanitarian history. The conclusion returns to the question of why history is important and what kind of history might HPG working paper best serve the humanitarian sector. Chapter 2 provides a broad narrative of humanitarian action in the twentieth century and its foundations. It does not aim to be fully comprehensive, or to advance an entirely original interpretation of this narrative, but rather provide an accessible introduction to major humanitarian actors, events and developments over time. It is followed by three chapters that focus on key issues or moments in the emergence of the international humanitarian system. Their topics have been selected for the light they can shed on common assumptions about the humanitarian system, crucial junctures or the way the system has constructed its own self-image. Chapter 3 examines food aid practices in the first half of the twentieth century, including famine relief in colonial territories. This topic has been chosen as a counterbalance to analyses that focus on the creation and expansion of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and above all the World Food Programme (WFP) in the period after the Second World War. For Edward Clay (2003: 707), expert on food aid, WFP is ‘unquestionably a success story within the UN system’. However, the fact that WFP, like the post-war FAO, has been so dominated by donor interests in the form of market protection and surplus disposal has obscured the links made during the first half of the century between food relief and the idea of an international food distribution system. The ‘gradual shift in the stated objectives of food aid’, from rehabilitation and mutual defence in postwar Europe, to development, to relief, has been the dominant trajectory of the second half of the twentieth century (ibid.: 699). Chapter 3 therefore indicates some examples of pre-1950 emergency food relief and its relationship with other forms of internationalism in the period. A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 4 explores the impact of decolonisation and wars of liberation upon humanitarian norms during the Cold War. It shows the humanitarian system facing an earlier critical juncture as international forums adjusted to the presence of the approximately 70 countries that gained independence between 1945 and 1975. Key elements of the normative framework already in place were ‘rejected by the developing countries, which had not taken part in the 1949 diplomatic conference and resented being bound by rules in whose drafting they had had no say’ (Bugnion, 2000: 44). The chapter shows how these dynamics affected two key areas of international norms, international humanitarian law (IHL) and refugee law, and the key actors most associated with them, the ICRC and UNHCR respectively. It also draws attention to the historical context for the development agenda, highlighting its links with colonialism as well as post-colonial politics. It therefore explores a crucial period in the geographical expansion and normative transformation of the international aid system. Chapter 5 documents moves towards the articulation of a knowledge community related to humanitarian action, and the ways in which the system generates and shares knowledge. While it indicates the existence of important knowledge-sharing practices in the 1920s and 1950s, it argues that an intensification of these processes occured following the traumatic experience of the East Pakistan Crisis (1971). To illustrate, it takes the case of the post-disaster shelter and housing sector, which despite the historical importance of seismology and other related studies has not to date received the same level of historical attention as other areas of humanitarian practice such as public health. HPG Working Paper HPG working paper HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 2 Humanitarian history: an overview Various ways of dividing the history of humanitarian action into chronological periods have been proposed. Barnett has suggested three ‘ages of humanitarianism’, reflecting his emphasis on the ideological incarnations that the humanitarian sentiment has taken over time. Barnett identifies ‘an imperial humanitarianism, from the early nineteenth century through World War II; a neo-humanitarianism from World War II through the end of the Cold War; and a liberal humanitarianism, from the end of the Cold War to the present’ (Barnett, 2011: 29). In a similar vein, Walker and Maxwell (2009) view the world wars as marking distinct changes in the story of the humanitarian sector; they characterise the period of the Cold War as one of ‘mercy and manipulation’ and the 1990s as the period of the ‘globalization of humanitarianism’. Focusing on disaster relief, Randolph Kent (1987: 36) sees the Second World War as a turning point, arguing that ‘it was only in the midst of World War II that governments began to fully appreciate the need for greater international intervention in the plight of disaster-stricken people’. This mirrors the chronology proposed by the influential historian Eric Hobsbawm (1994), who divided up the ‘short twentieth century’ into two major eras, 1914–45 and 1946–89. French accounts of humanitarianism, in contrast, have often emphasised the importance of the Cold War period and specifically the Biafra/ Nigeria Civil War (1967–70) in promoting emergency relief (Ryfman, 2008: 19; Aeberhard, 1994; Davey, 2012). This Working Paper suggests a slightly different characterisation of modern humanitarian history. Four main periods have been identified: from the mid-nineteenth century until the end of the First World War in 1918, when nineteenth-century conceptions drove humanitarian action; the ‘Wilsonian’ period of the interwar years and the Second World War, when international government was born and then reasserted; the Cold War period, when humanitarian actors turned more concertedly towards the non-Western world and the development paradigm emerged; and the post-Cold War period, when geopolitical changes again reshaped the terrain within which humanitarians worked.6 cited forces – though it would be inaccurate to think of them as entirely distinct categories – are religious belief and the articulation of laws of war. Christian ideas of charity have been particularly important in Europe and North America, and scholarship has emphasised the importance of charitable gestures in other religions, including notably the tradition of zakat in Islam, one of several ways in which Islamic duty involves assisting others (Ghandour, 2002; Benthall and Bellion-Jourdan, 2003; Krafess, 2005). Laws of war or limits on the acceptable conduct of war were adopted in ancient Greece and Rome; articulated in The Art of War ascribed to Sun Tzu in Warring States China; promoted by Saladin in the Middle East in the 1100s; taught to Swedish soldiers by Gustavus Adolphus in the 1600s; and recognised in the tenets of Hinduism, Islam and Judaism (Sinha, 2005; Cockayne, 2002; Solomon, 2005). These precedents notwithstanding, a history of the modern humanitarian system can, for most intents and purposes, identify its conceptual, operational and institutional roots in the nineteenth century. A series of factors, especially in midcentury, is commonly understood to have contributed to the flourishing of humanitarian initiatives at this time, of which the creation of the ICRC in 1863 remains the most powerful example. The technologies of the industrialising nations increased the human costs of conflict, and improvements in transport and communications technology made the world a smaller place; the founders of the ICRC, for instance, were highly conscious that ‘the very instantaneousness of communications’ had helped foster humanitarian efforts. In the words of one of their early publications: ‘Those who remain at their hearths follow, step by step, so to speak, those who are fighting against the enemy; day by day they receive intelligence of them, and when blood has been flowing, they learn the news almost before it has been stanched, or has time to become cold’ (Moynier and Appia, 1870: 51). With information about war travelling more quickly, governments had greater incentive to minimise its impact upon soldiers so as to contain discontent at home. As David Forsythe (2005: 16) notes, ‘armed conflict was becoming less and less a chivalrous jousting contest for the few, and more and more a mass slaughter. Dunant was not the only one who noticed’. Across the nineteenth century, military medicine saw a series of innovations such as the practice of triage, instituted by Baron Dominique Jean Larrey during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–15), and the refinement of medical transportation and evacuation, including notably during the American Civil War (1861–65) (Haller, 1992). During the Crimean War (1854–65), Florence Nightingale and her nursing team drastically reduced 2.1 From the beginnings of the system until the First World War In a broad cultural, political, philosophical and practical sense, ‘humanitarian’ action can be traced through hundreds of years of history, across the globe. Two of the most widely 6 As this Working Paper focuses its analysis on the twentieth century, it will not discuss the consequences of the attacks in the United States on 11 September 2001. This shift is more than adequately explored by studies of the humanitarian system that do not adopt a historical approach. HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Imperial expansion also provided a context for efforts to ameliorate the suffering of others, through public works, epidemiology and other ‘improvements’ in the colonies. Although territorial conquest began in the sixteenth century and imperialist ambition arguably peaked in the nineteenth, colonial structures of power continued until decolonisation in the second half of the twentieth century. Colonial practices represent a point of overlap between state, secular and religious versions of humanitarian action, with missionaries forming an integral part of the colonial project, even if not always perfectly aligned with colonial policies (Barnett and Weiss, 2008: 22). As a recent call for further study pointed out: the mortality rates of British soldiers; Nightingale was also one of the first to advocate for what would now be called ‘evidence-based action’. In a slightly different vein, the St John Ambulance association (established in 1887) was part of the flourishing of humanitarian ideas in the nineteenth century. These initiatives were local, or national, in the sense that they focused on the treatment of nationals from their own countries, even though they often involved working abroad. They were distinct from the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement by virtue of the Red Cross’ emphasis on standing, international legal agreements, which provided a framework for action on behalf of citizens of other countries as well as fellow nationals. In this, the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field (1864), in which the ICRC had a direct hand, had more in common with the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), which likewise aimed to minimise the impact of war by placing rules upon the conduct of hostilities. Other areas of international cooperation of relevance to the history of humanitarian action also took institutional form at this time.7 The first International Sanitary Conferences were held in the 1850s, and international medical conferences became a regular fixture; an international Health, Maritime and Quarantine Board was established in 1881 in Alexandria, later becoming the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO) of the World Health Organisation (WHO) (Roemer, 1994: 406–08). Natural disaster response was another generator of international as well as domestic efforts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the mid1800s, regulations for assistance practice began to be codified through laws for emergency communications, disease control and vessels in distress (IFRC, 2007: 25). In the United States, the end of the Civil War (1861–65) allowed the American Red Cross (ARC) to direct its attention towards a series of hazards including floods in 1889 and a hurricane in 1900. When a major earthquake struck San Francisco on 18 April 1906, more than 28,000 buildings were destroyed and some 36,000 people left homeless (Hutchinson, 2000: 10). The following year a large earthquake and subsequent fire in the Jamaican capital Kingston virtually flattened the city, leaving some 1,000 of its inhabitants dead and causing around £1.6 million-worth of damage. In 1908, another earthquake, this time in Italy, left more than 75,000 dead and approximately half a million people homeless. In all three cases, international assistance was a major part of the response; in the aftermath of the Kingston earthquake, for example, British, US and French naval ships provided immediate assistance and medical care, and relief and reconstruction funds flowed in from around the Empire (HMSO, 1907). In the wake of these disasters, the first International Congress of Lifesaving and First Aid in the Event of Accidents was held in Frankfurt in 1908. 7 The roots of modern European disaster medicine are in fact extremely deep, and have been traced back to the Middle Ages and the Black Death pandemic, which led to the establishment of public health boards in towns around Europe (Dara et al., 2005: S2). It is not a simple matter of resemblance – how contemporary humanitarian action appears to echo the patterns and ambitions of earlier imperial ‘projects’ – but that the two phenomena are ultimately bound together in a series of mutually constituting histories, in which the ideas and practices associated with imperial politics and administration have both been shaped by and have in themselves informed developing notions of humanitarianism (Skinner and Lester, 2013: 731). From the nineteenth century until decolonisation, the colonial field served as a laboratory for the techniques of later humanitarian action, including famine relief, the provision of cash assistance to the needy and colonial medicine and health services. Like emergency relief on European soil, the first beneficiaries of medicine in the colonies were Europeans. The first task of missionary doctors was to address the sharp attrition rates of mission members due to disease; between 1860 and 1917, 17.5% of members of the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa (UCMA) died and a further 18.8% had to be transferred home due to illness (Jennings, 2008: 42). Treatments were later extended to indigenous populations, and the proselytising aspect of missionary activity was often subsumed into medical work in the conviction that the benefits of medical science would by themselves promote conversion (see for example Bjørnlund, 2008). The provision of health services to indigenous populations was also a response to the need to protect colonial workforces from disease. The link between colonial health and colonial labour was exemplified by the South African Institute for Medical Research (SAIMR), which was founded in 1913 and funded by the Chamber of Mines to carry out research on diseases that affected mine labourers (Farley, 1988: 194). Colonial practices have an important yet complex relationship with contemporary humanitarian action. In India, the Famine Codes established by the colonial state defined famine and proposed ways of measuring it, as well as providing guidelines to govern prevention and response. These codes, developed in the early 1880s after a series of devastating crises, were influenced by Victorian ideas about the ‘deserving poor’ in that they sought to limit relief as much as possible to those who were deemed ‘really destitute’ and therefore morally deserving HPG working paper of assistance (Kalpagam, 2000: 433). There were however significant differences in attitudes towards beneficiaries in the colonies as compared to at home: ‘while the British were committed to the maintenance of the eligible poor in England, they refused to consider this as a possibility in normal times in India, preferring to rely upon the private charitable institutions and practices of the people over whom they ruled’ (Brennan, 1984: 93). Cash and food relief rates in the Famine Codes were set at roughly 75% of the prevailing labour rate, so as not to provide a disincentive to those who could find work. The emphasis was on emergency relief, which was to be planned and systematised, but would not constitute general assistance. The principles of the Indian Famine Codes were influential in other parts of the British colonial empire, including Sudan (see De Waal, 1989), and remained so for decades. Humanitarian action in the early twentieth century thus encompassed, as early histories of humanitarianism indicated, a broad range of activities (Carlton, 1906; Parmelee, 1915). Yet often – and increasingly so as nationalist tensions rose prior to 1914 – war, and the mitigation of its human impacts, was at the forefront. The Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement was a leading forum for international humanitarian cooperation, thanks to its work during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) and other late-nineteenth-century conflicts. Beyond Western Europe and North America, the Ottoman Red Crescent Society (founded in 1868) and the Japanese National Society (founded in 1877) provided relief in conflicts such as the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) (see Checkland, 1994). Despite this growing expertise, the vast extent of the humanitarian challenges posed by the First World War was almost entirely unexpected. The personal and material resources available to the ICRC at the beginning of the war bore no relation to the enormity of the work it would accomplish between 1914 and 1918 in assisting the huge numbers of prisoners of war (POWs) captured during the conflict – even at the peak of the war, the Committee employed only 41 delegates (Forsythe, 2005: 33). Although the ICRC was never directly appointed the task of caring for POWs (Moorehead, 1998: 187), it assisted communications between POWs and their families, campaigned for the repatriation of gravely wounded or ill soldiers, helped unite families and facilitated the work of the National Societies. Likewise, while it has never formally been appointed as the watchdog for observance of the Geneva Convention and laws of war, this rapidly became part of the ICRC’s wartime role. In providing prisoner assistance, the ICRC cooperated with the Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as Jewish and Muslim associations. Delegates from neutral countries carried out camp inspections, as did Church bodies such as the Mission Catholique Suisse. In addition, Red Cross Societies from the Nordic countries provided relief to POW camps in Siberia and supported the repatriation of prisoners from A history of the humanitarian system Russia after the war. Gerald Davis (1993: 32) argues that the Swedish and Danish National Societies in particular were able to exploit their ‘double neutrality’ to gain access to prisoners and other victims of war in Russian-held territories. The ICRC was also able to negotiate access to non-international armed conflicts in this period, including the Finnish Civil War (1918) and the Hungarian Revolution led by Béla Kun (1919) (see Freymond, 1969). 2.2 The Wilsonian period and Second World War reforms Humanitarian needs in the early interwar years often derived from the Great War – food security issues, disease (including the influenza epidemic of 1918–19), mass displacement and issues around statelessness caused notably by the withdrawal of citizenship from those who had left Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution. In the 1930s, the Depression brought widespread poverty but also prompted welfare regimes such as the US New Deal. Refugee crises remained prominent, as the repressive policies of the Nazi regime in Germany contributed to the flight of minority groups, above all Jews, into other European countries. Beyond Europe, greater realisation of the challenges facing colonial populations contributed to more systematic and scientific approaches to issues such as nutrition and public health. Eventually, however, the turmoil of the Second World War resonated throughout the colonial territories as well as in the metropolitan centres. In Europe alone – not counting the war in the Pacific, for instance – over 34m people died (Roberts, 1996: 581). While many accounts see the Second World War as the beginning of a new age for humanitarian action, it can also be regarded as being in continuity with the major reforms that took place in the aftermath of the First World War. The institutional developments of the interwar period foreshadowed those of the 1940s by heralding the emergence of a new, modern and international humanitarianism which – unlike previous efforts – was ‘envisioned by its participants and protagonists as a permanent, transnational, institutional, and secular regime for understanding and addressing the root causes of human suffering’ (Watenpaugh, 2010: 1319). The first swathe of humanitarian reforms came with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which regulated the end of the First World War and instigated the creation of international organisations to address humanitarian issues. The League of Nations, established through Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, was a central part of US President Woodrow Wilson’s vision of international reform and the first permanent international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. As well as the goal of preventing war through collective security (via disarmament, negotiation and arbitration), the League’s Covenant and related treaties covered issues including labour conditions, the treatment of indigenous inhabitants in colonial territories and the protection of minorities and displaced people in Europe (see Pedersen, 2007). HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 1920s, the Save the Children Union under Jebb’s leadership developed a Declaration of the Rights of the Child, which the League adopted in 1924. This was an example of the prominent role that women played in relief work in the interwar years (Mahood, 2009). It was also part of the pattern of institutional organisation, ‘a cultural reconfiguration of civil mentalities that had been organised around ideas of national sovereignty towards something closer to a global civil society of shared rights and responsibilities’ (Trentmann and Just, 2006: 7). Humanitarian efforts were also directed outside of Europe in this period. This reflected colonial expansion, as well as the existence of conflict in East Asia, particularly China, and proto anti-colonial conflicts such as the Rif War in Morocco (1921– 26). The assumptions of imperialism and colonialism often influenced how humanitarian action was conceived, in the imperial holdings in particular. This was exemplified by Karen Jeppe, a Danish relief worker and missionary who worked amongst Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. Although officially affiliated with Danish Protestant missionaries, Jeppe chose to work with the secular Danish Friends of Armenians (DA), and was eventually appointed League of Nations Commissioner for the Protection of Women and Children in the Middle East (Bjornlund, 2008).8 If Jeppe, a colonial missionary who worked with secular organisations and campaigned for Armenian selfdetermination, embodied some of the contradictions inherent in imperial relief, similar tensions could be seen in the work of NGOs such as SCF. This organisation, while officially independent of government and international in mindset, nonetheless perpetuated British imperial attitudes and rule through its promotion of ‘enlightened relief’ in the colonial world (Baughan, 2012). By the mid-1930s, a series of political and geopolitical developments had had a significant impact on the context of humanitarian operations. Economic depression had resulted in a reduction of both the resources devoted to humanitarian action and the will for international relief operations, although domestically speaking it encouraged more state welfare, particularly in the United States with Theodore Roosevelt’s New Deal. The rise of Nazism, Fascism and Stalinism, exploiting economic inequality, nationalism and general popular discontent, increased tensions and hostility in Europe and beyond. The League of Nations was unable to cope with the intensifying aggression of the Axis powers, had little success in sanctioning its own members and was greatly weakened by the withdrawal of Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan in the lead-up to the Second World War. It operated on a skeleton structure during the war – the outbreak of conflict standing as proof of the League’s ineffectiveness – and held its final meeting in 1946. 8 Following the defeat of Germany during the First World War, territories that had been administered from Berlin were placed under the tutelage of the League and designated member states under a system of ‘mandates’. The attendant reduction of national sovereignty facilitated more interventionist stances on the part of the global powers (Watenpaugh, 2010). One of the most important reforms of the interwar period was the League’s creation of the post of High Commissioner for Refugees (HCR) under Dr Fridtjof Nansen, a well-known Norwegian polar explorer and scientist. Initially, the High Commissioner’s mandate was limited to Russian refugees and his office’s role to coordination rather than actual operations. However, through a combination of diplomacy, the respect in which he was held and close collaboration with private and voluntary organisations, Nansen was able to expand the activities of his office and to negotiate official international recognition of a travel document known as the ‘Nansen passport’, as well as measures in relation to the education and employment of refugees. Nansen was also involved in efforts on behalf of survivors of the Armenian genocide through the League’s Rescue Movement. On his death in 1930 the League of Nations created the Nansen International Office for Refugees as an autonomous body, and the Office played a central role in the development of a draft 1933 treaty on refugees’ rights. These marked ‘the emergence of a regime’ for the relief and protection of refugees (Skran, 1995). The same pattern of international organisation and institutionbuilding was evident elsewhere during this period. In the field of health, to which the League of Nations also contributed strongly, historians have identified the interwar period as marking ‘the transition from treaties and conventions between nation states to the establishment of a brave new world of international organisations, designed to promote health and welfare’ (Weindling, 1995: 2). International disease management, shaken by the influenza pandemic in which approximately 50m people died worldwide (Taubenberger and Morens, 2006: 15), was overhauled during the 1926 International Sanitary Convention (Sealey, 2011). International coordination and institutionalisation of humanitarian practice continued through the creation of the League of Red Cross Societies (LRCS) in 1919, the forerunner of the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (IFRC). There were also ideological variants: in 1922, the Communist International created Workers International Relief (WIR) to channel relief donations for international Communist parties and union organisations into the newly consolidated Soviet Union. WIR was followed the next year by International Red Aid (MOPR, from the Russian acronym), which established national chapters around Europe (Schilde, Hering and Walde, 2003; Ryfman, 2008: 46–47). The devastation of the First World War also prompted the birth of what would become ‘the first recognisable trans-national humanitarian NGO’ (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 25), the Save the Children Fund (SCF). SCF, formed in Britain in 1919, insisted that all children, including the children of former enemies, were eligible for relief (Freeman, 1965). As more national SCF sections were established in different countries, its leader Eglantyne Jebb oversaw the formation of the International Save the Children Union in Geneva in 1920, with the British SCF and the Swedish Rädda Barnen as its leading members. In the early HPG working paper This period was also a difficult one for the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement. While the ICRC successfully negotiated access to nominally civil conflicts, notably the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) (see Bartels, 2009), it did not denounce the indiscriminate use of mustard gas by Italian forces following Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, and notoriously failed to speak out against Nazi atrocities. As Ian Smillie writes, ‘where the Holocaust is concerned, history and hindsight have been hard on the Red Cross’ (Smillie, 2012). Despite rounds of drafts and negotiations, the International Conference had been unable to build consensus on the issue of protection of civilians (Bugnion, 1994: 140–44). Because the pre-war Geneva Conventions did not cover civilians subjected to brutality by their own governments, the ICRC had no mandate to intervene on behalf of the Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, political prisoners and others who were being gathered into the Third Reich’s concentration and (later) extermination camps. Immediately after the war, the ICRC was accused of having failed to denounce the camps and was also criticised for doing nothing to mitigate the harsh punishment meted out to Soviet prisoners held by Germany; the Soviet Union lobbied unsuccessfully for the ICRC to be dissolved and its functions transferred to the LRCS (Bugnion, 2000: 43). In the 1980s the ICRC opened its archives to the historian Jean-Claude Favez, whose work showed that the decision not to issue a public appeal against abuses by the Third Reich was robustly debated within the ICRC, to the point that the text of such an appeal was drafted before the decision against this option was taken in October 1942. Many of those involved in relief operations during the Second World War had also worked during the First World War and in the interwar period, and were influenced by the New Deal’s practical programmes as well as the wide-ranging research programmes carried out by the League of Nations and others. The desire to learn from past experience was conscious and explicit, and affected the way humanitarian action was conceived by the Allies – the original ‘United Nations’ – during and after the Second World War.9 It was applied to the work of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), founded in 1943 with the objective of providing aid, rehabilitation and resettlement assistance. For four years, before its closure in 1947, UNRRA was the world’s preeminent humanitarian organisation. The UN itself was officially established at a conference in San Francisco in April 1945. Fifty countries endorsed its 111-article Charter, which was ratified by the five Permanent Members of the Security Council on 24 October 1945. These institutional developments were accompanied by a series of normative changes, notably the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with its simple statement on the most basic of all human rights: ‘Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of 9 The term ‘United Nations’ was officially used from 1942 onwards to describe the coalition of Allies fighting the Axis powers. It was later transferred to the United Nations Organisation. A history of the humanitarian system person’ (Article 3). Although there has been a tendency to see the Declaration as a reaction to the Holocaust, it has also been placed in a broader perspective, both chronologically and geographically, that favours its interpretation as ‘an amalgam of competing or converging universalisms – imperial and anticolonial, “Eastern” and “Western”, old and new’ (Amril and Sluga, 2008: 256; see for example Anderson, 2006; Carozza, 2003). These post-war rights frameworks represented ‘the beginning of a period of unprecedented international concern for the protection of human rights’ (Clapham, 2007: 42). On 9 December 1948 – one day before the Universal Declaration was passed – the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. In 1949 the four additional Geneva Conventions expanded and strengthened existing IHL. Among the most significant additions was the extension of the law to include non-international armed conflicts and the protection of civilian populations. Within the UN, institutional reforms distributed UNRRA’s assets and personnel between new specialised agencies: the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the Food and Agriculture Organisation, the World Health Organisation and the International Refugee Organisation (IRO, replaced by UNHCR in 1951). Other agencies were mandated to act in specific crises. One example was the United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency (UNKRA), which established a dedicated fund for South Korea in light of the 1945 partition of the country and the Korean War (1950–53). UNKRA was built upon – or subsumed into – a longer-standing US programme of aid intended to stabilise and protect South Korea from the communist North. The United States consistently spent over $200m a year on aid to South Korea, with $380m going in the peak year of 1957 (Ekbladh, 2004: 18). UNKRA was an example of what Kent (1987: 38) describes as ‘relief that was conceptually limited in terms of time, geography and approach’ (it lasted only five years beyond the war, in operation from 1950–58). It was also a good example of the intersection between official assistance and strategic interest as Cold War tensions intensified: as Barnett puts it, ‘the willingness of states to become more involved in the organization and delivery of relief owed not only to a newfound passion for compassion but also to a belief that their political, economic, and strategic interests were at stake’ (Barnett, 2011: 107). In contrast with the short-lived UNKRA, the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), established in 1949 in response to the plight of Palestinian refugees fleeing the newly-created state of Israel, is still in existence over 60 years after its creation. Like UNKRA, UNRWA began as a special fund thanks to US momentum. Its work was understood to fall into two phases: immediate relief to sustain refugees, and educational and economic assistance to facilitate their integration into host countries (see Bocco, HPG Working Paper HPG working paper to all peoples in need, the world over. Of course, there were some significant constraints: people living under communist rule in China, the Soviet Union and Cuba were largely off-limits to international agencies more closely identified with the Western (capitalist) ‘first world’ than the Eastern (communist) ‘second world’. It was the people of the so-called ‘third world’ that, in the post-colonial period, became the main focus of the humanitarian system. The period when the image of starving African children came to dominate Western conceptions of humanitarian aid, often disseminated by NGO fundraising campaigns, coincided with the emergence of the third-world nations as a geopolitical bloc, asserting their independence and equality for the first time. The burgeoning humanitarian sector entered the 1950s with many elements recognisable in today’s system already in place, if not quite in their current shape: international governance mechanisms, specialised agencies, NGOs, a language of rights, a legal framework, engagement in conflicts, natural disasters, epidemiology, food and nutrition and a global ambition for what was soon to be called ‘development’. In 1948, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 198 (III), calling for extra efforts for the ‘economic development of under-developed countries’. In 1952, the UN published a report linking development to global stability, and ten years later, in 1961, the UN declared the first Decade of Development. The process of decolonisation structured the development agenda by creating a body of newly independent nations that, for the first time, had clout on the global stage. The effects of decolonisation were strongly felt in the United Nations. In the first ten years after its formation, the UN added 72 new states to its original membership. By 1955, of the 122 members 87 were developing countries (or ‘less developed countries’ as they were then known). Many of these states participated in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), founded in 1961 to create a forum and negotiating position for countries that did not identify with either of the two major superpower blocs (see Willetts, 1978). The impact this had upon the workings of the UN, and in particular the General Assembly, can be gauged from a highly-regarded account of the organisation published in 1979 by British politician Evan Luard. In his foreword, Luard outlined some of the complaints being made against the UN, including the claim that ‘it has become little more than a debating chamber, dominated by very small nations, where hotheads angrily abuse each other, and where nothing effective ever gets done’ (Luard, 1979: vii). He went on to outline some of the geopolitical changes that had impacted upon the UN: 2009). The scale and duration of UNRWA’s operations – with staff numbers in the tens of thousands, responsible for approximately 4,700,000 registered refugees, dozens of camps and hundreds of schools – have led to it being described as a surrogate state (Bocco, 2009: 234).10 The post-war period also saw major developments in the structure and mechanisms of international assistance, notably around food aid. In essence, international coordination and regulation according to universal need gave way to a system driven by surplus production and Cold War imperatives (see Jachertz and Nützenadel, 2011). The first herald of this was the Marshall Plan (1947–51), through which the United States gave financial aid to help rebuild European states (see Clay, 1995). By the late 1950s, American aid represented nearly one-third of the total world wheat trade (Trentmann, 2006: 35). According to Frank Trentmann, ‘instead of the New Internationalist vision of global coordination and of boosting local knowledge and centres of production, the logic of food aid was to turn food producing developing countries into importers of American wheat surpluses’ (ibid.). In 1954 the United States introduced Public Law (PL) 480 ‘Food for Peace’, which enabled US food aid to be used for international development and relief purposes. In the same year, FAO developed its ‘Principles of Surplus Disposal’, an agreed framework for the use of surplus agricultural production to support recovery and development abroad (see Shaw, 2011). In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy established the Food for Peace office and proposed the trialling of a multilateral mechanism for managing food aid in emergencies and development contexts. Operating under FAO, the ‘World Food Programme’ trial was approved by the UN General Assembly in 1961. 2.3 Engagement in the global South during the Cold War Humanitarian needs during the Cold War were perceived more explicitly through the lens of global poverty and inequality. This was the period when the development discourse came to prominence and leaders of less developed countries made the claim that the suffering caused by ‘underdevelopment’ was as great as relief and reconstruction needs in Europe, and as deserving of international attention. The immediate post-war years continued the expansion of humanitarian action that had occurred during the Second World War. This pattern had already been seen, under different geopolitical circumstances, following the First World War. After the Second World War, however, the proliferation of agencies was especially striking: in addition to organisations established during the war, nearly 200 NGOs were created between 1945 and 1949, most of them formed in the United States (Barnett, 2011: 112). Meanwhile, the main beneficiaries of humanitarian action shifted from being Europeans in need 10 The same has been said of UNHCR in the Middle East. See Slaughter and Crisp, 2008; Kagan, 2011. the influx of new members, many of them very small, the role of great power diplomacy in diminishing its role, the prevalence of internal rather than external conflict in the modern world, the inadequate peacekeeping capacity, the disordered state of the finances, 10 HPG working paper the poor morale of international civil servants, the chronic political conflicts, once mainly between East and West and now mainly between rich and poor. The decolonisation process also had a profound impact on the development of NGOs. The skills, material and money wielded by Northern organisations were called upon to supplement those of the newly established Southern governments, many of whom were struggling with inadequate resources and infrastructure after the rapid withdrawal of the colonial powers. While official international politics were constrained by the rivalry of the superpowers, ‘NGOs expanded as a non-state or petty sovereign power within the liminal space between the West, the Soviet bloc and independent Third World states emerging from colonization’ (Duffield, 2007: 52). As a result, the Cold War has often been regarded as a fertile period for humanitarian action by private or voluntary groups: in 1960, Oxfam’s annual budget went over the £1m mark for the first time; by the end of the decade, 289 major new NGOs had been created (ibid.: 46; Kent, 1987: 46). Ties between these non-governmental agencies and the Cold War policies and priorities of their home governments were often extremely close; in Vietnam, for instance, Catholic Relief Services (CRS) was actively involved in delivering food aid to the US-allied Popular Forces militia. The ‘thoroughgoing penetration of humanitarian activities by political agendas’ was typical of most NGOs, including CRS, CARE, International Voluntary Services (IVS) and the Vietnam Christian Service (VCS) (Minear, 2012: 45–48).11 Although the Cold War paradigm structured much of the environment in which aid actors had to operate, not all situations conformed to the rigidity of the East–West division. One notable example, with major significance for humanitarian action, was the Nigeria/Biafra Civil War. Initially, the situation was treated as a civil conflict. The position of U Thant, the UN Secretary-General, was that the Biafran secession in May 1967 represented an internal issue for the Nigerian federal government – a position also advocated by Britain as the former colonial power. A proposed airlift into Biafra (a predominantly Christian region) was opposed by the Nigerian government, but as famine conditions intensified NGOs including Oxfam and CARE and a coalition of Church agencies under JointChurchAid began their own airlifts. Having made little headway in its own negotiations, in August 1968 the ICRC announced its intention to begin airlifting supplies into Biafra despite the lack of government authorisation. The ICRC airlift operated from September 1968 to June 1969, when an ICRC plane was shot down by a Nigerian government fighter. Thereafter, Biafra was solely dependent on supplies carried at night by unlit JointChurchAid flights and NGO-chartered aircraft. Of the 7,800 flights into Biafra, 5,310 were operated by JointChurchAid, which transported 66,000 tonnes of relief 11 IVS, founded in the United States in 1953, was an NGO with roots in Christian organisations. It was dismantled in 2002. It is not to be confused with the International Voluntary Service (IVS-GB), which is the British branch of Service Civil International (SCI). A history of the humanitarian system supplies (Stremlau, 1977: 244). For a time Uli airstrip in Biafra was the busiest airport in Africa, handling 50 or more flights each night. It was this crisis that demonstrated the ability of NGOs to provide humanitarian assistance in contexts where the UN and ICRC could not. The Biafra war, all accounts agree, was of huge consequence: ‘a formative experience in contemporary humanitarianism’; ‘a test case and a turning point for international humanitarian assistance’; ‘opening a new chapter in humanitarian action’; ‘everyone is in agreement that modern humanitarian action was born in Biafra’ (De Waal, 1997: 72; Macalister-Smith, 1985: 118; Barnett, 2011: 133; Maillard, 2008). It was crucial in the formation of at least two NGOs: Concern and Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). Concern (now Concern Worldwide) was formed in Ireland by Aengus Finucane. Finucane, the Catholic parish priest at Uli, had been deeply involved in managing the arrival of supplies at the airstrip. MSF was formed in 1971 with témoignage (‘bearing witness’) as a core principle, in opposition to the ICRC’s traditional discretion (Vallaeys, 2004; Maillard, 2008; Desgrandchamps, 2011–12). It is also now accepted that the humanitarian effort was co-opted by the Biafran leadership in their campaign for international recognition, and provided resources for their war effort. Smillie (1995: 104) concludes that the relief effort was ‘an act of unfortunate and profound folly’ that prolonged the war and contributed to the deaths of thousands of people. The East Pakistan crisis, if less symbolic now than Biafra, presented another major challenge to the humanitarian system. In November 1970, a severe cyclone and storm surge hit the coastal areas of the Ganges delta in what was then East Pakistan, killing an estimated 300,000 people. The cyclone interrupted planned national elections, polls for which were held in December and January. The government’s refusal to acknowledge the resounding success of the Bangladeshi nationalist Awami League led to widespread uprisings in East Pakistan, which were in turn repressed by West Pakistani forces. The perception that the authorities in West Pakistan had been slow to respond to the cyclone exacerbated tensions between the two halves of the country, with massacres of civilians by Pakistani authorities fuelling Bengali resistance, leading to a bitter civil war from March to December 1971. By the end of the year, an estimated 10m refugees from East Pakistan had sought safety across the border in India. Of these, approximately 7m were living in 825 camps, while the remainder were given shelter by friends and family (Loescher, 2001a: 156). The scale of the refugee crisis encouraged U Thant to nominate UNHCR as the ‘Focal Point’ for the coordination of all UN assistance. At the time, this was an innovative approach, giving the High Commissioner powers distinct from those of his role as head of UNHCR, and can be seen as a kind of precursor to the post-2005 cluster system. Even so, relief efforts inside Bangladesh, the new name for East Pakistan as declared by the Awami League in March 1971, were hampered 11 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Pakistan alone by the end of the decade (Loescher, 2001a: 62). Hundreds of refugee camps were established by the Pakistani government and UNHCR, many of which were militarised by the mujahedeen groups fighting Soviet occupation. In addition to billions of dollars in direct military support, Cold War tensions encouraged Western governments to support these groups indirectly through refugee networks, while for newly formed Islamic relief organisations the war represented a first terrain of transnational operations (Juul Petersen, 2011: 95–98). When the Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, funding for refugees in neighbouring countries declined significantly, despite a civil war resulting in new waves of displacement and humanitarian needs. by conflict and a lack of independence from Pakistani officials and the military. A contemporary study concluded that ‘In retrospect, no relief at all might have been better’ (Chen and Northrup, 1973: 272). Beyond conflict response, understandings of humanitarian action evolved rapidly in the 1970s. One crucial area of action was in African food crises, especially when famine struck seven countries in the Sahel region (Chad, Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta/Burkina Faso) more or less at the same time as it took hold in Ethiopia. Like other humanitarian mobilisations of the period, the response to these food crises revealed the poor coordination of the growing humanitarian system and its difficult relationship with affected governments. These experiences led to the establishment of the FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning System for Food and Agriculture in 1973. The following year the UN held a World Food Conference, which affirmed the importance of planning for food crises and cemented WFP’s position of leadership in this field (Shaw, 2011: 56). Meanwhile, Amartya Sen’s ‘entitlement theory’, which proposed that famine was caused not by an outright shortage of food but by the inability of certain population groups to procure or access food (Sen, 1981), prompted more sustained analysis of the ways that affected populations responded to food shortages, and how these responses might be read as signs of an impending food security crisis. The 1980s saw another series of major crises, often involving protracted displacement and characterised by heavy media attention and the manipulation or ‘instrumentalisation’ of aid, whether by affected governments, armed groups or Western states (see Terry, 2002; Donini, 2012). One of the most glaring examples was the system of refugee camps in Honduras, effectively host to both left-wing and right-wing movements from Central America and subject to significant US intervention. Instrumentalisation was also a major issue along the Thai–Cambodian border, where some 200,000 refugees massed following the toppling of the genocidal Khmer Rouge regime by the Vietnamese. It became clear that the camps were being used as a sanctuary by the Khmer Rouge to sustain their military campaign against the Vietnamese-backed regime in Phnom Penh (Terry, 2002: 114–54). During the Ethiopian famine of 1984–85, the humanitarian operation was manipulated by the Ethiopian government, which used the food aid as part of a large programme of population resettlement from conflict-affected areas to less densely populated regions in the south of the country (see Clay, 1989). This crisis became perhaps the defining example of a media-driven humanitarian mobilisation, with massive sums raised through charity sales of records by Band Aid and internationally televised Live Aid concerts (see Vaux, 2001: 43–68). Another major international mobilisation took place following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The conflict resulted in major flows of refugees into neighbouring countries. It was estimated that 3.5m Afghan refugees had sought refuge in 2.4 From the fall of the Iron Curtain to the close of the century From the mid-1980s, signs of strain within the Soviet bloc were beginning to show. The power of the Solidarity trade union movement in Poland was one such sign, the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 another. By the end of 1991 the Soviet Republics and finally Russia itself had declared independence. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had ceased to exist. Initially, humanitarian action seemed to benefit from the easing of superpower tensions. Following a devastating earthquake in Soviet Armenia in early December 1988, for example, the Soviet government opened its borders to Western humanitarian workers for the first time since the famine of the 1920s. Another example of humanitarian cooperation in this period was Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in April 1989. OLS was based on the establishment of ‘corridors of tranquillity’ through which aid could be delivered after negotiations with the government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). ‘At the time,’ Richard Barltrop writes (2011), ‘the creation of OLS was a new and significant step, both for the UN and the SPLM/ A. The UN had never before dealt directly with what would previously have been considered only a rebel movement, fighting against a sovereign African state.’ Hopes that the end of the Cold War would lead to a more satisfactory international environment proved shortlived. While the likelihood of a recurrence of the great setpiece battles that marked the two world wars receded, this did not mean that the ‘age of wars’ was at an end: ‘the years after 1989 saw more military operations in more parts of Europe, Asia and Africa than anyone could remember, though not all of them were officially classified as wars: in Liberia, Angola, the Sudan and the Horn of Africa, in ex-Yugoslavia, in Moldova, in several countries of the Caucasus and Transcaucasus, in the ever-explosive Middle East, in ex-Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan’ (Hobsbawm, 1994: 560). In 1993 there were 47 active conflicts, of which 43 were civil wars (MSF, 1997: 7). These conflicts became known as ‘new wars’ – not because everything about them was so very new, but because of their frequency and the intensification of certain key features, 12 HPG working paper including attacks on civilians, a breakdown of public authority or state legitimacy and their containment within a country’s borders (see Newman, 2004). For humanitarian actors, ‘the race to find ... early indicators of emergent conflict [was] to the 1990s what the race for the magic formula of famine early warning indicators was to the 1970s and 1980s’ (Slim, 1995: 114). They came to refer to the situations they confronted as ‘complex emergencies’. This term may have been coined in Mozambique, where the UN was negotiating simultaneously with the government and with non-state actors, in this case the RENAMO movement, to allow the provision of assistance outside of its standard country agreements (Calhoun, 2008: 84). The central idea of the complex emergency, it has been argued, is that ‘some emergencies have multiple causes, involve multiple local actors, and compel an international response’ (ibid.). The idea of a system-wide response is therefore integral to their conception. Mark Duffield (1994: 3), writing when the term was only a few years old, provided a more assertive definition: A history of the humanitarian system The resolution also made possible greater UN involvement in internal conflicts (Tsui and Myint-U, 2004). In so doing, it built upon Resolution 43/131 of 8 December 1988, passed in the aftermath of the Armenian earthquake, which affirmed the principle of access to victims (see Bettati, 1994). The 1990s also saw a large growth in the number and reach of humanitarian actors on multiple levels. NGOs became even more important players. This shift shows up in funding statistics: in 1976 no European Community (EC) emergency aid funding went through NGOs; by 1982–83 they were receiving 40% (Borton, 1993: 191). States also became more involved in relief, and agencies shifted their focus more towards relief and away from development assistance: WFP, for instance, cut its development projects from over half of its activity in 1989–90 to less than one-sixth by 2000 (Clay, 2003: 701). The 1990s also witnessed a number of major crises and conflicts which contributed directly to significant changes in the humanitarian world, including the 1991 intervention in Iraq, authorised by the UN in the name of Kurds who had suffered repression at the hands of the Iraqi government; the conflict in the former Yugoslavia; civil war and famine in Somalia; and the Rwandan genocide and Great Lakes crisis (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 60). Events in Somalia in particular have cast a long shadow over humanitarian action.12 Following the overthrow of President Siad Barre in 1991, factional militia warfare and famine resulting from the loss of food production, a UN peacekeeping force to protect aid convoys was approved in April 1992. After two ramped-up UN deployments and the death of 24 Pakistani UN troops in June 1993, US forces launched an attack on the militia of the Somali National Alliance, losing 18 soldiers and two Blackhawk helicopters in the process. Gruesome footage of the body of a US soldier being dragged through the streets of Mogadishu by cheering Somalis had a traumatic effect on US public opinion: all US troops were withdrawn from Somalia by March 1994. ‘The impact of this debacle,’ it has been claimed, ‘is difficult to over-estimate’ (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 66). Experiences in Somalia had a direct effect on the international response to the Yugoslav conflict. As Yugoslavia splintered apart after 1991, a brutal policy of ‘ethnic cleansing’ was practised by Croatian and especially Serbian nationalists, with the population of Bosnia the principal victims. By 1993, the cost of aid to the Balkans was more than $1m per day, with UNHCR assisting 2.7m people inside Bosnia as well as 1.4m in other parts of the former Yugoslavia (Rieff, 2002: 136). ‘Humanitarian action was the “filler” that was used to plug the policy gaps caused by the inability of the major powers to agree on political solutions to a profoundly political problem’ (Kent, 2004: 856). Emblematically, the peacekeeping mission (UNPROFOR) was referred to by Bosnians as the UN ‘Self12 This study does not discuss the history of humanitarian intervention – that is, military action to prevent or halt major or large-scale human rights abuses – despite its links with humanitarian action. For more on the history of humanitarian intervention, see Wheeler, 2000; Simms, 2011; Rodogno, 2012. So-called complex emergencies are essentially political in nature: they are protracted political crises resulting from sectarian or predatory indigenous responses to socioeconomic stress and marginalisation. Unlike natural disasters, complex emergencies have a singular ability to erode or destroy the cultural, civil, political and economic integrity of established societies. Facing such crises, with greater collaboration possible following the end of the Cold War, in the 1990s the members of the Security Council showed a greater willingness to authorise military operations to halt or prevent the widespread suffering or death of civilians without the consent of the government concerned. Analysts at the time discerned that ‘a new rule is emerging: There are circumstances in which the world community can, in defence of our common humanity, interfere in the national affairs of a sovereign nation state’ (Soguk, 1999: 183; see also Wheeler, 2000: 289). From 1948–88, the UN undertook only five peacekeeping missions; from 1989–94 it authorised 20 missions and increased the number of peacekeepers from 11,000 to 75,000. The UN also reformed its humanitarian apparatus. Following a review of capacity and coordination arrangements, on 19 December 1991 the General Assembly passed Resolution 46/182 on the ‘Strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations’. In addition to reinforcing the Office of the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO), which became the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), the resolution placed the following key elements into a new architecture: the post of Emergency Relief Coordinator; the Humanitarian Coordinator system; the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC); inter-agency needs assessments; the Consolidated Appeals Process (CAP); the Central Emergency Revolving Fund (CERF); and the Financial Tracking System (FTS). 13 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper donor organisations led the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda, the first comprehensive evaluation of collective emergency operations, groundbreaking for its system-wide approach (Dabelstein, 1996: 287–88; see Eriksson et al., 1996). One of the most important of the subsequent initiatives was the Sphere Project, which in May 1998 resulted in a draft Handbook of Minimum Standards and a Humanitarian Charter. As Margie Buchanan-Smith wrote, although concerns about operations and principles in the early 1990s ‘created an atmosphere conducive to the Sphere project, it was the scale and intensity of the humanitarian crisis in Rwanda in 1994 which determined the vigour, depth and direction of its study’ (Buchanan-Smith, 2003: vi; see also Walker and Purdin, 2004).13 The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental Organisations, launched in 1994, predated these initiatives, but was nonetheless galvanised by the attention to beneficiary accountability in the years after Rwanda (see Walker, 2005). The Great Lakes crisis thus directly and fundamentally shaped the conduct of humanitarian practitioners today. It also had a powerful effect on the normative frameworks associated with, although not directly responsible for, humanitarian action. Several precepts of international humanitarian action, including the droit d’ingérence advocated by members of the French sans-frontiériste (‘without borders’) movement, presented a challenge to the Westphalian principle of state sovereignty. In the field of humanitarian intervention, NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999 and the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ outlined by the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) remain highly contested and controversial (see Weiss, 2007). The establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2002, along with the international tribunals and special courts for the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Timor-Leste, Cambodia and Lebanon, is another expression of the principle of international engagement around human rights abuses against civilians. Although protection of civilians (POC) had long been a concern of specialists in international law, human rights and refugee law, the experiences of Somalia, Bosnia and Rwanda brought the protection agenda into the work of a much larger number of actors. While recognising that much protection work, like relief assistance, is accomplished by affected communities themselves, Elizabeth Ferris (2011) outlines three strands of modern protection work in the international humanitarian domain. The earliest legal work of the ICRC – the first Geneva Convention, in 1864 – involved the protection of combatants; since then, the remit of the ICRC and IHL has expanded to include protection of prisoners of war and POC. 13 Other initiatives of the period include the People in Aid project and its best practice code; the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP), which took its momentum from the Joint Evaluation; and the Humanitarian Accountability Partnership (HAP). Protection Force’. UNPROFOR’s inability to provide meaningful protection for civilians was graphically demonstrated in July 1995, when a UN-designated ‘safe area’ in Srebrenica fell to Serb forces. The ensuing massacre of 8,000 men and boys prompted the US and other Western governments to order air strikes on Serb positions in August 1995. The impact of Somalia upon the international community was again starkly apparent as tensions rose in Rwanda. On 6 April 1994 – barely a month after the US withdrawal from Somalia – a genocide orchestrated by extremists within the majority Hutu ethnic group against the minority Tutsi ethnic group and politically moderate Hutus began. The genocide had been preceded by decades of tension between the two groups that had generated previous atrocities, the mass flight or expulsion of many Tutsis in 1959 to neighbouring countries and, starting in 1990, conflict as the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) tried to fight its way back into Rwanda after 40 years of exile in Uganda. By July, an estimated 800,000 people had been killed by Hutu extremists and members of the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), assisted by ‘ordinary’ Hutus incited to kill their neighbours. A multinational UN peacekeeping force, the UN Assistance Mission to Rwanda (UNAMIR), had been deployed in October 1993 to help with the implementation of a power-sharing agreement. However, most of the UNAMIR force was withdrawn by the troop contributing nations shortly after the killing of ten Belgian peacekeepers on 7 April. Even when it became clear that a genocide directed against Tutsis and moderate Hutus was underway, there was reluctance within the UN Security Council to characterise the massacres as genocide in order to avoid invoking the obligation to intervene, as required by the 1948 Genocide Convention. With no international willingness to act decisively, the genocide against Tutsis and moderate Hutus was only brought to an end by the victory of the RPF in July 1994 and the mass movement of 1.8m Hutus into refugee camps in eastern Zaire. By the end of 1994, there were over 2m refugees in the countries neighbouring Rwanda, and roughly 1.5m displaced internally; over half of the country’s 7m-strong population had been directly affected by the crisis (UNHCR, 2000: 246). Humanitarian agencies working in camps in Goma, in Zaire close to the border, were poorly prepared and overwhelmed by the scale of needs, and an estimated 30,000 refugees died of cholera in Goma alone (Stockton, 1998: 352; Borton et al., 1996). Residents of the camps became ‘more like hostages than refugees’ as the FAR and Interahamwe militia used the camps as a recruiting ground, source of income and base for night raids into Rwanda (UNHCR, 2000: 258; see Terry, 2002). Military assaults by Rwandan-backed militia on the refugee camps in late 1996 and 1997 forced many refugees back into Rwanda, whilst others were pursued deep into Congo where they were killed or perished. Experiences in the Great Lakes galvanised a spate of initiatives to improve accountability and standards. A group of bilateral 14 HPG working paper In tandem, refugee crises starting with the wars in Europe, the creation of UNHCR and the later recognition of the needs of internally displaced people (IDPs) gave rise to protection mechanisms for displaced people. The expanding human rights movement contributed to this pro-cess by addressing the protection of ethnic and racial minor-ities, children, women and gay and lesbian people through declarations of rights, UN resolutions and other forums. As a sign of the increasing adoption of protection work, all but one of the 11 international peacekeeping missions begun from 2001–11 included POC in their mandates (ibid.: 2). During the twentieth century, global relationships between states provided a changing framework for the practice of international humanitarian action. The two world wars devastated Europe and contributed to the consolidation A history of the humanitarian system of the United States’ position as an international power. Colonisation, which began decades before, arguably peaked during the interwar period, and became the subject of inter-governmental management with the League of Nations mandate system. After the Second World War, humanitarian action expanded into what was then called the ‘third world’, a label that reflected the process of decolonisation and the emergence of the former colonies and developing nations as a political bloc. Since the late Cold War, and especially since the decline of the ‘second world’ – the communist bloc – with the fall of the Soviet Union, the same group of countries has been designated the ‘global South’. Although the relevance of this classification has been challenged by the rapid development of certain Southern nations and the complex fallout from the events of 9/11, the global South remains one of the defining terrains for humanitarian action in the twenty-first century. 15 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 16 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 3 Early institutions for emergency food aid In the twenty-first century, famine analysts have argued, ‘major, prolonged famine anywhere is conceivable only in contexts of endemic warfare or blockade’ (Ó Gráda, 2007: 31). Paradoxically, however, the prominence of emergency food aid has increased as the geographical reach of famine has receded, and food security crises remain a crucial context for humanitarian response. Many accounts of this process focus on the creation and expansion of FAO and WFP in the period after the Second World War, and take it for granted that the largest food aid operations have been undertaken by WFP, with the backing of the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the European Union (EU) (see for example Barrett and Maxwell, 2005). In contrast, this chapter focuses on the period prior to 1950, when food relief was part of a process of increasing internationalisation. It begins by examining how the Commission for the Relief of Belgium and the American Relief Administration addressed the needs of civilians under occupation during and after the First World War. The next section extends the geographical remit from Europe to the colonial territories, looking at how subsistence crises in India, notably the Bengal famine of 1943, related to other food aid practices of the time. The third section considers the work of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and NGOs during the Second World War.14 origins were soon greatly expanded by the diplomatic and logistical powers of its head, future US President Herbert Hoover. In mid-October 1914 Hoover issued an impassioned public appeal that, by speeding up negotiations through more traditional diplomatic channels, helped establish relief agreements: ‘the American Government should, from reasons of pure humanity, insist that Germany take favorable action, or make shipments through American diplomats, whether Germany agrees or not’.15 Belligerent governments on both sides recognised the Commission in late 1914, and the CRB was the only body to win assurances from the German military that food supplies destined for civilians would not be confiscated. Its ships were allowed to pass through the Allied blockade, it was able to establish contracts and treaties with warring governments and its representatives – who were all active in areas under military occupation – held special passports and were afforded freedom of travel and other immunities. In short, the CRB had secured exceptional levels of independence and authority, leading one British official to describe it as ‘a piratical state organised for benevolence’ (in Gay and Fisher, 1929: preface). Although its focus was on civilians rather than soldiers, the CRB provides an illustrative counterpoint to the ICRC in this period. Several of the crucial mechanisms that allowed the CRB to operate in effect mirrored those that had been used to carve out the ICRC’s international role. The recognition of the utility of the CRB’s work, its neutrality and the adoption of an acknowledged banner to allow passage for CRB staff were all familiar from the provisions that had facilitated the aid work of the Red Cross. The CRB was a recognised actor on an international stage, ‘answerable for the honest and efficient use of the resources placed at its disposal’ within a complex web of accountability relationships in which its donors were also belligerents in the conflict whose effects it was attempting to assuage (Gay and Fisher, 1929: preface). The CRB was also a sign of the emergence of the United States as a global power. Hoover, who was also involved in relief efforts during the Second World War, can be seen as representing that strand of American humanitarianism that sees the role of government as enabling action by private voluntary organisations.16 From the outset, Hoover emphasised centralisation and independence. In a telegram to the US ambassador in London 15 Herbert Hoover, ‘Statement to the American Press, urging immediate action for the rescue the Belgian people’, 13 October 1914. Document 6 in Public Relations of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, ed. George I. Gay and H. H. Fisher. Available online at http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/CRB/ CRB1-TC.htm#d6. 16 The authors are grateful to Edward Clay for drawing attention to this point. 3.1 The CRB and ARA during and after the First World War The first half of the twentieth century saw several famines in Europe, largely as a result of the world wars. Amongst the many private initiatives that sprang up during the First World War, one has been singled out as particularly important, partly as a result of its sheer scale and partly for the way it ‘set important and lasting precedents for the conception and organization of subsequent large scale humanitarian assistance operations’ (Macalister-Smith, 1985: 12). This was the Commission for the Relief of Belgium (CRB), established in 1914 to address the food needs of Belgian and French civilians in territories occupied by Germany that were subject to a blockade by Allied forces. The CRB originated in a request for outside assistance from one of the many local committees that had been set up in towns in occupied Belgium in an attempt to secure relief for the Belgian population. However, its grass-roots 14 Note that emergency food aid or food relief represents only one part of the broader international engagement with food security crises. Notably, government-to-government aid is not discussed in this chapter, although it informs the context for the developments featured. 17 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper worked in Poland after the Armistice. During the winter and spring of 1919–20 it brought in over 300,000 tonnes of US food supplies, including kosher meals for Jews, provided on credit to the new Polish government (Adams, 2009: 5). The ARA also played a major role in relief efforts during famine in the newly declared Soviet Union in 1921–22. Political and ideological tensions during the famine ran extremely high, especially where US organisations were concerned. The Soviet authorities had hesitated before opening the country to aid, and specified that ‘the Soviet government welcomes the help of all providing it does not involve political considerations’ (cited in Kirimli, 2003: 38). Yet Hoover was quite explicit about American aims, writing in 1919 that ‘of course, the prime objective of the United States in undertaking the fight against famine in Europe is to save the lives of starving people. The secondary object, however, and of hardly less importance, [is] to defeat Anarchy, which is the handmaiden of Hunger’ (cited in Patenaude, 2007). Mostly undertaken through its affiliated charitable organisation the American Relief Administration European Children’s Fund (ARAECF), the ARA’s work was on a staggering scale. At its height, the organisation was feeding over 10.5m people a day and had more than 120,000 employees in the Soviet Union (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 27). The ARA made extensive use of medical experts but also employed many demobilised military personnel, including in senior positions. Because of the sheer number of beneficiaries they were treating, assessments to identify the neediest children were only carried out in urban centres, using the Pelidisi system to determine undernourishment in children up to the age of 15 (Patenaude, 2002: 87).20 These practices reflected the way the First World War changed approaches to food aid, and particularly knowledge about nutrition. Mass and widespread food security crises, from one point of view, presented wartime and post-war scientists with ‘a gigantic nutritional experiment’ (Weindling, 1994: 204). Long-term food shortages, caused by the Great War and compounded by events such as the Russian Civil War (1917– 22), the global influenza pandemic and later the Depression, remained a pressing concern in the following decades. As a result, prior to the Second World War a twofold shift relating to food aid took place: relief policies moved ‘from the distribution of food aid to adopting more scientifically based programmes’ and nutritional science underwent ‘a shift from diet as being merely calculated to sustain life to that of promoting optimum health, and of a new standard for well being’ (ibid., 1994: 205). These developments also affected attitudes to food aid in the colonial territories. 20 Developed by the Viennese doctor Clemens Pirquet, the Pelidisi system used as a measurement the cubic root of the tenfold weight of the body divided by the person’s sitting height. The average for adults would be 100 and for children 94.5, below which point ‘undernourishment’ applied. The benchmark figure adopted in Austria was 94; in the Soviet Union the cut-off had to be reduced to 92 or lower in certain places, because of the scale of need (Patenaude, 2002: 87). in late October 1914, he insisted that ‘it is impossible to handle the situation except with the strongest centralization and effective monopoly, and therefore the two organizations [the American-run relief commission based in London and its Belgian-based partner] will refuse to recognize any element except themselves alone’.17 Throughout the war, the CRB conducted and disseminated detailed analyses of food imports, local food production and nutritional requirements. Its methods have been compared to Hoover’s business techniques, using ‘the same aggressive financing strategies, strict accounting methods, efficient administration, and even commercial principles’ (Patenaude, 2002: 29). The CRB’s success in ‘organising for benevolence’ is reflected in the official figures: between 1914 and 1919, the CRB provided relief for a population of 9m people, supported welfare services and attempted to revive selected economic sectors; it handled over 2,000 commodity cargoes totalling more than 5m tonnes, with a 1918 value exceeding $800m (MacalisterSmith, 1985: 11). This is the equivalent of approximately $12.25 billion today.18 The CRB was often assumed to be an official American organisation – not least by individual Americans who supported it – though the US government had no formal responsibility for it. In fact, following America’s entry into the war in April 1917 Hoover had to compete with war mobilisation priorities, and in January 1918 admitted that ‘I am now putting the American people on a practical rationing of many of the commodities most urgently needed in Europe, with a view to saving from our consumption a sufficiency to carry the Belgian Relief and to provide their essential foods’.19 The price of Hoover’s influence upon policy-makers (whom he was soon to join) was an increasing government stake in relief efforts. The American Relief Administration (ARA) was formed in 1919. Like the CRB, its chief was Hoover and it received donations from private individuals. Unlike the CRB, however, the ARA was subject to US government control. In its first few years, the ARA either directly or through partner organisations delivered food worth more than $150m to children in 21 countries across Europe and the Middle East (Patenaude, 2002: 30). It also undertook reconstruction activities, contributing to communications repairs, the restoration of railways and river transport and industrial projects. While the CRB had been unable to gain access to Poland during the war, because of its inability to win German assurances that food provided for civilians would not be diverted by the military, the ARA 17 Memorandum from Herbert Hoover to Ambassador Page on the problem of Belgian relief, 20 October 1914. Document 13 in Gay and Fisher, Public Relations of the Commission for Relief in Belgium. Available online at http:// www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/CRB/CRB1-TC.htm#d13. 18 Calculated by the US Bureau of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_ calculator.htm. 19 Letter from Herbert Hoover to Emile Francqui, 24 January 1918. Document 508 in Gay and Fisher, Public Relations of the Commission for Relief in Belgium. Available online at http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/CRB/CRB212.htm#d508. 18 HPG working paper 3.2 Colonial famine relief in Bengal and Indochina Although India entered the twentieth century in the throes of a severe famine, it did not suffer the same experience again until the Second World War. The Bengal famine of 1943 became – like Biafra in the late 1960s – a ‘paradigmatic case’ (Ó Gráda, 2007: 10). Contemporary estimates suggested a death toll of 1.5–2m, from starvation and related diseases like malaria, cholera and smallpox. More recently, studies have placed the figure much higher, perhaps as many as 3m (Devereux, 2000). Another half a million were made destitute and hundreds of thousands more lost land, livestock and other capital assets as systems of rural patronage crucial to the survival of the poorest sections of Bengali society collapsed (Greenough, 1980). Disputes persist about the balance of causes for the famine (see notably Tauger, 2003, in response to Sen, 1981), but it is clear that the situation was adversely affected by the Second World War. Rice prices rose as the conflict progressed: the wholesale price of rice went from Rs 9–10 per maund in November 1942 to more than Rs 100 by late 1943 (Bose, 1990: 716). Britain’s ‘denial policy’, designed to prevent Japan from gaining control of Allied assets, saw the army impound tens of thousands of boats, destroying the livelihoods of many Bengali fishermen, and surplus stocks were moved inland. As a result, rates of destitution during the famine were higher among fishermen than in any other occupational group (Greenough, 1980: 222). In making the decision to cut both military and civilian shipping to India, Prime Minister Winston Churchill noted that ‘there is no reason why all parts of the British Empire should not feel the pinch in the same way as the Mother Country has done’ (cited in Collingham, 2011: 145). The British government turned down a Canadian offer of wheat for Bengal on the grounds that no shipping was available to transport it, and prevented the Indian authorities from requesting assistance from UNRRA, fearing negative publicity (ibid.: 151). Even aside from such decisions, which seem to indicate the influence of colonial racism as well as military priorities, the actions of the colonial state were profoundly inadequate. The failings are starkly set out in the report of the Famine Inquiry Commission (FIC) appointed to investigate the response. There was little understanding of the severity of the famine, or how to best manage the food market. The Indian Famine Code, in place since the nineteenth century, was not invoked, on the grounds that there was not enough food available to meet its rationing requirements, and no famine was ever formally declared, depriving Bengal of the coordinating figure of the Famine Commissioner. The Bengal administration was both late and incoherent at all stages of the planning and implementation of the response. Voluntary and charitable organisations were a substantial contributor to the relief response. More than 500 food kitchens, as well as shelters and orphanages, were established by A history of the humanitarian system private relief organisations in Calcutta (Kolkata) and in the countryside (Greenough, 1980: 230). Voluntary organisations involved in the response included the Ramakrishna Mission, Bharat Sewak Sangh, the Friends Ambulance Unit, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Marwari Relief Society and the Indian Red Cross. One agency, the Bengal Relief Committee set up by Hindu nationalist politician Shyama Prasad Mookerji, operated in 25 districts and in Calcutta, providing rice to at least 300,000 households a day at the height of the famine. Between July 1943 and May 1944 the Bengal Relief Committee disbursed Rs 1.2m for food and spent another Rs 1.6m on other forms of relief. The Bengal government supported the engagement of NGOs and civil society, although it insisted that they be subject to government supervision and control. Many of these private organisations focused their relief work on particular groups defined according to gender, class, communal affiliation or occupation; one Marwari organisation, for example, ran a scheme specifically to help impoverished Brahmin priests. The government was similarly partial, favouring government employees and industrial workers, to whom it provided rice at subsidised prices. In the aftermath, reference to the patently inadequate response of the British authorities to the Bengal famine became part of the campaign for Indian independence. Even before the famine, Indian nationalists had been using malnutrition information to challenge the British justification for colonial rule on the basis of its supposed benefits to colonised people (Amrith, 2008: 1,024). After the famine, criticism of British colonial failings became even more acute. The writing of Jawaharlal Nehru typified the claim that the colonial state had lost its legitimacy: ‘the tragedy of Bengal and the famines of Orissa, Malabar, and other places, are the final judgment on British rule in India’ (Nehru, 1956: 511). From this perspective, the colonial state’s refusal to feed the starving ‘dramatically represented the bankruptcy of its legitimacy’ (Amrith, 2008: 1,027). A similar pattern was evident in French Indochina (presentday Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam). In contrast with the British approach in India, the French colonial state in Indochina had never established a system for famine prevention and response. Wartime inflationary conditions and Japanese military successes in Southeast Asia contributed to famine in Indochina, especially Tonkin, and in China (Bose, 1990: 703). Once France had fallen under German occupation in 1940, the French government in Indochina committed to supply its new ally in Tokyo with over a million tons of rice from the 1942–43 harvests; peasants in Tonkin were obliged to plant crops for military requirements rather than food, and some rice was even burned as fuel in French- and Japanese-run factories (Bose, 1990: 720). Such harsh treatment intensified pre-existing anti-colonialism in the Indochinese territories. Indeed, Van Nguyen-Marshall (2005: 237) argues that ‘the history of Vietnam’s decolonization and of the events leading up to Ho Chi Minh’s declaration of independence in August 19 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Regional Office in London a staff of 1,600; and its China office a staff of 1,300 (Woodbridge, 1950, cited in Macalister-Smith, 1985: 13). A separate displaced persons operation employed a staff of 5,000 (ibid.). In the three and a half years of its existence (from November 1943 to June 1947), it shipped over 9m tonnes of food and other supplies worth a total of $2.9bn, $1.23bn of which was accounted for in food aid. The mid-century principles of organised relief that UNRRA came to embody were also important to NGOs. For instance, the Council of British Societies for Relief Abroad (COBSRA), founded in August 1942, was established to facilitate the exchange of information between NGOs and to coordinate their work. It was open to any British organisation specialised in ‘relief of suffering or social recovery work in any parts of the world’ but required that participating organisations have at least one sister organisation based outside the Commonwealth (Steinert, 2008: 423). Before any missions were undertaken, staff of COBSRA affiliates were offered training to prepare them for humanitarian work, including technical matters, language skills, context analysis and psychology (ibid.: 425). The approach shared by organisations like UNRRA and COBSRA was summed up by Francesca Wilson, a high-profile relief worker. It was, she wrote, ‘an important advance on last time when no prior survey of needs was made and nation was allowed to compete with nation for food and necessities … we have at last become planning-minded’ (Wilson, 1945: 5). Despite this emphasis on needs and rational approaches, the principle of impartiality was rarely fully respected. Private and voluntary organisations provided aid, often on the basis of solidarity with a particular beneficiary group. In the United States, the National Catholic Welfare Council created CRS in 1941, and American Lutherans founded Lutheran World Relief (LWR) in 1945 (Egan, 1988). In the UK, the Jewish Committee for Relief Abroad (JCRA) was formed in 1943, focusing its efforts on Jewish victims of the conflict. As for UNRRA, the issue of eligibility was the subject of significant debate as the organisation, which worked in many different countries, sought to navigate between the political imperatives of its contributing states, its requirement that work be conducted at the request of affected governments and the desire to differentiate ‘good’ displaced people from ‘bad’ ones. The latter were defined in various ways by different actors, some emphasising collaboration with Axis powers, others citing the refusal of repatriation as a reason to consider some displaced people ineligible for aid (see Cohen, 2008; Reinisch, 2008a, 2008b; Steinert, 2008; Salvatici, 2011). As in the aftermath of the First World War, in the 1940s national public health interests were cited as a rationale for international relief, particularly in relation to aid for ‘enemy’ populations. This argument was captured by UK Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin in 1945: ‘While the Channel could be used to stop the German, it cannot stop germs’ (cited in Steinert, 2008: 429). In another parallel with the First World 1945 is inexplicable without reference to the devastation resulting from the famine that year’. In 1945, the Viet Minh national liberation movement began a strategy of grain seizures to address the food shortage, winning local support in the process. Huynh Kim Khanh (1986: 313) describes how its leadership recognised the famine’s potential as ‘a useful instrument to arouse hatred against the French and the Japanese, to give people a political consciousness, and to involve them practically in revolutionary politics’. The experience in Indochina, as in India, thus ‘highlights the role of famine in undermining the legitimacy of the state and the pre-existing social structure’ (Bose, 1990: 726–27). The mid-century famines of colonial Asia highlight the complex relationship between colonialism, nationalism and forms of responsibility. In the 1920s and 1930s, nutrition analyses underway in post-war Europe were also applied to the colonies, leading for the first time to the perception of a global hunger problem (Trentmann, 2006: 14). The League of Nations was instrumental in the recognition of this, devoting the third volume of its 1933 Report on Nutrition and Public Health to the ‘new problem’ of undernourishment in the colonial world (Worboys, 1988: 213–14). Yet, as the cases of Bengal and Tonkin show, with global conflict taking a severe toll on colonial territories the inability of imperial powers to sufficiently care for their subjects provided a powerful critique of the colonial system. 3.3 UNRRA and NGOs during the Second World War A concerted emphasis on planning, coordination and scientific expertise as the foundations of relief was one of the definitive features of Second World War-era humanitarian action. Conscious of the need to do better than its predecessors, the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration taught its staff that ‘the absence of a plan after the Armistice in 1918 had crippled relief efforts, and that subsequent initiatives by Herbert Hoover and Fridtjof Nansen … had been marred by a lack of funding and political support’ (Reinisch, 2008a: 378). In contrast, the efforts of UNRRA and other organisations active in the period were intended to be more rational and coordinated in order to confront the mass scale of needs during the 1940s, with UNRRA itself the embodiment of this approach. UNRRA was established on 9 November 1943, after lengthy negotiations between the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union and China. Its inaugural meeting the following day was attended by delegates from 44 nations. They agreed that member nations would donate 1% of their national income, giving UNRRA a budget of roughly $2bn, of which the US would provide nearly two-thirds (Shephard, 2008: 411–12). The organisation would eventually establish 24 country missions (one of the largest was in China) and 17 regional shipping and procurement offices. UNRRA’s peak year of operation was 1946, when its headquarters in Washington had a staff of 1,800; its European 20 HPG working paper War period, recalling notably the approach taken by SCF in 1919, calls for aid to German civilians often focused upon the plight of children. Through Nordic as well as British programmes, feeding schoolchildren again became one of the most common forms of post-war aid (ibid.: 429, 432). Also reminiscent of the First World War was Herbert Hoover’s attempt to renew the private cross-border relief he had directed with the CRB and ARA. During the Second World War, however, Hoover was unable to negotiate access with the same success as previously. Despite a brief period providing aid to Poland in 1939, after 1940 all of Hoover’s efforts ran head-on into the British naval blockade, which almost nothing could convince Whitehall to revise or lift, even partially (George, 1992: 394–95). The only exception to the blockade, the provision of food aid to Greece in 1942, was subject to a strict insistence on neutrality achieved through the involvement of neutral Sweden (ibid.: 402; see also Mauzy, 2008). British intransigence on the naval blockade led to the creation in 1942 of the Oxford Famine Relief Committee, now known as Oxfam. Originally a support group for the national Famine Relief Committee, the Oxford Committee had a crucial interest in Greece thanks to the involvement of Gilbert Murray, who had recently retired as Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Oxford. In 1943, after several public campaigns about the famine in Greece, the Oxford Committee received a direct request for assistance from the President of the Greek Red Cross; it registered as an official charity and began appealing for funds, raising nearly £16,000 in its first few months (Black, 1992: 15–16). The Greek campaign was the only wartime success story of the Famine Relief Committee and its subsidiaries, as similar campaigns for assistance to Belgium and Poland, for example, came to nothing. As the conflict ended, the Oxford A history of the humanitarian system Committee continued to support relief efforts and eventually, in early 1949 in the context of the Arab–Israeli war the previous year, formally broadened the stated aims of its work to ‘the relief of suffering arising as a result of wars or of other causes in any part of the world’ (ibid.: 37). The expansion of its ‘mandate’ from European conflict to global suffering was typical of the trajectory of Western humanitarianism in this period, and provided the basis for Oxfam’s work for the remainder of the twentieth century and beyond.21 The ‘humanitarian’ institutions of the period before 1950 have had a mixed fate. Those that have lasted longest are the NGOs, notably Save the Children and the generation of organisations created during the Second World War, such as Oxfam and CARE. Others, such as the CRB and ARA, and sometimes by design, did not remain long after the crises that produced them. International organisations did not fare well, with many succumbing to the turmoil of the 1930s and 1940s; humanitarian action, too, became prey to these contradictory tendencies, as internationalist initiatives had to either compete or collude with national objectives and groups of various kinds became rivals for global leadership on humanitarian questions. Crucially, the landscape of international humanitarian action was being transformed by the process of decolonisation. The emergence of independent countries had an enormous impact on the normative frameworks structuring humanitarian action. 21 In 1963, under pressure from the British Charities Commission due to its development activities, Oxfam again modified the phrasing of its main objective: ‘to relieve poverty, distress and suffering in any part of the world (including starvation, sickness or any physical disability or affliction) and primarily when arising from any public calamity (including famine, earthquake, pestilence, war or civil disturbance), or the immediate or continuing result of want of natural or artificial resources, or the means to develop them, and whether acting alone or in association with others’ (Black, 1992: 91). 21 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 22 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 4 Evolving norms during and after decolonisation The process of decolonisation entailed a momentous transformation of global geopolitics and power relationships after the Second World War. The first countries to achieve independence, in the late stages of the Second World War or in its wake, were largely in Asia. Countries achieving independence during the 1945–55 period included the Philippines (1946), India and Pakistan (1947), Burma (1948), Sri Lanka (1948), Indonesia (1949), Egypt (1953), Cambodia (1953), Vietnam and Laos (both 1954). Many Latin American countries had achieved independence from Spain or Portugal in the nineteenth century. The continent’s emblematic case in the post-war period was the Cuban Revolution (1959), which, while not strictly a colonial war, was considered an anti-imperialist struggle because of the close ties between the United States and the overthrown Batista regime. Decolonisation in Africa took place mostly in the early 1960s, for French and British colonies, and the 1970s, for Portugal’s holdings in Southern Africa. This chapter focuses on the impacts of this geopolitical change – the transformation of colonial territories into sovereign nations – on international humanitarian action and in particular its normative frameworks.22 The first section considers how wars of liberation affected mechanisms of international humanitarian law, notably through the work of the ICRC. The second section explores the impact of decolonisation and wars of liberation on the legal frameworks for refugee assistance. Finally, the chapter discusses the political implications of development and human rights in a Cold War context. as far back as the sixteenth century (Hacker, 1978: 134–37). However, the political aspirations of the wars of liberation, and the geopolitical changes they produced, intensified the challenges that these conflicts presented to humanitarian actors and to the construction and observance of IHL. The attempt to introduce the new category of ‘wars of liberation’ into international law, according to Antonio Cassese, began in the early 1950s. Although struggles against colonial domination occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the anticolonial conflicts after the Second World War were ‘remarkable, first, because they proliferated so rapidly and came to constitute a phenomenon of great magnitude and intensity, and, second, because “national liberation” was no longer merely a political concept, but was given a legal turn’ (Cassese, 2008: 99). For liberation movements, Cassese argues, the aim to have wars of liberation recognised as international conflicts was motivated by three main factors. First, by positioning liberation movements as a potential interlocutor and accountable to the law, it elevated the standing and legitimacy of these movements. Second, it created an opportunity for these movements to oppose the treatment of their combatants as ordinary criminals. Finally, as these movements were likely to be the weaker party in the conflict and also reliant on the support of the local population, greater respect for IHL could decrease the impact of the conflict on their members and on the civilian population around them. The ICRC began sustained reflection on the criteria for intervention in civil conflicts in the early 1950s. Four conditions were set: the events in question must reach a certain level of gravity and must involve acts of violence; they must have a certain duration (which excluded isolated rioting); the parties involved must have a certain degree of organisation; and the events must have created victims. It was also agreed that the ICRC would only act in situations where the relevant National Society was not willing and able to act effectively on behalf of victims; that the ICRC’s first approach would always be to contact the National Society to gather information and offer assistance; and that it would not act without the consent of the authorities (Rey-Schyrr, 2007). In practice, however, if the colonial powers did not view anti-colonial movements in their territories as constituting war – and most did not – then the ICRC could do little to insist. Although Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions provided for access to noninternational armed conflicts, it did not extend the full range of protections that applied during international conflicts and access for humanitarian organisations was often negotiated rather than provided for (Bartels, 2009: 64). 4.1 Wars of liberation and international humanitarian law With international norms evolving and decolonisation conflicts proliferating, wars of national liberation wrought major change upon the ICRC and also became a principal subject of contention for the organisation in its role as guardian of international humanitarian law. The international nature and global mandate of the ICRC, especially through its relationship with the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement, meant that it had longer experience of engagement outside of Western Europe and North America than many other actors. It had been active in several internal conflicts prior to the decolonisation period. Moreover, the use of guerrilla warfare tactics (almost definitive in decolonisation conflicts) had been the subject of ICRC reflection since the nineteenth century, and had troubled jurists 22 In contrast, according to an IFRC overview, international law relating to peacetime relief ‘developed in a fragmented manner’ from the 1930s onwards, through bilateral agreements, institutional mandates and specific provisions within various legal instruments (IFRC, 2007: 27). 23 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper national liberation movements against colonial powers or discriminatory regimes. It would be achieved through the revision of legal frameworks relating to conflict. This agenda was reflected in the successful campaign to have members of national liberation and anti-apartheid movements participate in the Diplomatic Conference (Hacker, 1978: 141). The first session of the Diplomatic Conference has been described as ‘one of the most bitter conferences which many of the people had ever attended’ (Suter, 1984: 129). By far the most controversial question was precisely whether wars of liberation were internal or international conflicts. The ICRC’s hope that the Diplomatic Conference would defer this issue and devote its attention to the regulation of these conflicts, as a separate issue from their status, was scuppered with the tabling of a clause declaring that Protocol I would apply to ‘armed conflicts in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes in the exercise of their right of self-determination’. This clause was indicative of the way in which ‘many states saw Protocol I as a weapon in the strategic struggle against racism and imperialism, rather than as a strictly humanitarian document for the benefit of war victims’ (Forsythe, 2005: 263; see also Suter, 1984: 145–46). In effect, by 1977 most countries had already obtained independence, and so these provisions remained largely symbolic. Tellingly, Israel and the United States refused to ratify the Protocol. The remaining sessions of the Diplomatic Conference – one a year in 1975, 1976 and 1977 – were less combative. Ultimately, however, the conference remained dominated by the agenda of the Southern states. The ICRC’s own summary of the Protocols acknowledged that ‘most of the countries that became independent after 1945 “inherited” the Geneva Conventions from the former colonial powers – the adoption of the Protocols was also an occasion for them to contribute to developing the law’ (ICRC, 2009). According to Perret and Bugnion (2011: 736), the 1977 Protocols reflected the learning that the ICRC had begun during the Algerian War. More critical analyses have interpreted the drafting of the Protocols as part of the declining influence of the ICRC in relation to the formulation of IHL: it was ‘much more important in the development of the 1929 [Geneva Convention] on prisoners of war than it was in the development of the 1977 Protocols’ (Forsythe, 2005: 264). This was reflective of the way the shift in global power undermined some elements of Western dominance in international norms. The ICRC endeavoured with varying degrees of success to offer humanitarian assistance during wars of liberation and East– West proxy wars. Its contribution during the Indochinese War (1945–54) was limited, partly because of budget restrictions but also because it had chosen to prioritise relief work in Palestine during this period. The reluctance of the communist resistance movements to cooperate with the ICRC was exacerbated by the fact that it was dependent on the French occupying forces for communications and transport (Forsythe, 2005: 75). During the Korean War, it likewise found itself too closely identified with the agenda of a Western power, in this case the United States, which was fighting alongside South Korean and allied forces against the communist North. In effect, ‘most communist governments gave it little or no cooperation during the Cold War, seeing the organization – not entirely incorrectly – as a bourgeois organization of the liberal West’ (ibid.: 53). It was active during the Algerian War (1954–62), though had trouble navigating between the belligerents in this very brutal conflict (see Branche, 1999; Perret and Bugnion, 2011). As one expert on IHL and the ICRC puts it, ‘respect for humanitarian law was indeed sorely lacking in the armed conflicts which were the direct consequences of the Cold War’ (Bugnion, 2000: 43). The issue of humanitarian provision during wars of liberation was also occupying the UN General Assembly (Hacker, 1978: 140). In 1968, Resolution 2396 on apartheid declared that ‘freedom fighters should be treated as prisoners of war under international law’. In 1970, Resolution 2674 (XXV), introduced by Sudan – which had gained its independence 15 years before – sought to secure better protection for ‘civilian populations and freedom fighters against colonial and foreign domination as well as against racist regimes’. Between 1968 and 1977, each regular session of the General Assembly passed at least one resolution relating to IHL, most often through the prism of ‘respect for human rights in armed conflicts’ (Bugnion, 2000: 45). These internal, anti-colonial or anti-imperialist conflicts conditioned the drawn-out negotiations that eventually led to the two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions, the first of which added wars of liberation to the category of international armed conflict, and the second of which elaborated on obligations during non-international armed conflict. It is now considered that the main humanitarian contribution of the Protocols was to improve protection for non-combatants, especially civilians, through Articles 35–67 of Protocol I and Articles 13–17 of Protocol II (Bugnion, 2000: 45). The ICRC prepared draft texts for the Protocols, as it had for the 1949 Geneva Conventions, to be debated in various forums prior to their passing into international law. However, the 1974–77 Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law that led to the adoption of the protocols was much more strongly shaped by the participation of Southern or non-aligned nations than had been the case for any previous conferences on IHL. Many of these countries favoured the ‘internationalisation’ of wars of liberation, which would legitimise the claims of 4.2 UNHCR and global emergency and refugee frameworks The Cold War saw a sharp rise in the number of people crossing international borders in search of refuge in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East. By 1970, the total number of African refugees exceeded one million; by 1980, that figure had risen to an estimated 3.5m (Bascom, 1995: 197–98). 24 HPG working paper Often, the same states that generated refugee movements also hosted large numbers of refugees from other countries. Cold War hostilities meant that ‘Western governments came to perceive assistance to refugees as a central part of their foreign policy towards newly independent states, thus using foreign aid as one of the principal tools in this East-West struggle for rivalry’ (Loescher, 2001a: 10). On an operational level, this global situation proved both a challenge and an opportunity for UNHCR, which vastly expanded its resources, capacity, mandate and geographic scope. It also required the revision of the legal frameworks that supported UNHCR’s work. Over time, international refugee frameworks had viewed their work through different lenses. The agreement creating the Nansen passports for Russian refugees in 1922 had nothing to say about causes of displacement or the definition of ‘refugee’ status. This approach was repeated in the 1933 and 1938 Refugee Conventions, which also constructed the term ‘refugee’ according to ethnic group or country of origin (Skran, 1995: 72). The 1933 Convention hence referred to Russian, Armenian, Turkish, Assyrian, Assyro-Chaldean and Turkish refugees, while the 1938 law applied to ‘refugees coming from Germany’.23 Following the Second World War, definitions of refugees shifted from a focus on ethnicity to a focus on the reasons for flight. The 1951 Refugee Convention used a definition of refugee status based not on group characteristics but on individual experience. The Convention also placed a crucial time limit on this definition, which applied only to people displaced ‘as a result of events occurring before 1 January 1951’, effectively limiting governments’ obligations to respond and confining its context to the immediate post-war period. The statute of UNHCR itself was less restrictive than the Convention. One of its refugee definitions omitted the clause limiting its responses to events before January 1951. Its Statute also contained provision for the High Commissioner’s ‘good offices’ to be used at the behest of the General Assembly in situations of displacement outside of its mandate. This mechanism allowed UNHCR to assist Hungarian refugees fleeing Soviet military action against the popular uprising in Budapest in 1956. The Statute also provided a basis for assistance to Chinese refugees in Hong Kong in 1949–50, in a period during which ‘the UNHCR barely touched the world outside Europe’ (UNHCR, 2000: 6). The agency then expanded its reach into North Africa and beyond. The Algerian War of Independence was an important early example of UNHCR involvement in a major decolonisation crisis and the first time it had responded to an official request for assistance from a non-European government. The young Red Crescent Societies of Tunisia and Morocco, which had gained independence in 1954, were quickly overwhelmed by the thousands of Algerians fleeing the conflict, and the Tunisian government appealed directly to UNHCR for assistance (see Elie, 2007). Meanwhile, 23 Assyrians are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia (now Iraq). Assyro-Chaldeans are ethnic Assyrian adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church. A history of the humanitarian system upheavals in the Congo and the Great Lakes region showed the need for refugee assistance in Sub-Saharan Africa. Remarkably, by the mid-1960s the majority of refugees being assisted by UNHCR were not covered by the UN Refugee Convention. To rectify this anomaly, the definition of refugee status was again revised, this time reflecting the global nature of the refugee problem. The 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees removed the time limitation of ‘events occurring before 1 January 1951’. Once drafted, it came into force remarkably quickly: instead of the traditional consultative process calling for the participation of all governments that had ratified the original treaty, only six states needed to accept the Protocol to bring it into force (UNHCR, 2000: 56). Moreover, the fact that states could adhere to the Protocol without ratifying the 1951 Convention opened it up to more signatories, including notably the United States. In the years after the Protocol, UNHCR expanded its geographic reach, developing programmes of assistance for those outside its original ‘refugee’ mandate, including ‘those displaced within the borders of their own countries, returnees (refugees or internally displaced people who have returned), asylum-seekers (whose formal status has not yet been assessed), stateless people, war-affected populations and others’ (UNHCR, 2000: 3). In step with this expansion, due in large part to its own initiatives, ‘UNHCR grew from a strictly nonoperational agency with no authority to appeal for funds to an institution with a long-range program emphasizing not only protection but, increasingly, material assistance’ (Loescher, 2001b: 36). The massive number of refugee and IDP populations during the Cold War was a decisive factor in the consolidation of the agency’s role in the international humanitarian system. Alongside UNHCR, regional actors also engaged with refugee frameworks in this period. Notably, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) established a Refugee Convention in 1974.24 Although the OAU Convention was drafted with the assistance of UNHCR and referred to the 1951 UN Convention as constituting ‘the basic and universal instrument relating to the status of refugees’, it expanded upon the UN definition of refugee status in one important respect. In addition to the previous definition, the OAU Refugee Convention declared that ‘the term “refugee” shall also apply to every person who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality’. Its recognition that ‘refugee problems are a source of friction among many Member States’, and its assertion of ‘a distinction between a refugee who seeks a peaceful and normal life and a person fleeing his 24 The OAU was established in Addis Ababa in 1963 by 32 signatory governments. It was disbanded in 2002 and replaced with the African Union (AU). 25 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper communications, agriculture and industry.25 Two years later, in 1950, the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Development in South and South-East Asia was established to provide economic and technical aid to Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth states in Asia. Other colonial governments were also engaging in ambitious investment projects. In 1946, France established a colonial development fund, known as FIDES, which by the second half of the 1950s had invested some $500m in France’s colonial empire. In 1950, the Belgians unveiled a ten-year plan of public investment (Wilson, 1994: 149). Truly, as one contemporary observer put it, a ‘crusade of colonial development’ was under way (Hinden, 1949). Such efforts were, however, explicitly designed to contribute to metropolitan economies at a time of severe economic crisis; by ‘colonial development’, British Colonial Secretary Arthur Creech Jones wrote in May 1947, ‘I mean not only the promotion of services and utilities that are essential for the progress of the colonial peoples, but also the provision of enterprises which expand production and increase commodities required either in or outside the territory or both’.26 For the European powers, ‘development’ was intended as a means to improve domestic economic prospects, diminish the appeal of nationalist movements and bolster colonial control. For the United States, by contrast, the purpose of development assistance was geopolitical: a means of winning newly independent states to the West and fighting off Soviet and Chinese attempts to exert control over the newly independent states of the non-aligned world (see Latham, 2011; Gilman, 2003). In his inaugural address in January 1949, President Harry Truman proclaimed ‘a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas’. Chastened by the communist victory in China later that year, and alarmed by energetic Soviet and Chinese wooing of non-aligned nations such as India and Burma, US planners under Truman and his successor, Dwight D. Eisenhower, developed extensive programmes of technical, economic and military assistance in an effort to influence political and economic change in the third world. These programmes were maintained and expanded in the 1960s under Kennedy, who oversaw a rapid and significant increase in foreign aid. In its first year, Kennedy’s administration increased economic assistance to developing countries by just under 25%; between 1960 and 1963, aid grew by a third. Meanwhile, parallel administrative changes overhauled and streamlined the institutional architecture of US overseas aid. The Peace Corps and Food for Peace programmes were set up in early 1961, and in November the various aid programmes 25 ‘Report of the Colonial Development Working Party’, 11 October 1948, UK National Archives, PREM8/923. 26 ‘Development of Colonial Resources’, draft memorandum by Creech Jones, May 1947, UK National Archives, CAB124/1083. country for the sole purpose of fomenting subversion from outside’, were also new in comparison to the UN documents and were arguably a departure from the more muted politics that characterised previous refugee statements. 4.3 Decolonisation, development and human right While acute crises caused by conflict and natural hazards – what Mark Duffield would later describe as ‘permanent emergency’ – fuelled the humanitarian system’s expansion during the Cold War, this period also saw the arrival of the ‘development agenda’. Across a number of fronts, the notion took hold that technical assistance would assist the countries of the so-called ‘third world’ to catch up with the industrialised societies of Europe and North America. The leaders of Asia and Africa’s newly independent nations recognised the need for rapid change; according to Kwame Nkrumah, the first leader of independent Ghana, ‘What other territories have taken three hundred years or more to achieve, a once dependent territory must try to accomplish in a generation if it is to survive. Unless it is, as it were, “jet-propelled”, it will lag behind and thus risk everything for which it has fought’ (cited in Westad, 2005: 91). As Nkrumah’s comment showed, post-colonial development was explicitly linked to the anti-colonial struggle. Although the concept of development became a key part of the UN’s international agenda from the late 1940s onwards, it has its roots in modernisation and assistance programmes and colonial development. After the United States took control of the Philippines from Spain in 1898, for instance, it undertook a series of programmes designed to remedy what was taken at the time to be Spanish neglect and Filipino ineptitude. The League of Nations and non-governmental actors were also active; for instance, in the 1920s, following a devastating famine in North China, the League and various NGOs were involved in development-style activities designed to encourage social and cultural change notably relating to agricultural practice (Ekbladh, 2010: 14–39). Technical assistance programmes, such as that of the UN’s Technical Assistance Agency (1950– 59), owed a debt to colonial management under the auspices of the League’s mandate system as well as those of direct imperial rule (Webster, 2011: 250). In imperial Britain, the Labour government under Ramsay MacDonald set up a Colonial Development Fund in 1929 to provide £1m a year in development spending. In 1940, the wartime coalition introduced the Colonial Development and Welfare Act, setting aside an annual £5m over ten years, later extended to £120m. Under the Overseas Resources Development Act, passed in February 1948, two new public organisations, the Colonial Development Corporation and the Overseas Food Corporation, were set up to oversee the government’s development efforts. Together, these bodies enjoyed borrowing powers from the UK Treasury of over £150m. By the latter half of 1948, development plans worth nearly £200m had been approved, covering social services, 26 HPG working paper that had grown up in piecemeal fashion under Eisenhower were organised under a new ‘super-agency’, the US Agency for International Development (USAID) (Latham, 2000: 81). The 1960s, Kennedy told the UN in January 1961, would be the ‘Decade of Development’. From the 1950s until the late 1970s, as shown in Arturo Escobar’s critical account, the issue of development dominated discussions of Africa, Asia and Latin America (Escobar, 1994). It permeated the work of international agencies. The shift from emergency relief to development is well illustrated by the experience of UNICEF. Originally created in 1946 to continue the work of UNRRA amongst war-affected children, as this type of need subsided in the early 1950s UNICEF decided to continue its work beyond Europe. This had not been the original aim, but it was made possible by the inclusion in UNICEF’s founding resolution of a reference to its work ‘for child health purposes generally’ (UNICEF, 2006: 5). This clause had been proposed by Ludwik Rajchman, the organisation’s founding father, to allow it to build a specialisation in disease control and prevention. However, when UNICEF’s charter came up for review in 1950, developing nations lobbied the UN for the agency’s work to be expanded: ‘How, asked the delegate from Pakistan [Ahmed Shah Bokhari], could the task of international action for children be regarded as complete when so many millions of children in Asia, Africa and Latin America languished in sickness and hunger not because of war, but because of age-old poverty?’ (Black, 1996: 8). A series of studies has highlighted how a range of agencies including the World Bank, FAO, WHO and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) pushed the development agenda in the post-war years. Created at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, the World Bank moved decisively into development only once its utility in its other aim, European reconstruction, was undermined by the Marshall Plan. This process was not straightforward or free from internal conflict, as it required the reorientation of the Bank’s institutional model – to become less of a bank, in effect, and more of a development agency (see Alacevich, 2009). FAO too shifted its attention to the global problem of starvation, urging that ‘the same sense of urgency’ be shown as during the Second World War, because ‘this is a war against starvation and we must have the weapons to fight it’ (cited in Staples, 2006: 84). FAO’s Freedom from Hunger Campaign, instigated in 1960, exemplified its development focus, combining analysis, action and people-to-people approaches to fundraising and bringing NGOs into closer cooperation with the organisation. Under the leadership of its creator, B. R. Sen, FAO Director-General between 1956 and 1967, the organisation was transformed and its budget increased by roughly 350% (Jachertz and Nützenadel, 2011: 114).27 27 Prior to taking up his position in FAO, Sen was a senior figure in the relief effort for the Bengal famine of 1943. His is one example of a common trajectory in which individuals moved between colonial administration and international governance (see a French example in Taithe and Lachenal, 2009). A history of the humanitarian system Uptake of the development agenda by NGOs was not simply a product of government or UN activities, but was certainly related to it. Increased amounts of official funding fuelled NGOs’ programmes to address poverty-related problems in the ‘third world’. In one striking example, by the end of the 1960s Oxfam was spending less than 10% of its budget on disaster response: more than 50% was used on medical and welfare projects in areas unaffected by any emergency, and 40% went on agricultural development and technical training (Whitaker, 1983: 22). That this shift did not occur without tensions is clear from the organisation’s 1964 conference, when Arthur Gaitskell, a veteran of development schemes in Sudan, argued that ‘to respond to charity for those in blatant distress requires merely Yes or No ... It is a sign-posted road. You follow it or you don’t. To respond to an interest in world development is a very different matter. This is a jungle of uncertainties and confusing tracks’ (cited in ibid.: 24). Although many would today contest Gaitskell’s claims about the straightforwardness of relief work, this comment hints at the internal difficulties raised by the move into development as the debate crystallised tensions between radicals and conservatives within the organisation. The shift into development work was also complicated, for many actors, by the relationship between development and rights in the Cold War context. Unlike earlier international documents that focused on minority rights, the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights spoke of the human rights of the individual (Mazower, 2004). It addressed both civil and political rights (in Articles 1–21) and economic, social and cultural rights (Articles 22–28). The profile of human rights was maintained, indeed increased, throughout the peak of the Cold War period: ‘interest in human rights was a distinctive feature of the intensely optimistic atmosphere that characterized much of the immediate post-colonial moment’ (Burke, 2006: 951). However, the terrain of rights was influenced by the polarised geopolitical environment of East–West rivalry, epitomised by the splitting of the 1976 International Covenants on human rights into two documents – the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Because of their commitment to development and desire to defend hard-won political power, newly independent nations tended to favour economic and social rights over civil and political rights. While, broadly speaking, Western European states and the United States tended towards civil and political rights, ‘the West was willing to cede power to the smaller countries on human rights questions in exchange for solidarity in Cold War security matters elsewhere in the UN’ (Burke, 2008: 278). This privileging of one set of rights over another, broadly understood as the promotion of collective development over individual freedoms, was evident in the final proclamation of the First UN International Conference on Human Rights, held in Tehran in 1968, which asserted that ‘the full realisation of civil and political rights without the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights is impossible’, and that respect for 27 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper always without difficulty, and techniques and methodologies had to be reconsidered. Even so, some of the shortcomings of the international humanitarian system highlighted by decolonisation have remained a concern ever since. Despite recalibrations in the functioning of the United Nations, the international architecture of aid has been slow to adapt to the ‘new’ balance of North–South relations, and calls for reform have been ongoing for decades. Respect for the Geneva Conventions and other laws of war or human rights protections has never been consistent, and access during internal conflicts, for instance for the protection of detainees, remains difficult. Legal recognition of the category of ‘wars of liberation’ has not been echoed by the extension of IHL into other types of civil conflicts, with the result that there are few legal frameworks for the regulation of such conflicts and they remain dominated by the principle of respect for state sovereignty (Cassese, 2008: 126–27). The question of how human rights fit with humanitarianism, historically and in current practice, has not been fully resolved. Ongoing shortcomings in responses to protection challenges, seen starkly and with devastating consequences in the closing stages of the Sri Lankan civil war, speak to the complexity of this issue. The way that development efforts – which, as has been demonstrated, have their origins in a very specific historical context – relate to relief actions also remains problematic. Although an understanding of the historical context and in particular the period of rapid normative change during and after decolonisation may not provide the answers, it is an essential part of understanding dynamics currently at play. human rights was ‘dependent upon sound and effective … economic and social development’ (cited in ibid.: 288; see also Burke, 2010). By the 1970s, this insistence upon economic and social rights had hardened into the promotion of a ‘third generation’ of rights (after the first two Eurocentric generations) based on solidarity and collectivism. They included the right to freedom from colonialism and the right to development. Adherence to civil and political rights was sometimes cast by the leaders of newly independent countries as an attempt to derail economic progress or force Western values upon cultures to which they were alien. Due to the assertion of cultural relativism and the ideological polarisation that affected rights debates, it was not until 1986 that the right to development, blending socioeconomic and civil/political rights, became the subject of a UN declaration; it took until the Second UN World Conference on Human Rights in 1993 for the inalienable nature of this right to become the subject of official consensus (Sengupta, 2000). The influence of the ‘rights-based approach’ to humanitarianism has had a significant impact upon the way that principles are discussed and understood (Leader, 2000: 48), is not unrelated to this evolution of broader rights frameworks. The transformation that the international aid architecture underwent as a result of the wars of liberation and the decolonisation process more generally was reflected across a range of areas. International and transnational actors had to adjust to speaking to – indeed, being influenced by – a new set of interlocutors. Normative frameworks were revised, not 28 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 5 The emergence of a humanitarian knowledge community It has been several decades since the formal international humanitarian system has been clearly identified as such. This study argues that, although its history goes much further back, the 1970s were a crucial period in the galvanisation of a humanitarian system and profession, with key institutions, analytical networks, government departments, forums for dialogue and eventually professional accreditation identifiable from this time onwards. Taken together, these various elements can be considered as marking the advent of a humanitarian knowledge community, a network of interconnected actors whose objectives and thinking, while never unanimous or uniform, began to coalesce into collective methods for improving humanitarian response. This chapter traces the development of a humanitarian knowledge community at key moments across the twentieth century and especially, decisively, from the 1970s onwards. The idea of the ‘knowledge community’ is more accommodating than that of the ‘epistemic community’, the network of knowledge-based experts that Peter Haas has explored in relation to international policy (Haas, 1992).28 The chapter does not seek to examine the question of the legitimacy or authenticity of expertise as such, but rather traces the channels by which knowledge has been shared and the institutional developments that have supported this aim. The first section discusses examples of knowledge and information in the 1920s and 1950s, each marked by the differing types of internationalism that followed the world wars. The second section analyses the rapid proliferation of new forums and bodies, notably aimed at greater coordination, research and institution-building, which occurred following the formative experiences of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The final section of the chapter uses the example of the post-disaster shelter and housing sector to highlight the gradual appearance of a humanitarian knowledge community by the 1980s. created for national purposes and some with an international audience in mind. They also reflected the thinking of the day, with shifting approaches to caring for others having an impact upon the type of information being shared, the way it was framed and the audience it addressed. One of the most common methods used by humanitarian actors seeking to expand their networks of discussion was the issuing of a regular publication such as a newsletter or journal. Many of these began as members-only publications and gradually broadened their audiences. They often served the dual aims of advancing ‘scientific’ knowledge about humanitarian practice, while promoting a particular organisation’s agenda and contributions or its fundraising activities. The ICRC’s periodical, The International Review of the Red Cross, which began life in 1869 as the Bulletin International des Sociétés de Secours aux Militaires Blessés, has cultivated expertise in international law. The LRCS launched a journal in 1920, the International Review of Public Health, available in English, French, Spanish and Italian. Also in 1920, SCF began publishing The World’s Children, a bi-monthly magazine that combined publicity materials with operational data such as nutrition analyses. Its attempt to raise awareness about child welfare issues won it the dubious honour of being described as the ‘most melancholy magazine in existence’ (The Glasgow Bulletin, cited in Baughan, 2012). These interwar publications reflected the internationalism of the period and the belief that rational progress could come through properly organised humanitarian action. One of the most notable initiatives of the interwar period in light of the later, more articulated humanitarian knowledge community was the research and dissemination work of the International Relief Union (IRU). Founded in 1927 at the instigation of Giovanni Ciraolo, the President of the Italian Red Cross, the IRU is a significant example of a humanitarian forum that was international by design and internationalist in mentality. Ciraolo’s original vision of the IRU (cited in Hutchinson, 2000: 24) was an organisation that would respond to 5.1 Knowledge development and information sharing following the world wars Although, as we shall see, the number of initiatives leading towards a humanitarian knowledge community in the 1970s is striking, they are conspicuous precisely for their number and not so much for their novelty. Indeed, there were significant precedents and precursors for the knowledge community that took shape in the final quarter of the twentieth century. They operated within and across different social groupings, some 28 The full definition Haas (1992: 3) used was ‘a network of professionals with recognized expertise and competence in a particular domain and an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within that domain or issue-area’. upheavals due to natural forces … the spread of dangerous epidemics; a disturbance of the social conditions … which unexpectedly cuts off the minimum supplies indispensable for normal existence; the consequences of war, in so far as they may have deprived a people of the resources or the power to meet, without assistance, the immediate needs of its collective life; [or] the threatened exhaustion of the race through the lack, in the hour of need, of the barest provision for the safety of its children. 29 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper international scientific committee under IRU auspices, to coordinate the efforts of national study committees and convene events (ibid.: 42). This structure within the IRU, involving national committees of experts, recognised the reality that countries accumulated knowledge based on their own experience of emergencies. The case of the US experience of natural disasters illustrates this point. The ARC’s turn-of-the-century expertise in natural disaster response has already been mentioned. Following the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, which remains one of the largest urban disasters in US history (Strupp, 2006), various reports were compiled as an effort to share information about the response. The Californian state government issued its own report two years afterwards (Lawson et al., 1908). One of the most notable was the San Francisco Relief Survey (1913), a collective volume authored by both academics and humanitarian actors. It aimed to offer ‘a book of ready reference for use on occasions of special emergency’ (O’Connor et al., 1913: iii–iv). After heavy flooding of the Mississippi River in the 1920s and 1930s – for which an IRU offer of assistance was declined by the US government – researchers such as Gilbert F. White examined the effects of and responses to flooding (see White, 1942). One notable event was the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, which displaced a reported 700,000 people and had a significant impact on attitudes towards the role of the federal government in disaster response (Barry, 1998). These research efforts took institutional form in the midtwentieth century. In 1957, the American anthropological journal Human Organization published a special issue on ‘Human Adaptation to Disaster’. The editors noted with approval the increase in disaster studies, even if ‘the papers do not point to a “disasterology”’ (Demerath and Wallace, 1957: 1); a bibliography included in the issue ran to ten pages (Rayner, 1957). In 1959 and 1961 the Disaster Research Group of the US National Academy of Sciences published inventories of research on the social scientific study of disasters (Disaster Research Group, 1961). The first university research centre devoted to the social scientific study of disasters dates from the same period: the Disaster Research Center (DRC) founded by Henry (E. L.) Quarantelli and Russell Dynes at Ohio State University in 1963. The picture that emerges from this rapid survey is of a rich country with a sophisticated research infrastructure whose experience of major natural disasters – including floods, earthquakes, hurricanes and droughts – contributed to its strong engagement with knowledge development and knowledge sharing processes. Of course, knowledge sharing was not restricted to issues around natural disaster response (and the IRU itself had this restriction forced upon it). The discipline of refugee studies, often closely tied with situations of conflict, took form in the 1920s in light of the mass displacement of the First World War and its satellite conflicts. According to Claudena Skran and Carla N. Daughtry (2007: 17), most research works of In reality, the 1927 Convention founding the IRU provided a far more restricted scope for its activities, which were to address ‘misfortunes and disturbances due to force majeure (act of God), when they affect entire populations, when their consequences are such as to exceed the normal provisions of even a provident Government, and when they are of an exceptional character in the stricken countries’ (cited in Hutchinson, 2001: 264). Although – with its operations severely underfunded and limited to situations of force majeure – the IRU had little practical impact, it made a significant contribution to knowledge-building and transfer. The IRU’s research activities, by focusing on natural disasters, reflected the organisation’s constrained mandate. The aim to ‘encourage the study of preventive measures against disasters’ was part of its founding convention. Camille Gorgé (1938: 25), a member of the IRU Executive Committee, described the importance of this task in vivid terms: If the river swollen by rains bursts its banks and spreads death and desolation, the Union will, if the disaster is sufficiently extensive, hasten to the relief of the victims with all the weight of its experiences and responsibilities. But it will not merely automatically repeat its action as often as the deadly whims of nature demand; it will, as in duty bound, endeavour to overcome once and for all the fury of the waters, if only by assisting the engineer with scientific studies or giving practical advice to the Governments concerned. Over the years, the IRU constructed an impressive research programme. One of its first pieces of work was a geographic map of the incidence of natural disasters across the world, with the aim of improving preparedness, refining strategies for relief and increasing protection (Gorgé, 1938: 41). It promoted this and other research through a journal entitled Matériaux pour l’étude des calamités, first published in 1924 under the joint aegis of the IRU, the Société de géographie de Genève, the ICRC and the LRCS. The editorial of the first issue appealed for ‘international co-operation’ in their project so that ‘each calamity should be made the subject of world investigation dealing not only with past phenomena, but with those of the present day and, unfortunately, of the future’ (Editorial Committee, 1924: 6).29 The IRU also fostered national research committees, represented in a dozen countries by the late 1930s, all of which undertook research and released their own publications.30 It held its First International Conference for Protection against Disasters in Paris in September 1937. The conference proceedings produced a volume of more than 500 pages, including a call for the creation of a permanent 29 In June 1938, after 40 volumes, the journal was taken fully in hand by the IRU and became the Revue pour l’étude des calamités; in 1964 it was relaunched again as the Revue de l’Union internationale de secours. 30 They were Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Switzerland. There had also been an Austrian committee, which fell victim to the Anschluss (Gorgé, 1938: 42). 30 HPG working paper this and the following decade focused on European and Middle Eastern refugees – that is, those being assisted by the League of Nations. During the Second World War, institutional developments (in government and the NGO sector) were often focused on humanitarian responses to conflict and the organised use of knowledge was one of the key precepts of their activities. Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, research centres relating to development studies were established. In France, the Institut international de recherche et de formation en vue du développement harmonisé (IRFED) was founded in 1958. In the UK, the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) was founded in 1960 with an investment from the Ford Foundation; the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) was created in 1966. This period also saw the codification of humanitarian principles, with the ICRC’s proclamation in Vienna of the seven Fundamental Principles (see Pictet, 1979). Many of the developments in knowledge-sharing with direct links to today’s practice – mechanisms or institutions still in existence in one form or another – came about as a result of the experience of working in the late 1960s and early 1970s in what would now be termed complex emergencies. A history of the humanitarian system (now the Centre for Development and Emergency Practice (CENDEP) within Oxford Brookes University). In the same year, the LTG established the International Disaster Institute (IDI), which in 1991 was absorbed into ODI, leading to the formation of the Humanitarian Policy Group (HPG) and the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP) in 1997. In 1982 the Refugee Studies Centre (RSC) was established by Barbara Harrell-Bond at the University of Oxford. What is remarkable about these centres, apart from the concentrated period of their creation, is the breadth of their disciplinary range and the variety of their professional interests, including anthropology, medicine, public health, nutrition, engineering, geology, architecture and political science. Most of these centres favoured multidisciplinary approaches, reflecting the multifaceted and interconnected nature of humanitarian action. They also created forums for exchanging information across different groups of researchers, notably through new journals devoted to humanitarian response. LTG launched the first journal devoted to relief practice – Disasters: The International Journal of Disaster Studies and Practice – in 1977, with John Seaman as its first editor. In 1983 the International Sociological Association launched The International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, edited by Quarantelli. Many of the major bilateral donor organisations in Europe and North America established dedicated emergency units during the 1970s (see Kent, 1987: 52–53). Again, the United States was something of a forerunner, having established the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance in 1964. Switzerland’s Directorate for Cooperation Assistance and Humanitarian Aid was established within the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs in 1972. The UK’s Overseas Development Administration established a Disaster Unit in 1974. In 1975 the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) established a Section for Emergency Relief Assistance. In the same year the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs established an Emergency and Humanitarian Aid Section. In 1978 the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) established an International Humanitarian Assistance Division and the West German Ministry of Foreign Affairs established Section 301. Despite the prevalence of natural disasters in Australia, centralised coordination mechanisms were slower to develop there, with a 1984 study noting that ‘data collection and vulnerability analysis are just commencing and the wider implications of economic loss and recurring threats to life have not yet been turned into successful mitigation measures at the national level’ (Leivesley, 1984: 88). A similar process of institution-building was underway within the UN agencies. In 1971 UNICEF established the Office of the Emergency Operations Coordinator. WHO established an Emergency Relief Operations Office in 1974. The following year, FAO created the Office for Special Relief Operations 5.2 Institutional innovation in operations, research and funding The combined effect of traumatic experiences in Biafra, Bangladesh and the 1970 Peruvian earthquake (where international agencies and donors ‘invaded’ Peru and overwhelmed the Peruvian government) influenced a series of institutional innovations for emergency response (Kent, 1987). In Frederick Cuny’s summary, ‘the inadequacy of the response to meet the widespread needs in Bangladesh and the failure of voluntary agencies to perform well in many of the tasks asked of them, especially in nonmedical fields, led many relief workers to call for a reappraisal of the relief system’ (Cuny: 1983: 20). Changes occurred on a variety of fronts, though they often shared the theme of improving coordination. Researchers analysed past experiences; governments and intergovernmental agencies, including UN bodies, created new institutions and departments for humanitarian response; NGOs established new networks to improve their own effectiveness. The momentum generated by these crises saw the emergence of a suite of new disaster research groups. In 1971, a group of postgraduates in London University, who had worked in East Pakistan, Ethiopia and elsewhere, established the London Technical Group (LTG) to encourage the growth of disaster studies (Rivers, 1978). In a separate initiative, though with the LTG’s advice, Michel Lechat established the Centre for the Research and Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) within the School of Public Health at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium in 1972. In 1976 the University of Colorado established the Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center (now the Natural Hazards Center), and in 1978 Ian Davis and colleagues established a Disasters and Settlements Unit within the Department of Architecture at Oxford Polytechnic 31 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper publications in the 1980s both reflected and reinforced this trend, including Amartya Sen’s Poverty and Famines (1981), Frederick Cuny’s Disasters and Development (1983), Peter Macalister-Smith’s International Humanitarian Assistance: Disaster Relief Actions in International Law and Organization (1985), Barbara Harrell-Bond’s Imposing Aid: Emergency Assistance to Refugees (1986), Bernard Kouchner’s Charity Business (1986), Jean-Christophe Rufin’s Le piège, quand l’aide humanitaire remplace la guerre (1986) and Randolph Kent’s Anatomy of Disaster Relief: The International Network in Action (1987). Many of these works remain influential today. (as a successor to the Office for Sahelian Operations) and WFP established an Emergency Unit. UNHCR established its Emergency Office in 1980. Concurrently, at a global, centralised level, plans had been underway for the creation of a new UN entity to serve as a focal point for disaster relief. In December 1971 the General Assembly approved the establishment of the Office of the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator. UNDRO faced several obstacles from the outset. First, its mandate was poorly defined: while it had clear responsibility for relief coordination after ‘natural’ disasters, the meaning of several references to ‘other disaster situations’ was not clear and became particularly sensitive in cases of what would later be identified as complex emergencies (Macalister-Smith, 1980: 378). Second, it faced constant resourcing difficulties. Even with additions to the initial figures, UNDRO’s annual allocation for assistance was only $200,000, with $20,000 the maximum that could be spent on any single disaster (Kent, 1987: 54). Third, although UNDRO established partnerships with other UN agencies, it faced difficulties in gaining acceptance from some UN agencies and member states. UNHCR, in an expansionist phase, put up some of the fiercest resistance (Loescher, 2001: 152). No fewer than 11 resolutions affirming the need to reinforce coordination were passed by 1990, suggesting that, despite official agreement on the issue, member states were reluctant to act on their commitments (Ryfman, 2008: 67). UNDRO’s difficulties recalled those of the IRU in the 1930s – ‘the instrument of co-operation has been forged and the machinery for mutual assistance is there; all that is lacking is the will to use it’ (Gorgé, 1938: 9). After 20 years UNDRO was replaced by DHA as part of Resolution 46/182, adopted by the General Assembly in December 1991. After East Pakistan there was also more explicit recognition amongst NGOs of the need to work together more effectively. One initiative was the creation in 1972 of the League of Red Cross Societies-Voluntary Agencies Steering Committee in Geneva (commonly referred to as the LICROSS/Volag Steering Committee and now known as the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response (SCHR)). This brought together the LRCS, CRS, the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), Oxfam and the Church World Service. Another innovation in this period was the creation of a Unit for Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Relief Coordination within the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO), in 1977.31 The unit had various aims, including the provision of basic relief supplies and technical assistance during aid efforts, disaster preparedness planning, training for field staff and ‘problem-solving research’ (Inside the Agencies, 1977a: 174). The cumulative effect of these developments was felt in the 1980s. With governments investing in relief as well as development, NGOs and international agencies seeking coordination and dedicated researchers sharing findings, a knowledge community began to take shape. A series of major 31 PAHO is also the American regional office of WHO. 5.3 Knowledge formation: the example of the postdisaster shelter and housing sector Although the need for shelter is regarded as a basic and fundamental condition for dignity as well as survival, the development of a shared body of knowledge and practice for shelter needs in situations of crisis was slow in coming. Despite countless examples of settlement crises during the twentieth century alone, on the cusp of the 1980s experts remained concerned that ‘our knowledge of post-disaster housing is still in its infancy’ (Davis, 1978: 106). Early examples of major disasters point to the existence of shelter and housing operations well before the emergence of a knowledge community around these practices. An illustrative example is the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which destroyed 250,000 homes, the response to which included the use of tents, barracks and cottages as temporary housing (Ashmore, 2011: 109). A major investigation by researchers from the University of California, Berkeley, published its findings in the two-volume Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission in the years after the earthquake (Lawson et al., 1908/1910). Their research led to a number of discoveries that have underpinned seismology since that time (Zoback, 2006). Another highly influential event in terms of the understanding of seismology and disaster response thinking was the 1908 earthquake in Messina, Italy, which stimulated numerous studies by Italian scholars and others and prompted plans for the IRU (see Pino et al., 2009). The case of Japan indicates the existence of communities of disaster and specifically shelter-related expertise beyond these Western examples. The Committee for Investigating the Prevention of Earthquake Disasters, generally known as the Earthquake Investigation Committee, was appointed in 1892; from 1897, the committee published selected research in foreign languages in order to share its findings on topics such as empirical, geological and meteorological investigations and the testing of the earthquake resistance of different building materials and techniques. Japanese seismologists and the Japanese Red Cross Society were sent to San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake. In 1923, the Great Kanto earthquake struck Tokyo and Yokohama, followed by major fires; nearly 142,000 people died and some 700,000 homes were destroyed 32 HPG working paper (James, 2011; see also Schencking, 2008). The government issued an English translation of its own comprehensive report under the title The Great Earthquake of 1923 in Japan detailing the damage and responses (Imperial Japanese Government, 1926). However, the fact that this report was overlooked by several crucial later studies suggests that truly global knowledge sharing has at times been very partial. It was not until the 1950s that more effective initiatives emerged to share learning across different stakeholders in the shelter and housing sector. The first World Conference on Earthquake Engineering was held in Berkeley, California, in 1956 – marking the fiftieth anniversary of the San Francisco earthquake. The conference had a global focus, with presentations on experiences and practices in Japan, Germany, Colombia, Chile, New Zealand, Turkey, Pakistan, Greece, Mexico, Italy and the United States.32 The Second World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, held in Japan in 1960, included presentations from Soviet scientists on earthquake-resistant buildings in the Soviet Union, at a time when information-sharing between East and West was extremely rare. As in the broader field of humanitarian response and coordination, attention on housing and shelter began to grow at the beginning of the 1970s.33 In addition to the experience of mass displacement during the East Pakistan crisis, the shelter and housing sector was also strongly influenced by the experience of the Gediz earthquake in Turkey in 1970, which killed over 1,000 people (see Mitchell, 1976). Also important was the work done by Oxfam and World Neighbours in Guatemala following an earthquake there in 1976 (see Oxfam America, 1977). Contemporary studies – and experts since – acknowledge the Guatemala project as ‘an innovation in post-disaster policies’ because it ‘did not attempt to build large quantities of houses; rather to teach the survivors ways of building their own safe houses, whilst still using traditional skills and materials’ (Davis, 1978: 107; Ashmore, Leon and D’Urzo, 2010: 90). It was extensively evaluated and became extremely influential. Similarly oriented publications from outside the relief sector, such as the edited volume Freedom to Build: Dweller Control of the Housing Process (Turner and Fichter, 1972), also shaped the thinking of humanitarian practitioners. These experiences contributed to institutional developments and practice-oriented knowledge-sharing efforts throughout the 1970s. In 1971, Cuny, a Texan construction engineer, established the Intertect Relief and Construction Corporation. Within the space of only a few years, Intertect’s operational support and 32 The full proceedings are available online, at http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/ wcee/first_conf_California. 33 On the question of the causes of needs relating to shelter and housing, a review of Oxfam’s shelter work during the 1970s noted that ‘We are all aware of the needs of hundreds of millions of human beings, who live in appalling slums, where life is indeed a daily disaster situation for which so little is being done … We are hard pressed to find, with few exceptions, programmes working at slum improvement or the shelter problems of refugees’ (Howard and Mister, 1979: 139). Italics in original. A history of the humanitarian system practical guides had had a significant impact on the sector (Davis, 1978: 106; see Cuny, 1971; Cuny, 1975). An advisory and training role was also developed by the Appropriate Re-construction Training and Information Centre (ARTIC), established by Oxfam, Intertect and the Salvation Army after the 1977 Andhra Pradesh cyclone and storm surge (Winchester, 1979). NGOs’ technical guides, such as the first edition of Oxfam’s guide to using plastic sheeting, issued in 1973, also began to circulate. Sharing of knowledge was encouraged through conferences such as a meeting on ‘Disasters and Settlements – Towards an Understanding of the Key Issues’, convened by Oxford Polytechnic in 1978. However, much like today, these events faced criticism for their exclusivity: ‘why hold a conference devoted to the needs of the poor within the secure environment of western affluence; why not in Dacca or Manila?’ (conference participants, cited in Davis, 1978: 114). One prominent feature of 1970s shelter literature, not unconnected with this appeal, is its emphasis on beneficiary participation. Studies that adopted a long-term perspective were able to demonstrate that ‘present-day problems might have been averted, or moderated, if [social and cultural] values had been considered before providing housing’ (Hirschon and Thakurdesai, 1978: 249). This insight was derived from the case of refugees from Asia Minor who had settled in Greece in 1922: by 1978, roughly 86,000 people were living in ‘temporary’ accommodation provided decades before. Other studies of more recent housing solutions also highlighted the importance of understanding beneficiary priorities when addressing shelter needs (Mitchell, 1976: 313; see also Mackay, 1978: 152). The language used by shelter experts in the late 1970s is strikingly reminiscent of more recent calls for beneficiary accountability. Ian Davis was a strong voice in this debate, declaring that ‘methods will have to be established to tie expatriate interventions to be accountable to survivors. Currently they are accountable to the agency head office, or their donor public’ (Davis, 1978: 111). Davis underlined the paramount importance of not imposing external values, whether through ignorance of local culture or a sense of superiority to it, and asserted that ‘we need to devise ways where intervenors can become accountable to the survivors of disasters’ (ibid.: 114). His point was reiterated and further explored by Everett Ressler (1978: 129) in a detailed article proposing that ‘accountability to victims should be both an operational method and a programme philosophy’. Ressler criticised the common working methods of international humanitarian responders: Victims have no voice in agency affairs and no vehicle for participating or expressing their views before their benefactors … Stereotypes and misconceptions continue to be major factors in post-disaster programming. The basis for most of these stereotypes and misconceptions in disasters can be found in the portrayal of victims as 33 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper shows that, in the 1990s, humanitarian organisations were ‘becoming bureaucratized, developing spheres of competence, and rules to standardize responses and to drive means-ends calculations. Professionalism followed, with demands for actors who had specific knowledge, vocational qualifications that derived from specialized training, and the ability to follow fixed doctrine’ (Barnett, 2005: 729). The gradual coalescing of a knowledge community in reaction to increased experience was an important phase in the history of the international system. Paradoxically, recognition of this opens up the possibility of considering research and knowledge developments in earlier periods: it becomes apparent that, prior to the Cold War, the issue was not so much a lack of experience and reflection as the dispersal of relevant analyses across different disciplines, schools or approaches. It has too often been assumed, in the absence of international coordination measures to gather these groups into one larger and more visible conversation, that they simply did not exist. The same assumption has often been made according to geographical or linguistic divisions – difficulties in accessing or understanding other cultures have inhibited a truly global sharing of knowledge on a large scale, although individual experts have always been able to bridge such divides. Some of the key figures in the shelter sector, for example, had strong links with researchers in countries such as Turkey, India and Iran, where extensive experience with earthquakes had fostered the development of expertise. Despite the increased sharing of experience since the 1970s, this process has had limitations. On the one hand, it is not clear that the greater exchange of information has necessarily led to improved practice on the ground. The experience of UNDRO is a case in point. Its failings included the ‘inability to actually direct other parts of the UN system in times of crisis’, the reluctance of other agencies to relinquish their perceived independence and the ‘problem of weak leadership’(Tsui and Myint-U, 2004: 3), issues that plagued DHA and later coordination efforts as well. Thus, while UNDRO’s weaknesses harked back to those of the IRU in the 1930s, they continue to pose a challenge for the humanitarian system despite the increase in learning and professionalisation. On the other hand, practitioner confidence in the growing body of scientific knowledge has sometimes had the effect of reinforcing patterns of power. This was neatly captured by a veteran of World Vision, who remembered that ‘we used to read the new development manuals at night and then teach the villagers what we learned the next day’ (cited in Barnett, 2011: 130). In this way, Western workers’ training and education contributed to their sense that they were justified in intervening in the ‘best interests’ of those affected by conflict or disasters, and that ‘science was on their side’. Making the humanitarian community more open to ‘outsider’ knowledge has been and remains a very challenging task. ‘helpless’ … Agencies have defined the accountability in the past viewing themselves as being primarily accountable to their source of funding, rather than to the beneficiaries (ibid.: 129–30). Ressler argued that accountability to beneficiaries required an emphasis on process rather than on predetermined final outcomes, and a re-examination of how priorities for reconstruction and programmes were determined. The role played by shelter experts in preparing the UNDRO guidelines for shelter after disaster, published in 1982, allowed the principle of beneficiary accountability to be directly transported into UN agency standards. The very first principle asserted by the guidelines was that ‘the primary resource in the provision of post-disaster shelter is the grass-roots motivation of survivors, their friends and families. Assisting groups can help, but they must avoid duplicating anything best undertaken by survivors themselves’ (UNDRO, 1982: 3). The thirteenth principle was even more explicit: ‘since the most effective relief and reconstruction policies result from the participation of survivors in determining and planning their own needs, the successful performance of assisting groups is dependent on their accountability to the recipients of their aid’ (ibid.: 4). Although there are examples of beneficiary accountability being promoted by humanitarian workers in other sectors (Wisner, O’Keefe and Westgate, 1977; Taylor, 1979), the shelter sector appears to have been particularly precocious in this respect. In 1990, the declaration of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction encouraged the expansion of the postdisaster shelter and housing sector. An increasing number of university centres, qualifications and publications became available, though the most critical breakthroughs in profile for the sector did not come until the following decade. One landmark was the creation of the Shelter Project in Cambridge in 2000 (now the Shelter Centre, based in Geneva). Events continued to play a catalytic role in focusing attention on shelter needs, particularly the Gujarat earthquake in 2001 and the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, which inspired the emphasis on ‘building back better’ also seen in responses to the Haiti earthquake of 2010.34 More broadly, beyond the shelter sector, the proliferation of aid agencies and increased donor attention in the 1990s encouraged competition and facilitated greater education and training. This was what Barnett describes as the emergence of a humanitarian ‘field’. Although he somewhat overlooks the importance of the knowledge-sharing, institutional and identity-building developments in earlier phases, Barnett 34 Despite the developments outlined above, Ian Davis (Davis, 2011: 195) characterised the 29-year period from 1972 until the Gujarat earthquake of 2001 as being one of ‘a low level of interest in shelter/reconstruction by the UN and most [of the] NGO sector’. 34 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 6 Conclusion This Working Paper has sought to provide an introduction to the emergence of the international humanitarian system. It has indicated how, as the formal system took shape from the mid-nineteenth century onwards, the international dynamics surrounding humanitarian engagement changed. So too did the beneficiaries of aid efforts and the ways in which they were understood by other actors. Missionaries and other religiously motivated actors often viewed the needs of their beneficiaries through the lens of charitable duty or the expansion of the faith, though active evangelisation did not necessarily accompany their efforts. Forms of solidarity other than religious belief have also motivated humanitarian action, as seen for instance in the politically oriented work of International Red Aid in the interwar period and other left-leaning organisations since, such as Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA). For organisations of this type, relief action has often been accompanied by the promotion of ‘justice’ for its beneficiaries. In contrast, organisations in the Red Cross/Red Crescent model have promoted impartiality as one of the cornerstones of humanitarianism. While the emphasis on impartiality has facilitated ICRC engagement in conflict since its founding in the mid-nineteenth century, the range of beneficiaries that the organisation has attempted to reach has gradually expanded from sick and wounded soldiers to include prisoners of war as well as civilians of countries under occupation or otherwise caught up in conflict. The need to respond to natural disasters, conflict and issues around ‘underdevelopment’ provided the rationale for the expansion of international humanitarian efforts into the global South during and following decolonisation, when beneficiaries outside of Europe stepped into the spotlight in their own right, rather than as colonial subjects. Although their practices were often connected, the actions of states or civil society groups without a ‘jurisdiction’ in the newly independent nations should be distinguished from the role of formally international bodies or, in the previous era, imperial and colonial powers. This expansion presented a challenge to practices developed in Europe for European victims of conflict, and not necessarily suited to the new operating environments faced by NGOs and international agencies across the globe. The process of learning and adjustment has remained a major preoccupation for a system that is inherently self-critical, but which has also struggled to implement the lessons gleaned from previous experience. Yet even a brief glance at the history of humanitarian action indicates that many of the difficulties that today’s actors face have also confronted system actors in the past. This is true, for instance, of humanitarianism’s ambiguous relationship with the media, which has been a constant since nineteenthcentury technologies such as the telegraph and the steam engine shortened the distance between suffering abroad and public interest at home. In fact, the ‘CNN effect’ has been at work for many years, as the complaints of the IRU preparatory commission made clear in 1925: public interest in disasters varies in different cases … due not so much to lack of sympathy as to lack of publicity. Some disasters seem more dramatic, more graphic, more photogenic. The Press is full of them, and the public is moved. Others, however, are regarded as of inferior journalistic value; the Press slurs them over, and the public pays them no attention (IRU preparatory commission, cited in Hutchinson, 2001: 269). The commission’s proposal was to create a fund to enable a response even in the absence of publicity – a mechanism very much akin to the CERF, established nearly 70 years later. The lesson that history repeats itself, if not in exact replica at least in the recurrence of certain features, also applies to problems such as the political instrumentalisation of aid, impediments to coordination and leadership and issues around the appropriateness of aid and the dignity of its recipients. But what can be done with this lesson once heeded? On one level, a greater awareness of past challenges – not only their existence, but also the factors that contributed to them – will help to test and refine thinking on present challenges. The direct application of previous experience is one very concrete reason why knowledge of the past should be an essential tool for humanitarian practitioners and policymakers. Yet, in another, perhaps paradoxical way, an awareness of the emergence and evolution of the formal humanitarian system may also help its stakeholders see beyond this system. By recognising it as the product of specific contexts and forces rather than an immutable and universal actor, historical analysis opens up the possibility of new ways of thinking about the future of humanitarian action. One seeming weakness of historical analysis for practice and policymaking purposes is that it does not offer clear recommendations. And yet this is one of its great strengths. The study of history is about understanding, not about prediction. Historical study can, of course, be inaccurate or inconclusive and in this sense is as imperfect a tool as any other kind of analysis. In fact, the subjective nature of historical narrative – the fact that most accounts have difficulty fully reflecting the complexity of their subject, or may choose not to do so – means that it must be approached carefully. In this more assistance is needed from historians, whose work has greatly increased understanding of relief and 35 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper policymakers and practitioners alike – to rethink this system history in ways that will help us move beyond it in the years to come. For this to be possible much more must be done to break out from the Western confines of the current narrative. While the emphasis on Western or Northern experiences reflects the reality of the system’s formation and evolution, it also overlooks the richness and depth of humanitarian cultures, contributions and practices beyond Europe and North America. A historical account that incorporates perspectives from across the world into a global narrative, where the formal system is only one piece, not the beginning and end, is the aim of HPG’s ‘Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’ project. This kind of history, despite its vast scale, must avoid simplifications and generalisations wherever possible. It is not sufficient, as the example of knowledge-sharing efforts show, to speak of ‘international’ and ‘national’ as distinct and discrete categories. Similarly, assumed divisions between ‘religious’ (or ‘faith-based’) and ‘secular’ actors must be examined and the relationship between ‘Northern’ and ‘Southern’ should not be considered one of opposition. It is essential to remember that humanitarian action in different regions across the globe did not evolve in isolation, but rather was influenced by developments in other regions and in turn shaped responses in other parts of the world. By identifying shared concerns as well as points of difference, it is hoped that this history across continents will create a firmer platform for the analysis and understanding of humanitarian action in the twenty-first century. development aid, but which as a body of knowledge remains partial, uneven, poorly articulated as a discipline in its own right and too often confined to discussions between experts. While the pace of change is rapid in all of these respects, much remains to be done to bring a critical analysis to the history of humanitarian action in a way that is accessible and relevant to contemporary practice. In order to do so, both historians and current humanitarian actors must tackle the key issues that have defined practice and thinking over time, and which shape responses today: issues such as the tension between professionalism and voluntarism; the role of faith, not only for ‘faith-based actors’ but in a range of communities implicated in humanitarian action; the relationship between state and non-state actors; the historical reality and evolution of debates around principles; or the effect and legacy of historical and cultural forces such as nationalism, colonialism, globalisation, extremism, reformism or progressivism for humanitarian operations. We must learn to think beyond our habitual concerns and link the past to the present in a way that improves outcomes for populations affected by natural disasters and conflicts and, more broadly, the way that the system interacts with affected populations. As a foundational document and a survey of current understanding, it is not the aim of this Working Paper to provide a conclusive or definitive account. Instead, it offers reflection on some important areas of the history of the formal humanitarian system and an open invitation to interested parties – historians, 36 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Annex Selected chronology Events and geopolitical developments Developments of the humanitarian system • Development of National Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies • Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (1906) • First International Congress of Lifesaving and First Aid in the Event of Accidents (Frankfurt) (1908) • Albert Schweitzer’s hospital at Lambaréné founded (1913) • CRB established (1914) • ICRC correspondence service, tracing service, visits to POWs, repatriation work; ICRC adopts role of watchdog for observance of the Geneva Conventions and laws of war • CRB food aid programmes in Europe • • • • • • • • • LRCS formed (1919) CRB superseded by ARA (1919) SCF established (1919) International Save the Children Union formed in Geneva (1920) League’s HCR established (1920) ‘Nansen passports’ used for ‘stateless’ people Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1924) IRU established (1927) Third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (1929) 1900–1914 • Colonial empire • Drought/famine in India (1899–1902) • Epidemics in India (1900) China (1909) and Uganda (1900–25) • Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) • San Francisco earthquake (1906) • Messina earthquake (1908) • Floods in China (1911) 1914–1918 • • • • • • First World War (1914–18) Armenian Genocide (1915–18) Russian Civil War (1917–22) Epidemics in India and China (1918) Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1918) Finnish Civil War (1918) 1919–1930 • • • • • • • • • Global influenza pandemic (1918–20) Versailles Peace Treaty (1919) League of Nations founded (1919) Epidemic in India (1920) Famine in the Soviet Union (1921–22) Great Kanto earthquake in Japan (1923) Chinese Civil War (1927–50) Famine in China (1928–30) Great Depression (1929–45) 1930–1939 • German refugee crisis (1930s) • Flooding of the Yellow River in China (1931, 1938) • Famine in Ukraine (1932–33) • Italo-Ethiopian war (1935) • Spanish Civil War (1936–39) • Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45) • Nansen International Office for Refugees created by League of Nations (1930) • Far-reaching health programmes in colonial territories (nutrition, disease, etc) (1930s) • International Conference of the Red Cross unable to achieve consensus on POC (1930s) • Relief mobilisation during Spanish Civil War (1936–39) • Nanking Safety Zone established (1937) • Creation of Norwegian People’s Aid (1939) 37 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Selected chronology (continued) Events and geopolitical developments Developments of the humanitarian system • Use of ‘Bengal famine mixture’ in India • Developments in Europe for temporary shelter and reconstruction of damaged urban areas • Creation of Oxfam (the Oxford Famine Relief Committee) (1942) • COBSRA founded (1942) • UNRRA established by Allied nations (1943) • CARE packages (Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere) (1945) • Adoption of UN Charter (1945) 1939–1945 • Second World War (1939–45) • Massive destruction, displacement and economic disruption affecting most areas of the world but especially Europe, Asia and Pacific • British Colonial Development and Welfare Act (1940) • British naval blockade of continental Europe • Famine in Greece (1941–44) • Great Bengal Famine (1943) • Sétif Massacre in Algeria (1945) • United Nations established (1945) • Cold War • Decolonisation process, largely in Asia: Indonesia (1945), the Philippines (1946), India and Pakistan (1947), Burma and Sri Lanka (1948), Egypt and Cambodia (1953), Vietnam and Laos (1954) • Indochinese War (1945–54) • Final meeting of League of Nations (1946) • Partition of India (1947) • Arab–Israeli conflict (1947–) • Berlin blockade and Allied airlift (1948–49) • Victory of communists in Chinese Civil War (1949) • Korean War (1950–53) • Algerian War (1954–62) • Vietnam War (1955–75) • Suez Crisis (1956) • Cuban Revolution (1959) • First UN Development Decade • Decolonisation continues, particularly in Africa: Madagascar, Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia and Nigeria (1960), Rwanda and Algeria (1962) • Construction of Berlin Wall (1961) • Start of US involvement in Vietnam (1965) • Nigerian Civil War (1967–70) • Six Day Arab–Israeli war (1967) • Nigeria/Biafra Civil War (1967–70) • Famine and drought in the Sahel (1970s) 1946–1959 • Closure of of UNRRA (1947) • Creation of UN agencies: FAO, UNICEF, WHO and IRO, later to become UNHCR (1946–51) • UNKRA created (1950–58) • UNRWA established (1948) • Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide adopted by UN General Assembly (1948) • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) • Fourth Geneva Conventions relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (1949) • Refugee Convention (1951) • PL 480 ‘Food for Peace’ introduced by US government (1954) 1960–1969 • Freedom from Hunger Campaign launched by FAO (1960) • US Peace Corps and Food for Peace programmes founded (1961) • ‘World Food Programme’ within FAO approved by UN General Assembly (1961) • USAID established (1961) • WFP established (1963) • UNDP founded (1965) • ICRC and NGO airlift in Biafra (1967–70) • First UN International Conference on Human Rights (1968) 38 HPG working paper Selected chronology (continued) A history of the humanitarian system Events and geopolitical developments Developments of the humanitarian system • UNDRO established (1971) • Office of the Emergency Operations Coordinator created within UNICEF (1971) • MSF created (1971) • Creation of LICRA (1972) • Emergency Relief Operations Office launched within WHO (1974) • ICCPR and ICESCR entered into force (1976) • Emergency unit created within PAHO (1977) • Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions adopted, following international diplomatic conferences (1977) 1970–1979 • • • • • • • • • • • Second UN Development Decade Chimbote Earthquake in Peru (1970) Gediz earthquake in Turkey (1970) East Bengal Cyclone/Storm Surge (1970) East Pakistan/Bangladesh crisis (1970–71) Sahel drought and famine (1970s); Ethiopia (1973) Floods and famine in Bangladesh (1974) US withdrawal from Vietnam (1973) and fall of Saigon (1975) Khmer Rouge period in Cambodia (1975–79) Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) Iranian Revolution (1979) 1980–1989 • Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) • President Reagan’s ‘Star Wars’ plan (1983) • African Food Crisis: famines in Mozambique (1984), Ethiopia (1984–85) and Sudan (1980s) • Armenian earthquake (1988) • Russian withdrawal from Afghanistan (1989) • Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) • Response to Cambodian famine and refugees (1980s) • Response to Afghan refugees and limited cross-border response within Afghanistan (1980s) • Amartya Sen’s ‘entitlement theory’ (1981) • BandAid/Live Aid fundraising phenomena (1984) • MSF ejected from Ethiopia (1985) • Launch of OLS (1989) • Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted (1989) • OHCHR established (1989) • UN International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990) • UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182 on coordination of humanitarian assistance; creation of ERC and IASC (1991) • In Somalia, ICRC employs armed escorts to protect its convoys and vehicles for the first time in its history (1991) • International tribunals established for former Yugoslavia (1993) and Rwanda (1994) • Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental Organisations (1994) • Accountability initiatives: ALNAP, HAP, People in Aid • The Sphere Project results in a draft Handbook of Minimum Standards and a Humanitarian Charter (1998) • ICISS established (2001) 1990–2001 • First Gulf War (1990–91) • Break-up of the Soviet Union and independence for many former Soviet states (1991) • Break-up of Yugoslavia and associated conflicts (1991–95) • US-led intervention in Somalia (1993–94) • End of apartheid in South Africa (1994) • Great Lakes crisis (1994-96): Rwanda genocide (1994), first Congo War (1996) • Hurricane Mitch in Central America (1998) • Bahr-el-Ghazal Famine in South Sudan (1998) • The Rome Statute of the ICC adopted (1998) • NATO intervention in Kosovo (1999) • September 11 attacks in New York and Washington DC(2001) • US and NATO intervention in Afghanistan (2001) • Gujarat earthquake in India (2001) 39 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 40 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Bibliography General histories and historical context Anderson, B. 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(1980) ‘Indian Famines and Peasant Victims: The Case of Bengal in 1943–44’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 14, no. 2. Jachertz, R. and A. Nützenadel (2011) ‘Coping with Hunger? Visions of a Global Food System, 1930–1960', Journal of Global History, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 121-42. Jansson, K., M. Harris and A. Penrose (1987) The Ethiopian Famine. London: Zed Books. Kirimli, H. (2003) ‘The Famine of 1921–22 in the Crimea and the Volga Basin and the Relief from Turkey’, Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 39, no. 1. Lusty, T. and P. Disket (1984) Selective Feeding Programmes. Oxford: Oxfam. Nguyen-Marshall, V. (2005) ‘The Moral Economy of Colonialism: Subsistence and Famine Relief in French Indo-China, 1906–1917’, International History Review, vol. 27, no. 2. Ó Gráda, C. (2007) ‘Making Famine History’, Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 45, no. 1. Patenaude, B. (2002) The Big Show in Bololand: The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution. Patenaude, B. (2007) ‘Food as a Weapon’, Hoover Digest, vol. 1. Natural hazards and the shelter sector Ashmore, J. (ed.) (2011) Shelter Projects 2010. Geneva and Nairobi: IFRC, UN HABITAT, UNHCR. Ashmore, J., E. Leon and S. D’Urzo (eds) (2010) Shelter Projects 2009. Geneva, Nairobi: IFRC, UN HABITAT. Corsellis, T. and A. Vitale (2005) Transitional Settlement: Displaced Populations. Oxford: Shelter Project, Oxfam. Cuny, F. (1975) Relief Operations Guidebook. Dallas, TX: Intertect. Haas, J. E., R. W. Kates and M. J. Bowden (1977) Reconstruction Following Disaster. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Davis, I. (1978) ‘Disasters and Settlements – Towards an Understanding of the Key Issues’, Disasters, vol. 2, no. 2–3. Davis, I. (2011) ‘What Have We Learned from 40 Years’ Experience of Disaster Shelter?’, Environmental Hazards, vol. 10, no. 3–4. Dynes, R. R. (2000) ‘The Dialogue Between Voltaire and Rousseau on the Lisbon Earthquake: The Emergence of a Social Science View’, International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, vol. 18, no. 1. Editorial Committee (1924) ‘Editorial Note’, Matériaux pour l’etude des calamités, vol. 1. HMSO (1907) Correspondence Relating to the Earthquake at Kingston, Jamaica, On 14tg January 1907. Imperial Japanese Government (1926) The Great Earthquake of 1923 in Japan. Tokyo: Bureau of Social Affairs, Home Office, Imperial Japanese Government. James, C. D. (2011) ‘The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire’, University of California Berkeley. Lawson, A. C. et al. (1908) The California Earthquake of April 18, 1906: Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission. Washington DC: Carnegie Institution. Mackay, M. (1978) ‘The Oxfam/World Neighbors Housing Education Programme in Guatemala’, Disasters, vol. 2, no. 2–3. 46 HPG working paper Mitchell, W. A. (1976) ‘Reconstruction after Disaster: The Gediz Earthquake of 1970’, Geographical Review, vol. 66, no. 3. O’Connor, C. J. et al. (1913) San Francisco Relief Survey: The Organization and Methods of Relief Used after the Earthquake and Fire of April 18, 1906. New York: Survey Associates. Oxfam America (1977) The Oxfam/World Neighbours Housing Reconstruction Programme Guatemala. Boston, MA: Oxfam America. Pino, N. A. et al. (2009) ‘The 28 December 1908 Messina Straits Earthquake (Mw 7.1): A Great Earthquake Throughout a Century of Seismology’, Seismological Research Letters, vol. 80, no. 2. Schencking, J. C. (2008) ‘The Great Kanto Earthquake and the Culture of Catastrophe and Reconstruction in 1920s Japan’, Journal of Japanese Studies, vol. 34, no. 2. Schilderman, T. (2010) ‘Putting People at the Centre of Reconstruction’, in G. M. Lyons and T. Schilderman (eds) Building Back Better. Rugby: Practical Action. Strupp, C. (2006) ‘Dealing with Disaster: The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906’, paper presented at the Symposium ‘San Francisco Earthquake 1906: Urban Reconstruction, Insurance, and Implications for the Future’, University of California: Berkeley, 22 March. Turner, J. F. and R. Fichter (1972) Freedom To Build: Dweller Control of the Housing Process. New York: Macmillan. White, G. F. (1942) Human Adjustment to Floods: A Geographical Approach to the Flood Problem in the United States. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Department of Geography. Winchester, P. (1979) ‘Disaster Relief Operations in Andhra Pradesh, Southern India, Following the Cyclone in November 1977’, Disasters, vol. 3, no. 2. Zoback, M. L. (2006) ‘The 1906 Earthquake and a Century of Progress in Understanding Earthquakes and Their Hazards’, GSA TODAY, vol. 16, no. 4/5. A history of the humanitarian system Simmonds, S., P. Vaughan and S. W. Gunn (eds) (1983) Refugee Community Health Care. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Skran, C. (1995) Refugees in Inter-War Europe: The Emergence of a Regime. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Skran, C. and C. N. Daughtry (2007) ‘The Study of Refugees before “Refugee Studies”’, Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 3. Taylor, A. J. (1979) ‘Emergency Sanitation for Refugees: Experiences in the Bangladesh Refugee Relief Camps, India, 1971–1972’, Disasters, vol. 3, no. 4. Toole, M. J. (1995) ‘Mass Population Displacement: A Global Public Health Challenge’, Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, vol. 9, no. 2. Toole, M. J., P. Nieburg and R. Waldman (1988) ‘The Association between Inadequate Rations, Undernutrition Prevalence, and Mortality in Refugee Camps: Case Studies of Refugee Populations in Eastern Thailan, 1979–1980, and Eastern Sudan, 1984–1985’, Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, vol. 34. Toole, M. J. and R. J. Waldman (1990) ‘Prevention of Excess Mortality in Refugee and Displaced Populations in Developing Countries’, Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 263, no. 24. Conflict response Duffield, M. (1994) ‘Complex Emergencies and the Crisis of Developmentalism’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 25, no. 4. Duffield, M. (2007) Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples. Cambridge: Polity Press. George, J. H. (1992) ‘Another Chance: Herbert Hoover and World War II Relief’, Diplomatic History, vol. 16, no. 3. Newman, E. (2004) ‘The “New Wars” Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed’, Security Dialogue, vol. 35, no. 2. Reinisch, J. (2008) ‘Introduction: Relief in the Aftermath of War’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Shephard, B. (2008) ‘“Becoming Planning Minded”: The Theory and Practice of Relief 1940–1945’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Shephard, B. (2010) The Long Road Home: The Aftermath of the Second World War. London: Bodley Head. Steinert, J.-D. (2008) ‘British Humanitarian Assistance: Wartime Planning and Postwar Realities’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Stremlau, J. (1977) The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Displacement, refugee studies and camp environments Bascom, J. B. (1995) ‘The New Nomads: An Overview of Involuntary Migration in Africa’, in J. Baker and T. A. Aina (eds) The Migration Experience in Africa. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. Chen, L. C. and R. S. Northrup (1973) ‘Framework for Disaster Relief’, in L. C. Chen (ed.) Disaster in Bangladesh. New York: Oxford University Press. Cohen, G. D. (2008) ‘Between Relief and Politics: Refugee Humanitarianism in Occupied Germany 1945–1946’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Cuny, F. C. (1971) Refugee Camps and Camp Planning Series. Dallas, TX: Intertect. Gatrell, P. (1999) A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia During World War 1. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Gatrell, P. (2013) The Making of the Modern Refugee. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marfleet, P. (2007) ‘Refugees and History: Why We Must Address the Past’, Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 3. Myers III, D. (1973) ‘Civil War in Bangladesh: Relief Planning and Administration in an Insurgency Situation’, in L. C. Chen (ed.) Disaster in Bangladesh. New York: Oxford University Press. Rohde, J. E. and P. Gardner (1973) ‘Refugees in India: Innovative Health Care Programs’, in L. C. Chen (ed.) Disaster in Bangladesh. New York: Oxford University Press. Studies of system issues and grey literature ALNAP (2012) The State of the Humanitarian System. London: ODI. Anderson, M. B. (1999) Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace – or War. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Borton, J. (1993) ‘Recent Trends in the International Relief System’, Disasters, vol. 17, no. 3. Borton, J. (1996) ‘An Account of Co-Ordination Mechanisms for Humanitarian Assistance During the International Response to the 1994 Crisis in Rwanda’, Disasters, vol. 20, no. 4. Borton, J. et al. (1996) Study III Humanitarian Aid and Effects. Copenhagen: Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda. 47 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Davies, K. (2012) Continuity, Change and Contest: Meanings of ‘Humanitarian’ from the ‘Religion of Humanity’ to the Kosovo War, HPG Working Paper. London: ODI. Eriksson, J. et al. (1996) The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience: Synthesis Report. Copenhagen: Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Hilhorst, D. (2005) ‘Dead Letter or Living Document? Ten Years of the Code of Conduct for Disaster Relief’, Disasters, vol. 29, no. 4. Inside the Agencies (1977a) Disasters, vol. 1, no. 3. Inside the Agencies (1977b) Disasters, vol. 1, no. 4. Ressler, E. M. (1978) ‘Accountability as a Programme Philosophy’, Disasters, vol. 2, no. 2–3. Sphere Project (2011) The Sphere Handbook, third edition. Geneva: Sphere Project. Stockton, N. (1998) ‘In Defence of Humanitarianism’, Disasters, vol. 22, no. 4. Walker, P. (2005) ‘Cracking the Code: The Genesis, Use and Future of the Code of Conduct’, Disasters, vol. 29, no. 4. Walker, P. and S. Purdin (2004) ‘Birthing Sphere’, Disasters, vol. 28, no. 2. Borton, J. and J. R. Eriksson (2004) Lessons from Rwanda: Lessons for Today. Assessment of the Impact and Influence of Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda. Copenhagen: Evaluation Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark. Buchanan-Smith, M. (2003) How the Sphere Project Came into Being: A Case Study of Policy-Making in the Humanitarian Aid Sector and the Relative Influence of Research, ODI Working Paper. London: ODI. Dabelstein, N. (1996) ‘Evaluating the International Humanitarian System: Rationale, Process and Management of the Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Rwanda Genocide’, Disasters, vol. 20, no. 4. Davey, E. (2012) New Players Through Old Lenses: Why History Matters When Engaging with Southern Actors, HPG Policy Brief. London: ODI. Davey, E. (2012) Beyond the ‘French Doctors’: The Evolution and Interpretation of Humanitarian Action in France, HPG Working Paper. London: ODI. 48 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system 49 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 50 Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute 203 Blackfriars Road London SE1 8NJ United Kingdom Tel. +44 (0) 20 7922 0300 Fax. +44 (0) 20 7922 0399 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.odi.org.uk/hpg
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A history of the humanitarian system: Western origins and foundations
Eleanor Davey
A history of the humanitarian system Western origins and foundations Eleanor Davey, with John Borton and Matthew Foley HPG Working Paper June 2013 About the authors Eleanor Davey is a Research Officer at the Humanitarian Policy Group (HPG). John Borton is a Senior Research Associate at HPG. Matthew Foley is Managing Editor at HPG. Acknowledgements This Working Paper is part of HPG’s research project ‘A Global History of Humanitarian Action’. As with the project in general, it is the product of a vibrant research team, and the authors are indebted to a number of colleagues for their input and assistance. For comments on various stages of the drafting process, the authors would like to thank Sara Pantuliano, Margie Buchanan-Smith, Eva Svoboda, Lilianne Fan and Samir Elhawary. Thanks also to Ilena Paltzer for her work in reviewing key literature, and to Katia Knight for production assistance. The authors would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Vincent Bernard (ICRC), Davide Rodogno (University of Geneva) and Peter Walker (Feinstein International Center, Tufts University). In addition, Edward Clay (Senior Research Associate, ODI), John Mitchell (ALNAP) and Roland Burke (University of Latrobe) provided feedback focusing on chapters 2, 3 and 4 in particular. Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute 203 Blackfriars Road London SE1 8NJ United Kingdom Tel. +44 (0) 20 7922 0300 Fax. +44 (0) 20 7922 0399 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.odi.org.uk/hpg ISBN: 978 1 909464 36 0 © Overseas Development Institute, 2013 Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce materials from this publication but, as copyright holders, ODI requests due acknowledgement and a copy of the publication. This and other HPG Reports are available from www.odi.org.uk/hpg. Contents Acronyms Chapter 1 An introduction to humanitarian history 1.1 History and humanitarian action 1.2 Working Paper methodology and outline Chapter 2 Humanitarian history: an overview 2.1 From the beginnings of the system until the First World War 2.2 The Wilsonian period and Second World War reforms 2.3 Engagement in the global South during the Cold War 2.4 From the fall of the Iron Curtain to the close of the century Chapter 3 Early institutions for emergency food aid 3.1 The CRB and ARA during and after the First World War 3.2 Colonial famine relief in Bengal and Indochina 3.3 UNRRA and NGOs during the Second World War Chapter 4 Evolving norms during decolonisation 4.1 Wars of liberation and international humanitarian law 4.2 UNHCR, global emergency and refugee frameworks 4.3 Decolonisation, development and human rights Chapter 5 The emergence of a humanitarian knowledge community 5.1 Knowledge and information sharing following the world wars 5.2 Institutional innovation in operations, research and funding 5.3 Knowledge formation: the example of the post-disaster shelter and housing sector Chapter 6 Conclusion Annex Selected chronology Bibliography iii 1 1 2 5 5 7 10 12 17 17 19 20 23 23 24 26 29 29 31 32 35 37 41 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper ii HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Acronyms AFRO ALNAP AMRO ARA ARAECF ARC ARTIC AU BELRA CAP CDC CENDEP CERF CIDA COBSRA CRB CRED CRS DA DANIDA DHA DRC DRC EC EMRO ERC EU EURO FAO FAR FIC FNLA FRELIMO FTS HAP HCR IASC African Regional Office Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action American Regional Office (see also PAHO) American Relief Administration American Relief Administration European Children’s Fund American Red Cross Appropriate Re-construction Training and Information Centre African Union (originally Organisation of African Unity) British Empire Leprosy Relief Association Consolidated Appeals Process Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centre for Development and Emergency Practice Central Emergency Revolving Fund Canadian International Development Agency Council of British Societies for Relief Abroad Commission for the Relief of Belgium Centre for the Research and Epidemiology of Disasters Catholic Relief Services Danish Friends of Armenians Danish International Development Agency Department of Humanitarian Affairs Democratic Republic of Congo Disaster Research Center European Community Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office Emergency Relief Coordinator European Union European Regional Office Food and Agriculture Organisation Rwandan Armed Forces Famine Inquiry Commission National Liberation Front of Angola Liberation Front of Mozambique Financial Tracking System Humanitarian Accountability Partnership High Commissioner for Refugees (of the League of Nations) Inter-Agency Standing Committee iii HPG Working Paper HPG working paper ICC ICCPR ICESCR ICISS ICRC IDI IDP IDS IFRC IHB IHL ILO IOM IRFED IRO IRU IVS IVS-GB JCRA LNHO LRCS LRW LTG LWF MEP MOPR MSF NGO NIEO NPA OAU OCHA OHCHR OLS PAHO PL POC POW RENAMO RPF iv International Criminal Court International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty International Committee of the Red Cross International Disaster Institute internally displaced person Institute of Development Studies International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent International Health Board (of the Rockefeller Foundation) International Humanitarian Law International Labour Organisation International Organisation for Migration Institut international de recherche et de formation en vue du développement harmonisé International Refugee Organisation International Relief Union International Voluntary Services International Voluntary Service Jewish Committee for Relief Abroad League of Nations Health Organisation League of Red Cross Societies Lutheran World Relief London Technical Group Lutheran World Federation Malaria Eradication Programme International Red Aid Médecins Sans Frontières non-governmental organisation New International Economic Order Norwegian People’s Aid Organisation of African Unity (now African Union) United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Operation Lifeline Sudan Pan American Health Organisation (see also AMRO) Public Law Protection of Civilians prisoner of war Mozambican National Resistance Rwandan Patriotic Front HPG working paper RSC SAIMR SCF SCHR SCI SEARO SIDA SPLM/A UCMA UN UNAMIR UNDRO UNEPRO UNESCO UNHCR UNICEF A history of the humanitarian system Refugee Studies Centre South African Institute for Medical Research Save the Children Fund Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response Service Civil International South-East Asia Regional Office Swedish International Development Agency Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army Universities’ Mission to Central Africa United Nations (originally United Nations Organisation) United Nations Assistance Mission to Rwanda United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator United Nations East Pakistan Relief Organisation United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (now United Nations Children’s Fund) UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation UNIHP United Nations Intellectual History Project UNKRA United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency UNPROFOR United Nations Protection Force UNROD United Nations Relief Operations Dacca UNRRA United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East USAID United States Agency for International Development VCS Vietnam Christian Service WASH water supply, sanitation and hygiene WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organisation WIR Workers International Relief HPG Working Paper HPG working paper vi HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 1 An introduction to humanitarian history While the humanitarian gesture – the will to alleviate the suffering of others – is centuries old and genuinely global, the development of the international humanitarian system as we know it today can be located both geographically and temporally. Its origins are in the Western and especially European experience of war and natural disaster, yet it is now active across the world in a range of operations: responding to needs in situations of conflict or natural disasters, supporting displaced populations in acute and protracted crises, risk reduction and preparedness, early recovery, livelihoods support, conflict resolution and peace-building. Over time, the efforts of the most prominent international actors – states, nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), international agencies, the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement – have coalesced into a loosely connected ‘system’, with links on the level of finances, operations, personnel and values (ALNAP, 2012: 15).1 They work in collaboration, complementarity or competition with other providers of humanitarian assistance, such as affected communities themselves, diaspora groups, religious organisations, national actors, militaries and the private sector. its identity and better prepared for engagement with the world in which it operates. The benefits of a greater historical perspective within the international humanitarian system can be understood in three mutually reinforcing ways. First, a fuller awareness of the challenges that humanitarian action has faced in the past – the mistakes made, as well as the successes – will aid reflection upon the challenges facing practitioners today, and help in the development of more appropriate practical responses. This is the element that bears the closest relationship to ‘lessons learned’ evaluations, though at a greater remove and on a more systemic level. Second, greater attention to the past will generate a more informed critical perspective on processes of operational and organisational change and the evolution of new norms. By shedding light on the factors that have encouraged or inhibited changes in practice and in the normative frameworks that make practice possible, historical analysis can inform reflection upon the changes that may take place now and in the future. Third, a stronger engagement with history will help those that make up the system to more accurately perceive its origins and identity in a broader global perspective.2 In being more aware of its own past and recognising the specificity of that experience, the international sector will have a sounder basis from which to engage with those who were shaped by a different set of historical experiences (Davey, 2012a). The idea of using history to shed light upon the present has already found support within the humanitarian community. It is evident in a recent claim by Valerie Amos, United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC), who stated that ‘to shape our future, we must understand our past’ (OCHA, 2012: iii). Or, as Peter Walker and Daniel Maxwell (2009: 13) put it: ‘understanding the history of humanitarian action helps understand why it is the way it is today, and helps identify how it can, and maybe should, change in the future’. It should be clear that this is not history as prediction, but as preparation. The study of the past is not an answer to the difficulties of reflecting and operating today, but it is a resource that should not be neglected when forming analyses and directing responses. Towards this end, others have called for practitioners to ‘become as familiar as possible with the mistakes made and the lessons learned from past disasterresponse efforts, both domestic and international’ (Waldman and Noji, 2008: 461). 2 This study is part of a wider project entitled ‘A Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’, which includes a series of regional studies designed to offset the tendency to focus on Western experiences. See http://www.odi. org.uk/hpg. 1.1 History and humanitarian action In the first two decades of the twenty-first century, the international humanitarian architecture has been confronted by challenges to both its composition and its presumed universality. Civil wars in Sri Lanka and Syria have highlighted the lack of consistent political solutions to situations of extreme violence and restricted humanitarian access, while highly destructive natural disasters such as the earthquake in Haiti in 2010 have raised questions about the effectiveness of international assistance. Long-term instability and conflict persist in Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan and Afghanistan despite national and international efforts to bring peace and stability to these troubled states. In these and other contexts, the humanitarian system has been confronted with actors with little interest in its work. The criminalisation of non-state actors designated by certain governments as terrorist groups has erected additional barriers between affected populations and international humanitarian actors. At such a juncture, a renewed regard for the history of the humanitarian system offers the prospect of a more balanced reflection upon its future. At the core of HPG’s project on ‘A Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’ is the belief that a better understanding of the past will help ensure a humanitarian system that is more self-aware, clearer about 1 See also the definition of the ‘formal international humanitarian system’ given by Hugo Slim (2006: 19): ‘the mainly Western-funded humanitarian system which works closely within or in coordination with the international authority of the United Nations and Red Cross movements’. HPG Working Paper HPG working paper sectors featured in the Sphere Handbook – largely remains to be written. Crucially, more work needs to be done to integrate historical perspectives into discussions of policy and practice. Yet policy-related debates rarely extend their historical frameworks beyond a decade or two. As Michael Barnett and Thomas Weiss (2008: 29–30) emphasise, ‘many contemporary accounts convey the impression that humanitarianism began with the end of the Cold War, failing to demonstrate much historical memory and thus restricting any capacity for meaningful comparisons across periods’. A case in point is the study by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) cited above, in which Amos made her call for a greater attention to history, yet which began its historical analysis with the 1990s. Amongst practitioners, the emphasis on rapid action has meant that thinking about the past is often considered a luxury (Slim, 1994: 189). The high rate of turnover in personnel, while not unique to the humanitarian system, has also contributed to the tendency to overlook past experiences. Changes in knowledge transfer techniques, improvements in professionalisation and training and the development of beneficiary-led accountability mechanisms may have offset some of the worst effects of this rapid churn. However, the lack of historical, institutional and operational memory is a persistent problem. In recognition of this fact, some humanitarian actors have begun to encourage historical research. The UN launched its Intellectual History Project (UNIHP) in 1999, producing analytical works and an oral history library. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) have instigated research projects to encourage the analysis of past policy and its evolution, and have gone some way to opening their archives to researchers. The Rift Valley Institute has promoted an increased historical consciousness through its Sudan Open Archive, which brings together aid and peace-process literature, along with scholarly studies on and from Sudan and South Sudan. Numerous NGOs have been the subject of official and unofficial ‘biographies’ (albeit these studies have often been constrained by a lack of independence or treat their subject in isolation, focusing on internal documentation or organisational issues).3 To this work can be added a growing body of academic literature on humanitarian action. In the 1980s, pioneering publications traced the evolution of international humanitarian frameworks (Kent, 1987; Macalister-Smith, 1985; Rufin, 1986). More recently, work on issues such as conflict response, natural disasters, refugees and displacement and humanitarian intervention has greatly added to our understanding of significant actors and moments.4 Full-length, wide-reaching and rigorous histories, nonetheless, remain scarce.5 Many of the large-scale works focus on political questions and the practical or operational history of humanitarian action – a history, so to speak, of the 3 See for example Black, 1992 and 1996; Moorehead, 1998; Shaw, 2009 and 2011; Vallaeys, 2004. 4 See for example Collingham, 2011; Shephard, 2010; Caron and Leben, 2001; Mauch and Pfister, 2009; Gatrell, 2005 and 2013; Skran and Daughtry, 2007; Simms and Trim, 2011; Wheeler, 2000. 5 Two notable recent additions to scholarship are Michael Barnett’s Empire of Humanity: A History of Humanitarianism (2011) and Philippe Ryfman’s Une histoire de l’humanitaire (2008). 1.2 Working Paper methodology and outline This Working Paper provides an introduction to the history of the international humanitarian system, in large part a Western history and in particular a European and North American one. This is not meant to suggest that the history of humanitarian action is exclusively Western – far from it – but it is intended to provide a basis for reflection on the origins and nature of the formal international system as one part of a broader humanitarian landscape. This Working Paper provides a foundation from which HPG’s ‘Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’ project as a whole will build an account of the history of humanitarian action that is more inclusive of the evolution of humanitarian action in other areas and regions. The Working Paper therefore focuses on the Western history in order to facilitate the construction of a more inclusive narrative that can be truly global. The definition of the term ‘humanitarian’ adopted for the purposes of this account is a broad one. As analysed in a related HPG Working Paper, although the term dates from the nineteenth century, ‘a historical investigation of the term “humanitarian” is made problematic by the fact that it was only in the last decade of the twentieth century that it came into wide and frequent circulation’ (Davies, 2012: 1). In effect, the understanding of ‘humanitarian’ that became dominant in the 1990s has sought to define ‘humanitarianism’ as ‘the impartial, independent, and neutral provision of relief to those in immediate danger of harm’ (Barnett, 2005: 724; 733). In contrast, this Working Paper eschews restrictive definitions, preferring an approach that allows for the great variety of forms that the humanitarian gesture has taken. The account given here can only be selective and limited. Its aim is to introduce, to a non-specialist audience, some of the academic research that has been produced on the history of the international system and indicate key issues raised by this work. As one facet of a larger, global history of humanitarian action, it is hoped that this paper will encourage greater historical perspective and self-awareness in policy and practice-oriented debates, as well as identifying further avenues for future investigation. A chronology of significant dates is provided as an Annex, and the bibliography has been divided into categories in order to serve as a guide for further reading. A note on the structure: this first chapter has outlined the aims of the ‘Global History’ project and the Working Paper itself, placing them within a brief review of existing studies on humanitarian history. The conclusion returns to the question of why history is important and what kind of history might HPG working paper best serve the humanitarian sector. Chapter 2 provides a broad narrative of humanitarian action in the twentieth century and its foundations. It does not aim to be fully comprehensive, or to advance an entirely original interpretation of this narrative, but rather provide an accessible introduction to major humanitarian actors, events and developments over time. It is followed by three chapters that focus on key issues or moments in the emergence of the international humanitarian system. Their topics have been selected for the light they can shed on common assumptions about the humanitarian system, crucial junctures or the way the system has constructed its own self-image. Chapter 3 examines food aid practices in the first half of the twentieth century, including famine relief in colonial territories. This topic has been chosen as a counterbalance to analyses that focus on the creation and expansion of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and above all the World Food Programme (WFP) in the period after the Second World War. For Edward Clay (2003: 707), expert on food aid, WFP is ‘unquestionably a success story within the UN system’. However, the fact that WFP, like the post-war FAO, has been so dominated by donor interests in the form of market protection and surplus disposal has obscured the links made during the first half of the century between food relief and the idea of an international food distribution system. The ‘gradual shift in the stated objectives of food aid’, from rehabilitation and mutual defence in postwar Europe, to development, to relief, has been the dominant trajectory of the second half of the twentieth century (ibid.: 699). Chapter 3 therefore indicates some examples of pre-1950 emergency food relief and its relationship with other forms of internationalism in the period. A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 4 explores the impact of decolonisation and wars of liberation upon humanitarian norms during the Cold War. It shows the humanitarian system facing an earlier critical juncture as international forums adjusted to the presence of the approximately 70 countries that gained independence between 1945 and 1975. Key elements of the normative framework already in place were ‘rejected by the developing countries, which had not taken part in the 1949 diplomatic conference and resented being bound by rules in whose drafting they had had no say’ (Bugnion, 2000: 44). The chapter shows how these dynamics affected two key areas of international norms, international humanitarian law (IHL) and refugee law, and the key actors most associated with them, the ICRC and UNHCR respectively. It also draws attention to the historical context for the development agenda, highlighting its links with colonialism as well as post-colonial politics. It therefore explores a crucial period in the geographical expansion and normative transformation of the international aid system. Chapter 5 documents moves towards the articulation of a knowledge community related to humanitarian action, and the ways in which the system generates and shares knowledge. While it indicates the existence of important knowledge-sharing practices in the 1920s and 1950s, it argues that an intensification of these processes occured following the traumatic experience of the East Pakistan Crisis (1971). To illustrate, it takes the case of the post-disaster shelter and housing sector, which despite the historical importance of seismology and other related studies has not to date received the same level of historical attention as other areas of humanitarian practice such as public health. HPG Working Paper HPG working paper HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 2 Humanitarian history: an overview Various ways of dividing the history of humanitarian action into chronological periods have been proposed. Barnett has suggested three ‘ages of humanitarianism’, reflecting his emphasis on the ideological incarnations that the humanitarian sentiment has taken over time. Barnett identifies ‘an imperial humanitarianism, from the early nineteenth century through World War II; a neo-humanitarianism from World War II through the end of the Cold War; and a liberal humanitarianism, from the end of the Cold War to the present’ (Barnett, 2011: 29). In a similar vein, Walker and Maxwell (2009) view the world wars as marking distinct changes in the story of the humanitarian sector; they characterise the period of the Cold War as one of ‘mercy and manipulation’ and the 1990s as the period of the ‘globalization of humanitarianism’. Focusing on disaster relief, Randolph Kent (1987: 36) sees the Second World War as a turning point, arguing that ‘it was only in the midst of World War II that governments began to fully appreciate the need for greater international intervention in the plight of disaster-stricken people’. This mirrors the chronology proposed by the influential historian Eric Hobsbawm (1994), who divided up the ‘short twentieth century’ into two major eras, 1914–45 and 1946–89. French accounts of humanitarianism, in contrast, have often emphasised the importance of the Cold War period and specifically the Biafra/ Nigeria Civil War (1967–70) in promoting emergency relief (Ryfman, 2008: 19; Aeberhard, 1994; Davey, 2012). This Working Paper suggests a slightly different characterisation of modern humanitarian history. Four main periods have been identified: from the mid-nineteenth century until the end of the First World War in 1918, when nineteenth-century conceptions drove humanitarian action; the ‘Wilsonian’ period of the interwar years and the Second World War, when international government was born and then reasserted; the Cold War period, when humanitarian actors turned more concertedly towards the non-Western world and the development paradigm emerged; and the post-Cold War period, when geopolitical changes again reshaped the terrain within which humanitarians worked.6 cited forces – though it would be inaccurate to think of them as entirely distinct categories – are religious belief and the articulation of laws of war. Christian ideas of charity have been particularly important in Europe and North America, and scholarship has emphasised the importance of charitable gestures in other religions, including notably the tradition of zakat in Islam, one of several ways in which Islamic duty involves assisting others (Ghandour, 2002; Benthall and Bellion-Jourdan, 2003; Krafess, 2005). Laws of war or limits on the acceptable conduct of war were adopted in ancient Greece and Rome; articulated in The Art of War ascribed to Sun Tzu in Warring States China; promoted by Saladin in the Middle East in the 1100s; taught to Swedish soldiers by Gustavus Adolphus in the 1600s; and recognised in the tenets of Hinduism, Islam and Judaism (Sinha, 2005; Cockayne, 2002; Solomon, 2005). These precedents notwithstanding, a history of the modern humanitarian system can, for most intents and purposes, identify its conceptual, operational and institutional roots in the nineteenth century. A series of factors, especially in midcentury, is commonly understood to have contributed to the flourishing of humanitarian initiatives at this time, of which the creation of the ICRC in 1863 remains the most powerful example. The technologies of the industrialising nations increased the human costs of conflict, and improvements in transport and communications technology made the world a smaller place; the founders of the ICRC, for instance, were highly conscious that ‘the very instantaneousness of communications’ had helped foster humanitarian efforts. In the words of one of their early publications: ‘Those who remain at their hearths follow, step by step, so to speak, those who are fighting against the enemy; day by day they receive intelligence of them, and when blood has been flowing, they learn the news almost before it has been stanched, or has time to become cold’ (Moynier and Appia, 1870: 51). With information about war travelling more quickly, governments had greater incentive to minimise its impact upon soldiers so as to contain discontent at home. As David Forsythe (2005: 16) notes, ‘armed conflict was becoming less and less a chivalrous jousting contest for the few, and more and more a mass slaughter. Dunant was not the only one who noticed’. Across the nineteenth century, military medicine saw a series of innovations such as the practice of triage, instituted by Baron Dominique Jean Larrey during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–15), and the refinement of medical transportation and evacuation, including notably during the American Civil War (1861–65) (Haller, 1992). During the Crimean War (1854–65), Florence Nightingale and her nursing team drastically reduced 2.1 From the beginnings of the system until the First World War In a broad cultural, political, philosophical and practical sense, ‘humanitarian’ action can be traced through hundreds of years of history, across the globe. Two of the most widely 6 As this Working Paper focuses its analysis on the twentieth century, it will not discuss the consequences of the attacks in the United States on 11 September 2001. This shift is more than adequately explored by studies of the humanitarian system that do not adopt a historical approach. HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Imperial expansion also provided a context for efforts to ameliorate the suffering of others, through public works, epidemiology and other ‘improvements’ in the colonies. Although territorial conquest began in the sixteenth century and imperialist ambition arguably peaked in the nineteenth, colonial structures of power continued until decolonisation in the second half of the twentieth century. Colonial practices represent a point of overlap between state, secular and religious versions of humanitarian action, with missionaries forming an integral part of the colonial project, even if not always perfectly aligned with colonial policies (Barnett and Weiss, 2008: 22). As a recent call for further study pointed out: the mortality rates of British soldiers; Nightingale was also one of the first to advocate for what would now be called ‘evidence-based action’. In a slightly different vein, the St John Ambulance association (established in 1887) was part of the flourishing of humanitarian ideas in the nineteenth century. These initiatives were local, or national, in the sense that they focused on the treatment of nationals from their own countries, even though they often involved working abroad. They were distinct from the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement by virtue of the Red Cross’ emphasis on standing, international legal agreements, which provided a framework for action on behalf of citizens of other countries as well as fellow nationals. In this, the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field (1864), in which the ICRC had a direct hand, had more in common with the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), which likewise aimed to minimise the impact of war by placing rules upon the conduct of hostilities. Other areas of international cooperation of relevance to the history of humanitarian action also took institutional form at this time.7 The first International Sanitary Conferences were held in the 1850s, and international medical conferences became a regular fixture; an international Health, Maritime and Quarantine Board was established in 1881 in Alexandria, later becoming the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO) of the World Health Organisation (WHO) (Roemer, 1994: 406–08). Natural disaster response was another generator of international as well as domestic efforts in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the mid1800s, regulations for assistance practice began to be codified through laws for emergency communications, disease control and vessels in distress (IFRC, 2007: 25). In the United States, the end of the Civil War (1861–65) allowed the American Red Cross (ARC) to direct its attention towards a series of hazards including floods in 1889 and a hurricane in 1900. When a major earthquake struck San Francisco on 18 April 1906, more than 28,000 buildings were destroyed and some 36,000 people left homeless (Hutchinson, 2000: 10). The following year a large earthquake and subsequent fire in the Jamaican capital Kingston virtually flattened the city, leaving some 1,000 of its inhabitants dead and causing around £1.6 million-worth of damage. In 1908, another earthquake, this time in Italy, left more than 75,000 dead and approximately half a million people homeless. In all three cases, international assistance was a major part of the response; in the aftermath of the Kingston earthquake, for example, British, US and French naval ships provided immediate assistance and medical care, and relief and reconstruction funds flowed in from around the Empire (HMSO, 1907). In the wake of these disasters, the first International Congress of Lifesaving and First Aid in the Event of Accidents was held in Frankfurt in 1908. 7 The roots of modern European disaster medicine are in fact extremely deep, and have been traced back to the Middle Ages and the Black Death pandemic, which led to the establishment of public health boards in towns around Europe (Dara et al., 2005: S2). It is not a simple matter of resemblance – how contemporary humanitarian action appears to echo the patterns and ambitions of earlier imperial ‘projects’ – but that the two phenomena are ultimately bound together in a series of mutually constituting histories, in which the ideas and practices associated with imperial politics and administration have both been shaped by and have in themselves informed developing notions of humanitarianism (Skinner and Lester, 2013: 731). From the nineteenth century until decolonisation, the colonial field served as a laboratory for the techniques of later humanitarian action, including famine relief, the provision of cash assistance to the needy and colonial medicine and health services. Like emergency relief on European soil, the first beneficiaries of medicine in the colonies were Europeans. The first task of missionary doctors was to address the sharp attrition rates of mission members due to disease; between 1860 and 1917, 17.5% of members of the Universities’ Mission to Central Africa (UCMA) died and a further 18.8% had to be transferred home due to illness (Jennings, 2008: 42). Treatments were later extended to indigenous populations, and the proselytising aspect of missionary activity was often subsumed into medical work in the conviction that the benefits of medical science would by themselves promote conversion (see for example Bjørnlund, 2008). The provision of health services to indigenous populations was also a response to the need to protect colonial workforces from disease. The link between colonial health and colonial labour was exemplified by the South African Institute for Medical Research (SAIMR), which was founded in 1913 and funded by the Chamber of Mines to carry out research on diseases that affected mine labourers (Farley, 1988: 194). Colonial practices have an important yet complex relationship with contemporary humanitarian action. In India, the Famine Codes established by the colonial state defined famine and proposed ways of measuring it, as well as providing guidelines to govern prevention and response. These codes, developed in the early 1880s after a series of devastating crises, were influenced by Victorian ideas about the ‘deserving poor’ in that they sought to limit relief as much as possible to those who were deemed ‘really destitute’ and therefore morally deserving HPG working paper of assistance (Kalpagam, 2000: 433). There were however significant differences in attitudes towards beneficiaries in the colonies as compared to at home: ‘while the British were committed to the maintenance of the eligible poor in England, they refused to consider this as a possibility in normal times in India, preferring to rely upon the private charitable institutions and practices of the people over whom they ruled’ (Brennan, 1984: 93). Cash and food relief rates in the Famine Codes were set at roughly 75% of the prevailing labour rate, so as not to provide a disincentive to those who could find work. The emphasis was on emergency relief, which was to be planned and systematised, but would not constitute general assistance. The principles of the Indian Famine Codes were influential in other parts of the British colonial empire, including Sudan (see De Waal, 1989), and remained so for decades. Humanitarian action in the early twentieth century thus encompassed, as early histories of humanitarianism indicated, a broad range of activities (Carlton, 1906; Parmelee, 1915). Yet often – and increasingly so as nationalist tensions rose prior to 1914 – war, and the mitigation of its human impacts, was at the forefront. The Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement was a leading forum for international humanitarian cooperation, thanks to its work during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) and other late-nineteenth-century conflicts. Beyond Western Europe and North America, the Ottoman Red Crescent Society (founded in 1868) and the Japanese National Society (founded in 1877) provided relief in conflicts such as the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) (see Checkland, 1994). Despite this growing expertise, the vast extent of the humanitarian challenges posed by the First World War was almost entirely unexpected. The personal and material resources available to the ICRC at the beginning of the war bore no relation to the enormity of the work it would accomplish between 1914 and 1918 in assisting the huge numbers of prisoners of war (POWs) captured during the conflict – even at the peak of the war, the Committee employed only 41 delegates (Forsythe, 2005: 33). Although the ICRC was never directly appointed the task of caring for POWs (Moorehead, 1998: 187), it assisted communications between POWs and their families, campaigned for the repatriation of gravely wounded or ill soldiers, helped unite families and facilitated the work of the National Societies. Likewise, while it has never formally been appointed as the watchdog for observance of the Geneva Convention and laws of war, this rapidly became part of the ICRC’s wartime role. In providing prisoner assistance, the ICRC cooperated with the Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as Jewish and Muslim associations. Delegates from neutral countries carried out camp inspections, as did Church bodies such as the Mission Catholique Suisse. In addition, Red Cross Societies from the Nordic countries provided relief to POW camps in Siberia and supported the repatriation of prisoners from A history of the humanitarian system Russia after the war. Gerald Davis (1993: 32) argues that the Swedish and Danish National Societies in particular were able to exploit their ‘double neutrality’ to gain access to prisoners and other victims of war in Russian-held territories. The ICRC was also able to negotiate access to non-international armed conflicts in this period, including the Finnish Civil War (1918) and the Hungarian Revolution led by Béla Kun (1919) (see Freymond, 1969). 2.2 The Wilsonian period and Second World War reforms Humanitarian needs in the early interwar years often derived from the Great War – food security issues, disease (including the influenza epidemic of 1918–19), mass displacement and issues around statelessness caused notably by the withdrawal of citizenship from those who had left Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution. In the 1930s, the Depression brought widespread poverty but also prompted welfare regimes such as the US New Deal. Refugee crises remained prominent, as the repressive policies of the Nazi regime in Germany contributed to the flight of minority groups, above all Jews, into other European countries. Beyond Europe, greater realisation of the challenges facing colonial populations contributed to more systematic and scientific approaches to issues such as nutrition and public health. Eventually, however, the turmoil of the Second World War resonated throughout the colonial territories as well as in the metropolitan centres. In Europe alone – not counting the war in the Pacific, for instance – over 34m people died (Roberts, 1996: 581). While many accounts see the Second World War as the beginning of a new age for humanitarian action, it can also be regarded as being in continuity with the major reforms that took place in the aftermath of the First World War. The institutional developments of the interwar period foreshadowed those of the 1940s by heralding the emergence of a new, modern and international humanitarianism which – unlike previous efforts – was ‘envisioned by its participants and protagonists as a permanent, transnational, institutional, and secular regime for understanding and addressing the root causes of human suffering’ (Watenpaugh, 2010: 1319). The first swathe of humanitarian reforms came with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, which regulated the end of the First World War and instigated the creation of international organisations to address humanitarian issues. The League of Nations, established through Part I of the Treaty of Versailles, was a central part of US President Woodrow Wilson’s vision of international reform and the first permanent international organisation whose mission was to maintain world peace. As well as the goal of preventing war through collective security (via disarmament, negotiation and arbitration), the League’s Covenant and related treaties covered issues including labour conditions, the treatment of indigenous inhabitants in colonial territories and the protection of minorities and displaced people in Europe (see Pedersen, 2007). HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 1920s, the Save the Children Union under Jebb’s leadership developed a Declaration of the Rights of the Child, which the League adopted in 1924. This was an example of the prominent role that women played in relief work in the interwar years (Mahood, 2009). It was also part of the pattern of institutional organisation, ‘a cultural reconfiguration of civil mentalities that had been organised around ideas of national sovereignty towards something closer to a global civil society of shared rights and responsibilities’ (Trentmann and Just, 2006: 7). Humanitarian efforts were also directed outside of Europe in this period. This reflected colonial expansion, as well as the existence of conflict in East Asia, particularly China, and proto anti-colonial conflicts such as the Rif War in Morocco (1921– 26). The assumptions of imperialism and colonialism often influenced how humanitarian action was conceived, in the imperial holdings in particular. This was exemplified by Karen Jeppe, a Danish relief worker and missionary who worked amongst Armenians in the Ottoman Empire. Although officially affiliated with Danish Protestant missionaries, Jeppe chose to work with the secular Danish Friends of Armenians (DA), and was eventually appointed League of Nations Commissioner for the Protection of Women and Children in the Middle East (Bjornlund, 2008).8 If Jeppe, a colonial missionary who worked with secular organisations and campaigned for Armenian selfdetermination, embodied some of the contradictions inherent in imperial relief, similar tensions could be seen in the work of NGOs such as SCF. This organisation, while officially independent of government and international in mindset, nonetheless perpetuated British imperial attitudes and rule through its promotion of ‘enlightened relief’ in the colonial world (Baughan, 2012). By the mid-1930s, a series of political and geopolitical developments had had a significant impact on the context of humanitarian operations. Economic depression had resulted in a reduction of both the resources devoted to humanitarian action and the will for international relief operations, although domestically speaking it encouraged more state welfare, particularly in the United States with Theodore Roosevelt’s New Deal. The rise of Nazism, Fascism and Stalinism, exploiting economic inequality, nationalism and general popular discontent, increased tensions and hostility in Europe and beyond. The League of Nations was unable to cope with the intensifying aggression of the Axis powers, had little success in sanctioning its own members and was greatly weakened by the withdrawal of Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan in the lead-up to the Second World War. It operated on a skeleton structure during the war – the outbreak of conflict standing as proof of the League’s ineffectiveness – and held its final meeting in 1946. 8 Following the defeat of Germany during the First World War, territories that had been administered from Berlin were placed under the tutelage of the League and designated member states under a system of ‘mandates’. The attendant reduction of national sovereignty facilitated more interventionist stances on the part of the global powers (Watenpaugh, 2010). One of the most important reforms of the interwar period was the League’s creation of the post of High Commissioner for Refugees (HCR) under Dr Fridtjof Nansen, a well-known Norwegian polar explorer and scientist. Initially, the High Commissioner’s mandate was limited to Russian refugees and his office’s role to coordination rather than actual operations. However, through a combination of diplomacy, the respect in which he was held and close collaboration with private and voluntary organisations, Nansen was able to expand the activities of his office and to negotiate official international recognition of a travel document known as the ‘Nansen passport’, as well as measures in relation to the education and employment of refugees. Nansen was also involved in efforts on behalf of survivors of the Armenian genocide through the League’s Rescue Movement. On his death in 1930 the League of Nations created the Nansen International Office for Refugees as an autonomous body, and the Office played a central role in the development of a draft 1933 treaty on refugees’ rights. These marked ‘the emergence of a regime’ for the relief and protection of refugees (Skran, 1995). The same pattern of international organisation and institutionbuilding was evident elsewhere during this period. In the field of health, to which the League of Nations also contributed strongly, historians have identified the interwar period as marking ‘the transition from treaties and conventions between nation states to the establishment of a brave new world of international organisations, designed to promote health and welfare’ (Weindling, 1995: 2). International disease management, shaken by the influenza pandemic in which approximately 50m people died worldwide (Taubenberger and Morens, 2006: 15), was overhauled during the 1926 International Sanitary Convention (Sealey, 2011). International coordination and institutionalisation of humanitarian practice continued through the creation of the League of Red Cross Societies (LRCS) in 1919, the forerunner of the International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (IFRC). There were also ideological variants: in 1922, the Communist International created Workers International Relief (WIR) to channel relief donations for international Communist parties and union organisations into the newly consolidated Soviet Union. WIR was followed the next year by International Red Aid (MOPR, from the Russian acronym), which established national chapters around Europe (Schilde, Hering and Walde, 2003; Ryfman, 2008: 46–47). The devastation of the First World War also prompted the birth of what would become ‘the first recognisable trans-national humanitarian NGO’ (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 25), the Save the Children Fund (SCF). SCF, formed in Britain in 1919, insisted that all children, including the children of former enemies, were eligible for relief (Freeman, 1965). As more national SCF sections were established in different countries, its leader Eglantyne Jebb oversaw the formation of the International Save the Children Union in Geneva in 1920, with the British SCF and the Swedish Rädda Barnen as its leading members. In the early HPG working paper This period was also a difficult one for the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement. While the ICRC successfully negotiated access to nominally civil conflicts, notably the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) (see Bartels, 2009), it did not denounce the indiscriminate use of mustard gas by Italian forces following Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, and notoriously failed to speak out against Nazi atrocities. As Ian Smillie writes, ‘where the Holocaust is concerned, history and hindsight have been hard on the Red Cross’ (Smillie, 2012). Despite rounds of drafts and negotiations, the International Conference had been unable to build consensus on the issue of protection of civilians (Bugnion, 1994: 140–44). Because the pre-war Geneva Conventions did not cover civilians subjected to brutality by their own governments, the ICRC had no mandate to intervene on behalf of the Jews, gypsies, homosexuals, political prisoners and others who were being gathered into the Third Reich’s concentration and (later) extermination camps. Immediately after the war, the ICRC was accused of having failed to denounce the camps and was also criticised for doing nothing to mitigate the harsh punishment meted out to Soviet prisoners held by Germany; the Soviet Union lobbied unsuccessfully for the ICRC to be dissolved and its functions transferred to the LRCS (Bugnion, 2000: 43). In the 1980s the ICRC opened its archives to the historian Jean-Claude Favez, whose work showed that the decision not to issue a public appeal against abuses by the Third Reich was robustly debated within the ICRC, to the point that the text of such an appeal was drafted before the decision against this option was taken in October 1942. Many of those involved in relief operations during the Second World War had also worked during the First World War and in the interwar period, and were influenced by the New Deal’s practical programmes as well as the wide-ranging research programmes carried out by the League of Nations and others. The desire to learn from past experience was conscious and explicit, and affected the way humanitarian action was conceived by the Allies – the original ‘United Nations’ – during and after the Second World War.9 It was applied to the work of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), founded in 1943 with the objective of providing aid, rehabilitation and resettlement assistance. For four years, before its closure in 1947, UNRRA was the world’s preeminent humanitarian organisation. The UN itself was officially established at a conference in San Francisco in April 1945. Fifty countries endorsed its 111-article Charter, which was ratified by the five Permanent Members of the Security Council on 24 October 1945. These institutional developments were accompanied by a series of normative changes, notably the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with its simple statement on the most basic of all human rights: ‘Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of 9 The term ‘United Nations’ was officially used from 1942 onwards to describe the coalition of Allies fighting the Axis powers. It was later transferred to the United Nations Organisation. A history of the humanitarian system person’ (Article 3). Although there has been a tendency to see the Declaration as a reaction to the Holocaust, it has also been placed in a broader perspective, both chronologically and geographically, that favours its interpretation as ‘an amalgam of competing or converging universalisms – imperial and anticolonial, “Eastern” and “Western”, old and new’ (Amril and Sluga, 2008: 256; see for example Anderson, 2006; Carozza, 2003). These post-war rights frameworks represented ‘the beginning of a period of unprecedented international concern for the protection of human rights’ (Clapham, 2007: 42). On 9 December 1948 – one day before the Universal Declaration was passed – the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. In 1949 the four additional Geneva Conventions expanded and strengthened existing IHL. Among the most significant additions was the extension of the law to include non-international armed conflicts and the protection of civilian populations. Within the UN, institutional reforms distributed UNRRA’s assets and personnel between new specialised agencies: the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the Food and Agriculture Organisation, the World Health Organisation and the International Refugee Organisation (IRO, replaced by UNHCR in 1951). Other agencies were mandated to act in specific crises. One example was the United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency (UNKRA), which established a dedicated fund for South Korea in light of the 1945 partition of the country and the Korean War (1950–53). UNKRA was built upon – or subsumed into – a longer-standing US programme of aid intended to stabilise and protect South Korea from the communist North. The United States consistently spent over $200m a year on aid to South Korea, with $380m going in the peak year of 1957 (Ekbladh, 2004: 18). UNKRA was an example of what Kent (1987: 38) describes as ‘relief that was conceptually limited in terms of time, geography and approach’ (it lasted only five years beyond the war, in operation from 1950–58). It was also a good example of the intersection between official assistance and strategic interest as Cold War tensions intensified: as Barnett puts it, ‘the willingness of states to become more involved in the organization and delivery of relief owed not only to a newfound passion for compassion but also to a belief that their political, economic, and strategic interests were at stake’ (Barnett, 2011: 107). In contrast with the short-lived UNKRA, the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), established in 1949 in response to the plight of Palestinian refugees fleeing the newly-created state of Israel, is still in existence over 60 years after its creation. Like UNKRA, UNRWA began as a special fund thanks to US momentum. Its work was understood to fall into two phases: immediate relief to sustain refugees, and educational and economic assistance to facilitate their integration into host countries (see Bocco, HPG Working Paper HPG working paper to all peoples in need, the world over. Of course, there were some significant constraints: people living under communist rule in China, the Soviet Union and Cuba were largely off-limits to international agencies more closely identified with the Western (capitalist) ‘first world’ than the Eastern (communist) ‘second world’. It was the people of the so-called ‘third world’ that, in the post-colonial period, became the main focus of the humanitarian system. The period when the image of starving African children came to dominate Western conceptions of humanitarian aid, often disseminated by NGO fundraising campaigns, coincided with the emergence of the third-world nations as a geopolitical bloc, asserting their independence and equality for the first time. The burgeoning humanitarian sector entered the 1950s with many elements recognisable in today’s system already in place, if not quite in their current shape: international governance mechanisms, specialised agencies, NGOs, a language of rights, a legal framework, engagement in conflicts, natural disasters, epidemiology, food and nutrition and a global ambition for what was soon to be called ‘development’. In 1948, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 198 (III), calling for extra efforts for the ‘economic development of under-developed countries’. In 1952, the UN published a report linking development to global stability, and ten years later, in 1961, the UN declared the first Decade of Development. The process of decolonisation structured the development agenda by creating a body of newly independent nations that, for the first time, had clout on the global stage. The effects of decolonisation were strongly felt in the United Nations. In the first ten years after its formation, the UN added 72 new states to its original membership. By 1955, of the 122 members 87 were developing countries (or ‘less developed countries’ as they were then known). Many of these states participated in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), founded in 1961 to create a forum and negotiating position for countries that did not identify with either of the two major superpower blocs (see Willetts, 1978). The impact this had upon the workings of the UN, and in particular the General Assembly, can be gauged from a highly-regarded account of the organisation published in 1979 by British politician Evan Luard. In his foreword, Luard outlined some of the complaints being made against the UN, including the claim that ‘it has become little more than a debating chamber, dominated by very small nations, where hotheads angrily abuse each other, and where nothing effective ever gets done’ (Luard, 1979: vii). He went on to outline some of the geopolitical changes that had impacted upon the UN: 2009). The scale and duration of UNRWA’s operations – with staff numbers in the tens of thousands, responsible for approximately 4,700,000 registered refugees, dozens of camps and hundreds of schools – have led to it being described as a surrogate state (Bocco, 2009: 234).10 The post-war period also saw major developments in the structure and mechanisms of international assistance, notably around food aid. In essence, international coordination and regulation according to universal need gave way to a system driven by surplus production and Cold War imperatives (see Jachertz and Nützenadel, 2011). The first herald of this was the Marshall Plan (1947–51), through which the United States gave financial aid to help rebuild European states (see Clay, 1995). By the late 1950s, American aid represented nearly one-third of the total world wheat trade (Trentmann, 2006: 35). According to Frank Trentmann, ‘instead of the New Internationalist vision of global coordination and of boosting local knowledge and centres of production, the logic of food aid was to turn food producing developing countries into importers of American wheat surpluses’ (ibid.). In 1954 the United States introduced Public Law (PL) 480 ‘Food for Peace’, which enabled US food aid to be used for international development and relief purposes. In the same year, FAO developed its ‘Principles of Surplus Disposal’, an agreed framework for the use of surplus agricultural production to support recovery and development abroad (see Shaw, 2011). In 1961, US President John F. Kennedy established the Food for Peace office and proposed the trialling of a multilateral mechanism for managing food aid in emergencies and development contexts. Operating under FAO, the ‘World Food Programme’ trial was approved by the UN General Assembly in 1961. 2.3 Engagement in the global South during the Cold War Humanitarian needs during the Cold War were perceived more explicitly through the lens of global poverty and inequality. This was the period when the development discourse came to prominence and leaders of less developed countries made the claim that the suffering caused by ‘underdevelopment’ was as great as relief and reconstruction needs in Europe, and as deserving of international attention. The immediate post-war years continued the expansion of humanitarian action that had occurred during the Second World War. This pattern had already been seen, under different geopolitical circumstances, following the First World War. After the Second World War, however, the proliferation of agencies was especially striking: in addition to organisations established during the war, nearly 200 NGOs were created between 1945 and 1949, most of them formed in the United States (Barnett, 2011: 112). Meanwhile, the main beneficiaries of humanitarian action shifted from being Europeans in need 10 The same has been said of UNHCR in the Middle East. See Slaughter and Crisp, 2008; Kagan, 2011. the influx of new members, many of them very small, the role of great power diplomacy in diminishing its role, the prevalence of internal rather than external conflict in the modern world, the inadequate peacekeeping capacity, the disordered state of the finances, 10 HPG working paper the poor morale of international civil servants, the chronic political conflicts, once mainly between East and West and now mainly between rich and poor. The decolonisation process also had a profound impact on the development of NGOs. The skills, material and money wielded by Northern organisations were called upon to supplement those of the newly established Southern governments, many of whom were struggling with inadequate resources and infrastructure after the rapid withdrawal of the colonial powers. While official international politics were constrained by the rivalry of the superpowers, ‘NGOs expanded as a non-state or petty sovereign power within the liminal space between the West, the Soviet bloc and independent Third World states emerging from colonization’ (Duffield, 2007: 52). As a result, the Cold War has often been regarded as a fertile period for humanitarian action by private or voluntary groups: in 1960, Oxfam’s annual budget went over the £1m mark for the first time; by the end of the decade, 289 major new NGOs had been created (ibid.: 46; Kent, 1987: 46). Ties between these non-governmental agencies and the Cold War policies and priorities of their home governments were often extremely close; in Vietnam, for instance, Catholic Relief Services (CRS) was actively involved in delivering food aid to the US-allied Popular Forces militia. The ‘thoroughgoing penetration of humanitarian activities by political agendas’ was typical of most NGOs, including CRS, CARE, International Voluntary Services (IVS) and the Vietnam Christian Service (VCS) (Minear, 2012: 45–48).11 Although the Cold War paradigm structured much of the environment in which aid actors had to operate, not all situations conformed to the rigidity of the East–West division. One notable example, with major significance for humanitarian action, was the Nigeria/Biafra Civil War. Initially, the situation was treated as a civil conflict. The position of U Thant, the UN Secretary-General, was that the Biafran secession in May 1967 represented an internal issue for the Nigerian federal government – a position also advocated by Britain as the former colonial power. A proposed airlift into Biafra (a predominantly Christian region) was opposed by the Nigerian government, but as famine conditions intensified NGOs including Oxfam and CARE and a coalition of Church agencies under JointChurchAid began their own airlifts. Having made little headway in its own negotiations, in August 1968 the ICRC announced its intention to begin airlifting supplies into Biafra despite the lack of government authorisation. The ICRC airlift operated from September 1968 to June 1969, when an ICRC plane was shot down by a Nigerian government fighter. Thereafter, Biafra was solely dependent on supplies carried at night by unlit JointChurchAid flights and NGO-chartered aircraft. Of the 7,800 flights into Biafra, 5,310 were operated by JointChurchAid, which transported 66,000 tonnes of relief 11 IVS, founded in the United States in 1953, was an NGO with roots in Christian organisations. It was dismantled in 2002. It is not to be confused with the International Voluntary Service (IVS-GB), which is the British branch of Service Civil International (SCI). A history of the humanitarian system supplies (Stremlau, 1977: 244). For a time Uli airstrip in Biafra was the busiest airport in Africa, handling 50 or more flights each night. It was this crisis that demonstrated the ability of NGOs to provide humanitarian assistance in contexts where the UN and ICRC could not. The Biafra war, all accounts agree, was of huge consequence: ‘a formative experience in contemporary humanitarianism’; ‘a test case and a turning point for international humanitarian assistance’; ‘opening a new chapter in humanitarian action’; ‘everyone is in agreement that modern humanitarian action was born in Biafra’ (De Waal, 1997: 72; Macalister-Smith, 1985: 118; Barnett, 2011: 133; Maillard, 2008). It was crucial in the formation of at least two NGOs: Concern and Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF). Concern (now Concern Worldwide) was formed in Ireland by Aengus Finucane. Finucane, the Catholic parish priest at Uli, had been deeply involved in managing the arrival of supplies at the airstrip. MSF was formed in 1971 with témoignage (‘bearing witness’) as a core principle, in opposition to the ICRC’s traditional discretion (Vallaeys, 2004; Maillard, 2008; Desgrandchamps, 2011–12). It is also now accepted that the humanitarian effort was co-opted by the Biafran leadership in their campaign for international recognition, and provided resources for their war effort. Smillie (1995: 104) concludes that the relief effort was ‘an act of unfortunate and profound folly’ that prolonged the war and contributed to the deaths of thousands of people. The East Pakistan crisis, if less symbolic now than Biafra, presented another major challenge to the humanitarian system. In November 1970, a severe cyclone and storm surge hit the coastal areas of the Ganges delta in what was then East Pakistan, killing an estimated 300,000 people. The cyclone interrupted planned national elections, polls for which were held in December and January. The government’s refusal to acknowledge the resounding success of the Bangladeshi nationalist Awami League led to widespread uprisings in East Pakistan, which were in turn repressed by West Pakistani forces. The perception that the authorities in West Pakistan had been slow to respond to the cyclone exacerbated tensions between the two halves of the country, with massacres of civilians by Pakistani authorities fuelling Bengali resistance, leading to a bitter civil war from March to December 1971. By the end of the year, an estimated 10m refugees from East Pakistan had sought safety across the border in India. Of these, approximately 7m were living in 825 camps, while the remainder were given shelter by friends and family (Loescher, 2001a: 156). The scale of the refugee crisis encouraged U Thant to nominate UNHCR as the ‘Focal Point’ for the coordination of all UN assistance. At the time, this was an innovative approach, giving the High Commissioner powers distinct from those of his role as head of UNHCR, and can be seen as a kind of precursor to the post-2005 cluster system. Even so, relief efforts inside Bangladesh, the new name for East Pakistan as declared by the Awami League in March 1971, were hampered 11 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Pakistan alone by the end of the decade (Loescher, 2001a: 62). Hundreds of refugee camps were established by the Pakistani government and UNHCR, many of which were militarised by the mujahedeen groups fighting Soviet occupation. In addition to billions of dollars in direct military support, Cold War tensions encouraged Western governments to support these groups indirectly through refugee networks, while for newly formed Islamic relief organisations the war represented a first terrain of transnational operations (Juul Petersen, 2011: 95–98). When the Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, funding for refugees in neighbouring countries declined significantly, despite a civil war resulting in new waves of displacement and humanitarian needs. by conflict and a lack of independence from Pakistani officials and the military. A contemporary study concluded that ‘In retrospect, no relief at all might have been better’ (Chen and Northrup, 1973: 272). Beyond conflict response, understandings of humanitarian action evolved rapidly in the 1970s. One crucial area of action was in African food crises, especially when famine struck seven countries in the Sahel region (Chad, Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal and Upper Volta/Burkina Faso) more or less at the same time as it took hold in Ethiopia. Like other humanitarian mobilisations of the period, the response to these food crises revealed the poor coordination of the growing humanitarian system and its difficult relationship with affected governments. These experiences led to the establishment of the FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning System for Food and Agriculture in 1973. The following year the UN held a World Food Conference, which affirmed the importance of planning for food crises and cemented WFP’s position of leadership in this field (Shaw, 2011: 56). Meanwhile, Amartya Sen’s ‘entitlement theory’, which proposed that famine was caused not by an outright shortage of food but by the inability of certain population groups to procure or access food (Sen, 1981), prompted more sustained analysis of the ways that affected populations responded to food shortages, and how these responses might be read as signs of an impending food security crisis. The 1980s saw another series of major crises, often involving protracted displacement and characterised by heavy media attention and the manipulation or ‘instrumentalisation’ of aid, whether by affected governments, armed groups or Western states (see Terry, 2002; Donini, 2012). One of the most glaring examples was the system of refugee camps in Honduras, effectively host to both left-wing and right-wing movements from Central America and subject to significant US intervention. Instrumentalisation was also a major issue along the Thai–Cambodian border, where some 200,000 refugees massed following the toppling of the genocidal Khmer Rouge regime by the Vietnamese. It became clear that the camps were being used as a sanctuary by the Khmer Rouge to sustain their military campaign against the Vietnamese-backed regime in Phnom Penh (Terry, 2002: 114–54). During the Ethiopian famine of 1984–85, the humanitarian operation was manipulated by the Ethiopian government, which used the food aid as part of a large programme of population resettlement from conflict-affected areas to less densely populated regions in the south of the country (see Clay, 1989). This crisis became perhaps the defining example of a media-driven humanitarian mobilisation, with massive sums raised through charity sales of records by Band Aid and internationally televised Live Aid concerts (see Vaux, 2001: 43–68). Another major international mobilisation took place following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. The conflict resulted in major flows of refugees into neighbouring countries. It was estimated that 3.5m Afghan refugees had sought refuge in 2.4 From the fall of the Iron Curtain to the close of the century From the mid-1980s, signs of strain within the Soviet bloc were beginning to show. The power of the Solidarity trade union movement in Poland was one such sign, the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 another. By the end of 1991 the Soviet Republics and finally Russia itself had declared independence. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics had ceased to exist. Initially, humanitarian action seemed to benefit from the easing of superpower tensions. Following a devastating earthquake in Soviet Armenia in early December 1988, for example, the Soviet government opened its borders to Western humanitarian workers for the first time since the famine of the 1920s. Another example of humanitarian cooperation in this period was Operation Lifeline Sudan (OLS), established in April 1989. OLS was based on the establishment of ‘corridors of tranquillity’ through which aid could be delivered after negotiations with the government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). ‘At the time,’ Richard Barltrop writes (2011), ‘the creation of OLS was a new and significant step, both for the UN and the SPLM/ A. The UN had never before dealt directly with what would previously have been considered only a rebel movement, fighting against a sovereign African state.’ Hopes that the end of the Cold War would lead to a more satisfactory international environment proved shortlived. While the likelihood of a recurrence of the great setpiece battles that marked the two world wars receded, this did not mean that the ‘age of wars’ was at an end: ‘the years after 1989 saw more military operations in more parts of Europe, Asia and Africa than anyone could remember, though not all of them were officially classified as wars: in Liberia, Angola, the Sudan and the Horn of Africa, in ex-Yugoslavia, in Moldova, in several countries of the Caucasus and Transcaucasus, in the ever-explosive Middle East, in ex-Soviet Central Asia and Afghanistan’ (Hobsbawm, 1994: 560). In 1993 there were 47 active conflicts, of which 43 were civil wars (MSF, 1997: 7). These conflicts became known as ‘new wars’ – not because everything about them was so very new, but because of their frequency and the intensification of certain key features, 12 HPG working paper including attacks on civilians, a breakdown of public authority or state legitimacy and their containment within a country’s borders (see Newman, 2004). For humanitarian actors, ‘the race to find ... early indicators of emergent conflict [was] to the 1990s what the race for the magic formula of famine early warning indicators was to the 1970s and 1980s’ (Slim, 1995: 114). They came to refer to the situations they confronted as ‘complex emergencies’. This term may have been coined in Mozambique, where the UN was negotiating simultaneously with the government and with non-state actors, in this case the RENAMO movement, to allow the provision of assistance outside of its standard country agreements (Calhoun, 2008: 84). The central idea of the complex emergency, it has been argued, is that ‘some emergencies have multiple causes, involve multiple local actors, and compel an international response’ (ibid.). The idea of a system-wide response is therefore integral to their conception. Mark Duffield (1994: 3), writing when the term was only a few years old, provided a more assertive definition: A history of the humanitarian system The resolution also made possible greater UN involvement in internal conflicts (Tsui and Myint-U, 2004). In so doing, it built upon Resolution 43/131 of 8 December 1988, passed in the aftermath of the Armenian earthquake, which affirmed the principle of access to victims (see Bettati, 1994). The 1990s also saw a large growth in the number and reach of humanitarian actors on multiple levels. NGOs became even more important players. This shift shows up in funding statistics: in 1976 no European Community (EC) emergency aid funding went through NGOs; by 1982–83 they were receiving 40% (Borton, 1993: 191). States also became more involved in relief, and agencies shifted their focus more towards relief and away from development assistance: WFP, for instance, cut its development projects from over half of its activity in 1989–90 to less than one-sixth by 2000 (Clay, 2003: 701). The 1990s also witnessed a number of major crises and conflicts which contributed directly to significant changes in the humanitarian world, including the 1991 intervention in Iraq, authorised by the UN in the name of Kurds who had suffered repression at the hands of the Iraqi government; the conflict in the former Yugoslavia; civil war and famine in Somalia; and the Rwandan genocide and Great Lakes crisis (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 60). Events in Somalia in particular have cast a long shadow over humanitarian action.12 Following the overthrow of President Siad Barre in 1991, factional militia warfare and famine resulting from the loss of food production, a UN peacekeeping force to protect aid convoys was approved in April 1992. After two ramped-up UN deployments and the death of 24 Pakistani UN troops in June 1993, US forces launched an attack on the militia of the Somali National Alliance, losing 18 soldiers and two Blackhawk helicopters in the process. Gruesome footage of the body of a US soldier being dragged through the streets of Mogadishu by cheering Somalis had a traumatic effect on US public opinion: all US troops were withdrawn from Somalia by March 1994. ‘The impact of this debacle,’ it has been claimed, ‘is difficult to over-estimate’ (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 66). Experiences in Somalia had a direct effect on the international response to the Yugoslav conflict. As Yugoslavia splintered apart after 1991, a brutal policy of ‘ethnic cleansing’ was practised by Croatian and especially Serbian nationalists, with the population of Bosnia the principal victims. By 1993, the cost of aid to the Balkans was more than $1m per day, with UNHCR assisting 2.7m people inside Bosnia as well as 1.4m in other parts of the former Yugoslavia (Rieff, 2002: 136). ‘Humanitarian action was the “filler” that was used to plug the policy gaps caused by the inability of the major powers to agree on political solutions to a profoundly political problem’ (Kent, 2004: 856). Emblematically, the peacekeeping mission (UNPROFOR) was referred to by Bosnians as the UN ‘Self12 This study does not discuss the history of humanitarian intervention – that is, military action to prevent or halt major or large-scale human rights abuses – despite its links with humanitarian action. For more on the history of humanitarian intervention, see Wheeler, 2000; Simms, 2011; Rodogno, 2012. So-called complex emergencies are essentially political in nature: they are protracted political crises resulting from sectarian or predatory indigenous responses to socioeconomic stress and marginalisation. Unlike natural disasters, complex emergencies have a singular ability to erode or destroy the cultural, civil, political and economic integrity of established societies. Facing such crises, with greater collaboration possible following the end of the Cold War, in the 1990s the members of the Security Council showed a greater willingness to authorise military operations to halt or prevent the widespread suffering or death of civilians without the consent of the government concerned. Analysts at the time discerned that ‘a new rule is emerging: There are circumstances in which the world community can, in defence of our common humanity, interfere in the national affairs of a sovereign nation state’ (Soguk, 1999: 183; see also Wheeler, 2000: 289). From 1948–88, the UN undertook only five peacekeeping missions; from 1989–94 it authorised 20 missions and increased the number of peacekeepers from 11,000 to 75,000. The UN also reformed its humanitarian apparatus. Following a review of capacity and coordination arrangements, on 19 December 1991 the General Assembly passed Resolution 46/182 on the ‘Strengthening of the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations’. In addition to reinforcing the Office of the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator (UNDRO), which became the Department of Humanitarian Affairs (DHA), the resolution placed the following key elements into a new architecture: the post of Emergency Relief Coordinator; the Humanitarian Coordinator system; the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC); inter-agency needs assessments; the Consolidated Appeals Process (CAP); the Central Emergency Revolving Fund (CERF); and the Financial Tracking System (FTS). 13 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper donor organisations led the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda, the first comprehensive evaluation of collective emergency operations, groundbreaking for its system-wide approach (Dabelstein, 1996: 287–88; see Eriksson et al., 1996). One of the most important of the subsequent initiatives was the Sphere Project, which in May 1998 resulted in a draft Handbook of Minimum Standards and a Humanitarian Charter. As Margie Buchanan-Smith wrote, although concerns about operations and principles in the early 1990s ‘created an atmosphere conducive to the Sphere project, it was the scale and intensity of the humanitarian crisis in Rwanda in 1994 which determined the vigour, depth and direction of its study’ (Buchanan-Smith, 2003: vi; see also Walker and Purdin, 2004).13 The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental Organisations, launched in 1994, predated these initiatives, but was nonetheless galvanised by the attention to beneficiary accountability in the years after Rwanda (see Walker, 2005). The Great Lakes crisis thus directly and fundamentally shaped the conduct of humanitarian practitioners today. It also had a powerful effect on the normative frameworks associated with, although not directly responsible for, humanitarian action. Several precepts of international humanitarian action, including the droit d’ingérence advocated by members of the French sans-frontiériste (‘without borders’) movement, presented a challenge to the Westphalian principle of state sovereignty. In the field of humanitarian intervention, NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999 and the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ outlined by the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS) remain highly contested and controversial (see Weiss, 2007). The establishment of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2002, along with the international tribunals and special courts for the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Timor-Leste, Cambodia and Lebanon, is another expression of the principle of international engagement around human rights abuses against civilians. Although protection of civilians (POC) had long been a concern of specialists in international law, human rights and refugee law, the experiences of Somalia, Bosnia and Rwanda brought the protection agenda into the work of a much larger number of actors. While recognising that much protection work, like relief assistance, is accomplished by affected communities themselves, Elizabeth Ferris (2011) outlines three strands of modern protection work in the international humanitarian domain. The earliest legal work of the ICRC – the first Geneva Convention, in 1864 – involved the protection of combatants; since then, the remit of the ICRC and IHL has expanded to include protection of prisoners of war and POC. 13 Other initiatives of the period include the People in Aid project and its best practice code; the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP), which took its momentum from the Joint Evaluation; and the Humanitarian Accountability Partnership (HAP). Protection Force’. UNPROFOR’s inability to provide meaningful protection for civilians was graphically demonstrated in July 1995, when a UN-designated ‘safe area’ in Srebrenica fell to Serb forces. The ensuing massacre of 8,000 men and boys prompted the US and other Western governments to order air strikes on Serb positions in August 1995. The impact of Somalia upon the international community was again starkly apparent as tensions rose in Rwanda. On 6 April 1994 – barely a month after the US withdrawal from Somalia – a genocide orchestrated by extremists within the majority Hutu ethnic group against the minority Tutsi ethnic group and politically moderate Hutus began. The genocide had been preceded by decades of tension between the two groups that had generated previous atrocities, the mass flight or expulsion of many Tutsis in 1959 to neighbouring countries and, starting in 1990, conflict as the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) tried to fight its way back into Rwanda after 40 years of exile in Uganda. By July, an estimated 800,000 people had been killed by Hutu extremists and members of the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), assisted by ‘ordinary’ Hutus incited to kill their neighbours. A multinational UN peacekeeping force, the UN Assistance Mission to Rwanda (UNAMIR), had been deployed in October 1993 to help with the implementation of a power-sharing agreement. However, most of the UNAMIR force was withdrawn by the troop contributing nations shortly after the killing of ten Belgian peacekeepers on 7 April. Even when it became clear that a genocide directed against Tutsis and moderate Hutus was underway, there was reluctance within the UN Security Council to characterise the massacres as genocide in order to avoid invoking the obligation to intervene, as required by the 1948 Genocide Convention. With no international willingness to act decisively, the genocide against Tutsis and moderate Hutus was only brought to an end by the victory of the RPF in July 1994 and the mass movement of 1.8m Hutus into refugee camps in eastern Zaire. By the end of 1994, there were over 2m refugees in the countries neighbouring Rwanda, and roughly 1.5m displaced internally; over half of the country’s 7m-strong population had been directly affected by the crisis (UNHCR, 2000: 246). Humanitarian agencies working in camps in Goma, in Zaire close to the border, were poorly prepared and overwhelmed by the scale of needs, and an estimated 30,000 refugees died of cholera in Goma alone (Stockton, 1998: 352; Borton et al., 1996). Residents of the camps became ‘more like hostages than refugees’ as the FAR and Interahamwe militia used the camps as a recruiting ground, source of income and base for night raids into Rwanda (UNHCR, 2000: 258; see Terry, 2002). Military assaults by Rwandan-backed militia on the refugee camps in late 1996 and 1997 forced many refugees back into Rwanda, whilst others were pursued deep into Congo where they were killed or perished. Experiences in the Great Lakes galvanised a spate of initiatives to improve accountability and standards. A group of bilateral 14 HPG working paper In tandem, refugee crises starting with the wars in Europe, the creation of UNHCR and the later recognition of the needs of internally displaced people (IDPs) gave rise to protection mechanisms for displaced people. The expanding human rights movement contributed to this pro-cess by addressing the protection of ethnic and racial minor-ities, children, women and gay and lesbian people through declarations of rights, UN resolutions and other forums. As a sign of the increasing adoption of protection work, all but one of the 11 international peacekeeping missions begun from 2001–11 included POC in their mandates (ibid.: 2). During the twentieth century, global relationships between states provided a changing framework for the practice of international humanitarian action. The two world wars devastated Europe and contributed to the consolidation A history of the humanitarian system of the United States’ position as an international power. Colonisation, which began decades before, arguably peaked during the interwar period, and became the subject of inter-governmental management with the League of Nations mandate system. After the Second World War, humanitarian action expanded into what was then called the ‘third world’, a label that reflected the process of decolonisation and the emergence of the former colonies and developing nations as a political bloc. Since the late Cold War, and especially since the decline of the ‘second world’ – the communist bloc – with the fall of the Soviet Union, the same group of countries has been designated the ‘global South’. Although the relevance of this classification has been challenged by the rapid development of certain Southern nations and the complex fallout from the events of 9/11, the global South remains one of the defining terrains for humanitarian action in the twenty-first century. 15 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 16 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 3 Early institutions for emergency food aid In the twenty-first century, famine analysts have argued, ‘major, prolonged famine anywhere is conceivable only in contexts of endemic warfare or blockade’ (Ó Gráda, 2007: 31). Paradoxically, however, the prominence of emergency food aid has increased as the geographical reach of famine has receded, and food security crises remain a crucial context for humanitarian response. Many accounts of this process focus on the creation and expansion of FAO and WFP in the period after the Second World War, and take it for granted that the largest food aid operations have been undertaken by WFP, with the backing of the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and the European Union (EU) (see for example Barrett and Maxwell, 2005). In contrast, this chapter focuses on the period prior to 1950, when food relief was part of a process of increasing internationalisation. It begins by examining how the Commission for the Relief of Belgium and the American Relief Administration addressed the needs of civilians under occupation during and after the First World War. The next section extends the geographical remit from Europe to the colonial territories, looking at how subsistence crises in India, notably the Bengal famine of 1943, related to other food aid practices of the time. The third section considers the work of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and NGOs during the Second World War.14 origins were soon greatly expanded by the diplomatic and logistical powers of its head, future US President Herbert Hoover. In mid-October 1914 Hoover issued an impassioned public appeal that, by speeding up negotiations through more traditional diplomatic channels, helped establish relief agreements: ‘the American Government should, from reasons of pure humanity, insist that Germany take favorable action, or make shipments through American diplomats, whether Germany agrees or not’.15 Belligerent governments on both sides recognised the Commission in late 1914, and the CRB was the only body to win assurances from the German military that food supplies destined for civilians would not be confiscated. Its ships were allowed to pass through the Allied blockade, it was able to establish contracts and treaties with warring governments and its representatives – who were all active in areas under military occupation – held special passports and were afforded freedom of travel and other immunities. In short, the CRB had secured exceptional levels of independence and authority, leading one British official to describe it as ‘a piratical state organised for benevolence’ (in Gay and Fisher, 1929: preface). Although its focus was on civilians rather than soldiers, the CRB provides an illustrative counterpoint to the ICRC in this period. Several of the crucial mechanisms that allowed the CRB to operate in effect mirrored those that had been used to carve out the ICRC’s international role. The recognition of the utility of the CRB’s work, its neutrality and the adoption of an acknowledged banner to allow passage for CRB staff were all familiar from the provisions that had facilitated the aid work of the Red Cross. The CRB was a recognised actor on an international stage, ‘answerable for the honest and efficient use of the resources placed at its disposal’ within a complex web of accountability relationships in which its donors were also belligerents in the conflict whose effects it was attempting to assuage (Gay and Fisher, 1929: preface). The CRB was also a sign of the emergence of the United States as a global power. Hoover, who was also involved in relief efforts during the Second World War, can be seen as representing that strand of American humanitarianism that sees the role of government as enabling action by private voluntary organisations.16 From the outset, Hoover emphasised centralisation and independence. In a telegram to the US ambassador in London 15 Herbert Hoover, ‘Statement to the American Press, urging immediate action for the rescue the Belgian people’, 13 October 1914. Document 6 in Public Relations of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, ed. George I. Gay and H. H. Fisher. Available online at http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/CRB/ CRB1-TC.htm#d6. 16 The authors are grateful to Edward Clay for drawing attention to this point. 3.1 The CRB and ARA during and after the First World War The first half of the twentieth century saw several famines in Europe, largely as a result of the world wars. Amongst the many private initiatives that sprang up during the First World War, one has been singled out as particularly important, partly as a result of its sheer scale and partly for the way it ‘set important and lasting precedents for the conception and organization of subsequent large scale humanitarian assistance operations’ (Macalister-Smith, 1985: 12). This was the Commission for the Relief of Belgium (CRB), established in 1914 to address the food needs of Belgian and French civilians in territories occupied by Germany that were subject to a blockade by Allied forces. The CRB originated in a request for outside assistance from one of the many local committees that had been set up in towns in occupied Belgium in an attempt to secure relief for the Belgian population. However, its grass-roots 14 Note that emergency food aid or food relief represents only one part of the broader international engagement with food security crises. Notably, government-to-government aid is not discussed in this chapter, although it informs the context for the developments featured. 17 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper worked in Poland after the Armistice. During the winter and spring of 1919–20 it brought in over 300,000 tonnes of US food supplies, including kosher meals for Jews, provided on credit to the new Polish government (Adams, 2009: 5). The ARA also played a major role in relief efforts during famine in the newly declared Soviet Union in 1921–22. Political and ideological tensions during the famine ran extremely high, especially where US organisations were concerned. The Soviet authorities had hesitated before opening the country to aid, and specified that ‘the Soviet government welcomes the help of all providing it does not involve political considerations’ (cited in Kirimli, 2003: 38). Yet Hoover was quite explicit about American aims, writing in 1919 that ‘of course, the prime objective of the United States in undertaking the fight against famine in Europe is to save the lives of starving people. The secondary object, however, and of hardly less importance, [is] to defeat Anarchy, which is the handmaiden of Hunger’ (cited in Patenaude, 2007). Mostly undertaken through its affiliated charitable organisation the American Relief Administration European Children’s Fund (ARAECF), the ARA’s work was on a staggering scale. At its height, the organisation was feeding over 10.5m people a day and had more than 120,000 employees in the Soviet Union (Walker and Maxwell, 2009: 27). The ARA made extensive use of medical experts but also employed many demobilised military personnel, including in senior positions. Because of the sheer number of beneficiaries they were treating, assessments to identify the neediest children were only carried out in urban centres, using the Pelidisi system to determine undernourishment in children up to the age of 15 (Patenaude, 2002: 87).20 These practices reflected the way the First World War changed approaches to food aid, and particularly knowledge about nutrition. Mass and widespread food security crises, from one point of view, presented wartime and post-war scientists with ‘a gigantic nutritional experiment’ (Weindling, 1994: 204). Long-term food shortages, caused by the Great War and compounded by events such as the Russian Civil War (1917– 22), the global influenza pandemic and later the Depression, remained a pressing concern in the following decades. As a result, prior to the Second World War a twofold shift relating to food aid took place: relief policies moved ‘from the distribution of food aid to adopting more scientifically based programmes’ and nutritional science underwent ‘a shift from diet as being merely calculated to sustain life to that of promoting optimum health, and of a new standard for well being’ (ibid., 1994: 205). These developments also affected attitudes to food aid in the colonial territories. 20 Developed by the Viennese doctor Clemens Pirquet, the Pelidisi system used as a measurement the cubic root of the tenfold weight of the body divided by the person’s sitting height. The average for adults would be 100 and for children 94.5, below which point ‘undernourishment’ applied. The benchmark figure adopted in Austria was 94; in the Soviet Union the cut-off had to be reduced to 92 or lower in certain places, because of the scale of need (Patenaude, 2002: 87). in late October 1914, he insisted that ‘it is impossible to handle the situation except with the strongest centralization and effective monopoly, and therefore the two organizations [the American-run relief commission based in London and its Belgian-based partner] will refuse to recognize any element except themselves alone’.17 Throughout the war, the CRB conducted and disseminated detailed analyses of food imports, local food production and nutritional requirements. Its methods have been compared to Hoover’s business techniques, using ‘the same aggressive financing strategies, strict accounting methods, efficient administration, and even commercial principles’ (Patenaude, 2002: 29). The CRB’s success in ‘organising for benevolence’ is reflected in the official figures: between 1914 and 1919, the CRB provided relief for a population of 9m people, supported welfare services and attempted to revive selected economic sectors; it handled over 2,000 commodity cargoes totalling more than 5m tonnes, with a 1918 value exceeding $800m (MacalisterSmith, 1985: 11). This is the equivalent of approximately $12.25 billion today.18 The CRB was often assumed to be an official American organisation – not least by individual Americans who supported it – though the US government had no formal responsibility for it. In fact, following America’s entry into the war in April 1917 Hoover had to compete with war mobilisation priorities, and in January 1918 admitted that ‘I am now putting the American people on a practical rationing of many of the commodities most urgently needed in Europe, with a view to saving from our consumption a sufficiency to carry the Belgian Relief and to provide their essential foods’.19 The price of Hoover’s influence upon policy-makers (whom he was soon to join) was an increasing government stake in relief efforts. The American Relief Administration (ARA) was formed in 1919. Like the CRB, its chief was Hoover and it received donations from private individuals. Unlike the CRB, however, the ARA was subject to US government control. In its first few years, the ARA either directly or through partner organisations delivered food worth more than $150m to children in 21 countries across Europe and the Middle East (Patenaude, 2002: 30). It also undertook reconstruction activities, contributing to communications repairs, the restoration of railways and river transport and industrial projects. While the CRB had been unable to gain access to Poland during the war, because of its inability to win German assurances that food provided for civilians would not be diverted by the military, the ARA 17 Memorandum from Herbert Hoover to Ambassador Page on the problem of Belgian relief, 20 October 1914. Document 13 in Gay and Fisher, Public Relations of the Commission for Relief in Belgium. Available online at http:// www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/CRB/CRB1-TC.htm#d13. 18 Calculated by the US Bureau of Labor, http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_ calculator.htm. 19 Letter from Herbert Hoover to Emile Francqui, 24 January 1918. Document 508 in Gay and Fisher, Public Relations of the Commission for Relief in Belgium. Available online at http://www.gwpda.org/wwi-www/CRB/CRB212.htm#d508. 18 HPG working paper 3.2 Colonial famine relief in Bengal and Indochina Although India entered the twentieth century in the throes of a severe famine, it did not suffer the same experience again until the Second World War. The Bengal famine of 1943 became – like Biafra in the late 1960s – a ‘paradigmatic case’ (Ó Gráda, 2007: 10). Contemporary estimates suggested a death toll of 1.5–2m, from starvation and related diseases like malaria, cholera and smallpox. More recently, studies have placed the figure much higher, perhaps as many as 3m (Devereux, 2000). Another half a million were made destitute and hundreds of thousands more lost land, livestock and other capital assets as systems of rural patronage crucial to the survival of the poorest sections of Bengali society collapsed (Greenough, 1980). Disputes persist about the balance of causes for the famine (see notably Tauger, 2003, in response to Sen, 1981), but it is clear that the situation was adversely affected by the Second World War. Rice prices rose as the conflict progressed: the wholesale price of rice went from Rs 9–10 per maund in November 1942 to more than Rs 100 by late 1943 (Bose, 1990: 716). Britain’s ‘denial policy’, designed to prevent Japan from gaining control of Allied assets, saw the army impound tens of thousands of boats, destroying the livelihoods of many Bengali fishermen, and surplus stocks were moved inland. As a result, rates of destitution during the famine were higher among fishermen than in any other occupational group (Greenough, 1980: 222). In making the decision to cut both military and civilian shipping to India, Prime Minister Winston Churchill noted that ‘there is no reason why all parts of the British Empire should not feel the pinch in the same way as the Mother Country has done’ (cited in Collingham, 2011: 145). The British government turned down a Canadian offer of wheat for Bengal on the grounds that no shipping was available to transport it, and prevented the Indian authorities from requesting assistance from UNRRA, fearing negative publicity (ibid.: 151). Even aside from such decisions, which seem to indicate the influence of colonial racism as well as military priorities, the actions of the colonial state were profoundly inadequate. The failings are starkly set out in the report of the Famine Inquiry Commission (FIC) appointed to investigate the response. There was little understanding of the severity of the famine, or how to best manage the food market. The Indian Famine Code, in place since the nineteenth century, was not invoked, on the grounds that there was not enough food available to meet its rationing requirements, and no famine was ever formally declared, depriving Bengal of the coordinating figure of the Famine Commissioner. The Bengal administration was both late and incoherent at all stages of the planning and implementation of the response. Voluntary and charitable organisations were a substantial contributor to the relief response. More than 500 food kitchens, as well as shelters and orphanages, were established by A history of the humanitarian system private relief organisations in Calcutta (Kolkata) and in the countryside (Greenough, 1980: 230). Voluntary organisations involved in the response included the Ramakrishna Mission, Bharat Sewak Sangh, the Friends Ambulance Unit, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Marwari Relief Society and the Indian Red Cross. One agency, the Bengal Relief Committee set up by Hindu nationalist politician Shyama Prasad Mookerji, operated in 25 districts and in Calcutta, providing rice to at least 300,000 households a day at the height of the famine. Between July 1943 and May 1944 the Bengal Relief Committee disbursed Rs 1.2m for food and spent another Rs 1.6m on other forms of relief. The Bengal government supported the engagement of NGOs and civil society, although it insisted that they be subject to government supervision and control. Many of these private organisations focused their relief work on particular groups defined according to gender, class, communal affiliation or occupation; one Marwari organisation, for example, ran a scheme specifically to help impoverished Brahmin priests. The government was similarly partial, favouring government employees and industrial workers, to whom it provided rice at subsidised prices. In the aftermath, reference to the patently inadequate response of the British authorities to the Bengal famine became part of the campaign for Indian independence. Even before the famine, Indian nationalists had been using malnutrition information to challenge the British justification for colonial rule on the basis of its supposed benefits to colonised people (Amrith, 2008: 1,024). After the famine, criticism of British colonial failings became even more acute. The writing of Jawaharlal Nehru typified the claim that the colonial state had lost its legitimacy: ‘the tragedy of Bengal and the famines of Orissa, Malabar, and other places, are the final judgment on British rule in India’ (Nehru, 1956: 511). From this perspective, the colonial state’s refusal to feed the starving ‘dramatically represented the bankruptcy of its legitimacy’ (Amrith, 2008: 1,027). A similar pattern was evident in French Indochina (presentday Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam). In contrast with the British approach in India, the French colonial state in Indochina had never established a system for famine prevention and response. Wartime inflationary conditions and Japanese military successes in Southeast Asia contributed to famine in Indochina, especially Tonkin, and in China (Bose, 1990: 703). Once France had fallen under German occupation in 1940, the French government in Indochina committed to supply its new ally in Tokyo with over a million tons of rice from the 1942–43 harvests; peasants in Tonkin were obliged to plant crops for military requirements rather than food, and some rice was even burned as fuel in French- and Japanese-run factories (Bose, 1990: 720). Such harsh treatment intensified pre-existing anti-colonialism in the Indochinese territories. Indeed, Van Nguyen-Marshall (2005: 237) argues that ‘the history of Vietnam’s decolonization and of the events leading up to Ho Chi Minh’s declaration of independence in August 19 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Regional Office in London a staff of 1,600; and its China office a staff of 1,300 (Woodbridge, 1950, cited in Macalister-Smith, 1985: 13). A separate displaced persons operation employed a staff of 5,000 (ibid.). In the three and a half years of its existence (from November 1943 to June 1947), it shipped over 9m tonnes of food and other supplies worth a total of $2.9bn, $1.23bn of which was accounted for in food aid. The mid-century principles of organised relief that UNRRA came to embody were also important to NGOs. For instance, the Council of British Societies for Relief Abroad (COBSRA), founded in August 1942, was established to facilitate the exchange of information between NGOs and to coordinate their work. It was open to any British organisation specialised in ‘relief of suffering or social recovery work in any parts of the world’ but required that participating organisations have at least one sister organisation based outside the Commonwealth (Steinert, 2008: 423). Before any missions were undertaken, staff of COBSRA affiliates were offered training to prepare them for humanitarian work, including technical matters, language skills, context analysis and psychology (ibid.: 425). The approach shared by organisations like UNRRA and COBSRA was summed up by Francesca Wilson, a high-profile relief worker. It was, she wrote, ‘an important advance on last time when no prior survey of needs was made and nation was allowed to compete with nation for food and necessities … we have at last become planning-minded’ (Wilson, 1945: 5). Despite this emphasis on needs and rational approaches, the principle of impartiality was rarely fully respected. Private and voluntary organisations provided aid, often on the basis of solidarity with a particular beneficiary group. In the United States, the National Catholic Welfare Council created CRS in 1941, and American Lutherans founded Lutheran World Relief (LWR) in 1945 (Egan, 1988). In the UK, the Jewish Committee for Relief Abroad (JCRA) was formed in 1943, focusing its efforts on Jewish victims of the conflict. As for UNRRA, the issue of eligibility was the subject of significant debate as the organisation, which worked in many different countries, sought to navigate between the political imperatives of its contributing states, its requirement that work be conducted at the request of affected governments and the desire to differentiate ‘good’ displaced people from ‘bad’ ones. The latter were defined in various ways by different actors, some emphasising collaboration with Axis powers, others citing the refusal of repatriation as a reason to consider some displaced people ineligible for aid (see Cohen, 2008; Reinisch, 2008a, 2008b; Steinert, 2008; Salvatici, 2011). As in the aftermath of the First World War, in the 1940s national public health interests were cited as a rationale for international relief, particularly in relation to aid for ‘enemy’ populations. This argument was captured by UK Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin in 1945: ‘While the Channel could be used to stop the German, it cannot stop germs’ (cited in Steinert, 2008: 429). In another parallel with the First World 1945 is inexplicable without reference to the devastation resulting from the famine that year’. In 1945, the Viet Minh national liberation movement began a strategy of grain seizures to address the food shortage, winning local support in the process. Huynh Kim Khanh (1986: 313) describes how its leadership recognised the famine’s potential as ‘a useful instrument to arouse hatred against the French and the Japanese, to give people a political consciousness, and to involve them practically in revolutionary politics’. The experience in Indochina, as in India, thus ‘highlights the role of famine in undermining the legitimacy of the state and the pre-existing social structure’ (Bose, 1990: 726–27). The mid-century famines of colonial Asia highlight the complex relationship between colonialism, nationalism and forms of responsibility. In the 1920s and 1930s, nutrition analyses underway in post-war Europe were also applied to the colonies, leading for the first time to the perception of a global hunger problem (Trentmann, 2006: 14). The League of Nations was instrumental in the recognition of this, devoting the third volume of its 1933 Report on Nutrition and Public Health to the ‘new problem’ of undernourishment in the colonial world (Worboys, 1988: 213–14). Yet, as the cases of Bengal and Tonkin show, with global conflict taking a severe toll on colonial territories the inability of imperial powers to sufficiently care for their subjects provided a powerful critique of the colonial system. 3.3 UNRRA and NGOs during the Second World War A concerted emphasis on planning, coordination and scientific expertise as the foundations of relief was one of the definitive features of Second World War-era humanitarian action. Conscious of the need to do better than its predecessors, the UN Relief and Rehabilitation Administration taught its staff that ‘the absence of a plan after the Armistice in 1918 had crippled relief efforts, and that subsequent initiatives by Herbert Hoover and Fridtjof Nansen … had been marred by a lack of funding and political support’ (Reinisch, 2008a: 378). In contrast, the efforts of UNRRA and other organisations active in the period were intended to be more rational and coordinated in order to confront the mass scale of needs during the 1940s, with UNRRA itself the embodiment of this approach. UNRRA was established on 9 November 1943, after lengthy negotiations between the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union and China. Its inaugural meeting the following day was attended by delegates from 44 nations. They agreed that member nations would donate 1% of their national income, giving UNRRA a budget of roughly $2bn, of which the US would provide nearly two-thirds (Shephard, 2008: 411–12). The organisation would eventually establish 24 country missions (one of the largest was in China) and 17 regional shipping and procurement offices. UNRRA’s peak year of operation was 1946, when its headquarters in Washington had a staff of 1,800; its European 20 HPG working paper War period, recalling notably the approach taken by SCF in 1919, calls for aid to German civilians often focused upon the plight of children. Through Nordic as well as British programmes, feeding schoolchildren again became one of the most common forms of post-war aid (ibid.: 429, 432). Also reminiscent of the First World War was Herbert Hoover’s attempt to renew the private cross-border relief he had directed with the CRB and ARA. During the Second World War, however, Hoover was unable to negotiate access with the same success as previously. Despite a brief period providing aid to Poland in 1939, after 1940 all of Hoover’s efforts ran head-on into the British naval blockade, which almost nothing could convince Whitehall to revise or lift, even partially (George, 1992: 394–95). The only exception to the blockade, the provision of food aid to Greece in 1942, was subject to a strict insistence on neutrality achieved through the involvement of neutral Sweden (ibid.: 402; see also Mauzy, 2008). British intransigence on the naval blockade led to the creation in 1942 of the Oxford Famine Relief Committee, now known as Oxfam. Originally a support group for the national Famine Relief Committee, the Oxford Committee had a crucial interest in Greece thanks to the involvement of Gilbert Murray, who had recently retired as Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Oxford. In 1943, after several public campaigns about the famine in Greece, the Oxford Committee received a direct request for assistance from the President of the Greek Red Cross; it registered as an official charity and began appealing for funds, raising nearly £16,000 in its first few months (Black, 1992: 15–16). The Greek campaign was the only wartime success story of the Famine Relief Committee and its subsidiaries, as similar campaigns for assistance to Belgium and Poland, for example, came to nothing. As the conflict ended, the Oxford A history of the humanitarian system Committee continued to support relief efforts and eventually, in early 1949 in the context of the Arab–Israeli war the previous year, formally broadened the stated aims of its work to ‘the relief of suffering arising as a result of wars or of other causes in any part of the world’ (ibid.: 37). The expansion of its ‘mandate’ from European conflict to global suffering was typical of the trajectory of Western humanitarianism in this period, and provided the basis for Oxfam’s work for the remainder of the twentieth century and beyond.21 The ‘humanitarian’ institutions of the period before 1950 have had a mixed fate. Those that have lasted longest are the NGOs, notably Save the Children and the generation of organisations created during the Second World War, such as Oxfam and CARE. Others, such as the CRB and ARA, and sometimes by design, did not remain long after the crises that produced them. International organisations did not fare well, with many succumbing to the turmoil of the 1930s and 1940s; humanitarian action, too, became prey to these contradictory tendencies, as internationalist initiatives had to either compete or collude with national objectives and groups of various kinds became rivals for global leadership on humanitarian questions. Crucially, the landscape of international humanitarian action was being transformed by the process of decolonisation. The emergence of independent countries had an enormous impact on the normative frameworks structuring humanitarian action. 21 In 1963, under pressure from the British Charities Commission due to its development activities, Oxfam again modified the phrasing of its main objective: ‘to relieve poverty, distress and suffering in any part of the world (including starvation, sickness or any physical disability or affliction) and primarily when arising from any public calamity (including famine, earthquake, pestilence, war or civil disturbance), or the immediate or continuing result of want of natural or artificial resources, or the means to develop them, and whether acting alone or in association with others’ (Black, 1992: 91). 21 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 22 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 4 Evolving norms during and after decolonisation The process of decolonisation entailed a momentous transformation of global geopolitics and power relationships after the Second World War. The first countries to achieve independence, in the late stages of the Second World War or in its wake, were largely in Asia. Countries achieving independence during the 1945–55 period included the Philippines (1946), India and Pakistan (1947), Burma (1948), Sri Lanka (1948), Indonesia (1949), Egypt (1953), Cambodia (1953), Vietnam and Laos (both 1954). Many Latin American countries had achieved independence from Spain or Portugal in the nineteenth century. The continent’s emblematic case in the post-war period was the Cuban Revolution (1959), which, while not strictly a colonial war, was considered an anti-imperialist struggle because of the close ties between the United States and the overthrown Batista regime. Decolonisation in Africa took place mostly in the early 1960s, for French and British colonies, and the 1970s, for Portugal’s holdings in Southern Africa. This chapter focuses on the impacts of this geopolitical change – the transformation of colonial territories into sovereign nations – on international humanitarian action and in particular its normative frameworks.22 The first section considers how wars of liberation affected mechanisms of international humanitarian law, notably through the work of the ICRC. The second section explores the impact of decolonisation and wars of liberation on the legal frameworks for refugee assistance. Finally, the chapter discusses the political implications of development and human rights in a Cold War context. as far back as the sixteenth century (Hacker, 1978: 134–37). However, the political aspirations of the wars of liberation, and the geopolitical changes they produced, intensified the challenges that these conflicts presented to humanitarian actors and to the construction and observance of IHL. The attempt to introduce the new category of ‘wars of liberation’ into international law, according to Antonio Cassese, began in the early 1950s. Although struggles against colonial domination occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the anticolonial conflicts after the Second World War were ‘remarkable, first, because they proliferated so rapidly and came to constitute a phenomenon of great magnitude and intensity, and, second, because “national liberation” was no longer merely a political concept, but was given a legal turn’ (Cassese, 2008: 99). For liberation movements, Cassese argues, the aim to have wars of liberation recognised as international conflicts was motivated by three main factors. First, by positioning liberation movements as a potential interlocutor and accountable to the law, it elevated the standing and legitimacy of these movements. Second, it created an opportunity for these movements to oppose the treatment of their combatants as ordinary criminals. Finally, as these movements were likely to be the weaker party in the conflict and also reliant on the support of the local population, greater respect for IHL could decrease the impact of the conflict on their members and on the civilian population around them. The ICRC began sustained reflection on the criteria for intervention in civil conflicts in the early 1950s. Four conditions were set: the events in question must reach a certain level of gravity and must involve acts of violence; they must have a certain duration (which excluded isolated rioting); the parties involved must have a certain degree of organisation; and the events must have created victims. It was also agreed that the ICRC would only act in situations where the relevant National Society was not willing and able to act effectively on behalf of victims; that the ICRC’s first approach would always be to contact the National Society to gather information and offer assistance; and that it would not act without the consent of the authorities (Rey-Schyrr, 2007). In practice, however, if the colonial powers did not view anti-colonial movements in their territories as constituting war – and most did not – then the ICRC could do little to insist. Although Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions provided for access to noninternational armed conflicts, it did not extend the full range of protections that applied during international conflicts and access for humanitarian organisations was often negotiated rather than provided for (Bartels, 2009: 64). 4.1 Wars of liberation and international humanitarian law With international norms evolving and decolonisation conflicts proliferating, wars of national liberation wrought major change upon the ICRC and also became a principal subject of contention for the organisation in its role as guardian of international humanitarian law. The international nature and global mandate of the ICRC, especially through its relationship with the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement, meant that it had longer experience of engagement outside of Western Europe and North America than many other actors. It had been active in several internal conflicts prior to the decolonisation period. Moreover, the use of guerrilla warfare tactics (almost definitive in decolonisation conflicts) had been the subject of ICRC reflection since the nineteenth century, and had troubled jurists 22 In contrast, according to an IFRC overview, international law relating to peacetime relief ‘developed in a fragmented manner’ from the 1930s onwards, through bilateral agreements, institutional mandates and specific provisions within various legal instruments (IFRC, 2007: 27). 23 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper national liberation movements against colonial powers or discriminatory regimes. It would be achieved through the revision of legal frameworks relating to conflict. This agenda was reflected in the successful campaign to have members of national liberation and anti-apartheid movements participate in the Diplomatic Conference (Hacker, 1978: 141). The first session of the Diplomatic Conference has been described as ‘one of the most bitter conferences which many of the people had ever attended’ (Suter, 1984: 129). By far the most controversial question was precisely whether wars of liberation were internal or international conflicts. The ICRC’s hope that the Diplomatic Conference would defer this issue and devote its attention to the regulation of these conflicts, as a separate issue from their status, was scuppered with the tabling of a clause declaring that Protocol I would apply to ‘armed conflicts in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes in the exercise of their right of self-determination’. This clause was indicative of the way in which ‘many states saw Protocol I as a weapon in the strategic struggle against racism and imperialism, rather than as a strictly humanitarian document for the benefit of war victims’ (Forsythe, 2005: 263; see also Suter, 1984: 145–46). In effect, by 1977 most countries had already obtained independence, and so these provisions remained largely symbolic. Tellingly, Israel and the United States refused to ratify the Protocol. The remaining sessions of the Diplomatic Conference – one a year in 1975, 1976 and 1977 – were less combative. Ultimately, however, the conference remained dominated by the agenda of the Southern states. The ICRC’s own summary of the Protocols acknowledged that ‘most of the countries that became independent after 1945 “inherited” the Geneva Conventions from the former colonial powers – the adoption of the Protocols was also an occasion for them to contribute to developing the law’ (ICRC, 2009). According to Perret and Bugnion (2011: 736), the 1977 Protocols reflected the learning that the ICRC had begun during the Algerian War. More critical analyses have interpreted the drafting of the Protocols as part of the declining influence of the ICRC in relation to the formulation of IHL: it was ‘much more important in the development of the 1929 [Geneva Convention] on prisoners of war than it was in the development of the 1977 Protocols’ (Forsythe, 2005: 264). This was reflective of the way the shift in global power undermined some elements of Western dominance in international norms. The ICRC endeavoured with varying degrees of success to offer humanitarian assistance during wars of liberation and East– West proxy wars. Its contribution during the Indochinese War (1945–54) was limited, partly because of budget restrictions but also because it had chosen to prioritise relief work in Palestine during this period. The reluctance of the communist resistance movements to cooperate with the ICRC was exacerbated by the fact that it was dependent on the French occupying forces for communications and transport (Forsythe, 2005: 75). During the Korean War, it likewise found itself too closely identified with the agenda of a Western power, in this case the United States, which was fighting alongside South Korean and allied forces against the communist North. In effect, ‘most communist governments gave it little or no cooperation during the Cold War, seeing the organization – not entirely incorrectly – as a bourgeois organization of the liberal West’ (ibid.: 53). It was active during the Algerian War (1954–62), though had trouble navigating between the belligerents in this very brutal conflict (see Branche, 1999; Perret and Bugnion, 2011). As one expert on IHL and the ICRC puts it, ‘respect for humanitarian law was indeed sorely lacking in the armed conflicts which were the direct consequences of the Cold War’ (Bugnion, 2000: 43). The issue of humanitarian provision during wars of liberation was also occupying the UN General Assembly (Hacker, 1978: 140). In 1968, Resolution 2396 on apartheid declared that ‘freedom fighters should be treated as prisoners of war under international law’. In 1970, Resolution 2674 (XXV), introduced by Sudan – which had gained its independence 15 years before – sought to secure better protection for ‘civilian populations and freedom fighters against colonial and foreign domination as well as against racist regimes’. Between 1968 and 1977, each regular session of the General Assembly passed at least one resolution relating to IHL, most often through the prism of ‘respect for human rights in armed conflicts’ (Bugnion, 2000: 45). These internal, anti-colonial or anti-imperialist conflicts conditioned the drawn-out negotiations that eventually led to the two 1977 Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions, the first of which added wars of liberation to the category of international armed conflict, and the second of which elaborated on obligations during non-international armed conflict. It is now considered that the main humanitarian contribution of the Protocols was to improve protection for non-combatants, especially civilians, through Articles 35–67 of Protocol I and Articles 13–17 of Protocol II (Bugnion, 2000: 45). The ICRC prepared draft texts for the Protocols, as it had for the 1949 Geneva Conventions, to be debated in various forums prior to their passing into international law. However, the 1974–77 Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law that led to the adoption of the protocols was much more strongly shaped by the participation of Southern or non-aligned nations than had been the case for any previous conferences on IHL. Many of these countries favoured the ‘internationalisation’ of wars of liberation, which would legitimise the claims of 4.2 UNHCR and global emergency and refugee frameworks The Cold War saw a sharp rise in the number of people crossing international borders in search of refuge in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East. By 1970, the total number of African refugees exceeded one million; by 1980, that figure had risen to an estimated 3.5m (Bascom, 1995: 197–98). 24 HPG working paper Often, the same states that generated refugee movements also hosted large numbers of refugees from other countries. Cold War hostilities meant that ‘Western governments came to perceive assistance to refugees as a central part of their foreign policy towards newly independent states, thus using foreign aid as one of the principal tools in this East-West struggle for rivalry’ (Loescher, 2001a: 10). On an operational level, this global situation proved both a challenge and an opportunity for UNHCR, which vastly expanded its resources, capacity, mandate and geographic scope. It also required the revision of the legal frameworks that supported UNHCR’s work. Over time, international refugee frameworks had viewed their work through different lenses. The agreement creating the Nansen passports for Russian refugees in 1922 had nothing to say about causes of displacement or the definition of ‘refugee’ status. This approach was repeated in the 1933 and 1938 Refugee Conventions, which also constructed the term ‘refugee’ according to ethnic group or country of origin (Skran, 1995: 72). The 1933 Convention hence referred to Russian, Armenian, Turkish, Assyrian, Assyro-Chaldean and Turkish refugees, while the 1938 law applied to ‘refugees coming from Germany’.23 Following the Second World War, definitions of refugees shifted from a focus on ethnicity to a focus on the reasons for flight. The 1951 Refugee Convention used a definition of refugee status based not on group characteristics but on individual experience. The Convention also placed a crucial time limit on this definition, which applied only to people displaced ‘as a result of events occurring before 1 January 1951’, effectively limiting governments’ obligations to respond and confining its context to the immediate post-war period. The statute of UNHCR itself was less restrictive than the Convention. One of its refugee definitions omitted the clause limiting its responses to events before January 1951. Its Statute also contained provision for the High Commissioner’s ‘good offices’ to be used at the behest of the General Assembly in situations of displacement outside of its mandate. This mechanism allowed UNHCR to assist Hungarian refugees fleeing Soviet military action against the popular uprising in Budapest in 1956. The Statute also provided a basis for assistance to Chinese refugees in Hong Kong in 1949–50, in a period during which ‘the UNHCR barely touched the world outside Europe’ (UNHCR, 2000: 6). The agency then expanded its reach into North Africa and beyond. The Algerian War of Independence was an important early example of UNHCR involvement in a major decolonisation crisis and the first time it had responded to an official request for assistance from a non-European government. The young Red Crescent Societies of Tunisia and Morocco, which had gained independence in 1954, were quickly overwhelmed by the thousands of Algerians fleeing the conflict, and the Tunisian government appealed directly to UNHCR for assistance (see Elie, 2007). Meanwhile, 23 Assyrians are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia (now Iraq). Assyro-Chaldeans are ethnic Assyrian adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church. A history of the humanitarian system upheavals in the Congo and the Great Lakes region showed the need for refugee assistance in Sub-Saharan Africa. Remarkably, by the mid-1960s the majority of refugees being assisted by UNHCR were not covered by the UN Refugee Convention. To rectify this anomaly, the definition of refugee status was again revised, this time reflecting the global nature of the refugee problem. The 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees removed the time limitation of ‘events occurring before 1 January 1951’. Once drafted, it came into force remarkably quickly: instead of the traditional consultative process calling for the participation of all governments that had ratified the original treaty, only six states needed to accept the Protocol to bring it into force (UNHCR, 2000: 56). Moreover, the fact that states could adhere to the Protocol without ratifying the 1951 Convention opened it up to more signatories, including notably the United States. In the years after the Protocol, UNHCR expanded its geographic reach, developing programmes of assistance for those outside its original ‘refugee’ mandate, including ‘those displaced within the borders of their own countries, returnees (refugees or internally displaced people who have returned), asylum-seekers (whose formal status has not yet been assessed), stateless people, war-affected populations and others’ (UNHCR, 2000: 3). In step with this expansion, due in large part to its own initiatives, ‘UNHCR grew from a strictly nonoperational agency with no authority to appeal for funds to an institution with a long-range program emphasizing not only protection but, increasingly, material assistance’ (Loescher, 2001b: 36). The massive number of refugee and IDP populations during the Cold War was a decisive factor in the consolidation of the agency’s role in the international humanitarian system. Alongside UNHCR, regional actors also engaged with refugee frameworks in this period. Notably, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) established a Refugee Convention in 1974.24 Although the OAU Convention was drafted with the assistance of UNHCR and referred to the 1951 UN Convention as constituting ‘the basic and universal instrument relating to the status of refugees’, it expanded upon the UN definition of refugee status in one important respect. In addition to the previous definition, the OAU Refugee Convention declared that ‘the term “refugee” shall also apply to every person who, owing to external aggression, occupation, foreign domination or events seriously disturbing public order in either part or the whole of his country of origin or nationality, is compelled to leave his place of habitual residence in order to seek refuge in another place outside his country of origin or nationality’. Its recognition that ‘refugee problems are a source of friction among many Member States’, and its assertion of ‘a distinction between a refugee who seeks a peaceful and normal life and a person fleeing his 24 The OAU was established in Addis Ababa in 1963 by 32 signatory governments. It was disbanded in 2002 and replaced with the African Union (AU). 25 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper communications, agriculture and industry.25 Two years later, in 1950, the Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Development in South and South-East Asia was established to provide economic and technical aid to Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth states in Asia. Other colonial governments were also engaging in ambitious investment projects. In 1946, France established a colonial development fund, known as FIDES, which by the second half of the 1950s had invested some $500m in France’s colonial empire. In 1950, the Belgians unveiled a ten-year plan of public investment (Wilson, 1994: 149). Truly, as one contemporary observer put it, a ‘crusade of colonial development’ was under way (Hinden, 1949). Such efforts were, however, explicitly designed to contribute to metropolitan economies at a time of severe economic crisis; by ‘colonial development’, British Colonial Secretary Arthur Creech Jones wrote in May 1947, ‘I mean not only the promotion of services and utilities that are essential for the progress of the colonial peoples, but also the provision of enterprises which expand production and increase commodities required either in or outside the territory or both’.26 For the European powers, ‘development’ was intended as a means to improve domestic economic prospects, diminish the appeal of nationalist movements and bolster colonial control. For the United States, by contrast, the purpose of development assistance was geopolitical: a means of winning newly independent states to the West and fighting off Soviet and Chinese attempts to exert control over the newly independent states of the non-aligned world (see Latham, 2011; Gilman, 2003). In his inaugural address in January 1949, President Harry Truman proclaimed ‘a bold new program for making the benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas’. Chastened by the communist victory in China later that year, and alarmed by energetic Soviet and Chinese wooing of non-aligned nations such as India and Burma, US planners under Truman and his successor, Dwight D. Eisenhower, developed extensive programmes of technical, economic and military assistance in an effort to influence political and economic change in the third world. These programmes were maintained and expanded in the 1960s under Kennedy, who oversaw a rapid and significant increase in foreign aid. In its first year, Kennedy’s administration increased economic assistance to developing countries by just under 25%; between 1960 and 1963, aid grew by a third. Meanwhile, parallel administrative changes overhauled and streamlined the institutional architecture of US overseas aid. The Peace Corps and Food for Peace programmes were set up in early 1961, and in November the various aid programmes 25 ‘Report of the Colonial Development Working Party’, 11 October 1948, UK National Archives, PREM8/923. 26 ‘Development of Colonial Resources’, draft memorandum by Creech Jones, May 1947, UK National Archives, CAB124/1083. country for the sole purpose of fomenting subversion from outside’, were also new in comparison to the UN documents and were arguably a departure from the more muted politics that characterised previous refugee statements. 4.3 Decolonisation, development and human right While acute crises caused by conflict and natural hazards – what Mark Duffield would later describe as ‘permanent emergency’ – fuelled the humanitarian system’s expansion during the Cold War, this period also saw the arrival of the ‘development agenda’. Across a number of fronts, the notion took hold that technical assistance would assist the countries of the so-called ‘third world’ to catch up with the industrialised societies of Europe and North America. The leaders of Asia and Africa’s newly independent nations recognised the need for rapid change; according to Kwame Nkrumah, the first leader of independent Ghana, ‘What other territories have taken three hundred years or more to achieve, a once dependent territory must try to accomplish in a generation if it is to survive. Unless it is, as it were, “jet-propelled”, it will lag behind and thus risk everything for which it has fought’ (cited in Westad, 2005: 91). As Nkrumah’s comment showed, post-colonial development was explicitly linked to the anti-colonial struggle. Although the concept of development became a key part of the UN’s international agenda from the late 1940s onwards, it has its roots in modernisation and assistance programmes and colonial development. After the United States took control of the Philippines from Spain in 1898, for instance, it undertook a series of programmes designed to remedy what was taken at the time to be Spanish neglect and Filipino ineptitude. The League of Nations and non-governmental actors were also active; for instance, in the 1920s, following a devastating famine in North China, the League and various NGOs were involved in development-style activities designed to encourage social and cultural change notably relating to agricultural practice (Ekbladh, 2010: 14–39). Technical assistance programmes, such as that of the UN’s Technical Assistance Agency (1950– 59), owed a debt to colonial management under the auspices of the League’s mandate system as well as those of direct imperial rule (Webster, 2011: 250). In imperial Britain, the Labour government under Ramsay MacDonald set up a Colonial Development Fund in 1929 to provide £1m a year in development spending. In 1940, the wartime coalition introduced the Colonial Development and Welfare Act, setting aside an annual £5m over ten years, later extended to £120m. Under the Overseas Resources Development Act, passed in February 1948, two new public organisations, the Colonial Development Corporation and the Overseas Food Corporation, were set up to oversee the government’s development efforts. Together, these bodies enjoyed borrowing powers from the UK Treasury of over £150m. By the latter half of 1948, development plans worth nearly £200m had been approved, covering social services, 26 HPG working paper that had grown up in piecemeal fashion under Eisenhower were organised under a new ‘super-agency’, the US Agency for International Development (USAID) (Latham, 2000: 81). The 1960s, Kennedy told the UN in January 1961, would be the ‘Decade of Development’. From the 1950s until the late 1970s, as shown in Arturo Escobar’s critical account, the issue of development dominated discussions of Africa, Asia and Latin America (Escobar, 1994). It permeated the work of international agencies. The shift from emergency relief to development is well illustrated by the experience of UNICEF. Originally created in 1946 to continue the work of UNRRA amongst war-affected children, as this type of need subsided in the early 1950s UNICEF decided to continue its work beyond Europe. This had not been the original aim, but it was made possible by the inclusion in UNICEF’s founding resolution of a reference to its work ‘for child health purposes generally’ (UNICEF, 2006: 5). This clause had been proposed by Ludwik Rajchman, the organisation’s founding father, to allow it to build a specialisation in disease control and prevention. However, when UNICEF’s charter came up for review in 1950, developing nations lobbied the UN for the agency’s work to be expanded: ‘How, asked the delegate from Pakistan [Ahmed Shah Bokhari], could the task of international action for children be regarded as complete when so many millions of children in Asia, Africa and Latin America languished in sickness and hunger not because of war, but because of age-old poverty?’ (Black, 1996: 8). A series of studies has highlighted how a range of agencies including the World Bank, FAO, WHO and the International Labour Organisation (ILO) pushed the development agenda in the post-war years. Created at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, the World Bank moved decisively into development only once its utility in its other aim, European reconstruction, was undermined by the Marshall Plan. This process was not straightforward or free from internal conflict, as it required the reorientation of the Bank’s institutional model – to become less of a bank, in effect, and more of a development agency (see Alacevich, 2009). FAO too shifted its attention to the global problem of starvation, urging that ‘the same sense of urgency’ be shown as during the Second World War, because ‘this is a war against starvation and we must have the weapons to fight it’ (cited in Staples, 2006: 84). FAO’s Freedom from Hunger Campaign, instigated in 1960, exemplified its development focus, combining analysis, action and people-to-people approaches to fundraising and bringing NGOs into closer cooperation with the organisation. Under the leadership of its creator, B. R. Sen, FAO Director-General between 1956 and 1967, the organisation was transformed and its budget increased by roughly 350% (Jachertz and Nützenadel, 2011: 114).27 27 Prior to taking up his position in FAO, Sen was a senior figure in the relief effort for the Bengal famine of 1943. His is one example of a common trajectory in which individuals moved between colonial administration and international governance (see a French example in Taithe and Lachenal, 2009). A history of the humanitarian system Uptake of the development agenda by NGOs was not simply a product of government or UN activities, but was certainly related to it. Increased amounts of official funding fuelled NGOs’ programmes to address poverty-related problems in the ‘third world’. In one striking example, by the end of the 1960s Oxfam was spending less than 10% of its budget on disaster response: more than 50% was used on medical and welfare projects in areas unaffected by any emergency, and 40% went on agricultural development and technical training (Whitaker, 1983: 22). That this shift did not occur without tensions is clear from the organisation’s 1964 conference, when Arthur Gaitskell, a veteran of development schemes in Sudan, argued that ‘to respond to charity for those in blatant distress requires merely Yes or No ... It is a sign-posted road. You follow it or you don’t. To respond to an interest in world development is a very different matter. This is a jungle of uncertainties and confusing tracks’ (cited in ibid.: 24). Although many would today contest Gaitskell’s claims about the straightforwardness of relief work, this comment hints at the internal difficulties raised by the move into development as the debate crystallised tensions between radicals and conservatives within the organisation. The shift into development work was also complicated, for many actors, by the relationship between development and rights in the Cold War context. Unlike earlier international documents that focused on minority rights, the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights spoke of the human rights of the individual (Mazower, 2004). It addressed both civil and political rights (in Articles 1–21) and economic, social and cultural rights (Articles 22–28). The profile of human rights was maintained, indeed increased, throughout the peak of the Cold War period: ‘interest in human rights was a distinctive feature of the intensely optimistic atmosphere that characterized much of the immediate post-colonial moment’ (Burke, 2006: 951). However, the terrain of rights was influenced by the polarised geopolitical environment of East–West rivalry, epitomised by the splitting of the 1976 International Covenants on human rights into two documents – the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Because of their commitment to development and desire to defend hard-won political power, newly independent nations tended to favour economic and social rights over civil and political rights. While, broadly speaking, Western European states and the United States tended towards civil and political rights, ‘the West was willing to cede power to the smaller countries on human rights questions in exchange for solidarity in Cold War security matters elsewhere in the UN’ (Burke, 2008: 278). This privileging of one set of rights over another, broadly understood as the promotion of collective development over individual freedoms, was evident in the final proclamation of the First UN International Conference on Human Rights, held in Tehran in 1968, which asserted that ‘the full realisation of civil and political rights without the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights is impossible’, and that respect for 27 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper always without difficulty, and techniques and methodologies had to be reconsidered. Even so, some of the shortcomings of the international humanitarian system highlighted by decolonisation have remained a concern ever since. Despite recalibrations in the functioning of the United Nations, the international architecture of aid has been slow to adapt to the ‘new’ balance of North–South relations, and calls for reform have been ongoing for decades. Respect for the Geneva Conventions and other laws of war or human rights protections has never been consistent, and access during internal conflicts, for instance for the protection of detainees, remains difficult. Legal recognition of the category of ‘wars of liberation’ has not been echoed by the extension of IHL into other types of civil conflicts, with the result that there are few legal frameworks for the regulation of such conflicts and they remain dominated by the principle of respect for state sovereignty (Cassese, 2008: 126–27). The question of how human rights fit with humanitarianism, historically and in current practice, has not been fully resolved. Ongoing shortcomings in responses to protection challenges, seen starkly and with devastating consequences in the closing stages of the Sri Lankan civil war, speak to the complexity of this issue. The way that development efforts – which, as has been demonstrated, have their origins in a very specific historical context – relate to relief actions also remains problematic. Although an understanding of the historical context and in particular the period of rapid normative change during and after decolonisation may not provide the answers, it is an essential part of understanding dynamics currently at play. human rights was ‘dependent upon sound and effective … economic and social development’ (cited in ibid.: 288; see also Burke, 2010). By the 1970s, this insistence upon economic and social rights had hardened into the promotion of a ‘third generation’ of rights (after the first two Eurocentric generations) based on solidarity and collectivism. They included the right to freedom from colonialism and the right to development. Adherence to civil and political rights was sometimes cast by the leaders of newly independent countries as an attempt to derail economic progress or force Western values upon cultures to which they were alien. Due to the assertion of cultural relativism and the ideological polarisation that affected rights debates, it was not until 1986 that the right to development, blending socioeconomic and civil/political rights, became the subject of a UN declaration; it took until the Second UN World Conference on Human Rights in 1993 for the inalienable nature of this right to become the subject of official consensus (Sengupta, 2000). The influence of the ‘rights-based approach’ to humanitarianism has had a significant impact upon the way that principles are discussed and understood (Leader, 2000: 48), is not unrelated to this evolution of broader rights frameworks. The transformation that the international aid architecture underwent as a result of the wars of liberation and the decolonisation process more generally was reflected across a range of areas. International and transnational actors had to adjust to speaking to – indeed, being influenced by – a new set of interlocutors. Normative frameworks were revised, not 28 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 5 The emergence of a humanitarian knowledge community It has been several decades since the formal international humanitarian system has been clearly identified as such. This study argues that, although its history goes much further back, the 1970s were a crucial period in the galvanisation of a humanitarian system and profession, with key institutions, analytical networks, government departments, forums for dialogue and eventually professional accreditation identifiable from this time onwards. Taken together, these various elements can be considered as marking the advent of a humanitarian knowledge community, a network of interconnected actors whose objectives and thinking, while never unanimous or uniform, began to coalesce into collective methods for improving humanitarian response. This chapter traces the development of a humanitarian knowledge community at key moments across the twentieth century and especially, decisively, from the 1970s onwards. The idea of the ‘knowledge community’ is more accommodating than that of the ‘epistemic community’, the network of knowledge-based experts that Peter Haas has explored in relation to international policy (Haas, 1992).28 The chapter does not seek to examine the question of the legitimacy or authenticity of expertise as such, but rather traces the channels by which knowledge has been shared and the institutional developments that have supported this aim. The first section discusses examples of knowledge and information in the 1920s and 1950s, each marked by the differing types of internationalism that followed the world wars. The second section analyses the rapid proliferation of new forums and bodies, notably aimed at greater coordination, research and institution-building, which occurred following the formative experiences of the late 1960s and early 1970s. The final section of the chapter uses the example of the post-disaster shelter and housing sector to highlight the gradual appearance of a humanitarian knowledge community by the 1980s. created for national purposes and some with an international audience in mind. They also reflected the thinking of the day, with shifting approaches to caring for others having an impact upon the type of information being shared, the way it was framed and the audience it addressed. One of the most common methods used by humanitarian actors seeking to expand their networks of discussion was the issuing of a regular publication such as a newsletter or journal. Many of these began as members-only publications and gradually broadened their audiences. They often served the dual aims of advancing ‘scientific’ knowledge about humanitarian practice, while promoting a particular organisation’s agenda and contributions or its fundraising activities. The ICRC’s periodical, The International Review of the Red Cross, which began life in 1869 as the Bulletin International des Sociétés de Secours aux Militaires Blessés, has cultivated expertise in international law. The LRCS launched a journal in 1920, the International Review of Public Health, available in English, French, Spanish and Italian. Also in 1920, SCF began publishing The World’s Children, a bi-monthly magazine that combined publicity materials with operational data such as nutrition analyses. Its attempt to raise awareness about child welfare issues won it the dubious honour of being described as the ‘most melancholy magazine in existence’ (The Glasgow Bulletin, cited in Baughan, 2012). These interwar publications reflected the internationalism of the period and the belief that rational progress could come through properly organised humanitarian action. One of the most notable initiatives of the interwar period in light of the later, more articulated humanitarian knowledge community was the research and dissemination work of the International Relief Union (IRU). Founded in 1927 at the instigation of Giovanni Ciraolo, the President of the Italian Red Cross, the IRU is a significant example of a humanitarian forum that was international by design and internationalist in mentality. Ciraolo’s original vision of the IRU (cited in Hutchinson, 2000: 24) was an organisation that would respond to 5.1 Knowledge development and information sharing following the world wars Although, as we shall see, the number of initiatives leading towards a humanitarian knowledge community in the 1970s is striking, they are conspicuous precisely for their number and not so much for their novelty. Indeed, there were significant precedents and precursors for the knowledge community that took shape in the final quarter of the twentieth century. They operated within and across different social groupings, some 28 The full definition Haas (1992: 3) used was ‘a network of professionals with recognized expertise and competence in a particular domain and an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within that domain or issue-area’. upheavals due to natural forces … the spread of dangerous epidemics; a disturbance of the social conditions … which unexpectedly cuts off the minimum supplies indispensable for normal existence; the consequences of war, in so far as they may have deprived a people of the resources or the power to meet, without assistance, the immediate needs of its collective life; [or] the threatened exhaustion of the race through the lack, in the hour of need, of the barest provision for the safety of its children. 29 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper international scientific committee under IRU auspices, to coordinate the efforts of national study committees and convene events (ibid.: 42). This structure within the IRU, involving national committees of experts, recognised the reality that countries accumulated knowledge based on their own experience of emergencies. The case of the US experience of natural disasters illustrates this point. The ARC’s turn-of-the-century expertise in natural disaster response has already been mentioned. Following the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, which remains one of the largest urban disasters in US history (Strupp, 2006), various reports were compiled as an effort to share information about the response. The Californian state government issued its own report two years afterwards (Lawson et al., 1908). One of the most notable was the San Francisco Relief Survey (1913), a collective volume authored by both academics and humanitarian actors. It aimed to offer ‘a book of ready reference for use on occasions of special emergency’ (O’Connor et al., 1913: iii–iv). After heavy flooding of the Mississippi River in the 1920s and 1930s – for which an IRU offer of assistance was declined by the US government – researchers such as Gilbert F. White examined the effects of and responses to flooding (see White, 1942). One notable event was the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, which displaced a reported 700,000 people and had a significant impact on attitudes towards the role of the federal government in disaster response (Barry, 1998). These research efforts took institutional form in the midtwentieth century. In 1957, the American anthropological journal Human Organization published a special issue on ‘Human Adaptation to Disaster’. The editors noted with approval the increase in disaster studies, even if ‘the papers do not point to a “disasterology”’ (Demerath and Wallace, 1957: 1); a bibliography included in the issue ran to ten pages (Rayner, 1957). In 1959 and 1961 the Disaster Research Group of the US National Academy of Sciences published inventories of research on the social scientific study of disasters (Disaster Research Group, 1961). The first university research centre devoted to the social scientific study of disasters dates from the same period: the Disaster Research Center (DRC) founded by Henry (E. L.) Quarantelli and Russell Dynes at Ohio State University in 1963. The picture that emerges from this rapid survey is of a rich country with a sophisticated research infrastructure whose experience of major natural disasters – including floods, earthquakes, hurricanes and droughts – contributed to its strong engagement with knowledge development and knowledge sharing processes. Of course, knowledge sharing was not restricted to issues around natural disaster response (and the IRU itself had this restriction forced upon it). The discipline of refugee studies, often closely tied with situations of conflict, took form in the 1920s in light of the mass displacement of the First World War and its satellite conflicts. According to Claudena Skran and Carla N. Daughtry (2007: 17), most research works of In reality, the 1927 Convention founding the IRU provided a far more restricted scope for its activities, which were to address ‘misfortunes and disturbances due to force majeure (act of God), when they affect entire populations, when their consequences are such as to exceed the normal provisions of even a provident Government, and when they are of an exceptional character in the stricken countries’ (cited in Hutchinson, 2001: 264). Although – with its operations severely underfunded and limited to situations of force majeure – the IRU had little practical impact, it made a significant contribution to knowledge-building and transfer. The IRU’s research activities, by focusing on natural disasters, reflected the organisation’s constrained mandate. The aim to ‘encourage the study of preventive measures against disasters’ was part of its founding convention. Camille Gorgé (1938: 25), a member of the IRU Executive Committee, described the importance of this task in vivid terms: If the river swollen by rains bursts its banks and spreads death and desolation, the Union will, if the disaster is sufficiently extensive, hasten to the relief of the victims with all the weight of its experiences and responsibilities. But it will not merely automatically repeat its action as often as the deadly whims of nature demand; it will, as in duty bound, endeavour to overcome once and for all the fury of the waters, if only by assisting the engineer with scientific studies or giving practical advice to the Governments concerned. Over the years, the IRU constructed an impressive research programme. One of its first pieces of work was a geographic map of the incidence of natural disasters across the world, with the aim of improving preparedness, refining strategies for relief and increasing protection (Gorgé, 1938: 41). It promoted this and other research through a journal entitled Matériaux pour l’étude des calamités, first published in 1924 under the joint aegis of the IRU, the Société de géographie de Genève, the ICRC and the LRCS. The editorial of the first issue appealed for ‘international co-operation’ in their project so that ‘each calamity should be made the subject of world investigation dealing not only with past phenomena, but with those of the present day and, unfortunately, of the future’ (Editorial Committee, 1924: 6).29 The IRU also fostered national research committees, represented in a dozen countries by the late 1930s, all of which undertook research and released their own publications.30 It held its First International Conference for Protection against Disasters in Paris in September 1937. The conference proceedings produced a volume of more than 500 pages, including a call for the creation of a permanent 29 In June 1938, after 40 volumes, the journal was taken fully in hand by the IRU and became the Revue pour l’étude des calamités; in 1964 it was relaunched again as the Revue de l’Union internationale de secours. 30 They were Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Switzerland. There had also been an Austrian committee, which fell victim to the Anschluss (Gorgé, 1938: 42). 30 HPG working paper this and the following decade focused on European and Middle Eastern refugees – that is, those being assisted by the League of Nations. During the Second World War, institutional developments (in government and the NGO sector) were often focused on humanitarian responses to conflict and the organised use of knowledge was one of the key precepts of their activities. Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, research centres relating to development studies were established. In France, the Institut international de recherche et de formation en vue du développement harmonisé (IRFED) was founded in 1958. In the UK, the Overseas Development Institute (ODI) was founded in 1960 with an investment from the Ford Foundation; the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) was created in 1966. This period also saw the codification of humanitarian principles, with the ICRC’s proclamation in Vienna of the seven Fundamental Principles (see Pictet, 1979). Many of the developments in knowledge-sharing with direct links to today’s practice – mechanisms or institutions still in existence in one form or another – came about as a result of the experience of working in the late 1960s and early 1970s in what would now be termed complex emergencies. A history of the humanitarian system (now the Centre for Development and Emergency Practice (CENDEP) within Oxford Brookes University). In the same year, the LTG established the International Disaster Institute (IDI), which in 1991 was absorbed into ODI, leading to the formation of the Humanitarian Policy Group (HPG) and the Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action (ALNAP) in 1997. In 1982 the Refugee Studies Centre (RSC) was established by Barbara Harrell-Bond at the University of Oxford. What is remarkable about these centres, apart from the concentrated period of their creation, is the breadth of their disciplinary range and the variety of their professional interests, including anthropology, medicine, public health, nutrition, engineering, geology, architecture and political science. Most of these centres favoured multidisciplinary approaches, reflecting the multifaceted and interconnected nature of humanitarian action. They also created forums for exchanging information across different groups of researchers, notably through new journals devoted to humanitarian response. LTG launched the first journal devoted to relief practice – Disasters: The International Journal of Disaster Studies and Practice – in 1977, with John Seaman as its first editor. In 1983 the International Sociological Association launched The International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, edited by Quarantelli. Many of the major bilateral donor organisations in Europe and North America established dedicated emergency units during the 1970s (see Kent, 1987: 52–53). Again, the United States was something of a forerunner, having established the Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance in 1964. Switzerland’s Directorate for Cooperation Assistance and Humanitarian Aid was established within the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs in 1972. The UK’s Overseas Development Administration established a Disaster Unit in 1974. In 1975 the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) established a Section for Emergency Relief Assistance. In the same year the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs established an Emergency and Humanitarian Aid Section. In 1978 the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) established an International Humanitarian Assistance Division and the West German Ministry of Foreign Affairs established Section 301. Despite the prevalence of natural disasters in Australia, centralised coordination mechanisms were slower to develop there, with a 1984 study noting that ‘data collection and vulnerability analysis are just commencing and the wider implications of economic loss and recurring threats to life have not yet been turned into successful mitigation measures at the national level’ (Leivesley, 1984: 88). A similar process of institution-building was underway within the UN agencies. In 1971 UNICEF established the Office of the Emergency Operations Coordinator. WHO established an Emergency Relief Operations Office in 1974. The following year, FAO created the Office for Special Relief Operations 5.2 Institutional innovation in operations, research and funding The combined effect of traumatic experiences in Biafra, Bangladesh and the 1970 Peruvian earthquake (where international agencies and donors ‘invaded’ Peru and overwhelmed the Peruvian government) influenced a series of institutional innovations for emergency response (Kent, 1987). In Frederick Cuny’s summary, ‘the inadequacy of the response to meet the widespread needs in Bangladesh and the failure of voluntary agencies to perform well in many of the tasks asked of them, especially in nonmedical fields, led many relief workers to call for a reappraisal of the relief system’ (Cuny: 1983: 20). Changes occurred on a variety of fronts, though they often shared the theme of improving coordination. Researchers analysed past experiences; governments and intergovernmental agencies, including UN bodies, created new institutions and departments for humanitarian response; NGOs established new networks to improve their own effectiveness. The momentum generated by these crises saw the emergence of a suite of new disaster research groups. In 1971, a group of postgraduates in London University, who had worked in East Pakistan, Ethiopia and elsewhere, established the London Technical Group (LTG) to encourage the growth of disaster studies (Rivers, 1978). In a separate initiative, though with the LTG’s advice, Michel Lechat established the Centre for the Research and Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) within the School of Public Health at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium in 1972. In 1976 the University of Colorado established the Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center (now the Natural Hazards Center), and in 1978 Ian Davis and colleagues established a Disasters and Settlements Unit within the Department of Architecture at Oxford Polytechnic 31 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper publications in the 1980s both reflected and reinforced this trend, including Amartya Sen’s Poverty and Famines (1981), Frederick Cuny’s Disasters and Development (1983), Peter Macalister-Smith’s International Humanitarian Assistance: Disaster Relief Actions in International Law and Organization (1985), Barbara Harrell-Bond’s Imposing Aid: Emergency Assistance to Refugees (1986), Bernard Kouchner’s Charity Business (1986), Jean-Christophe Rufin’s Le piège, quand l’aide humanitaire remplace la guerre (1986) and Randolph Kent’s Anatomy of Disaster Relief: The International Network in Action (1987). Many of these works remain influential today. (as a successor to the Office for Sahelian Operations) and WFP established an Emergency Unit. UNHCR established its Emergency Office in 1980. Concurrently, at a global, centralised level, plans had been underway for the creation of a new UN entity to serve as a focal point for disaster relief. In December 1971 the General Assembly approved the establishment of the Office of the UN Disaster Relief Coordinator. UNDRO faced several obstacles from the outset. First, its mandate was poorly defined: while it had clear responsibility for relief coordination after ‘natural’ disasters, the meaning of several references to ‘other disaster situations’ was not clear and became particularly sensitive in cases of what would later be identified as complex emergencies (Macalister-Smith, 1980: 378). Second, it faced constant resourcing difficulties. Even with additions to the initial figures, UNDRO’s annual allocation for assistance was only $200,000, with $20,000 the maximum that could be spent on any single disaster (Kent, 1987: 54). Third, although UNDRO established partnerships with other UN agencies, it faced difficulties in gaining acceptance from some UN agencies and member states. UNHCR, in an expansionist phase, put up some of the fiercest resistance (Loescher, 2001: 152). No fewer than 11 resolutions affirming the need to reinforce coordination were passed by 1990, suggesting that, despite official agreement on the issue, member states were reluctant to act on their commitments (Ryfman, 2008: 67). UNDRO’s difficulties recalled those of the IRU in the 1930s – ‘the instrument of co-operation has been forged and the machinery for mutual assistance is there; all that is lacking is the will to use it’ (Gorgé, 1938: 9). After 20 years UNDRO was replaced by DHA as part of Resolution 46/182, adopted by the General Assembly in December 1991. After East Pakistan there was also more explicit recognition amongst NGOs of the need to work together more effectively. One initiative was the creation in 1972 of the League of Red Cross Societies-Voluntary Agencies Steering Committee in Geneva (commonly referred to as the LICROSS/Volag Steering Committee and now known as the Steering Committee for Humanitarian Response (SCHR)). This brought together the LRCS, CRS, the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), Oxfam and the Church World Service. Another innovation in this period was the creation of a Unit for Emergency Preparedness and Disaster Relief Coordination within the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO), in 1977.31 The unit had various aims, including the provision of basic relief supplies and technical assistance during aid efforts, disaster preparedness planning, training for field staff and ‘problem-solving research’ (Inside the Agencies, 1977a: 174). The cumulative effect of these developments was felt in the 1980s. With governments investing in relief as well as development, NGOs and international agencies seeking coordination and dedicated researchers sharing findings, a knowledge community began to take shape. A series of major 31 PAHO is also the American regional office of WHO. 5.3 Knowledge formation: the example of the postdisaster shelter and housing sector Although the need for shelter is regarded as a basic and fundamental condition for dignity as well as survival, the development of a shared body of knowledge and practice for shelter needs in situations of crisis was slow in coming. Despite countless examples of settlement crises during the twentieth century alone, on the cusp of the 1980s experts remained concerned that ‘our knowledge of post-disaster housing is still in its infancy’ (Davis, 1978: 106). Early examples of major disasters point to the existence of shelter and housing operations well before the emergence of a knowledge community around these practices. An illustrative example is the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which destroyed 250,000 homes, the response to which included the use of tents, barracks and cottages as temporary housing (Ashmore, 2011: 109). A major investigation by researchers from the University of California, Berkeley, published its findings in the two-volume Report of the State Earthquake Investigation Commission in the years after the earthquake (Lawson et al., 1908/1910). Their research led to a number of discoveries that have underpinned seismology since that time (Zoback, 2006). Another highly influential event in terms of the understanding of seismology and disaster response thinking was the 1908 earthquake in Messina, Italy, which stimulated numerous studies by Italian scholars and others and prompted plans for the IRU (see Pino et al., 2009). The case of Japan indicates the existence of communities of disaster and specifically shelter-related expertise beyond these Western examples. The Committee for Investigating the Prevention of Earthquake Disasters, generally known as the Earthquake Investigation Committee, was appointed in 1892; from 1897, the committee published selected research in foreign languages in order to share its findings on topics such as empirical, geological and meteorological investigations and the testing of the earthquake resistance of different building materials and techniques. Japanese seismologists and the Japanese Red Cross Society were sent to San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake. In 1923, the Great Kanto earthquake struck Tokyo and Yokohama, followed by major fires; nearly 142,000 people died and some 700,000 homes were destroyed 32 HPG working paper (James, 2011; see also Schencking, 2008). The government issued an English translation of its own comprehensive report under the title The Great Earthquake of 1923 in Japan detailing the damage and responses (Imperial Japanese Government, 1926). However, the fact that this report was overlooked by several crucial later studies suggests that truly global knowledge sharing has at times been very partial. It was not until the 1950s that more effective initiatives emerged to share learning across different stakeholders in the shelter and housing sector. The first World Conference on Earthquake Engineering was held in Berkeley, California, in 1956 – marking the fiftieth anniversary of the San Francisco earthquake. The conference had a global focus, with presentations on experiences and practices in Japan, Germany, Colombia, Chile, New Zealand, Turkey, Pakistan, Greece, Mexico, Italy and the United States.32 The Second World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, held in Japan in 1960, included presentations from Soviet scientists on earthquake-resistant buildings in the Soviet Union, at a time when information-sharing between East and West was extremely rare. As in the broader field of humanitarian response and coordination, attention on housing and shelter began to grow at the beginning of the 1970s.33 In addition to the experience of mass displacement during the East Pakistan crisis, the shelter and housing sector was also strongly influenced by the experience of the Gediz earthquake in Turkey in 1970, which killed over 1,000 people (see Mitchell, 1976). Also important was the work done by Oxfam and World Neighbours in Guatemala following an earthquake there in 1976 (see Oxfam America, 1977). Contemporary studies – and experts since – acknowledge the Guatemala project as ‘an innovation in post-disaster policies’ because it ‘did not attempt to build large quantities of houses; rather to teach the survivors ways of building their own safe houses, whilst still using traditional skills and materials’ (Davis, 1978: 107; Ashmore, Leon and D’Urzo, 2010: 90). It was extensively evaluated and became extremely influential. Similarly oriented publications from outside the relief sector, such as the edited volume Freedom to Build: Dweller Control of the Housing Process (Turner and Fichter, 1972), also shaped the thinking of humanitarian practitioners. These experiences contributed to institutional developments and practice-oriented knowledge-sharing efforts throughout the 1970s. In 1971, Cuny, a Texan construction engineer, established the Intertect Relief and Construction Corporation. Within the space of only a few years, Intertect’s operational support and 32 The full proceedings are available online, at http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/ wcee/first_conf_California. 33 On the question of the causes of needs relating to shelter and housing, a review of Oxfam’s shelter work during the 1970s noted that ‘We are all aware of the needs of hundreds of millions of human beings, who live in appalling slums, where life is indeed a daily disaster situation for which so little is being done … We are hard pressed to find, with few exceptions, programmes working at slum improvement or the shelter problems of refugees’ (Howard and Mister, 1979: 139). Italics in original. A history of the humanitarian system practical guides had had a significant impact on the sector (Davis, 1978: 106; see Cuny, 1971; Cuny, 1975). An advisory and training role was also developed by the Appropriate Re-construction Training and Information Centre (ARTIC), established by Oxfam, Intertect and the Salvation Army after the 1977 Andhra Pradesh cyclone and storm surge (Winchester, 1979). NGOs’ technical guides, such as the first edition of Oxfam’s guide to using plastic sheeting, issued in 1973, also began to circulate. Sharing of knowledge was encouraged through conferences such as a meeting on ‘Disasters and Settlements – Towards an Understanding of the Key Issues’, convened by Oxford Polytechnic in 1978. However, much like today, these events faced criticism for their exclusivity: ‘why hold a conference devoted to the needs of the poor within the secure environment of western affluence; why not in Dacca or Manila?’ (conference participants, cited in Davis, 1978: 114). One prominent feature of 1970s shelter literature, not unconnected with this appeal, is its emphasis on beneficiary participation. Studies that adopted a long-term perspective were able to demonstrate that ‘present-day problems might have been averted, or moderated, if [social and cultural] values had been considered before providing housing’ (Hirschon and Thakurdesai, 1978: 249). This insight was derived from the case of refugees from Asia Minor who had settled in Greece in 1922: by 1978, roughly 86,000 people were living in ‘temporary’ accommodation provided decades before. Other studies of more recent housing solutions also highlighted the importance of understanding beneficiary priorities when addressing shelter needs (Mitchell, 1976: 313; see also Mackay, 1978: 152). The language used by shelter experts in the late 1970s is strikingly reminiscent of more recent calls for beneficiary accountability. Ian Davis was a strong voice in this debate, declaring that ‘methods will have to be established to tie expatriate interventions to be accountable to survivors. Currently they are accountable to the agency head office, or their donor public’ (Davis, 1978: 111). Davis underlined the paramount importance of not imposing external values, whether through ignorance of local culture or a sense of superiority to it, and asserted that ‘we need to devise ways where intervenors can become accountable to the survivors of disasters’ (ibid.: 114). His point was reiterated and further explored by Everett Ressler (1978: 129) in a detailed article proposing that ‘accountability to victims should be both an operational method and a programme philosophy’. Ressler criticised the common working methods of international humanitarian responders: Victims have no voice in agency affairs and no vehicle for participating or expressing their views before their benefactors … Stereotypes and misconceptions continue to be major factors in post-disaster programming. The basis for most of these stereotypes and misconceptions in disasters can be found in the portrayal of victims as 33 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper shows that, in the 1990s, humanitarian organisations were ‘becoming bureaucratized, developing spheres of competence, and rules to standardize responses and to drive means-ends calculations. Professionalism followed, with demands for actors who had specific knowledge, vocational qualifications that derived from specialized training, and the ability to follow fixed doctrine’ (Barnett, 2005: 729). The gradual coalescing of a knowledge community in reaction to increased experience was an important phase in the history of the international system. Paradoxically, recognition of this opens up the possibility of considering research and knowledge developments in earlier periods: it becomes apparent that, prior to the Cold War, the issue was not so much a lack of experience and reflection as the dispersal of relevant analyses across different disciplines, schools or approaches. It has too often been assumed, in the absence of international coordination measures to gather these groups into one larger and more visible conversation, that they simply did not exist. The same assumption has often been made according to geographical or linguistic divisions – difficulties in accessing or understanding other cultures have inhibited a truly global sharing of knowledge on a large scale, although individual experts have always been able to bridge such divides. Some of the key figures in the shelter sector, for example, had strong links with researchers in countries such as Turkey, India and Iran, where extensive experience with earthquakes had fostered the development of expertise. Despite the increased sharing of experience since the 1970s, this process has had limitations. On the one hand, it is not clear that the greater exchange of information has necessarily led to improved practice on the ground. The experience of UNDRO is a case in point. Its failings included the ‘inability to actually direct other parts of the UN system in times of crisis’, the reluctance of other agencies to relinquish their perceived independence and the ‘problem of weak leadership’(Tsui and Myint-U, 2004: 3), issues that plagued DHA and later coordination efforts as well. Thus, while UNDRO’s weaknesses harked back to those of the IRU in the 1930s, they continue to pose a challenge for the humanitarian system despite the increase in learning and professionalisation. On the other hand, practitioner confidence in the growing body of scientific knowledge has sometimes had the effect of reinforcing patterns of power. This was neatly captured by a veteran of World Vision, who remembered that ‘we used to read the new development manuals at night and then teach the villagers what we learned the next day’ (cited in Barnett, 2011: 130). In this way, Western workers’ training and education contributed to their sense that they were justified in intervening in the ‘best interests’ of those affected by conflict or disasters, and that ‘science was on their side’. Making the humanitarian community more open to ‘outsider’ knowledge has been and remains a very challenging task. ‘helpless’ … Agencies have defined the accountability in the past viewing themselves as being primarily accountable to their source of funding, rather than to the beneficiaries (ibid.: 129–30). Ressler argued that accountability to beneficiaries required an emphasis on process rather than on predetermined final outcomes, and a re-examination of how priorities for reconstruction and programmes were determined. The role played by shelter experts in preparing the UNDRO guidelines for shelter after disaster, published in 1982, allowed the principle of beneficiary accountability to be directly transported into UN agency standards. The very first principle asserted by the guidelines was that ‘the primary resource in the provision of post-disaster shelter is the grass-roots motivation of survivors, their friends and families. Assisting groups can help, but they must avoid duplicating anything best undertaken by survivors themselves’ (UNDRO, 1982: 3). The thirteenth principle was even more explicit: ‘since the most effective relief and reconstruction policies result from the participation of survivors in determining and planning their own needs, the successful performance of assisting groups is dependent on their accountability to the recipients of their aid’ (ibid.: 4). Although there are examples of beneficiary accountability being promoted by humanitarian workers in other sectors (Wisner, O’Keefe and Westgate, 1977; Taylor, 1979), the shelter sector appears to have been particularly precocious in this respect. In 1990, the declaration of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction encouraged the expansion of the postdisaster shelter and housing sector. An increasing number of university centres, qualifications and publications became available, though the most critical breakthroughs in profile for the sector did not come until the following decade. One landmark was the creation of the Shelter Project in Cambridge in 2000 (now the Shelter Centre, based in Geneva). Events continued to play a catalytic role in focusing attention on shelter needs, particularly the Gujarat earthquake in 2001 and the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, which inspired the emphasis on ‘building back better’ also seen in responses to the Haiti earthquake of 2010.34 More broadly, beyond the shelter sector, the proliferation of aid agencies and increased donor attention in the 1990s encouraged competition and facilitated greater education and training. This was what Barnett describes as the emergence of a humanitarian ‘field’. Although he somewhat overlooks the importance of the knowledge-sharing, institutional and identity-building developments in earlier phases, Barnett 34 Despite the developments outlined above, Ian Davis (Davis, 2011: 195) characterised the 29-year period from 1972 until the Gujarat earthquake of 2001 as being one of ‘a low level of interest in shelter/reconstruction by the UN and most [of the] NGO sector’. 34 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Chapter 6 Conclusion This Working Paper has sought to provide an introduction to the emergence of the international humanitarian system. It has indicated how, as the formal system took shape from the mid-nineteenth century onwards, the international dynamics surrounding humanitarian engagement changed. So too did the beneficiaries of aid efforts and the ways in which they were understood by other actors. Missionaries and other religiously motivated actors often viewed the needs of their beneficiaries through the lens of charitable duty or the expansion of the faith, though active evangelisation did not necessarily accompany their efforts. Forms of solidarity other than religious belief have also motivated humanitarian action, as seen for instance in the politically oriented work of International Red Aid in the interwar period and other left-leaning organisations since, such as Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA). For organisations of this type, relief action has often been accompanied by the promotion of ‘justice’ for its beneficiaries. In contrast, organisations in the Red Cross/Red Crescent model have promoted impartiality as one of the cornerstones of humanitarianism. While the emphasis on impartiality has facilitated ICRC engagement in conflict since its founding in the mid-nineteenth century, the range of beneficiaries that the organisation has attempted to reach has gradually expanded from sick and wounded soldiers to include prisoners of war as well as civilians of countries under occupation or otherwise caught up in conflict. The need to respond to natural disasters, conflict and issues around ‘underdevelopment’ provided the rationale for the expansion of international humanitarian efforts into the global South during and following decolonisation, when beneficiaries outside of Europe stepped into the spotlight in their own right, rather than as colonial subjects. Although their practices were often connected, the actions of states or civil society groups without a ‘jurisdiction’ in the newly independent nations should be distinguished from the role of formally international bodies or, in the previous era, imperial and colonial powers. This expansion presented a challenge to practices developed in Europe for European victims of conflict, and not necessarily suited to the new operating environments faced by NGOs and international agencies across the globe. The process of learning and adjustment has remained a major preoccupation for a system that is inherently self-critical, but which has also struggled to implement the lessons gleaned from previous experience. Yet even a brief glance at the history of humanitarian action indicates that many of the difficulties that today’s actors face have also confronted system actors in the past. This is true, for instance, of humanitarianism’s ambiguous relationship with the media, which has been a constant since nineteenthcentury technologies such as the telegraph and the steam engine shortened the distance between suffering abroad and public interest at home. In fact, the ‘CNN effect’ has been at work for many years, as the complaints of the IRU preparatory commission made clear in 1925: public interest in disasters varies in different cases … due not so much to lack of sympathy as to lack of publicity. Some disasters seem more dramatic, more graphic, more photogenic. The Press is full of them, and the public is moved. Others, however, are regarded as of inferior journalistic value; the Press slurs them over, and the public pays them no attention (IRU preparatory commission, cited in Hutchinson, 2001: 269). The commission’s proposal was to create a fund to enable a response even in the absence of publicity – a mechanism very much akin to the CERF, established nearly 70 years later. The lesson that history repeats itself, if not in exact replica at least in the recurrence of certain features, also applies to problems such as the political instrumentalisation of aid, impediments to coordination and leadership and issues around the appropriateness of aid and the dignity of its recipients. But what can be done with this lesson once heeded? On one level, a greater awareness of past challenges – not only their existence, but also the factors that contributed to them – will help to test and refine thinking on present challenges. The direct application of previous experience is one very concrete reason why knowledge of the past should be an essential tool for humanitarian practitioners and policymakers. Yet, in another, perhaps paradoxical way, an awareness of the emergence and evolution of the formal humanitarian system may also help its stakeholders see beyond this system. By recognising it as the product of specific contexts and forces rather than an immutable and universal actor, historical analysis opens up the possibility of new ways of thinking about the future of humanitarian action. One seeming weakness of historical analysis for practice and policymaking purposes is that it does not offer clear recommendations. And yet this is one of its great strengths. The study of history is about understanding, not about prediction. Historical study can, of course, be inaccurate or inconclusive and in this sense is as imperfect a tool as any other kind of analysis. In fact, the subjective nature of historical narrative – the fact that most accounts have difficulty fully reflecting the complexity of their subject, or may choose not to do so – means that it must be approached carefully. In this more assistance is needed from historians, whose work has greatly increased understanding of relief and 35 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper policymakers and practitioners alike – to rethink this system history in ways that will help us move beyond it in the years to come. For this to be possible much more must be done to break out from the Western confines of the current narrative. While the emphasis on Western or Northern experiences reflects the reality of the system’s formation and evolution, it also overlooks the richness and depth of humanitarian cultures, contributions and practices beyond Europe and North America. A historical account that incorporates perspectives from across the world into a global narrative, where the formal system is only one piece, not the beginning and end, is the aim of HPG’s ‘Global History of Modern Humanitarian Action’ project. This kind of history, despite its vast scale, must avoid simplifications and generalisations wherever possible. It is not sufficient, as the example of knowledge-sharing efforts show, to speak of ‘international’ and ‘national’ as distinct and discrete categories. Similarly, assumed divisions between ‘religious’ (or ‘faith-based’) and ‘secular’ actors must be examined and the relationship between ‘Northern’ and ‘Southern’ should not be considered one of opposition. It is essential to remember that humanitarian action in different regions across the globe did not evolve in isolation, but rather was influenced by developments in other regions and in turn shaped responses in other parts of the world. By identifying shared concerns as well as points of difference, it is hoped that this history across continents will create a firmer platform for the analysis and understanding of humanitarian action in the twenty-first century. development aid, but which as a body of knowledge remains partial, uneven, poorly articulated as a discipline in its own right and too often confined to discussions between experts. While the pace of change is rapid in all of these respects, much remains to be done to bring a critical analysis to the history of humanitarian action in a way that is accessible and relevant to contemporary practice. In order to do so, both historians and current humanitarian actors must tackle the key issues that have defined practice and thinking over time, and which shape responses today: issues such as the tension between professionalism and voluntarism; the role of faith, not only for ‘faith-based actors’ but in a range of communities implicated in humanitarian action; the relationship between state and non-state actors; the historical reality and evolution of debates around principles; or the effect and legacy of historical and cultural forces such as nationalism, colonialism, globalisation, extremism, reformism or progressivism for humanitarian operations. We must learn to think beyond our habitual concerns and link the past to the present in a way that improves outcomes for populations affected by natural disasters and conflicts and, more broadly, the way that the system interacts with affected populations. As a foundational document and a survey of current understanding, it is not the aim of this Working Paper to provide a conclusive or definitive account. Instead, it offers reflection on some important areas of the history of the formal humanitarian system and an open invitation to interested parties – historians, 36 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Annex Selected chronology Events and geopolitical developments Developments of the humanitarian system • Development of National Red Cross/Red Crescent Societies • Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea (1906) • First International Congress of Lifesaving and First Aid in the Event of Accidents (Frankfurt) (1908) • Albert Schweitzer’s hospital at Lambaréné founded (1913) • CRB established (1914) • ICRC correspondence service, tracing service, visits to POWs, repatriation work; ICRC adopts role of watchdog for observance of the Geneva Conventions and laws of war • CRB food aid programmes in Europe • • • • • • • • • LRCS formed (1919) CRB superseded by ARA (1919) SCF established (1919) International Save the Children Union formed in Geneva (1920) League’s HCR established (1920) ‘Nansen passports’ used for ‘stateless’ people Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1924) IRU established (1927) Third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War (1929) 1900–1914 • Colonial empire • Drought/famine in India (1899–1902) • Epidemics in India (1900) China (1909) and Uganda (1900–25) • Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) • San Francisco earthquake (1906) • Messina earthquake (1908) • Floods in China (1911) 1914–1918 • • • • • • First World War (1914–18) Armenian Genocide (1915–18) Russian Civil War (1917–22) Epidemics in India and China (1918) Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1918) Finnish Civil War (1918) 1919–1930 • • • • • • • • • Global influenza pandemic (1918–20) Versailles Peace Treaty (1919) League of Nations founded (1919) Epidemic in India (1920) Famine in the Soviet Union (1921–22) Great Kanto earthquake in Japan (1923) Chinese Civil War (1927–50) Famine in China (1928–30) Great Depression (1929–45) 1930–1939 • German refugee crisis (1930s) • Flooding of the Yellow River in China (1931, 1938) • Famine in Ukraine (1932–33) • Italo-Ethiopian war (1935) • Spanish Civil War (1936–39) • Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45) • Nansen International Office for Refugees created by League of Nations (1930) • Far-reaching health programmes in colonial territories (nutrition, disease, etc) (1930s) • International Conference of the Red Cross unable to achieve consensus on POC (1930s) • Relief mobilisation during Spanish Civil War (1936–39) • Nanking Safety Zone established (1937) • Creation of Norwegian People’s Aid (1939) 37 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Selected chronology (continued) Events and geopolitical developments Developments of the humanitarian system • Use of ‘Bengal famine mixture’ in India • Developments in Europe for temporary shelter and reconstruction of damaged urban areas • Creation of Oxfam (the Oxford Famine Relief Committee) (1942) • COBSRA founded (1942) • UNRRA established by Allied nations (1943) • CARE packages (Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere) (1945) • Adoption of UN Charter (1945) 1939–1945 • Second World War (1939–45) • Massive destruction, displacement and economic disruption affecting most areas of the world but especially Europe, Asia and Pacific • British Colonial Development and Welfare Act (1940) • British naval blockade of continental Europe • Famine in Greece (1941–44) • Great Bengal Famine (1943) • Sétif Massacre in Algeria (1945) • United Nations established (1945) • Cold War • Decolonisation process, largely in Asia: Indonesia (1945), the Philippines (1946), India and Pakistan (1947), Burma and Sri Lanka (1948), Egypt and Cambodia (1953), Vietnam and Laos (1954) • Indochinese War (1945–54) • Final meeting of League of Nations (1946) • Partition of India (1947) • Arab–Israeli conflict (1947–) • Berlin blockade and Allied airlift (1948–49) • Victory of communists in Chinese Civil War (1949) • Korean War (1950–53) • Algerian War (1954–62) • Vietnam War (1955–75) • Suez Crisis (1956) • Cuban Revolution (1959) • First UN Development Decade • Decolonisation continues, particularly in Africa: Madagascar, Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia and Nigeria (1960), Rwanda and Algeria (1962) • Construction of Berlin Wall (1961) • Start of US involvement in Vietnam (1965) • Nigerian Civil War (1967–70) • Six Day Arab–Israeli war (1967) • Nigeria/Biafra Civil War (1967–70) • Famine and drought in the Sahel (1970s) 1946–1959 • Closure of of UNRRA (1947) • Creation of UN agencies: FAO, UNICEF, WHO and IRO, later to become UNHCR (1946–51) • UNKRA created (1950–58) • UNRWA established (1948) • Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide adopted by UN General Assembly (1948) • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) • Fourth Geneva Conventions relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (1949) • Refugee Convention (1951) • PL 480 ‘Food for Peace’ introduced by US government (1954) 1960–1969 • Freedom from Hunger Campaign launched by FAO (1960) • US Peace Corps and Food for Peace programmes founded (1961) • ‘World Food Programme’ within FAO approved by UN General Assembly (1961) • USAID established (1961) • WFP established (1963) • UNDP founded (1965) • ICRC and NGO airlift in Biafra (1967–70) • First UN International Conference on Human Rights (1968) 38 HPG working paper Selected chronology (continued) A history of the humanitarian system Events and geopolitical developments Developments of the humanitarian system • UNDRO established (1971) • Office of the Emergency Operations Coordinator created within UNICEF (1971) • MSF created (1971) • Creation of LICRA (1972) • Emergency Relief Operations Office launched within WHO (1974) • ICCPR and ICESCR entered into force (1976) • Emergency unit created within PAHO (1977) • Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions adopted, following international diplomatic conferences (1977) 1970–1979 • • • • • • • • • • • Second UN Development Decade Chimbote Earthquake in Peru (1970) Gediz earthquake in Turkey (1970) East Bengal Cyclone/Storm Surge (1970) East Pakistan/Bangladesh crisis (1970–71) Sahel drought and famine (1970s); Ethiopia (1973) Floods and famine in Bangladesh (1974) US withdrawal from Vietnam (1973) and fall of Saigon (1975) Khmer Rouge period in Cambodia (1975–79) Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979) Iranian Revolution (1979) 1980–1989 • Iran–Iraq War (1980–88) • President Reagan’s ‘Star Wars’ plan (1983) • African Food Crisis: famines in Mozambique (1984), Ethiopia (1984–85) and Sudan (1980s) • Armenian earthquake (1988) • Russian withdrawal from Afghanistan (1989) • Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989) • Response to Cambodian famine and refugees (1980s) • Response to Afghan refugees and limited cross-border response within Afghanistan (1980s) • Amartya Sen’s ‘entitlement theory’ (1981) • BandAid/Live Aid fundraising phenomena (1984) • MSF ejected from Ethiopia (1985) • Launch of OLS (1989) • Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted (1989) • OHCHR established (1989) • UN International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (1990) • UN General Assembly Resolution 46/182 on coordination of humanitarian assistance; creation of ERC and IASC (1991) • In Somalia, ICRC employs armed escorts to protect its convoys and vehicles for the first time in its history (1991) • International tribunals established for former Yugoslavia (1993) and Rwanda (1994) • Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental Organisations (1994) • Accountability initiatives: ALNAP, HAP, People in Aid • The Sphere Project results in a draft Handbook of Minimum Standards and a Humanitarian Charter (1998) • ICISS established (2001) 1990–2001 • First Gulf War (1990–91) • Break-up of the Soviet Union and independence for many former Soviet states (1991) • Break-up of Yugoslavia and associated conflicts (1991–95) • US-led intervention in Somalia (1993–94) • End of apartheid in South Africa (1994) • Great Lakes crisis (1994-96): Rwanda genocide (1994), first Congo War (1996) • Hurricane Mitch in Central America (1998) • Bahr-el-Ghazal Famine in South Sudan (1998) • The Rome Statute of the ICC adopted (1998) • NATO intervention in Kosovo (1999) • September 11 attacks in New York and Washington DC(2001) • US and NATO intervention in Afghanistan (2001) • Gujarat earthquake in India (2001) 39 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 40 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system Bibliography General histories and historical context Anderson, B. 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(1995) ‘Conditionality and Programme Food Aid: From the Marshall Plan to Structural Adjustment’, in O. Stokke (ed.) Aid and Political Conditionality. London: Frank Cass. Conquest, R. (2002) The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivisation and the Terror-Famine. London: Pimlico. Davies, R. W and S. Wheatcroft (2004) The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933. London: Palgrave Macmillan. De Waal, A. (1989) The Sudan Famine Code of 1920: Successes and Failures of the Indian Model of Famine Relief in Colonial Sudan. London: ActionAid. De Waal, A. (2005) Famine That Kills: Darfur, Sudan. New York: Oxford University Press. Devereux, S. (1993) Theories of Famine. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf. Devereux, S. (2000) Famine in the Twentieth Century, IDS Working Paper 105. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. Drèze, J. (1988) Famine Prevention in India, WIDER Working Paper. London: World Institute for Development Economics Research. Greenough, P. R. (1980) ‘Indian Famines and Peasant Victims: The Case of Bengal in 1943–44’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 14, no. 2. Jachertz, R. and A. Nützenadel (2011) ‘Coping with Hunger? Visions of a Global Food System, 1930–1960', Journal of Global History, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 121-42. Jansson, K., M. Harris and A. Penrose (1987) The Ethiopian Famine. London: Zed Books. Kirimli, H. (2003) ‘The Famine of 1921–22 in the Crimea and the Volga Basin and the Relief from Turkey’, Middle Eastern Studies, vol. 39, no. 1. Lusty, T. and P. Disket (1984) Selective Feeding Programmes. Oxford: Oxfam. Nguyen-Marshall, V. (2005) ‘The Moral Economy of Colonialism: Subsistence and Famine Relief in French Indo-China, 1906–1917’, International History Review, vol. 27, no. 2. Ó Gráda, C. (2007) ‘Making Famine History’, Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 45, no. 1. Patenaude, B. (2002) The Big Show in Bololand: The American Relief Expedition to Soviet Russia in the Famine of 1921. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution. Patenaude, B. (2007) ‘Food as a Weapon’, Hoover Digest, vol. 1. Natural hazards and the shelter sector Ashmore, J. (ed.) (2011) Shelter Projects 2010. Geneva and Nairobi: IFRC, UN HABITAT, UNHCR. Ashmore, J., E. Leon and S. D’Urzo (eds) (2010) Shelter Projects 2009. Geneva, Nairobi: IFRC, UN HABITAT. Corsellis, T. and A. Vitale (2005) Transitional Settlement: Displaced Populations. Oxford: Shelter Project, Oxfam. Cuny, F. (1975) Relief Operations Guidebook. Dallas, TX: Intertect. Haas, J. E., R. W. Kates and M. J. Bowden (1977) Reconstruction Following Disaster. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Davis, I. (1978) ‘Disasters and Settlements – Towards an Understanding of the Key Issues’, Disasters, vol. 2, no. 2–3. Davis, I. (2011) ‘What Have We Learned from 40 Years’ Experience of Disaster Shelter?’, Environmental Hazards, vol. 10, no. 3–4. Dynes, R. R. 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(1995) Refugees in Inter-War Europe: The Emergence of a Regime. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Skran, C. and C. N. Daughtry (2007) ‘The Study of Refugees before “Refugee Studies”’, Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 3. Taylor, A. J. (1979) ‘Emergency Sanitation for Refugees: Experiences in the Bangladesh Refugee Relief Camps, India, 1971–1972’, Disasters, vol. 3, no. 4. Toole, M. J. (1995) ‘Mass Population Displacement: A Global Public Health Challenge’, Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, vol. 9, no. 2. Toole, M. J., P. Nieburg and R. Waldman (1988) ‘The Association between Inadequate Rations, Undernutrition Prevalence, and Mortality in Refugee Camps: Case Studies of Refugee Populations in Eastern Thailan, 1979–1980, and Eastern Sudan, 1984–1985’, Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, vol. 34. Toole, M. J. and R. J. Waldman (1990) ‘Prevention of Excess Mortality in Refugee and Displaced Populations in Developing Countries’, Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 263, no. 24. Conflict response Duffield, M. (1994) ‘Complex Emergencies and the Crisis of Developmentalism’, IDS Bulletin, vol. 25, no. 4. Duffield, M. (2007) Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples. Cambridge: Polity Press. George, J. H. (1992) ‘Another Chance: Herbert Hoover and World War II Relief’, Diplomatic History, vol. 16, no. 3. Newman, E. (2004) ‘The “New Wars” Debate: A Historical Perspective Is Needed’, Security Dialogue, vol. 35, no. 2. Reinisch, J. (2008) ‘Introduction: Relief in the Aftermath of War’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Shephard, B. (2008) ‘“Becoming Planning Minded”: The Theory and Practice of Relief 1940–1945’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Shephard, B. (2010) The Long Road Home: The Aftermath of the Second World War. London: Bodley Head. Steinert, J.-D. (2008) ‘British Humanitarian Assistance: Wartime Planning and Postwar Realities’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Stremlau, J. (1977) The International Politics of the Nigerian Civil War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Displacement, refugee studies and camp environments Bascom, J. B. (1995) ‘The New Nomads: An Overview of Involuntary Migration in Africa’, in J. Baker and T. A. Aina (eds) The Migration Experience in Africa. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. Chen, L. C. and R. S. Northrup (1973) ‘Framework for Disaster Relief’, in L. C. Chen (ed.) Disaster in Bangladesh. New York: Oxford University Press. Cohen, G. D. (2008) ‘Between Relief and Politics: Refugee Humanitarianism in Occupied Germany 1945–1946’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 43, no. 3. Cuny, F. C. (1971) Refugee Camps and Camp Planning Series. Dallas, TX: Intertect. Gatrell, P. (1999) A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia During World War 1. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Gatrell, P. (2013) The Making of the Modern Refugee. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marfleet, P. (2007) ‘Refugees and History: Why We Must Address the Past’, Refugee Survey Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 3. Myers III, D. (1973) ‘Civil War in Bangladesh: Relief Planning and Administration in an Insurgency Situation’, in L. C. Chen (ed.) Disaster in Bangladesh. New York: Oxford University Press. Rohde, J. E. and P. Gardner (1973) ‘Refugees in India: Innovative Health Care Programs’, in L. C. Chen (ed.) Disaster in Bangladesh. New York: Oxford University Press. Studies of system issues and grey literature ALNAP (2012) The State of the Humanitarian System. London: ODI. Anderson, M. B. (1999) Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace – or War. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Borton, J. (1993) ‘Recent Trends in the International Relief System’, Disasters, vol. 17, no. 3. Borton, J. (1996) ‘An Account of Co-Ordination Mechanisms for Humanitarian Assistance During the International Response to the 1994 Crisis in Rwanda’, Disasters, vol. 20, no. 4. Borton, J. et al. (1996) Study III Humanitarian Aid and Effects. Copenhagen: Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda. 47 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper Davies, K. (2012) Continuity, Change and Contest: Meanings of ‘Humanitarian’ from the ‘Religion of Humanity’ to the Kosovo War, HPG Working Paper. London: ODI. Eriksson, J. et al. (1996) The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience: Synthesis Report. Copenhagen: Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Hilhorst, D. (2005) ‘Dead Letter or Living Document? Ten Years of the Code of Conduct for Disaster Relief’, Disasters, vol. 29, no. 4. Inside the Agencies (1977a) Disasters, vol. 1, no. 3. Inside the Agencies (1977b) Disasters, vol. 1, no. 4. Ressler, E. M. (1978) ‘Accountability as a Programme Philosophy’, Disasters, vol. 2, no. 2–3. Sphere Project (2011) The Sphere Handbook, third edition. Geneva: Sphere Project. Stockton, N. (1998) ‘In Defence of Humanitarianism’, Disasters, vol. 22, no. 4. Walker, P. (2005) ‘Cracking the Code: The Genesis, Use and Future of the Code of Conduct’, Disasters, vol. 29, no. 4. Walker, P. and S. Purdin (2004) ‘Birthing Sphere’, Disasters, vol. 28, no. 2. Borton, J. and J. R. Eriksson (2004) Lessons from Rwanda: Lessons for Today. Assessment of the Impact and Influence of Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda. Copenhagen: Evaluation Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark. Buchanan-Smith, M. (2003) How the Sphere Project Came into Being: A Case Study of Policy-Making in the Humanitarian Aid Sector and the Relative Influence of Research, ODI Working Paper. London: ODI. Dabelstein, N. (1996) ‘Evaluating the International Humanitarian System: Rationale, Process and Management of the Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Rwanda Genocide’, Disasters, vol. 20, no. 4. Davey, E. (2012) New Players Through Old Lenses: Why History Matters When Engaging with Southern Actors, HPG Policy Brief. London: ODI. Davey, E. (2012) Beyond the ‘French Doctors’: The Evolution and Interpretation of Humanitarian Action in France, HPG Working Paper. London: ODI. 48 HPG working paper A history of the humanitarian system 49 HPG Working Paper HPG working paper 50 Humanitarian Policy Group Overseas Development Institute 203 Blackfriars Road London SE1 8NJ United Kingdom Tel. +44 (0) 20 7922 0300 Fax. +44 (0) 20 7922 0399 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.odi.org.uk/hpg
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The first world's fair in the United States since World War II, what city hosted the 1962 World's Fair, known as Century 21 Exposition? | world's fair | Britannica.com
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World’s fair, large international exhibition of a wide variety of industrial, scientific, and cultural items that are on display at a specific site for a period of time, ranging usually from three to six months. World’s fairs include exhibits from a significant number of countries and often have an entertainment zone in which visitors can enjoy rides, exotic attractions, and food and beverages. Since the mid-19th century more than 100 world’s fairs have been held in more than 20 countries throughout the world. Generally speaking, these events are called world’s fairs in the United States , international (or universal) expositions in continental Europe and Asia, and exhibitions in Great Britain. The term expo has also been applied to many expositions in various locations.
Illustration of the opening of London’s Great Exhibition of 1851.
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World’s fairs are governed and regulated by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE), a Paris-based organization established in 1928. Its objective is to bring order to exposition scheduling and to make clear the rights and responsibilities of the host city and participants. The original convention that established the BIE and set up guidelines for expositions has been revised a number of times, but as of the early 21st century a large exposition, termed a “registered exhibition,” could be held once every five years, and one smaller exposition, called a “recognized exhibition,” could be held during the interval.
Early national exhibitions
The English national fairs of the 18th century, which combined trade shows with carnival-like public entertainment, were among the forerunners of the modern world’s fair . In addition, the Society for the Arts (later called the Royal Society for the Arts and, subsequently, the RSA), established in London in 1754, produced a series of competitive art shows that included industrial arts—various technological innovations ranging from spinning wheels to cider presses.
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Canadian National Exhibition (CNE)
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the French began hosting industrial exhibitions. These came under the authority of the national government, whose aim was to assist French manufacturers in competing against the British in the international marketplace. The British, confident that their products were superior, never emulated this idea. Instead, the mechanics’ institutes in Great Britain began sponsoring exhibitions in the 1830s. These institutes were created to bring scientific education to craftsmen and factory workers, and their exhibitions displayed tools and other labour-saving mechanical devices that were based on the latest scientific inventions. The exhibitions of the mechanics’ institutes also featured entertainment and exotic displays, such as so-called “genuine historical relics” of sometimes dubious authenticity, as well as fine arts shows that mingled works by local and national artists.
The Great Exhibition and its legacy: the golden age of fairs
The era of the modern world’s fair began with Britain’s Great Exhibition (formally, the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations; often called the Crystal Palace Exhibition), held in London’s Hyde Park in 1851. It came about through the efforts of Queen Victoria ’s husband, Prince Albert —who, because of his Continental background, had a special understanding of the potential value of an exhibition showcasing Britain to an international audience—and through Parliament’s adoption of free trade, which, it was hoped, would lead to more sales of British goods abroad. A royal commission chaired by Prince Albert planned the exhibition and held a competition for a building design. Ultimately, however, the commission rejected all the entries submitted and instead chose a design by Joseph Paxton , a greenhouse builder. Paxton’s iron-and-glass structure, dubbed the Crystal Palace , delighted the public and doubtless contributed to the success of the exhibition.
The transept of the Crystal Palace, designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, at the Great Exhibition of 1851, …
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The exhibits on display at the Crystal Palace included scientific and technological marvels from many different countries as well as works of art and craftsmanship. Some six million people attended the exhibition, which earned a substantial profit. (A fund that was created with the profits still provides fellowships to British students in fields such as engineering and industrial design.)
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The legacy of the Crystal Palace was immense. Its critical and financial success ensured that world’s fairs would continue to be held. The period between 1880 and World War I was a golden age of fairs, with more than 40 international expositions held in locations as varied as Australia (Melbourne, Victoria , 1888; and Hobart, Tasmania, 1894–95), Guatemala (Guatemala City, 1897), and Hanoi (1902–03; then located in French Indochina , now the capital of Vietnam).
In the United States , fairs were inspired by the experience of those who attended and participated in the early fairs in Europe. Although mechanics’ institutes existed in the United States in the 19th century, their occasional exhibitions do not appear to have had much influence on the planners of the earliest American international expositions. One of the very first of these followed in the footsteps of the Great Exhibition. The Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, more commonly known as the New York Crystal Palace Exhibition, was held in 1853–54 in an iron-and-glass structure in Bryant Park. It showcased the same types of displays as its London counterpart but also included an especially impressive sculpture collection. Despite the fair’s promise, however, attendance never measured up to expectations, and it ended with a substantial monetary loss. It would be more than 20 years before another exposition was held in the United States.
Not to be outdone by London’s Crystal Palace, fair organizers in Paris held the first in a long series of international expositions in 1855. The exposition occupied a larger space and included exhibits from more countries than the Crystal Palace, and it presented several new features, such as reduced admission prices on Sundays and a separate fine arts pavilion that contained some 5,000 works by artists from 29 countries. Although it lost money, the 1855 Paris exposition left such a positive legacy that the government sponsored subsequent expositions in 1867, 1878, 1889, and 1900, each attracting a larger attendance than the previous one.
The Gallery of Machines at the 1889 Universal Exposition, Paris.
Historical Picture Service, Chicago
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By the 1870s the international exposition movement had become sufficiently well established that the planners of the centennial commemoration of America’s Declaration of Independence concluded that a world’s fair would be the most appropriate type of celebration. Consequently, the U.S. Centennial Exhibition was held in Philadelphia in 1876. Its critical success and attendance of just under 10 million were enough to offset a large financial loss, and it inspired a rush of world’s fairs in the United States, especially in the South, over the next 40 years.
The Horticultural Hall at the U.S. Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, 1876.
Photo courtesy of John E. Findling
The Philadelphia centennial exhibition was particularly noteworthy in showing off the products of the early Industrial Revolution in America. Fairgoers were amazed by the 700-ton Corliss engine, the largest steam engine ever built, and by new inventions such as the telephone , the typewriter, and the mechanical calculator. In addition, the exposition hosted the first international art exhibition in the United States and was the first to spread exhibits out over several large, topically designated pavilions, a practice that soon became standard. Some 24 states erected their own pavilions as well, an idea repeated at many later fairs.
The Corliss steam engine generated all the energy used in Machinery Hall at the Centennial …
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Although there were many important expositions in the last decades of the 19th century, the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 was arguably the most significant world’s fair in U.S. history and one of the most important in the history of world expositions. Coming soon after the spectacular 1889 exposition in Paris , where the Eiffel Tower was the main attraction, the World’s Columbian Exposition, in the minds of its organizers, had to be bigger and more important than its Parisian predecessor. Chicago’s managers never found a signature structure to surpass the Eiffel Tower (although the Ferris wheel did make its debut at the Chicago fair), but they did create an exposition whose architecture shaped the country’s style for the next 25 years and whose exhibits were more impressive than anything seen before. Moreover, the exposition introduced the concept of the midway, a lively entertainment zone, a feature that soon became a staple of virtually all future expositions.
Bird’s-eye view of the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago; lithograph by Currier and Ives.
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no. LC-USZC2-3394)
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The World’s Columbian Exposition marked the peak of the golden age of fairs. It was more spectacular than anything that had preceded it, and, with the possible exception of the great Exposition Universelle (Paris, 1900), no later exposition matched its splendour or its influence. Still, a major international exposition was held almost annually somewhere in the world between 1893 and 1916, when World War I brought a temporary end to the movement. Some, like St. Louis (1904) and San Francisco (1915), were large and showy. Others, like the Jamestown Exhibition—held in Norfolk , Virginia (1907), for the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown Colony —were smaller and marked important historical anniversaries. Still others, like London’s Franco-British Exhibition (1908), signified bilateral friendship. In addition, some smaller countries hosted expositions to mark their emergence onto the international scene, such as the Belgian expositions in Liège (1905) and Brussels (1910).
A crowded street at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
Postcard image of an international naval display, part of the Jamestown Exhibition held in Norfolk, …
Photo courtesy of John E. Findling
The world’s fairs held in the United States during this golden era tended to have characteristic differences from those held in Europe. U.S. participation in European fairs was privately managed. The absence of government involvement carried over to the organization of expositions in the United States, where federal aid was confined to U.S. government pavilions and exhibits. European fairs were, to a far larger extent, government enterprises. Another difference was that American fairs much more readily included entertainment venues in the form of rides, exotic attractions, and, by the 1890s, so-called foreign or native “villages” that showed fairgoers the way of life of groups from Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific islands, who were generally presented as belonging to, in the parlance of the time, “primitive” societies. By the first decade of the 20th century, fairs in Europe also had adopted these types of entertainment attractions.
Postcard image of the U.S. Government Building, Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition, …
Photo courtesy of John E. Findling
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After World War I, fairs never regained the cultural status they had enjoyed before the war. Fewer were held, and many of them were not artistically or commercially successful. With improved transportation and communication networks, fairs had less to offer people who could now see movies or hear radio programs about foreign lands or even travel relatively easily to visit them firsthand. Nonetheless, there were expositions worthy of note during this time. The Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Moderne , held in Paris in 1925, made the architectural and design style known as Art Deco highly popular for the next 15 years. The British Empire Exhibition in Wembley (1924–25), the Exposition Coloniale Internationale in Paris (1931), and the Exposition Universelle et Internationale in Brussels (1935) showcased the overseas empires of these three countries at a time when rumblings of independence were just beginning to be heard from their colonies.
Mayor of New York City Fiorello H. La Guardia (seated behind the driver) attending the …
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Postcard image of the Travel Building at the Century of Progress Exposition, Chicago, 1933–34.
Courtesy of John E. Findling
Two American expositions of the 1930s deserve special mention. The Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago (1933–34) and the New York World’s Fair (1939–40) were both exciting examples of Art Deco architecture and fairs designed to take fairgoers’ minds off the Great Depression by suggesting the wonderful future that awaited them once the hard times were over. While the hopefulness of the New York World’s Fair was cut short by the outbreak of World War II in Europe, the iconic Trylon and Perisphere structures from that fair remain fixtures in popular culture that are associated with happier times.
Festivities marking the opening of Chicago’s Century of Progress Exposition, 1933.
Stock footage courtesy The WPA Film Library
The Trylon and Perisphere sculptures at the New York World’s Fair, Flushing Meadows, Queens, New …
Photo courtesy of John E. Findling
As the Cold War grew out of the devastation of World War II in Europe and the Pacific, world’s fairs became staging grounds for displays of U.S. - Soviet rivalry. At the expositions in Brussels (1958) and Montreal (1967), the main focus of attention was on the comparison between the pavilions of the rival countries, and critics and politicians analyzed them endlessly. Although the Soviet Union did not participate in the 1962 Century 21 Exposition in Seattle , that exposition’s emphasis on science and space exploration had overtones of Cold War competition.
The West German pavilion, designed by Frei Otto, at the Expo 67 world’s fair, Montreal.
Hulton Archive/Getty Images
The largest exposition of this era was the New York World’s Fair of 1964–65, which adopted “Peace through understanding” as its theme. While one might have expected there to be a strong Cold War atmosphere at that fair, this was not the case. The BIE had refused to sanction the fair because of the organizers’ refusal to follow its guidelines. Thus, official foreign participation was limited to newly independent Asian and African countries, while other countries were represented by private commercial interests.
The Unisphere, the signature structure of the New York World’s Fair, Flushing Meadows, Queens, New …
Photo courtesy of John E. Findling
By 1970, the year of the Japan World Exposition at Ōsaka , some of the tension of the Cold War had moderated. Both the United States and the Soviet Union touted their space programs in their pavilions, but the real focus of the exposition was on the host country and its remarkable recovery just 25 years after the end of World War II. The exposition, which attracted a then-record number of visitors—more than 60 million—was clear evidence that Japan had regained its place among the world’s leading nations.
Later years
Fairs since 1970 have tended to enlighten visitors about a particular theme, often environmental in nature, rather than celebrate a historical anniversary or a colonial empire. Many were smaller fairs held in smaller cities: Spokane , Washington, U.S. (1974), with a general environmental theme; Okinawa, Japan (1975–76), on the oceans; Knoxville , Tennessee, U.S. (1982), on international energy issues; New Orleans (1984), on rivers; Tsukuba, Japan (1985), on housing; Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada (1986), on transportation and communications (and also in celebration of the city’s centennial); Brisbane , Queensland , Australia (1988), on leisure; Taejŏn (Daejeon), South Korea (1993), on sustainable development; and Lisbon (1998), also on oceans. There were few departures from the issue-oriented theme. The expositions of 1992 in Genoa, Italy , and Seville , Spain , commemorated the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus’s first voyage to America. The fair in Hannover, Germany , in 2000 marked the end of the 20th century, but a set of ideas known as the Hannover Principles , first promulgated in 1992 by the architectural firm of William McDonough in preparation for the exposition, argued that future expositions should focus on the realistic presentation of contemporary social and environmental problems and their possible solutions.
The United States Pavilion at Expo ’74, Spokane, Washington.
Photo by Walter Hodges, courtesy of John E. Findling
While fairs became less frequent in the 21st century because of the increasing costs of staging them and because the BIE was imposing tighter regulations, there were two significant events in the first decade of the century. In Japan, Aichi prefecture hosted an exposition near the city of Nagoya in 2005, and five years later Shanghai produced China’s first major exposition. The Aichi fair, which billed itself as a “green exposition,” concentrated on preserving natural areas in and around its site and in reusing or recycling as many of its structural elements as possible. Expo Shanghai 2010 , held in one of the world’s largest cities, quite naturally chose the theme “Better city, better life” and, with a reported 73 million visitors, easily broke Ōsaka’s attendance record.
Architect He Jingtang designed the Chinese pavilion for Expo 2010 Shanghai China, which opened in …
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Although some critics have denounced world’s fairs as extravagant and irrelevant in the world of the early 21st century, others have asserted that, by moving away from the old theme of “technological utopianism” and toward a focus on social and environmental issues as suggested by the Hannover Principles , fairs can continue to be worthwhile for visitors as well as for host cities and countries.
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What TV staple had its debut on April 19, 1987 as a short on The Tracy Ullman Show? | Back to the Future: Why Seattle's World's Fair Mattered | Seattle Magazine
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Back to the Future: Why Seattle's World's Fair Mattered
Our own Knute Berger—who is the official writer of the Space Needle—looks back on the 1962 Seattle W
FROM THE PRINT EDITION |
MOHAI
In the winter of 1962, my Cub Scout den had taken a field trip to the top of the Smith Tower, then one of the tallest buildings west of the Mississippi. We went to the observation deck, where we had an unobstructed view across downtown to a strange spire that was rising near Queen Anne Hill. It was the Space Needle, and the now-familiar tripod tower was up, but the top house was still under construction. I can still see the partial disk in my mind’s eye.
As a group of 8-year-olds, we found it terribly exciting. The Needle was being built for the upcoming Seattle world’s fair, called Century 21. It was as if a spaceship from a friendly future had landed in our own backyard. A vote was taken, and we quickly adopted the Needle as our favorite Seattle structure. We were hyped up in anticipation of what the Needle represented: The Space Age had arrived.
Today, it’s nearly impossible to get an unobstructed view across the downtown forest of skyscrapers. From the Space Needle looking south, you can see a tiny sliver of Smith Tower amid the trunks of high-rises. But that metropolitan bloom is exactly what the fair was designed to accomplish: put Seattle on the map, prove to investors the city was worth betting their chips on and boost the growth of “Greater Seattle.” In short, the goal was to turn a provincial port city on the edge of the continent into a contender, the long-promised “New York Alki” that some of the city’s first settlers had envisioned (“Alki” is a Chinook Indian word meaning “by and by.”). New York by and by, they dreamed. Looking back, the astonishing thing is that the plan worked out as well as it did.
Now we’re celebrating the 50th anniversary of something that is usually short-lived. World’s fairs are here today, gone tomorrow. They are fantasy towns that inform and entertain, then disappear. One of the seminal works on fairs is a book titled Ephemeral Vistas by Paul Greenhalgh. So why is our city still so captivated by our fair, half a century on? The coming celebration, called The Next 50 ( thenextfifty.org ), will last until October and feature books, documentaries, forward-looking symposia, exhibits and all kinds of public events. But is the occasion worthy? Did it really make a difference? Was the future all it was cracked up to be?
An Early Conceptual Rendering of the Monorail; Credit: MOHAI
Staying Power
That a modern world’s fair would be held in Seattle in 1962 was, in many ways, absurd. It could have been very different. In 1959, the state of Oregon held the Oregon Centennial Exposition to celebrate its 100 years of statehood. It featured a Gayway amusement zone, like our fair, and pavilions and exhibits from the government and around the state. It was almost as big as Seattle’s Century 21 Exposition in terms of physical size: 65 acres to Seattle’s 74. But it was strictly a local festival. About 1.5 million people attended, but the world didn’t come to Portland in ’59, and the fair didn’t do much to boost the city’s prospects. The Oregon Centennial Exposition’s main legacy structure: a 31-foot-high statue of Paul Bunyan.
In contrast, Seattle’s fair left the city with a permanent cultural nexus and major infrastructure. It gave us a refurbished waterfront, streetside trees and new facilities at the University of Washington. It helped boost major projects, such as the completion of Interstate 5 through downtown and the SR 520 bridge. It bequeathed to us Seattle Center, a permanent complex of theaters, pavilions, the Pacific Science Center, Coliseum (now KeyArena), Center House, Opera House, the Monorail and open urban space. It gave us an international civic symbol, the Space Needle, second only to the Eiffel Tower as a world’s fair souvenir and a tourist attraction known around the world.
The 1947 High School Memorial Stadium played host to special events and big crowds day and night during the 1962 Seattle World’s Fair; Credit: MOHAI
Instead of whittling down their ambitions, Seattle boosters amped them up. They decided to put on a fair of international importance, to channel millions of dollars in public and private investment into the city and make permanent improvements, and in so doing, make a statement. They decided to claim a national mission to demonstrate America’s determination to win the future. Local boosters weren’t responsible for the space race with the Soviet Union that gave Century 21 its theme, but they did respond to the challenge. What could have been a small, forgotten regional festival took on the mantle of making the nation’s response to communism. We would demonstrate America’s commitment and know-how in science and technology. Think of it as a bigger version of the Richard Nixon–Nikita Khrushchev Kitchen Debate in Moscow in 1959, in which the two political leaders argued politics in a mock-up of an American kitchen. In Seattle, we would take that debate, and propaganda, to the next level. And also fill some hotel rooms.
Getting It Done
If Cold War debates could happen in kitchens, Seattle’s own fair planning took place in back rooms, bars and restaurants. The short version of the genesis of the fair is that locals had been talking about creating a civic center in Seattle since our first fair, the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition (AYP) of 1909. And in 1950, talk of a world’s fair was murmured in local chamber of commerce circles. One of the spark plugs was Seattle City Council member Al Rochester, who had attended the AYP in his youth and thought that a new fair marking its anniversary in ’59 would be terrific. The decision to do that was hatched over lunches at Dooley’s downtown and the Washington Athletic Club. In 1955, the City Council backed the idea, and shortly thereafter the state Legislature in Olympia set up an exploratory commission. A year later, Seattle voters passed a bond issue to fund a civic center, and the city appointed a committee to look at whether or not the civic center could be a catalyst for having the fair here.
The Space Needle begins to take shape during the summer of 1961; Credit: MOHAI
It took time, but all the lines eventually converged. Seattle became the site of the proposed fair, the federal government agreed to fund a pavilion committed to science, and property was acquired and cleared on the downtown side of Queen Anne Hill, where a cluster of already existing urban amenities, including the old armory, Memorial Stadium and Civic Auditorium, made it easy to conceive of a permanent civic cluster located there. Unfortunately, most of a working-class, turn-of-the-century neighborhood had to be bulldozed, but there was little opposition to the “slum clearance.”
The arches and buildings of the Minoru Yamasaki-designed Science Pavillion under construction in 1961; Credit: MOHAI
It’s worth remembering that there was only one member of the board of trustees of the AYP Exposition still around, and that was Seattle real estate man Henry Broderick. Broderick had the honor of launching the demolitions to prepare the Century 21 site, and he also served as a Century 21 trustee. But for the most part, there was virtually no institutional memory in town about how to put on and run a modern world’s fair. International expositions had occurred with regularity from the early 1850s through 1940. But World War II had broken the chain. The last major fairs in the United States had been held in 1939–40 in San Francisco and New York, more than 20 years previously. And the postwar world was changed: television, atomic energy, jet airplanes, Disneyland. Were fairs still relevant?
The Pavillion of Electric Power was a working dam replica with six spillways; Credit: MOHAI
Seattle thought they were, and other cities were stirring from their postwar stupor. New York and Chicago were talking about hosting fairs. Overseas, the Belgians were putting one on in Brussels in ’58. Seattle fair organizers hired consultants to give them advice, got seed money from wealthy donors and recruited a set of civic dynamos who could inject energy into the process.
The Visionaries
Seattle’s own Mad Men: Senator Warren Magnuson gives a Century 21 poster the once over while fair officials look on. (L-R seated): James Douglas, Iver Cederwall, Magnuson, Eddie Carlson. (L-R standing) Fred Paulsell, Edward Tremper, Robert Colwell, Otto Brandt, Lee Moran); Credit: MOHAI
There were many people who formed the great cast of characters that made the Seattle fair possible, and successful. They included a young up-and-coming hotel executive, Edward “Eddie” Carlson, who acted as a kind of CEO for the whole shebang. He worked for Western International Hotels (later Westin) and eventually headed United Airlines. This former hotel bellboy had worked his way up from the bottom and knew the hospitality business and international tastes. He hosted 7 a.m. breakfast meetings at the Olympic Hotel Grill (bacon and eggs $1.30, coffee 15 cents) that kept the enterprise on track. Carlson also played a major part in the conception of the Space Needle and the transformation of the Federal Science Pavilion into the permanent Science Center.
President of the fair was Joe Gandy, a lawyer and Ford dealer who had a knack for sales and diplomacy. Gandy was optimistic and energetic; a guy to whom you could not say no. He had to convince people that Seattle wasn’t too much of a hick town to host a fair, but he had an uphill battle. As Emmett Watson later wrote, a New York publicist, when told about the city’s plans, responded, “A world’s fair? In Seattle? Frankly, I’ve always thought of Seattle as a place where the town prostitute had a pull-down bed.”
Gandy traveled the world to recruit exhibitors and was responsible for obtaining the seal of approval for the fair from the Bureau of International Expositions (BIE) in Paris, which was essential to getting foreign governments to participate. Gandy had to teach BIE members how to pronounce “Seattle,” and he made them special maps to show them where it was. Without Gandy’s snagging the BIE’s OK, the fair likely would not have happened. It didn’t ensure success, but it gave Gandy credibility to go out and sell the thing.
Century 21 president Joe Gandy (L) shows blueprints to Palmer Hoyt, Al Rochester and Ewen Dingwall
Fair organizers were determined to have an architectural showcase, and for that they turned to Paul Thiry, who designed the site and the Coliseum. He was one of the greatest of the Northwest modern architects, well schooled in world’s fairs (he had attended at least five). Many other notable Northwest-trained architects helped, including John Graham Jr., Victor Steinbrueck and Minoru Yamasaki. Running the fair day to day was Ewen Dingwall, the kind of tough, good-humored field commander needed to keep things going in all conditions. He was assisted by an able public relations whiz, Jay Rockey, who managed to get the fair great ink and TV coverage all across the globe, including two covers of Life magazine in one year, the gold standard of PR in that era.
The fair also had the support of Washington’s dynamic senatorial duo of Warren G. “Maggie” Magnuson and Henry “Scoop” Jackson, who managed to get unprecedented federal funding for the fair, ultimately $10 million for the Science Pavilion. Maggie joked that he’d be paying it off for years by voting for other states’ pork-barrel projects. The government had never given money like that to any fair, but Sputnik and the push for more science motivated funders. That, and the fact that Maggie and Scoop could make a credible case that our state—which had helped usher in the Atomic Age with Hanford and the Jet Age with Boeing’s 707—was surely a great place to invest in a high-tech future.
Jay Rockey, the man who sold Seattle and Century 21 to the world, as public relations director for the 1962 World’s Fair. Photographed on December 2, 2011 by Hayley Young
It’s easy to look back and see the fair as inevitable, but it wasn’t. “There were many points,” Dingwall recalls, “at which the fair almost never happened at all.” Gandy called it “the darnedest throw of the dice in Seattle’s lifetime.” Boosters pushed it, but many in the local establishment were skeptical, and sometimes Carlson and Dingwall felt the chill at the Rainier Club. The public’s embrace of the fair was slow, as well. People were rightly skeptical of a huge investment in a risky proposition. Even in their heyday, world’s fairs tended to lose money (both of the last two, in New York and San Francisco, had). A prominent lawyer and former dean of the University of Washington School of Law, Alfred Schweppe, filed a lawsuit to stop the fair in its tracks. He eventually lost, but it reflected the uneasy skepticism many people had about the whole scheme.
A turning point came when the Needle began to rise in the spring of 1961, a little less than a year before the fair’s opening. Then the reality and fun of it finally began to hit people, from us Cub Scouts to Boeing executives. When the Needle’s legs went up, “That did it,” said Dingwall. “Community morale just took off.” Rockey remembered that the rising of the Needle was like a thermometer of local enthusiasm and ticket sales. The privately funded Needle, which became the symbol of the fair and all of its aspirations, energized everyone. That was in part due to its fun, graceful and optimistic feel. This was the era when East Berlin was putting up its wall. Here, the Needle embodied the upward lift of looking to a new frontier, but also our expansive world view.
A Magnet for Culture
While seeking to create the Eiffel Tower of the modern age, the Needle builders also recognized that it could be a kind of global magnet for cosmopolitan culture by featuring fine cuisine fit for food sophisticates and wannabes. It was a conduit for Seattle’s aspirations to be a modern city of art, technology, architecture and refined fare. It’s little wonder that its first financial backer and president was Bagley Wright, then a young 30-something developer and investor who evolved into one of Seattle’s premier cultural patrons. Fair visitors from overseas, such as the shah and empress of Iran or Prince Philip of Great Britain, would find on the Needle’s menu dishes featuring fresh Dungeness crab, fillet of Puget Sound salmon, “western beef” and Alaskan shrimp, prepared by a European chef (a Swiss raised in France named Rene Schless) trained in five-star restaurants around the globe. Seattle-based chefs and local ingredients could compete in the global age. Tens of thousands of visitors endured lines several hours long, every day and all day, just to get a taste with their view.
Along with serious internationalism, Century 21 served up plenty of places to play, including the Gayway, a carnival midway known in later years as the Fun Forest. Opposite, bottom right: Paul Horiuchi’s colorful Seattle Mural is 60 feet long, 17 feet high and made from Venetian glass tiles; Credit: MOHAI (5)
Down below, Seattleites could taste a wide variety of foods from around the world: China, Korea, Mexico, France, Denmark, Argentina, Japan. During the fair, the old armory—then called The Food Circus—was filled with delicious foods of all kinds. I remember my family visited a white-tablecloth establishment on the upper level called La Balcone for a sit-down meal. I tried frog’s legs for the first time. It gave me bragging rights at school: I had eaten a frog! For most visitors, the memorable edibles were the Belgian waffles, but for me this French dish was a memorable experience of gustatory exoticism.
Fairgoers boarding the Bubbleator inside the Coliseum were told to “Step to the rear of the sphere” for a low-speed thrill ride to the World of Tomorrow. It was later moved to the Food Circus (now the Center House Food Court) before being removed completely in 1980; Credit: MOHAI
The fair boosted the arts as well. Not only was there a show of world masterpieces at the fair, but there was a showcase of modern art that baffled and enraged spectators. A noisy mechanical sculpture by Jean Tinguely called “Narva” was a popular whipping boy for the “you call that art?” crowd. Erna Gunther’s Northwest Coast Indian art exhibit dazzled critics. There were local artists’ works, too, such as Paul Horiuchi’s mural, which is a landmark today. There was the new Opera House, a home for the symphony, gallery space for future exhibits and a branch of the Seattle Art Museum. On the fair’s opening night, Igor Stravinsky conducted the Seattle Symphony with pianist Van Cliburn as soloist. A previous symphony director had called Seattle an “aesthetic dustbin.” We were determined to be a dustbin no more.
Not everything about the fair was high-brow; the “naughty but nice” adult entertainment zone, “Show Street,” featured Las Vegas-type song-and-dance revues—some with nudity!—including Gracie Hansen’s Night in Paradise show, and even an adults-only puppet show by Sid and Marty Krofft called Les Poupées de Paris. Fair organizers were determined to see that there was truly something for everyone; Hansen said it was her personal mission to “save the fair from science.”
The Fair’s Legacy
It’s easy to look back at the fair today as a kind of collection of Space Age kitsch of the Elvis era. Famous Seattle-based British writer Jonathan Raban has dismissed the Needle as akin to living with a “black-velvet portrait of Jesus.” But for a generation, it really did shape expectations of the future. Microsoft billionaires Paul Allen and Bill Gates both were impressed by the fair, and today they have enterprises, such as the EMP Museum and the Gates Foundation headquarters, on or near the fairgrounds. We saw John Glenn’s space capsule and believed that not only would we get to the moon, but we’d be taking Pan Am flights to Mars within our lifetimes. We believed in atomic cars and video telephones, computers and rapid transit. Today, local entrepreneurs of that generation, such as Allen and Amazon’s Jeff Bezos, are building their own spaceships.
The Swedish-designed, German-built Alweg Monorail speeds toward downtown Seattle, carrying passengers from Century 21 back to reality (and 1962) in 90 seconds; Credit: UW Special Collections (SEA3141)
In 1962, there were real innovations happening in the moment. The Space Needle installed some of the first cordless phones in the country. The fair was the site of some of the first satellite transmissions of telephone calls and television broadcasts. There was a good deal that never happened in the imagined 21st century—Seattle is still not under a climate-controlled dome, for example—but a lot did. If nothing else, many of us came away with the sense that the future was dynamic and Seattle was not on the provincial periphery, but right at the center of it.
The Seattle fair was a bottom-line success. It made a profit and even paid off its private investors only three months into the fair. It drew more than 9.5 million visitors, greater than the populations of Washington, Oregon, British Columbia and Alaska combined. It gave the city confidence. Ewen Dingwall enthused at the fair’s end, “You cannot stop this city if it stays in the frame of mind it has now.”
Fireworks explode from the Space Needle, a New Year's Eve tradition since 1992; Credit: Courtesy of Seattle Center
Any of the fair boosters of ’62 would be amazed at the growth and progress Seattle has made—the town has been transformed. But, the reality of Century 21 so far has been more muted than joyous. Scoop and Maggie and the federal gravy train are gone. The space shuttles are in museums. We worry about the economy and terrorism. Our can-do civic spirit is often mired in process and pessimism. Our Century 21 boosters didn’t have to deal with public meetings or environmental impact statements. Within a decade of the fair, we were a different town.
On the other hand, we’ve seen South Lake Union transformed into a technology and research center, we’re planning a radically new waterfront, and we’re building a regional rail system. Seattle aspires to be on the cutting edge of green technology and values, exemplified by the new Bullitt Foundation headquarters, which promises to be the greenest building ever built in the city. Seattle Center has proven resilient. Despite the symphony and SAM, along with the convention center, going downtown and the professional sports stadiums to SoDo, Seattle Center still draws millions of locals and tourists, and is beloved for its parts, from the Needle to the fountain. Its future never seems settled, nor should it. There are always new plans (Chihuly Garden and Glass), new challenges (funding) and competing viewpoints (central park or civic center?); it’s been that way since day one. The center of Seattle is a white board on which we never tire of sketching out new futures for the city, a town of idealists, improvers and second-guessers.
The International Fountain, designed by Hideki Shimizu and Kazuyuki Matsushita, emitting water and colored light after dark at the Seattle World’s Fair; Credit: MOHAI
The organizers of Century 21 pulled off something that we’re still celebrating and analyzing. It’s in our collective memory as something we left behind that’s worth remembering; that could help us learn again how to get where we want to go. Will it soon be time for Century 22? Let’s bring back the three-martini lunch and talk it over.
Knute Berger is the official writer-in-residence at the Space Needle.
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What "important" day, started by U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson (D-Wis), is celebrated in the U.S. on April 22, but by the U.N. on the day of the spring equinox? | The History of Earth Day | Earth Day Network
The History of Earth Day
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Each year, Earth Day—April 22—marks the anniversary of the birth of the modern environmental movement in 1970.
The height of counterculture in the United States, 1970 brought the death of Jimi Hendrix, the last Beatles album, and Simon & Garfunkel’s “Bridge Over Troubled Water.” War raged in Vietnam and students nationwide overwhelmingly opposed it.
At the time, Americans were slurping leaded gas through massive V8 sedans. Industry belched out smoke and sludge with little fear of legal consequences or bad press. Air pollution was commonly accepted as the smell of prosperity. “Environment” was a word that appeared more often in spelling bees than on the evening news.
Although mainstream America largely remained oblivious to environmental concerns, the stage had been set for change by the publication of Rachel Carson’s New York Times bestseller Silent Spring in 1962. The book represented a watershed moment, selling more than 500,000 copies in 24 countries, and beginning to raise public awareness and concern for living organisms, the environment and links between pollution and public health.
Earth Day 1970 gave voice to that emerging consciousness, channeling the energy of the anti-war protest movement and putting environmental concerns on the front page.
The Idea
The idea for a national day to focus on the environment came to Earth Day founder Gaylord Nelson, then a U.S. Senator from Wisconsin, after witnessing the ravages of the 1969 massive oil spill in Santa Barbara, California. Inspired by the student anti-war movement, he realized that if he could infuse that energy with an emerging public consciousness about air and water pollution, it would force environmental protection onto the national political agenda. Senator Nelson announced the idea for a “national teach-in on the environment” to the national media; persuaded Pete McCloskey, a conservation-minded Republican Congressman, to serve as his co-chair; and recruited Denis Hayes from Harvard as national coordinator. Hayes built a national staff of 85 to promote events across the land. April 22, falling between Spring Break and Final Exams, was selected as the date.
On April 22,1970, 20 million Americans took to the streets, parks, and auditoriums to demonstrate for a healthy, sustainable environment in massive coast-to-coast rallies. Thousands of colleges and universities organized protests against the deterioration of the environment. Groups that had been fighting against oil spills, polluting factories and power plants, raw sewage, toxic dumps, pesticides, freeways, the loss of wilderness, and the extinction of wildlife suddenly realized they shared common values.
Earth Day 1970 achieved a rare political alignment, enlisting support from Republicans and Democrats, rich and poor, city slickers and farmers, tycoons and labor leaders. By the end of that year, the first Earth Day had led to the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the passage of the Clean Air , Clean Water , and Endangered Species Acts. “It was a gamble,” Gaylord recalled, “but it worked.”
As 1990 approached, a group of environmental leaders asked Denis Hayes to organize another big campaign. This time, Earth Day went global, mobilizing 200 million people in 141 countries and lifting environmental issues onto the world stage. Earth Day 1990 gave a huge boost to recycling efforts worldwide and helped pave the way for the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. It also prompted President Bill Clinton to award Senator Nelson the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1995)—the highest honor given to civilians in the United States—for his role as Earth Day founder.
Earth Day Today
As the millennium approached, Hayes agreed to spearhead another campaign, this time focused on global warming and a push for clean energy. With 5,000 environmental groups in a record 184 countries reaching out to hundreds of millions of people, Earth Day 2000 combined the big-picture feistiness of the first Earth Day with the international grassroots activism of Earth Day 1990. Earth Day 2000 used the power of the Internet to organize activists, but also featured a drum chain that traveled from village to village in Gabon, Africa. Hundreds of thousands of people gathered on the National Mall in Washington, DC for a First Amendment Rally. Earth Day 2000 sent world leaders the loud and clear message that citizens around the world wanted quick and decisive action on global warming and clean energy.
Much like 1970, Earth Day 2010 came at a time of great challenge for the environmental community. Climate change deniers, well-funded oil lobbyists, reticent politicians, a disinterested public, and a divided environmental community all contributed to the narrative—cynicism versus activism. Despite these challenges, Earth Day prevailed and Earth Day Network reestablished Earth Day as a relevant, powerful focal point. Earth Day Network brought 250,000 people to the National Mall for a Climate Rally, launched the world’s largest environmental service project—A Billion Acts of Green®–introduced a global tree planting initiative that has since grown into The Canopy Project, and engaged 22,000 partners in 192 countries in observing Earth Day.
Earth Day had reached into its current status as the largest secular observance in the world, celebrated by more than a billion people every year, and a day of action that changes human behavior and provokes policy changes.
Today, the fight for a clean environment continues with increasing urgency, as the ravages of climate change become more manifest every day. We invite you to be a part of Earth Day and help write many more chapters—struggles and victories—into the Earth Day book.
Stay tuned! 2020 marks the 50th anniversary of Earth Day. In honor of this milestone, Earth Day Network is preparing to announce an ambitious set of goals to shape the future we need.
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The second oldest ballpark in the Major Leagues, where do the Chicago Cubs play their home games? | Matt's Remember Origins | Fanon Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
I. When was Jesus born?
A. Popular myth puts his birth on December 25th in the year 1 C.E.
B. The New Testament gives no date or year for Jesus’ birth. The earliest gospel – St. Mark’s, written about 65 CE – begins with the baptism of an adult Jesus. This suggests that the earliest Christians lacked interest in or knowledge of Jesus’ birthdate.
C. The year of Jesus birth was determined by Dionysius Exiguus, a Scythian monk, “abbot of a Roman monastery. His calculation went as follows:
a. In the Roman, pre-Christian era, years were counted from ab urbe condita (“the founding of the City” [Rome]). Thus 1 AUC signifies the year Rome was founded, 5 AUC signifies the 5th year of Rome’s reign, etc.
b. Dionysius received a tradition that the Roman emperor Augustus reigned 43 years, and was followed by the emperor Tiberius.
c. Luke 3:1,23 indicates that when Jesus turned 30 years old, it was the 15th year of Tiberius reign.
d. If Jesus was 30 years old in Tiberius’ reign, then he lived 15 years under Augustus (placing Jesus birth in Augustus’ 28th year of reign).
e. Augustus took power in 727 AUC. Therefore, Dionysius put Jesus birth in 754 AUC.
f. However, Luke 1:5 places Jesus’ birth in the days of Herod, and Herod died in 750 AUC – four years before the year in which Dionysius places Jesus birth.
D. Joseph A. Fitzmyer – Professor Emeritus of Biblical Studies at the Catholic University of America, member of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, and former president of the Catholic Biblical Association – writing in the Catholic Church’s official commentary on the New Testament[1], writes about the date of Jesus’ birth, “Though the year [of Jesus birth is not reckoned with certainty, the birth did not occur in AD 1. The Christian era, supposed to have its starting point in the year of Jesus birth, is based on a miscalculation introduced ca. 533 by Dionysius Exiguus.”
E. The DePascha Computus, an anonymous document believed to have been written in North Africa around 243 CE, placed Jesus birth on March 28. Clement, a bishop of Alexandria (d. ca. 215 CE), thought Jesus was born on November 18. Based on historical records, Fitzmyer guesses that Jesus birth occurred on September 11, 3 BCE.
II. How Did Christmas Come to Be Celebrated on December 25?
A. Roman pagans first introduced the holiday of Saturnalia, a week long period of lawlessness celebrated between December 17-25. During this period, Roman courts were closed, and Roman law dictated that no one could be punished for damaging property or injuring people during the weeklong celebration. The festival began when Roman authorities chose “an enemy of the Roman people” to represent the “Lord of Misrule.” Each Roman community selected a victim whom they forced to indulge in food and other physical pleasures throughout the week. At the festival’s conclusion, December 25th, Roman authorities believed they were destroying the forces of darkness by brutally murdering this innocent man or woman.
B. The ancient Greek writer poet and historian Lucian (in his dialogue entitled Saturnalia) describes the festival’s observance in his time. In addition to human sacrifice, he mentions these customs: widespread intoxication; going from house to house while singing, and consuming human-shaped biscuits (still produced in some English and most German bakeries during the Christmas season).
C. In the 4th century CE, Christianity imported the Saturnalia festival hoping to take the pagan masses in with it. Christian leaders succeeded in converting to Christianity large numbers of pagans by promising them that they could continue to celebrate the Saturnalia as Christians.[2]
D. The problem was that there was nothing intrinsically Christian about Saturnalia. To remedy this, these Christian leaders named Saturnalia’s concluding day, December 25th, to be Jesus’ birthday.
E. Christians had little success, however, refining the practices of Saturnalia. As Stephen Nissenbaum, professor history at the University of Massachussetts, Amherst, writes, “In return for ensuring massive observance of the anniversary of the Savior’s birth by assigning it to this resonant date, the Church for its part tacitly agreed to allow the holiday to be celebrated more or less the way it had always been.” The earliest Christmas holidays were celebrated by drinking,indulgence, singing in the streets (a precursor of modern caroling), etc.
F. The Reverend Increase Mather of Boston observed in 1687 that “the early Christians who first observed the Nativity on December 25 did not do so thinking that Christ was born in that Month, but because the Heathens’ Saturnalia was at that time kept in Rome, and they were willing to have those Pagan Holidays metamorphosed into Christian ones.”[3] Because of its known pagan origin, Christmas was banned by the Puritans and its observance was illegal in Massachusetts between 1659 and 1681.[4] However, Christmas was and still is celebrated by most Christians.
G. Some of the most depraved customs of the Saturnalia carnival were intentionally revived by the Catholic Church in 1466 when Pope Paul II, for the amusement of his Roman citizens, forced Jews to race naked through the streets of the city. An eyewitness account reports, “Before they were to run, the Jews were richly fed, so as to make the race more difficult for them and at the same time more amusing for spectators. They ran… amid Rome’s taunting shrieks and peals of laughter, while the Holy Father stood upon a richly ornamented balcony and laughed heartily.”[5]
H. As part of the Saturnalia carnival throughout the 18th and 19th centuries CE, rabbis of the ghetto in Rome were forced to wear clownish outfits and march through the city streets to the jeers of the crowd, pelted by a variety of missiles. When the Jewish community of Rome sent a petition in1836 to Pope Gregory XVI begging him to stop the annual Saturnalia abuse of the Jewish community, he responded, “It is not opportune to make any innovation.”[6] On December 25, 1881, Christian leaders whipped the Polish masses into Antisemitic frenzies that led to riots across the country. In Warsaw 12 Jews were brutally murdered, huge numbers maimed, and many Jewish women were raped. Two million rubles worth of property was destroyed.
III. The Origins of Christmas Customs
A. The Origin of Christmas Tree
Just as early Christians recruited Roman pagans by associating Christmas with the Saturnalia, so too worshippers of the Asheira cult and its offshoots were recruited by the Church sanctioning “Christmas Trees”.[7] Pagans had long worshipped trees in the forest, or brought them into their homes and decorated them, and this observance was adopted and painted with a Christian veneer by the Church.
B. The Origin of Mistletoe
Norse mythology recounts how the god Balder was killed using a mistletoe arrow by his rival god Hoder while fighting for the female Nanna. Druid rituals use mistletoe to poison their human sacrificial victim.[8] The Christian custom of “kissing under the mistletoe” is a later synthesis of the sexual license of Saturnalia with the Druidic sacrificial cult.[9]
C. The Origin of Christmas Presents
In pre-Christian Rome, the emperors compelled their most despised citizens to bring offerings and gifts during the Saturnalia (in December) and Kalends (in January). Later, this ritual expanded to include gift-giving among the general populace. The Catholic Church gave this custom a Christian flavor by re-rooting it in the supposed gift-giving of Saint Nicholas (see below).[10]
D. The Origin of Santa Claus
a. Nicholas was born in Parara, Turkey in 270 CE and later became Bishop of Myra. He died in 345 CE on December 6th. He was only named a saint in the 19th century.
b. Nicholas was among the most senior bishops who convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE and created the New Testament. c. In 1087, a group of sailors who idolized Nicholas moved his bones from Turkey to a sanctuary in Bari, Italy. There Nicholas supplanted a female boon-giving deity called The Grandmother, or Pasqua Epiphania, who used to fill the children's stockings with her gifts. The Grandmother was ousted from her shrine at Bari, which became the center of the Nicholas cult. Members of this group gave each other gifts during a pageant they conducted annually on the anniversary of Nicholas’ death, December 6.
d. The Nicholas cult spread north until it was adopted by German and Celtic pagans. These groups worshipped a pantheon led by Woden –their chief god and the father of Thor, Balder, and Tiw. Woden had a long, white beard and rode a horse through the heavens one evening each Autumn. When Nicholas merged with Woden, he shed his Mediterranean appearance, grew a beard, mounted a flying horse, rescheduled his flight for December, and donned heavy winter clothing.
e. In a bid for pagan adherents in Northern Europe, the Catholic Church adopted the Nicholas cult and taught that he did (and they should) distribute gifts on December 25th instead of December 6th.
f. In 1809, the novelist Washington Irving (most famous his The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle) wrote a satire of Dutch culture entitled Knickerbocker History. The satire refers several times to the white bearded, flying-horse riding Saint Nicholas using his Dutch name, Santa Claus.
g. Dr. Clement Moore, a professor at Union Seminary, read Knickerbocker History, and in 1822 he published a poem based on the character Santa Claus: “Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house, not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse. The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, in the hope that Saint Nicholas soon would be there…” Moore innovated by portraying a Santa with eight reindeer who descended through chimneys.
h. The Bavarian illustrator Thomas Nast almost completed the modern picture of Santa Claus. From 1862 through 1886, based on Moore’s poem, Nast drew more than 2,200 cartoon images of Santa for Harper’s Weekly. Before Nast, Saint Nicholas had been pictured as everything from a stern looking bishop to a gnome-like figure in a frock. Nast also gave Santa a home at the North Pole, his workshop filled with elves, and his list of the good and bad children of the world. All Santa was missing was his red outfit.
i. In 1931, the Coca Cola Corporation contracted the Swedish commercial artist Haddon Sundblom to create a coke-drinking Santa. Sundblom modeled his Santa on his friend Lou Prentice, chosen for his cheerful, chubby face. The corporation insisted that Santa’s fur-trimmed suit be bright, Coca Cola red. And Santa was born – a blend of Christian crusader, pagan god, and commercial idol.
IV. The Christmas Challenge
· Christmas has always been a holiday celebrated carelessly. For millennia, pagans, Christians, and even Jews have been swept away in the season’s festivities, and very few people ever pause to consider the celebration’s intrinsic meaning, history, or origins.
· Christmas celebrates the birth of the Christian god who came to rescue mankind from the “curse of the Torah.” It is a 24-hour declaration that Judaism is no longer valid.
· Christmas is a lie. There is no Christian church with a tradition that Jesus was really born on December 25th.
· Many of the most popular Christmas customs – including Christmas trees, mistletoe, Christmas presents, and Santa Claus – are modern incarnations of the most depraved pagan rituals ever practiced on earth.
It was an appropriate thought for the day. This Christmas, how will we celebrate?
5 Christmas Crafts
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Earth Day Flag created by John McConnell Earth Day is an annual event, celebrated on April 22, on which day events worldwide are held to demonstrate support for environmental protection. It was first celebrated in 1970, and is now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network,[1] and celebrated in more than 192 countries each year.[2]
In 1969 at a UNESCO Conference in San Francisco, peace activist John McConnell proposed a day to honor the Earth and the concept of peace, to first be celebrated on March 21, 1970, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. This day of nature's equipoise was later sanctioned in a Proclamation written by McConnell and signed by Secretary General U Thant at the United Nations. A month later a separate Earth Day was founded by United States Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in first held on April 22, 1970. Nelson was later awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom Award in recognition of his work.[3] While this April 22 Earth Day was focused on the United States, an organization launched by Denis Hayes, who was the original national coordinator in 1970, took it international in 1990 and organized events in 141 nations.[4][5] Numerous communities celebrate Earth Week, an entire week of activities focused on environmental issues.
Contents [hide] 1 Earth Day 1970 1.1 New York City 1.2 Philadelphia
2 Earth Day 1990 3 Earth Day 2000 4 Subsequent Earth Day events 5 The Earth Day name 6 Earth Day Canada 7 History of the Equinox Earth Day (March 20) 8 April 22 observances 8.1 Growing eco-activism before Earth Day 1970 8.2 Significance of April 22
9 Earth Day anthems 9.1 Earth Anthem (Abhay Kumar) 9.2 Earth Day Anthem (William Wallace)
10 See also 11 References 12 External links
Earth Day 1970
The first Earth Day family had participants and celebrants in two thousand colleges and universities, roughly ten thousand primary and secondary schools, and hundreds of communities across the United States. More importantly, it "brought 20 million Americans out into the spring sunshine for peaceful demonstrations in favor of environmental reform."[6] It now is observed in 192 countries, and coordinated by the nonprofit Earth Day Network, chaired by the first Earth Day 1970 organizer Denis Hayes, according to whom Earth Day is now "the largest secular holiday in the world, celebrated by more than a billion people every year."[7] Environmental groups have sought to make Earth Day into a day of action which changes human behavior and provokes policy changes.[8]
New York City
In the winter of 1969–1970, a group of students met at Columbia University to hear Denis Hayes talk about his plans for Earth Day. Among the group were Fred Kent, Pete Grannis, and Kristin and William Hubbard. This New York group agreed to head up the New York City part of the national movement. Fred Kent took the lead in renting an office and recruiting volunteers. "The big break came when Mayor Lindsay agreed to shut down Fifth Avenue for the event. A giant cheer went up in the office on that day," according to Kristin Hubbard (now Kristin Alexandre). 'From that time on we used Mayor Lindsay's offices and even his staff. I was Speaker Coordinator but had tremendous help from Lindsay staffer Judith Crichton."
In addition to shutting down Fifth Avenue, Mayor John Lindsay made Central Park available for Earth Day. The crowd was estimated as more than one million—by far the largest in the nation.[citation needed] Since Manhattan was also the home of NBC, CBS, ABC, The New York Times, Time, and Newsweek, it provided the best possible anchor for national coverage from their reporters throughout the country.[9]
Philadelphia
U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie speaking to an estimated 40–60,000 at Fairmount Park, Philadelphia on Earth Day, 1970
The event was hosted by environmentalist Ira Einhorn.[10] U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie was the keynote speaker on Earth Day in Fairmount Park in Philadelphia. Other notable attendees included consumer protection activist and presidential candidate Ralph Nader; Landscape Architect Ian McHarg; Nobel prize-winning Harvard Biochemist, George Wald; U.S. Senate Minority Leader, Hugh Scott; and poet, Allen Ginsberg. Photos, video, and other previously unpublished information are available to the public at EarthWeek1970.org.
Earth Day 1990
The official logo of the Mount Everest Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb
Mobilizing 200 million people in 141 countries and lifting the status of environmental issues onto the world stage, Earth Day activities in 1990 gave a huge boost to recycling efforts worldwide and helped pave the way for the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Unlike the first Earth Day in 1970, this 20th Anniversary was waged with stronger marketing tools, greater access to television and radio, and multimillion-dollar budgets.[11]
Two separate groups formed to sponsor Earth Day events in 1990: The Earth Day 20 Foundation, assembled by Edward Furia (Project Director of Earth Week in 1970), and Earth Day 1990, assembled by Denis Hayes (National Coordinator for Earth Day 1970). Senator Gaylord Nelson, the original founder of Earth Day, was honorary chairman for both groups. The two did not combine forces over disagreements about leadership of combined organization and incompatible structures and strategies.[11] Among the disagreements, key Earth Day 20 Foundation organizers were critical of Earth Day 1990 for including on their board Hewlett-Packard, a company that at the time was the second-biggest emitter of chlorofluorocarbons in Silicon Valley and refused to switch to alternative solvents.[11] In terms of marketing, Earth Day 20 had a grassroots approach to organizing and relied largely on locally based groups like the National Toxics Campaign, a Boston-based coalition of 1,000 local groups concerned with industrial pollution. Earth Day 1990 employed strategies including focus group testing, direct mail fund raising, and email marketing.[11]
The Earth Day 20 Foundation highlighted its April 22 activities in George, Washington, near the Columbia River with a live satellite phone call with members of the historic Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb who called from their base camp on Mount Everest to pledge their support for world peace and attention to environmental issues.[12] The Earth Day 20 International Peace Climb was led by Jim Whittaker, the first American to summit Mt. Everest (many years earlier), and marked the first time in history that mountaineers from the United States, Soviet Union, and China had roped together to climb a mountain, let alone Mt. Everest.[12] The group also collected more than two tons of trash (transported down the mountain by support groups along the way) that was left behind on Mount Everest from previous climbing expeditions. The master of ceremonies for the Columbia Gorge event was the TV star, John Ratzenberger, from "Cheers", and the headlining musician was the "Father of Rock and Roll," Chuck Berry.[12]
Warner Bros. Records released an Earth Day-themed single in 1990 entitled "Tomorrow's World", written by Kix Brooks (who would later become one-half of Brooks & Dunn) and Pam Tillis.[13] The song featured vocals from Lynn Anderson, Butch Baker, Shane Barmby, Billy Hill, Suzy Bogguss, Kix Brooks, T. Graham Brown, The Burch Sisters, Holly Dunn, Foster & Lloyd, Vince Gill, William Lee Golden, Highway 101, Shelby Lynne, Johnny Rodriguez, Dan Seals, Les Taylor, Pam Tillis, Mac Wiseman, and Kevin Welch. It charted at number 74 on the Hot Country Songs chart dated May 5, 1990.[14]
Earth Day 2000
Earth Day 2000 combined the ambitious spirit of the first Earth Day with the international grassroots activism of Earth Day 1990. This was the first year that Earth Day used the Internet as its principal organizing tool, and it proved invaluable nationally and internationally. Kelly Evans, a professional political organizer, served as executive director of the 2000 campaign. The event ultimately enlisted more than 5,000 environmental groups outside the United States, reaching hundreds of millions of people in a record 183 countries.[15] Leonardo DiCaprio was the official host for the event,[15] and about 400,000 participants stood in the cold rain during the course of the day.
Subsequent Earth Day events
Earth Day 2007 at San Diego City College in San Diego, California
To turn Earth Day into a sustainable annual event rather than one that occurred every 10 years, Nelson and Bruce Anderson, New Hampshire's lead organizers in 1990, formed Earth Day USA. Building on the momentum created by thousands of community organizers around the world, Earth Day USA coordinated the next five Earth Day celebrations through 1995, including the launch of EarthDay.org. Following the 25th Anniversary in 1995, the coordination baton was handed to Earth Day Network.
As the millennium approached, Hayes agreed to spearhead another campaign, this time focusing on global warming and pushing for clean energy. The April 22 Earth Day in 2000 combined the big-picture feistiness of the first Earth Day with the international grassroots activism of Earth Day 1990. For 2000, Earth Day had the internet to help link activists around the world. By the time April 22 came around, 5,000 environmental groups around the world were on board reaching out to hundreds of millions of people in a record 184 countries. Events varied: A talking drum chain traveled from village to village in Gabon, Africa, for example, while hundreds of thousands of people gathered on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., USA.
Earth Day 2007 was one of the largest Earth Days to date, with many people participating in the activities in thousands of places including Kiev, Ukraine; Caracas, Venezuela; Tuvalu; Manila, Philippines; Togo; Madrid, Spain; London; and New York.
On 2012 Californians for Population Stabilization (CAPS) group brings back Earth Day to human overpopulation as the main concern.[16] Earth day founder Gaylord Nelson stated that he was disappointed in followers for neglecting overpopulation.[17]
The Earth Day name
According to Nelson, the moniker "Earth Day" was "an obvious and logical name" suggested by "a number of people" in the fall of 1969, including, he writes, both "a friend of mine who had been in the field of public relations" and "a New York advertising executive," Julian Koenig.[18] Koenig, who had been on Nelson's organizing committee in 1969, has said that the idea came to him by the coincidence of his birthday with the day selected, April 22; "Earth Day" rhyming with "birthday," the connection seemed natural.[19][20] Other names circulated during preparations—Nelson himself continued to call it the National Environment Teach-In, but national coordinator Denis Hayes used the term Earth Day in his communications and press coverage of the event was "practically unanimous" in its use of "Earth Day," so the name stuck.[18] The introduction of the name "Earth Day" was also claimed by John McConnell (see "Equinox Earth Day," below).[21]
Earth Day Canada
The first Canadian Earth Day was held on Thursday, September 11, 1980, and was organized by Paul D. Tinari, then a graduate student in Engineering Physics/Solar Engineering at Queen's University. Flora MacDonald, then MP for Kingston and the Islands and Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs, officially opened Earth Day Week on September 6, 1980 with a ceremonial tree planting and encouraged MPs and MPPs across the country to declare a cross-Canada annual Earth Day. The principal activities taking place on the first Earth Day included educational lectures given by experts in various environmental fields, garbage and litter pick-up by students along city roads and highways as well as tree plantings to replace the trees killed by Dutch Elm Disease.[22][23]
Paul Tinari officially launching the first Canadian Earth Day on September 11, 1980 – waiting to speak are Flora MacDonald MP, secretary of state for external affairs, Ken Keyes, mayor of Kingston, and Dr. Ronald Watts, principal of Queen's University
Earth Day Canada (EDC) is a national environmental charity founded in 1990 that provides Canadians with practical knowledge, tools, and simple easy-to-accomplish actions to support a healthier environment through EDC's year-round and award-winning programs.
Education: EcoKids supports teachers and students, grades K-8, with free educational resources, curriculum-linked lesson plans including ESL and FSL, and homework help and games for students. EcoMentors offers youth the training and resources they need to facilitate local environmental education workshops with their peers and other young Canadians.
Action: EDC's challenges, contests and campaigns promote practical, culturally relevant and cost-effective solutions to help individual Canadians support a healthier environment. EDC also encourages action by supporting individuals and community groups in the organization and delivery of local Earth Day (April 22) events.
Recognition and Financial Support: Toyota Earth Day Scholarship Program recognizes tomorrow's environmental leaders providing twenty $5 000 scholarships to graduating high school students going on to post-secondary education in the discipline of their choice. The Hometown Heroes Award Program recognizes environmental leaders at the community level with an individual and a group award (each with a cash-prize of $10 000), and business leaders with a small business award. Earth Day Canada's Community Environment Fund funds sustainable community projects in Ontario providing grants of up to $20 000 to schools and not-for-profit organizations.
The Diversity Engagement and Inclusion Initiative helps the environmental sector to better communicate with, engage and activate Canada's diverse social and cultural communities. The Employee Engagement program works with employers to achieve business and sustainability goals through inclusion of best practices.
History of the Equinox Earth Day (March 20)
The equinoctial Earth Day is celebrated on the March equinox (around March 20) to mark the precise moment of astronomical spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and of astronomical autumn in the Southern Hemisphere. An equinox in astronomy is that point in time (not a whole day) when the Sun is directly above the Earth's equator, occurring around March 20 and September 23 each year. In most cultures, the equinoxes and solstices are considered to start or separate the seasons.
John McConnell[24] first introduced the idea of a global holiday called "Earth Day" at the 1969 UNESCO Conference on the Environment. The first Earth Day proclamation was issued by San Francisco Mayor Joseph Alioto on March 21, 1970. Celebrations were held in various cities, such as San Francisco and in Davis, California with a multi-day street party. UN Secretary-General U Thant supported McConnell's global initiative to celebrate this annual event; and on February 26, 1971, he signed a proclamation to that effect, saying:
May there be only peaceful and cheerful Earth Days to come for our beautiful Spaceship Earth as it continues to spin and circle in frigid space with its warm and fragile cargo of animate life.[25]
United Nations secretary-general Kurt Waldheim observed Earth Day with similar ceremonies on the March equinox in 1972, and the United Nations Earth Day ceremony has continued each year since on the day of the March equinox (the United Nations also works with organizers of the April 22 global event). Margaret Mead added her support for the equinox Earth Day, and in 1978 declared:
"Earth Day is the first holy day which transcends all national borders, yet preserves all geographical integrities, spans mountains and oceans and time belts, and yet brings people all over the world into one resonating accord, is devoted to the preservation of the harmony in nature and yet draws upon the triumphs of technology, the measurement of time, and instantaneous communication through space.
Earth Day draws on astronomical phenomena in a new way – which is also the most ancient way – by using the vernal Equinox, the time when the Sun crosses the equator making the length of night and day equal in all parts of the Earth. To this point in the annual calendar, EARTH DAY attaches no local or divisive set of symbols, no statement of the truth or superiority of one way of life over another. But the selection of the March Equinox makes planetary observance of a shared event possible, and a flag which shows the Earth, as seen from space, appropriate."[26]
At the moment of the equinox, it is traditional to observe Earth Day by ringing the Japanese Peace Bell, which was donated by Japan to the United Nations.[27] Over the years, celebrations have occurred in various places worldwide at the same time as the UN celebration. On March 20, 2008, in addition to the ceremony at the United Nations, ceremonies were held in New Zealand, and bells were sounded in California, Vienna, Paris, Lithuania, Tokyo, and many other locations. The equinox Earth Day at the UN is organized by the Earth Society Foundation.[28]
Earth Day ringing the peace bell is celebrated around the world in many towns, ringing the Peace Bell in Vienna,[29] Berlin, and elsewhere. A memorable event took place at the UN in Geneva, celebrating a Minute for Peace ringing the Japanese Shinagawa Peace Bell with the help of the Geneva Friendship Association and the Global Youth Foundation,[30] directly after in deep mourning about the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant catastrophe 10 days before.
Beside the Spring Equinox for the Northern Hemisphere, the observance of the Spring Equinox for the Southern Hemisphere is of equal importance ! It is a "new sign of hope" for Peace that the International Day of Peace[31] is celebrated on the Spring Equinox of the South! right along the original intentions of John McConnell, U-Thant, Muller, Mead,...
April 22 observances
Growing eco-activism before Earth Day 1970
In 1968, Morton Hilbert and the U.S. Public Health Service organized the Human Ecology Symposium, an environmental conference for students to hear from scientists about the effects of environmental degradation on human health.[32] This was the beginning of Earth Day. For the next two years, Hilbert and students worked to plan the first Earth Day.[33] In April 1970—along with a federal proclamation from U.S. Sen. Gaylord Nelson—the first Earth Day was held.[34]
Project Survival, an early environmentalism-awareness education event, was held at Northwestern University on January 23, 1970. This was the first of several events held at university campuses across the United States in the lead-up to the first Earth Day. Also, Ralph Nader began talking about the importance of ecology in 1970.
The 1960s had been a very dynamic period for ecology in the US. Pre-1960 grassroots activism against DDT in Nassau County, New York, had inspired Rachel Carson to write her bestseller, Silent Spring (1962).
Significance of April 22
Nelson chose the date in order to maximize participation on college campuses for what he conceived as an "environmental teach-in". He determined the week of April 19–25 was the best bet as it did not fall during exams or spring breaks.[35] Moreover, it did not conflict with religious holidays such as Easter or Passover, and was late enough in spring to have decent weather. More students were likely to be in class, and there would be less competition with other mid-week events—so he chose Wednesday, April 22. The day also fell after the anniversary of the birth of noted conservationist John Muir.
Global selfie - Earth Day, April 22, 2014.
Unbeknownst to Nelson,[36] April 22, 1970, was coincidentally the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Lenin, when translated to the Gregorian calendar (which the Soviets adopted in 1918). Time reported that some suspected the date was not a coincidence, but a clue that the event was "a Communist trick", and quoted a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution as saying, "subversive elements plan to make American children live in an environment that is good for them."[37] J. Edgar Hoover, director of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation, may have found the Lenin connection intriguing; it was alleged the FBI conducted surveillance at the 1970 demonstrations.[38] The idea that the date was chosen to celebrate Lenin's centenary still persists in some quarters,[39][40] an idea borne out by the similarity with the subbotnik instituted by Lenin in 1920 as days on which people would have to do community service, which typically consisted in removing rubbish from public property and collecting recyclable material. Subbotniks were also imposed on other countries within the compass of Soviet power, including Eastern Europe, and at the height of its power the Soviet Union established a nation-wide subbotnik to be celebrated on Lenin's birthday, April 22, which had been proclaimed a national holiday celebrating communism by Nikita Khrushchev in 1955.
Earth Day anthems
Earth Anthem (Abhay Kumar)
Our cosmic oasis, cosmic blue pearl
the most beautiful planet in the universe all the continents and the oceans of the world united we stand as flora and fauna united we stand as species of one earth black, brown, white, different colours we are humans, the earth is our home.
Our cosmic oasis, cosmic blue pearl the most beautiful planet in the universe all the people and the nations of the world all for one and one for all united we unfurl the blue marble flag black, brown, white, different colours we are humans, the earth is our home.
“
”
"Earth Anthem" by Abhay K (Under CC by ND-NC)[41]
There are many songs that are performed on Earth Day, that generally fall into two categories. Popular songs by contemporary artists not specific to Earth Day that are under copyright or new lyrics adapted to children's songs. UNESCO has termed Indian poet-diplomat Abhay Kumar's idea of an official Earth Anthem as a creative and inspiring thought that would contribute to bringing the world together.[42] Kumar's "Earth Anthem" has been translated into eight languages including all official languages of the United Nations viz. Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish.[43] The other two languages are Hindi and Nepali. It was launched in June 2013 on the occasion of the World Environment Day by Kapil Sibal and Shashi Tharoor, Union Ministers of India at a function organized by the Indian Council of Cultural Relations in New Delhi.[44] India's Central Board of Secondary Education or CBSE has started using it for educational purposes.[45]
The US Consul General Jennifer McIntyre has called Kumar's Earth Anthem a significant contribution to Earth Day and truly an anthem for the Earth. [46]
Bollywood actress Manisha Koirala and singing nun Ani Choying Drolma have advocated an official Earth Anthem and appreciated the work being done by poet-diplomat Abhay K towards an official Earth Anthem. [47]
Earth Day Anthem (William Wallace)
The "Ode to Joy" melody by Beethoven, the official anthem of the European Union, also is performed on the Earth Day. Lyrics for the Earth Day Anthem set to "Ode to Joy" are as follows:
Joyful joyful we adore our Earth in all its wonderment
Simple gifts of nature that all join into a paradise
Now we must resolve to protect her Show her our love throughout all time With our gentle hand and touch We make our home a newborn world Now we must resolve to protect her Show her our love throughout all time With our gentle hand and touch
We make our home a newborn world[48] See also
Portal icon Environment portal Arbor Day Earth Charter Earth Hour Expo '74: "Celebrating Tomorrow's Fresh New Environment" International Day of Forests Live Earth Pale Blue Dot World Environment Day by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) World Water Day
References
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Retrieved April 15, 2013. 37.Jump up ^ "A Memento Mori to the Earth". Time. May 4, 1970. Retrieved April 15, 2013. 38.Jump up ^ Finney, John W. (April 15, 1971). "Muski says FBI spied at rallies on '70 Earth Day". The New York Times. p. 1. 39.Jump up ^ "Of Leo and Lenin: Happy Earth Day from the Religious Right". Church & State 53 (5): 20. May 2000. 40.Jump up ^ Marriott, Alexander (April 21, 2004). "This Earth Day Celebrate Vladimir Lenin's Birthday!". Capitalism Magazine. Retrieved April 22, 2007. 41.Jump up ^ Download Earth AnthemEarth Anthem Website, 27 April, 2014 42.Jump up ^ UNESCO finds Indian poet-diplomat's idea of an Earth Anthem inspiring Business Standard, 27 February 2014 43.Jump up ^ http://www.newstrackindia.com/newsdetails/2013/06/04/160-Earth-Anthem-sung-by-Nepali-singer-Shreya-Sotang-released-in-New-Delhi-.html Earth Anthem sung by Nepali Singer Shreya Sotang, ANI,4 June 2013 44.Jump up ^ http://newindianexpress.com/nation/Indian-diplomat-pens-anthem-for-earth/2013/06/05/article1620381.ece Indian Diplomat pens an anthem for Earth,The New Indian Express,5 June 2013 45.Jump up ^ [1] CBSE Website 6 October 2013 46.Jump up ^ [2]U.S. Department of State Newsletter Vol.4, Issue 2, U.S.Consulate General, Chennai, Apr-Jun 2014 47.Jump up ^ http://www.ekantipur.com/2014/04/22/capital/manisha-drolma-for-earth-anthem/388590.html Manisha, Drolma for Earth Anthem, The Kathmandu Post, 22 April 2014 48.Jump up ^ William Wallace. "Earth Day Anthem". Retrieved April 21, 2014.
External links
Look up earth day in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earth Day.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Environment
Wikinews has related news: Earth Day 2008 marked in various ways
Wikinews has related news: Earth Day 2009 celebrated around the globe
Earth DayMilford Connecticut Earth Day - Doing our Share Together. Earth Day Network – Coordinating worldwide events for Earth Day. Earth Day Event Calendar at the EnviroLink Network Celebrate Earth Day How to Celebrate Earth Day from WikiHow Earth Day 2009 Special Coverage on China Development Gateway. United States Earth Day – The U.S. government's Earth Day site. Earth Day Canada – The Canadian Official Site for Earth Day Earth Day at The Nature Conservancy Earth Day at The History Channel How the First Earth Day Came About by Senator Gaylord Nelson EPA Journal: Earth Day – an entire journal dedicated to Earth Day, written in early 1990 Keep America Beautiful holds Earth Day cleanup activities in communities nationwide. The organization launched the famous Crying Indian campaign on Earth Day, 1971. "Beyond Earth Day: Fulfilling the Promise," by Gaylord Nelson, with Susan Campbell and Paul Wozniak, The University of Wisconsin Press, 2002 Earth Week 1970 | The First Earth Day and the Earth Week Committee of Philadelphia – The history of the First Earth Day in 1970, the founding of Earth Week, and the historic events of the first Earth Week in Philadelphia Gaylord Nelson and Earth Day: The Making of the Modern Environmental Movement narrative account of the origins of Earth Day, Nelson's political career, as well as online access to documents from the Wisconsin Historical Society's Nelson Papers collection Gaylord Nelson letter outlines the origins Earth Day April 1971 to CBS President Stanton to correct TV news reporting about Earth Day's origins Deepdale Outdoor & Wildlife Festival Annual Earth Day event on the North Norfolk Coast Earth Day Carol a free educational resource available on their website and downloadable app Earth Day event in Nicaragua 2013 Nicaragua celebrates Earth Day Equinoctial Earth DayEarth Society Foundation – Official organization arranging annual equinox Earth Day celebration at the United Nations Who Started Earth Day – The Origins of the equinox Earth Day. Earth Day by year 2010 Billion Acts of Green (Beta) – Official Earth Day Network's "Billion Acts of Green" website for students and young adults
2011 A Billion Acts of Green (®) – A "people-powered campaign to generate a billion acts of environmental service and advocacy before Rio +20" (as well as a registered trademark).
2012 Earth Day 2012 – Mobilize the Earth
2013 Earth Day 2013 – The Face of Climate Change
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Legend: (federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bolded text indicates major holidays that are commonly celebrated by Americans, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.[3][4]
See also: Lists of holidays, Hallmark holidays, public holidays in the United States, Puerto Rico, United States Virgin Islands, New Jersey and New York.
Categories: 1970 establishments in California April observances Counterculture of the 1960s Environmental awareness days History of environmentalism History of San Francisco, California March observances Recurring events established in 1970 Secular holidays United Nations days
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How Easter Was Originated
Presentation by Matthew Davis.
Millions assume that Easter, one of the world's major religious holidays, is found in the Bible. But is it.
Easter is one of the most popular religious celebrations in the world. But is it biblical? The word Easter appears only once in the King James Version of the Bible (and not at all in most others). In the one place it does appear, the King James translators mistranslated the Greek word for Passover as "Easter."
Notice it in Acts:12:4: "And when he [King Herod Agrippa I] had apprehended him [the apostle Peter], he put him in prison, and delivered him to four quaternions of soldiers to keep him; intending after Easter to bring him forth to the people."
The Greek word translated Easter here is pascha, properly translated everywhere else in the Bible as "Passover." Referring to this mistranslation, Adam Clarke's Commentary on the Bible says that "perhaps there never was a more unhappy, not to say absurd, translation than that in our text."
Easter is such a major religious holiday. Yet nowhere in the Bible—not in the book of Acts, which covers several decades of the history of the early Church, nor in any of the epistles of the New Testament, written over a span of 30 to 40 years after Jesus Christ's death and resurrection—do we find the apostles or early Christians celebrating anything like Easter.
The Gospels themselves appear to have been written from about a decade after Christ's death and resurrection to perhaps as much as 60 years later (in the case of John's Gospel). Yet nowhere do we find a hint of anything remotely resembling an Easter celebration.
If Easter doesn't come from the Bible, and wasn't practiced by the apostles and early Church, where did it come from?
"The term ‘Easter' is not of Christian origin. It is another form of Astarte, one of the titles of the Chaldean goddess, the queen of heaven. The festival of Pasch [Passover] held by Christians in post-apostolic times was a continuation of the Jewish feast . . . From this Pasch the pagan festival of ‘Easter' was quite distinct and was introduced into the apostate Western religion, as part of the attempt to adapt pagan festivals to Christianity" (W.E. Vine, 1985, emphasis added throughout).
Easter isn't a Christian or directly biblical term, but comes from a form of the name Astarte, a Chaldean (Babylonian) goddess known as "the queen of heaven." (She is mentioned by that title in the Bible in Jeremiah:7:18 and 44:17-19, 25 and referred to in 1 Kings:11:5, 33 and 2 Kings:23:13 by the Hebrew form of her name, Ashtoreth. So "Easter" is found in the Bible—as part of the pagan religion God condemns!)
Further, early Christians, even after the times of the apostles, continued to observe a variation of the biblical Passover feast (it differed because Jesus introduced new symbolism, as the Bible notes in Matthew:26:26-28
and 1 Corinthians:11:23-28
).
Moreover, Easter was very different from the Old Testament Passover or the Passover of the New Testament as understood and practiced by the early Church based on the teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles.
And again, Easter was a pagan festival, originating in the worship of other gods, and was introduced much later into an apostate Christianity in a deliberate attempt to make such festivals acceptable.
Easter symbols predate Christian :
The English term, according to the [eighth-century monk] Bede, relates to Eostre, a Teutonic goddess of the rising light of day and spring, which deity, however, is otherwise unknown . . ." (1909, Vol. 5, p. 224). Eostre is the ancient European name for the same goddess worshipped by the Babylonians as Astarte or Ishtar, goddess of fertility, whose major celebration was in the spring of the year.
The subtopic "Easter Eggs" tells us that "the custom [of Easter eggs] may have its origin in paganism, for a great many pagan customs, celebrating the return of spring, gravitated to Easter" (ibid., p. 227).
The subtopic "Easter Rabbit" states that "the rabbit is a pagan symbol and has always been an emblem of fertility" (ibid.).
Author Greg Dues, in his book Catholic Customs and Traditions, elaborates on the symbolism of eggs in ancient pre-Christian cultures: "The egg has become a popular Easter symbol. Creation myths of many ancient peoples center in a cosmogenic egg from which the universe is born.
"In ancient Egypt and Persia friends exchanged decorated eggs at the spring equinox, the beginning of their New Year. These eggs were a symbol of fertility for them because the coming forth of a live creature from an egg was so surprising to people of ancient times. Christians of the Near East adopted this tradition, and the Easter egg became a religious symbol. It represented the tomb from which Jesus came forth to new life" (1992, p. 101).
The same author also explains that, like eggs, rabbits became associated with Easter because they were powerful symbols of fertility: "Little children are usually told that the Easter eggs are brought by the Easter Bunny. Rabbits are part of pre-Christian fertility symbolism because of their reputation to reproduce rapidly" (p. 102).
These symbols demean the truth of Christ's death and resurrection.
Easter substituted for Passover season
But that's not the entire story. In fact, many credible sources substantiate the fact that Easter became a substitute festival for the Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread.
Britannica says : "There is no indication of the observance of the Easter festival in the New Testament, or in the writings of the apostolic Fathers . . . The first Christians continued to observe the Jewish festivals, though in a new spirit, as commemorations of events which those festivals foreshadowed . . .
"The Gentile Christians, on the other hand, unfettered by Jewish traditions, identified the first day of the week [Sunday] with the Resurrection, and kept the preceding Friday as the commemoration of the crucifixion, irrespective of the day of the month" (11th edition, p. 828, "Easter").
Easter, a pagan festival with its pagan fertility symbols, replaced the God-ordained festivals that Jesus Christ, the apostles and the early Church observed. But this didn't happen immediately. Not until A.D. 325—almost three centuries after Jesus Christ was crucified and resurrected—was the matter settled. Regrettably, it wasn't settled on the basis of biblical truth, but on the basis of anti-Semitism and raw ecclesiastical and imperial power.
Britannica further explains: "A final settlement of the dispute [over whether and when to keep Easter or Passover] was one among the other reasons which led [the Roman emperor] Constantine to summon the council of Nicaea in 325 . . . The decision of the council was unanimous that Easter was to be kept on Sunday, and on the same Sunday throughout the world, and ‘that none should hereafter follow the blindness of the Jews'" (ibid., pp. 828-829).
Those who did choose to "follow the blindness of the Jews"—that is, who continued to keep the biblical festivals kept by Jesus Christ and the apostles rather than the newly "Christianized" pagan Easter festival—were systematically persecuted by the powerful church-state alliance of Constantine 's Roman Empire .
With the power of the empire behind it, Easter soon became entrenched as one of traditional Christianity's most popular sacred celebrations.
British historian Sir James Frazer notes how Easter symbolism and rites, along with other pagan customs and celebrations, entered into the established Roman church:
"Taken altogether, the coincidences of the Christian with the heathen festivals are too close and too numerous to be accidental. They mark the compromise which the Church in the hour of its triumph was compelled to make with its vanquished yet still dangerous rivals [the empire's competing pagan religions].
"The inflexible Protestantism of the primitive missionaries, with their fiery denunciation of heathendom, had been exchanged for the supple policy, the easy tolerance, the comprehensive charity of shrewd ecclesiastics, who clearly perceived that if Christianity was to conquer the world it could do so only by relaxing the too rigid principles of its Founder, by widening a little the narrow gate which leads to salvation" ( The Golden Bough, 1993, p. 361).
In short, to broaden the appeal of the new religion of Christianity in those early centuries, the powerful Roman religious authorities, with the backing of the Roman Empire, simply co-opted the rites and practices of pagan religions, relabeled them as "Christian" and created a new brand of Christianity with customs and teachings far removed from the Church Jesus founded.
The authentic Christianity of the Bible largely disappeared, forced underground by persecution because its followers refused to compromise.
Easter does not accurately represent Jesus Christ's suffering, death and resurrection, though it appears to do so to those who blindly accept religious tradition. In fact, it distorts the truth of the matter. Easter correctly belongs to the Babylonian goddess it is named after—Astarte, also known as Ashtoreth or Ishtar, whose worship is directly and explicitly condemned in the Bible.
The ancient religious practices and fertility symbols associated with her cult existed long before Christ, and regrettably they have largely replaced and obscured the truth of His death and resurrection.
When confronted with these facts about Easter, many professing Christians might raise this question to justify its continuance: With hundreds of millions of well-meaning Christians observing Easter, doesn't this please Jesus Christ? Yet He has already answered this question in Matthew:15:9: "In vain they worship Me, teaching as doctrines the commandments of men." Father's Day is a celebration honoring fathers and celebrating fatherhood, paternal bonds, and the influence of fathers in society. Many countries celebrate it on the third Sunday of June, though it is also celebrated widely on other days. Father's Day was created to complement Mother's Day, a celebration that honors mothers and motherhood. History[edit]
Father's Day was inaugurated in the United States in the early 20th century to complement Mother's Day in celebrating fatherhood and male parenting.
After the success obtained by Anna Jarvis with the promotion of Mother's Day in the US, some[who?] wanted to create similar holidays for other family members, and Father's Day was the choice most likely to succeed.[citation needed] There were other persons in the US who independently thought of "Father's Day",[1][2] but the credit for the modern holiday is often given to Sonora Dodd,[2] who was the driving force behind its establishment.[3]
Father's Day was founded in Spokane, Washington at the YMCA in 1910 by Sonora Smart Dodd, who was born in Arkansas.[3] Its first celebration was in the Spokane YMCA on June 19, 1910.[3][4] Her father, the Civil War veteran William Jackson Smart, was a single parent who raised his six children there.[3] After hearing a sermon about Jarvis' Mother's Day in 1909, she told her pastor that fathers should have a similar holiday honoring them.[3] Although she initially suggested June 5, her father's birthday, the pastors did not have enough time to prepare their sermons, and the celebration was deferred to the third Sunday of June.[1][2]
It did not have much success initially. In the 1920s, Dodd stopped promoting the celebration because she was studying in the Art Institute of Chicago, and it faded into relative obscurity, even in Spokane.[5] In the 1930s Dodd returned to Spokane and started promoting the celebration again, raising awareness at a national level.[6] She had the help of those trade groups that would benefit most from the holiday, for example the manufacturers of ties, tobacco pipes, and any traditional present to fathers.[7] Since 1938 she had the help of the Father's Day Council, founded by the New York Associated Men's Wear Retailers to consolidate and systematize the commercial promotion.[8] Americans resisted the holiday during a few decades, perceiving it as just an attempt by merchants to replicate the commercial success of Mother's Day, and newspapers frequently featured cynical and sarcastic attacks and jokes.[9] But the trade groups did not give up: they kept promoting it and even incorporated the jokes into their adverts, and they eventually succeeded.[10] By the mid-1980s the Father's Council wrote that "(...) [Father's Day] has become a Second Christmas for all the men's gift-oriented industries."[11]
A bill to accord national recognition of the holiday was introduced in Congress in 1913.[12] In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson went to Spokane to speak in a Father's Day celebration[13] and wanted to make it official, but Congress resisted, fearing that it would become commercialized.[14] US President Calvin Coolidge recommended in 1924 that the day be observed by the nation, but stopped short of issuing a national proclamation.[13] Two earlier attempts to formally recognize the holiday had been defeated by Congress.[13][15] In 1957, Maine Senator Margaret Chase Smith wrote a proposal accusing Congress of ignoring fathers for 40 years while honoring mothers, thus "[singling] out just one of our two parents".[15] In 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued the first presidential proclamation honoring fathers, designating the third Sunday in June as Father's Day.[14] Six years later, the day was made a permanent national holiday when President Richard Nixon signed it into law in 1972.[13][14][15][16]
In addition to Father's Day, International Men's Day is celebrated in many countries on November 19 for men and boys who are not fathers.
Similar celebrations[edit]
A "Father's Day" service was held on July 5, 1908, in Fairmont, West Virginia, in the Williams Memorial Methodist Episcopal Church South, now known as Central United Methodist Church.[1] Grace Golden Clayton was mourning the loss of her father when, on December 1907, the Monongah Mining Disaster in nearby Monongah killed 361 men, 250 of them fathers, leaving around a thousand fatherless children. Clayton suggested her pastor Robert Thomas Webb to honor all those fathers.[17][18][19] Clayton chose the Sunday nearest to the birthday of her father, Methodist minister Fletcher Golden.
Clayton's event did not have repercussions outside of Fairmont for several reasons, among them: the city was overwhelmed by other events, the celebration was never promoted outside of the town itself and no proclamation was made in the City Council. Also two events overshadowed this event: the celebration of Independence Day July 4, 1908, with 12,000 attendants and several shows including a hot air balloon event, which took over the headlines in the following days, and the death of a 16-year-old girl on July 4. The local church and Council were overwhelmed and they did not even think of promoting the event, and it was not celebrated again for many years. The original sermon was not reproduced in press and it was lost. Finally, Clayton was a quiet person, who never promoted the event or even talked to other persons about it.[17][18][19]
Clayton also may have been inspired by Anna Jarvis' crusade to establish Mother's Day; two months prior, Jarvis had held a celebration for her dead mother in Grafton, West Virginia, a town about 15 miles (24 km) away from Fairmont.[citation needed]
In 1911, Jane Addams proposed a city-wide Father's Day in Chicago, but she was turned down.[2]
In 1912, there was a Father's Day celebration in Vancouver, Washington, suggested by Methodist pastor J. J. Berringer of the Irvingtom Methodist Church. They believed mistakenly that they had been the first to celebrate such a day.[1] They followed a 1911 suggestion by the Portland Oregonian.[2]
Harry C. Meek, member of Lions Clubs International, claimed that he had first the idea for Father's Day in 1915.[1][2] Meek claimed that the third Sunday of June was chosen because it was his birthday (it would have been more natural to choose his father's birthday).[2] The Lions Club has named him "Originator of Father's Day".[1] Meek made many efforts to promote Father's Day and make it an official holiday.[1][2]
Spelling[edit]
In the United States, Dodd used the "Fathers' Day" spelling on her original petition for the holiday,[3] but the spelling "Father's Day" was already used in 1913 when a bill was introduced to the U.S. Congress as the first attempt to establish the holiday,[12] and it was still spelled the same way when its creator was commended in 2008 by the U.S. Congress.[20] Halloween or Hallowe'en (/?hæl?'wi?n, -o?'i?n, ?h??l-/; a contraction of "All Hallows' Evening"),[6] also known as Allhalloween,[7] All Hallows' Eve,[8] or All Saints' Eve,[9] is a yearly celebration observed in a number of countries on 31 October, the eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows' Day. It initiates the triduum of Allhallowtide,[10] the time in the liturgical year dedicated to remembering the dead, including saints (hallows), martyrs, and all the faithful departed believers.[11] Within Allhallowtide, the traditional focus of All Hallows' Eve revolves around the theme of using "humor and ridicule to confront the power of death."[12]
According to many scholars, All Hallows' Eve is a Christianized feast initially influenced by Celtic harvest festivals,[13][14] with possible pagan roots, particularly the Gaelic Samhain.[8][15][16] Other scholars maintain that it originated independently of Samhain and has solely Christian roots.[17][18]
Typical festive Halloween activities include trick-or-treating (or the related "guising"), attending costume parties, decorating, carving pumpkins into jack-o'-lanterns, lighting bonfires, apple bobbing, visiting haunted house attractions, playing pranks, telling scary stories and watching horror films. In many parts of the world, the Christian religious observances of All Hallows' Eve, including attending church services and lighting candles on the graves of the dead, remain popular,[19][20][21] although in other locations, these solemn customs are less pronounced in favor of a more commercialized and secularized celebration.[22][23][24] Because many Western Christian denominations encourage, although most no longer require, abstinence from meat on All Hallows' Eve,[25][26] the tradition of eating certain vegetarian foods for this vigil day developed, including the consumption of apples, colcannon, cider, potato pancakes, and soul cakes.[26][27][28]
Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Gaelic and Welsh influence 2.2 Christian influence 2.3 Spread to North America
3 Symbols 4 Trick-or-treating and guising 4.1 Costumes 4.2 UNICEF
5 Games and other activities 6 Haunted attractions 7 Food 8 Religious observances 8.1 Perspectives 8.1.1 Christianity 8.1.2 Other religions
9 Around the world 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links
Etymology
The word Halloween or Hallowe'en dates to about 1745[29] and is of Christian origin.[30] The word "Halloween" means "hallowed evening" or "holy evening".[31] It comes from a Scottish term for All Hallows' Eve (the evening before All Hallows' Day).[32][33] In Scots, the word "eve" is even, and this is contracted to e'en or een. Over time, (All) Hallow(s) Eve(n) evolved into Halloween. Although the phrase "All Hallows'" is found in Old English (ealra halgena mæssedæg, all saints mass-day), "All Hallows' Eve" is itself not seen until 1556.[33][34]
History
Gaelic and Welsh influence
An early 20th-century Irish Hallowe'en mask displayed at the Museum of Country Life.
Today's Halloween customs are thought to have been influenced by folk customs and beliefs from the Celtic-speaking countries, some of which have pagan roots, and others which may be rooted in Celtic Christianity.[35][36] Indeed, Jack Santino, a folklorist, writes that "the sacred and the religious are a fundamental context for understanding Halloween in Northern Ireland, but there was throughout Ireland an uneasy truce existing between customs and beliefs associated with Christianity and those associated with religions that were Irish before Christianity arrived".[37] Historian Nicholas Rogers, exploring the origins of Halloween, notes that while "some folklorists have detected its origins in the Roman feast of Pomona, the goddess of fruits and seeds, or in the festival of the dead called Parentalia, it is more typically linked to the Celtic festival of Samhain", which comes from the Old Irish for "summer's end".[35] Samhain (pronounced SAH-win or SOW-in) was the first and most important of the four quarter days in the medieval Gaelic calendar and was celebrated in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.[38][39] It was held on or about 31 October – 1 November and kindred festivals were held at the same time of year by the Brittonic Celts; for example Calan Gaeaf (in Wales), Kalan Gwav (in Cornwall) and Kalan Goañv (in Brittany). Samhain and Calan Gaeaf are mentioned in some of the earliest Irish and Welsh literature. The names have been used by historians to refer to Celtic Halloween customs up until the 19th century,[40] and are still the Gaelic and Welsh names for Halloween.
Snap-Apple Night, painted by Daniel Maclise in 1833, shows people feasting and playing divination games on Halloween in Ireland. Samhain/Calan Gaeaf marked the end of the harvest season and beginning of winter or the 'darker half' of the year.[41][42] Like Beltane/Calan Mai, it was seen as a liminal time, when the spirits or fairies (the Aos Sí) could more easily come into our world and were particularly active.[43][44] Most scholars see the Aos Sí as "degraded versions of ancient gods [...] whose power remained active in the people's minds even after they had been officially replaced by later religious beliefs". The Aos Sí were both respected and feared, with individuals often invoking the protection of God when approaching their dwellings.[45][46] At Samhain, it was believed that the Aos Sí needed to be propitiated to ensure that the people and their livestock survived the winter. Offerings of food and drink, or portions of the crops, were left for the Aos Sí.[47][48][49][50] The souls of the dead were also said to revisit their homes.[51] Places were set at the dinner table or by the fire to welcome them.[52] The belief that the souls of the dead return home on one night or day of the year seems to have ancient origins and is found in many cultures throughout the world.[53] In 19th century Ireland, "candles would be lit and prayers formally offered for the souls of the dead. After this the eating, drinking, and games would begin".[54] Throughout the Gaelic and Welsh regions, the household festivities included rituals and games intended to divine one's future, especially regarding death and marriage.[55] Nuts and apples were often used in these divination rituals. Special bonfires were lit and there were rituals involving them. Their flames, smoke and ashes were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers, and were also used for divination.[40][41] It is suggested that the fires were a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic – they mimicked the Sun, helping the "powers of growth" and holding back the decay and darkness of winter.[52][56][57] Christian minister Eddie J. Smith suggests that the bonfires were also used to scare witches of "their awaiting punishment in hell".[58]
photograph
A traditional Irish Halloween turnip (rutabaga) lantern on display in the Museum of Country Life, Ireland
In modern Ireland, Scotland, Mann and Wales, the festival included mumming and guising,[59] the latter of which goes back at least as far as the 16th century.[60] This involved people going house-to-house in costume (or in disguise), usually reciting verses or songs in exchange for food.[59] It may have come from the Christian custom of souling (see below) or it may have a Gaelic folk origin, with the costumes being a means of imitating, or disguising oneself from, the Aos Sí. In Scotland, youths went house-to-house on 31 October with masked, painted or blackened faces, often threatening to do mischief if they were not welcomed.[59] F. Marian McNeill suggests the ancient festival included people in costume representing the spirits, and that faces were marked (or blackened) with ashes taken from the sacred bonfire.[60] In parts of Wales, men went about dressed as fearsome beings called gwrachod.[59] In the late 19th and early 20th century, young people in Glamorgan and Orkney dressed as the opposite gender.[59] In parts of southern Ireland, the guisers included a hobby horse. A man dressed as a Láir Bhán (white mare) led youths house-to-house reciting verses—some of which had pagan overtones—in exchange for food. If the household donated food it could expect good fortune from the 'Muck Olla'; not doing so would bring misfortune.[61][62] Elsewhere in Europe, mumming and hobby horses were part of other yearly festivals.However, in the Celtic-speaking regions they were "particularly appropriate to a night upon which supernatural beings were said to be abroad and could be imitated or warded off by human wanderers".[59] As early as the 18th century, "imitating malignant spirits" led to playing pranks in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.[59] Wearing costumes at Halloween spread to England in the 20th century, as did the custom of playing pranks.[59] The "traditional illumination for guisers or pranksters abroad on the night in some places was provided by turnips or mangel wurzels, hollowed out to act as lanterns and often carved with grotesque faces to represent spirits or goblins".[59] These were common in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands in the 19th century,[59] as well as in Somerset (see Punkie Night). In the 20th century they spread to other parts of England and became generally known as jack-o'-lanterns.[59]
Christian influence
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Today's Halloween customs are also thought to have been influenced by Christian dogma and practices derived from it. Halloween falls on the evening before the Christian holy days of All Hallows' Day (also known as All Saints' or Hallowmas) on 1 November and All Souls' Day on 2 November, thus giving the holiday on 31 October the full name of All Hallows' Eve (meaning the evening before All Hallows' Day).[63] Since the time of the primitive Church,[64] major feasts in the Christian Church (such as Christmas, Easter and Pentecost) had vigils which began the night before, as did the feast of All Hallows'.[65] These three days are collectively referred to as Allhallowtide and are a time for honoring the saints and praying for the recently departed souls who have yet to reach Heaven. All Saints was introduced in the year 609, but was originally celebrated on 13 May.[66] In 835, it was switched to 1 November (the same date as Samhain) at the behest of Pope Gregory IV.[66] Some suggest this was due to Celtic influence, while others suggest it was a Germanic idea.[66] It is also suggested that the change was made on the "practical grounds that Rome in summer could not accommodate the great number of pilgrims who flocked to it", and perhaps because of public health considerations regarding Roman Fever – a disease that claimed a number of lives during the sultry summers of the region.[67]
On All Hallows' Eve, Christians in some parts of the world visit graveyards to pray and place flowers and candles on the graves of their loved ones.[68]
By the end of the 12th century they had become holy days of obligation across Europe and involved such traditions as ringing church bells for the souls in purgatory. In addition, "it was customary for criers dressed in black to parade the streets, ringing a bell of mournful sound and calling on all good Christians to remember the poor souls."[69] "Souling", the custom of baking and sharing soul cakes for all christened souls,[70] has been suggested as the origin of trick-or-treating.[71] The custom dates back at least as far as the 15th century[72] and was found in parts of England, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Italy.[53] Groups of poor people, often children, would go door-to-door during Allhallowtide, collecting soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the dead, especially the souls of the givers' friends and relatives.[73][74][72] Shakespeare mentions the practice in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona (1593).[75] The custom of wearing costumes has been explicated by Prince Sorie Conteh, who wrote: "It was traditionally believed that the souls of the departed wandered the earth until All Saints' Day, and All Hallows' Eve provided one last chance for the dead to gain vengeance on their enemies before moving to the next world. In order to avoid being recognized by any soul that might be seeking such vengeance, people would don masks or costumes to disguise their identities".[76] In the Middle Ages, churches displayed the relics of martyred saints and those parishes that were too poor to have relics let parishioners dress up as the saints instead,[77] a practice that some Christians continue in Halloween celebrations today.[78] folklorist Kingsley Palmer, in addition to others, has suggested that the carved jack-o'-lantern, a popular symbol of Halloween, originally represented the souls of the dead.[79][1] On Halloween, in medieval Europe, "fires [were] lit to guide these souls on their way and deflect them from haunting honest Christian folk."[80] In addition, households in Austria, England, Ireland often had "candles burning in every room to guide the souls back to visit their earthly homes". These were known as "soul lights".[81][82][83] Many Christians in continental Europe, especially in France, acknowledged "a belief that once a year, on Hallowe'en, the dead of the churchyards rose for one wild, hideous carnival," known as the danse macabre, which has been commonly depicted in church decoration, especially on the walls of cathedrals, monasteries, and cemeteries.[84] Christopher Allmand and Rosamond McKitterick write in The New Cambridge Medieval History that "Christians were moved by the sight of the Infant Jesus playing on his mother's knee; their hearts were touched by the Pietà; and patron saints reassured them by their presence. But, all the while, the danse macabre urged them not to forget the end of all earthly things."[85] This danse macabre, which was enacted by "Christian village children [who] celebrated the vigil of All Saints" in the 16th Century, has been suggested as the predecessor of modern day costume parties on this same day.[86][87]
In parts of Britain, these customs came under attack during the Reformation as some Protestants berated purgatory as a "popish" doctrine incompatible with the notion of predestination. Thus, for some Nonconformist Protestants, the theology of All Hallows’ Eve was redefined; without the doctrine of purgatory, "the returning souls cannot be journeying from Purgatory on their way to Heaven, as Catholics frequently believe and assert. Instead, the so-called ghosts are thought to be in actuality evil spirits. As such they are threatening."[82] Other Protestants maintained belief in an intermediate state, known as Hades (Bosom of Abraham),[88] and continued to observe the original customs, especially souling, candlelit processions and the ringing of church bells in memory of the dead.[89][63] With regard to the evil spirits, on Halloween, "barns and homes were blessed to protect people and livestock from the effect of witches, who were believed to accompany the malignant spirits as they traveled the earth."[80] In the 19th century, in some rural parts of England, families gathered on hills on the night of All Hallows' Eve. One held a bunch of burning straw on a pitchfork while the rest knelt around him in a circle, praying for the souls of relatives and friends until the flames went out. This was known as teen'lay, derived either from the Old English tendan (meaning to kindle) or a word related to Old Irish tenlach (meaning hearth).[90] The rising popularity of Guy Fawkes Night (5 November) from 1605 onward, saw many Halloween traditions appropriated by that holiday instead, and Halloween's popularity waned in Britain, with the noteworthy exception of Scotland.[91] There and in Ireland, they had been celebrating Samhain and Halloween since at least the early Middle Ages, and the Scottish kirk took a more pragmatic approach to Halloween, seeing it as important to the life cycle and rites of passage of communities and thus ensuring its survival in the country.[91]
In France, some Christian families, on the night of All Hallows' Eve, prayed beside the graves of their loved ones, setting down dishes full of milk for them.[81] On Halloween, in Italy, some families left a large meal out for ghosts of their passed relatives, before they departed for church services.[92] In Spain, on this night, special pastries are baked, known as "bones of the holy" (Spanish: Huesos de Santo) and put them on the graves of the churchyard, a practice that continues to this day.[93]
Spread to North America
The annual Greenwich Village Halloween Parade in New York City is the world's largest Halloween parade.[94]
Lesley Bannatyne and Cindy Ott both write that Anglican colonists in the South and Catholic colonists in Maryland "recognized All Hallow's Eve in their church calendars",[95][96] although the Puritans of New England maintained strong opposition to the holiday, along with other traditional celebrations of the established Church, including Christmas.[97] Mass Irish and Scottish immigration during the 19th century increased the holiday’s celebration in the United States.[98] "In Cajun areas, a nocturnal Mass was said in cemeteries on Halloween night. Candles that had been blessed were placed on graves, and families sometimes spent the entire night at the graveside."[99] Confined to the immigrant communities during the mid-19th century, it was gradually assimilated into mainstream society and by the first decade of the 20th century it was being celebrated coast to coast by people of all social, racial and religious backgrounds.[100]
The annual New York Halloween Parade, initiated in 1974 by puppeteer and mask maker Ralph Lee of the Lower Manhattan neighborhood of Greenwich Village in New York City, is the world's largest Halloween parade and America's only major nighttime parade, attracting more than 60,000 costumed participants, 2 million in-person spectators, and a worldwide television audience of over 100 million.[94]
Symbols
At Halloween, yards and public spaces may be decorated with traditionally macabre symbols including witches, skeletons, cobwebs, and headstones.
Development of artifacts and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time. Jack-o'-lanterns are traditionally carried by guisers on All Hallows' Eve in order to frighten evil spirits.[1][101] There is a popular Irish Christian folktale associated with the jack-o'-lantern,[102] which in lore, is said to represent a "soul who has been denied entry into both heaven and hell":[103]
On route home after a night's drinking, Jack encounters the Devil and tricks him into climbing a tree. A quick-thinking Jack etches the sign of the cross into the bark, thus trapping the Devil. Jack strikes a bargain that Satan can never claim his soul. After a life of sin, drink, and mendacity, Jack is refused entry to heaven when he dies. Keeping his promise, the Devil refuses to let Jack into hell and throws a live coal straight from the fires of hell at him. It was a cold night, so Jack places the coal in a hollowed out turnip to stop it from going out, since which time Jack and his lantern have been roaming looking for a place to rest.[104]
In Ireland and Scotland, the turnip has traditionally been carved during Halloween,[105][106] but immigrants to North America used the native pumpkin, which is both much softer and much larger – making it easier to carve than a turnip.[105] The American tradition of carving pumpkins is recorded in 1837[107] and was originally associated with harvest time in general, not becoming specifically associated with Halloween until the mid-to-late 19th century.[108]
The modern imagery of Halloween comes from many sources, including Christian eschatology, national customs, works of Gothic and horror literature (such as the novels Frankenstein and Dracula) and classic horror films (such as Frankenstein and The Mummy).[109][110] Imagery of the skull, a reference to Golgotha, in the Christian tradition, serves as "a reminder of death and the transitory quality of human life" and is consequently found in memento mori and vanitas compositions;[111] skulls have therefore been commonplace in Halloween, which touches on this theme.[112] Traditionally, the back walls of churches are "decorated with a depiction of the Last Judgment, complete with graves opening and the dead rising, with a heaven filled with angels and a hell filled with devils," a motif that has permeated the observance of this triduum.[113] One of the earliest works on the subject of Halloween is from Scottish poet John Mayne, who, in 1780, made note of pranks at Halloween; "What fearfu' pranks ensue!", as well as the supernatural associated with the night, "Bogies" (ghosts), influencing Robert Burns' "Halloween" (1785).[114] Elements of the autumn season, such as pumpkins, corn husks and scarecrows, are also prevalent. Homes are often decorated with these types of symbols around Halloween. Halloween imagery includes themes of death, evil, and mythical monsters.[115] Black, orange, and sometimes purple are Halloween's traditional colors.
Trick-or-treating and guising
Main article: Trick-or-treating
Trick-or-treaters in Sweden
Trick-or-treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or sometimes money, with the question, "Trick or treat?" The word "trick" refers to "threat" to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given.[71] The practice is said to have roots in the medieval practice of mumming, which is closely related to souling (discussed above).[116] John Pymm writes that "many of the feast days associated with the presentation of mumming plays were celebrated by the Christian Church."[117] These feast days included All Hallows' Eve, Christmas, Twelfth Night and Shrove Tuesday.[118][119] Mumming, practiced in Germany, Scandinavia and other parts of Europe,[120] involved masked persons in fancy dress who "paraded the streets and entered houses to dance or play dice in silence." Their "basic narrative framework is the story of St. George and the Seven Champions of Christendom."[121]
In England, from the medieval period,[122] up until the 1930s,[123] people practiced the Christian custom of souling on Halloween, which involved groups of soulers, both Protestant and Catholic,[89] going from parish to parish, begging the rich for soul cakes, in exchange for praying for the souls of the givers and their friends.[73] In Scotland and Ireland, guising – children disguised in costume going from door to door for food or coins – is a traditional Halloween custom, and is recorded in Scotland at Halloween in 1895 where masqueraders in disguise carrying lanterns made out of scooped out turnips, visit homes to be rewarded with cakes, fruit and money.[106] The practice of guising at Halloween in North America is first recorded in 1911, where a newspaper in Kingston, Ontario reported children going "guising" around the neighborhood.[124]
Souling was a Christian practice carried out in many English towns on Halloween and Christmas.
American historian and author Ruth Edna Kelley of Massachusetts wrote the first book length history of Halloween in the US; The Book of Hallowe'en (1919), and references souling in the chapter "Hallowe'en in America":
The taste in Hallowe'en festivities now is to study old traditions, and hold a Scotch party, using Burns' poem Hallowe'en as a guide; or to go a-souling as the English used. In short, no custom that was once honored at Hallowe'en is out of fashion now.[125]
—Ruth Edna Kelley, The Book of Hallowe'en
In her book, Kelley touches on customs that arrived from across the Atlantic; "Americans have fostered them, and are making this an occasion something like what it must have been in its best days overseas. All Halloween customs in the United States are borrowed directly or adapted from those of other countries".[126] While the first reference to "guising" in North America occurs in 1911, another reference to ritual begging on Halloween appears, place unknown, in 1915, with a third reference in Chicago in 1920.[127]
The earliest known use in print of the term "trick or treat" appears in 1927, from Blackie, Alberta, Canada:
Hallowe'en provided an opportunity for real strenuous fun. No real damage was done except to the temper of some who had to hunt for wagon wheels, gates, wagons, barrels, etc., much of which decorated the front street. The youthful tormentors were at back door and front demanding edible plunder by the word “trick or treat” to which the inmates gladly responded and sent the robbers away rejoicing.[128]
—Blackie Herald (Lethbridge, Alberta), November 4, 1927
The thousands of Halloween postcards produced between the turn of the 20th century and the 1920s commonly show children but not trick-or-treating.[129] The editor of a collection of over 3,000 vintage Halloween postcards writes, "There are cards which mention the custom [of trick-or-treating] or show children in costumes at the doors, but as far as we can tell they were printed later than the 1920s and more than likely even the 1930s. Tricksters of various sorts are shown on the early postcards, but not the means of appeasing them".[130] Trick-or-treating does not seem to have become a widespread practice until the 1930s, with the first U.S. appearances of the term in 1934,[131] and the first use in a national publication occurring in 1939.[132]
An automobile trunk at a trunk-or-treat event at St. John Lutheran Church and Early Learning Center in Darien, Illinois
A popular variant of trick-or-treating, known as trunk-or-treating (or Halloween tailgaiting), occurs when "children are offered treats from the trunks of cars parked in a church parking lot," or sometimes, a school parking lot.[93][133] In a trunk-or-treat event, the trunk (boot) of each automobile is decorated with a certain theme,[134] such as those of children's literature, movies, scripture, and job roles.[135] Because the traditional style of trick-or-treating was made impossible after Hurricane Katrina, trunk-or-treating provided comfort to those whose homes were devastated.[136] Trunk-or-treating has grown in popularity due to its perception as being more safe than going door to door, a point that resonates well with parents, as well as the fact that it "solves the rural conundrum in which homes [are] built a half-mile apart".[137][138]
Costumes
Main article: Halloween costume
A costume party in 1890
Halloween costumes are traditionally modeled after supernatural figures such as vampires, monsters, ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils. Over time, in the United States the costume selection extended to include popular characters from fiction, celebrities, and generic archetypes such as ninjas and princesses.[71]
Dressing up in costumes and going "guising" was prevalent in Ireland and Scotland at Halloween by the late 19th century.[106] Costuming became popular for Halloween parties in the US in the early 20th century, as often for adults as for children. The first mass-produced Halloween costumes appeared in stores in the 1930s when trick-or-treating was becoming popular in the United States.
Rev. Dr. Eddie J. Smith, in his book Halloween, Hallowed Be Thy Name, offers a religious perspective to the wearing of costumes on All Hallows' Eve, suggesting that by dressing up as creatures "who at one time caused us to fear and tremble", people are able to poke fun at Satan "whose kingdom has been plundered by our Saviour." Images of skeletons and the dead are traditional decorations used as memento mori.[139][140]
UNICEF
Main article: Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF
"Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF" is a fundraising program to support UNICEF,[71] a United Nations Programme that provides humanitarian aid to children in developing countries. Started as a local event in a Northeast Philadelphia neighborhood in 1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick-or-treaters, in which they can solicit small-change donations from the houses they visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $118 million for UNICEF since its inception. In Canada, in 2006, UNICEF decided to discontinue their Halloween collection boxes, citing safety and administrative concerns; after consultation with schools, they instead redesigned the program.[141][142]
Games and other activities
In this 1904 Halloween greeting card, divination is depicted: the young woman looking into a mirror in a darkened room hopes to catch a glimpse of her future husband.
There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween parties. One common game is dunking or apple bobbing, which may be called "dooking" in Scotland[143] in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use their teeth to remove an apple from the basin. The practice is thought by some to have derived from the Roman practices in celebration of Pomona.[71] A variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drive the fork into an apple. Another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a very sticky face.
Some games traditionally played at Halloween are forms of divination. In All Hallows' Eve celebrations during the Middle Ages, these activities historically occurred only in rural areas of medieval Europe and were only done by a "rare few" as these were considered to be "deadly serious" practices.[80] A traditional Scottish form of divining one's future spouse is to carve an apple in one long strip, then toss the peel over one's shoulder. The peel is believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse's name.[144] Unmarried women were told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. However, if they were destined to die before marriage, a skull would appear. The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards[145] from the late 19th century and early 20th century.
A common custom includes picking and purchasing pumpkins from patches
Another game/superstition that was enjoyed in the early 1900s involved walnut shells. People would write fortunes in milk on white paper. After drying, the paper was folded and placed in walnut shells. When the shell was warmed, milk would turn brown therefore the writing would appear on what looked like blank paper. Folks would also play fortune teller. In order to play this game, symbols were cut out of paper and placed on a platter. Someone would enter a dark room and was ordered to put her hand on a piece of ice then lay it on a platter. Her "fortune" would stick to the hand. Paper symbols included: dollar sign-wealth, button-bachelorhood, thimble-spinsterhood, clothespin- poverty, rice-wedding, umbrella- journey, caldron-trouble, 4-leaf clover- good luck, penny-fortune, ring-early marriage, and key-fame.[146]
The telling of ghost stories and viewing of horror films are common fixtures of Halloween parties. Episodes of television series and Hallowe'en-themed specials (with the specials usually aimed at children) are commonly aired on or before Halloween, while new horror films are often released theatrically before Halloween to take advantage of the atmosphere.
Haunted attractions
Humorous tombstones in front of a house in California
Main article: Haunted attraction (simulated)
Haunted attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare patrons. Most attractions are seasonal Halloween businesses. Origins of these paid scare venues are difficult to pinpoint, but it is generally accepted that they were first commonly used by the Junior Chamber International (Jaycees) for fundraising.[147] They include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides,[148] and the level of sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown. Haunted attractions in the United States bring in an estimated $300–500 million each year, and draw some 400,000 customers, although press sources writing in 2005 speculated that the industry had reached its peak at that time.[147] This maturing and growth within the industry has led to technically more advanced special effects and costuming, comparable with that of Hollywood films.[149]
Food
Pumpkins for sale during Halloween
On All Hallows' Eve, many Western Christian denomination encourage abstinence from meat, giving rise to a variety of vegetarian foods associated with this day.[28]
Because in the Northern Hemisphere Halloween comes in the wake of the yearly apple harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America), caramel or taffy apples are common Halloween treats made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by rolling them in nuts.
At one time, candy apples were commonly given to trick-or-treating children, but the practice rapidly waned in the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples in the United States.[150] While there is evidence of such incidents,[151] relative to the degree of reporting of such cases, actual cases involving malicious acts are extremely rare and have never resulted in serious injury. Nonetheless, many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant because of the mass media. At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered free X-rays of children's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of tampering. Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy.[152]
One custom that persists in modern-day Ireland is the baking (or more often nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (Irish: báirín breac), which is a light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin and other charms are placed before baking. It is said that those who get a ring will find their true love in the ensuing year. This is similar to the tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany.
A candy apple
List of foods associated with Halloween: Barmbrack (Ireland) Bonfire toffee (Great Britain) Candy apples/toffee apples (Great Britain and Ireland) Candy apples, Candy corn, candy pumpkins (North America) Monkey nuts (peanuts in their shells) (Scotland and Ireland) Caramel apples Caramel corn Colcannon (Ireland; see below) Novelty candy shaped like skulls, pumpkins, bats, worms, etc. Pumpkin, pumpkin pie, pumpkin bread Roasted pumpkin seeds Roasted sweet corn Soul cakes
Religious observances
The Vigil of All Hallows' is being celebrated at an Episcopal Christian church on Hallowe'en.
On Hallowe'en (All Hallows' Eve), in Poland, believers are taught to pray out loud as they walk through the forests in order that the souls of the dead might find comfort; in Spain, Christian priests toll their church bells in order to remind their congregants to remember the dead on All Hallows' Eve.[153] In Ireland, and among immigrants in Canada, a custom includes the Christian practice of abstinence, keeping All Hallows' Eve "as a meatless day with pancakes or Callcannon" being served instead.[154] In Mexico, on "All Hallows Eve, the children make a children's altar to invite the angelitos (spirits of dead children) to come back for a visit."[155] The Christian Church traditionally observed Hallowe'en through a vigil "when worshippers would prepare themselves with prayers and fasting prior to the feast day itself."[156] This church service is known as the Vigil of All Hallows or the Vigil of All Saints;[157][158] an initiative known as Night of Light seeks to further spread the Vigil of All Hallows throughout Christendom.[159][160] After the service, "suitable festivities and entertainments" often follow, as well as a visit to the graveyard or cemetery, where flowers and candles are often placed in preparation for All Hallows' Day.[161][162] In Finland, because so many people visit the cemeteries on All Hallows' Eve to light votive candles there, they "are known as valomeri, or seas of light."[163]
Perspectives
Christianity
Halloween Scripture Candy with gospel tract
Christian attitudes towards Halloween are diverse. In the Anglican Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions associated with All Hallow's Eve.[164][165] Some of these practises include praying, fasting and attending worship services.[2][3][4]
Father, All-Powerful and Ever-Living God, today we rejoice in the holy men and women of every time and place. May their prayers bring us your forgiveness and love. We ask this through Christ our Lord. Amen. —All Hallow's Eve Prayer from the Liturgy of the Hours[166]
Votive candles in the Halloween section of Wal-Mart
Other Protestant Christians also celebrate All Hallows' Eve as Reformation Day, a day to remember the Protestant Reformation, alongside All Hallow's Eve or independently from it.[167][168] This is because Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to All Saints' Church in Wittenberg on All Hallows' Eve, because hundreds of visitors would come to the church during the celebration of Allhallowtide.[169] Often, "Harvest Festivals" or "Reformation Festivals" are held on All Hallows' Eve, in which children dress up as Bible characters or Reformers.[170] In addition to distributing candy to children who are trick-or-treating on Hallowe'en, many Christians also provide gospel tracts to them. One organization, the American Tract Society, stated that around 3 million gospel tracts are ordered from them alone for Hallowe'en celebrations.[171] Others order Halloween-themed Scripture Candy to pass out to children on this day.[172]
Belizean children dressed up as Biblical figures and Christian saints
Some Christians feel concerned about the modern celebration of Halloween because they feel it trivializes – or celebrates – paganism, the occult, or other practices and cultural phenomena deemed incompatible with their beliefs.[173] Father Gabriele Amorth, an exorcist in Rome, has said, "if English and American children like to dress up as witches and devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a game, there is no harm in that."[174] In more recent years, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a "Saint Fest" on Halloween.[175] Similarly, many contemporary Protestant churches view Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy for free. Many Christians ascribe no negative significance to Halloween, treating it as a fun event devoted to "imaginary spooks" and handing out candy. To these Christians, Halloween holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage.[176]
In the Roman Catholic Church, Halloween's Christian connection is cited, and Halloween celebrations are common in Catholic parochial schools throughout North America and in Ireland.[177] Many fundamentalist and evangelical churches use "Hell houses", themed pamphlets, or comic-style tracts such as those created by Jack T. Chick in order to make use of Halloween's popularity as an opportunity for evangelism.[175] Some consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian faith due to its putative origins in the Festival of the Dead celebration.[178] Indeed, even though Eastern Orthodox Christians observe All Hallows' Day on the First Sunday after Pentecost, the Eastern Orthodox Church recommends the observance of Vespers and/or a Paraklesis on the Western observance of All Hallows' Eve, out of the pastoral need to provide an alternative to popular celebrations.[179]
Other religions
The reaction of non-Christian religions towards Halloween has often been mixed, ranging from stern disapproval to the allowance of participation in it. According to Alfred J. Kolatch in the Second Jewish Book of Why, in Judaism, Halloween is not permitted by Jewish Halakha because it violates Leviticus 18:3 which forbids Jews from partaking in gentile customs. Many Jews observe Yizkor, which is equivalent to the observance of Allhallowtide in Christianity, as prayers are said for both "martyrs and for one's own family."[180] Nevertheless many American Jews celebrate Halloween, disconnected from its Christian origins.[181] Reform Rabbi Jeffrey Goldwasser has said that "There is no religious reason why contemporary Jews should not celebrate Halloween" while Orthodox Rabbi Michael Broyde has argued against Jews observing the holiday.[182] Sheikh Idris Palmer, author of A Brief Illustrated Guide to Understanding Islam , has argued that Muslims should not participate in Halloween, stating that "participation in it is similar to one commemorating Christmas or Easter, or congratulating the Christians upon their prostration to the crucifix".[183] Javed Memon, a Muslim writer, has disagreed, saying that his "daughter dressing up like a British telephone booth will not destroy her faith".[184] Most Hindus do not observe All Hallows' Eve, instead remembering the dead in the festival of Pitru Paksha, during which Hindus pay homage to and perform a ceremony "to keep the souls of their ancestors at rest."[185] The celebration of the Hindu festival Diwali sometimes conflicts with the date of Halloween; but some Hindus choose to participate in the popular customs of Halloween.[186] Other Hindus, such as Soumya Dasgupta, have opposed the celebration on the grounds that Western holidays like Halloween have "begun to adversely affect our indigenous festivals."[187] Neopagans do not observe Halloween, but instead observe Samhain on 1 November,[188] although some neopagan individuals choose to participate in cultural Halloween festivities, opining the idea that one can observe both "the solemnity of Samhain in addition to the fun of Halloween." Other neopagans are opposed to the celebration of Halloween, believing that it "trivializes Samhain",[189] and "avoid Halloween, because of the interruptions from trick or treaters."[190] The Manitoban writes that "Wiccans don’t officially celebrate Halloween, despite the fact that 31 Oct. will still have a star beside it in any good Wiccan’s day planner. Starting at sundown, Wiccans celebrate a holiday known as Samhain. Samhain actually comes from old Celtic traditions and is not exclusive to Neopagan religions like Wicca. While the traditions of this holiday originate in Celtic countries, modern day Wiccans don’t try to historically replicate Samhain celebrations. Some traditional Samhain rituals are still practised but at its core, the holiday is simply a time to celebrate darkness and the dead — a possible reason why Samhain is often confused with Halloween celebrations."[188]
Around the world
A Halloween display in Saitama, Japan
Main article: Geography of Halloween
The traditions and importance of Halloween vary greatly among countries that observe it. In Scotland and Ireland, traditional Halloween customs include children dressing up in costume going "guising", holding parties, while other practices in Ireland include lighting bonfires, and having firework displays.[191][192] In Brittany children would set candles in skulls in graveyards.[193] Mass transatlantic immigration in the 19th century popularized Halloween in North America, and celebration in the United States and Canada has had a significant impact on how the event is observed in other nations. This larger North American influence, particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places such as South America, Australia,[194] New Zealand,[195] (most) continental Europe, Japan, and other parts of East Asia.[196] In the Philippines, on the night of Halloween, Filipinos return to their hometowns and purchase candles and flowers,[197] in preparation for the following All Saints Day and All Souls Day (Araw ng Patay) on 1 November.[198]
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"Fourth of July" and "4th of July" redirect here. For the date, see July 4. For other uses, see Independence Day (disambiguation). For other related material, see Fourth of July (disambiguation).
Independence Day
Fourth of July fireworks behind the Washington Monument, 1986.jpg Displays of fireworks, such as these over the Washington Monument in 1986, take place across the United States on Independence Day.
Also called The Fourth of July
The Fourth
Observed by United States
Type National
Significance The day in 1776 that the Declaration of Independence was adopted by the Continental Congress
Celebrations Fireworks, family reunions, concerts, barbecues, picnics, parades, baseball games
Date July 4
Next time July 4, 2016
Frequency annual
Independence Day of the United States, also referred to as Fourth of July or July Fourth in the U.S., is a federal holiday commemorating the adoption of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, by the Continental Congress declaring that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and no longer part of the British Empire.[1] Independence Day is commonly associated with fireworks, parades, barbecues, carnivals, fairs, picnics, concerts, baseball games, family reunions, and political speeches and ceremonies, in addition to various other public and private events celebrating the history, government, and traditions of the United States. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States.[2][3][4]
Contents [hide] 1 Background 2 Observance 3 Customs 4 Celebration gallery 5 Notable celebrations 6 Other countries 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links
Background
During the American Revolution, the legal separation of the Thirteen Colonies from Great Britain occurred on July 2, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed in June by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia declaring the United States independent from Great Britain rule.[5][6] After voting for independence, Congress turned its attention to the Declaration of Independence, a statement explaining this decision, which had been prepared by a Committee of Five, with Thomas Jefferson as its principal author. Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail:
The second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more.[7]
Adams's prediction was off by two days. From the outset, Americans celebrated independence on July 4, the date shown on the much-publicized Declaration of Independence, rather than on July 2, the date the resolution of independence was approved in a closed session of Congress.[8]
Historians have long disputed whether Congress actually signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4, even though Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin all later wrote that they had signed it on that day. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed.[9][10][11][12][13]
Coincidentally, both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the only signers of the Declaration of Independence later to serve as Presidents of the United States, died on the same day: July 4, 1826, which was the 50th anniversary of the Declaration. Although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, but another Founding Father who became a President, James Monroe, died on July 4, 1831, thus becoming the third President in a row who died on the holiday. Calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4, 1872, and, so far, is the only U.S. President to have been born on Independence Day.
Observance In 1777, thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, Rhode Island. Philadelphia celebrated the first anniversary in a manner a modern American would find quite familiar: an official dinner for the Continental Congress, toasts, 13-gun salutes, speeches, prayers, music, parades, troop reviews, and fireworks. Ships were decked with red, white, and blue bunting.[14] In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a double ration of rum for his soldiers and an artillery salute (feu de joie). Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, France.[15] In 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5.[15] In 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration.[15] In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a challenging music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled "The Psalm of Joy." This is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today.[16] In 1791 the first recorded use of the name "Independence Day" occurred.[citation needed] In 1870, the U.S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees.[17] In 1938, Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday.[18]
Customs
An 1825 invitation to an Independence Day celebration
Independence Day is a national holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors. Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions (like the postal service and federal courts) are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on this day to appear at a public event to praise the nation's heritage, laws, history, society, and people.
Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue and take advantage of the day off and, in some years, long weekend to gather with relatives. Decorations (e.g., streamers, balloons, and clothing) are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag. Parades are often in the morning, while fireworks displays occur in the evening at such places as parks, fairgrounds, or town squares.
The night before the Fourth was once the focal point of celebrations, marked by raucous gatherings often incorporating bonfires as their centerpiece. In New England, towns competed to build towering pyramids, assembled from barrels and casks. They were lit at nightfall, to usher in the celebration. The highest were in Salem, Massachusetts (on Gallows Hill, the famous site of the execution of 13 women and 6 men for witchcraft in 1692 during the Salem witch trials, where the tradition of bonfires in celebration had persisted), composed of as many as forty tiers of barrels; these are the tallest bonfires ever recorded. The custom flourished in the 19th and 20th centuries, and is still practiced in some New England towns.[19]
Independence Day fireworks are often accompanied by patriotic songs such as the national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner", "God Bless America", "America the Beautiful", "My Country, 'Tis of Thee", "This Land Is Your Land", "Stars and Stripes Forever", and, regionally, "Yankee Doodle" in northeastern states and "Dixie" in southern states. Some of the lyrics recall images of the Revolutionary War or the War of 1812.
Independence Day Parade in Washington, D.C.
Firework shows are held in many states, and many fireworks are sold for personal use or as an alternative to a public show. Safety concerns have led some states to ban fireworks or limit the sizes and types allowed. Illicit traffic transfers many fireworks from less restrictive states.
A salute of one gun for each state in the United States, called a "salute to the union," is fired on Independence Day at noon by any capable military base.[20]
In 2009, New York City had the largest fireworks display in the country, with over 22 tons of pyrotechnics exploded.[21] Other major displays are in Chicago on Lake Michigan; in San Diego over Mission Bay; in Boston on the Charles River; in St. Louis on the Mississippi River; in San Francisco over the San Francisco Bay; and on the National Mall in Washington, D.C..
During the annual Windsor-Detroit International Freedom Festival, Detroit, Michigan hosts one of the world's largest fireworks displays, over the Detroit River, to celebrate Independence Day in conjunction with Windsor, Ontario's celebration of Canada Day.
While the official observance always falls on July 4, participation levels may vary according to which day of the week the 4th falls on. If the holiday falls in the middle of the week, some fireworks displays and celebrations may take place during the weekend for convenience, again, varying by region.
The first week of July is typically one of the busiest American travel periods of the year, as many people utilize the holiday for extended vacation trips.[22]
Celebration gallery
In addition to a fireworks show, Miami, Florida lights one of its tallest buildings with the patriotic red, white and blue color scheme on Independence Day
New York City's fireworks display, shown above over the East Village, is sponsored by Macy's and is the largest[21] in the country
File:Independence Day, 1940 Promotion.ogv Play media
Patriotic trailer shown in theaters celebrating July 4, 1940
A festively decorated Fourth of July cake.
Notable celebrations
Originally entitled Yankee Doodle, this is one of several versions of a scene painted by A. M. Willard that came to be known as The Spirit of '76. Often imitated or parodied, it is a familiar symbol of American patriotismHeld since 1785, the Bristol Fourth of July Parade in Bristol, Rhode Island is the oldest continuous Independence Day celebration in the United States.
Since 1868, Seward, Nebraska has held a celebration on the same town square. In 1979 Seward was designated “America's Official Fourth of July City-Small Town USA” by resolution of Congress. Seward has also been proclaimed Nebraska's Official Fourth of July City” by Governor James Exon in proclamation. Seward is a town of 6,000 but swells to 40,000+ during the July 4 celebrations.[23] Since 1912, the Rebild Society, a Danish-American friendship organization, has held a July 4 weekend festival that serves as a homecoming for Danish-Americans in the Rebild municipality of Denmark.[24] Since 1972, Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest has been held in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York City. Since 1959, the International Freedom Festival is jointly held in Detroit, Michigan and Windsor, Ontario during the last week of June each year as a mutual celebration of Independence Day and Canada Day (July 1). It culminates in a large fireworks display over the Detroit River. Numerous major and minor league baseball games are played on Independence Day. The famous Macy's fireworks display usually held over the East River in New York City has been televised nationwide on NBC since 1976. In 2009, the fireworks display was returned to the Hudson River for the first time since 2000 to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Henry Hudson's exploration of that river.[25] Since 1970, the annual 10-kilometer Peachtree Road Race is held in Atlanta, Georgia. The Boston Pops Orchestra has hosted a music and fireworks show over the Charles River Esplanade called the "Boston Pops Fireworks Spectacular" annually since 1973.[26] The event was broadcast nationally from 1987 until 2002 on A&E, and from 2003 until 2012 on CBS (who aired the final hour of the event in primetime). In 2013, CBS dropped the Pops broadcast, with no reason given; however, executive producer David G. Mugar believed that an encore presentation of the Macy's fireworks on NBC aired at 10:00 PM ET/PT was successfully counterprogramming the Boston Pops, since the broadcast lost as much as 20% of its audience in 2012 in comparison to 2011. As it did prior to the cancellation, the full concert continues to air locally by Boston's CBS affiliate WBZ-TV.[27][28] On the Capitol lawn in Washington, D.C., A Capitol Fourth, a free concert broadcast live by PBS, NPR and the American Forces Network, precedes the fireworks and attracts over half a million people annually.
Other countries
The Philippines celebrates July 4 as its Republic Day to commemorate that day in 1946 when it ceased to be a U.S. territory and the United States officially recognized Philippine Independence.[29] July 4 was intentionally chosen by the United States because it corresponds to its Independence Day, and this day was observed in the Philippines as Independence Day until 1962. In 1964, the name of the July 4 holiday was changed to Republic Day. In Rwanda, July 4 is an official holiday known as Liberation Day, commemorating the end of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which the U.S. government also played a role. Denmark also celebrates American independence on July 4. National parks in Denmark are said to hold the largest July 4 celebrations outside of the United States.[30]
See also
Portal icon Holidays portal Portal icon United States portal 1776 (musical) Constitution Day (United States) To the Fourth of July (1898), poem
References
1.Jump up ^ "What is Independence Day in USA?". Tech Notes. 2015-07-02. Retrieved 2015-07-02. 2.Jump up ^ "National Days of Countries". Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. New Zealand. Retrieved June 28, 2009. 3.Jump up ^ Central Intelligence Agency. "National Holiday". The World Factbook. Retrieved June 28, 2009. 4.Jump up ^ "National Holiday of Member States". United Nations. Retrieved June 28, 2009. 5.Jump up ^ Becker, p. 3. 6.Jump up ^ Staff writer (July 1, 1917). "How Declaration of Independence was Drafted" (PDF). New York Times. Retrieved November 20, 2009. "On the following day, when the formal vote of Congress was taken, the resolutions were approved by twelve Colonies–all except New York. The original Colonies, therefore, became the United States of America on July 2, 1776." 7.Jump up ^ "Letter from John Adams to Abigail Adams, 3 July 1776, ‘Had a Declaration…’". Adams Family Papers. Massachusetts Historical Society. Retrieved June 28, 2009. 8.Jump up ^ Maier, Pauline (August 7, 1997). "Making Sense of the Fourth of July". American Heritage. Retrieved June 28, 2009. 9.Jump up ^ Burnett, Edward Cody (1941). The Continental Congress. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 191–96. ISBN 1104991853 . 10.Jump up ^ Warren, Charles (July 1945). "Fourth of July Myths". William and Mary Quarterly. 3d 2 (3): 238–272. 11.Jump up ^ "Top 5 Myths About the Fourth of July!". History News Network. George Mason University. June 30, 2001. Retrieved June 28, 2009. 12.Jump up ^ Becker, pp. 184–85. 13.Jump up ^ For the minority scholarly argument that the Declaration was indeed signed on July 4, see Wilfred J. Ritz, "The Authentication of the Engrossed Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776". Law and History Review 4, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 179–204. 14.Jump up ^ Heintze, "The First Celebrations". 15.^ Jump up to: a b c Heintze, "A Chronology of Notable Fourth of July Celebration Occurrences". 16.Jump up ^ [1][dead link] 17.Jump up ^ Heintze, “How the Fourth of July was Designated as an 'Official' Holiday”. 18.Jump up ^ Heintze, "Federal Legislation Establishing the Fourth of July Holiday". 19.Jump up ^ "The Night Before the Fourth". The Atlantic. July 1, 2011. Retrieved November 4, 2011. 20.Jump up ^ "Origin of the 21-Gun Salute". U.S. Army Center of Military History. October 3, 2003. Retrieved July 4, 2014. 21.^ Jump up to: a b Biggest fireworks show in U.S. lights up sky, USA Today, July 2009. 22.Jump up ^ AAA Chicago Projects Increase in Fourth of July Holiday Travelers PR Newswire, June 23, 2010 23.Jump up ^ "History of Seward Nebraska 4th of July". 24.Jump up ^ "History". Rebild Society. Rebild National Park Society. Retrieved June 30, 2009. 25.Jump up ^ "2009 Macy's 4th of July Fireworks". Federated Department Stores. April 29, 2009. Retrieved July 4, 2009. 26.Jump up ^ "Welcome to Boston's 4th of July Celebration". Boston 4 Celebrations Foundation. 2009. Archived from the original on August 22, 2008. Retrieved July 4, 2009. 27.Jump up ^ James H. Burnett III. Boston gets a nonreality show: CBS broadcasts impossible views of 4th fireworks. Boston Globe, July 8, 2011 28.Jump up ^ Powers, Martine; Moskowitz, Eric (June 15, 2013). "July 4 fireworks gala loses its national pop". The Boston Globe. Retrieved June 16, 2013. 29.Jump up ^ Philippine Republic Day, Official Gazette (Philippines), retrieved July 5, 2012 30.Jump up ^ Lindsey Galloway (3 Jul 2012). "Celebrate American independence in Denmark".
Further reading Becker, Carl L. (1922). The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas. New York: Harcourt, Brace. ISBN 0-394-70060-0 . Retrieved June 28, 2009. Criblez, Adam (2013). Parading Patriotism: Independence Day Celebrations in the Urban Midwest, 1826-1876. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press. Heintze, James R. "Fourth of July Celebrations Database". American University of Washington, D.C. Retrieved February 10, 2015.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fourth of July.
Fourth of July Is Independence Day USA.gov, July 4, 2014 U.S. Independence Day a Civic and Social Event U.S. State Department, June 22, 2010 The Meaning of July Fourth for the Negro by Frederick Douglass Fourth of July Orations Collection at the Division of Special Collections, Archives, and Rare Books, Ellis Library, University of Missouri The Fourth of July, Back in the Day – slideshow by Life magazine
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This article is about the American federal holiday. For Martin Luther King Jr.'s actual birthday, see January 15.
Martin Luther King Jr. Day
Martin Luther King press conference 01269u edit.jpg Martin Luther King, Jr. in 1964
Official name Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Also called MLK Day, King Day
Observed by United States
Date Third Monday in January
2014 date January 20
2017 date January 16
Frequency annual
Martin Luther King Jr. Day (officially Birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr.)[1] is an American federal holiday marking the birthday of Martin Luther King, Jr. It is observed on the third Monday of January each year, which is around the time of King's birthday, January 15. The floating holiday is similar to holidays set under the Uniform Monday Holiday Act.
King was the chief spokesman for nonviolent activism in the civil rights movement, which successfully protested racial discrimination in federal and state law. The campaign for a federal holiday in King's honor began soon after his assassination in 1968. President Ronald Reagan signed the holiday into law in 1983, and it was first observed three years later. At first, some states resisted observing the holiday as such, giving it alternative names or combining it with other holidays. It was officially observed in all 50 states for the first time in 2000.
Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Reluctance to observe 3 Alternative names 4 King Day of Service 5 Outside the USA 6 See also 7 References 8 External links
History[edit]
Sign from 1969 promoting a holiday to honor the anniversary of the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
The idea of Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a holiday was promoted by labor unions in contract negotiations.[2] After King's death, United States Representative John Conyers (a Democrat from Michigan) and United States Senator Edward Brooke (a Republican from Massachusetts) introduced a bill in Congress to make King's birthday a national holiday. The bill first came to a vote in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1979. However, it fell five votes short of the number needed for passage.[3] Two of the main arguments mentioned by opponents were that a paid holiday for federal employees would be too expensive, and that a holiday to honor a private citizen would be contrary to longstanding tradition (King had never held public office).[3] Only two other people have national holidays in the United States honoring them: George Washington and Christopher Columbus.
Soon after, the King Center turned to support from the corporate community and the general public. The success of this strategy was cemented when musician Stevie Wonder released the single "Happy Birthday" to popularize the campaign in 1980 and hosted the Rally for Peace Press Conference in 1981. Six million signatures were collected for a petition to Congress to pass the law, termed by a 2006 article in The Nation as "the largest petition in favor of an issue in U.S. history."[2]
Ronald Reagan and Coretta Scott King at the Martin Luther King Jr. Day signing ceremony At the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill, proposed by Representative Katie Hall of Indiana, creating a federal holiday to honor King.[4][5] It was observed for the first time on January 20, 1986.
The bill established the Martin Luther King Jr. Federal Holiday Commission to oversee observance of the holiday, and Coretta Scott King, Martin Luther King Jr.'s wife, was made a member of this commission for life by President George H. W. Bush in May 1989.[6][7]
Reluctance to observe[edit]
Senators Jesse Helms and John Porter East (both North Carolina Republicans) led opposition to the bill and questioned whether King was important enough to receive such an honor. Helms criticized King's opposition to the Vietnam War and accused him of espousing "action-oriented Marxism".[8] Helms led a filibuster against the bill and on October 3, 1983, submitted a 300-page document to the Senate alleging that King had associations with communists. New York Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan declared the document a "packet of filth", threw it on the Senate floor and stomped on it.[9][10]
President Ronald Reagan originally opposed the holiday, citing cost concerns. When asked to comment on Helms' accusations that King was a communist, the President said “We'll know in thirty-five years, won't we?”[11] He later signed the measure, after it passed with a 338 to 90 veto-proof margin in favor in the House of Representatives.[8]
Former Arizona governor Governor Bruce Babbitt, a Democrat, created the holiday in Arizona by executive order just before he left office in 1986, but his Republican successor Evan Mecham, armed with an attorney general's opinion that Babbitt's order was illegal, rescinded it days after he took office.[12] In 1989, the Arizona state legislature replaced Columbus Day with the King holiday.[13] In 1990, Arizonans were given the opportunity to vote to observe an MLK holiday. In 1990 the National Football League threatened to move the Super Bowl that was planned to be in Arizona in 1993 if the MLK holiday was voted down.[13] The state legislature passed a measure to keep both Columbus Day and Martin Luther King Day, but 76% of voters rejected the King holiday. Consequently, the state "lost $500 million and the Super Bowl" which moved to the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California.[13] In a referendum in 1992, the voters approved recognition of the holiday.[14]
In 1991, the New Hampshire legislature created "Civil Rights Day" and abolished "Fast Day".[15] In 1999, "Civil Rights Day" was officially changed to "Martin Luther King Day," becoming the last state to have a holiday named after Dr. King.[16]
On May 2, 2000, South Carolina governor Jim Hodges signed a bill to make Martin Luther King, Jr.'s birthday an official state holiday. South Carolina was the last state to recognize the day as a paid holiday for all state employees. Prior to this, employees could choose between celebrating Martin Luther King Day or one of three Confederate holidays.[17]
Overall, in 2007, 33% of employers gave employees the day off, a 2% increase over the previous year. There was little difference in observance by large and small employers: 33% for firms with over 1,000 employees; and, 32% for firms with under 1,000 employees. The observance is most popular among nonprofit organizations and least popular among factories and manufacturers.[18] The reasons for this have varied, ranging from the recent addition of the holiday, to its occurrence just two weeks after the week between Christmas and New Year's Day, when many businesses are closed for part or sometimes all of the week. Additionally, many schools and places of higher education are closed for classes; others remain open but may hold seminars or celebrations of King's message. Some factories and manufacturers used MLK Day as a floating or movable holiday. Many business that used to close on Presidents' Day now stay open on that day and close on MLK Day instead.[citation needed]
Alternative names[edit]
While all states now observe the holiday, some did not name the day after King. For example, in Utah, the holiday was known as "Human Rights Day" until 2000,[19] when the Utah State Legislature voted to change the name of the holiday from Human Rights Day to Martin Luther King Jr. Day. In that same year, Governor Michael O. Leavitt signed the bill officially naming the holiday "Martin Luther King Jr. Day".[19][20]
Several additional states have chosen to combine commemorations of King's birthday with other observances, in some cases creating compatible pairings, in other cases incongruous ones: In Alabama, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Robert E. Lee/Martin Luther King Birthday".[21] In Arizona, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Martin Luther King, Jr./Civil Rights Day".[22] In Arkansas, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert E. Lee’s Birthdays".[23] In Idaho, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Martin Luther King, Jr.-Idaho Human Rights Day"[24] In Mississippi, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is known as "Martin Luther King's and Robert E. Lee's Birthdays".[25] In New Hampshire, its official name is "Martin Luther King, Jr. Civil Rights Day".[26] In Virginia, it was known as Lee–Jackson–King Day, combining King's birthday with the established Lee–Jackson Day.[19] The incongruous nature of the holiday, which simultaneously celebrated the lives of Confederate Army generals and a civil rights icon, did not escape the notice of Virginia lawmakers. In 2000, Lee–Jackson Day was moved to the Friday before Martin Luther King Jr. Day, establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a holiday in its own right.[27]
King Day of Service[edit]
In honor of the Martin Luther King Day of Service, President Barack Obama serves lunch in the dining room at So Others Might Eat, a soup kitchen in Washington, January 18, 2010.
The national Martin Luther King Day of Service[28] was started by former Pennsylvania U.S. Senator Harris Wofford and Atlanta Congressman John Lewis, who co-authored the King Holiday and Service Act. The federal legislation challenges Americans to transform the King Holiday into a day of citizen action volunteer service in honor of Dr. King. The federal legislation was signed into law by President Bill Clinton on August 23, 1994. Since 1996, Wofford's former state office director, Todd Bernstein, has been directing the annual Greater Philadelphia King Day of Service,[29] the largest event in the nation honoring Dr. King.[30]
Several other universities and organizations around the U.S., such as Arizona State University, Greater DC Cares and City Year, participate in the Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Day of Service. In honor of MLK, hundreds of Volunteer Centers, and volunteers across the country donate their time to make a difference on this day.
Outside the USA[edit]
One place outside the United States where Martin Luther King Jr. Day is observed with equal importance is in the Japanese city of Hiroshima under mayor Tadatoshi Akiba, who holds a special banquet at the mayor's office as an act of unifying his city's call for peace with King's message of human rights.[31]
The city of Toronto, Canada, is another city that has officially recognized Martin Luther King Jr. Day, although it is not a paid holiday in Toronto, and all government services and businesses remain open.[32]
In 1984, during a visit by the U.S. Sixth Fleet, Navy chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff conducted the first Israeli Presidential ceremony in commemoration of Martin Luther King Jr. Day, held in the President's Residence, Jerusalem. Mrs. Aura Herzog, wife of Israel's then-President Chaim Herzog, noted that she was especially proud to host this special event, because Israel had a national forest in honor of Dr. King, and that Israel and Dr. King shared the idea of "dreams".[33] Resnicoff continued this theme in his remarks during the ceremony, quoting the verse from Genesis, spoken by the brothers of Joseph when they saw their brother approach, "Behold the dreamer comes; let us slay him and throw him into the pit, and see what becomes of his dreams." Resnicoff noted that, from time immemorial, there have been those who thought they could kill the dream by slaying the dreamer, but – as the example of Dr. King's life shows – such people are always wrong.[34] Martin Luther King, Jr.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Martin Luther King" and "MLK" redirect here. For other uses, see Martin Luther King (disambiguation) and MLK (disambiguation).
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Martin Luther King Jr NYWTS.jpg King in 1964
Born Michael King, Jr. January 15, 1929 Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.
Died April 4, 1968 (aged 39) Memphis, Tennessee, U.S.
Cause of death
Monuments Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial
Alma mater
Morehouse College (B.A.) Crozer Theological Seminary (B.D.) Boston University (Ph.D.)
Occupation Clergyman, activist
Organization Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Movement African-American Civil Rights Movement, Peace movement
Religion Christianity
Denomination Baptist (Progressive National Baptist Convention)
Spouse(s) Coretta Scott King (m. 1953–1968)
Children
Yolanda Denise King (1955–2007) Martin Luther King III (b. 1957) Dexter Scott King (b. 1961) Bernice Albertine King (b. 1963)
Parents Martin Luther King, Sr. Alberta Williams King
Awards Nobel Peace Prize (1964), Presidential Medal of Freedom (1977, posthumous), Congressional Gold Medal (2004, posthumous)
Signature Martin Luther King Jr Signature2.svg
Martin Luther King, Jr., (January 15, 1929 – April 4, 1968) was an American pastor, activist, humanitarian, and leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs.
He was born Michael King, but his father changed his name in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther. A Baptist minister, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957, serving as its first president. With the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia (the Albany Movement), in 1962, and organized nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama, that attracted national attention following television news coverage of the brutal police response. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. There, he established his reputation as one of the greatest orators in American history.
On October 14, 1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolence. In 1965, he and the SCLC helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches and the following year, he took the movement north to Chicago to work on segregated housing. In the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include poverty and speak against the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled "Beyond Vietnam".
In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D.C., to be called the Poor People's Campaign, when he was assassinated on April 4 in Memphis, Tennessee. His death was followed by riots in many U.S. cities. Allegations that James Earl Ray, the man convicted of killing King, had been framed or acted in concert with government agents persisted for decades after the shooting.
King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin Luther King, Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, and as a U.S. federal holiday in 1986. Hundreds of streets in the U.S. have been renamed in his honor. In addition, a county was rededicated in his honor. A memorial statue on the National Mall was opened to the public in 2011.
Contents [hide] 1 Early life and education 1.1 Doctoral studies
2 Ideas, influences, and political stances 2.1 Religion 2.2 Non-violence 2.3 Politics 2.4 Compensation 2.5 The lack of attention given to family planning
3 Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 4 Southern Christian Leadership Conference 4.1 Albany movement 4.2 Birmingham campaign 4.3 St. Augustine, Florida 4.4 Selma, Alabama 4.5 New York City
5 March on Washington, 1963 6 Selma Voting Rights Movement and "Bloody Sunday", 1965 7 Chicago Open Housing Movement, 1966 8 Opposition to the Vietnam War 9 Poor People's Campaign, 1968 9.1 After King's death
10 Assassination and its aftermath 10.1 Aftermath 10.2 Allegations of conspiracy
11 FBI and King's personal life 11.1 FBI surveillance and wiretapping 11.2 NSA monitoring of King's communications 11.3 Allegations of communism 11.4 Allegations of adultery 11.5 Police observation during the assassination
12 Legacy 12.1 Martin Luther King, Jr. Day 12.2 Liturgical commemorations
13 Awards and recognition 13.1 Eponymous places and buildings
14 Bibliography 15 See also 16 References 16.1 Notes 16.2 Citations 16.3 Sources 16.4 Further reading
17 External links
Early life and education
King's high school alma mater was named after African-American scholar Booker T. Washington
Martin Luther King, Jr., was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King.[1] His legal name at birth was Michael King.[2] King's father was also born Michael King. The father changed his and his son's names following a 1934 trip to Germany to attend the Fifth Baptist World Alliance Congress in Berlin. It was during this time he chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther.[3] King had Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather.[4][5]
Martin, Jr., was a middle child, between an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King.[6] King sang with his church choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind.[7] King liked singing and music. King's mother, an accomplished organist and choir leader, took him to various churches to sing. He received attention for singing "I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus." King later became a member of the junior choir in his church.[8]
King said his father regularly whipped him until he was fifteen and a neighbor reported hearing the elder King telling his son "he would make something of him even if he had to beat him to death." King saw his father's proud and unafraid protests in relation to segregation, such as Martin, Sr. refusing to listen to a traffic policeman after being referred to as "boy" or stalking out of a store with his son when being told by a shoe clerk that they would have to move to the rear to be served.[9]
When King was a child, he befriended a white boy whose father owned a business near his family's home. When the boys were 6, they attended different schools, with King attending a segregated school for African-Americans. King then lost his friend because the child's father no longer wanted them to play together.[10]
King suffered from depression throughout much of his life. In his adolescent years, he initially felt some resentment against whites due to the "racial humiliation" that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South.[11] At age 12, shortly after his maternal grandmother died, King blamed himself and jumped out of a second story window, but survived.[12]
King was originally skeptical of many of Christianity's claims.[13] At the age of thirteen, he denied the bodily resurrection of Jesus during Sunday school. From this point, he stated, "doubts began to spring forth unrelentingly".[14] However, he later concluded that the Bible has "many profound truths which one cannot escape" and decided to enter the seminary.[13]
Growing up in Atlanta, King attended Booker T. Washington High School. He became known for his public speaking ability and was part of the school's debate team.[15] King became the youngest assistant manager of a newspaper delivery station for the Atlanta Journal in 1942 at age 13.[16] During his junior year, he won first prize in an oratorical contest sponsored by the Negro Elks Club in Dublin, Georgia. Returning home to Atlanta by bus, he and his teacher were ordered by the driver to stand so white passengers could sit down. King refused initially, but complied after his teacher informed him that he would be breaking the law if he did not go along with the order. He later characterized this incident as "the angriest I have ever been in my life".[15] A precocious student, he skipped both the ninth and the twelfth grades of high school.[17] It was during King's junior year that Morehouse College announced it would accept any high school juniors who could pass its entrance exam. At that time, most of the students had abandoned their studies to participate in World War II. Due to this, the school became desperate to fill in classrooms. At age 15, King passed the exam and entered Morehouse.[15] The summer before his last year at Morehouse, in 1947, an eighteen-year old King made the choice to enter the ministry after he concluded the church offered the most assuring way to answer "an inner urge to serve humanity". King's "inner urge" had begun developing and he made peace with the Baptist Church, as he believed he would be a "rational" minister with sermons that were "a respectful force for ideas, even social protest."[18]
In 1948, he graduated from Morehouse with a B.A. degree in sociology, and enrolled in Crozer Theological Seminary in Chester, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated with a B.Div. degree in 1951.[19][20] King's father fully supported his decision to continue his education. King was joined in attending Crozer by Walter McCall, a former classmate at Morehouse.[21] At Crozer, King was elected president of the student body.[22] The African-American students of Crozer for the most part conducted their social activity on Edwards Street. King was endeared to the street due to a classmate having an aunt that prepared the two collard greens, which they both relished.[23] King once called out a student for keeping beer in his room because of their shared responsibility as African-Americans to bear "the burdens of the Negro race." For a time, he was interested in Walter Rauschenbusch's "social gospel".[22] In his third year there, he became romantically involved with the daughter of an immigrant German woman working as a cook in the cafeteria. The daughter had been involved with a professor prior to her relationship with King. King had plans of marrying her, but was advised not to by friends due to the reaction an interracial relationship would spark from both blacks and whites, as well as the chances of it destroying his chances of ever pastoring a church in the South. King tearfully told a friend that he could not endure his mother's pain over the marriage and broke the relationship off around six months later. He would continue to have lingering feelings, with one friend being quoted as saying, "He never recovered."[22]
King married Coretta Scott, on June 18, 1953, on the lawn of her parents' house in her hometown of Heiberger, Alabama.[24] They became the parents of four children: Yolanda King, Martin Luther King III, Dexter Scott King, and Bernice King.[25] During their marriage, King limited Coretta's role in the civil rights movement and expected her to be a housewife.[26]
Doctoral studies
See also: Martin Luther King, Jr. authorship issues
King then began doctoral studies in systematic theology at Boston University and received his Ph.D. degree on June 5, 1955, with a dissertation on "A Comparison of the Conceptions of God in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson Wieman". An academic inquiry concluded in October 1991 that portions of his dissertation had been plagiarized and he had acted improperly. However, "[d]espite its finding, the committee said that 'no thought should be given to the revocation of Dr. King's doctoral degree,' an action that the panel said would serve no purpose."[27][28][29] The committee also found that the dissertation still "makes an intelligent contribution to scholarship." However, a letter is now attached to King's dissertation in the university library, noting that numerous passages were included without the appropriate quotations and citations of sources.[30]
Ideas, influences, and political stances
Religion
King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, when he was twenty-five years old, in 1954.[31] As a Christian minister, his main influence was Jesus Christ and the Christian gospels, which he would almost always quote in his religious meetings, speeches at church, and in public discourses. King's faith was strongly based in Jesus' commandment of loving your neighbor as yourself, loving God above all, and loving your enemies, praying for them and blessing them. His non-violent thought was also based in the injuction to turn the other cheek in the Sermon on the Mount, and Jesus' teaching of putting the sword back into its place (Matthew 26:52).[32] In his famous Letter from Birmingham Jail, King urged action consistent with what he describes as Jesus' "extremist" love, and also quoted numerous other Christian pacifist authors, which was very usual for him. In another sermon, he stated:
"Before I was a civil rights leader, I was a preacher of the Gospel. This was my first calling and it still remains my greatest commitment. You know, actually all that I do in civil rights I do because I consider it a part of my ministry. I have no other ambitions in life but to achieve excellence in the Christian ministry. I don't plan to run for any political office. I don't plan to do anything but remain a preacher. And what I'm doing in this struggle, along with many others, grows out of my feeling that the preacher must be concerned about the whole man."
—King, 1967[33][34]
In his speech "I've Been to the Mountaintop", he stated that he just wanted to do God's will.
Non-violence
King at a Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C.
Veteran African-American civil rights activist Bayard Rustin served as King's main advisor and mentor in the late 1950s.[35] Rustin came from the Christian pacifist tradition; he had also studied Gandhi's teachings and applied them with the Journey of Reconciliation campaign in the 1940s.[36] King had initially known little about Gandhi and rarely used the term "nonviolence" during his early years of activism in the early 1950s. King also believed in and practiced self-defense, even obtaining guns in his household as a means of defense against possible attackers. Rustin guided King by showing him the alternative of nonviolent resistance, arguing that this would be a better means to accomplish his goals of civil rights than self-defense.[37] Rustin counseled King to dedicate himself to the principles of non-violence.[38]
Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's success with non-violent activism, King had "for a long time...wanted to take a trip to India".[39] With assistance from the Quaker group the American Friends Service Committee, he was able to make the journey in April 1959.[40] The trip to India affected King, deepening his understanding of non-violent resistance and his commitment to America's struggle for civil rights. In a radio address made during his final evening in India, King reflected, "Since being in India, I am more convinced than ever before that the method of nonviolent resistance is the most potent weapon available to oppressed people in their struggle for justice and human dignity".
Bayard Rustin's open homosexuality, support of democratic socialism, and his former ties to the Communist Party USA caused many white and African-American leaders to demand King distance himself from Rustin,[41] which King agreed to do.[42] However, King agreed that Rustin should be one of the main organizers of the 1963 March on Washington.[43]
King's admiration of Gandhi's non-violence did not diminish in later years. He went so far as to hold up his example when receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, hailing the "successful precedent" of using non-violence "in a magnificent way by Mohandas K. Gandhi to challenge the might of the British Empire... He struggled only with the weapons of truth, soul force, non-injury and courage."[44]
Gandhi seemed to have influenced him with certain moral principles,[45] though Gandhi himself had been influenced by The Kingdom of God Is Within You, a nonviolent classic written by Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy. In turn, both Gandhi and Martin Luther King had read Tolstoy, and King, Gandhi and Tolstoy had been strongly influenced by Jesus' Sermon on the Mount. King quoted Tolstoy's War and Peace in 1959.[46]
Another influence for King's non-violent method was Thoreau's essay On Civil Disobedience, which King read in his student days. He was influenced by the idea of refusing to cooperate with an evil system.[47] He also was greatly influenced by the works of Protestant theologians Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul Tillich,[48] as well as Walter Rauschenbusch's Christianity and the Social Crisis. King also sometimes used the concept of "agape" (brotherly Christian love).[49] However, after 1960, he ceased employing it in his writings.[50]
Politics
As the leader of the SCLC, King maintained a policy of not publicly endorsing a U.S. political party or candidate: "I feel someone must remain in the position of non-alignment, so that he can look objectively at both parties and be the conscience of both—not the servant or master of either."[51] In a 1958 interview, he expressed his view that neither party was perfect, saying, "I don't think the Republican party is a party full of the almighty God nor is the Democratic party. They both have weaknesses ... And I'm not inextricably bound to either party."[52]
King critiqued both parties' performance on promoting racial equality:
Actually, the Negro has been betrayed by both the Republican and the Democratic party. The Democrats have betrayed him by capitulating to the whims and caprices of the Southern Dixiecrats. The Republicans have betrayed him by capitulating to the blatant hypocrisy of reactionary right wing northern Republicans. And this coalition of southern Dixiecrats and right wing reactionary northern Republicans defeats every bill and every move towards liberal legislation in the area of civil rights.[53]
Although King never publicly supported a political party or candidate for president, in a letter to a civil rights supporter in October 1956 he said that he was undecided as to whether he would vote for Adlai Stevenson or Dwight Eisenhower, but that "In the past I always voted the Democratic ticket."[54] In his autobiography, King says that in 1960 he privately voted for Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy: "I felt that Kennedy would make the best president. I never came out with an endorsement. My father did, but I never made one." King adds that he likely would have made an exception to his non-endorsement policy for a second Kennedy term, saying "Had President Kennedy lived, I would probably have endorsed him in 1964."[55] King supported the ideals of democratic socialism, although he was reluctant to speak directly of this support due to the anti-communist sentiment being projected throughout America at the time, and the association of socialism with communism. King believed that capitalism could not adequately provide the basic necessities of many American people, particularly the African American community.[56]
Compensation
King stated that black Americans, as well as other disadvantaged Americans, should be compensated for historical wrongs. In an interview conducted for Playboy in 1965, he said that granting black Americans only equality could not realistically close the economic gap between them and whites. King said that he did not seek a full restitution of wages lost to slavery, which he believed impossible, but proposed a government compensatory program of $50 billion over ten years to all disadvantaged groups.[57]
He posited that "the money spent would be more than amply justified by the benefits that would accrue to the nation through a spectacular decline in school dropouts, family breakups, crime rates, illegitimacy, swollen relief rolls, rioting and other social evils".[58] He presented this idea as an application of the common law regarding settlement of unpaid labor, but clarified that he felt that the money should not be spent exclusively on blacks. He stated, "It should benefit the disadvantaged of all races".[59]
The lack of attention given to family planning
On being awarded the Planned Parenthood Federation of America's Margaret Sanger Award on 5th May, 1966, King said:
Recently, the press has been filled with reports of sightings of flying saucers. While we need not give credence to these stories, they allow our imagination to speculate on how visitors from outer space would judge us. I am afraid they would be stupefied at our conduct. They would observe that for death planning we spend billions to create engines and strategies for war. They would also observe that we spend millions to prevent death by disease and other causes. Finally they would observe that we spend paltry sums for population planning, even though its spontaneous growth is an urgent threat to life on our planet. Our visitors from outer space could be forgiven if they reported home that our planet is inhabited by a race of insane men whose future is bleak and uncertain.
There is no human circumstance more tragic than the persisting existence of a harmful condition for which a remedy is readily available. Family planning, to relate population to world resources, is possible, practical and necessary. Unlike plagues of the dark ages or contemporary diseases we do not yet understand, the modern plague of overpopulation is soluble by means we have discovered and with resources we possess. What is lacking is not sufficient knowledge of the solution but universal consciousness of the gravity of the problem and education of the billions who are its victims. ...[60][61]
Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955
Main articles: Montgomery Bus Boycott and Jim Crow laws § Public arena
Rosa Parks with King, 1955 In March 1955, a fifteen-year-old school girl in Montgomery, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her bus seat to a white man in compliance with Jim Crow laws, laws in the US South that enforced racial segregation. King was on the committee from the Birmingham African-American community that looked into the case; because Colvin was pregnant and unmarried, E.D. Nixon and Clifford Durr decided to wait for a better case to pursue.[62]
On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat.[63] The Montgomery Bus Boycott, urged and planned by Nixon and led by King, soon followed.[64] The boycott lasted for 385 days,[65] and the situation became so tense that King's house was bombed.[66] King was arrested during this campaign, which concluded with a United States District Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that ended racial segregation on all Montgomery public buses.[67][68] King's role in the bus boycott transformed him into a national figure and the best-known spokesman of the civil rights movement.[69]
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, Fred Shuttlesworth, Joseph Lowery, and other civil rights activists founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The group was created to harness the moral authority and organizing power of black churches to conduct non-violent protests in the service of civil rights reform. King led the SCLC until his death.[70] The SCLC's 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom was the first time King addressed a national audience.[71]
On September 20, 1958, while signing copies of his book Stride Toward Freedom in Blumstein's department store in Harlem,[72] King narrowly escaped death when Izola Curry, a mentally ill black woman who believed he was conspiring against her with communists, stabbed him in the chest with a letter opener. After emergency surgery, King was hospitalized for several weeks, while Curry was found mentally incompetent to stand trial.[73][74] In 1959, he published a short book called The Measure of A Man, which contained his sermons "What is Man?" and "The Dimensions of a Complete Life". The sermons argued for man's need for God's love and criticized the racial injustices of Western civilization.[75]
Harry Wachtel—who joined King's legal advisor Clarence B. Jones in defending four ministers of the SCLC in a libel suit over a newspaper advertisement (New York Times Co. v. Sullivan)—founded a tax-exempt fund to cover the expenses of the suit and to assist the nonviolent civil rights movement through a more effective means of fundraising. This organization was named the "Gandhi Society for Human Rights". King served as honorary president for the group. Displeased with the pace of President Kennedy's addressing the issue of segregation, King and the Gandhi Society produced a document in 1962 calling on the President to follow in the footsteps of Abraham Lincoln and use an Executive Order to deliver a blow for Civil Rights as a kind of Second Emancipation Proclamation - Kennedy did not execute the order.[76]
Lyndon Johnson and Robert Kennedy with Civil Rights leaders, June 22, 1963 The FBI, under written directive from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, began tapping King's telephone in the fall of 1963.[77] Concerned that allegations of communists in the SCLC, if made public, would derail the administration's civil rights initiatives, Kennedy warned King to discontinue the suspect associations, and later felt compelled to issue the written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other SCLC leaders.[78] J. Edgar Hoover feared Communists were trying to infiltrate the Civil Rights movement, but when no such evidence emerged, the bureau used the incidental details caught on tape over the next five years in attempts to force King out of the preeminent leadership position.[79]
King believed that organized, nonviolent protest against the system of southern segregation known as Jim Crow laws would lead to extensive media coverage of the struggle for black equality and voting rights. Journalistic accounts and televised footage of the daily deprivation and indignities suffered by southern blacks, and of segregationist violence and harassment of civil rights workers and marchers, produced a wave of sympathetic public opinion that convinced the majority of Americans that the Civil Rights Movement was the most important issue in American politics in the early 1960s.[80][81]
King organized and led marches for blacks' right to vote, desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.[68] Most of these rights were successfully enacted into the law of the United States with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.[82][83]
King and the SCLC put into practice many of the principles of the Christian Left and applied the tactics of nonviolent protest with great success by strategically choosing the method of protest and the places in which protests were carried out. There were often dramatic stand-offs with segregationist authorities. Sometimes these confrontations turned violent.[84]
Throughout his participation in the civil rights movement, King was criticized by many groups. This included opposition by more militant blacks such as Nation of Islam member Malcolm X.[85] Stokely Carmichael was a separatist and disagreed with King's plea for racial integration because he considered it an insult to a uniquely African-American culture.[86] Omali Yeshitela urged Africans to remember the history of violent European colonization and how power was not secured by Europeans through integration, but by violence and force.[87]
Albany movement
Main article: Albany movement
The Albany Movement was a desegregation coalition formed in Albany, Georgia in November 1961. In December, King and the SCLC became involved. The movement mobilized thousands of citizens for a broad-front nonviolent attack on every aspect of segregation within the city and attracted nationwide attention. When King first visited on December 15, 1961, he "had planned to stay a day or so and return home after giving counsel."[88] The following day he was swept up in a mass arrest of peaceful demonstrators, and he declined bail until the city made concessions. According to King, "that agreement was dishonored and violated by the city" after he left town.[88]
King returned in July 1962, and was sentenced to forty-five days in jail or a $178 fine. He chose jail. Three days into his sentence, Police Chief Laurie Pritchett discreetly arranged for King's fine to be paid and ordered his release. "We had witnessed persons being kicked off lunch counter stools ... ejected from churches ... and thrown into jail ... But for the first time, we witnessed being kicked out of jail."[89] It was later acknowledged by the King Center that prominent evangelical preacher Billy Graham, who claimed in his autobiography that he had developed a close friendship with King after he accepted an invitation to appear at his 1957 New York City crusade,[90] was the one who bailed King out of jail during this time.[91]
After nearly a year of intense activism with few tangible results, the movement began to deteriorate. King requested a halt to all demonstrations and a "Day of Penance" to promote non-violence and maintain the moral high ground. Divisions within the black community and the canny, low-key response by local government defeated efforts.[92] Though the Albany effort proved a key lesson in tactics for Dr. King and the national civil rights movement,[93] the national media was highly critical of King's role in the defeat, and the SCLC's lack of results contributed to a growing gulf between the organization and the more radical SNCC. After Albany, King sought to choose engagements for the SCLC in which he could control the circumstances, rather than entering into pre-existing situations.[94]
Birmingham campaign
Main article: Birmingham campaign
King following his arrest in Birmingham
In April 1963, the SCLC began a campaign against racial segregation and economic injustice in Birmingham, Alabama. The campaign used nonviolent but intentionally confrontational tactics, developed in part by Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker. Black people in Birmingham, organizing with the SCLC, occupied public spaces with marches and sit-ins, openly violating laws that they considered unjust.
King's intent was to provoke mass arrests and "create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation".[95] However, the campaign's early volunteers did not succeed in shutting down the city, or in drawing media attention to the police's actions. Over the concerns of an uncertain King, SCLC strategist James Bevel changed the course of the campaign by recruiting children and young adults to join in the demonstrations.[96] Newsweek called this strategy a Children's Crusade.[97][98]
During the protests, the Birmingham Police Department, led by Eugene "Bull" Connor, used high-pressure water jets and police dogs against protesters, including children. Footage of the police response was broadcast on national television news and dominated the nation's attention, shocking many white Americans and consolidating black Americans behind the movement.[99] Not all of the demonstrators were peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of the SCLC. In some cases, bystanders attacked the police, who responded with force. King and the SCLC were criticized for putting children in harm's way. But the campaign was a success: Connor lost his job, the "Jim Crow" signs came down, and public places became more open to blacks. King's reputation improved immensely.[97]
King was arrested and jailed early in the campaign—his 13th arrest[100] out of 29.[101] From his cell, he composed the now-famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail" which responds to calls on the movement to pursue legal channels for social change. King argues that the crisis of racism is too urgent, and the current system too entrenched: "We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed."[102] He points out that the Boston Tea Party, a celebrated act of rebellion in the American colonies, was illegal civil disobedience, and that, conversely, "everything Adolf Hitler did in Germany was 'legal'".[102] King also expresses his frustration with white moderates and clergymen too timid to oppose an unjust system:
I have almost reached the regrettable conclusion that the Negro's great stumbling block in his stride toward freedom is not the White Citizen's Councilor or the Ku Klux Klanner, but the white moderate, who is more devoted to "order" than to justice; who prefers a negative peace which is the absence of tension to a positive peace which is the presence of justice; who constantly says: "I agree with you in the goal you seek, but I cannot agree with your methods of direct action"; who paternalistic-ally believes he can set the timetable for another man's freedom; who lives by a mythical concept of time and who constantly advises the Negro to wait for a "more convenient season".[102]
St. Augustine, Florida
Main article: St. Augustine Movement
In March 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces with Robert Hayling's then-controversial movement in St. Augustine, Florida. Hayling's group had been affiliated with the NAACP but was forced out of the organization for advocating armed self-defense alongside nonviolent tactics. Ironically, the pacifist SCLC accepted them.[103] King and the SCLC worked to bring white Northern activists to St. Augustine, including a delegation of rabbis and the 72-year-old mother of the governor of Massachusetts, all of whom were arrested.[104][105] During June, the movement marched nightly through the city, "often facing counter demonstrations by the Klan, and provoking violence that garnered national media attention." Hundreds of the marchers were arrested and jailed. During the course of this movement, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed.[106]
Selma, Alabama
Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches
In December 1964, King and the SCLC joined forces with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Selma, Alabama, where the SNCC had been working on voter registration for several months.[107] A local judge issued an injunction that barred any gathering of 3 or more people affiliated with the SNCC, SCLC, DCVL, or any of 41 named civil rights leaders. This injunction temporarily halted civil rights activity until King defied it by speaking at Brown Chapel on January 2, 1965.[108]
New York City
On February 6, 1964, King delivered the inaugural speech of a lecture series initiated at the New School called "The American Race Crisis". No audio record of his speech has been found, but in August 2013, almost 50 years later, the school discovered an audiotape with 15 minutes of a question-and-answer session that followed King's address. In these remarks, King referred to a conversation he had recently had with Jawaharlal Nehru in which he compared the sad condition of many African Americans to that of India's untouchables.[109]
March on Washington, 1963
Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom King, representing the SCLC, was among the leaders of the so-called "Big Six" civil rights organizations who were instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28, 1963. The other leaders and organizations comprising the Big Six were Roy Wilkins from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Whitney Young, National Urban League; A. Philip Randolph, Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; John Lewis, SNCC; and James L. Farmer, Jr. of the Congress of Racial Equality.[110]
The primary logistical and strategic organizer was King's colleague Bayard Rustin.[111] For King, this role was another which courted controversy, since he was one of the key figures who acceded to the wishes of President John F. Kennedy in changing the focus of the march.[112][113] Kennedy initially opposed the march outright, because he was concerned it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation. However, the organizers were firm that the march would proceed.[114] With the march going forward, the Kennedys decided it was important to work to ensure its success. President Kennedy was concerned the turnout would be less than 100,000. Therefore, he enlisted the aid of additional church leaders and the UAW union to help mobilize demonstrators for the cause.[115]
King is most famous for his "I Have a Dream" speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.
The march originally was conceived as an event to dramatize the desperate condition of blacks in the southern U.S. and an opportunity to place organizers' concerns and grievances squarely before the seat of power in the nation's capital. Organizers intended to denounce the federal government for its failure to safeguard the civil rights and physical safety of civil rights workers and blacks. However, the group acquiesced to presidential pressure and influence, and the event ultimately took on a far less strident tone.[116] As a result, some civil rights activists felt it presented an inaccurate, sanitized pageant of racial harmony; Malcolm X called it the "Farce on Washington", and the Nation of Islam forbade its members from attending the march.[116][117]
I Have a Dream
30-second sample from "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr. at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The march did, however, make specific demands: an end to racial segregation in public schools; meaningful civil rights legislation, including a law prohibiting racial discrimination in employment; protection of civil rights workers from police brutality; a $2 minimum wage for all workers; and self-government for Washington, D.C., then governed by congressional committee.[118][119][120] Despite tensions, the march was a resounding success.[121] More than a quarter of a million people of diverse ethnicities attended the event, sprawling from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial onto the National Mall and around the reflecting pool. At the time, it was the largest gathering of protesters in Washington, D.C.'s history.[121]
King delivered a 17-minute speech, later known as "I Have a Dream". In the speech's most famous passage—in which he departed from his prepared text, possibly at the prompting of Mahalia Jackson, who shouted behind him, "Tell them about the dream!"[122][123]—King said:
I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal.'
I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today. I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification; one day right there in Alabama, little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers.
I have a dream today.[124] "I Have a Dream" came to be regarded as one of the finest speeches in the history of American oratory.[125] The March, and especially King's speech, helped put civil rights at the top of the agenda of reformers in the United States and facilitated passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[126][127]
The original, typewritten copy of the speech, including Dr. King's handwritten notes on it, was discovered in 1984 to be in the hands of George Raveling, the first African-American basketball coach of the University of Iowa. In 1963, Raveling, then 26, was standing near the podium, and immediately after the oration, impulsively asked King if he could have his copy of the speech. He got it.[128]
Selma Voting Rights Movement and "Bloody Sunday", 1965
Main article: Selma to Montgomery marches
Acting on James Bevel's call for a march from Selma to Montgomery, King, Bevel, and the SCLC, in partial collaboration with SNCC, attempted to organize the march to the state's capital. The first attempt to march on March 7, 1965, was aborted because of mob and police violence against the demonstrators. This day has become known as Bloody Sunday, and was a major turning point in the effort to gain public support for the Civil Rights Movement. It was the clearest demonstration up to that time of the dramatic potential of King's nonviolence strategy. King, however, was not present.[129]
The civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama in 1965
King met with officials in the Lyndon B. Johnson Administration on March 5 in order to request an injunction against any prosecution of the demonstrators. He did not attend the march due to church duties, but he later wrote, "If I had any idea that the state troopers would use the kind of brutality they did, I would have felt compelled to give up my church duties altogether to lead the line."[130] Footage of police brutality against the protesters was broadcast extensively and aroused national public outrage.[131]
King next attempted to organize a march for March 9. The SCLC petitioned for an injunction in federal court against the State of Alabama; this was denied and the judge issued an order blocking the march until after a hearing. Nonetheless, King led marchers on March 9 to the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, then held a short prayer session before turning the marchers around and asking them to disperse so as not to violate the court order. The unexpected ending of this second march aroused the surprise and anger of many within the local movement.[132] The march finally went ahead fully on March 25, 1965.[133][134] At the conclusion of the march on the steps of the state capitol, King delivered a speech that became known as "How Long, Not Long". In it, King stated that equal rights for African Americans could not be far away, "because the arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice".[a][135][136]
Chicago Open Housing Movement, 1966
Main article: Chicago Freedom Movement
King with President Lyndon Johnson in 1966
In 1966, after several successes in the South, King, Bevel, and others in the civil rights organizations tried to spread the movement to the North, with Chicago as their first destination. King and Ralph Abernathy, both from the middle class, moved into a building at 1550 S. Hamlin Ave., in the slums of North Lawndale[137] on Chicago's West Side, as an educational experience and to demonstrate their support and empathy for the poor.[138]
The SCLC formed a coalition with CCCO, Coordinating Council of Community Organizations, an organization founded by Albert Raby, and the combined organizations' efforts were fostered under the aegis of the Chicago Freedom Movement.[139] During that spring, several white couple / black couple tests of real estate offices uncovered racial steering: discriminatory processing of housing requests by couples who were exact matches in income, background, number of children, and other attributes.[140] Several larger marches were planned and executed: in Bogan, Belmont Cragin, Jefferson Park, Evergreen Park (a suburb southwest of Chicago), Gage Park, Marquette Park, and others.[139][141][142]
Abernathy later wrote that the movement received a worse reception in Chicago than in the South. Marches, especially the one through Marquette Park on August 5, 1966, were met by thrown bottles and screaming throngs. Rioting seemed very possible.[143][144] King's beliefs militated against his staging a violent event, and he negotiated an agreement with Mayor Richard J. Daley to cancel a march in order to avoid the violence that he feared would result.[145] King was hit by a brick during one march but continued to lead marches in the face of personal danger.[146]
When King and his allies returned to the South, they left Jesse Jackson, a seminary student who had previously joined the movement in the South, in charge of their organization.[147] Jackson continued their struggle for civil rights by organizing the Operation Breadbasket movement that targeted chain stores that did not deal fairly with blacks.[148]
Opposition to the Vietnam War
See also: Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War
External audio
You may watch the speech, "Why I Am Opposed to the War in Vietnam", by Martin Luther King here.
King long opposed American involvement in the Vietnam War,[149] but at first avoided the topic in public speeches in order to avoid the interference with civil rights goals that criticism of President Johnson's policies might have created.[149] However, at the urging of aide James Bevel,[150] King eventually agreed to publicly oppose the war as opposition was growing among the American public.[149] In an April 4, 1967 appearance at the New York City Riverside Church—exactly one year before his death—King delivered a speech titled "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence".[151] He spoke strongly against the U.S.'s role in the war, arguing that the U.S. was in Vietnam "to occupy it as an American colony"[152] and calling the U.S. government "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today".[153] He also connected the war with economic injustice, arguing that the country needed serious moral change:
A true revolution of values will soon look uneasily on the glaring contrast of poverty and wealth. With righteous indignation, it will look across the seas and see individual capitalists of the West investing huge sums of money in Asia, Africa and South America, only to take the profits out with no concern for the social betterment of the countries, and say: "This is not just."[154]
King also opposed the Vietnam War because it took money and resources that could have been spent on social welfare at home. The United States Congress was spending more and more on the military and less and less on anti-poverty programs at the same time. He summed up this aspect by saying, "A nation that continues year after year to spend more money on military defense than on programs of social uplift is approaching spiritual death".[154] He stated that North Vietnam "did not begin to send in any large number of supplies or men until American forces had arrived in the tens of thousands",[155] and accused the U.S. of having killed a million Vietnamese, "mostly children".[156] King also criticized American opposition to North Vietnam's land reforms.[157]
King's opposition cost him significant support among white allies, including President Johnson, union leaders and powerful publishers.[158] "The press is being stacked against me", King said,[159] complaining of what he described as a double standard that applauded his non-violence at home, but deplored it when applied "toward little brown Vietnamese children".[160] Life magazine called the speech "demagogic slander that sounded like a script for Radio Hanoi",[154] and The Washington Post declared that King had "diminished his usefulness to his cause, his country, his people".[160][161]
King speaking to an anti-Vietnam war rally at the University of Minnesota, St. Paul on April 27, 1967
The "Beyond Vietnam" speech reflected King's evolving political advocacy in his later years, which paralleled the teachings of the progressive Highlander Research and Education Center, with which he was affiliated.[162][163] King began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation, and more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial and economic injustice.[164] He guarded his language in public to avoid being linked to communism by his enemies, but in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism.[165] In a 1952 letter to Coretta Scott, he said "I imagine you already know that I am much more socialistic in my economic theory than capitalistic..."[166] In one speech, he stated that "something is wrong with capitalism" and claimed, "There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism."[167] King had read Marx while at Morehouse, but while he rejected "traditional capitalism", he also rejected communism because of its "materialistic interpretation of history" that denied religion, its "ethical relativism", and its "political totalitarianism".[168]
King also stated in "Beyond Vietnam" that "true compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar ... it comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring".[169] King quoted a United States official who said that, from Vietnam to Latin America, the country was "on the wrong side of a world revolution".[169] King condemned America's "alliance with the landed gentry of Latin America", and said that the U.S. should support "the shirtless and barefoot people" in the Third World rather than suppressing their attempts at revolution.[169]
On April 15, 1967, King participated in and spoke at an anti-war march from New York's Central Park to the United Nations organized by the Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam and initiated by its chairman, James Bevel. At the U.N. King also brought up issues of civil rights and the draft.
I have not urged a mechanical fusion of the civil rights and peace movements. There are people who have come to see the moral imperative of equality, but who cannot yet see the moral imperative of world brotherhood. I would like to see the fervor of the civil-rights movement imbued into the peace movement to instill it with greater strength. And I believe everyone has a duty to be in both the civil-rights and peace movements. But for those who presently choose but one, I would hope they will finally come to see the moral roots common to both.[170]
Seeing an opportunity to unite civil rights activists and anti-war activists,[150] Bevel convinced King to become even more active in the anti-war effort.[150] Despite his growing public opposition towards the Vietnam War, King was also not fond of the hippie culture which developed from the anti-war movement.[171] In his 1967 Massey Lecture, King stated:
The importance of the hippies is not in their unconventional behavior, but in the fact that hundreds of thousands of young people, in turning to a flight from reality, are expressing a profoundly discrediting view on the society they emerge from.[171]
On January 13, 1968, the day after President Johnson's State of the Union Address, King called for a large march on Washington against "one of history's most cruel and senseless wars".[172][173]
We need to make clear in this political year, to congressmen on both sides of the aisle and to the president of the United States, that we will no longer tolerate, we will no longer vote for men who continue to see the killings of Vietnamese and Americans as the best way of advancing the goals of freedom and self-determination in Southeast Asia.[172][173]
Poor People's Campaign, 1968
Main article: Poor People's Campaign
In 1968, King and the SCLC organized the "Poor People's Campaign" to address issues of economic justice. King traveled the country to assemble "a multiracial army of the poor" that would march on Washington to engage in nonviolent civil disobedience at the Capitol until Congress created an "economic bill of rights" for poor Americans.[174][175] The campaign culminated in a march on Washington, D.C., demanding economic aid to the poorest communities of the United States.
King and the SCLC called on the government to invest in rebuilding America's cities. He felt that Congress had shown "hostility to the poor" by spending "military funds with alacrity and generosity". He contrasted this with the situation faced by poor Americans, claiming that Congress had merely provided "poverty funds with miserliness".[175] His vision was for change that was more revolutionary than mere reform: he cited systematic flaws of "racism, poverty, militarism and materialism", and argued that "reconstruction of society itself is the real issue to be faced".[176]
The Poor People's Campaign was controversial even within the civil rights movement. Rustin resigned from the march, stating that the goals of the campaign were too broad, that its demands were unrealizable, and that he thought that these campaigns would accelerate the backlash and repression on the poor and the black.[177]
After King's death
The plan to set up a shantytown in Washington, D.C. was carried out soon after the April 4 assassination. Criticism of King's plan was subdued in the wake of his death, and the SCLC received an unprecedented wave of donations for the purpose of carrying it out. The campaign officially began in Memphis, on May 2, at the hotel where King was murdered.[178]
Thousands of demonstrators arrived on the National Mall and established a camp they called "Resurrection City". They stayed for six weeks.[179]
Assassination and its aftermath
Main article: Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
The Lorraine Motel, where King was assassinated, is now the site of the National Civil Rights Museum.
I've Been to the Mountaintop
Final 30 seconds of "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee, in support of the black sanitary public works employees, represented by AFSCME Local 1733, who had been on strike since March 12 for higher wages and better treatment. In one incident, black street repairmen received pay for two hours when they were sent home because of bad weather, but white employees were paid for the full day.[180][181][182]
On April 3, King addressed a rally and delivered his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" address at Mason Temple, the world headquarters of the Church of God in Christ. King's flight to Memphis had been delayed by a bomb threat against his plane.[183] In the close of the last speech of his career, in reference to the bomb threat, King said the following:
And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats, or talk about the threats that were out. What would happen to me from some of our sick white brothers?
Well, I don't know what will happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't matter with me now. Because I've been to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now. I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go up to the mountain. And I've looked over. And I've seen the promised land. I may not get there with you. But I want you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the promised land. So I'm happy, tonight. I'm not worried about anything. I'm not fearing any man. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord.[184]
King was booked in room 306 at the Lorraine Motel, owned by Walter Bailey, in Memphis. Abernathy, who was present at the assassination, testified to the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations that King and his entourage stayed at room 306 at the Lorraine Motel so often it was known as the "King-Abernathy suite".[185] According to Jesse Jackson, who was present, King's last words on the balcony before his assassination were spoken to musician Ben Branch, who was scheduled to perform that night at an event King was attending: "Ben, make sure you play 'Take My Hand, Precious Lord' in the meeting tonight. Play it real pretty."[186]
Then, at 6:01 p.m., April 4, 1968, a shot rang out as King stood on the motel's second-floor balcony. The bullet entered through his right cheek, smashing his jaw, then traveled down his spinal cord before lodging in his shoulder.[187][188] Abernathy heard the shot from inside the motel room and ran to the balcony to find King on the floor.[189] Jackson stated after the shooting that he cradled King's head as King lay on the balcony, but this account was disputed by other colleagues of King's; Jackson later changed his statement to say that he had "reached out" for King.[190]
After emergency chest surgery, King was pronounced dead at St. Joseph's Hospital at 7:05 p.m.[191] According to biographer Taylor Branch, King's autopsy revealed that though only 39 years old, he "had the heart of a 60 year old", which Branch attributed to the stress of 13 years in the civil rights movement.[192]
Aftermath
Further information: King assassination riots
The assassination led to a nationwide wave of race riots in Washington D.C., Chicago, Baltimore, Louisville, Kansas City, and dozens of other cities.[193][194] Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy was on his way to Indianapolis for a campaign rally when he was informed of King's death. He gave a short speech to the gathering of supporters informing them of the tragedy and urging them to continue King's ideal of non-violence.[195] James Farmer, Jr. and other civil rights leaders also called for non-violent action, while the more militant Stokely Carmichael called for a more forceful response.[196] The city of Memphis quickly settled the strike on terms favorable to the sanitation workers.[197]
President Lyndon B. Johnson declared April 7 a national day of mourning for the civil rights leader.[198] Vice President Hubert Humphrey attended King's funeral on behalf of the President, as there were fears that Johnson's presence might incite protests and perhaps violence.[199] At his widow's request, King's last sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church was played at the funeral,[200] a recording of his "Drum Major" sermon, given on February 4, 1968. In that sermon, King made a request that at his funeral no mention of his awards and honors be made, but that it be said that he tried to "feed the hungry", "clothe the naked", "be right on the [Vietnam] war question", and "love and serve humanity".[201] His good friend Mahalia Jackson sang his favorite hymn, "Take My Hand, Precious Lord", at the funeral.[202]
Two months after King's death, escaped convict James Earl Ray was captured at London Heathrow Airport while trying to leave the United Kingdom on a false Canadian passport in the name of Ramon George Sneyd on his way to white-ruled Rhodesia.[203] Ray was quickly extradited to Tennessee and charged with King's murder. He confessed to the assassination on March 10, 1969, though he recanted this confession three days later.[204] On the advice of his attorney Percy Foreman, Ray pled guilty to avoid a trial conviction and thus the possibility of receiving the death penalty. He was sentenced to a 99-year prison term.[204][205] Ray later claimed a man he met in Montreal, Quebec, with the alias "Raoul" was involved and that the assassination was the result of a conspiracy.[206][207] He spent the remainder of his life attempting, unsuccessfully, to withdraw his guilty plea and secure the trial he never had.[205]
Allegations of conspiracy
Ray's lawyers maintained he was a scapegoat similar to the way that John F. Kennedy assassin Lee Harvey Oswald is seen by conspiracy theorists.[208] Supporters of this assertion say that Ray's confession was given under pressure and that he had been threatened with the death penalty.[205][209] They admit Ray was a thief and burglar, but claim he had no record of committing violent crimes with a weapon.[207] However, prison records in different US cities have shown that he was incarcerated on numerous occasions for charges of armed robbery.[210] In a 2008 interview with CNN, Jerry Ray, the younger brother of James Earl Ray, claimed that James was smart and was sometimes able to get away with armed robbery. Jerry Ray said that he had assisted his brother on one such robbery. "I never been with nobody as bold as he is," Jerry said. "He just walked in and put that gun on somebody, it was just like it's an everyday thing."[210]
Those suspecting a conspiracy in the assassination point to the two successive ballistics tests which proved that a rifle similar to Ray's Remington Gamemaster had been the murder weapon. Those tests did not implicate Ray's specific rifle.[205][211] Witnesses near King at the moment of his death said that the shot came from another location. They said that it came from behind thick shrubbery near the rooming house—which had been cut away in the days following the assassination—and not from the rooming house window.[212] However, Ray's fingerprints were found on various objects (a rifle, a pair of binoculars, articles of clothing, a newspaper) that were left in the bathroom where it was determined the gunfire came from.[210] An examination of the rifle containing Ray's fingerprints also determined that at least one shot was fired from the firearm at the time of the assassination.[210]
Martin Luther King and Coretta Scott King's tomb, located on the grounds of the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site in Atlanta, Georgia
In 1997, King's son Dexter Scott King met with Ray, and publicly supported Ray's efforts to obtain a new trial.[213]
Two years later, Coretta Scott King, King's widow, along with the rest of King's family, won a wrongful death claim against Loyd Jowers and "other unknown co-conspirators". Jowers claimed to have received $100,000 to arrange King's assassination. The jury of six whites and six blacks found in favor of the King family, finding Jowers to be complicit in a conspiracy against King and that government agencies were party to the assassination.[214][215] William F. Pepper represented the King family in the trial.[216]
In 2000, the U.S. Department of Justice completed the investigation into Jowers' claims but did not find evidence to support allegations about conspiracy. The investigation report recommended no further investigation unless some new reliable facts are presented.[217] A sister of Jowers admitted that he had fabricated the story so he could make $300,000 from selling the story, and she in turn corroborated his story in order to get some money to pay her income tax.[218][219]
In 2002, The New York Times reported that a church minister, Rev. Ronald Denton Wilson, claimed his father, Henry Clay Wilson — not James Earl Ray — assassinated King. He stated, "It wasn't a racist thing; he thought Martin Luther King was connected with communism, and he wanted to get him out of the way." Wilson provided no evidence to back up his claims.[220]
King researchers David Garrow and Gerald Posner disagreed with William F. Pepper's claims that the government killed King.[221] In 2003, William Pepper published a book about the long investigation and trial, as well as his representation of James Earl Ray in his bid for a trial, laying out the evidence and criticizing other accounts.[222] King's friend and colleague, James Bevel, also disputed the argument that Ray acted alone, stating, "There is no way a ten-cent white boy could develop a plan to kill a million-dollar black man."[223] In 2004, Jesse Jackson stated:
The fact is there were saboteurs to disrupt the march. And within our own organization, we found a very key person who was on the government payroll. So infiltration within, saboteurs from without and the press attacks. ... I will never believe that James Earl Ray had the motive, the money and the mobility to have done it himself. Our government was very involved in setting the stage for and I think the escape route for James Earl Ray.[224]
FBI and King's personal life
FBI surveillance and wiretapping
FBI director J. Edgar Hoover personally ordered surveillance of King, with the intent to undermine his power as a civil rights leader.[158][225] According to the Church Committee, a 1975 investigation by the U.S. Congress, "From December 1963 until his death in 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr. was the target of an intensive campaign by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to 'neutralize' him as an effective civil rights leader."[226]
The Bureau received authorization to proceed with wiretapping from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in the fall of 1963[227] and informed President John F. Kennedy, both of whom unsuccessfully tried to persuade King to dissociate himself from Stanley Levison, a New York lawyer who had been involved with Communist Party USA.[228][229] Although Robert Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so",[230] Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy.[231] The Bureau placed wiretaps on Levison's and King's home and office phones, and bugged King's rooms in hotels as he traveled across the country.[228][232] In 1967, Hoover listed the SCLC as a black nationalist hate group, with the instructions: "No opportunity should be missed to exploit through counterintelligence techniques the organizational and personal conflicts of the leaderships of the groups ... to insure the targeted group is disrupted, ridiculed, or discredited."[225][233]
NSA monitoring of King's communications
In a secret operation code-named "Minaret", the National Security Agency (NSA) monitored the communications of leading Americans, including King, who criticized the U.S. war in Vietnam.[234] A review by the NSA itself concluded that Minaret was "disreputable if not outright illegal."[234]
Allegations of communism
For years, Hoover had been suspicious about potential influence of communists in social movements such as labor unions and civil rights.[235] Hoover directed the FBI to track King in 1957, and the SCLC as it was established (it did not have a full-time executive director until 1960).[79] The investigations were largely superficial until 1962, when the FBI learned that one of King's most trusted advisers was New York City lawyer Stanley Levison.[236]
The FBI feared Levison was working as an "agent of influence" over King, in spite of its own reports in 1963 that Levison had left the Party and was no longer associated in business dealings with them.[237] Another King lieutenant, Hunter Pitts O'Dell, was also linked to the Communist Party by sworn testimony before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).[238] However, by 1976 the FBI had acknowledged that it had not obtained any evidence that King himself or the SCLC were actually involved with any communist organizations.[226]
For his part, King adamantly denied having any connections to communism, stating in a 1965 Playboy interview that "there are as many Communists in this freedom movement as there are Eskimos in Florida".[239] He argued that Hoover was "following the path of appeasement of political powers in the South" and that his concern for communist infiltration of the civil rights movement was meant to "aid and abet the salacious claims of southern racists and the extreme right-wing elements".[226] Hoover did not believe King's pledge of innocence and replied by saying that King was "the most notorious liar in the country".[240] After King gave his "I Have A Dream" speech during the March on Washington on August 28, 1963, the FBI described King as "the most dangerous and effective Negro leader in the country".[232] It alleged that he was "knowingly, willingly and regularly cooperating with and taking guidance from communists".[241]
The attempt to prove that King was a communist was related to the feeling of many segregationists that blacks in the South were happy with their lot but had been stirred up by "communists" and "outside agitators".[242] However, the civil rights movement arose from activism within the black community dating back to before World War I. King said that "the Negro revolution is a genuine revolution, born from the same womb that produces all massive social upheavals—the womb of intolerable conditions and unendurable situations."[243]
Allegations of adultery
Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X, March 26, 1964
Having concluded that King was dangerous due to communist infiltration, the FBI shifted to attempting to discredit King through revelations regarding his private life. FBI surveillance of King, some of it since made public, attempted to demonstrate that he also engaged in numerous extramarital affairs.[232] Lyndon Johnson once said that King was a "hypocritical preacher".[244]
Ralph Abernathy stated in his 1989 autobiography And the Walls Came Tumbling Down that King had a "weakness for women", although they "all understood and believed in the biblical prohibition against sex outside of marriage. It was just that he had a particularly difficult time with that temptation".[245] In a later interview, Abernathy said that he only wrote the term "womanizing", that he did not specifically say King had extramarital sex and that the infidelities King had were emotional rather than sexual.[246] Abernathy criticized the media for sensationalizing the statements he wrote about King's affairs,[246] such as the allegation that he admitted in his book that King had a sexual affair the night before he was assassinated.[246] In his original wording, Abernathy had claimed he saw King coming out of his room with a lady when he awoke the next morning and later claimed that "he may have been in there discussing and debating and trying to get her to go along with the movement, I don't know."[246]
In his 1986 book Bearing the Cross, David Garrow wrote about a number of extramarital affairs, including one woman King saw almost daily. According to Garrow, "that relationship ... increasingly became the emotional centerpiece of King's life, but it did not eliminate the incidental couplings ... of King's travels." He alleged that King explained his extramarital affairs as "a form of anxiety reduction". Garrow asserted that King's supposed promiscuity caused him "painful and at times overwhelming guilt".[247] King's wife Coretta appeared to have accepted his affairs with equanimity, saying once that "all that other business just doesn't have a place in the very high level relationship we enjoyed."[248] Shortly after Bearing the Cross was released, civil rights author Howell Raines gave the book a positive review but opined that Garrow's allegations about King's sex life were "sensational" and stated that Garrow was "amassing facts rather than analyzing them".[249]
The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King's family.[250] The Bureau also sent anonymous letters to King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work.[251] One anonymous letter sent to King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part:
The so-called "suicide letter",[252] mailed anonymously by the FBI
The American public, the church organizations that have been helping—Protestants, Catholics and Jews will know you for what you are—an evil beast. So will others who have backed you. You are done. King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is. You have just 34 days in which to do (this exact number has been selected for a specific reason, it has definite practical significant [sic]). You are done. There is but one way out for you. You better take it before your filthy fraudulent self is bared to the nation.[253]
A tape recording of several of King's extramarital liaisons, excerpted from FBI wiretaps, accompanied the letter.[254] King interpreted this package as an attempt to drive him to suicide,[255] although William Sullivan, head of the Domestic Intelligence Division at the time, argued that it may have only been intended to "convince Dr. King to resign from the SCLC".[226] King refused to give in to the FBI's threats.[232]
Judge John Lewis Smith, Jr. in 1977 ordered that all known copies of the recorded audiotapes and written transcripts resulting from the FBI's electronic surveillance of King between 1963 and 1968 to be held in the National Archives and sealed from public access until 2027.[256]
Police observation during the assassination
Across from the Lorraine Motel, next to the boarding house in which Ray was staying, was a fire station. Police officers were stationed in the fire station to keep King under surveillance.[257] Agents were watching King at the time he was shot.[258] Immediately following the shooting, officers rushed out of the station to the motel. Marrell McCollough, an undercover police officer, was the first person to administer first aid to King.[259] The antagonism between King and the FBI, the lack of an all points bulletin to find the killer, and the police presence nearby led to speculation that the FBI was involved in the assassination.[260]
Legacy
President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among the guests behind him is Martin Luther King.
Martin Luther King, Jr. statue over the west entrance of Westminster Abbey, installed in 1998.
Protestors at the 2012 Republican National Convention display Dr. King's words and image on a banner.
King's main legacy was to secure progress on civil rights in the U.S. Just days after King's assassination, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1968.[261] Title VIII of the Act, commonly known as the Fair Housing Act, prohibited discrimination in housing and housing-related transactions on the basis of race, religion, or national origin (later expanded to include sex, familial status, and disability). This legislation was seen as a tribute to King's struggle in his final years to combat residential discrimination in the U.S.[261]
Internationally, King's legacy includes influences on the Black Consciousness Movement and Civil Rights Movement in South Africa.[262][263] King's work was cited by and served as an inspiration for South African leader Albert Lutuli, who fought for racial justice in his country and was later awarded the Nobel Prize.[264] The day following King's assassination, school teacher Jane Elliott conducted her first "Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes" exercise with her class of elementary school students in Riceville, Iowa. Her purpose was to help them understand King's death as it related to racism, something they little understood as they lived in a predominately white community.[265] King has become a national icon in the history of American progressivism.[266]
King's wife, Coretta Scott King, followed in her husband's footsteps and was active in matters of social justice and civil rights until her death in 2006. The same year that Martin Luther King was assassinated, she established the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to preserving his legacy and the work of championing nonviolent conflict resolution and tolerance worldwide.[267] Their son, Dexter King, serves as the center's chairman.[268][269] Daughter Yolanda King, who died in 2007, was a motivational speaker, author and founder of Higher Ground Productions, an organization specializing in diversity training.[270]
Even within the King family, members disagree about his religious and political views about gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people. King's widow Coretta said publicly that she believed her husband would have supported gay rights.[271] However, his youngest child, Bernice King, has said publicly that he would have been opposed to gay marriage.[272]
On February 4, 1968, at the Ebenezer Baptist Church, in speaking about how he wished to be remembered after his death, King stated:
I'd like somebody to mention that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to give his life serving others. I'd like for somebody to say that day that Martin Luther King Jr. tried to love somebody.
I want you to say that day that I tried to be right on the war question. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try to feed the hungry. I want you to be able to say that day that I did try in my life to clothe those who were naked. I want you to say on that day that I did try in my life to visit those who were in prison. And I want you to say that I tried to love and serve humanity.
Yes, if you want to say that I was a drum major. Say that I was a drum major for justice. Say that I was a drum major for peace. I was a drum major for righteousness. And all of the other shallow things will not matter. I won't have any money to leave behind. I won't have the fine and luxurious things of life to leave behind. But I just want to leave a committed life behind.[196][273]
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
Main article: Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
Beginning in 1971, cities such as St. Louis, Missouri, and states established annual holidays to honor King.[274] At the White House Rose Garden on November 2, 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day. Following President George H. W. Bush's 1992 proclamation, the holiday is observed on the third Monday of January each year, near the time of King's birthday.[275][276] On January 17, 2000, for the first time, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was officially observed in all fifty U.S. states.[277] Arizona (1992), New Hampshire (1999) and Utah (2000) were the last three states to recognized the holiday. Utah previously celebrated the holiday at the same time but under the name Human Rights Day.[278]
Liturgical commemorations
King is remembered as a martyr by the Episcopal Church in the United States of America with an annual feast day on the anniversary of his death, April 4.[279] The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America commemorates King liturgically on the anniversary of his birth, January 15.[280]
Awards and recognition
Statue of King in Birmingham's Kelly Ingram Park
Dexter Avenue Baptist Church where King ministered was renamed Dexter Avenue King Memorial Baptist Church in 1978
King was awarded at least fifty honorary degrees from colleges and universities.[281] On October 14, 1964, King became the youngest recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, which was awarded to him for leading non-violent resistance to racial prejudice in the U.S.[282] In 1965, he was awarded the American Liberties Medallion by the American Jewish Committee for his "exceptional advancement of the principles of human liberty".[281][283] In his acceptance remarks, King said, "Freedom is one thing. You have it all or you are not free."[284]
In 1957, he was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.[285] Two years later, he won the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for his book Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story.[286] In 1966, the Planned Parenthood Federation of America awarded King the Margaret Sanger Award for "his courageous resistance to bigotry and his lifelong dedication to the advancement of social justice and human dignity".[287] Also in 1966, King was elected as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[288] In 1971 he was posthumously awarded a Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for his Why I Oppose the War in Vietnam.[289]
In 1977, the Presidential Medal of Freedom was posthumously awarded to King by President Jimmy Carter. The citation read:
Martin Luther King, Jr., was the conscience of his generation. He gazed upon the great wall of segregation and saw that the power of love could bring it down. From the pain and exhaustion of his fight to fulfill the promises of our founding fathers for our humblest citizens, he wrung his eloquent statement of his dream for America. He made our nation stronger because he made it better. His dream sustains us yet.[290]
King and his wife were also awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2004.[291]
King was second in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century.[292] In 1963, he was named Time Person of the Year, and in 2000, he was voted sixth in an online "Person of the Century" poll by the same magazine.[293] King placed third in the Greatest American contest conducted by the Discovery Channel and AOL.[294]
Eponymous places and buildings
More than 730 cities in the United States have streets named after King.[295] King County, Washington rededicated its name in his honor in 1986, and changed its logo to an image of his face in 2007.[296] The city government center in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, is named in honor of King.[297]
In 1980, the U.S. Department of the Interior designated King's boyhood home in Atlanta and several nearby buildings the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site. In 1996, Congress authorized the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, of which King had been a member, to establish a foundation to manage fund raising and design of a national Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial on the Mall in Washington, D.C.[298] King was the first African American and the fourth non-president honored with his own memorial in the National Mall area.[299] The memorial opened in August 2011[300] and is administered by the National Park Service.[301] The address of the monument, 1964 Independence Avenue, S.W., commemorates the year that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 became law.[302] Memorial Day is a US federal holiday wherein the men and women who died while serving in the United States Armed Forces are remembered.[1] The holiday, which is celebrated every year on the final Monday of May,[2] was formerly known as Decoration Day and originated after the American Civil War to commemorate the Union and Confederate soldiers who died in the Civil War. By the 20th century, Memorial Day had been extended to honor all Americans who have died while in the military service. It typically marks the start of the summer vacation season, while Labor Day marks its end.
Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service. Many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries.
Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountains. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather on the designated day and put flowers on graves and renew contacts with kinfolk and others. There often is a religious service and a "dinner on the ground," the traditional term for a potluck meal in which people used to spread the dishes out on sheets or tablecloths on the grass. It is believed that this practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day" idea.[3]
Memorial Day is not to be confused with Veterans Day; Memorial Day is a day of remembering the men and women who died while serving, while Veterans Day celebrates the service of all U.S. military veterans.[4] History of the holiday
The practice of decorating soldiers' graves with flowers is an ancient custom.[5] Soldiers' graves were decorated in the U.S. before[6] and during the American Civil War. A claim was made in 1906 that the first Civil War soldier's grave ever decorated was in Warrenton, Virginia, on June 3, 1861, implying the first Memorial Day occurred there.[7] Though not for Union soldiers, there is authentic documentation that women in Savannah, Georgia, decorated Confederate soldiers' graves in 1862.[8] In 1863, the cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. Local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania, claim that ladies there decorated soldiers' graves on July 4, 1864.[9] As a result, Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day.[10]
Following President Abraham Lincoln's assassination in April 1865, there were a variety of events of commemoration. The sheer number of soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War, more than 600,000, meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead.[11]
The first widely publicized observance of a Memorial Day-type observance after the Civil War was in Charleston, South Carolina, on May 1, 1865. During the war, Union soldiers who were prisoners of war had been held at the Charleston Race Course; at least 257 Union prisoners died there and were hastily buried in unmarked graves.[12] Together with teachers and missionaries, black residents of Charleston organized a May Day ceremony in 1865, which was covered by the New York Tribune and other national papers. The freedmen cleaned up and landscaped the burial ground, building an enclosure and an arch labeled, "Martyrs of the Race Course." Nearly ten thousand people, mostly freedmen, gathered on May 1 to commemorate the war dead. Involved were about 3,000 school children newly enrolled in freedmen's schools, mutual aid societies, Union troops, black ministers, and white northern missionaries. Most brought flowers to lay on the burial field. Today the site is used as Hampton Park.[13] Years later, the celebration would come to be called the "First Decoration Day" in the North.
David W. Blight described the day:
"This was the first Memorial Day. African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina. What you have there is black Americans recently freed from slavery announcing to the world with their flowers, their feet, and their songs what the war had been about. What they basically were creating was the Independence Day of a Second American Revolution.”[14]
However, Blight stated he "has no evidence" that this event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country.[15]
On May 26, 1966, President Johnson signed a presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the birthplace of Memorial Day. Earlier, the 89th Congress adopted House Concurrent Resolution 587, which officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day began one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York.[16] According to legend, in the summer of 1865 a local druggist Henry Welles, while talking to friends, suggested that it might be good to remember those soldiers who did not make it home from the Civil War.[citation needed] Not much came of it until he mentioned it to General John B. Murray, a Civil War hero from Waterloo, who gathered support from other surviving veterans.[citation needed] On May 5, 1866, they marched to the three local cemeteries and decorated the graves of fallen soldiers.[citation needed] It is believed that Murray, who knew General John A. Logan, told Logan about the observance and that led to Logan issuing Logan's Order in 1868 calling for a national observance.[citation needed] Name and date
"On Decoration Day" Political cartoon c 1900. Caption: "You bet I'm goin' to be a soldier, too, like my Uncle David, when I grow up."
The preferred name for the holiday gradually changed from "Decoration Day" to "Memorial Day", which was first used in 1882.[35] It did not become more common until after World War II, and was not declared the official name by Federal law until 1967.[36] On June 28, 1968, the Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three-day weekend.[37] The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971.[37] After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress' change of date within a few years.
Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocate returning to the original date, although the significance of the date is tenuous. The VFW stated in a 2002 Memorial Day Address:
Changing the date merely to create three-day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day.[38]
Starting in 1987 Hawaii's Senator Daniel Inouye, a World War II veteran, introduced a measure to return Memorial Day to its traditional date. Inouye continued introducing the resolution until his death in 2012.[39 Traditional observance
On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half-staff position, where it remains only until noon.[40] It is then raised to full-staff for the remainder of the day.[41]
Memorial Day observances in small New England towns are often marked by dedications and remarks by veterans, state legislators, and selectmen
The half-staff position remembers the more than one million men and women who gave their lives in service of their country. At noon, their memory is raised by the living, who resolve not to let their sacrifice be in vain, but to rise up in their stead and continue the fight for liberty and justice for all.
The National Memorial Day Concert takes place on the west lawn of the United States Capitol.[42] The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the men and women who gave their lives for their country.
For many Americans, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities all over the country. Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the National Guard and other servicemen participating along with veterans and military vehicles from various wars.
One of the longest-standing traditions is the running of the Indianapolis 500, an auto race which has been held in conjunction with Memorial Day since 1911.[43] It runs on the Sunday preceding the Memorial Day holiday. The Coca-Cola 600 stock car race has been held later the same day since 1961. The Memorial Tournament golf event has been held on or close to the Memorial Day weekend since 1976. Poppies
Main article: Remembrance poppy
In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields". Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers' graves in Flanders.
In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as their official symbol of remembrance.[44]
Interpretations
Scholars,[45][46][47][48] following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion" - one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint - that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals.[49]
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This article is about a holiday celebrating mothers and motherhood. For other uses, see Mother's Day (disambiguation).
Mother's Day
Clara's Card.jpg A mother posing with her card
Observed by Many countries
Significance Honors mothers and motherhood
Date Many dates;
Frequency annual
Related to Children's Day, Siblings Day, Father's Day, Parents' Day
Mother's Day is a modern celebration honoring one's own mother, as well as motherhood, maternal bonds, and the influence of mothers in society. It is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March or May. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Father's Day and Siblings Day.
The celebration of Mother's Day began in the United States in the early 20th century; it is not related to the many celebrations of mothers and motherhood that have occurred throughout the world over thousands of years, such as the Greek cult to Cybele, the Roman festival of Hilaria, or the Christian Mothering Sunday celebration (originally a celebration of the mother church, not motherhood).[1][2][3][4] Despite this, in some countries, Mother's Day has become synonymous with these older traditions.[5]
Contents [hide] 1 Founding (United States) 2 Spelling 3 Dates around the world 4 International history and tradition 4.1 Religion 4.2 By country (A–G)
4.3 By country (H–M)
4.4 By country (N–S)
4.5 By country (T–Z)
5 See also 6 Notes 6.1 Footnotes 6.2 Citations
7 References
Founding (United States)
Main article: Mother's Day (United States)
The modern American holiday of Mother's Day was first celebrated in 1908, when Anna Jarvis held a memorial for her mother at St Andrew's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia, which now holds the International Mother's Day Shrine.[6] Her campaign to make "Mother's Day" a recognized holiday in the United States began in 1905, the year her beloved mother, Ann Reeves Jarvis, died. Anna's mission was to honor her own mother by continuing work she started and to set aside a day to honor mothers, "the person who has done more for you than anyone in the world". Anna's mother, Ann Jarvis, was a peace activist who cared for wounded soldiers on both sides of the Civil War and created Mother’s Day Work Clubs to address public health issues.
In 1908, the US Congress rejected a proposal to make an official holiday, among jokes that they would have to proclaim also a "Mother-in-law's Day".[7] Due to the campaign efforts of Anna Jarvis, by 1911 all US states observed the holiday, with some of them officially recognizing Mother's Day as a local holiday,[7] the first in 1910 being West Virginia, Jarvis' home state. In 1914 Woodrow Wilson signed the proclamation creating Mother’s Day, the second Sunday in May, as a national holiday to honor mothers.[8]
Although Jarvis was successful in founding Mother's Day, she soon became resentful of the commercialization and was angry that companies would profit from the holiday. By the early 1920s, Hallmark and other companies started selling Mother's Day cards. Jarvis became so embittered by what she saw as misinterpretation and exploitation that she protested and even tried to rescind Mother's Day. The holiday that she had worked so hard for was supposed to be about sentiment, not about profit.[9] Jarvis' intention for the holiday had been for people to appreciate and honor mothers by writing a personal letter, by hand, expressing love and gratitude, rather than buying gifts and pre-made cards.[10] Jarvis organized boycotts and threatened lawsuits to try to stop the commercialization. She crashed a candymakers' convention in Philadelphia in 1923. Two years later she protested at a confab of the American War Mothers, which raised money by selling carnations, the flower associated with Mother's Day, and was arrested for disturbing the peace.[9][10]
Jarvis' holiday was adopted by other countries and it is now celebrated all over the world.
Spelling
In 1912, Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrases "second Sunday in May" and "Mother's Day", and created the Mother's Day International Association.[11] She specifically noted that "Mother's" should "be a singular possessive, for each family to honor its mother, not a plural possessive commemorating all mothers of the world."[12] This is also the spelling used by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his 1914 presidential proclamation, by the U.S. Congress in relevant bills,[13][14] and by various U.S. presidents in their proclamations concerning Mother's Day.[15] However, "Mothers' Day" (plural possessive) or "Mothers Day" (plural non-possessive) are also sometimes seen.
Dates around the world
As the United States holiday was adopted by other countries and cultures, the date was changed to fit already existing celebrations honoring motherhood, such as Mothering Sunday in the United Kingdom or, in Greece, the Orthodox celebration of the presentation of Jesus Christ to the temple (2 February of Julian Calendar). Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece. Mothering Sunday is often referred to as "Mother's Day" even though it is an unrelated celebration.[5]
In some countries the date was changed to a date that was significant to the majority religion, such as Virgin Mary Day in Catholic countries. Other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivia's Mother's Day is the date of a battle in which women participated.[16] See the "International history and tradition" section for the complete list.
Ex-communist countries usually celebrated the socialist International Women's Day instead of the more capitalist Mother's Day.[17] Some ex-communist countries, such as Russia, still follow this custom[18] or simply celebrate both holidays, which is the custom in Ukraine. Kyrgyzstan has recently introduced Mother's Day, but International Women's Day remains a more widely popular holiday.
Note: Countries that celebrate International Women's Day instead of Mother's Day are marked with a dagger (†).
Gregorian calendar
Second Sunday of May
May 11, 2014
May 10, 2015 May 8, 2016 Anguilla Antigua and Barbuda Aruba Australia Austria Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belgium Belize Bermuda Bonaire Botswana Brazil Brunei Canada Cambodia Chile[20] China[21] Colombia Croatia Cuba[22] Curaçao Cyprus Czech Republic[23] Denmark Dominica Ecuador Estonia Ethiopia Fiji Finland Germany Ghana Greece Grenada Guernsey Guyana Honduras Hong Kong Iceland India Italy Isle of Man Jamaica Japan Jersey Kenya Latvia Liberia Liechtenstein Macau Malaysia Malta Netherlands New Zealand Pakistan Papua New Guinea Peru[24] Philippines Puerto Rico Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Singapore Sint Maarten Slovakia[23] South Africa[25] Sri Lanka Suriname Switzerland Taiwan Tanzania Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Turkey Uganda Ukraine United States Uruguay Vietnam Venezuela Zambia Zimbabwe
15 May
Paraguay (same day as Día de la Patria)[26]
19 May
20 Jumada al-thani[n 1]
20 April 2014
30 March 2016 Iran[34]
International history and tradition
Mother's Day in the Netherlands in 1925
Northern Pacific Railway postcard for Mother's Day 1916.
Mother's Day gift in 2007
Mother and daughter and Mother's Day card
In most countries, Mother's Day is a recent observance derived from the holiday as it has evolved in the United States. As adopted by other countries and cultures, the holiday has different meanings, is associated with different events (religious, historical or legendary), and is celebrated on different dates.
In some cases, countries already had existing celebrations honoring motherhood, and their celebrations then adopted several external characteristics from the US holiday, such as giving carnations and other presents to one's mother.
The extent of the celebrations varies greatly. In some countries, it is potentially offensive to one's mother not to mark Mother's Day. In others, it is a little-known festival celebrated mainly by immigrants, or covered by the media as a taste of foreign culture.[citation needed]
Religion
In the Roman Catholic Church, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary.[35] In some Catholic homes, families have a special shrine devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary.
In Hindu tradition Mother's Day is called "Mata Tirtha Aunshi" or "Mother Pilgrimage fortnight", and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May. This celebration is based on Hindu religion and it pre-dates the creation of the US-inspired celebration by at least a few centuries.[citation needed]
Buddhist have holiday of Ullambana (Ghost Festival), also known as signaling ceremony, derived from the integration of modern bodhisattva Maudgalyayana saved his mother.
By country (A–G)
Arab world
Mother's Day in most Arab countries is celebrated on 21 March, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin[36] in his book Smiling America (1943). The idea was overlooked at the time. Later Amin heard the story of a widowed mother who devoted her whole life to raising her son until he became a doctor. The son then married and left without showing any gratitude to his mother. Hearing this, Amin became motivated to promote "Mother's Day". The idea was first ridiculed by president Gamal Abdel Nasser[citation needed] but he eventually accepted it and Mother's Day was first celebrated on 21 March 1956[citation needed]. The practice has since been copied by other Arab countries.
When Mustafa Amin was arrested and imprisoned, there were attempts to change the name of the holiday from "Mother's Day" to "Family Day" as the government wished to prevent the occasion from reminding people of its founder[citation needed]. These attempts were unsuccessful and celebrations continued to be held on that day; classic songs celebrating mothers remain famous to this day.
Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, Mother's Day was celebrated on 12 June 2010, on the second Saturday in June.[citation needed]
Angola
In Angola, Mother‘s Day is celebrated on the first sunday of May
Argentina
In Argentina, Mother's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of October. The holiday was originally celebrated on 11 October, the old liturgical date for the celebration of the Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary but after the Second Vatican Council, which moved the Virgin Mary festivity to 1 January, the Mother's Day started to be celebrated the third Sunday of October because of popular tradition.[30]
Argentina is the only country in the world that celebrates Mother's Day in this date. In 17 October 2010 Google made a Google doodle exclusively to celebrate the Argentinian Mother's Day, and published it only in google.com.ar (Google's website for Argentina).[37]
Armenia
In Armenia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 7 April (Maternity and Beauty Day).
Australia
In Australia, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May.
The tradition of giving gifts to mothers on Mother's Day in Australia was started by Mrs. Janet Heyden,[38] a resident of Leichhardt, Sydney, in 1924. She began the tradition during a visit to a patient at the Newington State Home for Women, where she met many lonely and forgotten mothers. To cheer them up, she rounded up support from local school children and businesses to donate and bring gifts to the women. Every year thereafter, Mrs Heyden raised increasing support for the project from local businesses and even the local Mayor. The day has since become commercialised. Traditionally, the chrysanthemum is given to mothers for Mother's Day as the flower is naturally in season during May (autumn in Australia) and ends in "mum", a common affectionate shortening of "mother" in Australia.[citation needed] Men will often wear a chrysanthemum in their lapels in honor of mothers.[citation needed]
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of the month of May. In observance of the day discussion programs are organized by government and non-governmental organizations. Reception programs and cultural programs are organized to mark the day in the capital city. Television channels air special programs, and newspapers publish special features and columns to mark the day. Greeting cards, flowers and gifts featuring mothers are in high demand at the shops and markets.
Belarus
Belarus celebrates Mother's Day in 14 October. Like other ex-Communist republics, Belarus used to celebrate only the International Women Day in 8 March. Mother's Day in Belarus was officially established by the Belarus government, and it was celebrated for the first time in 1996.[29] The celebration of the Virgin Mary (the holiday of Protection of the Holy Mother of God) is celebrated in the same day.[39]
Belgium
In Belgium, Mother's Day (Moederdag or Moederkesdag in Dutch and Fête des Mères in French) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. In the week before this holiday children make little presents at primary school, which they give to their mothers in the early morning of Mother's Day. Typically, the father will buy croissants and other sweet breads and pastries and bring these to the mother while she is still in bed – the beginning of a day of pampering for the mother. There are also many people who celebrate Mother's Day on 15 August instead; these are mostly people around Antwerp, who consider that day (Assumption) the classical Mother's Day and the observance in May an invention for commercial reasons. It was originally established on that day as the result of a campaign by Frans Van Kuyck, a painter and Alderman from Antwerp.
Bolivia
In Bolivia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 27 May. El Día de la Madre Boliviana was passed into law on 8 November 1927, during the presidency of Hernando Siles Reyes. The date commemorates the Battle of La Coronilla, which took place on 27 May 1812, during the Bolivian War of Independence, in what is now the city of Cochabamba. In this battle, women fighting for the country's independence were slaughtered by the Spanish army. It is not a festive day, but all schools hold activities and festivities throughout the day.[contradiction][16]
Brazil
In Brazil, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.
The first Mother's Day in Brazil was promoted by Associação Cristã de Moços de Porto Alegre (Young Men's Christian Association of Porto Alegre) on 12 May 1918. In 1932, then President Getúlio Vargas made the second Sunday of May the official date for Mother's Day. In 1947, Archbishop Jaime de Barros Câmara, Cardinal-Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro, decided that this holiday would also be included in the official calendar of the Catholic Church.
Mother's Day is not an official holiday (see Public holidays in Brazil), but it is widely observed and typically involves spending time with and giving gifts to one's mother. Because of this, it is considered one of the celebrations most related to consumerism in the country, second only to Christmas Day as the most commercially lucrative holiday.[40]
Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, 8 March is associated with International Women's Day. The holiday honors women as human beings and equal partners.
Another Bulgarian holiday related to maternity and the family is Babinden (Bulgarian ????????), celebrated on 8 January.
Canada See also Other observances in Canada
Mother's Day cookie cake
Mother's Day in Canada is celebrated on the second Sunday in May (it is not a public holiday or bank holiday), and typically involves small celebrations and gift-giving to one's mother, grandmother, or other important female figures in one's family. Celebratory practices are very similar to those of other western nations, such as Australia, the United Kingdom the United States of America and Ireland. Many people in Canada express their gratitude towards mothers and mother figures on Mother's Day. A Québécois tradition is for Québécois men to offer roses or other flowers to the women.
China
Mother's Day is becoming more popular in China. Carnations are a very popular Mother's Day gift and the most sold flowers in relation to the day.[41] In 1997 Mother's Day was set as the day to help poor mothers and to remind people of the poor mothers in rural areas such as China's western region.[41] In the People's Daily, the Chinese government's official newspaper, an article explained that "despite originating in the United States, people in China accept the holiday without hesitation because it is in line with the country's traditional ethics – respect for the elderly and filial piety towards parents."[41]
In recent years, the Communist Party member Li Hanqiu began to advocate for the official adoption of Mother's Day in memory of Meng Mu, the mother of Mèng Zi. He formed a non-governmental organization called Chinese Mothers' Festival Promotion Society, with the support of 100 Confucian scholars and lecturers of ethics.[42][43] Li and the Society want to replace the Western-style gift of carnations with lilies, which, in ancient times, were planted by Chinese mothers when children left home.[43] Mother's Day remains an unofficial festival, except in a small number of cities.
Cyprus
Mother's Day in Cyprus is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.
Czech Republic
In the Czech Republic, Mother's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May. It started in former Czechoslovakia in 1923.[23] The promoter of this celebration was Alice Masaryková.[23] After World War II communists replaced Mother's Day with International Woman's Day, celebrated on 8 March.[23] The former Czechoslovakia celebrated Women's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989.[23] After the split of the country in 1993, the Czech Republic started celebrating Mother's Day again.[23]
Estonia
In Estonia, Mother's Day (emadepäev in Estonian) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, but is not a public holiday.[44]
France
In France, amidst alarm at the low birth rate, there were attempts in 1896 and 1904 to create a national celebration honoring the mothers of large families.[45] In 1906 ten mothers who had nine children each were given an award recognising "High Maternal Merit" ("Haut mérite maternel").[46] American World War I soldiers fighting in France popularized the US Mother's Day holiday created by Anna Jarvis. They sent so much mail back to their country for Mother's Day that the Union Franco-Américaine created a postal card for that purpose.[45] In 1918, also inspired by Jarvis, the town of Lyon wanted to celebrate a "journée des Mères", but instead decided to celebrate a "Journée Nationale des Mères de familles nombreuses." The holiday was more inspired by anti-depopulation efforts than by the US holiday, with medals awarded to the mothers of large families.[45] The French government made the day official in 1920 as a day for mothers of large families.[47] Since then the French government awards the Médaille de la Famille française to mothers of large families.
In 1941, by initiative of Philippe Pétain, the wartime Vichy government used the celebration in support of their policy to encourage larger families, but all mothers were now honored, even mothers with smaller families.[47]
In 1950, after the war, the celebration was reinstated. The law of 24 May 1950 required that the Republic pay official homage to French Mothers on the last Sunday in May as the "Fête des Mères" (except when Pentecost fell on that day, in which case it was moved to the first Sunday in June).[citation needed]
During the 1950s, the celebration lost all its patriotic and natalist ideologies, and became heavily commercialized.[45]
In 1956, the celebration was given a budget and integrated into the new Code de l'action sociale et des familles.[citation needed] In 2004 responsibility for the holiday was transferred to the Minister responsible for families.[citation needed]
Germany
Mother's Day cake in Germany
In the 1920s, Germany had the lowest birthrate in Europe, and the declining trend was continuing. This was attributed to women's participation in the labor market. At the same time, influential groups in society (politicians of left and right, churchwomen, and feminists) believed that mothers should be honored but could not agree on how to do so. However, all groups strongly agreed on the promotion of the values of motherhood. In 1923, this resulted in the unanimous adoption of Muttertag, the Mother's Day holiday as imported from America[citation needed] and Norway. The head of the Association of German Florists cited "the inner conflict of our Volk and the loosening of the family" as his reason for introducing the holiday. He expected that the holiday would unite the divided country. In 1925, the Mother's Day Committee joined the task force for the recovery of the volk, and the holiday stopped depending on commercial interests and began emphasizing the need to increase the population in Germany by promoting motherhood.[48]
The holiday was then seen as a means to encourage women to bear more children, which nationalists saw as a way to rejuvenate the nation. The holiday did not celebrate individual women, but an idealized standard of motherhood. The progressive forces resisted the implementation of the holiday because it was backed by so many conservatives, and because they saw it as a way to eliminate the rights of working women. Die Frau, the newspaper of the Federation of German Women's Associations, refused to recognize the holiday. Many local authorities adopted their own interpretation of the holiday: it would be a day to support economically larger families or single-mother families. The guidelines for the subsidies had eugenics criteria, but there is no indication that social workers ever implemented them in practice, and subsidies were given preferentially to families in economic need rather than to families with more children or "healthier" children.[48]
With the Nazi party in power during 1933–1945, the situation changed radically. The promotion of Mother's Day increased in many European countries, including the UK and France. From the position of the German Nazi government, the role of mothers was to give healthy children to the German nation. The Nazi party's intention was to create a pure "Aryan race" according to nazi eugenics. Among other Mother's Day ideas, the government promoted the death of a mother's sons in battle as the highest embodiment of patriotic motherhood.[48][49]
The Nazis quickly declared Mother's Day an official holiday and put it under the control of the NSV (National Socialist People's Welfare Association) and the NSF (National Socialist Women Organization). This created conflicts with other organizations that resented Nazi control of the holiday, including Catholic and Protestant churches and local women's organizations. Local authorities resisted the guidelines from the Nazi government and continued assigning resources to families who were in economic need, much to the dismay of the Nazi officials.[48]
Mother's Day in UNRRA camp Germany in 1946
In 1938 the government began issuing an award called Mother's Cross (Mutterkreuz), according to categories that depended on the number of children a mother had. The medal was awarded on Mother's Day and also on other holidays due to the large number of recipients. The Cross was an effort to encourage women to have more children, and recipients were required to have at least four. For example, a gold cross recipient (level one) was obliged to have eight children or more. Because having fewer children was a recent development, the gold cross was awarded mainly to elderly mothers with adult children. The Cross promoted loyalty among German women and was a popular award even though it had little material reward and was mostly empty praise. The recipients of honors were compelled to be examined by doctors and social workers according to genetic and racial values that were considered beneficial. The mother's friends and family were also examined for possible flaws that could disqualify the mother, and they also had to be "racially and morally fit." They had to be "German-blooded," "genetically healthy," "worthy," "politically reliable," and could not have vices like drinking. Criteria that weighed against honors were, for example, "family history contains inferior blood", "unfeminine" behavior including smoking or doing poor housekeeping, not being "politically reliable", or having family members who had been "indicted and imprisoned". There were instances where a family was disqualified because a doctor saw signs of "feeblemindedness". Even contact with a Jew could disqualify a potential recipient. Some social workers had become disillusioned from the Weimar Republic and supported Nazi ideas personally as a means to "cure" the problems of the country. The application of policies was uneven, as doctors promoted medical criteria over racial criteria, and local authorities promoted economic need over any other criteria.[48][49]
The holiday is now celebrated on the second Sunday of May, in a manner similar to other nearby European countries.
Greece
Mother's Day in Greece is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.
By country (H–M)
In Iceland, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.
Hungary
In Hungary, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. It was first celebrated in 1925 by the Hungarian Red Cross Youth.
India
The modern Mother's Day has been assimilated into Indian culture,[50] and it is celebrated every year on the second Sunday of May.[51] Indians do not celebrate the occasion as a religious event and it is celebrated mostly in urban centers while a majority of the population still remains unaware of a formal Mother's Day.
Indonesia
Indonesian Mother's Day (Indonesian: Hari Ibu) is celebrated nationally on 22 December. The date was made an official holiday by President Soekarno under Presidential Decree (Indonesian: Dekrit Presiden) no. 316 in 1953, on the 25th anniversary of the 1928 Indonesian Women Congress. The day originally sought to celebrate the spirit of Indonesian women and to improve the condition of the nation. Today, the meaning of Mother's Day has changed, and it is celebrated by expressing love and gratitude to mothers. People present gifts to mothers (such as flowers) and hold surprise parties and competitions, which include cooking and kebaya wearing. People also allow mothers a day off from domestic chores.[52]
The holiday is celebrated on the anniversary of the opening day of the first Indonesian Women Congress (Indonesian: Kongres Perempuan Indonesia), which was held from 22 to 25 December 1928.[32][53] The Congress took place in a building called Dalem Jayadipuran, which now serves as the office of the Center of History and Traditional Values Preservation (Indonesian: Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional) in Brigjen Katamso Street, Yogyakarta. The Congress was attended by 30 feminist organizations from 12 cities in Java and Sumatra. In Indonesia, feminist organizations have existed since 1912, inspired by Indonesian heroines of the 19th century, e.g., Kartini, Martha Christina Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Meutia, Maria Walanda Maramis, Dewi Sartika, Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, Rasuna Said, etc.[32] The Congress intended to improve women's rights in education and marriage.[54]
Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (Indonesian: Hari Kartini) on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women.[53] The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress.[54]
During President Suharto's New Order (1965-1998), government propaganda used Mother's Day and Kartini Day to inculcate into women the idea that they should be docile and stay at home.[54]
Iran
In Iran, Mother's Day is celebrated on 20 Jumada al-thani. This is the sixth month in the Islamic calendar (a lunar calendar) and every year the holiday falls on a different day of the Gregorian calendar. This is the birthday anniversary of Fatimah,[34][55] Prophet Muhammad's only daughter according to Shia Islam orthodoxy. Mother's Day was originally observed on 16 December but the date was changed after the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The celebration is both Women's Day (replacing International Women's Day) and Mother's Day.[34][56]
In 1960, the Institute for Women Protection adopted the Western holiday and established it on 25 Azar (16 December) of the Iranian official calendar, the date the Institute was founded. The Institute's action had the support of Queen Farah Pahlavi, the wife of the last Shah of Persia, who promoted the construction of maternity clinics in remote parts of the country to commemorate the day. The government used the holiday to promote its maternalist view of women. The Shah's government honored and gave awards to women who represented the idealized view of the regime, including mothers who had many healthy children.[57]
The Islamic Republic government is accused of using the holiday as a tool to undercut feminist movements and to promote role models for the traditional concept of family. Fatimah is seen by these critics as the chosen model of a woman completely dedicated to certain traditionally sanctioned feminine roles.[34][58][59] However, supporters of the choice contend that there is much more to her life story than simply such "traditional" roles.
In Islamic and especially Shia religious culture, Fatimah is seen as the ideal model of womanhood. She was daughter (to the Prophet), wife (to Ali, the first Shia Imam and Prophet's successor, and historically the fourth caliph), and mother (to Hasan ibn Ali and Hussein ibn Ali, the second and third Shia Imams, and to Zaynab bint Ali). She is seen to be ideally dedicated to the defining roles of wifehood and motherhood and, at the same time, assimilating the autonomous and assertive qualities that are sometimes associated with her daughter, Zaynab (in the latter regard, Fatimah is particularly noted for her tragic leadership in the brief interval between her father's passing away and her own, during which, according to Shia accounts, both her husband's right to Caliphate, i.e. Succession to Muhammad, and her own inheritance—the garden of Fadak—were forcefully taken away).
Israel
The Jewish population celebrates Mother's Day on Shevat 30 of the Jewish calendar, which falls between 30 January and 1 March. The celebration was set as the same date that Henrietta Szold died. Henrietta had no biological children, but her organization Youth Aliyah rescued many Jewish children from Nazi Germany and provided for them. She also championed children's rights. Szold is considered the "mother" of all those children, and that is why her annual remembrance day (??? ????) was set as Mother's Day (???? ?????, yom ha'em). The holiday has evolved over time, becoming a celebration of mutual love inside the family, called Family Day (???? ?????????????, yom hamishpacha). Mother's Day is mainly celebrated by children at kindergartens. There are no longer mutual gifts among members of the family, and there is no longer any commercialization of the celebration. It is not an official holiday either.[33]
Ireland
In Ireland, Mother's Day is celebrated on Mothering Sunday, the fourth Sunday in Lent.
Italy
Mother's Day in Italy was celebrated for the first time on 12 May 1957, in the city of Assisi, thanks to the initiative of Rev. Otello Migliosi, parish priest of the Tordibetto church.[60] This celebration was so successful that the following year Mother's Day was adopted throughout Italy. In 18 December 1958 a proposal was presented to the Italian Senate to make official the holiday.[61] It is celebrated on the second Sunday in May.
Japan
In Japan, Mother's Day (??? Haha no Hi?) was initially commemorated during the Showa period as the birthday of Empress Kojun (mother of Emperor Akihito) on 6 March. This was established in 1931 when the Imperial Women's Union was organized. In 1937, the first meeting of "Praise Mothers" was held on 8 May, and in 1949 Japanese society adopted the second Sunday of May as the official date for Mother's Day in Japan. Currently Mother's Day in Japan is a rather commercial holiday, and people typically give their mothers gifts of flowers such as red carnations and roses.
Kyrgyzstan
In Kyrgyzstan, Mother's Day is celebrated on 19 May every year. The holiday was first celebrated in 2012.[62] Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day.
Latvia
Mother's Day in Latvia was celebrated for the first time in 1922. Since 1934, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.[63] After the end of the soviet occupation of Baltic states celebration was resumed in 1992.[64] Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day.
Malta
The first mention of Mother's Day in Malta occurred during the Radio Children's Programmes run by Frans H. Said in May 1961. Within a few years, Mother's Day became one of the most popular dates in the Maltese calendar. In Malta, this day is commemorated on the second Sunday in May. Mothers are invariably given gifts and invited for lunch, usually at a good quality restaurant.
Mexico
See also: Public holidays in Mexico § Festivities
In Mexico, the government of Álvaro Obregón imported the Mother's Day holiday from the US in 1922, and the newspaper Excélsior held a massive promotional campaign for the holiday that year.[65] The conservative government tried to use the holiday to promote a more conservative role for mothers in families, but that perspective was criticized by the socialists as promoting an unrealistic image of a woman who was not good for much more than breeding.[65]
In the mid-1930s, the leftist government of Lázaro Cárdenas promoted the holiday as a "patriotic festival". The Cárdenas government tried to use the holiday as a vehicle for various efforts: to stress the importance of families as the basis for national development; to benefit from the loyalty that Mexicans felt towards their mothers; to introduce new morals to Mexican women; and to reduce the influence that the church and the Catholic right exerted over women.[66] The government sponsored the holiday in the schools.[66] However, ignoring the strict guidelines from the government, theatre plays were filled with religious icons and themes. Consequently, the "national celebrations" became "religious fiestas" despite the efforts of the government.[66]
Soledad Orozco García, the wife of President Manuel Ávila Camacho, promoted the holiday during the 1940s, resulting in an important state-sponsored celebration.[67] The 1942 celebration lasted a full week and included an announcement that all women could reclaim their pawned sewing machines from the Monte de Piedad at no cost.[67]
Due to Orozco's promotion, the Catholic National Synarchist Union (UNS) took heed of the holiday around 1941.[68] Shop-owner members of the Party of the Mexican Revolution (now the Institutional Revolutionary Party) observed a custom allowing women from humble classes to pick a free Mother's Day gift from a shop to bring home to their families. The Synarchists worried that this promoted both materialism and the idleness of lower classes, and in turn, reinforced the systemic social problems of the country.[69] Currently this holiday practice is viewed as very conservative, but the 1940s' UNS saw Mother's Day as part of the larger debate on the modernization that was happening at the time.[70] This economic modernization was inspired by US models and was sponsored by the state. The fact that the holiday was originally imported from the US was seen as evidence of an attempt at imposing capitalism and materialism in Mexican society.[70]
The UNS and the clergy of the city of León interpreted the government's actions as an effort to secularize the holiday and to promote a more active role for women in society. They concluded that the government's long-term goal was to cause women to abandon their traditional roles at home in order to spiritually weaken men.[70] They also saw the holiday as an attempt to secularize the cult to the Virgin Mary, inside a larger effort to dechristianize several holidays. The government sought to counter these claims by organizing widespread masses and asking religious women to assist with the state-sponsored events in order to "depaganize" them.[71] The clergy preferred to promote 2 July celebration of the Santísima Virgen de la Luz, the patron of León, Guanajuato, in replacement of Mother's Day.[68] In 1942, at the same time as Soledad's greatest celebration of Mother's Day, the clergy organized the 210th celebration of the Virgin Mary with a large parade in León.[71]
There is a consensus among scholars that the Mexican government abandoned its revolutionary initiatives during the 1940s, including its efforts to influence Mother's Day.[68]
Today the "Día de las Madres" is an unofficial holiday in Mexico held each year on 10 May,[72] because it's the date when it was first celebrated in Mexico.
In Mexico, to show affection and appreciation to the mother, it is traditional to start the celebration with the famous song "Las Mañanitas", either a cappella, with the help of a mariachi or a contracted trio. Many families usually gather to celebrate this special day trying to spend as much time as possible with mothers in order to honor them on their day. They are organized to bring some dishes and eat all together or maybe to visit any restaurant. Also, mothers receive flowers, gifts, and multiple stores offer their goods discounted in order to stimulate purchases.
By country (N–S)
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, Mother's Day was introduced as early as 1910 by the Dutch branch of the Salvation Army.[73] The Royal Dutch Society for Horticulture and Botany, a group protecting the interest of Dutch florists, worked to promote the holiday; they hoped to emulate the commercial success achieved by American florists.[74] They were imitating the campaign already underway by florists in Germany and Austria, but they were aware that the traditions had originated in the US.[74]
Florists launched a major promotional effort in 1925. This included the publication of a book of articles written by famous intellectuals, radio broadcasts, newspapers ads, and the collaboration of priests and teachers who wanted to promote the celebration for their own reasons.[74] In 1931 the second Sunday of May was adopted as the official celebration date. In the mid-1930s the slogan Moederdag - Bloemendag (Mother's Day - Flowers' Day) was coined, and the phrase was popular for many years.[75] In the 1930s and 1940's "Mother's Day cakes" were given as gifts in hospitals and to the Dutch Queen, who is known as the "mother of the country".[75] Other trade groups tried to cash in on the holiday and to give new meaning to the holiday in order to promote their own wares as gifts.[75]
Roman Catholic priests complained that the holiday interfered with the honoring of the Virgin Mary, the divine mother, which took place during the whole month of May. In 1926 Mother's Day was celebrated on 7 July in order to address these complaints.[76] Catholic organizations and priests tried to Christianize the holiday, but those attempts were rendered futile around the 1960s when the church lost influence and the holiday was completely secularized.[76]
In later years, the initial resistance disappeared, and even leftist newspapers stopped their criticism and endorsed Mother's Day.[77]
In the 1980s, the American origin of the holiday was still not widely known, so feminist groups who opposed the perpetuation of gender roles sometimes claimed that Mother's Day was invented by Nazis and celebrated on the birthday of Klara Hitler, Hitler's mother.[78]
Nepal
In Nepal, there is a festival equivalent to Mother's Day, called Mata Tirtha Aunsi ("Mother Pilgrimage New Moon"), or Mata Tirtha Puja ("Mother Pilgrimage Worship"). It is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. It falls on the last day of the dark fortnight in the month of Baishakh which falls in April–May (in 2015, it will occur on 18 April). The dark fortnight lasts for 15 days from the full moon to the new moon. This festival is observed to commemorate and honor mothers, and it is celebrated by giving gifts to mothers and remembering mothers who are no more.
To honor mothers who have died, it is the tradition to go on a pilgrimage to the Mata Tirtha ponds, located 6 km to the southwest of downtown Kathmandu. The nearby Mata Tirtha village is named after these ponds. Previously, the tradition was observed primarily by the Newar community and other people living in the Kathmandu Valley. Now this festival is widely celebrated across the country.
Many tragic folklore legends have been created, suggesting different reasons why this pond became a pilgrimage site. The most popular version says that, in ancient times, the mother of a shepherd died, and he made offerings to a nearby pond. There he saw the face of his mother in the water, with her hand taking the offerings. Since then, many people visited the pond, hoping to see their deceased mother's face. Pilgrims believe that they will bring peace to their mother's souls by visiting the sacred place. There are two ponds. The larger one is for ritual bathing. The smaller one is used to "look upon mother's face", and it's fenced by iron bars to prevent people from bathing on it.[79]
Traditionally, in the Katmandu valley the South-Western corner is reserved for women and women-related rituals, and the North-Eastern is for men and men-related rituals. The worship place for Mata Tirtha Aunsi is located in Mata Tirtha in the South-Western half of the valley, while the worship place for Gokarna Aunsi, the equivalent celebration for deceased fathers, is located in Gokarna, Nepal, in the North-Eastern half. This division is reflected in many aspects of the life in Katmandu valley.[80]
Mother's Day is known as Aama ko Mukh Herne Din in Nepali, which literally means "day to see mother's face". In Nepal Bhasa, the festival is known as Mam ya Khwa Swayegu, which can be translated as "to look upon mother's face".
New Zealand
In New Zealand, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother's Day is not a public holiday. The New Zealand tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed.[citation needed]
Nicaragua
In Nicaragua, the Día de la Madre has been celebrated on 30 May since the early 1940s. The date was chosen by President Anastasio Somoza García because it was the birthday of Casimira Sacasa, his wife's mother.[28]
Maldives
In Maldives, Mother's Day is celebrated on 13 May. The day is celebrated in different ways. Children give gifts and spend time with their mothers. Daughters give their mothers cards and handmade gifts and son's give their mothers gifts and flowers. Maldivians love to celebrate Mother's day, and they have it specially written on their calendar.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. Media channels celebrate with special shows. Individuals honor their mothers by giving gifts and commemorative articles. Individuals who have lost their mothers pray and pay their respects to their loved ones lost. Schools hold special programs in order to acknowledge the efforts of their mothers. But not only one day.
Panama
In Panama, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 December, the same day as the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. This date was suggested in 1930 by the wife of Panama's President Florencio Harmodio Arosemena. 8 December was adopted as Mother's Day under Law 69, which was passed the same year.[31]
According to another account, in 1924 the Rotary Club of Panama asked that Mother's Day be celebrated on 11 May. Politician Aníbal D. Ríos changed the proposal, so that the celebration would be held on 8 December. He then established Mother's Day as a national holiday on that date.[81]
Palestine
Palestinians celebrate Mother's Day on 21 March, similar to other Arab countries.
Paraguay
In Paraguay, Mother's Day is celebrated on 15 May, the same day as the Dia de la Patria, which celebrates the independence of Paraguay.[26] This date was chosen to honor the role played by Juana María de Lara in the events of 14 May 1811 that led to Paraguay's independence.[82]
In 2008, the Paraguayan Minister of Culture, Bruno Barrios, lamented this coincidence because, in Paraguay, Mother's Day is much more popular than independence day and the independence celebration goes unnoticed. As a result, Barrios asked that the celebration be moved to the end of the month.[83] A group of young people attempted to gather 20,000 signatures to ask the Parliament to move Mother's Day.[83] In 2008 the Comisión de festejos (Celebration Committee) of the city of Asunción asked that Mother's Day be moved to the second Sunday of May.[84]
Philippines
In the Philippines, Mother's Day is officially celebrated every first Monday of December, together with Father's Day, but it is not a public holiday.[85] Although not a traditional Filipino holiday, the occasion owes its popularity to American influence, and is thus more commonly celebrated every second Sunday of May like in the United States.
According to a 2008 article by the Philippine News Agency, in 1921 the Ilocos Norte Federation of Women's Clubs asked to declare the first Monday of December as Mother's Day "to honor these fabulous women who brought forth God’s children into this world." In response, Governor-General Charles Yeater issued Circular No. 33 declaring the celebration. In 1937 President Manuel L. Quezon issued Presidential Proclamation No. 213, changing the name of the occasion from "Mother's Day" to "Parent's Day" to address the complaints that there wasn't a "Father's Day". In 1980 President Ferdinand Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation No. 2037 proclaiming the date as both Mother's Day and Father's Day. In 1988 President Corazon Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation No. 266, changing Mother's Day to the second Sunday of May, and Father's Day to the third Sunday of June, discontinuing the traditional date.[86] In 1998 President Joseph Estrada returned both celebrations to the first Monday of December.[85]
A Filipina mother is called the "light of the household" around which all activities revolve, and in accordance with Filipino culture, is the object of filial piety. Common practices include treating mothers and mother-figures to meals out, strolling in a park or shopping at malls, or giving mothers time to pamper themselves. Most families celebrate at home, with children doing household chores that the mother routinely handles such as preparing food, or giving mothers small handcrafted tokens such as cards.
Poland
In Poland, "Dzien Matki" ("Mother's Day") is celebrated on 26 May.
Portugal
In Portugal, the "Dia da Mãe" ("Mother's Day") is an unofficial holiday held each year on the first Sunday of May (sometimes coinciding with Labour Day).
Romania
In Romania, since 2010, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May.[87] Law 319/2009 made both Mother's Day and Father's Day official holidays in Romania. The measure was passed thanks to campaign efforts from the Alliance Fighting Discrimination Against Fathers (TATA).[87] Previously, Mother's Day was celebrated on 8 March, as part of International Women's Day (a tradition from the days when Romania was part of the communist block). Now Mother's Day and Women's Day are two separate holidays, with Women's Day keeping its original date of 8 March.
Russia
Main article: International Women's Day
In Russia, the Mother's Day holiday was established in 1998 by law initiated by "Committee on Women, Family and Youth" of the State Duma. The initiative belongs to Alevtina Viktorovna Aparina, State Duma deputy and a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. Since 1998, Mother's Day is celebrated on the last Sunday of November.
Traditionally Russia had celebrated International Women's Day and Mother's Day on 8 March, an inheritance from the Soviet Union, and a public holiday.[88]
Women's Day was first celebrated in 1913 and in 1914 was proclaimed as the "day of struggle" for working women.
In 1917, demonstrations marking International Women's Day in Saint Petersburg on the last Sunday in February (which fell on 8 March on the Gregorian calendar) initiated the February Revolution. Following the October Revolution later that year, the Bolshevik Alexandra Kollontai persuaded Vladimir Lenin to make it an official holiday in the Soviet Union, and it was established, but was a working day until 1965.
On 8 May 1965, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, International Women's Day was declared a non-working day in the Soviet Union "in commemoration of the outstanding merits of Soviet women in communistic construction, in the defense of their Fatherland during the Great Patriotic War, in their heroism and selflessness at the front and in the rear, and also marking the great contribution of women to strengthening friendship between peoples, and the struggle for peace. But still, women's day must be celebrated as are other holidays."[89]
Samoa
In Samoa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May, and as a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.
Singapore
In Singapore, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. The day is celebrated by individuals but not recognized as a holiday by the government. Many companies offer special products and services for the day.
Slovakia
Czechoslovakia celebrated only Women's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After the country split in 1993, Slovakia started celebrating both Women's Day and Mother's Day. The politicization of Women's Day has affected the official status of Mother's Day. Center-right parties want Mother's Day to replace Women's Day, and social-democrats want to make Women's Day an official holiday. Currently, both days are festive, but they are not "state holidays". In the Slovak Republic, Mother's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May.[23]
South Sudan
In South Sudan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Monday in July. The president Salva Kiir Mayardit proclaimed Mother's Day as the first Monday in July after handing over from Sudan. Children in South Sudan are presenting mothers with gifts and flowers. The first Mother's Day was held in that country on 2 July 2012.
Spain
In Spain, Mother's Day or Día de la Madre is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day to prepare a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts by their family members & this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It is also said to be celebrated in May, as May is the month dedicated to the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus) according to Catholicism.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, Mother's Day is celebrated every year on the second Sunday of May. Although relatively new to Sri Lanka, this occasion is now becoming more popular, and more people now honor their mothers on this day. Mother's Day is celebrated by individuals but is not yet recognized as a holiday on the government calendar. However, the day has a commercial importance with many companies that offer special products and services for the day.
Sweden
In Sweden, Mother's Day was first celebrated in 1919, by initiative of the author Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg. It took several decades for the day to be widely recognized. Swedes born in the early nineteen hundreds typically did not celebrate the day because of the common belief that the holiday was invented strictly for commercial purposes. This was in contrast to Father's Day, which has been widely celebrated in Sweden since the late 1970s. Mother's Day in Sweden is celebrated on the last Sunday in May. A later date was chosen to allow everyone to go outside and pick flowers.
Switzerland
In Switzerland, the "règle de Pentecôte" law allows Mother's Day to be celebrated a week late if the holiday falls on the same day as Pentecost. In 2008, merchants declined to move the date.[90]
By country (T–Z)
Taiwan
In Taiwan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of the month of May, coinciding with Buddha's birthday and the traditional ceremony of "washing the Buddha". In 1999 the Taiwanese government established the second Sunday of May as Buddha's birthday, so they would be celebrated in the same day.[91][92]
Since 2006,[93] the Tzu Chi, the largest charity organization in Taiwan, celebrates the Tzu Chi Day, Mother's Day and Buddha's birthday all together, as part of a unified celebration and religious observance.[94][95][96]
Thailand
Mother's day in Thailand is celebrated on the birthday of the Queen of Thailand, Queen Sirikit (12 August).[97] The holiday was first celebrated around the 1980s as part of the campaign by the Prime Minister of Thailand Prem Tinsulanonda to promote Thailand's Royal family.[98] Father's Day is celebrated on the King's birthday.[98]
Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago celebrates Mother's Day on the second Sunday of May.
Tunisia
Tunisia celebrates Mother's Day ("??? ????") on the last Sunday of May.
Turkey
Turkey celebrates Mother's Day ("Anneler günü", literally "Mothers' Day") on the second Sunday of May.
Ukraine
Ukraine celebrates Mother's Day (Ukrainian: ???? ??????) on the second Sunday of May. In Ukraine, Mother's Day officially became a holiday only in 1999[99] and is celebrated since 2000. Since then Ukrainian society struggles to transition the main holiday that recognizes woman from the International Women's Day (a holiday embraced in the USSR and that remained as a legacy in Ukraine after its collapse) to Mother's Day.
United Kingdom
Main article: Mothering Sunday
Balloons outside, in the week before Mothering Sunday 2008
The United Kingdom celebrates Mothering Sunday, which falls on the fourth Sunday of Lent (15 March in 2015). This holiday has its roots in the church and was originally unrelated to the American holiday.[5][100] Most historians believe that Mothering Sunday evolved from the 16th-century Christian practice of visiting one's mother church annually on Laetare Sunday.[5] As a result of this tradition, most mothers were reunited with their children on this day when young apprentices and young women in service were released by their masters for that weekend. As a result of the influence of the American Mother's Day, Mothering Sunday transformed into the tradition of showing appreciation to one's mother. Commercialization and secularization further eroded the concept, and most people now see the holiday only as a day to make a gift to their mothers.[citation needed] The holiday is still recognized in the original historical sense by many churches, with attention paid to Mary the mother of Jesus Christ and the concept of the Mother Church.
The custom was still popular by the start of the 19th century, but with the Industrial Revolution, traditions changed and the Mothering Day customs declined.[100] By 1935, Mothering Sunday was less celebrated in Europe.[citation needed] Constance Penswick-Smith worked unsuccessfully to revive the festival in the 1910s–1920s. However, US World War II soldiers brought the US Mother's Day celebration to the UK,[101] and the holiday was merged with the Mothering Sunday traditions still celebrated in the Church of England.[102] By the 1950s, the celebration became popular again in the whole of the UK, thanks to the efforts of UK merchants, who saw in the festival a great commercial opportunity.[102] People from UK started celebrating Mother's Day on the fourth Sunday of Lent, the same day on which Mothering Sunday had been celebrated for centuries. Some Mothering Sunday traditions were revived, such as the tradition of eating cake on that day, although celebrants now eat simnel cake instead of the cakes that were traditionally prepared at that time.[citation needed] The traditions of the two holidays are now mixed together and celebrated on the same day, although many people are not aware that the festivities have quite separate origins.[103]
Mothering Sunday can fall at the earliest on 1 March (in years when Easter Day falls on 22 March) and at the latest on 4 April (when Easter Day falls on 25 April).
For many people in the United Kingdom, Mother's Day is now the time of year to celebrate and buy gifts of chocolate or flowers for their mothers as a way to thank them for all they do throughout the year.
United States
Main article: Mother's Day (United States)
Prince Harry, Michelle Obama and Jill Biden helping children create Mother's Day cards at the White House, 9 May 2013
Handmade Mother's Day gifts
The United States celebrates Mother's Day on the second Sunday in May. In 1872 Julia Ward Howe called for women to join in support of disarmament and asked for 2 June 1872, to be established as a "Mother's Day for Peace".[104] Her 1870 "Appeal to womanhood throughout the world" is sometimes referred to as Mother's Day Proclamation. But Howe's day was not for honoring mothers but for organizing pacifist mothers against war. In the 1880s and 1890s there were several further attempts to establish an American "Mother's Day", but these did not succeed beyond the local level.[104] The current holiday was created by Anna Jarvis in Grafton, West Virginia in 1908 as a day to honor one's mother.[12] Jarvis wanted to accomplish her mother's dream of making a celebration for all mothers, although the idea did not take off until she enlisted the services of wealthy Philadelphia merchant John Wanamaker, who celebrated it on 8 May 1910 in Bethany Temple Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, PA of which he was the founder. In a letter to the pastor, she said it was, "our first Mother's Day".[105] Jarvis kept promoting the holiday until President Woodrow Wilson made the day an official national holiday in 1914.[104]
The holiday eventually became so highly commercialized that many, including its founder, Anna Jarvis, considered it a "Hallmark holiday," i.e. one with an overwhelming commercial purpose. Jarvis eventually ended up opposing the holiday she had helped to create.[12][70] This economic modernization was inspired by US models and was sponsored by the state. She died in 1948, regretting what had become of her holiday.[105] In the United States, Mother's Day remains one of the biggest days for sales of flowers, greeting cards, and the like; Mother's Day is also the biggest holiday for long-distance telephone calls.[106] Moreover, churchgoing is also popular on Mother's Day, yielding the highest church attendance after Christmas Eve and Easter.[107] Many worshipers celebrate the day with carnations, colored if the mother is living and white if she is dead.[107]
Commercialization
Nine years after the first official United States Mother's Day, commercialization of the holiday became so rampant that Anna Jarvis herself became a major opponent of what the holiday had become and spent all her inheritance and the rest of her life fighting what she saw as an abuse of the celebration.[12]
Later commercialization and other exploitations of Mother's Day infuriated Jarvis and she made her criticisms explicitly known the rest of her life.[12][108] She criticized the practice of purchasing greeting cards, which she saw as a sign of being too lazy to write a personal letter. She was arrested in 1948 for disturbing the peace while protesting against the commercialization of Mother's Day, and she finally said that she regretted having started it.[108]
Mother's Day continues to be one of the most commercially successful U.S. occasions.
It is possible that the holiday would have withered over time without the support and continuous promotion of the florist industries and other commercial industries. Other Protestant holidays from the same time, such as Children's Day and Temperance Sunday, do not have the same level of popularity.[109] Mother's Day is also prominent in the Sunday comic strips in the newspapers of the United States, expressing emotions ranging from sentimental to wry to caustic.
See also
Portal icon Holidays portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mother's Day.
Father's Day International Mother's Day Shrine International Women's Day May crowning National Grandparents Day Mothers in space
Notes
Footnotes
1.Jump up ^ Since the Islamic Calendar uses the lunar year, which is shorter than the solar year, the day migrates through the seasons. Each year it falls a different day in the Gregorian Calendar, so it is listed separately.
Citations
Enstam, Elizabeth York. “The Dallas equal suffrage association, political style, and popular culture: grassroots strategies of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1913-1919.” Journal of Southern History 68.4 (2002):817+. Student Resources in Context. Web. 14 Nov. 2014.
References
1.Jump up ^ L. James Grold (April 1968), "Mother's Day", American Journal of Psychiatry 124: 1456–1458, "Mother's Day, conceived by Anna Jarvis to honor unselfish mothers (...) Although there is no direct lineal descent to our modern Mother's Day custom, secular and religious motherhood have existed for thousands of years 10 May 1908: the first church – St. Andrew's in Grafton, West Virginia – responded to her request for a Sunday service honoring mothers . Cybele (...)" 2.Jump up ^ Tad Tuleja (1999), Curious Customs: The Stories Behind 296 Popular American Rituals, Galahad Books, p. 167, ISBN 9781578660704 , "Although attempts have been made to link Mother's Day to ancient cults of the mother goddess, especially the worship of Cybele, the association is more conceptual than historic. Mother's Day is a modern, American invention." 3.Jump up ^ Robert J. Myers, Hallmark Cards (1972), Celebrations; the complete book of American holidays, Doubleday, p. 143, "Our observance of Mother's Day is little more than half a century old [this was written in 1972], yet the nature of the holiday makes it seem as if it had its roots in prehistoric times. Many antiquarians, holiday enthusiasts, and students of folklore have claimed to find the source Mother's Day in the ancient spring festivals dedicated to the mother goddess, particularly the worship of Cybele." 4.Jump up ^ Helsloot 2007, p. 208 "The American origin of the Day, however, was duly acknowledged. 'The idea is imported,. America led the way.'" 5.^ Jump up to: a b c d "Mothering Sunday", BBC, retrieved 4 March 2010 6.Jump up ^ O'Reilly, Andrea (6 April 2010). Encyclopedia of Motherhood. Sage Publications (CA). p. 602. ISBN 978-1-4522-6629-9 . "She organized the first official Mother's Day service at Andrews Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia, on the morning of May 10, 1908. That same afternoon, 15,000 people attended a Mother's Day service at the Wanamaker Store Auditorium in Philadelphia, which she also organized. Jarvis chose the second Sunday in May for Mother's Day to mark the anniversary of her mother's death and selected her mother's favorite flower, the white carnation, as the day's official emblem." 7.^ Jump up to: a b Connie Park Rice; Marie Tedesco (15 March 2015). Women of the Mountain South: Identity, Work, and Activism. Ohio University Press. pp. 29–. ISBN 978-0-8214-4522-8 . 8.Jump up ^ Mother's Day 100-year history a colorful tale of love, anger and civic unrest, Deseret News, 6 May 2014 9.^ Jump up to: a b http://www.kansas.com/2014/04/27/3424594/hallmark-celebrates-the-100th.html 10.^ Jump up to: a b http://www.deseretnews.com/article/865602516/Mothers-Day-100-year-history-a-colorful-tale-of-love-anger-and-civic-unrest.html 11.Jump up ^ Larossa, 1997, page 72(footnote 51) 12.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Louisa Taylor, Canwest News Service (11 May 2008). "Mother's Day creator likely 'spinning in her grave'". Vancouver Sun (Canada). Retrieved 7 July 2008. 13.Jump up ^ House Vote No. 274 (7 May 2008) H. Res. 1113: Celebrating the role of mothers in the United States and supporting the goals and ideals of Mother's Day (Vote On Passage) 14.Jump up ^ House Vote No. 275 (7 May 2008) Table Motion to Reconsider: H RES 1113 Celebrating the role of mothers in the United States and supporting the goals and ideals of Mother's Day 15.Jump up ^ Presidential proclamations from The American Presidency Project: 71 – Proclamation 2083 – Mother's Day Proclamation, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 3 May 1934. Proclamation 3535 Mother's Day, 1963 John F. Kennedy, 26 April 1963. Proclamation 3583 – Mother's Day, 1964 Lyndon B. Johnson, 23 April 1964 Proclamation 4437 – Mother's Day, 1976, Gerald Ford, 5 May 1976. Proclamation 5801 – Mother's Day, 1988, Ronald Reagan, 26 April 1988. Proclamation 6133 – Mother's Day, 1990, George Bush, 10 May 1990 Proclamation 6559 – Mother's Day, 1993, Bill J. Clinton, 7 May 1993. Proclamation 8253 – Mother's Day, 2008, George W. Bush, 8 May 2008.
16.^ Jump up to: a b c Sources for Bolivia: "27 de mayo: madres que inspiran valentía". Los Tiempos (in Spanish). 27 May 2009. "El Día de la Madre se nutre con la Virgen", La Razón (La Paz) (in Spanish), 27 May 2006
17.Jump up ^ Nicolette Hannam, Michelle Williams (2011), German Festivals and Traditions - Activities and Teaching Ideas for Ks3, Brilliant Publications, p. 45, ISBN 9781905780815 18.Jump up ^ Robert A. Saunders, Vlad Strukov (2010), Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation, Historical Dictionaries of Europe, Historical dictionaries of French history 78 (illustrated ed.), Scarecrow Press, p. 246, ISBN 9780810854758 19.Jump up ^ John MacIntyre (2005), The amazing mom book: real facts, tender tales, and thoughts from the heart about the most important person on Earth, Sourcebooks, p. 7, ISBN 9781402203558 , "Lebanon in the first day of Spring." 20.Jump up ^ "Días Nacionales en Chile". Retrieved 8 April 2013. 21.Jump up ^ Xinhua from China Daily (16 May 2006). "It's Mother's Day". SCUEC online. 22.Jump up ^ "Principales efemérides. Mes Mayo". Unión de Periodistas de Cuba. Retrieved 7 June 2008. 23.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Mixed emotions on Women's Day in Eastern Europe, euractiv.com, 9 March 2010 24.Jump up ^ "Calendario Cívico Escolar". Dirección Regional de Educación de Lima Metropolitana. Retrieved 7 June 2008. 25.Jump up ^ Kabita Maharana (2014-05-09). "Mother's Day 2014 to be Celebrated in US and other Countries: Best Quotes to Say 'Thank You' to Mum". International Business Times. Retrieved 2014-05-11. 26.^ Jump up to: a b Ministerio de Educación y Cultura de Paraguay, Día de la Madre (in Spanish) 27.Jump up ^ Sources: "Haiti: Main Holidays". discoverhaiti.com. Retrieved 8 July 2008. "6310.- Fêtes et Jours Fériés en Haiti" (in French). Archived from the original on 1 April 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2008.
28.^ Jump up to: a b Lic. Pedro Rafael Díaz Figueroa (27 May 1999), "El origen del Día de la Madre", El Nuevo Diario 29.^ Jump up to: a b The Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus (14 October 2009), Support for mothers remains the key priority of Belarus’ social policy 30.^ Jump up to: a b Padre Fabián Castro (3 October 2010). "El día de la madre en el mundo y en la Argentina" (in Spanish). http://padrefabian.com.ar . Retrieved 13 May 2013. "La cuestión tiene que ver con el calendario litúrgico que la Iglesia Católica utilizaba antes de la reforma producto del Concilio Vaticano II. Allí el 11 de octubre era la festividad de la Maternidad de la Virgen María. (Actualmente se celebra el 1 de enero). Con este motivo era costumbre argentina pasar la celebración litúrgica al domingo anterior o siguiente al 11. Con el lento correr de los años la tradición popular fue fijando como el tercer domingo de octubre la celebración de la Madre y las madres." 31.^ Jump up to: a b editorial (8 December 2001), "Bendita Madre", Crítica (in Spanish) 32.^ Jump up to: a b c seenthing (21 December 2010), Sejarah Perayaan Nasional Hari Ibu 22 Desembe 33.^ Jump up to: a b Sources for Israel: Gil Ronen (9 March 2010), Knesset, Emunah Mark International Women's Day, Arutz Sheva Nechemia Meyers (7 May 2004). "No Mother's Day in Israel, but mothers have real clout". j.
34.^ Jump up to: a b c d Wendy S. DeBano (2009), "Singing against Silence: Celebrating Women and Music and the Fourth Jasmine Festival", in Laudan Nooshin, Music and the Play of Power in the Middle East, North Africa and Central Asia, Soas Musicology Series (illustrated ed.), Ashgate Publishing, p. 234 (footnote 18), ISBN 9780754634577 , "In 2002, Fatemeh's birthday celebration (observed according to the hejri calendar) fell on Thursday 29 August (20 Jamadi 1423) (...) Fatemeh's birth date is also currently used to mark Mother's Day in Iran, ritually recollecting, emphasising and reinscribing her role as a loyal mother, wife and daughter. Prior to the revolution, Mother's Day was used to promote the gender ideologies of the Pahlavi regime." 35.Jump up ^ Cordelia Candelaria, Peter J. García (2004). Encyclopedia of Latino popular culture (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 375. ISBN 9780313332104 . 36.Jump up ^ Jehl, Douglas (16 April 1997). "Mustafa Amin, Liberal Editor Jailed by Nasser, Dies at 83". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 March 2013. 37.Jump up ^ "Google Argentina festeja el Día de la Madre con un nuevo doodle", nanduti.com.py (in Spanish), 17 October 2010 38.Jump up ^ Sources for Janet Heyden: "Near and Far". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2 May 1927. "A Gift for Mother". The Sun Herald. 9 May 1954.
39.Jump up ^ "Belarus celebrates Mother's Day for 15th time. The President congratulated the Belarusian mothers.", Belteleradio, 14 October 2010 40.Jump up ^ "Dia das Mães: shoppings têm promoções especiais". Retrieved 13 May 2012. 41.^ Jump up to: a b c "Mother's Day Popular in China". People's Daily. 14 May 2001. 42.Jump up ^ people.com.cn, sina.com.cn (17 June 2008). "Researchers and Experts Propose a Chinese Mother's Day". All-China Women's Federation. 43.^ Jump up to: a b "Do we need our own Mother's Day?". China Daily. 16 May 2007. 44.Jump up ^ "Pühade ja tähtpäevade seadus". Retrieved 3 March 2012. 45.^ Jump up to: a b c d Histoire de la fête des mères et celle de "l'Union fraternelle des pères de familles méritants d'Artas", Union des Familles en Europe 46.Jump up ^ Artas, berceau de la Fête des mères, mairie d'Artas 47.^ Jump up to: a b Luc Capdevila (CRHISCO – University of Rennes 2), Fabrice Virgili (IHTP – CNRS), "Guerre, femmes et nation en France (1939–1945)", in IRICE. 48.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Michelle Mouton (2007), "From Mother's Day to Forced Sterilization", From nurturing the nation to purifying the Volk: Weimar and Nazi family policy, 1918–1945, Publications of the German Historical Institute (illustrated ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 107–152, ISBN 0-521-86184-5 49.^ Jump up to: a b Ann Taylor Allen (February 1995), "Reviewed work(s): Muttertag und Mutterkreuz: Der Kult um die "Deutsche Mutter" im Nationalsozialismus, by Irmgard Weyrather", American Historical Review (Frankfurt A.m) 100 (1): 186–187, doi:10.2307/2168063 50.Jump up ^ TTN (13 March 2004). "Social change in India discussed". Times of India. "Prof Bradley Hartel from Virginia, USA, reiterated that cultural and artistic exchanges have led to a confluence of ideas and traditions between India and USA. He said that India is unique in it's [sic] adaptability of new cultures as is exemplified by integrating Valentine's Day or Mother's Day, etc, into it's [sic] list of numerous festivals despite the many protests. He stressed that many traditions are being universalised in a global world." 51.Jump up ^ Charu Amar (1 May 2009), "Kyunki saas bhi toh maa hai!", The Times of India, "Mention Mother's Day and everyone goes on a thinking spree to find the most innovative way to pamper their mommy dearest." 52.Jump up ^ Wardhani, Lynda K. (22 December 2010). "In observance of Mother's Day". The Jakarta Post. 53.^ Jump up to: a b Chilla Bulbeck (2009), Sex, Love and Feminism in the Asia Pacific: A Cross-cultural Study of Young People's Attitudes, ASAA women in Asia, Routledge, ISBN 9781134104697 54.^ Jump up to: a b c Kathryn Robinson (2009), Gender, Islam and Democracy in Indonesia, ASAA women in Asia, Routledge, pp. 3, 36, 44, 72, ISBN 9781134118830 55.Jump up ^ "Ahmadinejad highlights women's significant role in society". Presidency of The Islamic Republic of Iran News Service. 24 June 2008. Archived from the original on 16 May 2009. Retrieved 19 July 2008. "(...) the occasion of the Mother's Day marking the birthday anniversary of Hazrat Fatemeh Zahra (SA), the beloved daughter of Prophet Mohammad. The day fell on 23 June [2008]" 56.Jump up ^ Shahla Haeri (1993). "Obedience versus Autonomy: Women and Fundamentalism in Iran and Pakistan". In Martin E. Marty, R. Scott Appleby, Helen Hardacre, Everett Mendelsohn. Fundamentalisms and Society: Reclaiming the Sciences, the Family, and Education. The Fundamentalism Project 2 (2 ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780226508801 . "The more women try to engage the fundamentalists in their own discourse, negotiating and bargaining over their rights (Islamic or otherwise), the more frequently has the Islamic regime emphasized the ideal, the Fatimah model, the quintessential obedient woman. The fundamentalist regime in iran has yet to resolve its central dilemma regarding the role of women and male-female relationships: should women emulate a Zainab-autonomus and assertive-or a Fatimah-obedient and submissive? Given the logic of an Islamic marriage and the worldview it implies, the fundamentalist regime has shown a marked preference for the latter. Thus Woman's Day and Mother's Day in Iran are celebrated on the occasion of Fatimah's birth." 57.Jump up ^ Firoozeh Kashani-Sabet (2011), Conceiving Citizens: Women and the Politics of Motherhood in Iran (illustrated ed.), Oxford University Press, pp. 201–206, ISBN 9780195308860 58.Jump up ^ Mahdi, Ali Akbar (2003). "Iranian Women: Between Islamization and Globalization". Iran Encountering Globalization: Problems and Prospects. Ali Mohammadi. London and New York: Routledge/Curzon. ISBN 0-415-30827-5 . Archived from the original (DOC) on 9 June 2006. "This Shia vision of family is based on a nostalgic and idealistic notion of Imam Ali's family in which Fatima Zahra (the Prophet Mohammad's daughter) dedicated herself to both her husband and Islamic cause. Other role models for women often cited by the officials and ideologues of the IRI are Khadijah, the prophet Mohammad's wife, and Zaynab, daughter of the first Shi'i (sic) Imam Ali. In fact, the IRI [Islamic Republic of Iran] replaced the universal Mother's Day with Fatima Zahar's (sic) birthday." 59.Jump up ^ Shahla Haeri (2009), "Women, Religion, and Political Agency in Iran", in Ali Gheissari, Contemporary Iran:Economy, Society (illustrated ed.), Oxford University Press, p. 137, ISBN 9780195378481 , "Such [feminist] gatherings would not have been so remarkable had they not happened against the backdrop of the regime's ceaseless effort to discourage, even harass, women activists and their supporters. Within the narrative of Islamization, the state's argument has been, all along, that such gatherings are representative of the culture of imperialism, and hence are subversive and against the public good and the moral order. Above all, the Islamic state has tried hard to co-opt women by appropriating the terminology and language: "protecting women," "respect for women," "gender complementarity." Accordingly, in order to accommodate, and yet control and channel women's movements and activitites, the state commemorates the birthday of Fatemeh, the Prophet Muhammad's daughter, as a national woman's/mother's day." 60.Jump up ^ Anonymous (1 April 2010), "La Festa DeLLa Mamma", Italian America (registration required) 61.Jump up ^ Raul Zaccari - together with Senators Bellisario, Baldini, Restagno, Piasenti, Benedetti and Zannini. Senato della Repubblica, 78ª Seduta Pubblica, 18 dicembre 1958. "Istituzione de la festa della Mamma." (Annunzio di presentazione di disegni di legge) 62.Jump up ^ ???????? ???????? (17 May 2013). "????????? ????????? ????????????? ? ???? ??????". ???????? ??????. "19 ??? ????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ??????. ??? ???????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ? ??????? ????, ?? ????? ????? ??? ????????????? ????? ?? ???????." 63.Jump up ^ Apollo.lv (13 May 2012). "Šodien sveicam Maminas!". Apollo.lv India. "Mates dienu Latvija saka svinet 1922. gada, bet ar 1934. gadu tika noteikts, ka ši diena svinama katra maija otraja svetdiena lidzigi ka citas Eiropas valstis. 1938. gada pec prezidenta Karla Ulmana ierosinajuma Mates dienu saka devet par Gimenes dienu, uzsverot mates lielo lomu gimenes pavarda veidošana un uzturešana." 64.Jump up ^ Latvija atzime Mates dienu TVNET 65.^ Jump up to: a b Newcomer, page 133 66.^ Jump up to: a b c Sherman, page 44 67.^ Jump up to: a b Newcomer, pages 133–134 68.^ Jump up to: a b c Newcomer, page 134 69.Jump up ^ Newcomer, 134–135 70.^ Jump up to: a b c d Newcomer, 135–136 71.^ Jump up to: a b Newcomer, 136–139 72.Jump up ^ The History of Mother's Day from The Legacy Project, a Legacy Center (Canada) website 73.Jump up ^ Helsloot 2007, p. 206 74.^ Jump up to: a b c Helsloot 2007, p. 208 75.^ Jump up to: a b c Helsloot 2007, p. 209 76.^ Jump up to: a b Helsloot 2007, p. 210 77.Jump up ^ Helsloot 2007, p. 213 78.Jump up ^ Helsloot 2007, p. 211 79.Jump up ^ Bandana Rai (2009). Gorkhas: The Warrior Race. Gyan Publishing House. p. 126. ISBN 9788178357768 . 80.Jump up ^ J. C. Heesterman; Albert W. Van den Hoek; Dirk H. A. Kolff; Marianne S. Oort (1992). Ritual, State, and History in South Asia: Essays in Honour of J.C. Heesterman. BRILL. p. 786. ISBN 978-90-04-09467-3 . Retrieved 12 May 2013. 81.Jump up ^ Penny de Henríquez (9 December 2005), "Origins. La celebración del Día de la Madre", La Prensa (in Spanish) 82.Jump up ^ Session of the Honorable Cámara de Senadores. Señor Senador Diego Abente Brun, p. 25 83.^ Jump up to: a b "Buscan que se cambie fecha del día de la madre", Radio Viva 90.1 FM Paraguay, 14 May 2008 84.Jump up ^ Municipality of Asuncion (27 July 2008), Hoy miércoles 27 de agosto se inician las acciones de la Comisión de Festejos por el Bicentenario, con una retreta en la Plaza de los Héroes 85.^ Jump up to: a b "Proclamation No. 58, s. 1998". Official Gazette (Philippines). December 11, 1998. Retrieved December 1, 2014. 86.Jump up ^ Content Manager 03 (December 1, 2014). "The First Monday of December is Mother’s Day and Father’s Day". Malacañan Palace (official residence of the President of the Philippines). 87.^ Jump up to: a b "Romania Celebrates Father's Day On Second Sunday Of May". Bucharest: mediafax.ro. 4 May 2010. 88.Jump up ^ ????????????? ?? ???(?). (8 March 1966). ? ????????? ????????, ????????? ?? ???? ? ????? ? ????????????? ???? 8 ?????. (DJVU). ????????? ????????? (in Russian). p. 4. Retrieved 22 March 2013. 89.Jump up ^ ???????????, ?. ?. (1969–1978). ??????????, ?????, ed. «??????? ????????? ????????????» (???) ????????????? ??????? ???? 8 ?????. (in Russian). ??????: «????????? ????????????». 90.Jump up ^ Fleurop-Interflora (Suisse) (22 April 2008), La Fête des Mères 2008 ne sera pas reportée (in French) 91.Jump up ^ Camaron Kao (14 May 2012), "Thousands of believers mark Buddha's birthday", China Post 92.Jump up ^ Ko Shu-Ling (9 May 2011). "Sakyamuni Buddha birthday celebrated". Taipei Times. "The legislature approved a proposal in 1999 to designate the birthday of Sakyamuni Buddha – which falls on the eighth day of the fourth month of the lunar calendar – a national holiday and to celebrate the special occasion concurrently with International Mother's Day, which is celebrated on the second Sunday of May." 93.Jump up ^ "300,000 Attend Buddha Day Ceremonies in 34 Countries". Tzu Chi. 15 May 2012. 94.Jump up ^ Staff (4 May 2008), "Tzu Chi Foundation to stage Mother's Day event", Taipei Times 95.Jump up ^ Caroline Hong (23 May 2004), "Cultural center performs `bathing Buddha' ceremony", Taipei Times 96.Jump up ^ unsigned (15 May 2006), "Taiwan Quick Take: Tzu Chi celebrates birthday", Taipei Times: 3 97.Jump up ^ Thai News Agency (10 August 2012). "Police chief returns earlier for Mother's Day". MCOT news. "(...) an audience with Her Majesty Queen Sirikit on Tuesday on the occasion of her birthday, which is also observed as National Mother's Day." 98.^ Jump up to: a b Paul M. Handley (2006). The King Never Smiles: a biography of Thailand's Bhumibol Adulyadej. Yale University Press. p. 288. ISBN 9780300106824 . (online version) 99.Jump up ^ http://zakon2.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/489/99 Verkhovna Rada Official Website. ????? ?????????? ???????. ??? ???? ??????.(Ukrainian) 100.^ Jump up to: a b Robert J. Myers, Hallmark Cards (1972), Celebrations; the complete book of American holidays, Doubleday, pp. 144–146 101.Jump up ^ "How Mothering Sunday became Mother's Day". Owenspencer-thomas.com. Retrieved 16 July 2011. 102.^ Jump up to: a b Ronald Hutton (2001), The stations of the sun: a history of the ritual year in Britain (illustrated, reprinted ed.), Oxford University Press, pp. 174–177, ISBN 9780192854483 103.Jump up ^ David Self (1993), One hundred readings for assembly, Heinemann Assembly Resources, Heinemann, pp. 27–29, ISBN 9780435800413 104.^ Jump up to: a b c Bernhard, Virginia (2002). "Mother's Day". In Joseph M. Hawes, Elizabeth F. Shores. The family in America: an encyclopedia (3, illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 714. ISBN 9781576072325 . 105.^ Jump up to: a b Cristina Rouvalis, For the mother of Mother's Day, it's just never been right, Cristina Rouvalis, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 11 May 2008. 106.Jump up ^ Barbara Mikkelson, "We love you – call collect". Snopes.com. Retrieved 2010.03.08. 107.^ Jump up to: a b J. Ellsworth Kalas (19 October 2009). Preaching the Calendar: Celebrating Holidays and Holy Days. Westminster John Knox Press. "Church attendance on this day is likely to be third only to Christmas Eve and Easter. Some worshipers still celebrate with carnations, colored if the mother is living and white if she is deceased." 108.^ Jump up to: a b "Mother's Day reaches 100th anniversary, The woman who lobbied for this day would berate you for buying a card". Associated Press (via MSNBC). 11 May 2008. Retrieved 7 July 2008. 109.Jump up ^ Leigh, page 256 General Schmidt, Leigh Eric (1997). Princeton University Press, ed. Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (reprint, illustrated ed.). pp. 256–275. ISBN 0-691-01721-2 . Larossa, Ralph (1997). University of Chicago Press, ed. mother's+day&dq=%22Ann+Jarvis%22+OR+%22Anna+Jarvis%22+%22mother's+day%22 The Modernization of Fatherhood: A Social and Political History (illustrated ed.). pp. 90,170–192. ISBN 0-226-46904-2 . Helsloot, John (2007), "10. Vernacular Authenticity: Negotiating Mother's Day and Father's Day in the Netherlands", in Margry, Peter Jan; Roodenburg, Herman, Reframing Dutch Culture: Between Otherness and Authenticity, Progress in European Ethnology (illustrated ed.), Ashgate Publishing, pp. 6–7, 203–224, ISBN 978-0-7546-4705-8 Newcomer, Daniel (2004). Reconciling Modernity: Urban State Formation in 1940s León, Mexico (illustrated ed.). University of Nebraska Press. pp. 132–139. ISBN 9780803233492 . Sherman, John W. (1997). The Mexican Right: The End of Revolutionary Reform, 1929–1940 (illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 44. ISBN 9780275957360 .
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Saint Patrick's Day
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Saint Patrick's Day
Kilbennan St. Benin's Church Window St. Patrick Detail 2010 09 16.jpg Saint Patrick depicted in a stained glass window at Saint Benin's Church, Ireland
Official name Saint Patrick's Day
Also called Feast of Saint Patrick
Patrick's Day
Lá Fheile Pádraig
(St) Paddy's Day (St) Patty's Day[1][2]
Observed by Irish people and people of Irish descent, Catholic Church (see calendar), Anglican Communion (see calendars), Eastern Orthodox Church (see calendar), Lutheran Church (see calendar)
Type Ethnic, national, Christian
Significance Feast day of Saint Patrick,
commemoration of the arrival of Christianity in Ireland[3]
Celebrations Attending parades,
attending céilithe, wearing shamrocks, wearing green, drinking Irish beer, drinking Irish whiskey
Observances Attending mass or service
Date 17 March
Next time 17 March 2015
Frequency annual
Saint Patrick's Day, or the Feast of Saint Patrick (Irish: Lá Fhéile Pádraig, "the Day of the Festival of Patrick"), is a cultural and religious celebration held on 17 March, the traditional death date of Saint Patrick (c. AD 385–461), the foremost patron saint of Ireland.
Saint Patrick's Day was made an official Christian feast day in the early 17th century and is observed by the Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion (especially the Church of Ireland),[4] the Eastern Orthodox Church, and Lutheran Church. The day commemorates Saint Patrick and the arrival of Christianity in Ireland,[3] and celebrates the heritage and culture of the Irish in general.[5] Celebrations generally involve public parades and festivals, céilithe, and the wearing of green attire or shamrocks.[6] Christians also attend church services[5][7] and the Lenten restrictions on eating and drinking alcohol are lifted for the day, which has encouraged and propagated the holiday's tradition of alcohol consumption.[5][6][8][9]
Saint Patrick's Day is a public holiday in the Republic of Ireland,[10] Northern Ireland,[11] the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, and the British Overseas Territory of Montserrat. It is also widely celebrated by the Irish diaspora around the world, especially in Great Britain, Canada, the United States, Argentina, Australia and New Zealand.
Contents [hide] 1 Saint Patrick 2 Celebration and traditions 2.1 Wearing of the green 2.2 Celebrations by region 2.2.1 Ireland 2.2.2 Argentina 2.2.3 Canada 2.2.4 Great Britain 2.2.5 International Space Station 2.2.6 Japan 2.2.7 Malaysia 2.2.8 Montserrat 2.2.9 Russia 2.2.10 South Korea 2.2.11 Switzerland 2.2.12 United States
3 Celebrations around the world 4 Celebrations in Ireland 5 Sports events 6 See also 7 References 8 External links
§Saint Patrick
Main article: Saint Patrick
Much of what is known about Saint Patrick comes from the Declaration, which was allegedly written by Patrick himself. It is believed that he was born in Roman Britain in the fourth century, into a wealthy Romano-British family. His father was a deacon and his grandfather was a priest in the Christian church. According to the Declaration, at the age of sixteen, he was kidnapped by Irish raiders and taken as a slave to Gaelic Ireland.[12] It says that he spent six years there working as a shepherd and that during this time he "found God". The Declaration says that God told Patrick to flee to the coast, where a ship would be waiting to take him home. After making his way home, Patrick went on to become a priest.
According to legend, Saint Patrick used the three-leaved shamrock to explain the Holy Trinity to Irish pagans.
According to tradition, Patrick returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish to Christianity. The Declaration says that he spent many years evangelising in the northern half of Ireland and converted "thousands". Tradition holds that he died on 17 March and was buried at Downpatrick. Over the following centuries, many legends grew up around Patrick and he became Ireland's foremost saint.
§Celebration and traditions
§Wearing of the green
On St Patrick's Day it is customary to wear shamrocks and/or green clothing or accessories (the "wearing of the green"). St Patrick is said to have used the shamrock, a three-leaved plant, to explain the Holy Trinity to the pagan Irish.[13][14] This story first appears in writing in 1726, though it may be older.
In pagan Ireland, three was a significant number and the Irish had many triple deities, a fact that may have aided St Patrick in his evangelisation efforts.[15][16] Patricia Monaghan says there is no evidence that the shamrock was sacred to the pagan Irish.[15] However, Jack Santino speculates that it may have represented the regenerative powers of nature, and was recast in a Christian context – icons of St Patrick often depict the saint "with a cross in one hand and a sprig of shamrocks in the other".[17] Roger Homan writes, "We can perhaps see St Patrick drawing upon the visual concept of the triskele when he uses the shamrock to explain the Trinity".[18]
The colour green has been associated with Ireland since at least the 1640s, when the green harp flag was used by the Irish Catholic Confederation. Green ribbons and shamrocks have been worn on St Patrick's Day since at least the 1680s.[19] The Friendly Brothers of St Patrick, an Irish fraternity founded in about 1750,[20] adopted green as its colour.[21] However, when the Order of St. Patrick—an Anglo-Irish chivalric order—was founded in 1783 it adopted blue as its colour, which led to blue being associated with St Patrick. During the 1790s, green would become associated with Irish nationalism, due to its use by the United Irishmen. This was a republican organisation—led mostly by Protestants but with many Catholic members—who launched a rebellion in 1798 against British rule. The phrase "wearing of the green" comes from a song of the same name, which laments United Irishmen supporters being persecuted for wearing green. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the colour green and its association with St Patrick's Day grew.[22]
The wearing of the 'St Patrick's Day Cross' was also a popular custom in Ireland until the early 20th century. These were a Celtic Christian cross made of paper that was "covered with silk or ribbon of different colours, and a bunch or rosette of green silk in the centre".[23]
§Celebrations by region
§Ireland
A St Patrick's Day religious procession in Downpatrick, 2010
Saint Patrick's feast day, as a kind of national day, was already being celebrated by the Irish in Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries. In later times, he became more and more widely known as the patron of Ireland.[24] Saint Patrick's feast day was finally placed on the universal liturgical calendar in the Catholic Church due to the influence of Waterford-born Franciscan scholar Luke Wadding[25] in the early 1600s. Saint Patrick's Day thus became a holy day of obligation for Roman Catholics in Ireland. It is also a feast day in the Church of Ireland. The church calendar avoids the observance of saints' feasts during certain solemnities, moving the saint's day to a time outside those periods. St Patrick's Day is occasionally affected by this requirement, when 17 March falls during Holy Week. This happened in 1940, when Saint Patrick's Day was observed on 3 April to avoid it coinciding with Palm Sunday, and again in 2008, where it was officially observed on 14 March. St Patrick's Day will not fall within Holy Week again until 2160.[26][27] However, the secular celebration is always held on 17 March.
In 1903, St Patrick's Day became an official public holiday in Ireland. This was thanks to the Bank Holiday (Ireland) Act 1903, an act of the United Kingdom Parliament introduced by Irish Member of Parliament James O'Mara.[28] O'Mara later introduced the law that required that pubs and bars be closed on 17 March after drinking got out of hand, a provision that was repealed in the 1970s. The first St Patrick's Day parade held in the Irish Free State was held in Dublin in 1931 and was reviewed by the then Minister of Defence Desmond Fitzgerald.
In the mid-1990s the government of the Republic of Ireland began a campaign to use St Patrick's Day to showcase Ireland and its culture.[29] The government set up a group called St Patrick's Festival, with the aims:
Traditional St Patrick's Day badges from the early 20th century, photographed at the Museum of Country Life in County Mayo
To offer a national festival that ranks amongst all of the greatest celebration in the world
To create energy and excitement throughout Ireland via innovation, creativity, grassroots involvement, and marketing activity
To provide the opportunity and motivation for people of Irish descent (and those who sometimes wish they were Irish) to attend and join in the imaginative and expressive celebrations
To project, internationally, an accurate image of Ireland as a creative, professional and sophisticated country with wide appeal.[30]
A Saint Patrick's Day parade in Dublin
The first St Patrick's Festival was held on 17 March 1996. In 1997, it became a three-day event, and by 2000 it was a four-day event. By 2006, the festival was five days long; more than 675,000 people attended the 2009 parade. Overall 2009's five-day festival saw close to 1 million visitors, who took part in festivities that included concerts, outdoor theatre performances, and fireworks.[31] Skyfest forms the centrepiece of the festival.
The topic of the 2004 St Patrick's Symposium was "Talking Irish", during which the nature of Irish identity, economic success, and the future were discussed. Since 1996, there has been a greater emphasis on celebrating and projecting a fluid and inclusive notion of "Irishness" rather than an identity based around traditional religious or ethnic allegiance. The week around St Patrick's Day usually involves Irish language speakers using more Irish during Seachtain na Gaeilge ("Irish Language Week").[citation needed]
Christian leaders in Ireland have expressed concern about the secularisation of St Patrick's Day. In The Word magazine's March 2007 issue, Fr. Vincent Twomey wrote, "It is time to reclaim St Patrick's Day as a church festival." He questioned the need for "mindless alcohol-fuelled revelry" and concluded that "it is time to bring the piety and the fun together."[32]
As well as Dublin, many other cities, towns, and villages in Ireland hold their own parades and festivals, including Cork, Belfast, Derry, Galway, Kilkenny, Limerick, and Waterford.
Everyone's Irish on 17 March
Sign promoting the drinking of Guinness beer on Saint Patrick's Day at Dublin's Guinness Storehouse
The biggest celebrations outside Dublin are in Downpatrick, County Down, where Saint Patrick is rumoured to be buried. In 2004, according to Down District Council, the week-long St Patrick's Festival had more than 2,000 participants and 82 floats, bands, and performers and was watched by more than 30,000 people.[citation needed]
The shortest St Patrick's Day parade in the world takes place in Dripsey, Cork. The parade lasts just 100 yards and travels between the village's two pubs.[33]
§Argentina
A Saint Patrick's Day in Buenos Aires (Argentina)
In Buenos Aires, a party is held in the downtown street of Reconquista, where there are several Irish pubs;[34][35] in 2006, there were 50,000 people in this street and the pubs nearby.[36] Neither the Catholic Church nor the Irish community, the fifth largest in the world outside Ireland,[37] take part in the organisation of the parties.
§Canada
One of the longest-running and largest St Patrick's Day parades in North America occurs each year in Montreal,[38] whose city flag includes a shamrock in its lower-right quadrant. The annual celebration has been organised by the United Irish Societies of Montreal since 1929. The parade has been held annually without interruption since 1824. St. Patrick's Day itself, however, has been celebrated in Montreal since as far back as 1759 by Irish soldiers in the Montreal Garrison following the British conquest of New France.
Children watch the Saint Patrick's Day Parade in Montreal.
In Manitoba, the Irish Association of Manitoba runs an annual three-day festival of music and culture based around St Patrick's Day.[39]
In 2013, the CelticFest Vancouver Society organised an annual festival in downtown Vancouver to celebrate the Celtic Nations and their culture. This event, which includes a parade, occurs the weekend closest to St Patrick's Day.[40]
In Quebec City, there was a parade from 1837 to 1926. The Quebec City St-Patrick Parade returned in 2010 after an absence of more than 84 years. For the occasion, a portion of the New York Police Department Pipes and Drums were present as special guests.
There has been a parade held in Toronto since at least 1863.[41] The Toronto Maple Leafs hockey team was known as the Toronto St. Patricks from 1919 to 1927, and wore green jerseys. In 1999, when the Maple Leafs played on Saint Patrick's Day, they wore green Saint Patrick's retro uniforms. There is a large parade in the city's downtown core on the Sunday prior to 17 March which attracts over 100,000 spectators.[citation needed]
Some groups, notably Guinness, have lobbied to make Saint Patrick's Day a national holiday.[42]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Patrick's Day in Canada.
In March 2009, the Calgary Tower changed its top exterior lights to new green CFL bulbs just in time for St Patrick's Day. Part of an environmental non-profit organisation's campaign (Project Porchlight), the green represented environmental concerns. Approximately 210 lights were changed in time for Saint Patrick's Day, and resembled a Leprechaun's hat. After a week, white CFLs took their place. The change was estimated to save the Calgary Tower some $12,000 and reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 104 tonnes.[43]
§Great Britain
2006 St Patrick's Day celebrations in Trafalgar Square London
In Great Britain, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother used to present bowls of shamrock flown over from Ireland to members of the Irish Guards, a regiment in the British Army consisting primarily of soldiers from both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Guards still wear shamrock on this day, flown in from Ireland.[44]
Christian denominations in Great Britain observing his feast day include The Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church.[45]
Horse racing at the Cheltenham Festival attracts large numbers of Irish people, both residents of Britain and many who travel from Ireland, and usually coincides with St Patrick's Day.[46]
Birmingham holds the largest St Patrick's Day parade in Britain with a city centre parade[47] over a two-mile (3 km) route through the city centre. The organisers describe it as the third biggest parade in the world after Dublin and New York.[48]
London, since 2002, has had an annual St Patrick's Day parade which takes place on weekends around the 17th, usually in Trafalgar Square. In 2008 the water in the Trafalgar Square fountains was dyed green.
Liverpool has the highest proportion of residents with Irish ancestry of any English city.[49] This has led to a long-standing celebration on St Patrick's Day in terms of music, cultural events and the parade.
Manchester hosts a two-week Irish festival in the weeks prior to St Patrick's Day. The festival includes an Irish Market based at the city's town hall which flies the Irish tricolour opposite the Union Flag, a large parade as well as a large number of cultural and learning events throughout the two-week period.[50]
The Scottish town of Coatbridge, where the majority of the town's population are of Irish descent,[citation needed] also has a Saint Patrick's Day Festival which includes celebrations and parades in the town centre.[citation needed]
Glasgow has a considerably large Irish population; due, for the most part, to the Irish immigration during the 19th century. This immigration was the main cause in raising the population of Glasgow by over 100,000 people.[51] Due to this large Irish population, there is a considerable Irish presence in Glasgow with many Irish theme pubs and Irish interest groups who run annual celebrations on St Patrick's day in Glasgow. Glasgow began an annual Saint Patrick's Day parade and festival in 2007.[citation needed]
§International Space Station
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Patrick's Day on the International Space Station.
Chris Hadfield wearing green in the International Space Station on Saint Patrick's Day, 2013
Astronauts on board the International Space Station have celebrated the festival in different ways. Irish-American Catherine Coleman played a hundred-year-old flute belonging to Matt Molloy and a tin whistle belonging to Paddy Moloney, both members of the Irish music group The Chieftains, while floating weightless in the space station on Saint Patrick's Day in 2011.[52][53][54] Her performance was later included in a track called "The Chieftains in Orbit" on the group's album, Voice of Ages.[55]
Chris Hadfield took photographs of Ireland from earth orbit, and a picture of himself wearing green clothing in the space station, and posted them online on Saint Patrick's Day in 2013. He also posted online a recording of himself singing "Danny Boy" in space.[56][57]
§Japan
St Patrick's Parades are now held in many locations across Japan.[58] The first parade, in Tokyo, was organised by The Irish Network Japan (INJ) in 1992. Nowadays parades and other events related to Saint Patrick's Day spread across almost the entire month of March.
§Malaysia
The St. Patrick's Society of Selangor, which has been in existence since 1925, organises the annual St. Patrick's Ball, the biggest St Patrick's Day celebration in Asia. Guinness Anchor Berhad also organises 36 parties across the country in places like the Klang Valley, Penang, Johor Bahru, Malacca, Ipoh, Kuantan, Kota Kinabalu, Miri and Kuching.
§Montserrat
The tiny island of Montserrat is known as "Emerald Island of the Caribbean" because of its founding by Irish refugees from Saint Kitts and Nevis. Along with Ireland and the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, St Patrick's Day is a public holiday. The holiday also commemorates a failed slave uprising that occurred on 17 March 1768.[59]
§Russia
The first St Patrick's Day parade took place in Russia in 1992.[60] Since 1999, there is an annual international "Saint Patrick's Day" festival in Moscow and other Russian cities.[61] The Moscow parade has both official and unofficial parts. The first seems like a military parade and is performed in collaboration with the Moscow government and the Irish embassy in Moscow. The unofficial parade is performed by volunteers and seems more like a carnival and show with juggling, stilts, jolly-jumpers and Celtic music. In 2014, Moscow Irish Week was celebrated from 12 to 23 March, which includes St. Patrick's Day on 17 March. Over 70 events celebrating Irish culture in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg, Voronezh, and Volgograd were sponsored by the Irish Embassy, the Moscow City Government, and other organisations.[62]
§South Korea
The Irish Association of Korea has celebrated Saint Patrick's Day since 1976 in Seoul (the capital city of South Korea). The place of parade and festival has been moved from Itaewon and Daehangno to Cheonggyecheon.[63]
§Switzerland
While Saint Patrick's Day in Switzerland is commonly celebrated on 17 March with festivities similar to those in neighbouring central European countries, it is not unusual for Swiss students to organise celebrations in their own living spaces on Saint Patrick's Eve. Most popular are usually those in Zurich's Kreis 4. Traditionally, guests also contribute with beverages and dress accordingly in green.[64]
§United States
Main article: Saint Patrick's Day in the United States
St Patrick's Day, while not a legal holiday in the United States, is nonetheless widely recognised and observed throughout the country as a celebration of Irish and Irish American culture. Celebrations include prominent displays of the colour green, eating and drinking, religious observances, and numerous parades. The holiday has been celebrated on the North American continent since the late eighteenth century.
§Celebrations around the world
§Sports events
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Patrick's Day in Ireland.
The Saint Patrick's Day Test is an international rugby league tournament that is played between the US and Ireland. The competition was first started in 1995 with Ireland winning the first two tests with the US winning the last 4 in 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2004. The game is usually held on or around 17 March to coincide with Saint Patrick's Day.[65]
Traditionally the All-Ireland Senior Club Football Championship and All-Ireland Senior Club Hurling Championship are held on Saint Patrick's Day in Croke Park, Dublin. The Interprovincial Championship was previously held on 17 March but this was switched to games being played in Autumn.
The Leinster Schools Rugby Senior Cup, Munster Schools Rugby Senior Cup and Ulster Schools Senior Cup are held on Saint Patrick's Day. The Connacht Schools Rugby Senior Cup is held on the weekend before Saint Patrick's Day.
"Keep love in your heart. A life without it is like a sunless garden when the flowers are dead."
Oscar Wilde Valentine's Day
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This article is about the liturgical celebration and romantic holiday. For Brazil's Dia de São Valentim, see Dia dos Namorados. For uses of Valentine, see Valentine. For other uses, see Valentine's Day (disambiguation).
Saint Valentine's Day
Antique Valentine 1909 01.jpg Antique Valentine's card
Also called Valentine's Day or the Feast of Saint Valentine
Observed by People in many countries; Anglican Communion (see calendar) Eastern Orthodox Church (see calendar) Lutheran Church (see calendar)
Type Cultural, Christian, commercial
Significance Feast day of Saint Valentine; the celebration of love and affection
Observances Sending greeting cards and gifts, dating, church services
Date February 14 (fixed by the Catholic Church)
July 7 (fixed by the Orthodox Church)
Frequency annual
Shrine of St. Valentine in Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland
Saint Valentine of Terni and his disciples Saint Valentine's Day, also known as Valentine's Day or the Feast of Saint Valentine,[1] is a holiday observed on February 14 each year. It is celebrated in many countries around the world, although it is not a holiday in most of them.
St. Valentine's Day began as a liturgical celebration one or more early Christian saints named Valentinus. Several martyrdom stories were invented for the various Valentines that belonged to February 14, and added to later martyrologies.[2] A popular hagiographical account of Saint Valentine of Rome states that he was imprisoned for performing weddings for soldiers who were forbidden to marry and for ministering to Christians, who were persecuted under the Roman Empire. According to legend, during his imprisonment, he healed the daughter of his jailer, Asterius. An embellishment to this story states that before his execution he wrote her a letter signed "Your Valentine" as a farewell.[3] Today, Saint Valentine's Day is an official feast day in the Anglican Communion,[4] as well as in the Lutheran Church.[5] The Eastern Orthodox Church also celebrates Saint Valentine's Day, albeit on July 6 and July 30, the former date in honor of the Roman presbyter Saint Valentine, and the latter date in honor of Hieromartyr Valentine, the Bishop of Interamna (modern Terni). In Brazil, the Dia de São Valentim is recognized on June 12.
The day was first associated with romantic love in the circle of Geoffrey Chaucer in the High Middle Ages, when the tradition of courtly love flourished. In 18th-century England, it evolved into an occasion in which lovers expressed their love for each other by presenting flowers, offering confectionery, and sending greeting cards (known as "valentines"). In Europe, Saint Valentine's Keys are given to lovers "as a romantic symbol and an invitation to unlock the giver’s heart", as well as to children, in order to ward off Saint Valentine's Malady.[6] Valentine's Day symbols that are used today include the heart-shaped outline, doves, and the figure of the winged Cupid. Since the 19th century, handwritten valentines have given way to mass-produced greeting cards.[7]
Contents [hide] 1 Saint Valentine 1.1 Historical facts 1.2 Legends
2 Folk traditions 3 Connection with romantic love 3.1 Lupercalia 3.2 Chaucer's love birds 3.3 Court of love 3.4 Valentine poetry 3.5 Modern times 3.6 Antique and vintage Valentine cards, 1850–1950
4 Celebration worldwide 4.1 China 4.2 Finland and Estonia 4.3 France 4.4 Greece 4.5 India 4.6 Iran 4.7 Israel 4.8 Japan 4.9 Latin America 4.10 Philippines 4.11 Portugal 4.12 Romania 4.13 Saudi Arabia 4.14 Scandinavia 4.15 Singapore 4.16 South Korea 4.17 Spain 4.18 Taiwan 4.19 United States 4.20 Wales
5 Conflict with Islamic countries and political parties 5.1 Iran 5.2 Malaysia 5.3 Pakistan 5.4 Saudi Arabia
6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links
Saint Valentine
For more details on this topic, see Saint Valentine.
Historical facts
St Valentine baptizing St Lucilla, Jacopo Bassano
Numerous early Christian martyrs were named Valentine.[8] The Valentines honored on February 14 are Valentine of Rome (Valentinus presb. m. Romae) and Valentine of Terni (Valentinus ep. Interamnensis m. Romae).[9] Valentine of Rome was a priest in Rome who was martyred about AD 496 and was buried on the Via Flaminia. The relics of Saint Valentine were kept in the Church and Catacombs of San Valentino in Rome, which "remained an important pilgrim site throughout the Middle Ages until the relics of St. Valentine were transferred to the church of Santa Prassede during the pontificate of Nicholas IV".[10][11] The flower-crowned skull of Saint Valentine is exhibited in the Basilica of Santa Maria in Cosmedin, Rome. Other relics are found at Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church in Dublin, Ireland.[12] Valentine of Terni became bishop of Interamna (modern Terni) about AD 197 and is said to have been martyred during the persecution under Emperor Aurelian. He is also buried on the Via Flaminia, but in a different location than Valentine of Rome. His relics are at the Basilica of Saint Valentine in Terni (Basilica di San Valentino). Jack B. Oruch states that "abstracts of the acts of the two saints were in nearly every church and monastery of Europe."[13] The Catholic Encyclopedia also speaks of a third saint named Valentine who was mentioned in early martyrologies under date of February 14. He was martyred in Africa with a number of companions, but nothing more is known about him.[14] Saint Valentine's head was preserved in the abbey of New Minster, Winchester, and venerated.[15]
February 14 is celebrated as St. Valentine's Day in various Christian denominations; it has, for example, the rank of 'commemoration' in the calendar of saints in the Anglican Communion.[4] In addition, the feast day of Saint Valentine is also given in the calendar of saints of the Lutheran Church.[5] However, in the 1969 revision of the Roman Catholic Calendar of Saints, the feast day of Saint Valentine on February 14 was removed from the General Roman Calendar and relegated to particular (local or even national) calendars for the following reason: "Though the memorial of Saint Valentine is ancient, it is left to particular calendars, since, apart from his name, nothing is known of Saint Valentine except that he was buried on the Via Flaminia on February 14."[16] The feast day is still celebrated in Balzan (Malta) where relics of the saint are claimed to be found, and also throughout the world by Traditionalist Catholics who follow the older, pre-Second Vatican Council calendar. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, St. Valentine's Day is celebrated on July 6, in which Saint Valentine, the Roman presbyter, is honoured; furthermore, the Eastern Orthodox Church obsesrves the feast of Hieromartyr Valentine, Bishop of Interamna, on July 30.[17][18][19]
Legends
J.C. Cooper, in The Dictionary of Christianity, writes that Saint Valentine was "a priest of Rome who was imprisoned for succouring persecuted Christians."[20] Contemporary records of Saint Valentine were most probably destroyed during this Diocletianic Persecution in the early 4th century.[21] In the 5th or 6th century, a work called Passio Marii et Marthae published a story of martyrdom for Saint Valentine of Rome, perhaps by borrowing tortures that happened to other saints, as was usual in the literature of that period. The same events are also found in Bede's Martyrology, which was compiled in the 8th century.[21][22] It states that Saint Valentine was persecuted as a Christian and interrogated by Roman Emperor Claudius II in person. Claudius was impressed by Valentine and had a discussion with him, attempting to get him to convert to Roman paganism in order to save his life. Valentine refused and tried to convert Claudius to Christianity instead. Because of this, he was executed. Before his execution, he is reported to have performed a miracle by healing Julia, the blind daughter of his jailer Asterius. The jailer's daughter and his forty-four member household (family members and servants) came to believe in Jesus and were baptized.[21] A later Passio repeated the legend, adding that Pope Julius I built a church over his sepulchre (it is a confusion with a 4th-century tribune called Valentino who donated land to build a church at a time when Julius was a Pope).[22] The legend was picked up as fact by later martyrologies, starting by Bede's martyrology in the 8th century.[22] It was repeated in the 13th century, in Legenda Aurea.[23] The book expounded briefly the Early Medieval acta of several Saint Valentines, and this legend was assigned to the Valentine under February 14.
There is an additional embellishment to The Golden Legend, which according to Henry Ansgar Kelly, was added centuries later, and widely repeated.[3] On the evening before Valentine was to be executed, he would have written the first "valentine" card himself, addressed to the daughter of his jailer Asterius, who was no longer blind, signing as "Your Valentine."[3] The expression "From your Valentine" was later adopted by modern Valentine letters.[24] This legend has been published by both American Greetings and The History Channel.
John Foxe, an English historian, as well as the Order of Carmelites, state that Saint Valentine was buried in the Church of Praxedes in Rome, located near the cemetery of Saint Hippolytus. This order says that according to legend, "Julia herself planted a pink-blossomed almond tree near his grave. Today, the almond tree remains a symbol of abiding love and friendship."[25][26]
Another embellishment is that Saint Valentine would have performed clandestine Christian weddings for soldiers who were forbidden to marry.[27] The Roman Emperor Claudius II supposedly forbade this in order to grow his army, believing that married men did not make for good soldiers.[27][28] However, this supposed marriage ban was never issued, and in fact Claudius II told his soldiers to take two or three women for themselves after his victory over the Goths.[29]
According to legend, in order "to remind these men of their vows and God’s love, Saint Valentine is said to have cut hearts from parchment", giving them to these soldiers and persecuted Christians, a possible origin of the widespread use of hearts on St. Valentine's Day.[30]
Saint Valentine supposedly wore a purple amethyst ring, customarily worn on the hands of Christian bishops with an image of Cupid engraved in it, a recognizable symbol associated with love that was legal under the Roman Empire;[28][31] Roman soldiers would recognize the ring and ask him to perform marriage for them.[28] Probably due to the association with Saint Valentine, amethyst has become the birthstone of February, which is thought to attract love.[32]
Folk traditions
While the European folk traditions connected with Saint Valentine and St. Valentine's Day have become marginalized by the modern Anglo-American customs connecting the day with romantic love, there are some remaining associations connecting the saint with the advent of spring.
While the custom of sending cards, flowers, chocolates and other gifts originated in the UK, Valentine's Day still remains connected with various regional customs in England. In Norfolk, a character called 'Jack' Valentine knocks on the rear door of houses leaving sweets and presents for children. Although he was leaving treats, many children were scared of this mystical person.[33][34]
In Slovenia, Saint Valentine or Zdravko was one of the saints of spring, the saint of good health and the patron of beekeepers and pilgrims.[35] A proverb says that "Saint Valentine brings the keys of roots". Plants and flowers start to grow on this day. It has been celebrated as the day when the first work in the vineyards and in the fields commences. It is also said that birds propose to each other or marry on that day. Another proverb says "Valentin – prvi spomladin" ("Valentine — the first spring saint"), as in some places (especially White Carniola), Saint Valentine marks the beginning of spring.[36] Valentine's Day has only recently been celebrated as the day of love. The day of love was traditionally March 12, the Saint Gregory's day, or February 22, Saint Vincent's Day. The patron of love was Saint Anthony, whose day has been celebrated on June 13.[35]
Connection with romantic love
Lupercalia
Main article: Lupercalia
There is no evidence of any link between St. Valentine's Day and the rites of the ancient Roman festival, despite many claims by many authors.[15][37][notes 1] The celebration of Saint Valentine did not have any romantic connotations until Chaucer's poetry about "Valentines" in the 14th century.[21]
Popular modern sources claim links to unspecified Greco-Roman February holidays alleged to be devoted to fertility and love to St. Valentine's Day, but prior to Chaucer in the 14th century, there were no links between the Saints named Valentinus and romantic love.[21] Earlier links as described above were focused on sacrifice rather than romantic love. In the ancient Athenian calendar the period between mid-January and mid-February was the month of Gamelion, dedicated to the sacred marriage of Zeus and Hera.
In Ancient Rome, Lupercalia, observed February 13–15, was an archaic rite connected to fertility. Lupercalia was a festival local to the city of Rome. The more general Festival of Juno Februa, meaning "Juno the purifier "or "the chaste Juno", was celebrated on February 13–14. Pope Gelasius I (492–496) abolished Lupercalia. Some researchers have theorized that Gelasius I replaced Lupercalia with the celebration of the Purification of Mary in February 14 and claim a connection to the 14th century's connotations of romantic love, but there is no historical indication that he ever intended such a thing.[notes 2][38] Also, the dates don't fit because at the time of Gelasius I the feast was only celebrated in Jerusalem, and it was on February 14 only because Jerusalem placed the Nativity on January 6.[notes 3] Although it was called "Purification of Mary", it dealt mainly with the presentation of Jesus at the temple.[39] The Jerusalem's Purification of Mary on February 14 became the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple on February 2 as it was introduced to Rome and other places in the sixth century, after Gelasius I's time.[40]
Alban Butler in his Lifes of the Principal Saints (1756–1759) claimed without proof that men and women in Lupercalia drew names from a jar to make couples, and that modern Valentine's letters originated from this custom. In reality, this practice originated in the Middle Ages, with no link to Lupercalia, with men drawing the names of girls at random to couple with them. This custom was combated by priests, for example by Frances de Sales around 1600, apparently by replacing it with a religious custom of girls drawing the names of apostles from the altar. However, this religious custom is recorded as soon as the 13th century in the life of Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, so it could have a different origin.[15]
Geoffrey Chaucer by Thomas Hoccleve (1412)
Chaucer's love birds
Jack B. Oruch writes that the first recorded association of Valentine's Day with romantic love is in Parlement of Foules (1382) by Geoffrey Chaucer.[21] Chaucer wrote:
For this was on seynt Volantynys day Whan euery bryd comyth there to chese his make.
["For this was on St. Valentine's Day, when every bird cometh there to choose his mate."]
This poem was written to honor the first anniversary of the engagement of King Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia.[41] A treaty providing for a marriage was signed on May 2, 1381.[42] (When they were married eight months later, they were each only 15 years old).
Readers have uncritically assumed that Chaucer was referring to February 14 as Valentine's Day; however, mid-February is an unlikely time for birds to be mating in England. Henry Ansgar Kelly has pointed out that Chaucer could be referring to May 3, the celebration in the liturgical calendar of Valentine of Genoa, an early bishop of Genoa who died around AD 307.[41][43][44] Jack B. Oruch says that date for the start of Spring has changed since Chaucer's time because of the precession of equinoxes and the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in 1582. The date would correspond to the modern 23 February, a time when some birds have started mating and nesting in England.[21]
Chaucer's Parliament of Foules is set in a fictional context of an old tradition, but in fact there was no such tradition before Chaucer. The speculative explanation of sentimental customs, posing as historical fact, had their origins among 18th-century antiquaries, notably Alban Butler, the author of Butler's Lives of Saints, and have been perpetuated even by respectable modern scholars. Most notably, "the idea that Valentine's Day customs perpetuated those of the Roman Lupercalia has been accepted uncritically and repeated, in various forms, up to the present".[15][45]
There were three other authors who made poems about birds mating in St. Valentine's Day around the same years: Otton de Grandson from Savoy, John Gower from England, and a knight called Pardo from Valencia. Chaucer most probably predated all of them, but, due to the difficulty of dating medieval works, it is not possible to ascertain who of the four had the idea first and influenced the others.[46]
Court of love
The earliest description of February 14 as an annual celebration of love appears in the Charter of the Court of Love. The charter, allegedly issued by Charles VI of France at Mantes-la-Jolie in 1400, describes lavish festivities to be attended by several members of the royal court, including a feast, amorous song and poetry competitions, jousting and dancing.[47] Amid these festivities, the attending ladies would hear and rule on disputes from lovers.[48] No other record of the court exists, and none of those named in the charter were present at Mantes except Charles's queen, Isabeau of Bavaria, who may well have imagined it all while waiting out a plague.[47]
Valentine poetry
The earliest surviving valentine is a 15th-century rondeau written by Charles, Duke of Orléans to his wife, which commences.
Je suis desja d'amour tanné Ma tres doulce Valentinée...
—Charles d'Orléans, Rondeau VI, lines 1–2[49]
At the time, the duke was being held in the Tower of London following his capture at the Battle of Agincourt, 1415.[50]
The earliest surviving valentines in English appear to be those in the Paston Letters, written in 1477 by Margery Brewes to her future husband John Paston "my right well-beloved Valentine".[51]
Valentine's Day is mentioned ruefully by Ophelia in Hamlet (1600–1601):
To-morrow is Saint Valentine's day, All in the morning betime, And I a maid at your window, To be your Valentine. Then up he rose, and donn'd his clothes, And dupp'd the chamber-door; Let in the maid, that out a maid Never departed more.
—William Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act IV, Scene 5
John Donne used the legend of the marriage of the birds as the starting point for his epithalamion celebrating the marriage of Elizabeth, daughter of James I of England, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, on Valentine's Day:
Hayle Bishop Valentine whose day this is
All the Ayre is thy Diocese And all the chirping Queristers And other birds ar thy parishioners Thou marryest every yeare The Lyrick Lark, and the graue whispering Doue, The Sparrow that neglects his life for loue, The houshold bird with the redd stomacher Thou makst the Blackbird speede as soone, As doth the Goldfinch, or the Halcyon The Husband Cock lookes out and soone is spedd And meets his wife, which brings her feather-bed. This day more cheerfully than ever shine
This day which might inflame thy selfe old Valentine. —John Donne, Epithalamion Vpon Frederick Count Palatine and the Lady Elizabeth marryed on St. Valentines day
The verse Roses are red echoes conventions traceable as far back as Edmund Spenser's epic The Faerie Queene (1590):
She bath'd with roses red, and violets blew, And all the sweetest flowres, that in the forrest grew.[52]
The modern cliché Valentine's Day poem can be found in the collection of English nursery rhymes Gammer Gurton's Garland (1784):
The rose is red, the violet's blue,
The honey's sweet, and so are you. Thou art my love and I am thine; I drew thee to my Valentine: The lot was cast and then I drew,
And Fortune said it shou'd be you.[53][54] Modern times
Valentine's Day postcard, circa 1910
In 1797, a British publisher issued The Young Man's Valentine Writer, which contained scores of suggested sentimental verses for the young lover unable to compose his own. Printers had already begun producing a limited number of cards with verses and sketches, called "mechanical valentines," and a reduction in postal rates in the next century ushered in the less personal but easier practice of mailing Valentines. That, in turn, made it possible for the first time to exchange cards anonymously, which is taken as the reason for the sudden appearance of racy verse in an era otherwise prudishly Victorian.[55]
Paper Valentines became so popular in England in the early 19th century that they were assembled in factories. Fancy Valentines were made with real lace and ribbons, with paper lace introduced in the mid-19th century.[56] In 1835, 60,000 Valentine cards were sent by post in Britain, despite postage being expensive.[57] The Laura Seddon Greeting Card Collection at Manchester Metropolitan University gathers 450 Valentine's Day cards dating from the early nineteenth century, printed by the major publishers of the day.[58] The collection is cataloged in Laura Seddon's book Victorian Valentines (1996).[59]
Child dressed in Valentine's Day-themed clothing.
In the United States, the first mass-produced valentines of embossed paper lace were produced and sold shortly after 1847 by Esther Howland (1828–1904) of Worcester, Massachusetts.[60][61] Her father operated a large book and stationery store, but Howland took her inspiration from an English Valentine she had received from a business associate of her father.[62][63] Intrigued with the idea of making similar Valentines, Howland began her business by importing paper lace and floral decorations from England.[63][64] A writer in Graham's American Monthly observed in 1849, "Saint Valentine's Day ... is becoming, nay it has become, a national holyday."[65] The English practice of sending Valentine's cards was established enough to feature as a plot device in Elizabeth Gaskell's Mr. Harrison's Confessions (1851): "I burst in with my explanations: 'The valentine I know nothing about.' 'It is in your handwriting', said he coldly."[66] Since 2001, the Greeting Card Association has been giving an annual "Esther Howland Award for a Greeting Card Visionary".[61]
Valentines candy
Since the 19th century, handwritten notes have given way to mass-produced greeting cards.[7] In the UK, just under half of the population spend money on their Valentines and around £1.3 billion is spent yearly on cards, flowers, chocolates and other gifts, with an estimated 25 million cards being sent.[67] The mid-19th century Valentine's Day trade was a harbinger of further commercialized holidays in the United States to follow.[68]
Valentine's Day red roses
In the second half of the 20th century, the practice of exchanging cards was extended to all manner of gifts. Such gifts typically include roses and chocolates packed in a red satin, heart-shaped box. In the 1980s, the diamond industry began to promote Valentine's Day as an occasion for giving jewelry.
The U.S. Greeting Card Association estimates that approximately 190 million valentines are sent each year in the US. Half of those valentines are given to family members other than husband or wife, usually to children. When the valentine-exchange cards made in school activities are included the figure goes up to 1 billion, and teachers become the people receiving the most valentines.[60] The average valentine’s spending has increased every year in the U.S, from $108 a person in 2010 to $131 in 2013.[69]
The rise of Internet popularity at the turn of the millennium is creating new traditions. Millions of people use, every year, digital means of creating and sending Valentine's Day greeting messages such as e-cards, love coupons or printable greeting cards. An estimated 15 million e-valentines were sent in 2010.[60] Valentine's Day is considered by some to be a Hallmark holiday due to its commercialization.[70]
In the modern era, liturgically, the Anglican Church has a service for St. Valentine's Day (the Feast of St. Valentine), which includes the optional rite of the renewal of marriage vows.[71]
Antique and vintage Valentine cards, 1850–1950 Valentines of the mid-19th and early 20th centuries
Esther Howland Valentine, circa 1850: "Weddings now are all the go, Will you marry me or no"?
Handwritten poem, "To Susanna" dated Valentine's Day, 1850 (Cork, Ireland)
Comic Valentine, mid-19th century: "R stands for rod, which can give a smart crack, And ought to be used For a day on your back."
Valentine card, 1862: "My dearest Miss, I send thee a kiss" addressed to Miss Jenny Lane of Crostwight Hall, Smallburgh, Norfolk.
Folk art Valentine and envelope dated 1875 addressed to Clara Dunn of Newfield, New Jersey
Whitney Valentine, 1887; Howland sold her New England Valentine Company to the George C. Whitney Company in 1881
Seascape Valentine, date unknown
Postcards, "pop-ups", and mechanical Valentines, circa 1900–1930
Buster Brown Valentine postcard by Richard Felton Outcault, early years of the 20th century
Advertisement for Prang's greeting cards, 1883
Postcard by Nister, circa 1906
Valentine postcard, circa 1900–1910
A tiny 2-inch pop-up Valentine, circa 1920
Football-playing anthropomorphic rat and bulldog are set in motion by the pull-tab on the right, circa 1920
A grommet affixed to the center of the card permits the dog's eyes to glance side-to-side when the blue bow is moved
Rocking horse and rider, circa 1920–1930
Children's Valentines
Anthropomorphic Valentine, circa 1950–1960
Others
Taipei 101 in Valentine's Day 2006
Box of Valentine chocolates
Valentine's Day chocolates
Self-made Valentine's Cake
Barney the dog and India the cat, pets of George W. Bush, in the White House on Valentine's Day 2007
Pink heart sunglasses
US-Lovestamp
Celebration worldwide
Valentine's Day customs developed in early modern England and spread throughout the Anglosphere in the 19th century. In the later 20th and early 21st centuries, these customs have also spread to other countries along with other aspects of American pop culture, but its impact so far has been rather more limited than that of Halloween, or that of US pop-culture inspired aspects of Christmas (such as Santa Claus).
Tree in San Diego decorated with hearts on Valentine's Day with hearts
Due to a concentrated marketing effort, Valentine's Day is celebrated in some East Asian countries with Chinese and South Koreans spending the most money on Valentine's gifts.[72]
China
In China, the common situation is the man gives chocolate, flowers or both to the woman that he loves. In Chinese, Valentine's Day is called lovers' festival (simplified Chinese: ???; traditional Chinese: ???; pinyin: qíng rén jié). The so-called "Chinese Valentine's Day" is the Qixi Festival, celebrated on the seventh day of the seventh month of the lunar calendar. It commemorates a day on which a legendary cowherder and weaving maid are allowed to be together. Valentine's Day on February 14 is not celebrated because it is often too close to the Chinese New Year, which usually falls on either January or February.[citation needed] In Chinese culture, there is an older observance related to lovers, called "The Night of Sevens" (Chinese: ??; pinyin: Qi Xi). According to the legend, the Cowherd star and the Weaver Maid star are normally separated by the Milky Way (silvery river) but are allowed to meet by crossing it on the 7th day of the 7th month of the Chinese calendar.
In recent years, celebrating White Day has also become fashionable among some young people.
Finland and Estonia
In Finland Valentine's Day is called Ystävänpäivä which translates into "Friend's Day". As the name indicates, this day is more about remembering friends, not significant others. In Estonia Valentine's Day is called sõbrapäev, which has the same meaning.[73]
France
In France, a traditionally Catholic country, Valentine's Day is known simply as "Saint Valentin", and is celebrated in much the same way as other western countries.
Greece
St. Valentine's Day, or ?µ??a t?? ????? ?a?e?t???? in Greek tradition was not associated with romantic love; In the Eastern Orthodox church there is another Saint who protects people who are in love, Hyacinth of Caesarea (feast day 3 July), but in contemporary Greece, this tradition has mostly been superseded by the "globalized" form of Valentine's Day.[citation needed]
India
In India, in antiquity, there was a tradition of adoring Kamadeva, the lord of love; exemplificated by the erotic carvings in the Khajuraho Group of Monuments and by the writing of the Kamasutra treaty of lovemaking.[74] This tradition was lost around the Middle Ages, when Kamadeva was no longer celebrated, and public displays of sexual affection became frowned upon.[74] This repression of public affections persisted until the 1990s.
In the state of West Bengal, Saraswati Puja, a festival observed in early spring where Saraswati, the goddess of learning is worshipped; has often been seen as a Bengali version of Valentine's Day; especially among the urban middle-class youth.
Valentine's Day celebrations did not catch on in India until around 1992. It was spread due to the programs in commercial TV channels, such as MTV, dedicated radio programs and love letter competitions, in addition to an economical liberalization that allowed the explosion of the valentine card industry.[74][75] Economic liberalization also helped the Valentine card industry.[75] The celebration has caused a sharp change on how people have been displaying their affection in public since the Middle Ages.[74]
In modern times, Hindu and Islamic[76] traditionalists have considered the holiday to be cultural contamination from the West, a result of the globalization in India.[74][75] Shiv Sena and the Sangh Parivar have asked their followers to shun the holiday and the "public admission of love" because of them being "alien to Indian culture".[77] Although these protests are organized by political elites, the protesters themselves are middle-class Hindu men who fear that the globalization will destroy the traditions in their society: arranged marriages, Hindu joint families, full-time mothers, etc.[75][76]
Despite these obstacles, Valentine's Day is becoming increasingly popular in India.[78]
Valentine's Day has been strongly criticized from a postcolonial perspective by intellectuals from the Indian left. The holiday is regarded as a front for "Western imperialism", "neocolonialism", and "the exploitation of working classes through commercialism by multinational corporations".[79] Studies have shown that Valentine's Day promotes and exacerbates income inequality in India, and aids in the creation of a pseudo-westernized middle class.[citation needed] As a result, the working classes and rural poor become more disconnected socially, politically, and geographically from the hegemonic capitalist power structure. They also criticize mainstream media attacks on Indians opposed to Valentine's Day as a form of demonization that is designed and derived to further the Valentine's Day agenda.[80][81] Right wing Hindu nationalists are also hostile. In February 2012 Subash Chouhan of the Bajrang Dal warned couples that "They cannot kiss or hug in public places. Our activists will beat them up".[82] He said "We are not against love, but we criticize vulgar exhibition of love at public places".[83]
Iran
In Iran, the Sepandarmazgan, or Esfandegan, is a festival where people express love towards their mothers and wives, and it is also a celebration of earth in ancient Persian culture. It has been progressively forgotten in favor of the Western celebration of Valentine's Day. The Association of Iran's Cultural and Natural Phenomena has been trying since 2006 to make Sepandarmazgan a national holiday on 17 February, in order to replace the Western holiday.[84]
Israel
In Israel, the Jewish tradition of Tu B'Av has been revived and transformed into the Jewish equivalent of Valentine's Day. It is celebrated on the 15th day of the month of Av (usually in late August). In ancient times girls would wear white dresses and dance in the vineyards, where the boys would be waiting for them (Mishna Taanith end of Chapter 4). Today, Tu B'Av is celebrated as a second holiday of love by secular people (beside Valentine's Day), and it shares many of the customs associated with Saint Valentine's Day in western societies. In modern Israeli culture Tu B'Av is a popular day to pronounce love, propose marriage and give gifts like cards or flowers.[85]
Japan
In Japan, Morozoff Ltd. introduced the holiday for the first time in 1936, when it ran an advertisement aimed at foreigners. Later in 1953 it began promoting the giving of heart-shaped chocolates; other Japanese confectionery companies followed suit thereafter. In 1958 the Isetan department store ran a "Valentine sale". Further campaigns during the 1960s popularized the custom.[86][87]
The custom that only women give chocolates to men may have originated from the translation error of a chocolate-company executive during the initial campaigns.[88] In particular, office ladies give chocolate to their co-workers. Unlike western countries, gifts such as greeting cards,[88] candies, flowers, or dinner dates[89] are uncommon, and most of the activity about the gifts is about giving the right amount of chocolate to each person.[88] Japanese chocolate companies make half their annual sales during this time of the year.[88]
Many women feel obliged to give chocolates to all male co-workers, except when the day falls on a Sunday, a holiday. This is known as giri-choko (?????), from giri ("obligation") and choko, ("chocolate"), with unpopular co-workers receiving only "ultra-obligatory" cho-giri choko cheap chocolate. This contrasts with honmei-choko (?????, favorite chocolate), chocolate given to a loved one. Friends, especially girls, may exchange chocolate referred to as tomo-choko (????); from tomo meaning "friend".[90]
In the 1980s the Japanese National Confectionery Industry Association launched a successful campaign to make March 14 a "reply day", where men are expected to return the favour to those who gave them chocolates on Valentine's Day, calling it White Day for the color of the chocolates being offered. A previous failed attempt to popularize this celebration had been done by a marshmallow manufacturer who wanted men to return marshmallows to women.[86][87]
Men are expected to return gifts that are at least two or three times more valuable than the gifts received in Valentine's Day. Not returning the gift is perceived as the man placing himself in a position of superiority, even if excuses are given. Returning a present of equal value is considered as a way to say that the relationship is being cut. Originally only chocolate was given, but now the gifts of jewelry, accessories, clothing and lingerie are usual. According to the official website of White Day, the color white was chosen because it's the color of purity, evoking "pure, sweet teen love", and because it's also the color of sugar. The initial name was "Ai ni Kotaeru White Day" (Answer Love on White Day).[86][87]
In Japan, the romantic "date night" associated to Valentine's Day is celebrated on Christmas Eve.[91]
In a 2006 survey of people between 10 and 49 years of age in Japan, Oricon Style found the 1986 Sayuri Kokusho single "Valentine Kiss" to be the most popular Valentine's Day song, even though it sold only 317,000 copies.[92] The singles it beat in the ranking were number one selling "Love Love Love" from Dreams Come True (2,488,630 copies) and "Valentine's Radio" from Yumi Matsutoya (1,606,780 copies). The final song in the top five was "My Funny Valentine" by Miles Davis.[92]
In Japan, a slightly different version of a holiday based on a lovers' story called Tanabata (??) has been celebrated for centuries, on July 7 (Gregorian calendar).[93] It has been considered by Westerners as similar to St. Valentine's Day,[94] but it's not related to it, and its origins are completely different.
Latin America
In some Latin American countries Valentine's Day is known as "Día del Amor y la Amistad" (Day of Love and Friendship). For example Colombia,[95] Costa Rica,[96] the Dominican Republic,[citation needed] Ecuador,[97] Mexico,[98] and Puerto Rico, as well as others. It is also common to see people perform "acts of appreciation" for their friends. In Guatemala it is known as the "Día del Cariño" (Affection Day).[99] In Brazil, the Dia dos Namorados (lit. "Lovers' Day", or "Boyfriends'/Girlfriends' Day") is celebrated on June 12, probably because that is the day before Saint Anthony's day, known there as the marriage saint,[100] when traditionally many single women perform popular rituals, called simpatias, in order to find a good husband or boyfriend. Couples exchange gifts, chocolates, cards and flower bouquets. The February 14 Valentine's Day is not celebrated at all because it usually falls too little before or too little after the Brazilian Carnival[101] — that can fall anywhere from early February to early March and lasts almost a week. Because of the absence of Valentine's Day and due to the celebrations of the Carnivals, Brazil is a popular tourist spot during February for Western singles who want to get away from the holiday.[102]
In most of Latin America the Día del amor y la amistad and the Amigo secreto ("Secret friend") are quite popular and are usually celebrated together on the 14 February (one exception is Colombia, where it is celebrated on the third Saturday in September). The latter consists of randomly assigning to each participant a recipient who is to be given an anonymous gift (similar to the Christmas tradition of Secret Santa).
A chocolate gift box
Cup cake with hearts
Philippines
In the Philippines, Valentine's Day is called Araw ng mga Puso ("Hearts Day"), and is celebrated in much the same manner as in the West. It is usually marked by a steep increase in the price of flowers, particularly red roses. 2014
Portugal
In Portugal it is more commonly referred to as "Dia dos Namorados" (Lover's Day / Day of the Enamoured).
Romania
In recent years, Romania has also started celebrating Valentine's Day. This has drawn backlash from several groups, institutions[103] and nationalist organizations like Noua Dreapta, who condemn Valentine's Day for being superficial, commercialist and imported Western kitsch. In order to counter the perceived denaturation of national culture, Dragobete, a spring festival celebrated in parts of Southern Romania, has been rekindled as the traditional Romanian holiday for lovers. Its date used to vary depending on the geographical area, however nowadays it is commonly observed on February 24. The holiday is named after a character from Romanian folklore who was supposed to be the son of Baba Dochia. His name has been associated, possibly through folk etymology, to the word drag ("dear"), which can also be found in the word dragoste ("love").
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia has illegalized Valentine's Day. Youth people in Saudi Arabia has arrested since Saudi Arabia think Valentine's Day is not an Islamic festival.
Scandinavia
In Denmark and Norway, although February 14 is known as Valentinsdag, it is not celebrated to a large extent, but is largely imported from American culture, and some people take time to eat a romantic dinner with their partner, to send a card to a secret love or give a red rose to their loved one. The cut-flower industry in particular is still working on promoting the holiday. In Sweden it is called Alla hjärtans dag ("All Hearts' Day") and was launched in the 1960s by the flower industry's commercial interests, and due to the influence of American culture. It is not an official holiday, but its celebration is recognized and sales of cosmetics and flowers for this holiday are only exceeded by those for Mother's Day.
Singapore
According to findings, Singaporeans are among the biggest spenders on Valentine's Day, with 60% of Singaporeans indicating that they would spend between $100 and $500 during the season leading up to the holiday.[72]
South Korea
In South Korea, women give chocolate to men on February 14, and men give non-chocolate candy to women on March 14 (White Day). On April 14 (Black Day), those who did not receive anything on 14 February or March go to a Chinese-Korean restaurant to eat black noodles (??? jajangmyeon) and lament their 'single life'.[89] Koreans also celebrate Pepero Day on November 11, when young couples give each other Pepero cookies. The date '11/11' is intended to resemble the long shape of the cookie. The 14th of every month marks a love-related day in Korea, although most of them are obscure. From January to December: Candle Day, Valentine's Day, White Day, Black Day, Rose Day, Kiss Day, Silver Day, Green Day, Music Day, Wine Day, Movie Day, and Hug Day.[104] Korean women give a much higher amount of chocolate than Japanese women.[89]
Spain
In Spain, Valentine's Day is known as "San Valentín" and is celebrated the same way as in the UK, it is however not celebrated in Catalonia.
Taiwan
In Taiwan, traditional Qixi Festival, Valentine's Day and White Day are all celebrated. However, the situation is the reverse of Japan's. Men give gifts to women on Valentine's Day, and women return them on White Day.[89]
United States
In the United States, about 190 million Valentine's Day cards are sent each year. And that figure does not include the hundreds of millions of cards school children exchange.[105] Additionally, in recent decades Valentine's Day has become increasingly commercialized and a popular gift-giving event, with Valentine’s Day themed advertisements encouraging spending on loved ones. In fact, in the United States alone, the average valentine’s spending has increased every year, from $108 a person in 2010 to $131 in 2013.[106]
Wales
In Wales, many people celebrate Dydd Santes Dwynwen (St Dwynwen's Day) on January 25 instead of (or as well as) Valentine's Day. The day commemorates St Dwynwen, the patron saint of Welsh lovers.
Conflict with Islamic countries and political parties
Iran
In the first part of the 21st century, the celebration of Valentine's Day in Iran has been harshly criticized by Islamic teachers who see the celebrations as opposed to Islamic culture. In 2011, the Iranian printing works owners' union issued a directive banning the printing and distribution of any goods promoting the holiday, including cards, gifts and teddy bears. "Printing and producing any goods related to this day including posters, boxes and cards emblazoned with hearts or half-hearts, red roses and any activities promoting this day are banned ... Outlets that violate this will be legally dealt with", the union warned.[107][108]
Malaysia
Islamic officials in Malaysia warned Muslims against celebrating Valentine's Day, linking it with vice activities. Deputy Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin said the celebration of romantic love was "not suitable" for Muslims. Wan Mohamad Sheikh Abdul Aziz, head of the Malaysian Islamic Development Department (Jakim), which oversees the country's Islamic policies said that a fatwa (ruling) issued by the country's top clerics in 2005 noted that the day 'is associated with elements of Christianity,' and 'we just cannot get involved with other religions' worshipping rituals.' Jakim officials planned to carry out a nationwide campaign called "Awas Jerat Valentine's Day" ("Mind the Valentine's Day Trap"), aimed at preventing Muslims from celebrating the day on 14 February 2011. Activities include conducting raids in hotels to stop young couples from having unlawful sex and distributing leaflets to Muslim university students warning them against the day.[109][110]
On Valentine's Day 2011, Malaysian religious authorities arrested more than 100 Muslim couples concerning the celebration ban. Some of them would be charged in the Shariah Court for defying the department's ban against the celebration of Valentine's Day.[111]
Pakistan
The concept of Valentine's Day was introduced into Pakistan during the late 1990s with special TV and radio programs. The Jamaat-e-Islami political party has called for the banning of Valentine's Day celebration.[78] Despite this, the celebration is becoming popular among urban youth and the florists expect to sell a great amount of flowers, especially red roses. The case is the same with card publishers.[112]
There was a protest in Lahore against the celebration of St. Valentine’s Day led by the "Tahaffuz-e-Namoose-Risaalat [an organization defending the Prophet's code of life]."[113]
Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, in 2002 and 2008, religious police banned the sale of all Valentine's Day items, telling shop workers to remove any red items, because the day is considered a Christian holiday.[114][115] This ban has created a black market for roses and wrapping paper.[115][116] In 2012 the religious police arrested more than 140 Muslims for celebrating the holiday, and confiscated all red roses from flower shops.[117] Muslims are not allowed to celebrate the holiday, and non-Muslims can celebrate only behind closed doors.[118]
In 2014, religious police in Saudi Arabia arrested five men for celebrating St. Valentine's Day "in the company" of six women. The Buraidah criminal court pronounced sentences totaling 32 years of imprisonment and 4,500 lashes to the men.[119]
"Saudi cleric Sheikh Muhammad Al-'Arifi said on Valentine's Day Eve that celebrating this holiday constitutes bid'a – a forbidden innovation and deviation from religious law and custom – and mimicry of the West."[120][121]
See also
Portal icon Christianity portal Portal icon Holidays portal Sailor's valentine Saint Valentine's Day Massacre Singles Awareness Day Valentine's Day (2010 film) V-Day, the global movement to end violence against women and girls. Women's Memorial March, held on Valentine's Day in Vancouver, British Columbia.
Notes
1.Jump up ^ For example, one source claims incorrectly that "Pope Gelasius I muddled things in the 5th century by combining St. Valentine's Day with Lupercalia to expel the pagan rituals." Seipel, Arnie, The Dark Origins Of Valentine's Day, Nation Public Radio, February 13, 2011 2.Jump up ^ Ansgar, 1976, pp. 60–61. The replacement of Lupercalia with Saint Valentine's celebration was suggested by researchers Kellog and Cox. Ansgar says "It is hardly credible, then, that Pope Gelasius could have introduced the feast of the Purification to counteract the Lupercalia, and in fact the historical records of his pontificate give no hint of such an action." 3.Jump up ^ Ansgar, 1976, pp. 60–61. This feast is celebrated 40 days after the Nativity. In Jerusalem the Nativity was celebrated on January 6, and this feast in February 14. But, in the West and even in Eastern places such as Antioch and Alexandria, Nativity was celebrated on December 25, and this Purification was not celebrated. When this feast was introduced to Rome, it was directly placed in February 2. Around that time, Jerusalem adopted the Nativity date of December 25 and moved the Purification to February 2. A wedding is the ceremony where people are united in marriage. Wedding traditions and customs vary greatly between cultures, ethnic groups, religions, countries, and social classes. Most wedding ceremonies involve an exchange of wedding vows by the couple, presentation of a gift (offering, ring(s), symbolic item, flowers, money), and a public proclamation of marriage by an authority figure or leader. Special wedding garments are often worn, and the ceremony is sometimes followed by a wedding reception. Music, poetry, prayers or readings from religious texts or literature are also commonly incorporated into the ceremony. A number of cultures have adopted the traditional Western custom of the white wedding, in which a bride wears a white wedding dress and veil. This tradition was popularized through the wedding of Queen Victoria. Some say Victoria's choice of a white gown may have simply been a sign of extravagance, but may have also been influenced by the values she held which emphasized sexual purity.[1] Within the modern 'white wedding' tradition, a white dress and veil are unusual choices for a woman's second or subsequent wedding.
The use of a wedding ring has long been part of religious weddings in Europe and America, but the origin of the tradition is unclear. One possibility is the Roman belief in the Vena Amoris, which was believed to be a blood vessel that ran from the fourth finger (ring finger) directly to the heart, thus when a couple wore rings on this finger their hearts were connected.[2] Historian Vicki Howard points out that the belief in the "ancient" quality of the practice is most likely a modern invention.[3] "Double ring" ceremonies are also a modern practice, a groom's wedding band not appearing in the United States until the early 20th century.[4]
The wedding ceremony is often followed by a drinks reception then a wedding breakfast, in which the rituals may include speeches from the groom, best man, father of the bride and possibly the bride,[5] the newlyweds first dance as a couple, and the cutting of an elegant wedding cake. Most Christian churches give some form of blessing to a marriage; the wedding ceremony typically includes some sort of pledge by the community to support the couple's relationship. A church wedding is a ceremony presided over by a Christian priest or pastor. Ceremonies are based on reference to God, and are frequently embodied into other church ceremonies such as Mass.[14]
Arab Christian wedding party. Customs may vary widely between denominations. In the Roman Catholic Church "Holy Matrimony" is considered to be one of the seven sacraments, in this case one that the spouses bestow upon each other in front of a priest and members of the community as witnesses. As with all sacraments, it is seen as having been instituted by Jesus himself (see Gospel of Matthew 19:1-2, Catechism of the Catholic Church §1614-1615). In the Eastern Orthodox Church, it is one of the Mysteries, and is seen as an ordination and a martyrdom. The wedding ceremony of Saint Thomas Christians, an ethnoreligious group of Christians in India incorporate elements from Hindu, Jewish and Christian weddings. Wedding ceremony participants[edit]
A wedding party in 1918
Wedding ceremony participants, also referred to as the wedding party, are the people that participate directly in the wedding ceremony itself.
Depending on the location, religion, and style of the wedding, this group may include only the individual people that are marrying, or it may include one or more brides, grooms (or bridegrooms), persons of honor, bridespersons, best persons, groomsmen, flower girls, pages and ringbearers.
A woman’s wedding party consists of only those on her side of the wedding party. Those on a groom’s side are called his groom’s party. Bride: A woman about to be married. Bridegroom or Groom: A man who is about to be married. Marriage officiant: the person who officiates at the wedding, validating the wedding from a legal and/or religious standpoint. This person may be a judge, justice of the peace, or a member of clergy. Best Man, Woman, or Person: The chief assistant to a bridegroom at a wedding, typically a sibling or friend of special significance in his life. Often holds the wedding rings until their exchange. Mother of the Bride or Groom: The mother of either the bride or groom. The mother of the bride is required to choose her outfit before the mother of the groom. Maid, Matron or Man of Honor: The title and position held by a bride's chief attendant, typically her closest friend or sibling. Bridesmaids: The female attendants to a bride. Males in this role may be called honor attendants or sometimes bridesmen, but that term has a different traditional meaning. Groomsmen or Ushers: The attendants, usually male, to a bridegroom in a wedding ceremony. Female attendants, such as a sister of the groom, are typically called honor attendants. Page(s): Young attendants may carry the bride’s train. In a formal wedding, the ring bearer is a special page who carries the rings down the aisle. The coin bearer is similar page who marches on the wedding aisle to bring the wedding coins. Flower girl(s): In some traditions, one or more children carry bouquets or drop rose petals in front of the bride in the wedding procession.
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For other uses, see Statue of Liberty (disambiguation).
Statue of Liberty
Location Liberty Island Manhattan, New York City, New York,[1] United States
Coordinates 40°41'21?N 74°2'40?WCoordinates: 40°41'21?N 74°2'40?W
Height
Base to torch: 151 feet 1 inch (46 meters) Ground to torch: 305 feet 1 inch (93 meters)
Dedicated October 28, 1886
Restored 1938, 1984–1986, 2011–2012
Sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi
Visitors 3.2 million (in 2009)[2]
Governing body U.S. National Park Service
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Designated September 14, 1976[6]
Statue of Liberty is located in New York City
Statue of Liberty
Location of Statue of Liberty in the New York Harbor in New York City
The Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World; French: La Liberté éclairant le monde) is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, a French sculptor, built by Gustave Eiffel, and dedicated on October 28, 1886, was a gift to the United States from the people of France.
The statue is of a robed female figure representing Libertas, the Roman goddess, who bears a torch and a tabula ansata (a tablet evoking the law) upon which is inscribed the date of the American Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. A broken chain lies at her feet. The statue is an icon of freedom and of the United States, and was a welcoming sight to immigrants arriving from abroad.
Bartholdi was inspired by French law professor and politician Édouard René de Laboulaye, who is said to have commented in 1865 that any monument raised to American independence would properly be a joint project of the French and American peoples. He may have been minded to honor the Union victory in the American Civil War and the end of slavery. Due to the troubled political situation in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue and the Americans provide the site and build the pedestal. Bartholdi completed the head and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions.
The torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, and in Madison Square Park in Manhattan from 1876 to 1882. Fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World started a drive for donations to complete the project that attracted more than 120,000 contributors, most of whom gave less than a dollar. The statue was constructed in France, shipped overseas in crates, and assembled on the completed pedestal on what was then called Bedloe's Island. The statue's completion was marked by New York's first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland.
The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War; since 1933 it has been maintained by the National Park Service. The statue was closed for renovation for much of 1938. In the early 1980s, it was found to have deteriorated to such an extent that a major restoration was required. While the statue was closed from 1984 to 1986, the torch and a large part of the internal structure were replaced. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, it was closed for reasons of safety and security; the pedestal reopened in 2004 and the statue in 2009, with limits on the number of visitors allowed to ascend to the crown. The statue, including the pedestal and base, was closed for a year until October 28, 2012, so that a secondary staircase and other safety features could be installed; Liberty Island remained open. However, one day after the reopening, Liberty Island closed due to the effects of Hurricane Sandy in New York; the statue and island opened again on July 4, 2013. Public access to the balcony surrounding the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916.
Contents [hide] 1 Design and construction process 1.1 Origin 1.2 Design, style, and symbolism 1.3 Announcement and early work 1.4 Construction in France 1.5 The pedestal 1.5.1 Design 1.5.2 Fundraising 1.5.3 Construction
1.6 Dedication
2 After dedication 2.1 Lighthouse Board and War Department (1886–1933) 2.2 Early National Park Service years (1933–1982) 2.3 Renovation and rededication (1982–2000) 2.4 Closures and reopening (2001–present)
3 Access and attributes 3.1 Location and tourism 3.2 Inscriptions, plaques, and dedications 3.3 Physical characteristics
4 Depictions 5 See also 6 References 7 External links
Design and construction process
Origin
According to the National Park Service, the idea for the Statue of Liberty was first proposed by Edouard de Laboulaye the president of the French Anti-Slavery Society and a prominent and important political thinker of his time. The project is traced to a conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor in mid-1865. In after-dinner conversation at his home near Versailles, Laboulaye, an ardent supporter of the Union in the American Civil War, is supposed to have said: "If a monument should rise in the United States, as a memorial to their independence, I should think it only natural if it were built by united effort—a common work of both our nations."[7] The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, and that the statue was most likely conceived in 1870.[8] In another essay on their website, the Park Service suggested that Laboulaye was minded to honor the Union victory and its consequences, "With the abolition of slavery and the Union's victory in the Civil War in 1865, Laboulaye's wishes of freedom and democracy were turning into a reality in the United States. In order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, the French people would be inspired to call for their own democracy in the face of a repressive monarchy."[9]
Bartholdi's design patent According to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulaye's comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi.[7] Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no immediate action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Bartholdi was in any event busy with other possible projects; in the late 1860s, he approached Isma'il Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, with a plan to build a huge lighthouse in the form of an ancient Egyptian female fellah or peasant, robed and holding a torch aloft, at the northern entrance to the Suez Canal in Port Said. Sketches and models were made of the proposed work, though it was never erected. There was a classical precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes: an ancient bronze statue of the Greek god of the sun, Helios. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet (30 m) high, and it similarly stood at a harbor entrance and carried a light to guide ships.[10]
Any large project was further delayed by the Franco-Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed. Bartholdi's home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France.[7] As Bartholdi had been planning a trip to the United States, he and Laboulaye decided the time was right to discuss the idea with influential Americans.[11] In June 1871, Bartholdi crossed the Atlantic, with letters of introduction signed by Laboulaye.[12]
Arriving at New York Harbor, Bartholdi focused on Bedloe's Island as a site for the statue, struck by the fact that vessels arriving in New York had to sail past it. He was delighted to learn that the island was owned by the United States government—it had been ceded by the New York State Legislature in 1800 for harbor defense. It was thus, as he put it in a letter to Laboulaye: "land common to all the states."[13] As well as meeting many influential New Yorkers, Bartholdi visited President Ulysses S. Grant, who assured him that it would not be difficult to obtain the site for the statue.[14] Bartholdi crossed the United States twice by rail, and met many Americans he felt would be sympathetic to the project.[12] But he remained concerned that popular opinion on both sides of the Atlantic was insufficiently supportive of the proposal, and he and Laboulaye decided to wait before mounting a public campaign.[15]
Bartholdi's Lion of Belfort
Bartholdi had made a first model of his concept in 1870.[16] The son of a friend of Bartholdi's, American artist John LaFarge, later maintained that Bartholdi made the first sketches for the statue during his U.S. visit at La Farge's Rhode Island studio. Bartholdi continued to develop the concept following his return to France.[16] He also worked on a number of sculptures designed to bolster French patriotism after the defeat by the Prussians. One of these was the Lion of Belfort, a monumental sculpture carved in sandstone below the fortress of Belfort, which during the war had resisted a Prussian siege for over three months. The defiant lion, 73 feet (22 m) long and half that in height, displays an emotional quality characteristic of Romanticism, which Bartholdi would later bring to the Statue of Liberty.[17]
Design, style, and symbolism
Detail from a fresco by Constantino Brumidi in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., showing two early symbols of America: Columbia (left) and the Indian princess
Bartholdi and Laboulaye considered how best to express the idea of American liberty.[18] In early American history, two female figures were frequently used as cultural symbols of the nation.[19] One of these symbols, the personified Columbia, was seen as an embodiment of the United States in the manner that Britannia was identified with the United Kingdom and Marianne came to represent France. Columbia had supplanted the earlier figure of an Indian princess, which had come to be regarded as uncivilized and derogatory toward Americans.[19] The other significant female icon in American culture was a representation of Liberty, derived from Libertas, the goddess of freedom widely worshipped in ancient Rome, especially among emancipated slaves. A Liberty figure adorned most American coins of the time,[18] and representations of Liberty appeared in popular and civic art, including Thomas Crawford's Statue of Freedom (1863) atop the dome of the United States Capitol Building.[18]
Artists of the 18th and 19th centuries striving to evoke republican ideals commonly used representations of Libertas as an allegorical symbol.[18] A figure of Liberty was also depicted on the Great Seal of France.[18] However, Bartholdi and Laboulaye avoided an image of revolutionary liberty such as that depicted in Eugène Delacroix's famed Liberty Leading the People (1830). In this painting, which commemorates France's Revolution of 1830, a half-clothed Liberty leads an armed mob over the bodies of the fallen.[19] Laboulaye had no sympathy for revolution, and so Bartholdi's figure would be fully dressed in flowing robes.[19] Instead of the impression of violence in the Delacroix work, Bartholdi wished to give the statue a peaceful appearance and chose a torch, representing progress, for the figure to hold.[20]
Crawford's statue was designed in the early 1850s. It was originally to be crowned with a pileus, the cap given to emancipated slaves in ancient Rome. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis, a Southerner who would later serve as president of the Confederate States of America, was concerned that the pileus would be taken as an abolitionist symbol. He ordered that it be changed to a helmet.[21] Delacroix's figure wears a pileus,[19] and Bartholdi at first considered placing one on his figure as well. Instead, he used a diadem, or crown, to top its head.[22] In so doing, he avoided a reference to Marianne, who invariably wears a pileus.[23] The seven rays form a halo or aureole.[24] They evoke the sun, the seven seas, and the seven continents,[25] and represent another means, besides the torch, whereby Liberty enlightens the world.[20]
Bartholdi's early models were all similar in concept: a female figure in neoclassical style representing liberty, wearing a stola and pella (gown and cloak, common in depictions of Roman goddesses) and holding a torch aloft. According to popular accounts, the face was modeled after that of Charlotte Beysser Bartholdi, the sculptor's mother,[26] but Regis Huber, the curator of the Bartholdi Museum is on record as saying that this, as well as other similar speculations, have no basis in fact.[27] He designed the figure with a strong, uncomplicated silhouette, which would be set off well by its dramatic harbor placement and allow passengers on vessels entering New York Bay to experience a changing perspective on the statue as they proceeded toward Manhattan. He gave it bold classical contours and applied simplified modeling, reflecting the huge scale of the project and its solemn purpose.[20] Bartholdi wrote of his technique:
Thomas Crawford's Statue of Freedom
The surfaces should be broad and simple, defined by a bold and clear design, accentuated in the important places. The enlargement of the details or their multiplicity is to be feared. By exaggerating the forms, in order to render them more clearly visible, or by enriching them with details, we would destroy the proportion of the work. Finally, the model, like the design, should have a summarized character, such as one would give to a rapid sketch. Only it is necessary that this character should be the product of volition and study, and that the artist, concentrating his knowledge, should find the form and the line in its greatest simplicity.[28]
Bartholdi made alterations in the design as the project evolved. Bartholdi considered having Liberty hold a broken chain, but decided this would be too divisive in the days after the Civil War. The erected statue does rise over a broken chain, half-hidden by her robes and difficult to see from the ground.[22] Bartholdi was initially uncertain of what to place in Liberty's left hand; he settled on a tabula ansata, a keystone-shaped tablet[29] used to evoke the concept of law.[30] Though Bartholdi greatly admired the United States Constitution, he chose to inscribe "JULY IV MDCCLXXVI" on the tablet, thus associating the date of the country's Declaration of Independence with the concept of liberty.[29]
Bartholdi interested his friend and mentor, architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, in the project.[27] As chief engineer,[27] Viollet-le-Duc designed a brick pier within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored.[31] After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet-le-Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it, repoussé, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers.[27][32] An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only .094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. Bartholdi had decided on a height of just over 151 feet (46 m) for the statue, double that of Italy's Sancarlone and the German statue of Arminius, both made with the same method.[33]
Announcement and early work
By 1875, France was enjoying improved political stability and a recovering postwar economy. Growing interest in the upcoming Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia led Laboulaye to decide it was time to seek public support.[34] In September 1875, he announced the project and the formation of the Franco-American Union as its fundraising arm. With the announcement, the statue was given a name, Liberty Enlightening the World.[35] The French would finance the statue; Americans would be expected to pay for the pedestal.[36] The announcement provoked a generally favorable reaction in France, though many Frenchmen resented the United States for not coming to their aid during the war with Prussia.[35] French monarchists opposed the statue, if for no other reason than it was proposed by the liberal Laboulaye, who had recently been elected a senator for life.[36] Laboulaye arranged events designed to appeal to the rich and powerful, including a special performance at the Paris Opera on April 25, 1876, that featured a new cantata by composer Charles Gounod. The piece was titled La Liberté éclairant le monde, the French version of the statue's announced name.[35]
Stereoscopic image of right arm and torch of the Statue of Liberty, 1876 Centennial Exposition Despite its initial focus on the elites, the Union was successful in raising funds from across French society. Schoolchildren and ordinary citizens gave, as did 181 French municipalities. Laboulaye's political allies supported the call, as did descendants of the French contingent in the American Revolutionary War. Less idealistically, contributions came from those who hoped for American support in the French attempt to build the Panama Canal. The copper may have come from multiple sources and some of it is said to have come from a mine in Visnes, Norway,[37] though this has not been conclusively determined after testing samples.[38] According to Cara Sutherland in her book on the statue for the Museum of the City of New York, 90,800 kilos (200,000 pounds) was needed to build the statue, and the French copper industrialist Eugène Secrétan donated 58,100 kilos (128,000 pounds) of copper.[39] Historian Yasmin Khan, in her 2010 book about the statue, states that the firm of Japy Frères, copper merchants, donated copper valued at 64,000 francs (about $16,000 at the time or the equivalent of US$ 354,000 in 2015).[40][41]
Although plans for the statue had not been finalized, Bartholdi moved forward with fabrication of the right arm, bearing the torch, and the head. Work began at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop.[42] In May 1876, Bartholdi traveled to the United States as a member of a French delegation to the Centennial Exhibition,[43] and arranged for a huge painting of the statue to be shown in New York as part of the Centennial festivities.[44] The arm did not arrive in Philadelphia until August; because of its late arrival, it was not listed in the exhibition catalogue, and while some reports correctly identified the work, others called it the "Colossal Arm" or "Bartholdi Electric Light". The exhibition grounds contained a number of monumental artworks to compete for fairgoers' interest, including an outsized fountain designed by Bartholdi.[45] Nevertheless, the arm proved popular in the exhibition's waning days, and visitors would climb up to the balcony of the torch to view the fairgrounds.[46] After the exhibition closed, the arm was transported to New York, where it remained on display in Madison Square Park for several years before it was returned to France to join the rest of the statue.[46]
During his second trip to the United States, Bartholdi addressed a number of groups about the project, and urged the formation of American committees of the Franco-American Union.[47] Committees to raise money to pay for the foundation and pedestal were formed in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia.[48] The New York group eventually took on most of the responsibility for American fundraising and is often referred to as the "American Committee".[49] One of its members was 19-year-old Theodore Roosevelt, the future governor of New York and president of the United States.[47] On March 3, 1877, on his final full day in office, President Grant signed a joint resolution that authorized the President to accept the statue when it was presented by France and to select a site for it. President Rutherford B. Hayes, who took office the following day, selected the Bedloe's Island site that Bartholdi had proposed.[50]
Construction in France
The statue's head on exhibit at the Paris World's Fair, 1878
On his return to Paris in 1877, Bartholdi concentrated on completing the head, which was exhibited at the 1878 Paris World's Fair. Fundraising continued, with models of the statue put on sale. Tickets to view the construction activity at the Gaget, Gauthier & Co. workshop were also offered.[41] The French government authorized a lottery; among the prizes were valuable silver plate and a terracotta model of the statue. By the end of 1879, about 250,000 francs had been raised.[51]
The head and arm had been built with assistance from Viollet-le-Duc, who fell ill in 1879. He soon died, leaving no indication of how he intended to transition from the copper skin to his proposed masonry pier.[52] The following year, Bartholdi was able to obtain the services of the innovative designer and builder Gustave Eiffel.[41] Eiffel and his structural engineer, Maurice Koechlin, decided to abandon the pier and instead build an iron truss tower. Eiffel opted not to use a completely rigid structure, which would force stresses to accumulate in the skin and lead eventually to cracking. A secondary skeleton was attached to the center pylon, then, to enable the statue to move slightly in the winds of New York Harbor and as the metal expanded on hot summer days, he loosely connected the support structure to the skin using flat iron bars[27] which culminated in a mesh of metal straps, known as "saddles", that were riveted to the skin, providing firm support. In a labor-intensive process, each saddle had to be crafted individually.[53][54] To prevent galvanic corrosion between the copper skin and the iron support structure, Eiffel insulated the skin with asbestos impregnated with shellac.[55]
Eiffel's design made the statue one of the earliest examples of curtain wall construction, in which the exterior of the structure is not load bearing, but is instead supported by an interior framework. He included two interior spiral staircases, to make it easier for visitors to reach the observation point in the crown.[56] Access to an observation platform surrounding the torch was also provided, but the narrowness of the arm allowed for only a single ladder, 40 feet (12 m) long.[57] As the pylon tower arose, Eiffel and Bartholdi coordinated their work carefully so that completed segments of skin would fit exactly on the support structure.[58] The components of the pylon tower were built in the Eiffel factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret.[59]
The change in structural material from masonry to iron allowed Bartholdi to change his plans for the statue's assembly. He had originally expected to assemble the skin on-site as the masonry pier was built; instead he decided to build the statue in France and have it disassembled and transported to the United States for reassembly in place on Bedloe's Island.[60]
In a symbolic act, the first rivet placed into the skin, fixing a copper plate onto the statue's big toe, was driven by United States Ambassador to France Levi P. Morton.[61] The skin was not, however, crafted in exact sequence from low to high; work proceeded on a number of segments simultaneously in a manner often confusing to visitors.[62] Some work was performed by contractors—one of the fingers was made to Bartholdi's exacting specifications by a coppersmith in the southern French town of Montauban.[63] By 1882, the statue was complete up to the waist, an event Barthodi celebrated by inviting reporters to lunch on a platform built within the statue.[64] Laboulaye died in 1883. He was succeeded as chairman of the French committee by Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. The completed statue was formally presented to Ambassador Morton at a ceremony in Paris on July 4, 1884, and de Lesseps announced that the French government had agreed to pay for its transport to New York.[65] The statue remained intact in Paris pending sufficient progress on the pedestal; by January 1885, this had occurred and the statue was disassembled and crated for its ocean voyage.[66]
The pedestal
Richard Morris Hunt's pedestal under construction in June 1885 The committees in the United States faced great difficulties in obtaining funds for the construction of the pedestal. The Panic of 1873 had led to an economic depression that persisted through much of the decade. The Liberty statue project was not the only such undertaking that had difficulty raising money: construction of the obelisk later known as the Washington Monument sometimes stalled for years; it would ultimately take over three-and-a-half decades to complete.[67] There was criticism both of Bartholdi's statue and of the fact that the gift required Americans to foot the bill for the pedestal. In the years following the Civil War, most Americans preferred realistic artworks depicting heroes and events from the nation's history, rather than allegorical works like the Liberty statue.[67] There was also a feeling that Americans should design American public works—the selection of Italian-born Constantino Brumidi to decorate the Capitol had provoked intense criticism, even though he was a naturalized U.S. citizen.[68] Harper's Weekly declared its wish that "M. Bartholdi and our French cousins had 'gone the whole figure' while they were about it, and given us statue and pedestal at once."[69] The New York Times stated that "no true patriot can countenance any such expenditures for bronze females in the present state of our finances."[70] Faced with these criticisms, the American committees took little action for several years.[70]
Design
Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, June 1885, showing (clockwise from left) woodcuts of the completed statue in Paris, Bartholdi, and the statue's interior structure The foundation of Bartholdi's statue was to be laid inside Fort Wood, a disused army base on Bedloe's Island constructed between 1807 and 1811. Since 1823, it had rarely been used, though during the Civil War, it had served as a recruiting station.[71] The fortifications of the structure were in the shape of an eleven-point star. The statue's foundation and pedestal were aligned so that it would face southeast, greeting ships entering the harbor from the Atlantic Ocean.[72] In 1881, the New York committee commissioned Richard Morris Hunt to design the pedestal. Within months, Hunt submitted a detailed plan, indicating that he expected construction to take about nine months.[73] He proposed a pedestal 114 feet (35 m) in height; faced with money problems, the committee reduced that to 89 feet (27 m).[74]
Hunt's pedestal design contains elements of classical architecture, including Doric portals, as well as some elements influenced by Aztec architecture.[27] The large mass is fragmented with architectural detail, in order to focus attention on the statue.[74] In form, it is a truncated pyramid, 62 feet (19 m) square at the base and 39.4 feet (12.0 m) at the top. The four sides are identical in appearance. Above the door on each side, there are ten disks upon which Bartholdi proposed to place the coats of arms of the states (between 1876 and 1889, there were 40 U.S. states), although this was not done. Above that, a balcony was placed on each side, framed by pillars. Bartholdi placed an observation platform near the top of the pedestal, above which the statue itself rises.[75] According to author Louis Auchincloss, the pedestal "craggily evokes the power of an ancient Europe over which rises the dominating figure of the Statue of Liberty".[74] The committee hired former army General Charles Pomeroy Stone to oversee the construction work.[76] Construction on the 15-foot-deep (4.6 m) foundation began in 1883, and the pedestal's cornerstone was laid in 1884.[73] In Hunt's original conception, the pedestal was to have been made of solid granite. Financial concerns again forced him to revise his plans; the final design called for poured concrete walls, up to 20 feet (6.1 m) thick, faced with granite blocks.[77][78] This Stony Creek granite came from the Beattie Quarry in Branford, Connecticut.[79] The concrete mass was the largest poured to that time.[78]
Norwegian immigrant civil engineer Joachim Goschen Giæver designed the structural framework for the Statue of Liberty. His work involved design computations, detailed fabrication and construction drawings, and oversight of construction. In completing his engineering for the statue’s frame, Giæver worked from drawings and sketches produced by Gustave Eiffel.[80][80]
Fundraising
Unpacking of the head of the Statue of Liberty, which was delivered on June 17, 1885
Fundraising for the statue had begun in 1882. The committee organized a large number of money-raising events.[81] As part of one such effort, an auction of art and manuscripts, poet Emma Lazarus was asked to donate an original work. She initially declined, stating she could not write a poem about a statue. At the time, she was also involved in aiding refugees to New York who had fled anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe. These refugees were forced to live in conditions that the wealthy Lazarus had never experienced. She saw a way to express her empathy for these refugees in terms of the statue.[82] The resulting sonnet, "The New Colossus", including the iconic lines "Give me your tired, your poor/Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free", is uniquely identified with the Statue of Liberty and is inscribed on a plaque in the museum in its base.[83]
Even with these efforts, fundraising lagged. Grover Cleveland, the governor of New York, vetoed a bill to provide $50,000 for the statue project in 1884. An attempt the next year to have Congress provide $100,000, sufficient to complete the project, also failed. The New York committee, with only $3,000 in the bank, suspended work on the pedestal. With the project in jeopardy, groups from other American cities, including Boston and Philadelphia, offered to pay the full cost of erecting the statue in return for relocating it.[84]
Joseph Pulitzer, publisher of the New York World, a New York newspaper, announced a drive to raise $100,000 – the equivalent of $2.3 million today.[40] Pulitzer pledged to print the name of every contributor, no matter how small the amount given.[85] The drive captured the imagination of New Yorkers, especially when Pulitzer began publishing the notes he received from contributors. "A young girl alone in the world" donated "60 cents, the result of self denial."[86] One donor gave "five cents as a poor office boy's mite toward the Pedestal Fund." A group of children sent a dollar as "the money we saved to go to the circus with."[87] Another dollar was given by a "lonely and very aged woman."[86] Residents of a home for alcoholics in New York's rival city of Brooklyn – the cities would not merge until 1898 – donated $15; other drinkers helped out through donation boxes in bars and saloons.[88] A kindergarten class in Davenport, Iowa, mailed the World a gift of $1.35.[86] As the donations flooded in, the committee resumed work on the pedestal.[89]
Construction
On June 17, 1885, the French steamer Isère, laden with the Statue of Liberty, reached the New York port safely. New Yorkers displayed their new-found enthusiasm for the statue, as the French vessel arrived with the crates holding the disassembled statue on board. Two hundred thousand people lined the docks and hundreds of boats put to sea to welcome the Isère.[90] [91] After five months of daily calls to donate to the statue fund, on August 11, 1885, the World announced that $102,000 had been raised from 120,000 donors, and that 80 percent of the total had been received in sums of less than one dollar.[92]
Even with the success of the fund drive, the pedestal was not completed until April 1886. Immediately thereafter, reassembly of the statue began. Eiffel's iron framework was anchored to steel I-beams within the concrete pedestal and assembled.[93] Once this was done, the sections of skin were carefully attached.[94] Due to the width of the pedestal, it was not possible to erect scaffolding, and workers dangled from ropes while installing the skin sections. Nevertheless, no one died during the construction.[95] Bartholdi had planned to put floodlights on the torch's balcony to illuminate it; a week before the dedication, the Army Corps of Engineers vetoed the proposal, fearing that ships' pilots passing the statue would be blinded. Instead, Bartholdi cut portholes in the torch – which was covered with gold leaf – and placed the lights inside them.[96] A power plant was installed on the island to light the torch and for other electrical needs.[97] After the skin was completed, renowned landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, co-designer of New York's Central Park and Brooklyn's Prospect Park, supervised a cleanup of Bedloe's Island in anticipation of the dedication.[98]
Dedication
Unveiling of the Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World (1886) by Edward Moran. Oil on canvas. The J. Clarence Davies Collection, Museum of the City of New York. A ceremony of dedication was held on the afternoon of October 28, 1886. President Grover Cleveland, the former New York governor, presided over the event.[99] On the morning of the dedication, a parade was held in New York City; estimates of the number of people who watched it ranged from several hundred thousand to a million. President Cleveland headed the procession, then stood in the reviewing stand to see bands and marchers from across America. General Stone was the grand marshal of the parade. The route began at Madison Square, once the venue for the arm, and proceeded to Battery Park at the southern tip of Manhattan by way of Fifth Avenue and Broadway, with a slight detour so the parade could pass in front of the World building on Park Row. As the parade passed the New York Stock Exchange, traders threw ticker tape from the windows, beginning the New York tradition of the ticker-tape parade.[100]
A nautical parade began at 12:45 p.m., and President Cleveland embarked on a yacht that took him across the harbor to Bedloe's Island for the dedication.[101] De Lesseps made the first speech, on behalf of the French committee, followed by the chairman of the New York committee, Senator William M. Evarts. A French flag draped across the statue's face was to be lowered to unveil the statue at the close of Evarts's speech, but Bartholdi mistook a pause as the conclusion and let the flag fall prematurely. The ensuing cheers put an end to Evarts's address.[100] President Cleveland spoke next, stating that the statue's "stream of light shall pierce the darkness of ignorance and man's oppression until Liberty enlightens the world".[102] Bartholdi, observed near the dais, was called upon to speak, but he refused. Orator Chauncey M. Depew concluded the speechmaking with a lengthy address.[103]
No members of the general public were permitted on the island during the ceremonies, which were reserved entirely for dignitaries. The only females granted access were Bartholdi's wife and de Lesseps's granddaughter; officials stated that they feared women might be injured in the crush of people. The restriction offended area suffragists, who chartered a boat and got as close as they could to the island. The group's leaders made speeches applauding the embodiment of Liberty as a woman and advocating women's right to vote.[102] A scheduled fireworks display was postponed until November 1 because of poor weather.[104]
Shortly after the dedication, The Cleveland Gazette, an African American newspaper, suggested that the statue's torch not be lit until the United States became a free nation "in reality":
"Liberty enlightening the world," indeed! The expression makes us sick. This government is a howling farce. It can not or rather does not protect its citizens within its own borders. Shove the Bartholdi statue, torch and all, into the ocean until the "liberty" of this country is such as to make it possible for an inoffensive and industrious colored man to earn a respectable living for himself and family, without being ku-kluxed, perhaps murdered, his daughter and wife outraged, and his property destroyed. The idea of the "liberty" of this country "enlightening the world," or even Patagonia, is ridiculous in the extreme.[105]
After dedication
Lighthouse Board and War Department (1886–1933)
Statue of Liberty ca. 1900
Government poster using the Statue of Liberty to promote the sale of Liberty Bonds
When the torch was illuminated on the evening of the statue's dedication, it produced only a faint gleam, barely visible from Manhattan. The World characterized it as "more like a glowworm than a beacon."[97] Bartholdi suggested gilding the statue to increase its ability to reflect light, but this proved too expensive. The United States Lighthouse Board took over the Statue of Liberty in 1887 and pledged to install equipment to enhance the torch's effect; in spite of its efforts, the statue remained virtually invisible at night. When Bartholdi returned to the United States in 1893, he made additional suggestions, all of which proved ineffective. He did successfully lobby for improved lighting within the statue, allowing visitors to better appreciate Eiffel's design.[97] In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt, once a member of the New York committee, ordered the statue's transfer to the War Department, as it had proved useless as a lighthouse.[106] A unit of the Army Signal Corps was stationed on Bedloe's Island until 1923, after which military police remained there while the island was under military jurisdiction.[107]
The statue rapidly became a landmark. Many immigrants who entered through New York saw it as a welcoming sight. Oral histories of immigrants record their feelings of exhilaration on first viewing the Statue of Liberty. One immigrant who arrived from Greece recalled,
I saw the Statue of Liberty. And I said to myself, "Lady, you're such a beautiful! [sic] You opened your arms and you get all the foreigners here. Give me a chance to prove that I am worth it, to do something, to be someone in America." And always that statue was on my mind.[108]
Originally, the statue was a dull copper color, but shortly after 1900 a green patina, also called verdigris, caused by the oxidation of the copper skin, began to spread. As early as 1902 it was mentioned in the press; by 1906 it had entirely covered the statue.[109] Accepting a view that the patina was evidence of corrosion, Congress authorized $62,800 for various repairs, and to paint the statue both inside and out.[110] There was considerable public protest against the proposed exterior painting.[111] The Army Corps of Engineers studied the patina for any ill effects to the statue and concluded that it protected the skin, "softened the outlines of the Statue and made it beautiful."[112] The statue was painted only on the inside. The Corps of Engineers also installed an elevator to take visitors from the base to the top of the pedestal.[112]
On July 30, 1916, during World War I, German saboteurs set off a disastrous explosion on the Black Tom peninsula in Jersey City, New Jersey, in what is now part of Liberty State Park, close to Bedloe's Island. Carloads of dynamite and other explosives that were being sent to Britain and France for their war efforts were detonated, and seven people were killed. The statue sustained minor damage, mostly to the torch-bearing right arm, and was closed for ten days. The cost to repair the statue and buildings on the island was about $100,000. The narrow ascent to the torch was closed for public safety reasons, and it has remained closed ever since.[103]
That same year, Ralph Pulitzer, who had succeeded his father Joseph as publisher of the World, began a drive to raise $30,000 for an exterior lighting system to illuminate the statue at night. He claimed over 80,000 contributors but failed to reach the goal. The difference was quietly made up by a gift from a wealthy donor—a fact that was not revealed until 1936. An underwater power cable brought electricity from the mainland and floodlights were placed along the walls of Fort Wood. Gutzon Borglum, who later sculpted Mount Rushmore, redesigned the torch, replacing much of the original copper with stained glass. On December 2, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson pressed the telegraph key that turned on the lights, successfully illuminating the statue.[113]
After the United States entered World War I in 1917, images of the statue were heavily used in both recruitment posters and the Liberty Bond drives that urged American citizens to support the war financially. This impressed upon the public the war's stated purpose—to secure liberty—and served as a reminder that embattled France had given the United States the statue.[114]
In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge used his authority under the Antiquities Act to declare the statue a National Monument.[106] The only successful suicide in the statue's history occurred five years later, when a man climbed out of one of the windows in the crown and jumped to his death, glancing off the statue's breast and landing on the base.[115]
Early National Park Service years (1933–1982)
Bedloe's Island in 1927, showing the statue and army buildings. The eleven-pointed walls of Fort Wood, which still form the statue's base, are visible.
In 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt ordered the statue transferred to the National Park Service (NPS). In 1937, the NPS gained jurisdiction over the rest of Bedloe's Island.[106] With the Army's departure, the NPS began to transform the island into a park.[116] The Works Progress Administration (WPA) demolished most of the old buildings, regraded and reseeded the eastern end of the island, and built granite steps for a new public entrance to the statue from its rear. The WPA also carried out restoration work within the statue, temporarily removing the rays from the statue's halo so their rusted supports could be replaced. Rusted cast-iron steps in the pedestal were replaced with new ones made of reinforced concrete;[117] the upper parts of the stairways within the statue were replaced, as well. Copper sheathing was installed to prevent further damage from rainwater that had been seeping into the pedestal.[118] The statue was closed to the public from May until December 1938.[117]
During World War II, the statue remained open to visitors, although it was not illuminated at night due to wartime blackouts. It was lit briefly on December 31, 1943, and on D-Day, June 6, 1944, when its lights flashed "dot-dot-dot-dash", the Morse code for V, for victory. New, powerful lighting was installed in 1944–1945, and beginning on V-E Day, the statue was once again illuminated after sunset. The lighting was for only a few hours each evening, and it was not until 1957 that the statue was illuminated every night, all night.[119] In 1946, the interior of the statue within reach of visitors was coated with a special plastic so that graffiti could be washed away.[118]
In 1956, an Act of Congress officially renamed Bedloe's Island as Liberty Island, a change advocated by Bartholdi generations earlier. The act also mentioned the efforts to found an American Museum of Immigration on the island, which backers took as federal approval of the project, though the government was slow to grant funds for it.[120] Nearby Ellis Island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument by proclamation of President Lyndon Johnson in 1965.[106] In 1972, the immigration museum, in the statue's base, was finally opened in a ceremony led by President Richard Nixon. The museum's backers never provided it with an endowment to secure its future and it closed in 1991 after the opening of an immigration museum on Ellis Island.[93]
September 26, 1972: President Richard Nixon visits the statue to open the American Museum of Immigration. The statue's raised right foot is visible, showing that it is depicted moving forward.
Beginning December 26, 1971, 15 anti-Vietnam war veterans occupied the statue, flying a US flag upside down from her crown. They left December 28 following a Federal Court order.[121] The statue was also several times taken over briefly by demonstrators publicizing causes such as Puerto Rican independence, opposition to abortion, and opposition to US intervention in Grenada. Demonstrations with the permission of the Park Service included a Gay Pride Parade rally and the annual Captive Baltic Nations rally.[122]
A powerful new lighting system was installed in advance of the American Bicentennial in 1976. The statue was the focal point for Operation Sail, a regatta of tall ships from all over the world that entered New York Harbor on July 4, 1976, and sailed around Liberty Island.[123] The day concluded with a spectacular display of fireworks near the statue.[124]
Renovation and rededication (1982–2000)
July 4, 1986: First Lady Nancy Reagan (in red) reopens the statue to the public. Main article: Restoration of the Statue of Liberty (1984–86)
See also: Liberty Weekend
The statue was examined in great detail by French and American engineers as part of the planning for its centennial in 1986.[125] In 1982, it was announced that the statue was in need of considerable restoration. Careful study had revealed that the right arm had been improperly attached to the main structure. It was swaying more and more when strong winds blew and there was a significant risk of structural failure. In addition, the head had been installed 2 feet (0.61 m) off center, and one of the rays was wearing a hole in the right arm when the statue moved in the wind. The armature structure was badly corroded, and about two percent of the exterior plates needed to be replaced.[126] Although problems with the armature had been recognized as early as 1936, when cast iron replacements for some of the bars had been installed, much of the corrosion had been hidden by layers of paint applied over the years.[127]
In May 1982, President Ronald Reagan announced the formation of the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Centennial Commission, led by Chrysler Corporation chair Lee Iacocca, to raise the funds needed to complete the work.[128] Through its fundraising arm, the Statue of Liberty–Ellis Island Foundation, Inc., the group raised more than $350 million in donations.[129] The Statue of Liberty was one of the earliest beneficiaries of a cause marketing campaign. A 1983 promotion advertised that for each purchase made with an American Express card, the company would contribute one cent to the renovation of the statue. The campaign generated contributions of $1.7 million to the restoration project.[130]
In 1984, the statue was closed to the public for the duration of the renovation. Workers erected the world's largest free-standing scaffold,[27] which obscured the statue from view. Liquid nitrogen was used to remove layers of paint that had been applied to the interior of the copper skin over decades, leaving two layers of coal tar, originally applied to plug leaks and prevent corrosion. Blasting with baking soda powder removed the tar without further damaging the copper.[131] The restorers' work was hampered by the asbestos-based substance that Bartholdi had used – ineffectively, as inspections showed – to prevent galvanic corrosion. Workers within the statue had to wear protective gear, dubbed "moon suits", with self-contained breathing circuits.[132] Larger holes in the copper skin were repaired, and new copper was added where necessary.[133] The replacement skin was taken from a copper rooftop at Bell Labs, which had a patina that closely resembled the statue's; in exchange, the laboratory was provided some of the old copper skin for testing.[134] The torch, found to have been leaking water since the 1916 alterations, was replaced with an exact replica of Bartholdi's unaltered torch.[135] Consideration was given to replacing the arm and shoulder; the National Park Service insisted that they be repaired instead.[136] The original torch was removed and replaced in 1986 with the current one, whose flame is covered in 24-carat gold.[30] The torch reflects the sun's rays in daytime and lighted by floodlights at night.[30]
The entire puddled iron armature designed by Gustave Eiffel was replaced. Low-carbon corrosion-resistant stainless steel bars that now hold the staples next to the skin are made of Ferralium, an alloy that bends slightly and returns to its original shape as the statue moves.[137] To prevent the ray and arm making contact, the ray was realigned by several degrees.[138] The lighting was again replaced—night-time illumination subsequently came from metal-halide lamps that send beams of light to particular parts of the pedestal or statue, showing off various details.[139] Access to the pedestal, which had been through a nondescript entrance built in the 1960s, was renovated to create a wide opening framed by a set of monumental bronze doors with designs symbolic of the renovation.[140] A modern elevator was installed, allowing handicapped access to the observation area of the pedestal.[141] An emergency elevator was installed within the statue, reaching up to the level of the shoulder.[142]
July 3–6, 1986, was designated "Liberty Weekend", marking the centennial of the statue and its reopening. President Reagan presided over the rededication, with French President François Mitterrand in attendance. July 4 saw a reprise of Operation Sail,[143] and the statue was reopened to the public on July 5.[144] In Reagan's dedication speech, he stated, "We are the keepers of the flame of liberty; we hold it high for the world to see."[143]
Closures and reopening (2001–present)
The Statue of Liberty on September 11, 2001 as the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burn in the background
Following the September 11 attacks, the statue and Liberty Island were immediately closed to the public. The island reopened at the end of 2001, while the pedestal and statue remained off-limits. The pedestal reopened in August 2004,[144] but the National Park Service announced that visitors could not safely be given access to the statue due to the difficulty of evacuation in an emergency. The Park Service adhered to that position through the remainder of the Bush administration.[145] New York Congressman Anthony Weiner made the statue's reopening a personal crusade.[146] On May 17, 2009, President Barack Obama's Secretary of the Interior, Ken Salazar, announced that as a "special gift" to America, the statue would be reopened to the public as of July 4, but that only a limited number of people would be permitted to ascend to the crown each day.[145]
The statue, including the pedestal and base, closed on October 29, 2011 for installation of new elevators and staircases and to bring other facilities, such as restrooms, up to code. The statue was closed to the public until October 28, 2012.[1][147][148] A day after the reopening, the statue closed again due to Hurricane Sandy.[149] Although the storm did not harm the statue, it destroyed some of the infrastructure on both Liberty Island and Ellis Island, severely damaging the dock used by the ferries bearing visitors to the statue. On November 8, 2012, a Park Service spokesperson announced that both islands would remain closed for an indefinite period for repairs to be done.[150] Due to lack of electricity on Liberty Island, a generator was installed to power temporary floodlights to illuminate the statue at night. The superintendent of Statue of Liberty National Monument, David Luchsinger, whose home on the island was severely damaged, stated that it would be "optimistically ... months" before the island was reopened to the public.[151] The statue and Liberty Island reopened to the public on July 4, 2013.[152] Ellis Island remained closed for repairs for several more months but reopened in late October 2013.[153] For part of October 2013, Liberty Island was closed to the public due to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013, along with other federally funded museums, parks, monuments, construction projects and buildings.[154]
Access and attributes
Location and tourism
Tourists aboard a Circle Line ferry arriving at Liberty Island, June 1973
The statue is situated in Upper New York Bay on Liberty Island south of Ellis Island, which together comprise the Statue of Liberty National Monument. Both islands were ceded by New York to the federal government in 1800.[155] As agreed in an 1834 compact between New York and New Jersey that set the state border at the bay's midpoint, the original islands remain New York territory despite their location on the New Jersey side of the state line. Liberty Island is one of the islands that are part of the borough of Manhattan in New York. Land created by reclamation added to the 2.3 acres (0.93 ha) original island at Ellis Island is New Jersey territory.[156]
No charge is made for entrance to the national monument, but there is a cost for the ferry service that all visitors must use, as private boats may not dock at the island. A concession was granted in 2007 to Statue Cruises to operate the transportation and ticketing facilities, replacing Circle Line, which had operated the service since 1953.[157] The ferries, which depart from Liberty State Park in Jersey City and Battery Park in Lower Manhattan, also stop at Ellis Island when it is open to the public, making a combined trip possible.[158] All ferry riders are subject to security screening, similar to airport procedures, prior to boarding.[159] Visitors intending to enter the statue's base and pedestal must obtain a complimentary museum/pedestal ticket along with their ferry ticket.[160] Those wishing to climb the staircase within the statue to the crown purchase a special ticket, which may be reserved up to a year in advance. A total of 240 people per day are permitted to ascend: ten per group, three groups per hour. Climbers may bring only medication and cameras—lockers are provided for other items—and must undergo a second security screening.[161]
Inscriptions, plaques, and dedications
The Statue of Liberty stands on Liberty Island.
There are several plaques and dedicatory tablets on or near the Statue of Liberty. A plaque on the copper just under the figure in front declares that it is a colossal statue representing Liberty, designed by Bartholdi and built by the Paris firm of Gaget, Gauthier et Cie (Cie is the French abbreviation analogous to Co.). A presentation tablet, also bearing Bartholdi's name, declares the statue to be a gift from the people of the Republic of France that honors "the Alliance of the two Nations in achieving the Independence of the United States of America and attests their abiding friendship."[162] There is a tablet placed by the New York committee that commemorates the fundraising done to build the pedestal. The cornerstone also bears a plaque placed by the Freemasons.[162]
In 1903, a bronze tablet that bears the text of "The New Colossus" and commemorates Emma Lazarus was presented by friends of the poet. Until the 1986 renovation, it was mounted inside the pedestal; today it resides in the Statue of Liberty Museum in the base. It is accompanied by a tablet given by the Emma Lazarus Commemorative Committee in 1977, celebrating the poet's life.[162]
A group of statues stands at the western end of the island, honoring those closely associated with the Statue of Liberty. Two Americans—Pulitzer and Lazarus—and three Frenchmen—Bartholdi, Laboulaye, and Eiffel—are depicted. They are the work of Maryland sculptor Phillip Ratner.[163]
In 1984, the Statue of Liberty was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The UNESCO "Statement of Significance" describes the statue as a "masterpiece of the human spirit" that "endures as a highly potent symbol—inspiring contemplation, debate and protest—of ideals such as liberty, peace, human rights, abolition of slavery, democracy and opportunity."[164]
Physical characteristics
As viewed from the ground on Liberty Island
Feature[72]
U.S.
Metric
Height of copper statue 151 ft 1 in 46 m Foundation of pedestal (ground level) to tip of torch 305 ft 1 in 93 m Heel to top of head 111 ft 1 in 34 m Height of hand 16 ft 5 in 5 m Index finger 8 ft 1 in 2.44 m Circumference at second joint 3 ft 6 in 1.07 m Head from chin to cranium 17 ft 3 in 5.26 m Head thickness from ear to ear 10 ft 0 in 3.05 m Distance across the eye 2 ft 6 in 0.76 m Length of nose 4 ft 6 in 1.48 m Right arm length 42 ft 0 in 12.8 m Right arm greatest thickness 12 ft 0 in 3.66 m Thickness of waist 35 ft 0 in 10.67 m Width of mouth 3 ft 0 in 0.91 m Tablet, length 23 ft 7 in 7.19 m Tablet, width 13 ft 7 in 4.14 m Tablet, thickness 2 ft 0 in 0.61 m Height of pedestal 89 ft 0 in 27.13 m Height of foundation 65 ft 0 in 19.81 m Weight of copper used in statue 60,000 pounds 27.22 tonnes Weight of steel used in statue 250,000 pounds 113.4 tonnes Total weight of statue 450,000 pounds 204.1 tonnes Thickness of copper sheeting 3/32 of an inch 2.4 mm
Depictions
See also: Replicas of the Statue of Liberty and Statue of Liberty in popular culture
A replica of the Statue of Liberty forms part of the exterior decor at the New York-New York Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip
Hundreds of replicas of the Statue of Liberty are displayed worldwide.[165] A smaller version of the statue, one-fourth the height of the original, was given by the American community in Paris to that city. It now stands on the Île aux Cygnes, facing west toward her larger sister.[165] A replica 30 feet (9.1 m) tall stood atop the Liberty Warehouse on West 64th Street in Manhattan for many years;[165] it now resides at the Brooklyn Museum.[166] In a patriotic tribute, the Boy Scouts of America, as part of their Strengthen the Arm of Liberty campaign in 1949–1952, donated about two hundred replicas of the statue, made of stamped copper and 100 inches (2,500 mm) in height, to states and municipalities across the United States.[167] Though not a true replica, the statue known as the Goddess of Democracy temporarily erected during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 was similarly inspired by French democratic traditions—the sculptors took care to avoid a direct imitation of the Statue of Liberty.[168] Among other recreations of New York City structures, a replica of the statue is part of the exterior of the New York-New York Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.[169]
Head of Liberty, U.S. airmail stamp, 1971 issue
Reverse side of a Presidential Dollar coin As an American icon, the Statue of Liberty has been depicted on the country's coinage and stamps. It appeared on commemorative coins issued to mark its 1986 centennial, and on New York's 2001 entry in the state quarters series.[170] An image of the statue was chosen for the American Eagle platinum bullion coins in 1997, and it was placed on the reverse, or tails, side of the Presidential Dollar series of circulating coins.[25] Two images of the statue's torch appear on the current ten-dollar bill.[171] The statue's intended photographic depiction on a 2010 forever stamp proved instead to be of the replica at the Las Vegas casino.[172]
Depictions of the statue have been used by many regional institutions. Between 1986 and 2000, New York State issued license plates featuring the statue.[173][174] The Women's National Basketball Association's New York Liberty use both the statue's name and its image in their logo, in which the torch's flame doubles as a basketball.[175] The New York Rangers of the National Hockey League depicted the statue's head on their third jersey, beginning in 1997.[176] The National Collegiate Athletic Association's 1996 Men's Basketball Final Four, played at New Jersey's Meadowlands Sports Complex, featured the statue in its logo.[177] The Libertarian Party of the United States uses the statue in its emblem.[178]
The statue is a frequent subject in popular culture. In music, it has been evoked to indicate support for American policies, as in Toby Keith's song "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American)", and in opposition, appearing on the cover of the Dead Kennedys' album Bedtime for Democracy, which protested the Reagan administration.[179] In film, the torch is the setting for the climax of director Alfred Hitchcock's 1942 movie Saboteur.[180] The statue makes one of its most famous cinematic appearances in the 1968 picture Planet of the Apes, in which it is seen half-buried in sand.[179][181] It is knocked over in the science-fiction film Independence Day [182] and in Cloverfield the head is ripped off.[183] In Jack Finney's time-travel novel Time and Again, the right arm of the statue, on display in the early 1880s in Madison Square Park, plays a crucial role.[184] Robert Holdstock, consulting editor of The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, wondered in 1979,
Where would science fiction be without the Statue of Liberty? For decades it has towered or crumbled above the wastelands of deserted [E]arth—giants have uprooted it, aliens have found it curious ... the symbol of Liberty, of optimism, has become a symbol of science fiction's pessimistic view of the future."[185]
See also
Portal icon New Jersey portal Portal icon New York portal Portal icon New York City portal Portal icon NRHP portal Portal icon United States portal Portal icon Visual arts portal List of the tallest statues in the United States Place des États-Unis, in Paris, France The Statue of Liberty, 1985 Ken Burns documentary film Statues and sculptures in New York City
References
Notes
1.^ Jump up to: a b "Statue of Liberty National Monument". National Park Service. December 31, 2007. Retrieved October 12, 2011. 2.Jump up ^ Schneiderman, R.M. (June 28, 2010). "For tourists, Statue of Liberty is nice, but no Forever 21". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 12, 2011. 3.Jump up ^ "National Monument Proclamations under the Antiquities Act". National Park Service. January 16, 2003. Retrieved October 12, 2011. 4.Jump up ^ National Park Service (1994). National Register of Historic Places, 1966–1994: Cumulative List Through January 1, 1994. Washington DC: National Park Service. p. 502. ISBN 978-0-89133-254-1 . 5.Jump up ^ "New Jersey and National Registers of Historic Places - Hudson County". New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection - Historic Preservation Office. Retrieved August 2, 2014. 6.Jump up ^ "Statue of Liberty National Monument" (PDF). New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. September 14, 1976. Retrieved October 12, 2011. 7.^ Jump up to: a b c Harris 1985, pp. 7–9. 8.Jump up ^ Joseph, Rebecca M.; Brooke Rosenblatt; Carolyn Kinebrew (September 2000). "The Black Statue of Liberty Rumor". National Park Service. Retrieved July 31, 2012. 9.Jump up ^ "Abolition". National Park Service. Retrieved July 7, 2014. 10.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 7–8. 11.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 60–61. 12.^ Jump up to: a b Moreno 2000, pp. 39–40. 13.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 12–13. 14.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 102–103. 15.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 16–17. 16.^ Jump up to: a b Khan 2010, p. 85. 17.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 10–11. 18.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sutherland 2003, pp. 17–19. 19.^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bodnar, John (2006). "Monuments and Morals: The Nationalization of Civic Instruction". In Warren, Donald R.; Patrick, John J. Civic and Moral Learning in America. New York: Macmillan. pp. 212–214. ISBN 978-1-4039-7396-2 . 20.^ Jump up to: a b c Turner, Jane (2000). The Grove Dictionary of Art: From Monet to Cézanne : Late 19th-century French Artists. New York: Oxford University Press US. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-312-22971-9 . 21.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 96–97. 22.^ Jump up to: a b Khan 2010, pp. 105–108. 23.Jump up ^ Blume, Mary (July 16, 2004). "The French icon Marianne à la mode". The New York Times. Retrieved October 12, 2011. 24.Jump up ^ "Get the Facts (Frequently Asked Questions about the Statue of Liberty)". Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Retrieved October 19, 2011. 25.^ Jump up to: a b "Lady Liberty Reverse Statue of Liberty (1886)". Presidential $1 coin. United States Mint. Retrieved July 29, 2010. 26.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 52–53, 55, 87. 27.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Interviewed for Watson, Corin. Statue of Liberty: Building a Colossus (TV documentary, 2001) 28.Jump up ^ Bartholdi, Frédéric (1885). The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World. North American Review (New York). p. 42. 29.^ Jump up to: a b Khan 2010, pp. 108–111. 30.^ Jump up to: a b c "Frequently asked questions". Statue of Liberty National Monument. National Park Service. Retrieved August 10, 2010. 31.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, p. 120. 32.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 118, 125. 33.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 26. 34.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, p. 121. 35.^ Jump up to: a b c Khan 2010, pp. 123–125. 36.^ Jump up to: a b Harris 1985, pp. 44–45. 37.Jump up ^ "News of Norway" (4). 1999. Retrieved July 29, 2010. 38.Jump up ^ "Answers about the Statue of Liberty, Part 2". The New York Times. July 2, 2009. Retrieved October 12, 2011. 39.Jump up ^ Sutherland 2003, p. 36. 40.^ Jump up to: a b "Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to Present/". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved October 20, 2011. (Consumer price index) 41.^ Jump up to: a b c Khan 2010, p. 137. 42.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 126–128. 43.Jump up ^ Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 25. 44.Jump up ^ Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 26. 45.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, p. 130. 46.^ Jump up to: a b Harris 1985, p. 49. 47.^ Jump up to: a b Khan 2010, p. 134. 48.Jump up ^ Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 30. 49.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, p. 94. 50.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, p. 135. 51.Jump up ^ Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 32. 52.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 136–137. 53.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, p. 22. 54.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 139–143. 55.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 30. 56.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 33. 57.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 32. 58.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 34. 59.Jump up ^ "La tour a vu le jour à Levallois". Le Parisien (in French). April 30, 2004. Retrieved December 8, 2012. 60.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, p. 144. 61.Jump up ^ "Statue of Liberty". pbs.org. Retrieved October 19, 2011. 62.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 36–38. 63.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 39. 64.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 38. 65.Jump up ^ Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 37. 66.Jump up ^ Bell & Abrams 1984, p. 38. 67.^ Jump up to: a b Khan 2010, pp. 159–160. 68.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, p. 163. 69.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, p. 161. 70.^ Jump up to: a b Khan 2010, p. 160. 71.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, p. 91. 72.^ Jump up to: a b "Statistics". Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. August 16, 2006. Retrieved October 19, 2011. 73.^ Jump up to: a b Khan 2010, p. 169. 74.^ Jump up to: a b c Auchincloss, Louis (May 12, 1986). "Liberty: Building on the Past". New York: 87. Retrieved October 19, 2011. 75.Jump up ^ Bartholdi, Frédéric (1885). The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the World. North American Review (New York). p. 62. 76.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 71–72. 77.Jump up ^ Sutherland 2003, pp. 49–50. 78.^ Jump up to: a b Moreno 2000, pp. 184–186. 79.Jump up ^ "Branford’s History Is Set in Stone". Connecticut Humanities. 80.^ Jump up to: a b http://www.structuremag.org/article.aspx?articleID=1484 81.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 163–164. 82.Jump up ^ Khan 2010, pp. 165–166. 83.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 172–175. 84.Jump up ^ Levine, Benjamin; Story, Isabelle F. (1961). "Statue of Liberty". National Park Service. Retrieved October 19, 2011. 85.Jump up ^ Bell & Abrams 1984, pp. 40–41. 86.^ Jump up to: a b c Harris 1985, p. 105. 87.Jump up ^ Sutherland 2003, p. 51. 88.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 107. 89.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 110–111. 90.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 112. 91.Jump up ^ "The Isere-Bartholdi Gift Reaches the Horsehoe Safely" (PDF). The Evening Post. June 17, 1885. 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July 19, 1906. p. 1. Retrieved October 19, 2011. 111.Jump up ^ "How shall "Miss Liberty"'s toilet be made?". The New York Times. July 29, 1906. pp. SM2. Retrieved October 19, 2011. 112.^ Jump up to: a b Harris 1985, p. 168. 113.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 136–139. 114.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 148–151. 115.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 147. 116.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, p. 136. 117.^ Jump up to: a b Moreno 2000, p. 202. 118.^ Jump up to: a b Harris 1985, p. 169. 119.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 141–143. 120.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 147–148. 121.Jump up ^ 1973 World Almanac and Book of Facts, p. 996. 122.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 72–73. 123.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 143. 124.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, p. 20. 125.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 165. 126.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, pp. 169–171. 127.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 38. 128.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 204–205. 129.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 216–218. 130.Jump up ^ Daw, Jocelyne (March 2006). Cause Marketing for Nonprofits: Partner for Purpose, Passion, and Profits. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-471-71750-8 . 131.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 81. 132.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 76. 133.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 55. 134.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 172. 135.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 153. 136.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 75. 137.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, pp. 74–76. 138.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 57. 139.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, p. 153. 140.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 71. 141.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 84. 142.Jump up ^ Hayden & Despont 1986, p. 88. 143.^ Jump up to: a b Sutherland 2003, p. 106. 144.^ Jump up to: a b "History and Culture". Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 145.^ Jump up to: a b Chan, Sewell (May 8, 2009). "Statue of Liberty's Crown Will Reopen July 4". The New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 146.Jump up ^ Neuman, William (July 5, 2007). "Congress to Ask Why Miss Liberty's Crown is Still Closed to Visitors". The New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 147.Jump up ^ Raja, Nina (August 10, 2010). "Liberty Island to remain open during statue's renovation". CNN. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 148.Jump up ^ "Statue of Liberty interior to re-open next month". AP via Sacramento Bee. September 11, 2012. Retrieved September 12, 2012. 149.Jump up ^ Powlowski, A. (November 2, 2012). "Statue of Liberty closed for 'foreseeable future'". NBC News. Retrieved November 2, 2012. 150.Jump up ^ Mcgeehan, Patrick (November 8, 2012). "Storm leaves Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island cut off from visitors". The New York Times. Retrieved November 9, 2012. 151.Jump up ^ Barron, James (November 30, 2012). "Statue of Liberty was unscathed by hurricane, but its home took a beating". The New York Times. Retrieved December 1, 2012. 152.Jump up ^ Long, Colleen (July 4, 2013). "Statue of Liberty reopens as US marks July Fourth". Yahoo! News. Retrieved July 4, 2013. 153.Jump up ^ Foderaro, Lisa (October 28, 2013). "Ellis Island Welcoming Visitors Once Again, but Repairs Continue". The New York Times. Retrieved October 19, 2014. 154.Jump up ^ Armaghan, Sarah (October 1, 2013). "Statue of Liberty Closed in Shutdown". Wall Street Journal. 155.Jump up ^ "Early History of Bedloe's Island". Statue of Liberty Historical Handbook. National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 156.Jump up ^ "NEW JERSEY v. NEW YORK 523 U.S. 767". Supreme Court of the United States. 1998. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 157.Jump up ^ Ramirez, Anthony (June 29, 2007). "Circle Line Loses Pact for Ferries to Liberty Island". New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 158.Jump up ^ "NPS: Liberty and Ellis Island ferry map". Ferry Map. National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 159.Jump up ^ "For Your Safety and Security". Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Retrieved August 30, 2011. 160.Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 161.Jump up ^ "Frequently asked questions: Reserving tickets to visit the crown". Statue of Liberty. National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 162.^ Jump up to: a b c Moreno 2000, pp. 222–223. 163.Jump up ^ Harris 1985, p. 163. 164.Jump up ^ "Statue of Liberty". World Heritage. UNESCO. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 165.^ Jump up to: a b c Moreno 2000, pp. 200–201. 166.Jump up ^ "Collections: American Art: Replica of the Statue of Liberty, from Liberty Storage & Warehouse, 43–47 West 64th Street, NYC". Brooklyn Museum. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 167.Jump up ^ Attoun, Marti (October 2007). "Little Sisters of Liberty". Scouting. Retrieved August 1, 2010. 168.Jump up ^ Moreno 2000, pp. 103–104. 169.Jump up ^ Goldberger, Paul (January 15, 1997). "New York-New York, it's a Las Vegas town". The New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 170.Jump up ^ "Statue of Liberty postage stamps". Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island Foundation, Inc. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 171.Jump up ^ "The redesigned $10 note". newmoney.gov. Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 172.Jump up ^ Severson, Kim; Healey, Matthew (April 14, 2011). "This Lady Liberty is a Las Vegas teenager". The New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 173.Jump up ^ "State to start issuing new license plates July 1". The New York Times. January 24, 1986. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 174.Jump up ^ "State license plates to get new look". The New York Times. January 11, 2000. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 175.Jump up ^ "'Liberty' for New York club". The New York Times. February 14, 1997. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 176.Jump up ^ Lapointe, Joe (January 12, 1997). "Lady Liberty laces up at the Garden". The New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 177.Jump up ^ Sandomir, Richard (March 29, 1996). "Final Four: States put aside their rivalry and try a little cooperation". The New York Times. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 178.Jump up ^ Axinn, Mark (October 28, 2011). "The Statue of Liberty after 125 years - by LPNY Chair Mark Axinn". Libertarian Party of the United States. Retrieved November 19, 2012. 179.^ Jump up to: a b Morris, Tracy S. "The Statue of Liberty in Popular Culture". USA Today. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 180.Jump up ^ Spoto, Donald (1983). The Dark Side of Genius: The Life of Alfred Hitchcock. New York: Ballantine. pp. 262–263. ISBN 978-0-345-31462-8 . 181.Jump up ^ Greene, Eric; Slotkin, Richard (1998). Planet of the Apes as American myth: race, politics, and popular culture. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8195-6329-3 . Retrieved October 20, 2011. 182.Jump up ^ 10 Movies That Hated The Statue Of Liberty >> Page 6 of 10 at the Wayback Machine (archived March 24, 2014) 183.Jump up ^ 'Cloverfield' Release Will Be Test of Online Hype : NPR at the Wayback Machine (archived April 14, 2008) 184.Jump up ^ Darrach, Brad (June 26, 1970). "The spy who came in from 1882". Life (New York). p. 16. Retrieved October 20, 2011. 185.Jump up ^ Nicholls, Peter (1979). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. St Albans, Herts, UK: Granada Publishing Ltd. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-586-05380-5 .
Bibliography
Bell, James B.; Abrams, Richard L. (1984). In Search of Liberty: The Story of the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co. ISBN 978-0-385-19624-6 . Harris, Jonathan (1985). A Statue for America: The First 100 Years of the Statue of Liberty. New York City: Four Winds Press (a division of Macmillan Publishing Company). ISBN 978-0-02-742730-1 . Hayden, Richard Seth; Despont, Thierry W. (1986). Restoring the Statue of Liberty. New York City: McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 978-0-07-027326-9 . Khan, Yasmin Sabina (2010). Enlightening the World: The Creation of the Statue of Liberty. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4851-5 . Moreno, Barry (2000). The Statue of Liberty Encyclopedia. New York City: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7385-3689-7 . Sutherland, Cara A. (2003). The Statue of Liberty. New York City: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-3890-0 .
External links
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What comic strip, created by Lee Falk, tells the story of a line of costumed crime fighters who operate from the fictional African country of Bangalla? | The Phantom | The Phantom | Fandom powered by Wikia
The Phantom, drawn by Jerry DeCaire
The story of the Phantom started with a young sailor named Christopher Walker. Christopher was born in 1516 in Portsmouth . His father, also named Christopher Walker, had been a seaman since he was a young boy, and was the cabin boy on Christopher Columbus 's ship Santa Maria when he discovered America .
Christopher Jr. became a shipboy on his father's ship in 1526, of which Christopher senior was Captain .
In 1536, when Christopher was 20 years old, he was a part of what was supposed to be the last voyage of his father. On February 17, the ship was attacked by pirates of the Singh Brotherhood in a bay in the (fictional) African country of Bengalla. The last thing Christopher saw before he fell unconscious and fell to the sea, was his father being murdered by the leader of the pirates. Both ships exploded, making Christopher the sole survivor of the attack.
Christopher was washed ashore on a Bengalla beach, seemingly half dead. He was found by pygmies of the Bandar tribe, who nursed him and took care of him.
A time later, Christopher had a walk on the same beach that he had been washed ashore on, and found a dead body there, who he recognized as the pirate who killed his father. He allowed the vultures flying around the body finish their work, took up the skull of the killer, raised it above his head, and swore a sacred oath:
"I swear to devote my life to the destruction of piracy, greed, cruelty, and injustice, in all their forms! My sons and their sons, shall follow me."
After learning the language of the Bandar tribe, Christopher found out that they were slaves of the Wasaka tribe, a tribe consisting of what the Bandars called "giants". The Bandars who had found him was only a small group of people who had managed to escape from the village of the Wasaka. Immediately, Christopher walked into the village of the Wasaka, and asked them to set the Bandars free. Instead of achieving this goal, he was taken prisoner, and laid before the Demon God of the Wasaka: Uzuki, who was supposed to decide his destiny. Christopher was tied up and laid on an altar made of stone, where vultures surrounded him, the Wasaka allowing them to eat him. Christopher was quickly saved by a group of Bandars before the vultures or the Wasaka could do him any real harm. They managed to escape from the village of the Wasaka unharmed.
Christopher learned about an ancient Bandar legend about a man coming from the ocean to save them from their slavery. He made a costume inspired by the look of the Demon God of the Wasaka, and went to the Wasaka village again, this time with a small army of Bandars (armed with their newly discovered, extremely poisoned arrows, capable of killing a man in a few seconds). The Wasaka, shocked at seeing what many of them thought was their Demon God come alive, was fought down, and the Bandars were finally set free, after centuries in slavery. This resulted in a dedicated friendship between Christopher and the Bandars, which would be brought on to the generations to come after them.
The Bandars showed Christopher to a cave, which resembled the look of a human skull . Christopher later carved it out to make it look even more like a skull. What was later on known as the Skull Cave became his home.
Wearing the costume based on the Demon God, Christopher became the first of what would later be known as The Phantom. When he died, his son took over for him, and when the 2nd Phantom died, his son took over. And so it would go on through the centuries, causing people to believe that the Phantom was immortal, giving him nicknames as "The Ghost Who Walks" and "The Man Who Cannot Die".
The legend
Edit
Over the course of more than seventy years' worth of stories, the "legend" of the Phantom grew to become an integral part of the series' raison d'être . The legend of the "Ghost Who Walks" made the character stand out from the innumerable costumed heroes who have battled crime throughout the 20th century , and has helped maintain his appeal through the present day.
The Phantom is feared by criminals over the entire world, and he knows how to use his frightening image and reputation against them. As things turn out, the idea of him being an immortal ghost haunting evil men is much more effective than any supernatural power could have been.
The Family of The Phantom
Edit
The 21st Phantom's birth name is Kit Walker. Kit spent his first years in the jungle in Bengalla, but went to USA for studying when he was 10 years old, living with his aunt and uncle, Lucy and Jaspher, in the little town of Clarksville. Here, he also met his wife-to-be, Diana Palmer. Kit was an extremely talented sportsman, and was predicted to become the world champion of many different genres (he even knocked out the boxing champion of the world in a match when the champion visited Clarksville). Despite being able to choose practically any career he wanted, Kit faithfully returned to Bengalla to take over the role of the Phantom when he received word that his father was dying.
Newspaper strips
The first Phantom Sunday strip from May 28 , 1939 . Art by Ray Moore.
The Phantom started out as a daily strip on February 17 , 1936 , with the acclaimed story "The Singh Brotherhood". It was written by Lee Falk and initially also pencilled and/or laid out by him. The first major Phantom artist was Ray Moore. At the time, Lee Falk was already the creator of the successful Mandrake the Magician newspaper strip. Ray Moore was previously assistant to Mandrake artist Phil Davis . A Sunday strip version of the Phantom was added on May 28 , 1939 .
During the war, Falk joined the Office of War Information where he became chief of his radio foreign language division. It is rumored that during this time the Phantom strip was at least partially written by Alfred Bester , but this is still somewhat disputed by those who say Bester wrote Mandrake instead.
Ray Moore also was also active in the war and during that time left the strip to his assistant Wilson McCoy. Moore returned after the war and worked on the strip on and off until 1949, when he left it completely in the hands of McCoy.
During McCoy's tenure the strip was at its peak, appearing in thousands of newspapers worldwide. His stories are still printed over the whole world in comic books and hardcover collections.
McCoy died suddenly in 1961. Carmine Infantino and Bill Lignante (who would later draw Phantom stories directly for comic magazines) filled in before a successor was found in Sy Barry. During Barry's early years, he and Falk modernized the strip, and laid the foundation for what is considered the modern look of the Phantom. Barry would continue working on the strip for over 30 years before retiring in 1994.
Barry's longtime assistant George Olesen remained on the strip as penciller. New inker for the daily strip was Keith Williams. The Sunday strip was for some time inked by Eric Doescher before Mandrake the Magician artist Fred Fredericks became the regular inker in 1995.
Phantom daily strip from 2005. Art by Paul Ryan.
Lee Falk continued to script the Phantom (and Mandrake) until his death on March 13 , 1999 . His last Daily and Sunday strip stories, "Terror at the Opera" and "The Kidnappers", were finished by his wife, Elizabeth Falk. After Falk's passing, King Features Syndicate began to cooperate with European comic publisher Egmont ; publisher of the Swedish Fantomen magazine which has contained original comic book stories since 1963. Fantomen writers Tony De Paul and Claes Reimerthi alternated as writers of the newspaper strip after Falk died, with De Paul handling the daily strips and Reimerthi being responsible for the Sunday strips. Today De Paul is the regular writer. Some of the stories have been adapted from comic magazine stories originally published in Fantomen.
In 2000, Olesen and Fredericks retired from the Sunday strip which was then taken over by respected comic book artist Graham Nolan , whose goal was to give the series a slightly more filmatic look. A few years later, Olesen and Williams left the daily strip, after Olesen decided to retire. A new artist was found in Paul Ryan, who by then already was a Phantom veteran after having worked on the Fantomen comic stories for a couple of years. Ryan's first daily strip appeared in early-2005. Both Nolan and Ryan have grown to become very popular with fans of the strip, giving the strip a more filmatic look than what was common earlier.
Reprints
The Phantom by Romano Felmang .
The entire run of the Phantom newspaper strip, up to and beyond the death of creator Lee Falk, has been reprinted in Australia by Frew . Edited versions of most of his stories have also been published in the Scandinavian Phantom comics. In the United States , the following Phantom stories have been reprinted, by Nostalgia Press (NP), Pacific Comics Club (PCC), or Comics Revue (CR), all written by Lee Falk.
Edit
Cover to The Phantom # 4 (published in 2004 by Moonstone Books ). Art by Doug Klauba.
In the U.S., the Phantom has been published by a variety of publishers over the years. Through the 1940s , strips were reprinted in Ace Comics published by David McKay Publications . In the 1950s , Harvey Comics published the Phantom. In 1962, Gold Key Comics took over, then King Comics in 1966, then Charlton Comics in 1969. This lasted until 1977, with a total number of 73 issues being published. Some of the main Phantom artists during these years were Bill Lignante , Don Newton , Jim Aparo and Pat Boyette.
DC Comics published a Phantom comic book from 1988 to 1990. The initial mini-series was written by Peter David and drawn by Joe Orlando and Dennis Janke . The regular series that followed lasted 13 issues and was written by Mark Verheiden and drawn by Luke McDonnell . The series had The Phantom being involved with real world problems, like racism, toxic dumping, hunger, and modern day piracy . Despite critical acclaim, the series was cancelled in late 1990, due to declining sales and licensing issues.
Cover of The Phantom #1 (published in 1989 by DC Comics ). Art by Luke McDonnell .
In 1987, Marvel Comics did a series based on the Defenders of the Earth TV series (written by the legendary Stan Lee ). Only four issues were published. Another mini-series released by Marvel in 1994-1995 explored a more futuristic, high-tech version of the Phantom in three issues (apparently the 22nd Phantom). Later in 1995 Marvel also released a 4-part mini-series based on the Phantom 2040 TV series, pencilled by none other than legendary Steve Ditko , co-creator of Spider-Man . One issue even featured a pin-up drawing by Ditko and another legend, John Romita, Sr.
The gadgets used by Marvel's 22nd Phantom were remeniscent of those in Phantom 2040, only less advanced. For instance, while the 24th Phantom had a talking AI built into one of his wristbands, the 22nd's wristband contained a sophisticated, but clearly present-day, palmtop computer.
In 2002, Moonstone Books in the United States began publishing original graphic novels based on The Phantom, and a comic book series followed in December 2003, to critical acclaim. Among their stories is a new version on The Phantom's origin story by Ben Raab and Pat Quinn, called "Legacy", and a series of books introducing an all new format to comic books, called wide-vision books, which aims to look like widescreen films. In late 2005, Moonstone hired " Lions, Tigers and Bears " writer Mike Bullock and Carlos Magno as the new creative team on the book, with Joe Prado and Doug Klauba being responsible for the covers. As this is written in April 2006, Moonstone is in the process of making two collections of prose stories with The Phantom. Possibly because of huge interest from comic book publications and websites, The Phantom is to date Moonstone's most successful title, and it is considered to be the reason why the small independent publisher's popularity and fame have increased the last years. Although Moonstone's regular writer is now Mike Bullock, several others have participated, like Chuck Dixon , Ron Marz , Rafael Nieves, Joe Gentile, Tom DeFalco , and Ron Goulart . Some of the artists who have participated are Gabriel Rearte, Nick Derington, Jerry DeCaire , Rich Burchett, EricJ, and Eisner award winner Paul Guinan.
Scandinavia
Edit
In addition to the two newspaper strips, original stories are published by Egmont Publications in Scandinavia (where the Phantom is very popular). Egmont publishes a fortnightly Phantom comic book in Norway (as Fantomet), Sweden (as Fantomen), and Finland (as Mustanaamio {"Black Mask"} Template:Fn ). Egmont has been publishing their own Phantom stories for over forty years. They continue to sell well in a market mostly populated by humor comic books.
Cover to Swedish Fantomen # 8 (2003) (# 1303 since the start 1950). Art by Hans Lindahl. Published by Egmont.
The first story created originally for the Swedish Fantomen magazine was published as early as 1963, and today the total number of Fantomen stories is close to 900. The average length of a Fantomen story is 30+ pages (compared to 20-24 pages for most U.S. comics). Among the most prolific artists and writers that have created stories for Fantomen are: Dick Giordano , Donne Avenell, Heiner Bade, David Bishop , Georges Bess, Jaime Vallvé , Joan Boix, Tony DePaul , Ulf Granberg, Ben Raab , Rolf Gohs , Scott Goodall, Eirik Ildahl, Kari Leppänen, Hans Lindahl , Janne Lundström, Cesar Spadari, Bob McLeod (comics artist)|, Jean-Yves Mitton, Lennart Moberg, Claes Reimerthi, Paul Ryan, Alex Saviuk, Graham Nolan , Romano Felmang , and Norman Worker . The artists and writers working on these stories have been nick-named Team Fantomen. In later years, the Team have started to experiment more with the character and his surroundings, in more emotional and challenging stories than what was common before. Egmont have also been trying to dvelve deeper into the character's psyche lately, often giving him personal problems as well as his crime fighting.
Don Newton 's cover to The Phantom #74 featuring the Phantom of 1776.
Australia
Edit
Another country where the Phantom is popular is Australia, where Frew Publications has published a fortnightly comic book, The Phantom, since 1948. Frew's book mostly contains reprints, from the newspaper strips and from Fantomen (in English translation), but has occasionally also included an original story. The editor-in-chief is Jim Sheperd. Frew's The Phantom is the longest running comic book series with the character in the world.
India
Edit
The Phantom also has a long publishing history in India. The Phantom first appeared in India in the 1940s via a magazine called The Illustrated Weekly of India which carried Phantom Sundays. Indrajal Comics took up publication of Phantom comics in English and other Indian languages in 1964. They ceased publication in 1990. This same year Diamond Comics started publishing Phantom comics in digest form, again in many languages including English. This continued until 2000, when Diamond Comics stopped publishing Phantom comics; Egmont Imagination India (formerly Indian Express Egmont Publications) took up publication the same year. They published monthly comics (in English only) until 2002. Today they only bring out reprints of their earlier stories with new covers and formats. The only regular publisher of the Phantom left in India is Rani Comics which started publication in 1990. However, these comics are available only in the Tamil language . It may be noted that Indrajal Comics, Diamond Comics and Rani Comics, all published reprints of Lee Falk's daily or Sunday strips. Only Egmont Imagination India printed the Scandinavian work.
Others
Edit
Italian publisher Fratelli Spada in Italy also produced a large number of original Phantom stories for their L'Uomo Mascherato series of comic books in the 1960s and 70s. Among the artists that worked for Fratelli Spada were Guido Buzzelli , Mario Caria , Umberto Sammarini (Usam), Germano Ferri , Senio Pratesi , Mario Caria and Felmang . Ferri, Usam, Felmang and Caria have all later worked for the Swedish Fantomen magazine.
Brazilian publisher RGE and German publisher Bastei also produced original Phantom stories for their comic books.
Other media
See also: The Phantom (1943 movie serial) , The Phantom (film) , and The Ghost Who Walks
A fifteen-part movie serial starring Tom Tyler was made in 1943, with Jeanne Bates as Diana Palmer, and Ace the Wonder Dog as Devil. The story featured The Phantom in his search for the lost city of Zoloz. Strangely enough, the Phantom's real name was in the serial Geodfrey Prescott, but this was because the Kit Walker name had not been mentioned in the strip at that point. A sequel was filmed in 1955 starring John Hart , but after problems with the rights to the character it was partially re-shot and re-named The Adventures of Captain Africa .
The Phantom was also made into a movie in 1996 . The movie was set in the 1930s , and incorporated elements from several of the Phantom's earliest comic-strip adventures. It starred Billy Zane , Kristy Swanson and Catherine Zeta-Jones and was directed by Simon Wincer . It was written by Jeffrey Boam , who also wrote Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade . Cult-icon Bruce Campbell was another choice for the role, but Zane ended up getting the part because of his convincing screen-test, good looks and knowledge to the Phantom comic. After his casting , he feverishly pumped iron for a year and a half to fill The Phantom's costume. Many scenes developing the relationship between The Phantom and Diana Palmer were cut, to make the film more fast-paced. The movie was the reason why Billy Zane was cast as Caledon Hockley in James Cameron's Titanic , according to the actor himself, which to this date remains his best known characterization.
In 2002 , it was announced that Hyde Park Entertainment and Crusader Entertainment had acquired the feature film rights to the Phantom, with the intention of making a new movie in a contemporary setting. As of March 3 , 2006 , the movie's working title was The Ghost Who Walks and is scheduled for release in 2007. Two-time 1992 Olympic gold medalist Mel Stewart had been announced as a screenwriter for the production, although the latest information posted on the Internet Movie Database does not mention him in this role. In an interview, Stewart described the film as a combination of X-Men and Tom Clancy .
At least three unauthorized Phantom movies were made in Turkey. Two were made in 1968 and both were titled Kızıl Maske (the Turkish name for the Phantom, meaning Red Mask). The Phantom was played by Ismet Erten and Irfan Atasoy. In 1971, another movie called Kızıl Maske'nin Intikamı (The Phantom's Revenge) was made.
It is also known that unauthorized Spanish and Italian Phantom movies exist, although there are almost no information on them available.
Television
Edit
A TV pilot was made in 1961 starring Roger Creed (best known for his work as a stuntman) as the Phantom, with Lon Chaney Jr. , Paulette Goddard as the main villains and Richard Kiel as an assassin called "Big Mike" in supporting roles. The pilot, which never aired anywhere in the world, was called "No Escape", and saw the Phantom trying to break up a slave camp in the jungle. The pilot also featured the Phantom's horse Hero and his wolf Devil. It was made on a very low budget, and therefore, it only featured small-budget action, like the Phantom fighting a crocodile, the Phantom fighting Big Mike, the Phantom riding on Hero, and the Phantom hunting down the bad guys in the jungle, taking them out one by one, like he is known to do in the comics. In total, scriptwriter John Carr wrote scripts for four episodes, but due to the fact that the pilot never aired, they were never filmed. Although it was never aired, the pilot was shown at the San Diego Comicon .
Paul Hogan continually parodied the Phantom on his Australian TV-show, The Paul Hogan Show . He would dress up in the purple Phantom costume, and act out different humorous situations. The Phantom has also been frequently parodied on Scandinavian television, in different humour programs.
In 1996, the A&E Network made a long Phantom-biography for television, called "The Phantom: Comic strip crusader", which featured interviews with people like creator Lee Falk, actors Billy Zane and Kristy Swanson , director Simon Wincer, Frew-editor Jim Sheperd, George Olesen, Keith Williams, and the president of the US Phantom fan club Friends of the Phantom, Ed Rhoades. A&E Network 's biography programs normally focus on real-life persons, and the Phantom is one of the very few fictional characters to get his own program.
To promote the 1996 Paramount Phantom movie, numerous TV-programs about the Phantom were made. One of them was an HBO special called "Making of The Phantom", which featured behind-the-scenes information on the movie and the comic.
An Indian TV serial named "Betaal Pachisi" (meaning Phantom XXV), starring Shahbaz Khan, Tom Alter and Sonu Walia, and directed by Sunil Agnihotri, was inspired by the Phantom. It was first aired in May, 1997 on the Doordarshan TV network of India. Each episode was half an hour long and in the Hindi language. There were 49 episodes in total.
Animation
Main articles: Phantom 2040 , Defenders of the Earth
Phantom 2040 logo
The Phantom has appeared in two animated series. In Defenders of the Earth from the 1980's, the 27th Phantom, teams up with fellow King Features adventurers Flash Gordon and Mandrake the Magician . The cartoon also featured a daughter, Jedda Walker, who briefly took on the Phantom mantle in an episode where she believed her father to have perished. Other episodes of the series featured classic Phantom villains like the Sky Band. The episode "Return of the Sky Band" also featured flashbacks to the Phantom of Lee Falk's comic strip; the 21st Phantom, and his wife Diana Palmer.
In Defenders of the Earth, The Phantom was able to use supernatural means to give himself increased strength and speed, by saying the incantation:
"By Jungle Law
The Ghost Who Walks
Calls forth the strength of ten tigers " (or "the speed of the cheetah ", etc.)
It is only in this cartoon series that the Phantom has such an ability. In the series, the Phantom also used a special helicopter nicknamed "The Skull Copter".
In the cartoon, The Phantom was voiced by actor Peter Mark Richman . Like Phantom 2040, Defenders of the Earth spawned a lot of merchandise.
The Phantom also made an appearance alongside other King Features characters in the 1972 animated movie Popeye Meets the Man Who Hated Laughter. He also appeared in the animated Beatles movie called Yellow Submarine , together with other fictional characters.
Premiering in the mid-1990's, Phantom 2040 is about the adventures of a descendant, the 24th Phantom. Young Kit Walker, living happily with his aunt Heloise, knows nothing about his family's legacy, when one day, The Phantom's faithful friend Guran turns up to tell him the secret of his life. Kit takes up on the mantle of The Phantom, and starts a battle against the evil company Maximum Inc., and their plans to destroy earth's resources. He also tries to solve the mystery of the death of his father, the 23rd Phantom. The series lasted for two seasons, and spawned a large number of merchandise. The Phantom/Kit Walker was voiced by actor Scott Valentine , while other names like Mark Hamill , Ron Perlman , and Margot Kidder lent their voices to other characters.
Stage
Edit
A musical about the Phantom was produced in Sweden in 1985. It was written by Peter Falck and Urban Wrethagen and starred Urban Wrethagen as the Phantom. A recording of the songs was released on LP and a comic adaption of the story was published in the Swedish Fantomen magazine. The Falck-Wrethagen musical was also performed in Perth , Western Australia in 1989. It was not well received, mainly due to the poor acting ability and physique of the local lead actor, Robert Peron .
Another musical called "Fantomets glade bryllup" ("Phantom's happy wedding") was made in Norway, with Jahn Teigen as Fantomet. It was a humoristic take on the character, and also featured Tarzan and other fictional characters.
Video games
Edit
The Phantom have appeared as a playable character in two video games, " Phantom 2040 " and " Defenders of the Earth ". Both were based on the animated series with the same titles. However, in Defenders of the Earth, the Phantom was not the only playable character, as players were given the choice to control Mandrake the Magician and Flash Gordon as well.
In " Phantom 2040 ", released on Sega Genesis , Game Gear and Super NES , the Phantom was the only playable character, featuring a number of his special skills and high-tech gadgets from the Phantom 2040 TV-series. The game was acclaimed by critics for its complexity and intelligent gaming experience by the time it was released.
In 2003, a video game made for Game Boy Advance was announced, simply called "The Phantom: The Ghost Who Walks". It was developed by 7th Sense, and produced by Microids, and was described as a free-roaming jungle adventure. Under the development process, Microids went bankrupt, and the game was never released (7th Sense's game based on Mandrake the Magician suffered the same fate).
In 2006, a The Phantom Mobile Game became available for Cellphones , where the Phantom fights zombies, undead mages, floating skulls and other strange, magical creatures to find his kidnapped wife, Diana Palmer. Like the canned Game Boy Advance game, it was described as a free-roaming jungle adventure, with a film-like plot.
Rumours have been going about a Phantom PC-game, but nothing have been confirmed.
Theme park
Edit
The Phantom has his own theme park attraction in the Swedish amusement park Parken Zoo, Eskilstuna, where visitors can take a closer look at the Skull Cave , and several other places known from the Phantom comics, and talk to the Phantom "himself" in person. The park was inaugurated by Lee Falk himself in 1986.
Trivia
Edit
The 1943 Phantom serial is so far the only film to actually show the iconic handover of the Phantom legacy from the dying father to his son.
In the Adult Swim show The Venture Bros. , the character The Phantom Limb is a direct parody of him, right down to the same purple suit and mask, except that the Phantom Limb's limbs are invisible, making him look like a floating torso. (The name is a parody of the phantom limb syndrome amputees experience.)
Sy Barry came to draw Diana Palmer after the Charlie's Angels -star Jaclyn Smith .
Donna Marabella, the wife of the first Phantom, resembles Marilyn Monroe .
Maude Thorne McPatrick, wife of the 20th Phantom and mother of the 21st Phantom, resembles Rita Hayworth .
Flame Stanbury, the wife of the ninth Phantom, resembles Jane Russell
Lee Falk originally intended the Phantom's alias to be the rich playboy Jimmy Wells (years before the similar Batman was created). However, halfway through his first story, "The Singh Brotherhood", he decided to move the Phantom to the jungle and gave him the name of Kit Walker.
On the premiere of The Phantom movie starring Billy Zane in 1996, creator Lee Falk received a telegram from President Bill Clinton congratulating him.
According to the 1996 A&E Network Phantom biography, the Phantom strip was smuggled by boats into the Nazi -occupied Norway during World War II . The Nazis controlled almost everything in the Norwegian newspapers, and continued to publish fake news about the United States' fall. However, Norwegians knew better, as they knew the Phantom, still seen in the papers, was an American creation, therefore giving them hope in a difficult time. The word "Phantom " was also used as a password for the Norwegian Resistance.
Lee Falk was a huge admirer of William Shakespeare , and left several tributes to his hero in his stories throughout the years, even going as far as having the 3rd Phantom work as an actor for Shakespeare and marry his niece, Rosamunda.
The Phantom have been featured as a guest character in a few Mandrake the Magician stories, where the two crime-fighters, both created by Lee Falk, co-operate. It is unclear if they are considered to be part of the Phantom-canon.
In Sweden, early in the 1990s , there was a soft drink called Fantomenläsk (Phantom soft drink) featuring the phantom on the label. The soft drink itself was relatively opaque and was colored azure blue .
External links
| The Phantom |
An erupting volcano in what country has blanketed most of Northern Europe with a layer of ash that is making air travel particularly difficult at the moment? | Define superhero | Dictionary and Thesaurus
Extensive Definition
A superhero (also known as a super hero) is a fictional character "of unprecedented physical prowess dedicated to acts of derring-do in the public interest". Since the debut of the prototypal superhero Superman in 1938, stories of superheroes — ranging from brief episodic adventures to continuing years-long sagas — have dominated American comic book s and crossed over into other media . A female superhero is sometimes called a superheroine or super heroine.
By most definitions, characters need not have actual superhuman powers to be deemed superheroes, not, although sometimes terms such as costumed crimefighters are used to refer to those without such powers who have many other common traits of superheroes.
The two-word version of the term is a trademark co-owned by DC Comics and Marvel Comics .
Common traits
Many superheroes work independently. However, there are also many superhero teams. Some, such as the Fantastic Four and X-Men , have common origins and usually operate as a group. Others, such as DC Comics ’s Justice League and Marvel ’s Avengers , are "all-star" groups consisting of heroes with separate origins who also operate individually. The shared setting or "universes" of Marvel, DC and other publishers also allow for regular superhero team-ups.
Some superheroes, especially those introduced in the 1940s, work with a young sidekick (e.g., Batman and Robin , Captain America and Bucky ). This has become less common since more sophisticated writing and older audiences have lessened the need for characters who specifically appeal to child readers. Sidekicks are seen as a separate classification of superheroes.
Superheroes most often appear in comic books, and superhero stories are the dominant form of American comic books, to the point that the terms "superhero" and "comic book character" have been used synonymously in North America. With the rise in relative popularity of non-superhero comics, as well as the popularity of Japanese comics (manga), this trend is slowly declining . Superheroes have also been featured in radio serials, novel, TV series, movies, and other media. Most of the superheroes who appear in other media are adapted from comics, but there are exceptions.
Marvel Characters, Inc. and DC Comics share ownership of the United States trademark for the phrases "Super Hero" and "Super Heroes" and these two companies own a majority of the world’s most famous and influential superheroes. Of the "Significant Seven" chosen by The Comic Book in America: An Illustrated History (1989), Marvel owns Spider-Man and Captain America and DC owns Superman , Batman , Wonder Woman , Captain Marvel and Plastic Man . Although, like many non-Marvel characters popular during the 1940s, the latter two were acquired by DC from defunct publishers. However, there have been significant heroes owned by others, especially since the 1990s when Image Comics and other companies that allowed creators to maintain trademark and editorial control over their characters developed. Hellboy , Spawn and Invincible are some of the most successful creator-owned heroes. Although superhero fiction is considered a form of fantasy/adventure, it crosses into many genres. Many superhero franchises resemble crime fiction ( Batman , Punisher ), others horror fiction ( Spawn , Spectre ) and others more standard science fiction ( Green Lantern , X-Men ). Many of the earliest superheroes, such as The Sandman and The Clock , were rooted in the pulp fiction of their predecessors.
Within their own fictional universes, public perception of superheroes varies greatly. Some, like Superman and the Fantastic Four, are adored and seen as important civic leaders. Others, like Batman and Spider-Man, meet with public skepticism or outright hostility. A few, such as the X-Men and the characters of Watchmen , defend a populace that misunderstands and despises them.
Common costume features
A superhero's costume helps make him or her recognizable to the general public. Costumes are often colorful to enhance the character's visual appeal and frequently incorporate the superhero's name and theme. For example, Daredevil resembles a red devil, Captain America 's costume echoes the American flag, Batman resembles a large bat, and Spider-Man 's costume features a spider web pattern. The convention of superheroes wearing masks and skintight unitards originated with Lee Falk 's comic strip crimefighter The Phantom . Several superheroes such as the Phantom, Superman, Batman and Robin wear breeches over this unitard. This is often satirized as the idea that superheroes wear their underpants on the outside.
Many features of superhero costumes recur frequently, including the following:
Superheroes who maintain a secret identity often wear a mask , ranging from the domino mask s of Green Lantern and Ms. Marvel to the full-face masks of Spider-Man and Black Panther . Most common are masks covering the upper face, leaving the mouth and jaw exposed. This allows for both a believable disguise and recognizable facial expressions. A notable exception is Clark Kent , who wears nothing on his face while fighting crime as Superman, but uses large glasses in his civilian life. Helmets are also worn, like the titanium helmet of the Galvanizer .
A symbol, such as a stylized letter or visual icon, usually on the chest. Examples include the uppercase "S" of Superman , the bat emblem of Batman , and the spider emblem of Spider-Man . Often, they also wear a common symbol referring to their group or league, such as the "4" on the Fantastic Four 's suits, or the "X" on the X-Men 's costumes.
Form-fitting clothing, often referred to as tights or Spandex, although the exact material is usually unidentified. Such material displays a character’s athletic build and heroic sex appeal and allows a simple design for illustrators to reproduce.
While a vast majority of superheroes do not wear capes, the garment is still closely associated with them, likely due to the fact that two of the most widely-recognized, Batman and Superman, wear capes. In fact, police officers in Batman’s home of Gotham City have used the word "cape" as a shorthand for all superheroes and costumed crimefighters. Other shorthands for superheroes are used in the computer game City of Heroes, when a player's hero fights with some of the game's supervillain groups such as the Hellions , Skulls , and Clockwork , the villains will often say, "The capes are trying to stop us," "I smell spandex" (referring to the spandex costumes some heroes wear), or "Attack the mask" (an allusion to the masks used by some superheroes). The comic book series Watchmen and the animated movie The Incredibles humorously commented on the potentially-lethal impracticality of capes. In Marvel Comics the term "cape-killer" has been used to describe Superhuman Restraint Unit.
While most superhero costumes merely hide the hero’s identity and present a recognizable image, parts of some costumes (or the costume itself) have functional uses. Batman's utility belt and Spawn ’s " necroplasm ic armor" have both been of great assistance to the heroes. Iron Man's armor , in particular, protects him and provides technological advantages.
When thematically appropriate, some superheroes dress like people from various professions or subcultures. Zatanna , who possesses wizard-like powers, dresses like a magician, and Ghost Rider , who rides a superpowered motorcycle , dresses in the leather garb of a biker.
Several heroes of the 1990s, including Cable and many Image Comics characters, rejected the traditional superhero outfit for costumes that appeared more practical and militaristic. Shoulder pads, kevlar-like vests, metal-plated armor, knee and elbow pads, heavy-duty belts, and ammunition pouches were common features. Other characters, such as The Punisher or The Question , opt for a "civilian" costume (mostly a trench coat).
Secret headquarters
Many superheroes (and supervillains) have headquarters or a base of operations. These locations are often equipped with state-of-the-art, highly-advanced or alien technologies, and they are usually disguised and/or in secret locations to as to avoid being detected by enemies, or by the general public. Some bases, such as the Baxter Building , are known of by the public (even though their precise location may remain secret). Many heroes and villains who do not have a permanent headquarters are said to have a mobile base of operations.
To the heroes and villains who have a secret base, the base can serve a variety of functions.
a safehouse, where the heroes can conceal themselves from their enemies.
a laboratory, for experiments and scientific study.
a research library, covering a variety of topics from science, to history, to criminal profiling.
an armory, for weapons design, construction and storage.
a garage/hangar/dock.
a weapons platform, for defense of the facility (these are more common to supervillains).
a trophy room, where mementos of significant battles and adventures are displayed.
a common area, for social activity (typically for larger teams, such as the Justice League or the Avengers ).
Superheroes outside the United States
There have been successful superheroes in other countries most of whom share the conventions of the American model. Examples include Cybersix from Argentina , Captain Canuck from Canada and the heroes of AK Comics from Egypt .
Japan is the only country that nears the US in output of superheroes. The earlier of these wore scarves either in addition to or as a substitute for capes and many wear helmet s instead of mask s. Moonlight Mask , Ultraman , Kamen Rider , Super Sentai (the basis for Power Rangers ), Metal Heroes and Kikaider have become popular in Japanese tokusatsu live-action shows, and Science Ninja Team Gatchaman , Casshan , The Guyver , and Sailor Moon are staples of Japanese anime and manga . However, most Japanese superheroes are shorter-lived. While American entertainment companies update and reinvent superheroes, hoping to keep them popular for decades, Japanese companies retire and introduce superheroes more quickly, usually on an annual basis, in order to shorten merchandise lines. In addition, Japanese manga often targets female readers, unlike U.S. comics, and has created such varieties as " magical girl " (e.g. Cardcaptor Sakura) for this audience. .
In 1947, Filipino writer/cartoonist Mars Ravelo introduced the first Asian superheroine, Darna , a young Filipina country girl who found a mystic talisman-pebble from another planet that allows her to transform into an adult warrior-woman. She was the first solo superheroine in the world to get her own feature-length motion picture in 1951 and has become a cultural institution in the Philippines.
British superheroes began appearing in the Golden Age shortly after the first American heroes became popular in the UK . Most original British heroes were confined to anthology comics magazines such as Lion , Valiant , Warrior , and 2000AD . Marvelman , known as Miracleman in North America , is probably the most well known original British superhero (although he was based heavily on Captain Marvel ). Popular in the 1960s, British readers grew fond of him and contemporary UK comics writers Alan Moore and Neil Gaiman revived Marvelman in series that reinvented the characters in a more serious vein, an attitude prevalent in newer British heroes, such as Zenith .
In France , where comics are known as Bande Dessinée , literally drawn strip, and regarded as a proper art form, Editions Lug began translating and publishing Marvel comic books in anthology magazines in 1969. Soon Lug started presenting its own heroes alongside Marvel stories. Some closely modeled their U.S. counterparts, while others indulged in weirder attributes, such as the shape-changing alien Wampus . Many were short-lived, while others rivaled their inspirations in longevity and have been the subject of reprints and revivals, such as Photonik.
In India , Raj Comics , founded in 1984, owns a number of superheroes, such as Nagraj , Doga and Super Commando Dhruva , that, while somewhat akin to Western superheroes, carry Hindu ideas of morality and incorporate Indian myths .
Types of superheroes
In superhero role-playing game s, such as Hero Games ' Champions , Green Ronin Publishing 's Mutants and Masterminds or Cryptic Studios ' MMORPG City Of Heroes , superheroes are informally organized into categories or archetypes based on their skills and abilities. Since comic book and role-playing fandom often overlap, these labels have carried over into discussions of superheroes outside the context of games:
Speedster : A hero possessing superhuman speed and reflexes, e.g., The Flash , Quicksilver .
Healers: A hero who is able to quickly recover from serious injury e.g. Deadpool , Wolverine , Lobo , Xombi . Characters like Mr. Immortal possess a healing factor so advanced that they are truly immortal.
These categories often overlap. For instance, Batman is both a skilled martial artist and gadgeteer and Hellboy has the strength and durability of a brick and the and some mystic abilities or powers, as a mage. Wolverine also fits into a healing category. Very powerful characters, such as Superman , Wonder Woman , Captain Marvel , Dr. Manhattan and the Silver Surfer can be listed in many categories, and are sometimes in a category all their own, known as "original," as they were some of the earliest heroes in comics.
Character examples
While the typical superhero is described above, a vast array of superhero characters have been created and many break the usual pattern:
Wolverine has shown a willingness to kill and anti-social behavior. He belongs to an underclass of morally ambivalent anti-hero es who are coarser and more violent rather than classic superheroes. Others include Green Arrow , Black Canary , John Constantine , Blade and, in some incarnations, Batman . Namor the Sub-Mariner is the earliest example of this archetype, originally appearing in 1939. Some, such as Wolverine, Deadpool , and Daredevil , are often repentant about their actions, while others, such as The Punisher and Rorschach , are unapologetic.
Some superheroes have been created and employed by national governments to serve their interests and defend the nation. Captain America was outfitted by and worked for the United States Army during World War II and Alpha Flight is a superhero team formed and usually managed by an arm of the Canadian Department of National Defence . The Ultimates , in particular, work directly under the U.S. government and are used as a metaphor for U.S. military and political power. The Savage Dragon is virtually unique in that he began his superhero career as police officer, rather than a costumed vigilante. Wonder Woman 's day job also works for the government as an agent.
Many superheroes have never had a secret identity , such as Luke Cage or the members of The Fantastic Four . Others who once had secret identities, such as Captain America and Steel , later made their identities public. The third Flash and Iron Man are rare examples of "public" superheroes who regain their secret identities (though Iron Man once more gave his up in Civil War ).
The Hulk is usually defined as a superhero, but he has a Jekyll/Hyde relationship with his alter ego. When enraged, scientist Bruce Banner becomes the super-strong Hulk, a creature of little intelligence and self-control. His actions have often either inadvertently or deliberately caused great destruction. As a result, he has been hunted by the military and other superheroes.
While most superheroes traditionally gained their abilities through accidents of science, magical means or rigorous training, the X-Men and related characters are genetic mutants whose abilities naturally manifest at puberty . Mutants more often have difficulty controlling their powers than other superheroes and are persecuted as a group.
Some superhero identities have been used by more than one person. A character (often a close associate or family member) takes on another's name and mission after the original dies, retires or takes on a new identity. The Flash , Blue Beetle and Robin are notable mantles that have passed from one character to another. Green Lantern and Nova are standard titles for the thousands of members of their respective intergalactic "police corps". The Phantom and the Black Panther both adopted personae and missions that have lasted several generations.
Thor , Hercules and Ares are mythological god s reinterpreted as superheroes. Wonder Woman , while not a goddess in her current incarnation, is a member of the Amazon tribe of Greek mythology given many "god like" powers, enough to challenge the gods themselves.
Spawn , Etrigan , Ghost Rider and Hellboy are actual demon s who have been manipulated by circumstance into being forces of good.
Because the superhero is such an outlandish and recognizable character type, several comedic heroes have been introduced, including Ambush Bug , The Tick , The Flaming Carrot , The Great Lakes Avengers , Herbie Popnecker , The Powerpuff Girls and The Simpsons ’ Radioactive Man . Early, Harvey Kurtzman -edited issues of Mad Magazine featured several parodies of superheroes and count as some of the first satiric treatments of this subject matter.
The title characters of the franchise Gargoyles are powerful warrior creatures who have an instinctual need to protect their territory and the beings living in it, although that need can be broadly interpreted by individuals.
Trademark status
Most dictionary definitions and common usages of the term are generic and not limited to the characters of any particular company or companies.
Nevertheless, variations on the term "Super Hero" are jointly claimed by DC Comics and Marvel Comics as trademark s. Registrations of "Super Hero" marks have been maintained by DC and Marvel since the 1960s. (U.S. Trademark Serial Nos. 72243225 and 73222079, among others).
Joint trademarks shared by competitors are rare in the United States. They are supported by a non-precedential 2003 Trademark Trial and Appeal Board decision upholding the "Swiss Army" knife trademark. Like the "Super Hero" marks, the "Swiss Army" mark was jointly registered by competitors. It was upheld on the basis that the registrants jointly "represent a single source" of the knives, due to their long-standing cooperation for quality control.
Critics in the legal community dispute whether the "Super Hero" marks meet the legal standard for trademark protection in the United States—distinctive designation of a single source of a product or service. Controversy exists over each element of that standard: whether "Super Hero" is distinctive rather than generic, whether "Super Hero" designates a source of products or services, and whether DC and Marvel jointly represent a single source. Some critics further characterize the marks as a misuse of trademark law to chill competition.
America's Best Comics , originally an imprint of Wildstorm , used the term science hero , coined by Alan Moore.
History of superheroes in comic books
Antecedents
Early mythologies feature pantheons of gods with superhuman powers, as well as heroes such as Gilgamesh and Perseus . Later, folkloric heroes such as Robin Hood and the 19th century protagonist s of Victorian literature , such as the masked adventurer The Scarlet Pimpernel , featured what became such superhero conventions as secret identities. Penny dreadfuls , dime novel s, radio program s and other popular fiction of the late 19th and early 20th centuries featured mysterious, swashbuckling heroes with distinct costumes, secret identities, unusual abilities and altruistic missions. These include Zorro , the Green Hornet , the Scarecrow of Romney Marsh and Spring Heeled Jack , the last of whom first emerged as an urban legend . Likewise, the science-fiction hero John Carter of Mars , with his futuristic weapons and gadgets; Tarzan , with his high degree of athleticism and strength, and his ability to communicate with animals; and the biologically modified Hugo Danner of the novel Gladiator were heroes with unusual abilities who fought sometimes larger-than-life foes.
The most direct antecedents are pulp magazine crime fighters — such as the "peak human" Doc Savage , the preternaturally mesmeric The Shadow , and The Spider — and comic strip characters such as Hugo Hercules , Popeye and The Phantom . The first masked crime-fighter created for comic books was writer-artist George Brenner 's The Clock , who debuted in Centaur Publications ' Funny Pages vol. 1, #6 (Nov. 1936). In terms of superpowered characters, many historians consider the first appearance of Superman in Action Comics #1 (June 1938) the point at which the comic-book archetype began.
Golden Age
In 1938, writer Jerry Siegel and illustrator Joe Shuster , who had previously worked in pulp science fiction magazines, introduced Superman . The character possessed many of the traits that have come to define the superhero: a secret identity , superhuman powers and a colorful costume including a symbol and cape. His name is also the source of the term "superhero," although early comic book heroes were sometimes also called "mystery men" or "masked heroes".
DC Comics , which published under the names National and All-American at the time, received an overwhelming response to Superman and, in the years that followed, introduced Batman , Wonder Woman , Green Lantern , The Flash , Hawkman , Aquaman and Green Arrow . The first team of superheroes was DC's Justice Society of America , featuring most of the aforementioned characters. Although DC dominated the superhero market at this time, companies large and small created hundreds of superheroes. The Human Torch and Sub-Mariner from Marvel Comics (then called Timely Comics ) and Plastic Man and Phantom Lady from Quality Comics were also hits. Will Eisner 's The Spirit , featured in a comic strip , would become a considerable artistic inspiration to later comic book creators. The era's most popular superhero, however, was Fawcett Comics ' Captain Marvel , whose exploits regularly outsold those of Superman during the 1940s. During World War II , superheroes grew in popularity, surviving paper rationing and the loss of many writers and illustrators to service in the armed forces. The need for simple tales of good triumphing over evil may explain the wartime popularity of superheroes. Publishers responded with stories in which superheroes battled the Axis Powers and the patriotically themed superheroes, most notably Marvel's Captain America as well as DC's Wonder Woman .
After the war, superheroes lost popularity. This led to the rise of genre fiction , particularly horror and crime . The lurid nature of these genres sparked a moral crusade in which comics were blamed for juvenile delinquency . The movement was spearheaded by psychiatrist Fredric Wertham , who famously argued that "deviant" sexual undertones ran rampant in superhero comics.
In response, the comic book industry adopted the stringent Comics Code . By the mid-1950s, only Superman, Batman and Wonder Woman retained a sliver of their prior popularity, although effort towards complete inoffensiveness led to stories that many consider silly, especially by modern standards. This ended what historians have called the Golden Age of comic books .
Silver Age
In the 1950s, DC Comics , under the editorship of Julius Schwartz , recreated many popular 1940s heroes, launching an era later deemed the Silver Age of comic books . The Flash , Green Lantern , Hawkman and several others were recreated with new origin stories. While past superheroes resembled myth ological heroes in their origins and abilities, these heroes were inspired by contemporary science fiction . In 1960, DC banded its most popular heroes together in the Justice League of America , which became a sales phenomenon.
Empowered by the return of the superhero at DC, Marvel Comics editor/writer Stan Lee and the artists/co-writers Jack Kirby , Steve Ditko and Bill Everett launched a new line of superhero comic books, beginning with The Fantastic Four in 1961 and continuing with the Incredible Hulk , Spider-Man , Iron Man , Thor , the X-Men , and Daredevil . These comics continued DC’s use of science fiction concepts ( radiation was a common source of superpowers) but placed greater emphasis on personal conflict and character development. This led to many superheroes that differed from predecessors with more dramatic potential. For example, the Fantastic Four were a superhero family of sorts, who squabbled and even held some unresolved acrimony towards one another, and Spider-Man was a teenager who struggled to earn money and maintain his social life in addition to his costumed exploits.
While the superhero form underwent a revival, the rise of television as the top medium for light entertainment and the effects of Comics Code Authority obliterated genres such as westerns , romance , horror , war and crime . In the coming decades, non-superhero comics series would occasionally rise to popularity, but superheroes and comic books would be forever intertwined in the eyes of the American public.
Deconstruction
In the 1970s, DC Comics paired Green Arrow with Green Lantern in a ground-breaking, socially conscious series. Writer Dennis O'Neil portrayed Green Arrow as an angry, street-smart populist and Green Lantern as good-natured but short-sighted authority figure. This is the first instance in which superheroes were classified into two distinct groups, the "classic" superhero and the more brazen anti-hero. In the 1970s, DC returned Batman to his roots as a dubious vigilante, and Marvel introduced several popular anti-heroes, including The Punisher , Wolverine , and writer/artist Frank Miller 's dark version of the longtime hero Daredevil . Batman, The Punisher, and Daredevil were driven by the crime-related deaths of family members and continual exposure to slum life, while X-Men 's Wolverine was tormented by barely controllable savage instincts and Iron Man struggled with debilitating alcoholism . The trend was taken to a higher level in the 1986 miniseries Watchmen by writer Alan Moore and artist Dave Gibbons , which was published by DC but took place outside the " DC Universe " with new characters. Some of the superheroes of Watchmen were emotionally unsatisfied, psychologically withdrawn, sexually confused, and even sociopath ic. Watchmen also examined flaws in the superhero mythos such as the inculpability of vigilantism , and the ultimate irrelevance of fighting crime in a world threatened by nuclear holocaust .
Another story, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns (1985-1986), continued Batman’s renovation/reinterpretation. This miniseries, written and illustrated by Frank Miller, featured a Batman from an alternate/non-continuity future returning from retirement. The series portrayed the hero as an obsessed vigilante, necessarily at odds with official social authority figures, illustrated both by the relationship between Batman and retiring police commissioner James Gordon, and by the symbolic slugfest between the Dark Knight and Superman , now an agent/secret weapon of the U.S government. Both Watchmen and The Dark Knight Returns were acclaimed for their artistic ambitiousness and psychological depth, and became watershed series.
Miller continued his seminal treatment of the Batman character with 1987's Batman: Year One (Batman issues #404-407) and 2001's The Dark Knight Strikes Again (also known as DK2). DK2, the long-awaited follow-up to Dark Knight Returns, contrasts the traditional superhero-crimefighter character with the more politically conscious characters that evolved during the 1990s (perhaps epitomized by The Authority and Planetary , both written by British author Warren Ellis). In DK2, Superman's nemesis Lex Luthor is the power behind the throne, controlling a tyrannical American government, as well as Superman himself. Superman's submission to Luthor's twisted power structure, in the name of saving lives is contrasted with Batman's determined attack against the corrupted institutions of government; the message is that crime can occur at all levels of society, and the heroes are responsible for fighting both symptoms and causes of societal dysfunction and corruption.
However, interestingly, Spiderman has steedfastly resisted partaking any part in the Deconstruction of the Superhero genre
Struggles of the 1990s
By the early 1990s, anti-heroes had become the rule rather than the exception, as The Punisher , Wolverine and the grimmer Batman became popular and marketable characters. Anti-heroes such as the X-Men ’s Gambit and Bishop , X-Force 's Cable and the Spider-Man adversary Venom became some of the most popular new characters of the early 1990s. This was a financial boom time for the industry when a new character could become well known quickly and, according to many fans, stylistic flair eclipsed character development. In 1992, Marvel illustrators Todd McFarlane , Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld — all of whom helped popularize anti-heroes in the Spider-Man and X-Men franchises — left Marvel to form Image Comics . Image changed the comic book industry as a haven for creator-owned characters and the first significant challenger to Marvel and DC in thirty years. Image superhero teams, such as Lee’s WildC.A.Ts and Gen¹³ , and Liefeld’s Youngblood , were instant hits but were criticized as over-muscled, over-sexualized, excessively violent, and lacking in unique personality. McFarlane's occult hero Spawn fared somewhat better in critical respect and long-term sales.
In this decade, Marvel and DC made drastic temporary changes to iconic characters. DC's " Death of Superman " story arc across numerous Superman titles found the hero killed and resurrected, while Batman was physically crippled in the " KnightFall " storyline. At Marvel, a clone of Spider-Man vied with the original for over a year of stories across several series. All eventually returned to the status quo.
Throughout the 1990s, several creators deviated from the trends of violent anti-heroes and sensational, large-scale storylines. Painter Alex Ross , writer Kurt Busiek and Alan Moore himself tried to "reconstruct" the superhero form. Acclaimed titles such as Busiek's, Ross' and Brent Anderson 's Astro City and Moore's Tom Strong combined artistic sophistication and idealism into a super heroic version of retro-futurism . Ross also painted two widely acclaimed mini-series , Marvels (written by Busiek) for Marvel Comics and Kingdom Come for DC, which examined the classic superhero in a more literary context, as well as satirizing antiheroes. Magog , Superman’s rival in Kingdom Come, was partially modeled after Cable.
Superhero philosophy
The "philosophy" informing the ethos of vigilante superheroes (especially as seen in the Punisher and Batman characters) was essentially formulated centuries ago by the famous Greek sage Aristotle : Men possessing superior virtue and self-mastery necessarily transcend the external human bureaucratic-administrative framework:
Note that not all superheroes are vigilantes. During the Silver Age , for example, Batman was a deputized officer of the Gotham City police force. Other superheroes have worked, either openly or covertly, with or for government or international organizations. In 1986, John Byrne's Superman was officially deputized by the Metropolis mayor to allow him to arrest criminals legally.
Reception
Almost since the inception of the superhero in comic books, the concept has come under fire from critics. Most famously, the psychiatrist Fredric Wertham ’s Seduction of the Innocent (1954) alleged that sexual subtext existed in superhero comics, and included the infamous accusations that Batman and Robin were gay and Wonder Woman encouraged female dominance fetishes and lesbian ism.
Writer Ariel Dorfman has criticized alleged class biases in many superhero narratives in several of his books, including The Emperor's Old Clothes: What the Lone Ranger, Babar, and Other Innocent Heroes Do to Our Mind (1980). Contemporary critics seem to be more focused on the history and evolving nature of the superhero concept, as in Peter Coogan 's Superhero: The Secret Origin of a Genre (2006).
The idea of the superhero has also been explored in several well-received contemporary graphic novel s. Daniel Clowes ' "The Death Ray" (2004) examines the idea of the superhero as a non-costumed delusional misanthrope and serial killer and Chris Ware 's Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth (2000) reimagines the Superman archetype as a mercurial god -like figure.
Growth in diversity
For the first two decades of their existence in comic books, superheroes largely conformed to the model of lead characters in American popular fiction of the time, with the typical superhero a white, middle- to upper- class, heterosexual, professional, 20-to-30-year-old male. A majority of superheroes still fit this description as of 2007, but beginning in the 1960s many characters have broken the mold.
Superheroines
The first known female superhero is writer-artist Fletcher Hanks 's minor character Fantomah , an ageless, ancient Egypt ian woman in the modern day who could transform into a skull-faced creature with superpowers to fight evil; she debuted in Fiction House 's Jungle Comics #2 (Feb. 1940), credited to the pseudonymous "Barclay Flagg".
Another seminal superheroine is Invisible Scarlet O'Neil , a non-costumed character who fought crime and wartime saboteurs using the superpower of invisibility; she debuted in the eponymous syndicated newspaper comic strip by Russell Stamm on June 3, 1940. A superpowered female antihero , the Black Widow — a costumed emissary of Satan who killed evildoers in order to send them to Hell — debuted in Mystic Comics #4 (Aug. 1940), from Timely Comics , the 1940s predecessor of Marvel Comics .
Though non-superpowered, like the Phantom and Batman, the earliest female costumed crimefighters are The Woman in Red , introduced in Standard Comics ' Thrilling Comics #2 (March 1940); Lady Luck , debuting in the Sunday- newspaper comic-book insert The Spirit Section June 2, 1940; the comedic character Red Tornado , debuting in All-American Comics #20 (Nov 1940); Miss Fury , debuting in the eponymous comic strip by female cartoonist Tarpé Mills on April 6, 1941; the Phantom Lady , introduced in Quality Comics Police Comics #1 (Aug. 1941); and the Black Cat , introduced in Harvey Comics ' Pocket Comics #1 (also Aug. 1941). The superpowered Nelvana of the Northern Lights debuted in Canadian publisher Hillborough Studio's Triumph-Adventure Comics #1 (Aug. 1941).
The first widely recognizable female superhero is Wonder Woman , from All-American Publications , one of three companies that would merge to form DC Comics . She was created by psychologist William Moulton Marston with help and inspiration from his wife Elizabeth and their companion Olive Byrne. . Wonder Woman debuted in All Star Comics #8 (Jan. 1942).
Starting in the late 1950s, DC introduced Hawkgirl , Supergirl , Batwoman and later Batgirl , all female versions of prominent male superheroes. Batgirl would eventually shed her "bat" persona and become Oracle , the premiere information broker of the DC superhero community and leader of the superheroine team Birds of Prey In addition, the company introduced Zatanna and a second Black Canary and had several female supporting character s that were successful professionals, such as the Atom 's love-interest, attorney Jean Loring .
As with DC's superhero team the Justice League of America , with included Wonder Woman, the Marvel Comics teams of the early 1960s usually included at least one female, such as the Fantastic Four 's Invisible Girl , the X-Men 's Marvel Girl and the Avengers' Wasp and later Scarlet Witch . In the wake of second-wave feminism , the Invisible Girl became the more confident and assertive Invisible Woman, and Marvel Girl became the hugely powerful destructive force called Phoenix.
In subsequent decades, Elektra , Catwoman , Witchblade , and Spider-Girl became stars of popular series. The series Uncanny X-Men and its related superhero-team titles included many females in vital roles.
The idealized physiques and frequently sexual costumes (such as those of Power Girl , Emma Frost and Starfire ) of female superheroes have led to accusations of sexism .
Characters of color
In the late 1960s, superheroes of other racial groups began to appear. In 1966, Marvel Comics introduced the Black Panther , an African king who became the first non- caricature d black superhero. The first African-American superhero, the Falcon , followed in 1969, and three years later, Luke Cage , a self-styled "hero-for-hire", became the first black superhero to star in his own series. In 1971, Red Wolf became the first Native American in the superheroic tradition to headline a series. In 1974, Shang Chi , a martial art ist, became the first prominent Asian hero to star in an American comic book. ( Asian-American FBI agent Jimmy Woo had starred in a short-lived 1950s series named after " yellow peril " antagonist , Yellow Claw .)
Comic-book companies were in the early stages of cultural expansion and many of these characters played to specific stereotype s; Cage often employed lingo similar to that of blaxploitation films, Native Americans were often associated with wild animals and Asians were often portrayed as martial artists.
Subsequent minority heroes, such as the X-Men 's Storm (the first black superheroine) and The Teen Titans ' Cyborg avoided the patronizing nature of the earlier characters. Storm and Cyborg were both part of superhero teams, which became increasingly diverse in subsequent years. The X-Men, in the particular, were revived in 1975 with a line-up of characters culled from several different nations, including the Kenya n Storm, German Nightcrawler , Russia n Colossus and Canadian Wolverine . Diversity in both ethnicity and national origin would be an important part of subsequent X-Men-related groups, as well as series that attempted to mimic the X-Men’s success. In the modern age , minority headliners are still rare but almost all teams feature at least a few minority characters.
In 1993, Milestone Comics , an African-American-owned imprint of DC, introduced a line of series that included characters of many ethnic minorities, including several black headliners. The imprint lasted four years, during which it introduced Static , a character adapted into the WB Network animated series Static Shock .
In addition to the creation of new minority heroes, publishers have filled the roles of once-Caucasian heroes with minorities. The best known example is perhaps John Stewart who debuted in 1971 in the socially conscious series Green Lantern / Green Arrow . Stewart was a black and somewhat belligerent architect who Green Lantern’s alien benefactors chose as Hal Jordan 's standby, an idea that initially discomforted Jordan and was meant to discomfort some readers. In the 1980s, Stewart became the Green Lantern permanently, making him the first black character to take the mantle of a classic superhero. The creators of the 2000s-era Justice League animated series selected Stewart as the show's Green Lantern, boosting his profile.
DC has recently passed some other long-established superhero mantles to ethnic minorities. These include the new Firestorm (African-American), Atom (Asian) and Blue Beetle ( Latino ). Alternatively, Marvel Comics revealed in an acclaimed 2003 limited series that the " Supersoldier serum" that empowered Captain America was subsequently tested on Isaiah Bradley , an African American man.
LGBT characters
In 1992, Marvel revealed that Northstar , a member of Alpha Flight, was homosexual , after years of implication. This ended a long-standing editorial mandate that there would be no LGBT characters in Marvel comics. Although some secondary characters in DC Comics ' mature-audience miniseries Watchmen were gay, Northstar was the first openly gay superhero. Other gay and bisexual superheroes have since emerged, such as Pied Piper , Gen¹³ 's Rainmaker , and The Authority 's gay couple Apollo and Midnighter .
In the mid-2000s, some characters were revealed gay in two Marvel titles: The Ultimate Marvel incarnation of the X-Men ’s Colossus and Wiccan and Hulkling of the superhero group Young Avengers . In 2006, DC revealed in its Manhunter title that longtime character Obsidian was gay, and a new incarnation of Batwoman was introduced as a " lipstick lesbian " to some media attention.
In other media
Film
Superhero films began as Saturday movie serial s aimed at children during the 1940s. The decline of these serials meant the death of superhero films until the release of 1978‘s Superman which was a tremendous success. Several sequel s followed in the 1980s. A popular Batman series lasted from 1989 until 1997. These franchises were initially successful but later sequels in both series fared poorly, stunting the growth of superhero films for a time. In the early 2000s, blockbusters such as 2000’s X-Men , 2002’s Spider-Man , and 2005's Batman Begins have led to dozens of superhero films. The improvements in special effects technology and more sophisticated writing that both respects and emulates the spirit of the comic books has drawn in mainstream audiences and caused critics to take superhero films more seriously.
Live-action television series
Several popular but, by modern standards, campy live action superhero programs aired from the early 1950s until the late 1970s. These included Adventures of Superman starring George Reeves , the psychedelic-colored Batman series of the 1960s starring Adam West and Burt Ward and CBS ’s Wonder Woman series of the 1970s starring Lynda Carter . The popular Incredible Hulk of the late 1970s and early 1980s, however, had a more somber tone. In the 1990s, the syndicated Mighty Morphin Power Rangers , adapted from the Japan ese Super Sentai , became popular. Other shows targeting teenage and young adult audiences that decade included Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman , and Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In 2001, Smallville retooled Superman 's origin as a teen drama. The 2006 NBC series Heroes tells the story of several people who "thought they were like everyone else, until they woke with incredible abilities".
In Japan, tokusatsu (Japanese term for special effects) superhero TV series are very common.
Animation
In the 1940s, Fleischer / Famous Studios produced a number of groundbreaking Superman cartoons, which became the first examples of superheroes in animation .
Since the 1960s, superhero cartoons have been a staple of children’s television, particularly in the U.S. . However, by the early 1980s, US broadcasting restrictions on violence in children’s entertainment led to series that were extremely tame, a trend exemplified by the series Super Friends . Meanwhile, Japan's anime industry successfully contributed to the genre with their own style of superhero series, most notably Science Ninja Team Gatchaman.
In the 1990s, Batman: The Animated Series and X-Men led the way for series that displayed advanced animation, mature writing and respect for the comic book s on which they were based. This trend continues with Cartoon Network ’s successful adaptation of DC's Justice League and Teen Titans .
The comics superheroes mythos itself received a nostalgic treatment in the acclaimed 2004 Disney / Pixar release The Incredibles , which utilized computer animation . Original superheroes with basis in older trends have also been made for television, such as Cartoon Network 's Ben 10 and Nickelodeon 's Danny Phantom .
Radio
In the late 1930s and throughout the 1940s, Superman was one of the most popular radio serials in the United States . Other superhero radio programs starred characters including the costumed but not superpowered Blue Beetle , and the non-costumed, superpowered Popeye . Also appearing on radio were such characters as The Green Hornet , The Green Lama , Doc Savage , and The Lone Ranger , a western hero who relied on many conventions of the superhero genre (faithful sidekick, secret identity, prodigious skill in combat, code of conduct).
In the 1990s, the BBC broadcast radio plays adapting comic-book stories from at least three publishers.
Prose
Adaptations
Superheroes occasionally have been adapted into prose fiction, starting with Random House 's 1942 novel The Adventures of Superman by George Lowther . In the 1970s, Elliot S! Maggin wrote the Superman novels, Last Son of Krypton (1978) and Miracle Monday , coinciding with but not adapting the movie Superman . Other early adaptations include novels starring the comic-strip hero The Phantom , starting with 1943's Son of the Phantom. The character likewise returned in 1970s books, with a 15-installment series from Avon Books beginning in 1972, written by Phantom creator Lee Falk , Ron Goulart , and others.
Also during the 1970s, Pocket Books published 11 novels based on Marvel Comics characters. Juvenile novels featuring Marvel Comics and DC Comics characters including Batman , Spider-Man , the X-Men , and the Justice League , have been published, often marketed in association with TV series , as have Big Little Books starring the Fantastic Four and others.
In the 1990s and 2000s, Marvel and DC released novels adapting such story arcs as " The Death of Superman " and Batman's " No Man’s Land ".
Original characters
The 1930 novel Gladiator by Philip Gordon Wylie featured a man granted super-strength and durability through prenatal chemical experimentation. He tries to use his abilities for good but soon becomes disillusioned, making him an early example of both the superhero and its latter day deconstruction.
Robert Mayer 's 1977 Superfolks tells of a retired hero who has married and moved to the suburb s being drawn back into action.
The Wild Cards books, created and edited by George R. R. Martin in 1987, were a non-comic book-based science fiction series that dealt with superpowered heroes. The characters in the series follow many of the superhero archetypes.
Science-fiction author Michael Bishop parodied superheroes in his 1992 novel Count Geiger's Blues in which a pop culture -hating art critic plunges into a pool of toxic waste and transforms into a costumed superhero and gains an allergy to high art.
Novels
Existing comic-book superheroes have appeared in original novels , as well as in novelizations of comic-book story arcs.
Computer games
While many popular superheroes have been featured in licensed computer games, up until recently there have been few that have revolved around heroes created specifically for the game. This has changed due to two popular franchises: The Silver Age -inspired Freedom Force (2002) and City of Heroes (2004), a Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Game (or MMORPG), boths of which allow players to create their own superheroes.
Internet
In the 80s and 90s, the Internet allowed a worldwide community of fans and amateur writers to bring their own superhero creations to a global audience. The first original major shared superhero universe to develop on the Internet was Superguy , which first appeared on a UMNEWS mailing list in 1989. In 1992, a cascade on the USENET newsgroup rec.arts.comics would give birth to the The Legion of Net.Heroes shared universe. In 1994, LNH writers contributed to the creation of the newsgroup rec.arts.comics.creative , which spawned a number of original superhero shared universes.
Music video
In the music video "Without Me" by Eminem, he portrays himself as Robin.
The music video of the song "Kryptonite" by Three Doors down shows an old guy reminiscing about his past as a Superhero. He puts the costume back on and tries to help people, but no one takes him seriously.
See also
[http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:maGAf0g0XsQJ:www.newacademia.com/NdalianisCoverPop/Excerpt.pdf+peter+coogan+excerpt&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=3&gl=us&client=firefox-a/ Peter Coogan's "The Definition of the Superhero"]
superhero in Bosnian: Superjunak
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Ornithology is the study of what? | BIRDNET :: All about Ornithology, the Scientific Study of Birds
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Born Robert Matthew Van Winkle in Dallas, Tx, what rapper had his best known hit with 1990s Ice Ice Baby? | What is Ornithology? - Definition & Concept | Study.com
What is Ornithology? - Definition & Concept
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This lesson will teach you about the scientific field of ornithology and how both scientists and non-scientists alike contribute to ornithology research.
What Is Ornithology?
Have you ever watched birds at a bird feeder or admired peacocks at a local zoo? If so, then you have been an unofficial part of the field of ornithology!
Ornithology is the scientific field dedicated to the study of birds. Any bird - whether it is a tiny hummingbird or an extra large emu - falls under the realm of ornithology.
And any type of research relating to birds, like a study of their habitat or migration patterns, is considered a part of the field of ornithology.
All birds, from humming birds to peacocks to emus, are a part of the field of ornithology.
A Brief History of Ornithology
Humans have been fascinated with the birds living around them since ancient times. Cave drawings and archaeological sites all indicate humans' interest in birds, both observationally and domestically.
Evidence for early humans consuming avian, or bird, proteins can be found dating back to Stone Age times.
In more modern times, birds continue to not only be a food source but also a fascinating field of scientific study. New technology has allowed us to band and track birds across thousands of miles, remotely observe their nesting behaviors and monitoring for environmental and habitat concerns.
And unlike many branches of science, which are often impractical for non-scientists to become involved with, anyone with access to the outside world can potentially be a first-hand observer of all things avian in their neighborhood.
Types of Ornithology Study
The field of ornithology is vast, but almost all aspects of its study can be broken down into one of three fields: collection, field-based research, and laboratory-based research.
Collection refers to the more traditional biological approach to the study of birds, through the collection of both live and deceased specimens. The specimens are analyzed in terms of their body systems, anatomy, physiology, and even their DNA.
Field-based research involves scientists working out in the field, noting population counts, taking bird song recordings, and sometimes collecting (either permanently or temporarily) live specimens for more direct observation.
Field-based ornithologists also make indirect observations, which include studying the nesting locations, nesting materials, or food resources available to the birds living in a particular location. They aren't direct observations of a bird, but instead are observations of conditions or settings that a bird would live in or interact with.
Laboratory-based research can include analyzing the results of field-based studies or analyzing live birds for studies relating to animal intelligence, bird-to-bird and bird-to-human interactions, and medical treatments.
It is also not unusual for multiple branches of ornithology to overlap over the course of a single research project and for ornithologists to collaborate.
A field-based ornithologist might study a hooded merganser, like this one, in its native habitat.
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What is the highest grade used for valuing collectible coins and trading cards? | Heritage Auctions: Gold Coin Prices, Buyer's & Investor's Guide
Gold Coin Prices, Buyer's & Investor's Guide
1907 $20 High Relief Gold Coin
Introduction
The intrinsic value and historical appeal of gold coins make them highly sought after by both collectors and investors alike. Gold coins are a valuable investment, especially in stressed economic times as a way to diversify an investment portfolio. Rare gold coins have wide appeal as collectors' items and can increase in value exponentially over time. This guide provides purchasers with a deeper understand of the factors that affect the value of gold coins and steps to take to maintain an investment. At Heritage Auctions, we believe information should be available to all to ensure the learning curve is made less steep and less expensive for new collectors and sellers. This article is intended for information purposes only and is not to be considered investment advice.
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Why Own Gold Coins
In addition to their historical significance, gold coins are an investment. Some of the advantages for purchasing gold coins include:
Potential for remarkable appreciation in value
Protection from market crashes and weakening dollar
Historical value as collector's items
A management-free investment that doesn't require daily monitoring or trading
Creates investment portfolio diversity
Small and easy to store
Can be transferred quickly and confidentially
Buying and Selling Gold Coins
Gold Dollars
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Gold Coin Terminology
When it comes to investing in gold coins, it is advantageous to understand some of the commonly used terms associated with precious metal investing.
Term
A means of guaranteeing the quality and purity of gold or silver.
Bagmarks
Small nicks and abrasion marks coins may receive during initial transportation process.
Brilliant Uncirculated
New coins that are in immaculate condition and have never been in circulation.
Buy/Sell Spreads
The difference between buying and selling prices relative to the spot price.
Circulated
Coins that have been distributed and used as public currency.
Condition
The grade of a coin (Mint State, Extremely Fine, etc.)
Date
The year of issue for a coin.
Grade
An evaluation of the amount of wear on a coin. The Sheldon scale rates coins from 1- 70 numerically, while the adjective scale runs from Basal to Mint State. Color considerations and strike quality can also be factors in grading.
Legal Tender
Coins that can be used as national currency.
Liquidity
The ease of buying and selling.
Mint
The facility that manufactured the coin.
Obverse
The front side of a coin, usually depicting a head or face.
Population
Refers to how many coins have been certified by a given grading service in that particular grade.
Proof
These coins have been struck with special dies that create greater pressure for a more highly polished and clear design. Collectible and often trade at higher premiums.
Purity
The percentage of precious metal content of a coin.
Reverse
The back side of a coin.
Spot Price
The up-to-date value of a precious metal determined by latest market trades.
Weight
| Mint |
According to the nursery rhyme, what did Peter Piper pick? | How to Determine the Value of Your Baseball Cards | eBay
How to Determine the Value of Your Baseball Cards
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September 14, 2016
Some say that baseball cards had their heyday in the 1950s and 1960s, but there are still many people who acquire, trade, buy, and sell baseball cards on a regular basis. For these collectors, it is essential to know the values of their collections, yet values can change over time. For this reason, collectors must keep in mind several key factors that help them to evaluate their baseball cards, even if values evolve in the marketplace. Things to take into consideration include a baseball card's book value, market value, condition, scarcity, and personal value. By examining all of these elements, collectors can estimate the worth of their baseball cards in order to trade, sell, or simply cherish them. Like those who collect coins, baseball card collectors must take care to preserve the condition of the collections.
Book Value Versus Market Value of Baseball Cards
In order to determine the value of baseball cards, collectors must first understand the difference between book value and market value. Book values are regularly published in price guides by sports specialists, like Beckett and Tuff Stuff. By looking up a card by date (year), brand, player, and card number, a collector can find the book values of cards listed in these price guides. A price guide lists the low price and the high price of the card, representing the lowest and highest values that can be expected for the card. At one time, these price guides were the primary sources of information for collectors who wanted to know the value of their baseball cards; however, collectors now know that cards are often bought and sold at prices that greatly differ from their book values. The prices at which cards are actually bought and sold represent the market value.
Thanks to the creation of online marketplaces, such as eBay, baseball card collectors now have constant access to real-time data on the true values of baseball cards. Even if a card has a book value of $100, it could still be sold online for $150 if a buyer is willing to pay that much. These transactions are on record for all to see, allowing collectors to identify the cases in which book values and market values differ. Market prices can easily be found by searching for baseball card auctions on eBay or by visiting forums for baseball card collectors. For this reason, when determining the values of their cards, collectors should research current book values as well as market values in order to have a full understanding of their cards' worth.
Evaluating Baseball Card Condition
There are a few main brands of trading cards, the most popular being Topps and Upper Deck. After determining the book values of cards, the second step all collectors must take when they are trying to determine the values of their card collections is evaluating the condition of the cards. Even cards coming right out of the pack can display signs of slight wear or damage that diminish value, so even collectors of new baseball cards should know how to spot key signs of wear.
Types of Baseball Card Wear and Damage
There are four zones or aspects that collectors should consider when evaluating the condition of their baseball cards: the corners, the edges, the surface, and the centering.
Corners
Cards in superb condition have sharp and well-defined corners, while cards in poor condition have serious damage at multiple corners. This damage can include fraying corners, rounded corners, and torn corners.
Edges
Collectors can examine the edges of a card by turning the card sideways and looking at the edge straight on. Edge damage can appear as chips in the color or foil of the card, dents, and general wearing down at the sides.
Surface
Because most modern cards are printed on glossy or metallic card stock, damage and defects to the surface are easier to identify. Bends, creases, and loss of gloss are common types of surface damage caused by general handling and wear. Imperfect surfaces can also be caused by stains from packaging and printing defects.
Centering
Imperfections in centering are most common with vintage cards that were issued before sophisticated printing techniques were invented. Cards that are off-center have much lower values than well-centered cards, even when the off-center cards are in otherwise perfect condition. Signs of well-centered cards are borders that are exactly the same width on all four sides.
Baseball Card Grades
The condition of a card is evaluated using a system of grades. The grades go from Gem Mint to Poor, and each grade is represented by a number. The system of grades and the condition that each grade represents are summarized in the following chart. Collectors should keep in mind that this chart is intended only to be indicative of general grading standards, and specific grading standards may vary.
Grade
Card is almost perfect, with four sharp corners, perfect centering, full gloss, and no staining.
Mint
Card is in superb condition.
Slight wax stains on the back of the card and slightly off-white borders are permitted.
Near Mint-Mint
NM-MT
8
Card would be a superb-condition Mint 9; however, it exhibits slight corner fraying or minor printing imperfections.
Near Mint
Card has slight surface wear that is only visible with close inspection.
Card may also have slightly frayed corners or minor printing imperfections.
Excellent-Mint
Card has visible surface wear, very light scratches and slightly frayed corners.
Card may also have some loss of original gloss or slight printing defects.
Excellent
Card has minor rounding at the corners, slightly visible surface wear, and slightly chipped edges.
Very Good-Excellent
Card has slightly rounded corners, more visible surface wear, and heavy loss of original gloss.
Very Good
VG
3
Card has slightly rounded corners, very apparent surface and edge wear, scuffing, a light crease, and/or light scratches.
Good
Card has accelerated rounding at corners and considerable surface wear.
Card may also have scuffs, scratches, light stains, creases, or chips.
Fair
Card has extremely worn corners and advanced wear, with scuffs, scratches, stains, chips, and/or pitting.
Card may be dirty and have extreme printing defects.
Poor
PR
1
Card is similar to Fair condition but wear is even more advanced. Card may be missing small pieces, show extreme discoloration, or have major creases.
Baseball Card Grading Services
For collectors who want to know exactly how wear and damage affect the value of their cards, there are a number of baseball card grading services available. These grading services are offered by professionals who determine the condition of the cards and then assign them corresponding grades. The most well-known grading companies are Beckett Grading Services (BGS), Global Authority, Professional Sports Authenticator (PSA), and Sportscard Guaranty (SGC). By having rare cards professionally graded by one of these companies, the collector ensures the condition of the cards. Collectors can find more information about grading services on eBay's authentication and grading page .
Baseball Card Scarcity
Whereas baseball cards from the 1990s were widely overproduced, greatly driving down their prices, the production of baseball cards from earlier decades was more limited. As a result, these older baseball cards have higher values not just because of their age but also due to their scarcity. The ultimate example of how scarcity can play a large role in determining the values of baseball cards is the story of Honus Wagner . Although Honus Wagner is not as famous as Mickey Mantle or Babe Ruth, he is known by all baseball card collectors. Wagner was active in the early 20th century, when baseball cards with gold borders were given away with tobacco. Wagner's dislike of tobacco led the player to take actions to stop the manufacturing of tobacco cards with his likeness. Going even further, he also sought to have his existing tobacco cards withdrawn from distribution. As a result, the T206 Honus Wagner card is one of the most valuable baseball cards around with one having been sold for $1.2 million. Although this is an extreme example, it illustrates how much scarcity can affect value, even for players who are not very well known outside of the collecting world.
Inserts and Parallels
With mass production of baseball cards being the norm for today's manufacturers, many modern cards may never have the scarcity of older cards. For this reason, manufacturers also produce inserts in order to create scarcity for modern baseball cards. Inserts are special cards that are only sold as part of baseball card packs, which are primarily made up of standard baseball cards. Sometimes, only one to five reproductions of a single insert are ever made. This drives up the price of the insert, as well as the price of any pack that happens to contain the insert.
Many collectors are in search of certain inserts that complete their collections. Because such inserts are scarce, their values go up considerably. Along with inserts, modern manufacturers also produce parallels. A parallel is a baseball card that is exactly the same as a given standard card or insert card, with the exception of certain minor visual elements. If a card is an insert or parallel, this could greatly impact its value, so collectors should check to see if any of their baseball cards fall into either of these two categories.
Personal Value
Although there are some very concrete ways to determine the values of baseball cards, other more sentimental considerations can also impact the amount of money that someone is willing to pay. A collector who is trying to complete a set may be willing to pay above market or book value for those last few missing cards. The same can be said for collectors who want to find cards for beloved players. A Willie Mays fan may be willing to pay top dollar for a specific card. Inversely, collectors who want to get rid of players whom they dislike may be willing to let them go at prices that are below their determined values.
Although it may be difficult to determine when personal desires and subjective feelings can play a role in the pricing of baseball cards, an experienced baseball card trader can usually spot someone driven by such motivations. These experienced collectors also know how to play on these subjective feelings when negotiating with other collectors in order to extract more value from cards than what would normally be expected, so it is generally advisable to guard one's emotions when negotiating a sale.
How to Buy Baseball Cards on eBay
Baseball card collectors can find information on buying, selling, and trading cards at speciality baseball card shops and online baseball card forums. For those who want to add to their collections, shopping on eBay provides a great opportunity to get access to a wide variety of baseball cards.
Collectors who are interested in baseball card grading services can consult the Authentication and Grading Services help page. When investing in baseball cards, collectors should make sure that high-priced cards are graded by reputable companies in order to ensure their value. Thanks to eBay Buyer Protection , collectors can shop on eBay with confidence, knowing that they are reimbursed item and shipping costs if the cards that they buy never arrive or arrive but do not match the description advertised.
Conclusion
Collecting baseball cards can be a captivating hobby for many people. With many varieties of baseball cards available, collectors are never bored. Plus, by buying, selling, and trading baseball cards, collectors get to interact with a whole community of people who share the same interest. It is by interacting with this community that collectors gain the information that they need to properly evaluate the worth of their baseball cards. Knowing the book values and market values is a start, but collectors also need to keep in mind card condition, card scarcity, and the personal value that cards can have. Once collectors are equipped with this knowledge, their card collecting experiences are even more enriched.
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Commonly seen on clocks, what it the usual translation of the Latin phrase Tempus Fugit | Fratricide - did it start with Cicero?: In Rebus: Use the Power of Latin!
Tempus fugit
Translation: Time flies
I already knew that Latin mottos were very common on sundials . As it turns out, clocks at one time also featured Latin phrases. Obviously, you can still custom engrave a quality mantle clock. But this particular masterpiece replicates Wedgwood's original designs from the 1880s and is already ornamented with a Tempus Fugit inscription. As for the price, it is unapproachable, alas!
By the way, the origin of the phrase probably can be found in a line from Viril's Georgics:
Set fugit interea, fugit inreparabile tempus,
singula dum capti circumvectamur amore.
(G. 3.284-5)
Fairclough translates beautifully: "But time meanwhile is flying, flying beyond recall, while we, charmed with love of our theme, linger around each detail!"
Friday, October 17, 2008, 13:50 - Best Latin Quotes, Words of Wisdom, Proverbs and Sayings , Latin Words - Meanings and Definitions , Popular Latin Phrases, Mottos, Slogans
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A classic 20th century Russian novel by Ilf and Petrov entitled "The Twelve Chairs" contains a verbal exchange, highly humorous, in my opinion, between a con artist trying to raise money, supposedly for the needs of the anti-Bolshevik underground, and a small town fellow, sympathetic to the cause:
"What's your political credo?"
"Always!" repliied Polesov delightedly.
I do not remember if this scene is present in Mel Brooks 1970 adaptation of the novel. Regardless, the point is that the word "always" (semper in Latin) possesses a very high level of appeal when it comes to indicating one's allegiance to something.
Acceptissima semper // munera sunt, auctor quae pretiosa facit - Those gifts are always the most acceptable which our love for the donor makes precious (Ovid)
Conlige suspectos semper habitos - Round up the usual suspects
Cotidie damnatur qui semper timet - The man who is constantly in fear is every day condemned. (Syrus)
Credula vitam spes fovet et melius cras fore semper dicit - Credulous hope supports our life, and always says that tomorrow will be better. (Tibullus)
Crudelius est quam mori semper timere mortem - It is more cruel to always fear death than to die. (Seneca)
De duobus malis, minus est semper eligendum - Of two evils, the lesser must always be chosen (Thomas a Kempis)
Fama semper vivat - May his/her fame last forever
Hoc natura est insitum, ut quem timueris, hunc semper oderis - It's an innate thing to always hate the one we've learnt to fear
Non semper erit aestas - It will not always be summer (be prepared for hard times)
Rosa rubicundior, lilio candidior, omnibus formosior, semper in te glorior - Redder than the rose, whiter than the lilies, fairer than everything, I will always have glory in thee
Semper fidelis - Always faithful
Monday, July 28, 2008, 13:04 - Popular Latin Phrases, Mottos, Slogans , Reviews
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A bunch of folks that quit Google started their own search engine, Cuil (pronounced "kool"). A very poor choice of company name, but whatever. Google is not exactly an ear pleaser. It was launched today. I searched for Latin Motto Generator, because, to my knowledge, I have a unique page that offers this kind of service. My site came up on the second page of the search results. And the pages were not even relevant! Just a few of my pages with Latin phrases and links. And they claimed that their index is three times the size of Google. I think I will wait a while before changing my default page.
| Time Flies |
The NFL draft is upon us again. What player did the Seattle Seahawks select with their first round selection in 2009? | Clock King : definition of Clock King and synonyms of Clock King (English)
7 External links
Publication history
The first Clock King was originally an enemy of Green Arrow , but has become more identified by his appearances in Justice League International and Suicide Squad , and subsequent adaptations in Batman: The Animated Series . He has no super-powers or abilities other than a rigid sense of order and timing. Clock King is a master planner and sometimes uses clock -themed gadgetry. He wears a clock mask, a cape, and a blue suit with clock drawings on it. The same, or a similar a character, called "the Clock" appeared in Star Spangled Comics #70 (July 1947) and fought Robin; the Clock wore a blue business suit, an orange fedora, glasses and a red tie with a picture of a clock. The second Clock King is a member of Terror Titans .
Fictional character biography
William Tockman
Born William Tockman, Clock King spends his early years taking care of his invalid sister. One day he finds out from a doctor's visit that he himself only has six months to live. Despairing for his sister's future, he watches the timing of a local bank's vault in order to rob it, hoping the money would provide for his sister after he was gone. His caper would have gone successfully, had he not tripped a silent alarm and been caught by the Green Arrow. [1]
While he is incarcerated, his sister dies alone. In further hideous irony, Tockman discovers that he really isn't terminally ill ; his doctor had accidentally switched his papers with those of another patient. Infuriated, he escapes, later futilely attempting revenge on the Green Arrow.
With several other villains, the Clock King becomes a member of the Injustice League , a team of out-of-luck supervillains who, when banding together, become even less successful than they have been in their individual careers. [2] The Injustice League is defeated time and again by the Justice League International , at least when they are not making laughingstocks of themselves. Trying to reform, the members later become the core of the equally laughable hero team Justice League Antarctica . This JLA includes G'Nort, who ends up saving the lives of the entire team. [3] Like his compatriots, Clock King becomes an ardent supporter of Maxwell Lord , partly due to the fact he is the only one willing to hire them. His group even guards Lord when he is incapacitated by a bullet wound. [4] The villains again later reform as the Injustice League as henchmen of Sonar . [5]
Later, Clock King leads his own, separate team of villains in a mission. They consist of Radiant, Sharpe, Acidia and Crackle. They are not as well-organized as even the Injustice League. For example, Crackle still lives with his mother and they have to take the bus to their fight. It takes place at a Metropolis toy store. They end up fighting one of the many incarnations of the Teen Titans , the heroes Booster Gold and Firehawk and DEO agent Cameron Chase . An unclear super-effect from Chase ultimately neutralizes Clock's team and they are all imprisoned. Clock himself escapes on another bus. [6]
Still later, Clock's friends are transformed into the new Suicide Squad . They are sent to a remote research facility where a genetic monstrosity is holding its creator hostage. Its main defenses are spawned "children" that could explode. During the mission, most of the team are seemingly killed, including Clock King, who is shot repeatedly in a retreat attempt. He is seen still alive after his brutal wounds but, in the end, Major Disaster believes he is the only one who survives. It turns out Cluemaster , shot in a similar manner as Clock King, survives, albeit with drastic scarring. (Suicide Squad (second series) #1). [1] Multi-Man also survives due to his ability to be reborn with new powers after dying.
Clock King is not seen for a period of time after Infinite Crisis . In an issue of 52 , one character decides to kill all the time-travelers, and mentions someone "ending up like Time Commander and Clock Queen."
The original Clock King reappears in Gotham City in The New 52 (which takes place after the events of Flashpoint ) now amped up on Venom . He is shown battling the newest incarnation of the Birds of Prey . [7]
Terror Titans
Cover of 'Teen Titans' (vol. 3) #60. Art by Eddy Barrows.
A new Clock King appears in Teen Titans #56 as the head of a team of legacy villains named the Terror Titans . In an interview with Teen Titans writer Sean McKeever, he described this Clock King as "...Very smart. He sees things differently than others." [8] Although his full name has not been confirmed, Disruptor did refer to him as "Tem" before being killed. His costume is similar to the suit worn by the Clock King seen in Batman: The Animated Series , although with clock faces on the tie and lapel. After his group defeats and captures Kid Devil , Clock King conditions the hero to be sold as a fighter to a group called "The Dark Side Club". Clock King then brings the Titans to his base of operations, a dimension outside of time. After besting Robin, Clock King is stymied by Ravager , who possesses similar precognitive abilities. He offers Ravager a chance to join him, but she refuses. Clock King then removes the Titans from his base and decides to move on to new plans. Ravager ultimately reconsiders his earlier offer. In the Terror Titans miniseries, Clock King takes over The Dark Side Club, and uses it to brainwash young metahumans, turning them into his very own "Martyr Militia". He sends the Militia to attack the city Los Angeles, for no reason other than to amuse him. [9] Clock King's plans are eventually undone by Miss Martian , who was posing as one of the captured Metahumans, and Ravager, who attacks and defeats him, forcing him to flee his base of operations. [10]
Powers and abilities
The original Clock King has no metahuman powers or abilities, although he is athletic and extraordinarily smart. He extensively uses clock and time related gimmicks to devastating effect.
The new Clock King has the always-active ability to see what is about to happen four seconds or so into the future, allowing him to anticipate an opponent's every move. [11] He is also a technological genius, creating devices such as teleporters, communications jamming equipment, and even an anti-gravity platform, all of them modelled after timepieces.
Other versions
Flashpoint
In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Clock King is imprisoned in military Doom prison . During the prison break, Clock King joined Heat Wave and Plastic Man to retrieve his weapons. [12]
In other media
Television
Walter Slezak as The Clock King in the 1960s Batman show
In the 1960s Batman TV series the Clock King was portrayed by the late Walter Slezak in the season two consecutive episodes, '"The Clock King's Crazy Crimes" and "The Clock King Gets Crowned", aired on ABC October 12 and 13, 1966. The two-parter was written by Batman co-creator Bill Finger and Charles Sinclair and directed by James Neilson . In the episode disguised as a pop artist, Clock King tries to rob a gallery of a time-related surrealist painting. Batman and Robin are stuffed into the bottom of an oversized hourglass, stripped of their utility belts, and left to be drowned in sand as The Clock King plots to filch Bruce Wayne's collection of antique pocket watches (only for the duo to later escape the trap). Later in the episode, he starts his masterplan, to steal the atomic powered Cesium clock . He wore a black cape and a top-hat with a clock inside it. He had many weapons such as "Super Slick Watch Oil", "Knock Out Gas" and "Super Sonic Sound".
Temple Fugate/The Clock King as seen in Batman: The Animated Series .
In Batman: The Animated Series the Clock King is recreated as Temple Fugate (the name being a play on the Latin phrase tempus fugit , meaning "time flies") who first appears in the episode "The Clock King" and later returns in the episode "Time Out of Joint" voiced by Alan Rachins . In both appearances, the Clock King commonly dresses in a three-piece suit and bowler hat , with a pocket watch and glasses resembling clock faces. In his debut episode "The Clock King", Temple Fugate is a head of a time and motion study consulting company who has been fined $20 million dollars in court, but is now appealing against it. Fugate is an odd, lonely man obsessed with time and punctuality. His every waking moment is pre-planned on a "to do" list broken down into precise blocks. When urged by Hamilton Hill to take a coffee break later than usual, Fugate initially refuses, as he does not want to ruin his schedule. At Hill's insistence, Fugate takes the coffee break, leading to no end of bad luck. He ends up late for his court appointment, and his appeal is lost. Fugate goes bankrupt as a result. Fugate swears revenge on Hamilton Hill for making him late, and later finds out that Hill's firm represented the plaintiff for the case Fugate was late for (though Hill apparently had nothing to do with that case). Seven years later, Fugate becomes the Clock King. Using his keen knowledge of the element of time, he turns to a life of crime and revenge. In "Time Out of Joint," Fugate is armed with a device which he can use to slow down or speed up time at his discretion, but is ultimately defeated by Batman and Robin and sent to Arkham Asylum.
Alan Rachins reprised his role as The Clock King (Fugate) in the Justice League Unlimited episode "Task Force X." He has been recruited by Project Cadmus to coordinate the mission and its timing down to the second. The timing for the plan was so important that the members are ordered to go on without a teammate if they are even one second late.
The original Clock King (William Tockman) first appears in the Batman: The Brave and the Bold episode "Rise of the Blue Beetle!" voiced by Dee Bradley Baker [13] with a German accent. Like his original version in the comics, he possesses many clock-themed weapons and gadgets, and wears a modified version of his original costume. To keep with the clock theme, he has two henchmen named Tick and Tock. The Clock King is defeated by Batman and Green Arrow after they escape his trap. He later appears in "Day of the Dark Knight!", trying to escape from Iron Heights Penitentiary , but was thwarted by Batman and Green Arrow. A heroic version of Clock King appears in "Deep Cover for Batman!", but is taken down by the Injustice Syndicate . Clock King joins forces with Owlman and an army of villains in "Game Over for Owlman!". He also briefly appears in "Mayhem of The Music Meister!", having teamed up with Black Manta and Gorilla Grodd to hijack a communications satellite before falling victim to the title villain's hypnotic powers. In "Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!", Aquaman helps Green Arrow fight the Clock King. When they pursue him to a nearby store and Clock King threatens a woman, Aquaman contacts the lobsters in a nearby tank and has them attack Clock King.
Video games
The Clock King is a boss in Batman: The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame [14] voiced by Dee Bradley Baker . In the Wii version, he is hired by Gentleman Ghost to lure Batman to London, England by capturing Hawkman and threatening to blow up Big Ben . In the DS version, he and Morgaine le Fey team up on Dinosaur Island but are defeated by Batman and the Red Tornado .
Miscellaneous
The Clock King also makes an appearance in a 2004 The Batman Adventures comic. In this issue, he finally gets his revenge on Hill by rigging the mayoral election so that it seems that Oswald C. Cobblepot ( The Penguin ) has won.
Toys
In February 2009, Mattel released an action figure from the Batman: The Animated Series/Justice League Unlimited incarnation of Clock King in the Justice League Unlimited toyline in a Matty Collector exclusive four pack along with Bane, Harley Quinn, and Scarecrow. The figure comes with no accessories.
References
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April 19, 1961 saw the CIA backed invasion of Cuba fall flat on it's face, when the invasion force met disaster at what southern Cuban location? | The Bay of Pigs: A Struggle For Freedom
Military
Further Reading
The Bay of Pigs: A Struggle For Freedom CSC 1984 SUBJECT AREA History WAR SINCE 1945 SEMINAR The Bay of Pigs: A Struggle for Freedom Major Joe R. English 2 April 1984 Marine Corps Command and Staff College Marine Corps Development and Education Command Quantico, Virginia 22134 ABSTRACT Author: ENGLISH, Joe R., Major, U.S. Marine Corps Title: THE BAY OF PIGS: A STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM Publisher: Marine Corps Command and Staff College Date: 16 March, 1984 This paper presents a review of the invasion of Cuba in April, 1961, by a group of Cuban exiles. This invasion became known as the Bay of Pigs invasion because of the area where the landing took place. The invasion force was financed and trained by the CIA with the full knowledge and approval of the Executive branch of our government. The operation was conceived under the Eisenhower admin- istration as a guerrilla insertion. It was passed on to the Kennedy administration where it was expanded to the final product of a fullscale invasion by the brigade of exiles. Although the project was run by the CIA, it was so compartmentalized that virtually no one had all of the details of the operation. The Military was brought in very late to review the plans and lend some covert support to the actual invasion. A force of 1,443 landed on the Southern shores of Cuba in the early morning hours of 17 April, 1961. They estab- lished a beachhead and held it for three days against over- whelming numbers of Cuban forces led by Fidel Castro. After three days, they literally ran out of ammunition and the vast majority of the invaders were captured and held prisoner for over a year before being ransomed to the Government of the United States. This paper covers the Bay of Pigs Operation from beginning to end with a view toward explaining what happened. It does not deal in detail with why events occurred and decisions were made. The reasons for the failure of the operation are covered in an appendix which sets forth the conclusions of the Taylor Commission which was chartered by President Kennedy immediately after the operation to analyze the results. Aside from the description of the events leading up to and during the Bay of Pigs operation, the paper deals with an analysis of the invasion plan from the standpoint of METT. It also looks at the performance of the Brigade in light of the principles of war. The result is a look at a bargin basement amphibious operation which presents an opportunity to view both its successes and its failures. The net result is a reinforcement of the Marine Corp's amphibious doctrine. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE List of Figures ii Prologue 1 Chapter I. U.S. Political Considerations 3 II. Formation of Frente and Brigade Training 20 III. The Plan 30 IV. The Invasion 35 V. Ransom 87 VI. Conclusions and the Principles of War 95 Appendixes A. Memorandum 2 & 3 from Taylor Commission Report 109 B. Cuban Project Time Line 119 C. Invasion Time Line 121 Bibliography 124 FIGURES PAGE Figure I. Cuban Project Organization 1959-1961 7 II. Trinidad Plan 14 III-1. Planned Disposition of Forces 38 III-2. General Disposition of Forces at the End of D-Day 66 IV. General Disposition of Forces at the End of D+1 78 PROLOGUE This paper presents a review of the invasion of Cuba in April 1961, by a group of Cuban exiles. This invasion became known as the Bay of Pigs invasion because the landing took place near the Bahia de Cochinos on the Southwestern coast of Cuba. The invasion force was financed and trained by the CIA with the knowledge and approval of the Executive branch of the United States government. The operation was conceived under the Eisenhower administration as a guerrilla insertion. It was passed on to the Kennedy administration where it was expanded to the final product of a full scale invasion by the Brigade of exiles. Although the project was run by the CIA it was so compartmentalized that virtually no one individual had all the details of the operation. The Military was brought in very late to review the plans and lend some covert support to the actual invasion. A force of 1,443 landed on the shores in the early morning hours of 17 April, 1961. They established a beachhead and held it against a numerically superior enemy for three days before they literally ran out of ammunition and were captured, killed or escaped. The examination of this operation provides the military student a small scale model of an amphibious operation which can provide a validation of U.S. Marine Corps Amphibious doctrine. Closer study of Brigade performance also demonstrates areas of battle study particularly valuable to the small unit leader such as the effective use of the reserve, tactical use of terrain, and the value of a viable command and control system. The story of Brigade 2506 is set forth in this paper from beginning to end. The foundation for the operation is laid from both the standpoint of the preparation of the force and the political requirement for the mission. This is followed by a detailed description of the invasion and subsequent fighting. The capture and imprisonment of the members of the Brigade and their subsequent release are described. The analysis and conclusions are based primarily on the actual combat performance of the Brigade in light of the Principles of War as set forth in Marine Corps doctrine. Appendices contain the results of the Taylor Committee which was appointed by President Kennedy to investigate the reasons for the failure of the operation. The information in the following report was compiled from a number of publications dealing with the subject to include; books, magazine articles, newspaper reports, speeches, and government documents. The result is a look at a bargain basement amphibious operation which presents the opportunity to view both its successes and its failures. CHAPTER I U.S. Political Considerations The third week of April, 1961 was a fairly normal one for most of the United States and the American people. The eyes of the news media were focused on the war crimes trial in Israel of Adolph Eickmann, former Nazi Chief of the Gestapo's "Jewish Affairs" section. The Soviets were grabbing global headlines by placing Major Yuri Alekseyvich Gargarin into the first manned orbit of the Earth. There was just beginning to be public awareness of the guerilla tactics of the Pathet Lao fighting the pro-Western loyalists in Southeast Asia. 1/ On Wednesday, April 12, 1961, President Kennedy held a routine weekly press conference in the afternoon. The American people and the world were watching the fledgling administration closely to determine how effective it would be. It is interesting to note that after brief introductory remarks, the first question asked at the press conference was: "Mr. President, has a decision been reached on how far this country will be willing to go in helping an anti-Castro uprising or invasion of Cuba? What could you say with respect to recent developments as far as the anti-Castro movements in Cuba are concerned?" The President replied: First, I want to say that there will not be, under any conditions, an intervention in Cuba by the United States Armed Forces. This government will do everything it possibly can, and I think it can meet its responsibilities, to make sure that there are no Americans involved in any actions inside Cuba ... The basic issue is not one between the United States and Cuba. It is between the Cubans themselves. I intend to see that we adhere to that principle and as I understand it, this administration's attitude is so understood and shared by the anti-Castro exiles from Cuba in this country. 2/ Over the past few months there had been numerous indications that United States relations with Cuba were in jeopardy. There had been reports of an unknown "force" training at bases outside the United States. The reports inferred that this "force" was training for an invasion of Cuba. In reality these rumors were very true. The force was Brigade 2506, a unit made up of approximately 1500 Cuban exiles intending to invade their Cuban homeland and outhrow the government of Fidel Castro. On the day of the President's press conference, the Brigade had moved from their training camps in Guatemala to their embarkation port at Puerto Cabeza, Nicaragua. At this point, it is necessary to present some back-ground before describing the execution and the results of Operation Pluto; the attack of a force of Cuban exiles upon their Cuban homeland at the Bahia de Cochinos (The Bay of Pigs). On New Year's day 1959 Fidel Castro had ousted the Batista government and seized control of the government of Cuba. At first it looked as if Fidel Castro might establish a regime favorable to United States policy in the Caribbean. In the beginning, there was no clear indication of his philosophy or intentions for ruling Cuba. Over the next few months, however, it became increasingly apparent that he was not going to be easy to deal with as a neighbor and his policies demonstrated an increasingly socialist point of view. By March of 1960 it was realized, by political world leaders, that the policies of the government of Fidel Castro were not compatable with the goals or interests of the United States. Within the highest levels of the United States government, a search began for a solution to the situation. It was during this time that the seeds were planted that would eventually bear the fruit that would be Operation Zapata. Castro was rapidly becoming an irritant to the United States. It was obvious to the Eisenhower administration that no overt actions could be taken within the structure of international law to remedy the Cuban situation. The President chose to exercise the option of covert action to depose or discredit the Cuban leadership. With the concurrence of the Special Group, he asked Allen Dulles, the head of the CIA, to put together a "program" for dealing with Castro. 3/ (The Special Group consisted of a deputy Under Secretary of State, the deputy Secretary of Defense, the Director of the CIA, and the special assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. It was authorized by the National Security Council Directive NSC 5412/2 and was the most secret operating unit of government at the time.) Dulles called on the head of the CIA plans division, Richard Bissell, to begin to put together a program for covert action. Thus, the "Cuba Project" was born. The CIA had proven to be quite capable in the overthrow of Latin American governments and had staged an extremely successful operation in Guatemala in 1954. Eisenhower had been elated with the results of the operation and so the CIA began making plans for a similar project for Cuba. Early in the planning phase of the operation, it became obvious that the operation would be expensive and could not be totally concealed within the agency's budget. At a cabinet meeting on August 18, 1960, the President approved $13 million and the use of some Department of Defense personnel and equipment. This money was programmed for the training of a Cuban guerrilla force outside the U.S. It became apparent at this time that no U.S. military personnel were to be used in a combat status. 4/ The initial plan included a series of independent operations which would come together as the government of Cuba began to crumble. First, Howard Hunt and Gerry Droller were sent to Miami to try to form a coalition of all he splinter groups of Cuban exiles there; to form a representative group to function as a government in exile (See Figure I). 5/ The many groups were constantly fighting Click here to view image among themselves and no basis for trust could be established among them. It became imperative that a group of leaders be brought together before any other operations commenced. This leadership would be the only way to lend an air of legitimacy to the training and equipping of a revolutionary force. Second came the job of recruiting, equipping, training and delivering a group of guerilla fighters to undermine the Cuban government. They would act as a nucleus for anti- Castro citizens in Cuba to join, and later train and equip the local populace as the uprising began. Toward this end, the agency set up a recruiting network in Miami and soon had enough Cuban volunteers to begin initial training. They established training centers within the United States in violation of their guidelines: in Florida, in Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, and the Jungle Warfare Training Center in Panama. The third function was to set up a propaganda network. David Phillips, who had handled the propaganda program for the Guatamala scenario, began to set up a similar program for the Cuba Project. He put a radio transmitter in operation on Swan Island off the coast of Honduras and began broadcasting with a group of Cuban refugees, delivering anti- Castro speeches between musical selections. The initial estimate was that six months would be required to stimulate the desired results. The fourth and final area of the project still remains highly classified, but most certainly existed. This involved a plot to dispose of Castro by assassination. The success of this endeavor would have made the rest of the operation unnecessary. However, although there seems to have been several attempts to poison Castro, none were successful. There are strong indications that the agency utilized members of the American underworld in their efforts, and are somewhat embarrassed by the evidence that has come to light since the operation. 6/ While Radio Swan continued to pour propaganda broadcasts into the Cuban homeland, preparations for training camps were established in Guatemala. An agreement was reached with the government of Guatemala whereby a large plantation, belonging to Roberto Alejos, was leased and transformed into a large training camp for the Cuban guerilla force. This camp became known as Base Trax and was the primary training site for the ground forces for the Bay of Pigs operation. The training of Cuban volunteers for guerilla tactics continued through October 1960, with approximately 300 Cubans receiving their training there. In early November 1960, the administration decided to scrap the guerilla operation for three reasons: (1) It became apparent that supplying the guerillas by air drops would be extremely difficult. (2) As Castro's regime became more allied with the Communist block nations, he was receiving more arms and ammunition, and thus beginning to re-equip his military. (3) The Castro regime's control over the civilian population was much tighter than had been anticipated, making a long guerilla campaign undesirable. On November 4, 1960, the C.I.A sent a cable to Base Trax officially cancelling guerilla training for all but 60 of the Cubans. It specified how future training should be handled and indicated that the force would now be trained for conventional warfare with an emphasis upon amphibious assault training. 7/ This cable indicated a major change/escalation of the type operation to be mounted in Cuba and occurred only four days prior to the Presidential elections of 1960. Simultaneously, an airfield at Ratalhuleu had become a major construction project funded by the American government. It became operational in September 1960 and training began there for the Cuban pilots of the Brigade Air Force. Their aircraft consisted of C-46 and C-54 transport aircraft, and a few B-26 medium bombers. These aircraft were not chosen at random. All had been sold widely on the world market after World War II. They were all reliable, generally well suited to the missions to be performed, and all in service with Castro's Cuban air Force. Little or no attention was paid to the fact that Castro's pilots were flying a different model of B-26 than the ones flown by the exiles. 8/ This fact will prove to be of great importance later on. The Cuban flyers were trained by a group of American pilots recruited by Major General Reid Doster, head of the Alabama National Guard. Most of the American aviators he used were without current military ties but all had extensive multi-engine experience and most had flown in combat. They had a difficult task, since most of the Cuban students had less than 100 hours of flying time and few had any experience with the heavy, multi-engine aircraft they would be flying; but a few had airline experience or had been members of the air force under Batista. These men quickly became the leaders of the fledgling Brigarde Air Force. As the training of the Cuban invasion forces continued, events on the political scene changed. The 1960 presidential election was over and Kennedy was the victor. It became apparent that the operation could not be executed prior to the shift of power in the White House; because of this on November 27, 1960 president-elect Kennedy was briefed on the plan. He was disturbed only by the small size of the Brigade and encouraged Allen Dulles to continue with the development of the force. 9/ Over the course of the next few weeks there followed an escalation of the operation. A plan was put before the Special Group calling for a landing of 600-750 men, preceded by air strikes. With the change from guerilla operation to actual invasion, air power became a very important consideration. For such a small force to gain a beachhead they must have absolute air superiority to avoid being picked apart by Castro's air force. Up until this time the administration had directed the Department of Defense to provide any assistance required by the CIA. There had been no provision for an actual briefing of the Defense Department as to exactly what was occurring and what assistance the plan required. Some of the requests for DOD assistance had been delayed to the point that the CIA had gone up the chain of command to expedite them. This understandably upset the military leadership. Under Secretary of Defense James Douglas learned that the CIA was planning an 'over the beach' landing in Cuba. He requested and received a meeting with the President and CIA director Dulles. He desired to dissociate the Department of Defense with a plan that seemed impractical. The knowledge of the existing plan remained at the Secretary of Defense level and was not passed to the JCS. Without knowledge of the CIA plan, the JCS appointed a committee to study what could be done to unseat Castro. The committee, headed by Brigadier General David Gray, produced a report containing six alternatives: (1) economic warfare; (2) blockade; (3) infiltration by a guerilla force; (4) a guerilla force with U.S. backing; (5) U.S. air and naval warfare with no invasion; or (6) all out invasion. The committee suggested that nothing short of step 4 would work. After a briefing on the report of the JCS committee, President Kennedy, on January 28, 1961, ordered the JCS to review the CIA plans. General Gray headed the committee to review them. The committee soon learned that so compartmentalized were the CIA operations that no actual written plan existed. The committee was briefed orally for two days by the principals involved in various phases of the operation. They then compiled their notes and presented in written form the plan that had been briefed to them. They produced what became known as The Trinidad Plan. The general scheme was to land the Brigade near Trinidad on the southern shore of Cuba. This had been reported to be an area where opposition to Castro flourished. Intelligence indicated that a popular uprising would occur soon after the landing of the Brigade; hence the Brigade was really designed as a body around which forces could build. Each of the unit leaders had been trained to lead a unit one step larger, i.e., platoon leaders were company commander capable. The plan assumed that the Brigade would flesh out within a few days after landing. The guerilla forces trained at Base Trax would be operating in the Escambray Mountains nearby and would link up with the invasion force, further adding to its size. (Sea Figure II). 10/ General Gray reported, on January 31, 1961 to the JCS, the findings of his committee. He estimated the chances of success as "fair" and re-emphasized the requirement for absolute air superiority. On February 3, 1961, the Chiefs Click here to view image sent a report to the White House and the CIA. They advised that the chances of achieving military success was favorable, but advised that the ultimate success would depend on political factors such as the actual popular uprising and the ability to build a substantial force. They also left themselves a loophole by saying that their assessment of the combat worth of the forces was, of course, based on 3rd and 4th hand reports on their condition, training, and equipment. President Kennedy received a briefing on the JCS views of the CIA plan. At the meeting, the President did not seem to be overly enthusiastic about the plan; he reminded Bissell as the meeting ended that he reserved the right to cancel the whole idea at any time up to the day before D- day. 11/ Later, when the dissolution of the Brigade was discussed, the President's advisors pointed out that the release of the Cubans could cause serious political problems as they spread across the U.S. and Latin America and began telling people what they had been doing in Guatemala. The President reflected that the simplest solution would be to let them go to the destination of their choice: Cuba. 12/ As plans and training continued, Hunt and Droller had still not been able to form an effective coalition government-in-exile in Miami. The infighting of the Cuban politicos seemed to intensify as the Brigade forces increased their readiness. Equally important, intelligence sources on conditions and social attitudes within Cuba were offering conflicting information concerning how the Cuban population would react to the effort to oust Castro. CIA sources were almost unanimously optimistic about the potential for popular uprising once the spark had been ignited by the invasion forces. Media coverage and reports of people who visited Cuba, however, dispelled the rumors of poverty and discontent; such reports noted that Castro was riding an increasing wave of popularity, his land reform program and the nationalization of large U.S. corporate assets within Cuba. On March 11, 1961, President Kennedy held a meeting in the cabinet room. This meeting probably influenced the eventual outcome of the operation more than any other since the conception of the "Cuba Project". Everyone expected the President to make the "go-no, go" decision on the operation. Richard Bissell presented a brief on the Trinidad Plan. The Trinidad area had many significant advantages. It was located a substantial distance from Havana, with troop and aircraft concentrations. Only one main road existed which would act as a military supply route and axis of advance for Castro's forces. This road could be easily cut by destroying one bridge. The population was fairly large and had demonstrated support for the guerilla forces already operating in the nearby Escambray Mountains. There were port facilities and docks in Casilda which could be used for unloading large amounts of ammunition and supplies quickly. From a military standpoint, the area was extremely well suited for the operation. From a political standpoint a major drawback existed. The small airfield there could not support operations of the B-26 bombers. This would eliminate the facade that the air strikes were originating within Cuba and would make the knowledge of U.S. involvement a certainty. President Kennedy rejected the plan as much too spectacular; and he stated his preference for a more quiet landing, preferably at night, with no basis for U.S. intervention. He summed up the problem by stating that, the greater the military risks, the smaller the political risks, and vice versa. He adjourned the meeting by tasking the agencies involved to find a compromise plan that would reduce the divergence of risk of both political and military concerns. 13/ A task force worked to find an option which would meet the President's requirements. On March 15, 1961, the JCS approved a plan calling for a landing on the north coast of Oriente Province near Bahia de Cochinos (The Bay of Pigs). The military aspects of the terrain were not as favorable as those at Trinidad, but were deemed acceptable. The area was bordered by the Zapata Swamps on the flanks, and there were few access roads to allow Castro's forces to approach. There ere no docks or port facilities, but the Bay allowed the force to land well away from the sea. Most important, the airfield at Giron was 4900' long and could ostensibly support B-26 operations. (The CIA later learned that only 4100' were usable but this did not alter the plan.) By changing to the Bay of Pigs area the Brigade lost the ability to move into the mountains and revert to guerilla warfare. The President was not told this and still thought they had this option. After receiving a briefing on the modified plan, Kennedy advised the CIA to proceed with the operation. Again, he reminded them that he reserved the option of cancelling the operation within one day of its execution. 14/ Military planning now began in earnest. Time was considered a critical factor, since Soviet weapons were daily pouring into Cuba by the shipload. The most critical factor became the forecast date for Cuban pilots to complete flight training in MIG aircraft. This training which took place in Czechoslovakia, was thought to be near completion. Once these pilots returned to Cuba, they would eliminate any chance for the Brigade to obtain the required air superiority. ENDNOTES (Chapter I) 1/ "Stopped in the Swamp", Time, 21 April 1961, p. 19. 2/ Public Papers of the President of the United States: John F. Kennedy, (Jan 20 - Dec 31, 1961, Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1962), p. 258. 3/ Peter Wyden, Bay of Pigs, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1979) p. 24. 4/ Maxwell D. Taylor, Memorandum 1 Taylor Commission Report," Narrative of the Anti-Castro Cuban Operation Zapata" (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1961, sanitized version declassified May 8, 1977), p. 8. 5/ Howard Hunt, Give US This Day, (New York: Arlington House, 1973), p. 20. 6/ Warren Hinckle and William W. Turner, The Fish is Red, (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), p. 29. 7/ Haynes Johnson, et al., Bay of Pigs, (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1964), p. 54. 8/ Wyden, p. 176. 9/ Wyden, p. 68. 10/ Wyden, p. 91. 11/ Wyden, p. 92. 12/ Wyden, p. 100. 13/ Wyden, p. 100. 14/ Wyden, p. 102. CHAPTER II Formation of Frente and Brigade Training Over the same time period that the U.S. political decisions were being made, Howard Hunt was trying to organize the Cuban exile leaders into some sort of provisional government-in-exile. This had proven to be no easy task because of all the fighting among the different Cuban exile groups. Hunt originally set up his organization in Mexico City, in an effort to keep the perception of U.S. involvement to a minimum. He began working there with representatives of five major exile organizations. Sanchez Orango led the Triple A; Tony Verona represented the Rescate; Justo Carrillo the Montecristi Group; Manuel Artime the Revolutionary Recovery Group (MMR); and Dr. Jose Rasco the Christian Democratic Movement (MDC). After much deliberation, these groups formed a coalition which was called the Frente Revolucionavo Democratico (FRD or Frente as they became known). 1/ The Mexican government was not happy to have a group of revolutionaries operating within the country. They initiated surveillances, searches, and general government harassment, which made it clear, to all members of the Frente, as well as, to Hunt and his organization, that their presence was not desired. Finally, after approximately three months of operations in Mexico, Hunt moved the organization to Miami. Although the Frente was by no means representative of the entire Cuban community nor a tightly knit group, it did serve to give a common cause to the Cuban exiles. The Frente became instrumental in influencing young Cuban males to flock to the CIA recruiting offices to join the Brigade. Through the exile newspaper sponsored by the CIA the dreams of contra-revolution were kept alive among the many exiles in the Miami area. The changes of membership and leadership over this time period are too numerous to state, as are the squabbles and political upheavals that occurred. However, a few points are germane and should be made. First, is the relationship that evolved between the Cuban exile political leadership and the Brigade. All members of the Frente knew that their ultimate goal was the overthrow of the Castro regime by military force. They also knew that this force was to be the Brigade, which was being formed and trained in Guatemala. As the political heads of the exile movement, they assumed that the Brigade was their army and that they would control it. They believed that the Brigade's objective would be to install them as the governing body of Cuba after Castro's fall. The leaders of the Brigade, however, did not share this view. They were loyal to the individual representatives who made up the Frente, but were not overwhelmed by allegiance to the Frente itself. In general, they viewed the operation as a military project and as long as the supplies, equipment, and promises of landing on the Cuban shores kept coming, they felt above the stormy world of the politicians. They felt that once the government of Castro had toppled, they would have a lot to say about who gained control of the new government. This had become the Cuban way, and they held the military might -- the real power. These feelings were, no doubt, fostered by the attitudes of the operatives within the U.S. organization. Because of the compartmentalization of the operation, there was little or no direct interface between the political and military operations within the CIA organization. Any decision affecting both, went up the chain and then back down, with no coordination at lower levels authorized. The only time Hunt and his military counterpart met face-to-face was at meetings at Quarters Eye (CIA headquarters) in Washington, D.C. On these rare occasions, they stated their opinions, and decisions were made by higher authorities. This lack of teamwork among the U.S. organizers could not help but affect the Cubans that they worked with. One major flare-up occurred which almost caused the cancellation of the whole project. A few malcontents created a division among the members of the Brigade, leading to open hostility between the factions. The political leaders found out about this and decided to visit the training camp and speak to their men in order to smooth over the problems. U.S. authorities denied them permission to visit the camps. This sent the politicians into an uproar. The military leaders at the camp in Guatemala gathered up the malcontents and separated them from the Brigade. Since they could not just turn them loose to tell the world of the operation, they had to be detained. They were taken to a prison camp in the Peten Jungles in northern Guatemala and held until after the Cuban landings. 2/ This did not totally quiet the friction among the Brigade's, but did allow for training to continue. Finally, approximately two months later, Hunt finally persuaded his superiors to allow a committee from the Frente to visit the camps. In the beginning, it looked as though this junket would be a disaster because the Frente discovered, for the first time, exactly what power was exerted over the Brigade, as well as over their organization, by their U.S. mentors. Then they came to realize that without the U.S. organization to support and hold them together, they really had no way of accomplishing their goals. They gathered the Brigade together and spread oil on troubled political waters. When they left Guatemala, the Brigade was again a single unit and had rededicated itself to the mission of overthrowing the Castro government. 3/ Another incident which increased the awareness of the Frente as to actual control of the operation, came when Colonel Martin Elena resigned his post as nominal head of the invasion forces. The Cuban colonel presented Hunt with a long list of complaints about being kept in the dark on military subjects and, in general, about his lack of authority. He complained that he could not effect satisfactory planning for the invasion without better knowledge of the Brigade, their capabilities, and supplies. He (and in effect the leaders of the Frente) was told that his planning would not be necessary. The operation was much too complicated and certainly, far too important, to be left to Cuban tacticians. The entire invasion would be planned and coordinated by U.S. planners. Colonel Elena was at that point left with no alternative except to resign. 4/ These incidents, as well as numerous other indications, some small and some large, revealed that the Cuban exiles were not totally in charge of their own destiny. In spite of this, neither the politicians nor the military leaders lost the naive faith that whatever the U.S. was doing for and with them was certainly in their best interest. They fully realized that they had no hope of reaching their goal without the full military, political, and, most important, monetary support of their U.S. benifactors. Indeed, all they had to do was observe the great accomplishments that had been made in assembling and training the Brigade even the foundation of the Frente. Although not all inclusive, this background information should bring the events leading up to the Bay of Pigs invasion into a clearer focus. By March 1961, Radio Swan had been operating for seven months, providing music and propaganda to the residents of the Cuban mainland and to the Cuban exiles in Florida and scattered throughout Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean Basin. The radio station also served the function of passing messages in code to the operatives working inside Cuba and to the guerrilla forces fighting in the Escambray Mountains. Both intelligence sources and the news media carried conflicting reports of the political and socio-economic situation in Cuba. A solid judgement on how the population would react to an exile invasion and the possible overthrow of the Castro government could not be made. The U.S. decision makers tended to be somewhat optimistic in their estimates and were ready to believe that at least a portion of the population would join in an uprising against the government. History had proven that the cuban people, generally, were ready to back a counter-revolutionary power, if they thought it had a chance for success. The Frente, although a very fragile coalition, became a viable political organization. Although made up of a volatile membership, it had a sturdy framework and the organization would stand up and present the image of a government in exile. This fulfilled their mission as the U.S. backers did not show their concern of who would provide the future leadership of the Cuban nation once the Castro regime had been ousted. Anything would be better than the government that now existed. Actually, the more the power was split among the various factions, the easier it would be for the diplomats of the U.S. to make their choice and throw their support behind their man after the invasion. The Brigade had been formed and trained. Although they were still involved in training exercises in Guatemala, they were considered, by U.S. military experts who had inspected them, to be combat ready. 5/ Even though they were definitely a para military organization, the Brigade's invasion force had grown to almost 1,500 men, all fairly well trained and exceptionally motivated to accomplish the amphibious operation at the Bay of Pigs and then move on to Havana. The Brigade was made up of a true cross section of the Cuban populace. Students comprised the largest group, but there were representatives from most professions, as well as, farmers, fisherman, and other workers. Many had wives and children, some of whom were still in Cuba. The majority were Catholic, but there were also protestants and some Jews. The majority were white, but there were approximately 50 negroes and some others with mixed blood. Only about 140 had been professional soldiers, while most of the rest had no previous military training. They were, however, united by their democratic ideals, sense of duty, and unanimous conviction that the invasion would be successful. 6/ The Brigade air force was operating from the American built base at Retalhuleu, Guatemala. Their aircraft consisted of 16 B-26 medium bombers, four 4-engine C-54 transports, and 5 twin engine transports. The B-26's had been stripped of their tail and waist guns to allow them to operate with enough fuel to make the round trip from Central America and still deliver their bombs. Their only self- protection was four cannon mounted in the nose. The planners considered this adequate since they hoped to eliminate Castro's miniscule air force on the ground. Although many training missions were still being flown, some combat exposure had been gained by the transport pilots who had flown missions to drop supplies to the guerrilla forces operating within Cuba. Clandestine operations within the Cuban homeland had not proven very successful. All attempts to assassinate Castro had been foiled. 7/ Each attempt was thwarted by either Castro's intuition or the failure of the operatives involved. 8/ The guerrilla forces operating in the Escambray Mountains were slowly being eliminated by Castro's army and were quickly becoming totally ineffective. 9/ Many of the radio operators who had been infiltrated into Cuba were still available, but they had been given no orders concerning what their part in the plan was or how to carry it out. They were severely limited in their movement by the Castro regime's mass search for subversives that resulted in hundred of Cuban citizens being jailed. On the U.S. political scene, there were beginning to be doubts by many important people. The President's advisors were reluctant to voice these doubts and an attitude was developing which would later be often analyzed but seldom understood. This would become known as the phenomenon of "assumed consensus". Since virtually no one spoke of their doubts, each began to think no one else had any. Thus, no real, hard questions were voiced, and the common feeling existed that everyone was in agreement. History shows that this was not the case. As is so often the case within a highly compartmentalized organization, the fact that no one had brought a detail to anothers attention did not necessarily mean that someone else was taking care of it. From an operational standpoint, things were thought to be ready to come together. The general planning was complete. The Brigade forces (both ground and air) were ready. The propaganda mission seemed to be on track and the political organization had been brought together. All that was necessary for Operation Pluto to commence was the approval of the President. ENDNOTES (Chapter II) 1/ Hunt, p. 44. 2/ Johnson, p. 61. 3/ Hunt, p. 133. 4/ Hunt, p. 158. 5/ Johnson, p. 66. 6/ Peter Lazo, Dagger in the Heart (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1968), p. 258. 7/ Hinckle & Turner, p. 37 8/ Wyden, p. 110. 9/ U.S. News and World Report, 1 May 1961, p. 39. CHAPTER III The Plan This is an excellent point to leave things while we examine the situation from the military standpoint of METT (mission, enemy, terrain and weather, and troops). I. Mission A. The mission of the operation was two-fold. 1. Political - The political mission: to over- throw the Castro government in Cuba. This would be followed, initially, by the establishment of a coalition government made up of the members of the Frente. 2. Military - The military mission: to conduct an amphibious assault coordinated with an airborne assault to seize and establish a beachhead in the vicinity of Bahia de Cochinos. Initial objectives were the beaches and existing port facilities at Playa Larga and the airfield at Giron. The Brigade should function as a Cadre for the additional patriots who would come from the common uprising against the Castro government and then to break out of the beachhead and press on to Havana to oust the existing government through force of arms. II. Enemy A. General - Fidel Castro knew that some form of military action was imminent. He also knew that his island nation, with some 2,000 miles of coastline and enormous areas of sparse population, presented an invader's paradise. He had done his best to whip the populace into a frenzy of invasion fever over the past few months. He had formed local militias all over the island and had armed them with the equipment which had been steadily arriving from the Communist bloc nations. He was also well aware that there were plans being made to attempt to assassinate him; he therefore, tightened his personal security. His major desire became more and better intelligence. He knew about the Guatemalan training camps and fully expected an invasion at anytime. He only wished he could find out the time and place that it would come. 1/ B. Air - Castro had a minimal air force. The air assets were disorganized and the available pilots lacked flying experience. The air force was not organized into squadrons or any type of conventional units. Each airport, and whatever planes happened to be there, relied upon instructions from headquarters in Havana. The planes were old and the maintenance personnel inexperienced and hampered by a lack of spare parts. The small number of planes that were considered operationally capable were not considered to be combat capable. The force had a limited capability for early warning against a surface attack and could make raids against lightly armed invaders. 2/ The Cuban air force consisted of about fifteen B-26's inherited from Batista, three T-33 jet trainers, and approximately six British Sea Fury light bombers. There were an undetermined number of transport aircraft which would not be a factor in the invasion. Castro had also received some MIG aircraft from the Soviet bloc, but these had not been assembled. Currently a group of 50-60 Cuban pilots being trained in Czechoslovakia who were due to return sometime around the end of April. 3/ C. Ground - 1. Castro's ground forces were formidable when compared to the Brigade. His total force had been built around some 250,000 militiamen, armed mainly with "light, modern, submachine guns made in Czechoslovakia". These were augmented by "some 15,000 young men of an elite corps, Communist and pro-Communist fanatics, armed with new Belgian FN rifles, firing 20 round clips at a rate of 600 rounds per minute." Along with this, the regular army of Cuba totaled about 40,000 men armed with Russian equipment. There was also a tank force equipped with approximately 100 Russian T-34 tanks which were fast and highly mobile. 4/ 2. All of these troops were well armed, well trained, and highly motivated to the defense of their homeland. They were deployed throughout Cuba because they did not know where the invasion would come. This wide deployment constituted their only major weakness, since it would take some time to mass the forces in any given area. III. Terrain and Weather A. The beachhead was to be established at the head of the Bay of Pigs. This bay is some 15 miles-long and three to five miles wide on the southwest coast of Cuba. The area encompassed by the beachhead was sparsely populated by, generally uneducated people. The major industry of the area was the making of charcoal; although there were a few makeshift docks, no major port facilities existed. The area was surrounded by the Zapata swamps, which are almost impenetrable. There was one major road to the north which would provide the most likely avenue of approach for the Castro forces, and another to the northwest which could provide a limited approach. The area was served by limited electric power and had no telephone facilities. The town of Giron, approximately 12- 14 miles southeast of the head of the Bay, had an airfield with 4100 feet of usable runway (out of a total length of 4,900 feet). B. The area around Playa Larga at the head of the Bay was the site of a major construction project. Castro enjoyed fishing in the area and had begun construction on a major resort. This construction had brought jobs and prosperity to an otherwise undeveloped part of Cuba and had made the local populace fiercely loyal to the Castro regime. C. Weather was not a factor. IV. Troops A. Ground - Brigade 2506 consisted of 1443 well armed and well trained Cuban exiles. Their training had been mostly in small unit tactics and amphibious assault. All small unit leaders had been trained to move up one level as the ranks were expected to swell with the anticipated influx of anti-Castro Cubans, once the Brigade was ashore. The force was well supplied and would land with 10 days of supply for the initial landing force, plus enough weapons and ammunition to equip those who were expected to join them from within the civilian population. The majority of the force was armed with M-1 carbines and Browning Automatic Rifles (BAR's). They had some anti-tank weapons and were supported by light artillery. B. Air - Air cover would be provided initially by aircraft flying from bases in Nicaragua and, once the airfield at Giron had been secured, the Brigade air force would operate from there. 5/ The major weakness of the Brigade, was the relatively small number of troops in respect to both the numerically superior enemy, and in regard to the scope of the mission. It is also considered a weakness that the leaders were executing a plan in which they had no role in the planning evolution. ENDNOTES (Chapter III) 1/ Wyden, p. 103. 2/ Johnson, p. 70. 3/ Lazo, p. 117. 4/ U.S. News and World Report, p. 38. 5/ Johnson, p. 85. CHAPTER IV The Invasion This was the situation when the base commander at Camp Trax, Guatemala received the mobilization order on 9 April, 1961. The time had come to move the Brigade from Guatemala to Base Trampoline, the spring board for the operation. This would be Puerto Cabeza, Nicaragua. It took three days to move the entire Brigade to Base Trampline. The majority of the equipment was staged there already or had been moved from Guatemala as early as April 2, 1961. The CIA had chartered six freighters (slow, old, rusty, and very unmilitary looking), all about 2400 tons, from the Garcia Line. The shipping corporation had offices in both New York and Havana, but it was not pro-Castro in any way. These ships had proceeded to New Orleans, Mobile, and other Gulf Coast ports, where they had been pre-loaded with the majority of the Brigade's supplies, ammunition, aviation gasoline, and other supplies. Then they were to proceed to Puerto Cabezas. Upon arrival there, the crews of the ships were told they were to deliver the Brigade to the shores of Cuba and were given the opportunity to quit. One captain and six crewmen did; they were replaced with no problems. 1/ In Puerto Cabezas, the ships were fitted with machine guns for self protection, although this was considered to be a formality since the Cuban air threat would be neutralized. When the Brigade assembled at Base Trampoline, the leaders met for a briefing of the operation. This was the first time that the details of the plan for the landing had been discussed with them. Operation Zapata called for landings at three points -- Plays Larga, call Red Beach; Giron, Blue Beach; and a point twenty miles east of Giron cutting the road to Cienfuegos, Green Beach. Giron was the center of invasion. There, at Blue Beach, Pepe San Ramon would land his men and establish his command post. From Red Beach to Green Beach, the Brigade would control 40 miles of Cuban coastline. The First Battalion of paratroopers would be dropped in three places -- along each road crossing the swamps; at La Horquito, in front of Yaguaramas; at Jocuma, in front of Covadonga; and along the road from Central Australia to Playa Giron. Del Valle, their commander, would establish his headquarters at San Blas. Thus, the Brigade's initial holdings would extend inland for more than 20 miles. Olivia would land at Playa Larga with the Second and Fifth Battalions of infantry. Near Playa Larga, a paratroop detachment would seize an airport and town called Sopillar. San Roman would land at Giron with the Sixth Battalion of infantry, the Fourth or armored Battalion, and the Heavy Gun Battalion. The Fourth Battalion would send a reinforced company with two tanks to support the paratroopers at San Blas; the rest of the battalion would enter the Playa Giron Airfield, a major objective, and be held in reserve until needed The Heavy Gun Battalion Artillery was to give general support to the paratroopers, and also the Third Battalion of infantry which was to land at Green Beach. (See Figure III-1 for Planned Disposition of Forces.) The invasion plan carefully allocated supplies from D- Day to D-Day + 10; then from the tenth day after the invasion to the twenty-first day, and on to the thirtieth day. On D-Day itself, seventy two tons of arms, ammunition, and equipment, enough to support four thousand men, would be unloaded. In the next ten days, 415 tons more were to be unloaded, followed by 530 and then 607 tons. Everything was worked out, ton by ton, day by day. The plan was superb. 2/ Throughout the briefing, questions were asked about the capability of Castro's planes to interfere with the landing and subsequent operations ashore. These questions were always given the same reassuring answer: Castro's planes would be destroyed on the ground before the landing was commenced. This was said so often and so confidently that the Cuban leaders did not question these assumptions or how it would be done. The Brigade leaders were told, "there will be a plane over all the major roads of Cuba every five minutes. The Brigade ships are loaded with forth thousand gallons of gasoline, so the air force will begin immediate missions once the field at Giron is seized." 3/ It should be noted here that no mention of any alternate plan was made. Such a plan had, in fact, been made but not communicated to the Cubans. The CIA officials Click here to view image decided that if the alternate plan were to be briefed to the Cubans, it might weaken their resolve when things got rough. Instead, they were told that if things went seriously wrong they should contact the base camp, via radio, for further instructions. This decision sentenced the Brigade to be committed to only one course of action, as it took away any contingency except to hold the beachhead, at any costs. 4/ When the briefing was completed, the Cubans left the building feeling confident. The plan they had heard sounded complete, solid, and workable. They had full confidence in the American planners and so they were full of optimism as they walked to the pier around 1700, 14 April, 1961. There, they said farewell to their American advisors, talked about how they would see them all later in Cuba, and boarded the ships which would sail them into the glorious invasion. The Brigade was on its way. In Washington, the moment of truth arrived. Although, during subsequent investigation many people professed to have doubts about the ability of the force or the plan, no objections were raised when it mattered. Richard Bissell had been pressing President Kennedy for days for a final decision. The President had reserved the right to cancel the operation until 24 hours before D-Day. That time was approaching rapidly. Although Kennedy was still non- committal, he had stressed again and again, in public and in private, that American military personnel would not be directly involved in the operation. He had, however, approved the use of U.S. naval ships in a support and air cover role. The U.S.S. Essex and her battle group of five escort destroyers were ready to escort the five Garcia Line freighters to a rendezvous point just outside the Bay of Pigs. They had only one task: to ensure that the Cubans got to the beaches, not to assist them once the landing was made. The Essex had taken aboard a squadron of new A-4D Skyhawks but their mission was yet undefined. While the Brigade's invasion force steamed toward their destiny, things were not entirely quiet. Nino Diaz and a reconnaissance group of 160 men prepared to execute a diversionary landing approximately 30 miles east of Guantanamo in the early hours of Saturday morning April 14, 1961. As they neared the shore, they saw what they thought were cigarettes being smoked by a number of militiamen along the coast. They aborted the landing and returned to their small cruiser off the coast. As dawn broke, they were well over the horizon to wait and try again the next night. The failure of this group to land was blamed on the weakness of the Cuban leader. The failure of this diversionary raid had a profound effect on the success of the real invasion, since its mission was to draw Castro's forces to the east and confuse his command. 5/ For the pilots at Puerto Cabezas, the morning brought an air of excitement. Although some had flown supply drops for guerrillas over Cuba, today would be the day that they struck the first blow for the freedom of their homeland. That morning they would attack Cuba. As they received their mission briefings, they learned that two planes were to attack Managua, two San Antonio de los Banos, two Santiago de Cuba, four Ciudad Libertad (Castro's main air base), and one plane to attack San Julian and Baracoa. Shortly after the briefings, the attacks on Managua and San Julian were cancelled, with no explanation given. As the pilots at Puerto Cabezas finished their briefing, they were asked for volunteers to fly special missions. There were many volunteers, but only three pilots were chosen. These men were taken away from the main group and given special briefings. They were told that, under no circumstances, were they to discuss the mission they were about to fly with anyone for a period of five years. Their mission was to provide the cover story for the rest of the attack on Cuba. They were to fly to the U.S., where they would land and say that they had defected from Castro's air force. They were to take credit for the raids on Cuba and were given a story to release to the press. Afterwards, they were to "vanish" and would be returned to Puerto Cabezas to resume their part in the operation. 6/ The pilots were assigned aircraft numbers FAR933 and FAR915. 7/ Some of the panels were removed from the aircraft and had bullets fired through them to give them a battle worn appearance. The aircraft proceeded to the United States where one landed at Miami International Airport and the other at Boca Chica Naval Air Station at Key West, Florida. Both aircraft landed with an engine feathered. The pilots were whisked away by U.S. Customs and Immigration officials and their identities were not released to the press. Later, statements were released giving the story provided for them by the CIA. The statements, as printed in the major newspapers, read that the pilots were three of a group of four who had been planning for some three months to escape Cuba. They said that the government did not trust its pilots and would only allow the planes to be fueled enough for each mission, but not enough for them to reach asylum in the U.S. On the day before their escape, they had seen one of their group, whom they mistrusted, talking to some Castro officials. This had made them nervous and they had decided to leave the next morning. After takeoff, they had bombed and strafed military targets around their bases and then flown to Florida where they asked for asylum. 8/ The real strikes against the Cuban bases took place at dawn on April 15, 1961. The eight B-26's to be used were loaded with two 500 pound demolition bombs, ten 200 pound fragmentation bombs, and eight rockets. They also carried eight machine guns in the nose with 2800 rounds of ammunition. These B-26's were the A-26 Invader derivative of the World War II Martin Marauder, but they differed from those flown by Castro forces; the exile aircraft had an all metal nose vice the plexiglass nose of the Cuban model. Further, in order to easily identify them to the friendly forces, they had a wide blue stripe painted on the fuselage. This deception was to prove ineffective. The Brigade aircraft departed Puerto Cabezas between 0230 and 0300 Sunday morning and proceeded to their individual holding points off the coast of Cuba. Timing was crucial, since the attacks on all targets were to begin simultaneously. However, Castro was no fool. Although his intelligence network left a lot to be desired, he certainly had access to the U.S. news media. The American press had been reporting for several days that signs of an invasion were evident. He knew that his tiny air force would be the primary target for any aggressive action. He had taken what measures he could to ensure that his operational aircraft were widely dispersed and well camouflaged. He put the crews of the anti-aircraft batteries on an increased readiness posture and waited for the expected attack. As dawn broke over Cuba, the airstrikes commenced. The first taste of combat for the Brigade pilots was sweet. They delivered their ordnance with determination and made attack after attack through heavy anti-aircraft fire. The damage they inflicted was heavy, but not crippling to the Cuban air force which was their primary target. Initial pilot reports put damage at 50% of the offensive air capability of Camp Libertad, 75-80% aircraft destruction at San Antonio de los Banos, and the destruction at Santiago included two B- 26's, one DC-3, one Lodestar, and one T-33 or Sea Fury. Subsequent photographic studies and interpretation assessed a greatly reduced estimate of the damage, amounting to five aircraft definitely destroyed, and an indeterminate number of other planes suffering some damage. The attacking force lost one aircraft and crew to enemy anti-aircraft fire." 9/ In the aftermath of the air strikes, Castro took his accusations to the U.N. that the strikes were the work of the Americans. He feverishly denied that the attacks had been made by defecting Cuban pilots flying his own airplanes, and challenged the U.S. to present the pilots at the U.N. for questioning. The news media in the U.S. were in a frenzy. Although they were not allowed to meet with the pilots who had landed at Miami and Key West, they interviewed virtually everyone else. News releases came from the State Department denying U.S. complicity in the raids, but statements from the President's office and the Pentagon were conspicuously absent. While the statement of the pilots were dutifully printed, the media also hinted that there were many discrepancies in them. The cover story could not be sustained over a long period. On the day of the strikes, the story fulfilled its purpose and lent credibility to the U.S. position that the strikes were not sponsored by the American government. Dean Rusk, the U.S. representative to the U.N., was not told of the deception and made an eloguent defense to Castro's accusations on the floor of the General Assembly. He was later very upset when he learned the truth, feeling that he had been duped by the administration. Although the story of the B-26's landing in Florida and their crews defecting achieved the desired effect of casting doubt on U.S. involvement, it was later to have a seriously adverse effect on the operation. The political pressure put on the administration, as result of the initial air strikes caused the President to be extremely hesitant to launch further strikes without first having the Brigade in control of the airfield at Giron. This left the remnants of Castro's air force free to operate against the Brigade on the beaches. It negated the assumption of air superiority, on which the plan was based, and very likely turned the tide of the battle. In the wake of the air attacks, it became even more obvious to Fidel Castro that his island nation was on the verge of being invaded. He had reports from his agents, as well as, the American media reports that the Brigade had left their training bases. He knew they must be on their way. As Castro weighed the invader's options, he felt that there were two major courses of action available. A series of small, widely spaced landings, or a single major amphibious assault. Several smaller landings would prevent the invaders from suffering a single crushing defeat. Numerous pockets of resistance along the coastline would split his forces and severely test his command and control network. This option also left choice of landing and then operating as a network of guerrilla groups. He felt that if the Brigade landed in one area, with all of their men it would be to his benefit. In his opinion, a frontal assault by the Brigade would allow his numerically superior forces to liquidate the enemy rapidly. Castro's concluded that the Americans would not allow the Brigade to risk everything on a single beachhead. A total defeat would bring with it too much discredit, both for the U.S. and for the counter- revolutionary movement. Acting on his decision, Castro studied the coast for probable landing sites. Then he sent small groups of 100- 500 men to these sites to keep watch and build defensive positions. The area around Trinidad (the original site chosen for the operation) was especially heavily fortified, as were all approaches to the mountainous areas, to prevent the forces from gaining access to the terrain which Castro knew from experience would favor guerrilla operation. There was nothing left to do but watch and wait. 11/ The offices of the CIA, State Department, Pentagon, and the White House were buzzing with activity. Everything was ready for the invasion, the wheels were turning and the first blow had been struck; but still President Kennedy had not given the authorization for the actual invasion to commence. There had been numerous meetings, over the past few weeks, all of them ending without a decision. The only person who had aired any doubts about the operation had been Senator Fulbright; but he had been very moderate in his attack of the plan. Everyone felt the decision would be to go with the operation, yet there was an air of hesitancy until the formal approval was given. The 24 hour deadline passed. Finally, about mid-day on D-1, 16 April, 1961, President Kennedy phoned Richard Bissell and gave him the go-ahead. 12/ The mood at CIA headquarters immediately became one of jubilation. It was a tremendous relief to finally know that the year's worth of effort and millions of dollars spent on the operation would not be scrapped at the last minute. The decision of President Kennedy to continue had been based on the following logic: It offered what appeared to be a last chance to overthrow Castro by Cubans before the weapons and technicians acquired from the Communists and the repressive internal measures which would make the task too hard without overt U.S. intervention. It was recognized as marginal and risky, but the Cuban Brigade, if not used quickly, would become a political liability, whereas used in a landing it might achieve important success before Castro became too strong. Even if unable to hold the beachhead, something would have been accomplished as the Brigade could turn guerrilla and provide a strong reinforcement to the resistance movement on the island. 13/ Upon notification, the extensive propaganda program conceived by the CIA was executed as planned. Radio Swan and 11 other CIA controlled stations began an intense propaganda blitz. They also included in their broadcast coded messages for operatives inside Cuba to execute preplanned missions. Most of these were never carried out. The only failure was the planned leaflet drop by the Brigade air force planes. The tactical decision was made, that bombs would be more necessary than the leaflets and so, the drops were cancelled. Late Sunday afternoon, a very significant event occurred at CIA headquarters in Washington. The message giving the order for the dawn airstrikes the following morning was drafted and sent to the Deputy Director of the CIA for release. He asked the operative who brought him the message if the strike had been cleared. The operative, who was aware that the strike had been an integral part of the plan, replied that they had been cleared. As a precaution the Deputy Director decided to check with Dean Rusk. After a few minutes, McGeorge Bundy, the special assistant to the President, telephoned the Deputy Director and informed him that no strikes were to be flown in support of the operation until the airstrip at Giron had been secured. If further consultation on the matter was required, it should be discussed with the Secretary of State. 14/ In reflection, this decision must have been made in light of the political pressure brought to bear on the United States at the U.N., as a result of the cover story told by the pilots who had landed in Florida the previous day. The administration was not willing to risk dropping the final shreds of denial of complicity in the operation, even for something as important as the chance to finish off Castro's air force before the invasion began. Richard Bissell was called in and appraised of the situation. He knew at once that the strike was vital to the operation; he and the Deputy Director then met with Rusk at the State Department. Rusk listened to the two men's objections of the cancellation of the air strikes and agreed to call the President for a decision. They listened as he told the President that they were in his office and were urging reconsideration of the decision to cancel the strikes. He reported their opinion that the strikes were very important to the success of the landing, and then stated, "I am still recommending, in view of what's going on in New York, that we cancel." 15/ The president agreed. What were probably the most important air strikes of the invasion, were cancelled on political grounds. A new message was drafted and sent to Puerto Cabezas, cancelling the strikes. It arrived just after the engines had been started on the strike aircraft. When the senior American official read it, he immediately sent a protest back to Washington. Fresh U-2 photographs indicated that Castro had at least two T-33's and some Sea Furies operational. It was vital that these aircraft be destroyed. 16/ He received a reply quickly restating the cancellation. No one in the Department of Defense or JCS chain of command was questioned on the effect of the cancellation, or for that matter even notified until the following morning. To the average American, the reason for the failure of the Bay of Pigs operation was the lack of air cover. The strike that had just been cancelled had been designed to decimate Castro's air force on the ground, thus eliminating the need for defensive air cover for the Brigade. This would allow the Brigade pilots to concentrate their efforts on offensive air support for the ground operations. If Castro was able to operate any tactical aircraft at all, the Brigade would be at their mercy throughout the invasion. The CIA immediately recognized the seriousness of the cancellation of the air strike and took what action they could. They immediately notified the Brigade leaders and warned them that enemy air attacks would be likely during the invasion. They ordered the ships to expedite unloading and to withdraw from the beach before dawn. They set up a schedule to give the ground force continuous B-26 cover during daylight hours and had the JCS alert the naval forces to the possibility of receiving the mission of providing air cover. The deputy director of the CIA personally called on the Secretary of State and requested that the U.S. Navy provide air cover and early warning destroyers to protect the now vulnerable ships of the Brigade. The request was put to the President. He disapproved the air cover, on the grounds of the President's original policy of no direct involvement by the U.S. military. He did, however, authorize the use of the early warning destroyers for ship escort, with the proviso that they were restricted from operating any closer than 30 nautical miles from the Cuban shore. 17/ The men of the Brigade were very crowded aboard the freighters. The ships, which were not designed for troop transport, were overloaded with supplies and equipment and the men slept wherever they could find space. It did not matter, as the voyage was short and spirits were soaring because of the imminent action. During the trip, plans were completed, last minute orders issued by small unit leaders, and some training was conducted. Aboard the ATLANTICO, the machine guns installed aboard the ship for protection were being fired for training when the hastily welded deck plate broke loose. There was a group of 20 men sleeping on the deck below, and the barrel of the gun dropped and fired through the deck. One man was killed and two wounded, one very seriously. The captain broke radio silence and asked for help. The U.S.S. Eaton, a destroyer, responded and took the wounded men aboard for medical treatment. They were the first casualties of the invasion. Around noon on April 16, 1961, the officers of the Frente met at the Statler Hilton in New York City and drafted an announcement for later release of the commencement of the invasion. They then left, via the kitchen exit, to avoid reporters and drove to Philadelphia. There, they boarded a small private plane and were flown to Opa-Locka Airfield in Florida; there they remained under guard in an old barracks to await their planned trip to Cuba after the invasion force had secured a beachhead. 18/ These men, the highest officials of the Cuban government-in-exile, felt that they were being held prisoner by the Americans at the very time when they should have been with their men. They were not at all satisfied with their treatment over the next two days. Shortly after 2000 on the night of April 16, 1961, D-1, the lead Brigade ship and four other freighters of the Garcia line rendezvoused with the U.S.S. SAN MARCOS. The SAN MARCOS was the landing ship dock (LSD) which had brought the landing craft for the Brigade to use. The SAN MARCOS transferred three landing craft utility (LCU) and four landing craft vehicle and personnel (LCVP) to the Brigade, exactly 30 nautical miles off the Cuban coast. These craft were already loaded with trucks, jeeps, and some tanks. Just as the transfer was complete, a landing craft mechanized (LCM) arrived under its own power and was also transferred to the Brigade. This was the final step for the invasion, and now, the Brigade, in control of its landing craft, was fully operational for the first time. The Brigade fleet sailed into the mouth of the Bay of Pigs and split their formation, proceeding to their assigned areas -- Blue Beach at Giron and Red Beach at Playa Larga. The landing at Blue Beach was designated the main attack and the landings at Red Beach and Green Beach were the supporting attacks. The initial operation of the invasion was the landing of the advance force of the Second Battalion. When the advance force of frogmen disembarked from the BLAGAR they were surprised to find that one of the CIA agents, who had been their advisor, had decided to accompany them to the beach. It was not his intention to land with them but only to see them safely ashore. The landing party would go ashore in an 18 foot Catamaran with two 70 horsepower outboards. It would tow a rubber raft which would be manned about 600 feet from the beach and be used for the final approach. They planned to land near a rock jetty on the extreme right of the beach and then to place marker lights ashore to guide the landing craft to the landing site. Intelligence sources indicated that the area should be quiet, and that the bulk of the population were construction workers who should be asleep at the time of the landing. As the Cuban exiles came in sight of the area, they were totally surprised. The Cubans had installed bright arc- type vapor lights at the construction sites along the beach and there were small groups of Cubans scattered there talking among themselves. To the landing party, the area was lit up like an amusement park. The American advisor saw immediately that the landing site had to be changed on the spot. He knew that the change would cause confusion, but made the decision to alter the location of Red Beach. He also decided, that for the change to work, that he would have to land himself and conduct the operation. 19/ The American advisor joined the Cubans in the rubber raft and they proceeded toward the darker section in the center of the beach. About 150 yards off shore, one of the beach marker lights suddenly started blinking. Someone covered it almost immediately, and found the switch to be in the off position. A short circuit had caused it to come on. About eighty yards off shore the engine bottomed out on a sharp coral reef that ran almost the entire length of the beach. This reef had shown up on the reconnaissance photos, but had been interpreted as sea weed. This would prove to be an extremely costly error. The men got out of the raft into waist deep water and waded toward the shore. They were about fifty yards off shore, when they heard a jeep coming down the beach. It stopped adjacent to them and swung its headlights around onto them. The American fired on the jeep with a BAR and was joined by the Cubans. They riddled the jeep with machine gun fire and knocked out the headlights. They did not take any return fire. These were the first shots fired in the Bay of Pigs invasion. 20/ Immediately after the incident, the lights all over the town went off. A truck loaded with militiamen started down the beach toward them. The men of the advance force radioed the BLAGAR and requested help. They were soon engaged in an intense fire fight with the militiamen. San Ramon decided to begin the landing of the Brigade. He was in one of the lead landing craft and soon had enough men ashore to establish a small beachhead. The trouble really began when the first wave of the main force headed ashore from the CARIBE. The reefs were unknown to the invasion force until their boats struck them at full speed. Many boats sank on the spot, and most were at least delayed. The invasion schedule was delayed and the advantage of surprise had been lost. The frogmen worked throughout the night to find a safe path through the reef for the invasion forces landing craft. The Fourth Battalion was landed and given the mission of securing the air strip. Intelligence had indicated that it would require some engineering support to become usable. Photos indicated piles of sand and gravel on the runway, and that some trees would have to be cut down to allow for a safe approach. But San Ramon was informed that the air strip was secure and usable. The expected obstacles did not exist. The Brigade aircraft now had a place from which to operate on Cuban soil. 21/ As San Ramon set up his headquarters in Giron, the orderly unloading of vehicles and supplies commenced. Although the beachhead at Blue Beach was secure, Castro's militiamen had been able to transmit the alarm to troop and air force headquarters in Havana before the Brigade had destroyed a microwave antenna in the area. San Ramon evaluated the situation and made the decision to cancel the landing at Green Beach and consolidate its troops, equipment, and supplies at Blue Beach. 22/ In spite of resistance, all vehicles and tanks were unloaded at Blue Beach by 0730. All personnel were ashore by 0830. 23/ At Red Beach, the American advisor (a CIA man) who had disobeyed his orders, and the Cuban frogmen were able to place their marker lights, in spite of immediately coming under fire from Castro's forces. They radioed back to the BARBRA J and the HOUSTON to expedite the landing, and set up a hasty defense of the beachhead against a rapidly increasing militia force. As the HOUSTON came within range, the machine guns on the beach opened up on her. The attack was answered by her gunners, catching the frogmen in a crossfire. She was able to silence the guns from the shore, but in the process one of the frogmen was killed. This was the first Brigade casualty of the invasion. Erneido Olivia, the commander of the Brigade forces at Red Beach, also saw the need for his leadership ashore earlier than expected. He changed the landing sequence and came ashore in one of the first waves with his staff. 24/ The Second Battalion was very slow in coming ashore. The navy landing craft were planned to be utilized for the movement of the heavy vehicles and supplies. Personnel were primarily to be transported in small fiberglass launches with outboard engines. This caused a major problem, as the outboard motors proved to be unreliable as numerous failures occurred. The small launches did not have much freeboard and were unable to withstand the heavy seas. Many were swamped on their way to the beach. Although there were only 185 men in the Second Battalion destined for Red Beach, by 0530 all of the men were still not ashore. The Fifth Battalion never did get ashore because of the boats and poor leadership. 25/ Once ashore, Olivia ordered his men to seize and destroy the microwave station in Playa Larga. When the station was seized, the equipment was found to be warm and all the transmit switches were in the "on" position. The alarm had been broadcast from there, also. At 0315, Fidel Castro received the news of the invasion. He was informed of the landings at Playa Larga and Giron and ascertained that his militiamen in the area were resisting. Castro ordered confirmation of the information, and quickly received it. Fidel then alerted the forces that were in the area, consisting of several platoons of militia stationed at the Central Australian Sugar Mill and a battalion containing three mortar batteries in Matanzas Province. The troops at Central Australia were not able to mobilize until dawn and the others a little while later. Castro also ordered three battalions from Las Villas Province to Yaguaramas and Covadonga to protect the other two major highways into the Zapata Swamps. He issued orders to the air force to commence its attack at dawn on the ships at Playa Larga and Giron. 26/ Castro planned to crush the invasion at Playa Larga first, since it was the furthest inland. Then his forces would attack the beachhead at Giron, flanked by the swamps with few cross roads. He knew that the landing of the provisional government must be prevented at all costs. After outlining his plan and issuing initial orders, Castro departed for the Bay of Pigs. The situation at 0400-0530 was fairly stable. Beachheads had been established at both Red and Blue Beaches. Men and equipment were pouring ashore (although slower at Red Beach). Both San Ramon and Olivia established their headquarters and command posts, but were at that time unable to communicate with each other. The Brigade had pushed inland in both areas and the airstrip had been secured at Giron. Although considerable confusion existed, the plan was generally being followed except for the cancelled landing at Green Beach. Then the Brigade received word that Castro still had operational aircraft and that they should expect to be attacked from the air at dawn. They were advised to have the ships put back to sea before the attacks began, and expect them to return the following night. There was no time to coordinate such a change. At 0600, the frogmen reported that they had charted a path through the reefs. At 0625, as the landing craft from the BLAGAR were moving the tanks and troops of the Heavy Gun Battalion ashore, they were attacked by a B-26. The B-26 was soon joined by a T-33 and several Sea Furies. The remainder of the Heavy Gun Battalion, as well as the Third and Sixth Battalions, were forced to land while receiving heavy fire from the air. 27/ At 0630 the HOUSTON was crippled by air attack. The captain grounded her on the west shore of the Bay of Pigs, about five miles from Red Beach. 28/ The Fifth Battalion was aboard the HOUSTON when she was hit, along with ammunition and fuel for the Brigade. The field hospital was also aboard the HOUSTON. Most of the men of the Fifth Battalion were able to get ashore, although they could not get organized, and never became a viable unit throughout the battle. At least twenty-eight men died in the sea. The first air attack ended at 0700. The Brigade had been able to bring down two of Castro's B-26's, but had suffered great losses themselves. The doctors on the beachs were overwhelmed with casualties, and many of their medical supplies had been lost when the HOUSTON was sunk. Most of the Radio equipment that had been brought ashore, had been soaked with salt water, and was inoperable. In the confusion of the landing and air attacks, units had been separated, and command and control disintegrated and adequate communications ceased. Despite these problems, the beachhead was secure and Castro's ground forces in the area were unable to gain ground against the Brigade. At 0730, the men of the Brigade saw the five C-46's and one C-54 pass overhead with paratroop units enroute to the drop zones. In the drop zone north of Playa Larga, the heavy equipment was dropped first, followed by the paratroopers. The equipment landed in the swamps and was never seen again. The advance force also landed there and was ineffective for a considerable period of time. The other units landed under fire and some fell behind enemy lines. Several were killed while still in their parachutes. The other paratroop units landed safely without organized opposition and proceeded to their blocking positions along the roads to Covadonga and Yaguaramas. These blocking positions were each manned by almost 20 men; their weapons consisted of a 57mm cannon, a .30 caliber machine gun, a bazooka, and an automatic rifle squad. Fortunately they were heavily equipped, since they came under attack shortly after getting into position. They performed well in the engagement on Eastern front. The airborne drops secured two of the three main roads. But the road to the north of Playa Larga to Central Australia remained open. But this was where Castro's forces concentrated and therefore posed the major threat to the exiles. San Blas was the only area where any real support for the Brigade was shown by the populace. A number of local citizens offered assistance to the paratroopers, volunteered to carry supplies and water, and worked as nurses. Five civilians volunteered to fight; they were given uniforms and weapons and integrated into the Brigade unit. 29/ Back at Red Beach, the air attacks were renewed. A Sea Fury scored a direct hit on the RIO ESCONDIDO. She had two hundred barrels of aviation fuel stored above decks and the Sea Fury slammed a rocket directly into the middle of the AVGAS. The fire extinguishers abroad were totally inadequate for the gasoline fire and the captain saw immediately that his ship was lost. He gave the order to abandon ship and called the BLAGAR for assistance. The crew abandoned ship and were all rescued, with only one man sustaining any injuries. After the crew left, the ship was totally destroyed by three tremendous explosions, the sound of which were heard all the way to Giron. 30/ The loss of the RIO ESCONDIDO dealt a particularly heavy blow to the Brigade. Her cargo was vital for the fighting force. She had aboard the first 10 days mount out of ammunition, fuel, food, and medical supplies for the entire force. Equally important, however, she had the communications van aboard, which was the heart of the brigade radio communication system, and provided the only means of communication with the Brigade aircraft. Two of the Brigade's five ships had now been destroyed, along with their valuable cargo. Another ship, the BARBARA J had been damaged by machine gun fire and had lost two of her engines, and was taking on water. The leaders of the Brigade, hampered by extremely poor communications, could not make an accurate evaluation of the situation. San Ramon, the commander of the Brigade could not contact any of the units outside the immediate area of Blue Beach. He had never had any radio communications with the paratroopers and he could not even talk to the ships which had brought him to the beach and were to resupply him. About 1000, San Ramon made radio contact with Olivia at Red Beach. The news was not good. Olivia reported his units all ashore and involved in heavy fighting, except for the Fifth Battalion which was no where to be found (they had abandoned the HOUSTON five miles from Red Beach and were never to enter the battle). Olivia reported that he had no communications with the paratroopers, who had dropped to the north of him; but he felt that something had gone wrong, since the enemy was still coming down the road that they- were supposed to be blocking (the paratroopers in this zone were either lost or retreating by this time). He asked San Ramon to send a tank and a squad of infantry to reinforce him. San Ramon agreed, and immediately dispatched the tank and infantry. 31/ By noon of D-Day, San Ramon was beginning to put together the situation. The Brigade was pinned down on the beachhead. Their supply lines were temporarily cut when the ships put back to sea. They had very limited communications, with most messages being sent by messenger. They had received only limited air support from the Brigade aircraft, and were almost constantly under fire from Castro's planes. Still, the Brigade had established itself a shape and appeared capable of giving the Castro units a full measure of battle. The battle plan of the Castro forces was becoming apparent and it surprised the Brigade leaders. They had assumed that Castro's main thrust would be from the east through San Blas to Giron road. They had deployed their forces to defend against this expected attacks. It was now becoming obvious that Castro was attacking with his main force from the north down the road and railroad bed from Central Australia; this would drive a spearhead into Playa Larga and Red Beach. This was the more lightly defended area of the Brigades forces and could certainly not withstand a heavy sustained attack. Meanwhile, the war in the air was not going well. One of the C-46's, which had dropped its paratroopers, had been shot down by a Sea Fury earlier in the day as it had turned back out to sea. A B-26 had been shot down by a Castro T-33 as it made a bomb run in support of the Brigade, and another was forced to ditch into the sea about halfway back to Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua, after having one engine shot out and additional heavy battle damage. One Brigade pilot reported that he had been receiving fire from two Castro aircraft when U.S. Navy jets had joined on them. The Castro planes had broken off and fled, but the Navy jets had never fired on them. 32/ A Brigade C-46 on a resupply mission tried to land at the Giron airport. However, he turned back within sight of the beachhead when informed over the radio by a B-26 pilot that two T-33's were in the area. The Brigade now had full control of an usable airfield but it could not be used because Castro had been able to maintain air superiority. The four remaining ships had left the coast and had been ordered to proceed beyond the twelve mile limit. The ATLANTICO and CARIBE had pulled out first, with the BLAGAR escorting the crippled BARBARA J. Although under air attack, none suffered significant damage and the BLAGAR even managed to shoots down a B-26 which crashed so close that wreckage ended up on fire on decks. The ships planned to rendezvous about 50 miles out to sea and then to move back to the twelve mile limit during the night. They would then unload their cargo onto the remaining landing craft and lighter it ashore. The men on the ships knew that the Brigade was using so much ammunition that they would need resupply after the first days fighting. The BARBARA J and BLAGAR reached the rendezvous point, but were unable to communicate with the other two vessels. The ATLANTICO and CARIBE had actually left the area and headed south. Navy destroyers intercepted the ATLANTICO 110 nautical miles south of the beachhead and convinced her to return; she would not arrive in the area again until 1830 on D+1, 18 April, 1961. Another destroyer did not overtake the CARIBE until she was 218 nautical miles south; she was never again available for resupply to the Brigade before the beachhead collapsed. 33/ As D-Day drew to an end, the Brigade held a tenuous position. They maintained the beachhead around both Red and Blue Beach, as well as the airfield at Giron. The forces at Red Beach were bearing the brunt of the action; casualties were high and ammunition and supplies were low. The Castro forces were threatening to push down the road into Playa Larga, while the Cuban Air Force controlled the skies. Brigade air support had been weak and they had lost four aircraft. Two ships supply the Brigade were sunk, and two more had completely departed the area. Most of the medical supplies had been lost with the field hospital aboard the HOUSTON and medical treatment for the wounded was scarce. Overall, the situation looked bleak but not hopeless. (See Figure III-2 for actual deployment of forces at the end of D- Day.) 34/ Meanwhile it had been an eventful day back in Washington. The personnel manning the command post were receiving only sketchy details of how the operation was proceeding. Generally, with the poor communications, they were operating about 12 hours behind events at the beachhead. Much of their information was coming from what the Brigade pilots saw and reported in their debriefings back in Nicaragua. They were getting some details from the men aboard the BLAGAR and the BARBARA J but, it too, was second hand and not timely. They knew that the supply of ammunition was getting low and ordered air drops from the base in Nicaragua for the night of the 17th. Missions were flown by four C-54's and two C-46's. Of these, five of the drops were successful but the cargo of the sixth was blown into the sea. 35/ Click here to view image The BARBARA J and the BLAGAR were ordered to resume resupply after nightfall. Some supplies were delivered ashore, but the limited remaining landing craft were not able to sustain the needs of the Brigade. It had been a day filled with failure. One of the most puzzling of these had been the failure of the CIA to notify the network of infiltrators and Cuban underground of the invasion, even after it had begun. One infiltrator later reported that around noon of D-Day, he finally received a message that the invasion had begun and to blow the bridges between Playa Larga and Central Australia. He could not do this because of the massive Cuban mobilization. It would have made little difference anyway, since the militia had crossed the bridges he was ordered to destroy six hours earlier. The failure to use the covert forces available to the CIA cost them the opportunity to divert Castro's forces and allowed them to focus on the actual site of the Brigade's invasion. 36/ Political turmoil reigned in New York and Washington. The cover story, told by the "defecting pilots" who had landed in Florida, had been broken by a reporter who had inspected one of the planes and found it to be a different model than those flown by Castro's air force. He had found the bombay hinges covered with undisturbed dust and grease and the guns uncocked and unfired. He also noticed that the rocket mounts were disconnected and covered with corrosion. 37/ The disclosure of this information had unleashed chaos within the United Nations. The Soviet Premier, Niketa Khrushchev, had sent a strongly worded message to President Kennedy in which he denounced the U.S. aggression and accused Kennedy of threatening world peace. The Soviet leader promised that the Soviets would support the Castro regime, even if it meant armed intervention. But some of the news media had bought the official cover story put forth by the government: that there had been no invasion, and the action in Cuba was attributed to a small number of Cuban exiles (200-300) trying to land supplies for the underground. However, others did not believe it. In the United Nation, ambassador Stevenson was doing his best to hold off the charges of the Cubans that the attack had been launched by mercenaries paid, trained, and supplied by the U.S. government. With a great deal of showmanship, he read off a list of the more prominent participants in the Brigade and the Frente. As he would read a name, he would give the position the man held in Cuba prior to leaving for the United States. The list was quite impressive and included almost two thirds of Castro's original cabinet. At the CIA, the situation was becoming all too obvious. Even though the officials recognized the first signs of failure, there was very little they could do little about it. The CIA Command Post had already ordered the air drop of resupply ammunition and given orders to the ships to continue resupply operations after nightfall. Now, all they could do was just wait and hope the Brigade could change the situation through the application of its combat power. The Joint Chiefs had taken all steps to ensure they would be ready if called upon to intervene in the battle. They were ready to offer any support ordered by the President and had moved several aviation units within striking distance to bases in the south. The Navy, which was the closest service to being actually involved, was ready to assist with air cover, escort, or naval gunfire, as soon as the order was issued. Still, President Kennedy clung to his policy that the U.S. military forces would not be involved in the invasion of Cuba. At Opa Locka airfield, just outside Miami, Florida, the Cuban exile officials of the Frente were still waiting to be transported to the beachhead. They still remained under strict guard in the old barracks, but had been furnished with a radio by their guards. They had it tuned to Radio Swan and were receiving only reports that the invasion forces were winning the battle. This made them even harder to control. They were anxious to fly immediately to their homeland and be part of the victory. It looked like it was going to be a long night for the men at Red Beach. They had caught a Cuban column in an ambush late in the afternoon and efficiently annihilated it. From the prisoners they had taken, the exiles learned that Castro was massing his forces at Central Australia; this meant there would be a major attack that night. Olivia had the men of the Brigade prepare defensive positions astride the main road and railway bed. 38/ At Blue Beach, San Ramon was also ordering his men into the defense for the night. There had been periods of heavy fighting along both roads into the area as Castro's forces had probed his positions. Now, as nightfall came, the advance post on the road to Covadonga had come under heavy artillery fire; San Ramon interpreted this as the preparation for an attack. San Ramon assessed the situation well and sent the Fourth Battalion to Red Beach to reinforce Olivia. Olivia placed these reinforcements into his line. He deployed six mortars, and all the shells he had, to support his front and flanks, and sent three tanks to cover two crossroads where they had excellent fields of fire. He kept nothing in reserve as he prepared for what would become the "fiercest battle of the Bay of Pigs". Back in New York City, the CIA's public relations office released what the press called the Cuban Revolutionary Council's Bulletin Number 3. It read: The Cuban Revolutionary Council wishes to announce that the principle battle of the Cuban Revolt against Castro will be fought in the next few hours. Action today was largely of a supply and support effort to forces which have been mobilized and trained inside Cuba over the past several months. The tremendous army of invincible soldier- patriots has now received its instructions to strike the vital blow for the liberation of their beloved country. Our partisans in every town and village in Cuba will receive, in a manner known only to them, the message that will spark a tremondous wave of internal conflict against the tyrant. 39/ What a contrast with the actual situation at the Bay of Pigs. San Ramon expected the ships to begin unloading sometime shortly after dark, and had a large work party standing by. He was sorely dissappointed when no ships or landing craft arrived. He sent a 25 foot launch with a radio operator out to sea to try and locate the vessels. They spent the entire night trying to establish radio contact with their supply ships. But their efforts were in vain. The Cuban crews aboard the BLAGAR and the BARBARA J refused to return anywhere near the beaches. The first attack of the night soon occured, but it did not come from the expected direction. The advance guard from San Blas made unexpected contact with a Cuban armored column. They planned to hold for a long as possible then fall back to another blocking position: but the Cuban forces were overpowering and all resistance gave way. The Brigade unit was lucky to have its remnants evacuated by trucks in front of the advancing hostile column. The unit fell back a safe distance and was joined by a mortar unit. The observers saw the Castro forces coming down the road, advancing in the light of their own trucks and tanks. They held their fire until the enemy was well in range and then thoroughly routed Castro's column. The mortars halted any further advance toward San Blas for the rest of the night. Shortly after this advance was stopped, the paratroop company established contact in a postion along the road to Yaguaramas. They had intercepted enemy radio transmissions and knew they were opposed by four infantry battalions and two companies of tanks. They allowed the lead units to close almost to their positions and then opened fire. The Cubans were hit hard and went into the defense. 40/ At 2000, the Brigage forces at Playa Larga came under fire from batteries of 122mm artillery. Olivia, fortunate enough to gain access to the enemy radio frequency, learned that the enemy was being reinforced with 40 tanks. He immmediately deployed his bazookas to the front lines closest to the road. At 2355 the shelling stopped. Castro's artillery had fired more than 2000 rounds, but these had had little effect because of the long narrow front and entrenched positons of the Brigade. 41/ A tremendous difference in forces existed, but the ideal defensive terrain made the difference. As the column of tanks rolled through the crossroads, the first two were knocked out by the Brigade tanks firing from a fixed position. As a third Castro tank came around the two disabled vehicles, a Brigade tank rammed into it, backed away, and then fired point blank. He damaged the tread and the Castro tank withdrew. By 0020 the narrow road was so blocked with burned out tanks, that those behind them were useless. Then, came the infantry assaults. At 0100, Olivia called in the mortar fire on the infantry with deadly results. The battle continued through the night. At 0445, the Brigade tanks pulled back, out of ammunition. The enemy tanks kept coming, working their way past the wreckage and toward the Brigade's lines. As one would be knocked out by Brigade bazooka fire, another would take its place. Just at dawn, when the situation was the most desperate for the Brigade forces who were almost out of ammunition, the tanks began to retreat. An hour later, a Castro tank rolled into the crossroads. The driver got out, surrendered, and stated he wanted to join the Brigade. He explained to Olivia that over the night Olivia's 370 troops had faced and defeated over 2100 men (300 regular soldiers, 1600 militia, and 200 policemen) and over 20 tanks. The enemy had suffered over 500 killed and over 1000 wounded; Olivia had lost twenty dead and fifty wounded. 42/ Olivia's forces were heartened by this information, but had no ammunition with which to hold their position. At 0900, they mounted the remaining trucks and proceeded to Giron where they thought resupply would be waiting. Not only was resupply not waiting at Blue Beach, but San Ramon had trouble of his own there. His position had started receiving heavy artillery fire around 0400. He had committed his reserve by splitting it and putting the troops in blocking positions along the two roads coming in from the east and northeast. He also had established a blocking position along the road to Playa Larga to the northwest. He knew that Olivia would be coming to Blue Beach to consolidate the forces, but did not know how many enemy troops would be following him. During the night six B-26's had launched around 0230 from Puerto Cabezas and arrived over Cuba at dawn in an attempt to catch Castro's aircraft on the ground and destroy them. Luck was not with them however, for the targets were obscured by heavy haze and low cloud cover. The mission was aborted. 43/ When the men from Red Beach arrived at Giron, the only fighting still continuing was in the area of San Blas, where the Castro column was still stalled by the paratroopers and mortar fire. Olivia and San Ramon met and studied their situations. They had troops in contact along the road to the northeast, and expected to come under attack by forces coming down from the northwest from Playa Larga at any time. All units were low on ammunition, and mortar shells had been rationed since midnight. They felt that if the brigade could hold out until nightfall, resupply would certainly occur either from the ships or by air drop. Olivia suggested that the Brigade strike to the east through Cienfuegos and try to reach the Escambray Mountains where they could conduct guerrilla operations. San Ramon opposed this plan for several reasons. He considered the mountains to be too far away. In order to reach them, they would have to fight their way through Cienfuegos, which he believed contained a large Castro troop concentration; also they were very low on ammunition. There weren't enough trucks available to transport everyone in the Brigade and, if they were to stand any chance of resupply, the Brigade would have to remain on the coast so the ships and planes could find them. He made the decision to hold the beachhead. 44/ At 1030, radio contact was finally established with the BLAGAR. San Ramon requested resupply of food, ammunition, medical supplies, and communications equipment. He was promised that it would be delivered that night by LCU and air drop. This sealed his decision to remain at Giron. The BLAGAR told him that if things really got bad they would evacuate the Brigade from the beaches. San Ramon replied, "I will not be evacuated. We will fight until the end here if we have to." 45/ At 1100, the enemy began another push at San Blas. San Ramon pulled the Third Battalion off the blocking positions on the road to Cienfuegos to the east and moved them to San Blas. They were fresh, and until this time had seen no combat. He took the Sixth Battalion, who were from Red Beach, and placed them in the blocking positions on the road to Playa Larga. He called in the paratroopers who were in the advanced positions north of San Blas. He only had one artillery piece to support them as they broke contact and returned to San Blas. For some reason, the Castro force of over 20,000 men did not pursue them. If they had, the Brigade would have been destroyed on the spot. 46/ That day the Brigade was under almost continuous air attack. They were bombed and strafed by Castro's planes throughout the beachhead. There were Brigade missions flown that day, but many were flown by American CIA pilots. The Brigade pilots had made the early launch, which had been aborted, and many were too exhausted to fly the six hour round trip again. The American advisors filled in for them. They were authorized to do so by CIA officials without the knowledge of President Kennedy. Kennedy was not to find out for two years that four American pilots had been shot down and killed in the Bay of Pigs operation. 47/ Six B-26 sordies were flown in mid afternoon and attacked a long column of vehicles and tanks approaching Giron from Playa Larga. The air attack destroyed the column by inflicting 1800 casualties and wiping out seven tanks. The planes used bombs and rockets and also delivered napalm for the first time during the operation. The men of the Brigade knew nothing about these attacks, hence they felt that they had received no air support at all. 48/ Only once did the members of the Brigade see any friendly air support; that day two U.S. Navy A-4 Skyhawks from the Carrier ESSEX flew over the beachhead on a reconnaissance mission. The men of the Brigade were excited when they first saw the planes, but were disheartened when they did not deliver any support. 49/ The Brigade, somehow, made it through the rest of the afternoon, D+1, Tuesday April 18, 1961, without any further major action. Their ammunition supply was critical. The Castro forces, although superior in number, had been bloodied badly each time they had mounted a major attack. They applied continuous pressure to the ever shrinking perimeter of the beachhead, but were not anxious to mount a major attack on any front. Their lack of major offensive action reflects the respect they had gained for the Brigade during the initial battles. At 1800, on D+1, the disposition of Brigade forces was as shown in Figure IV. 50/ Although food, ammunition, and medical supplies were in short supply, the Brigade leaders had still not given up hope. They retained the faith that the U.S. would not allow them to fail and would step in with assistance at any time. Once again, the Brigade looked forward to a long night. The leaders had been told that resupply would begin shortly after nightfall, and they desperately needed it to hold on for another day. Shortly after 1800, Castro's forces started pounding the advance posts with artillery. A short time later the Brigade blocking positions on both the East and West fronts made contact with Castro's advance guards. A major push began at San Blas, but was halted before it gained momentum by sending two tanks to reinforce the positions. About 1900, a Brigade C-54 made an air drop of supplies over the Giron airfield. The wind blew all of the supplies Click here to view image into the swamp, where a work party labored all night but only recovered a small percentage of the drop. Another C-54 arrived and made a second drop over the beaches. These supplies were blown into the sea. A group of frogmen were dispatched and were able to recover about half of these supplies. At one point during the night, San Ramon thought the Castro forces were massing for an attack on his Western front. He committed his reserve, the Second Battalion, to that position of the line but the attack never came. The only action throughout the night were light skirmishes, as the Castro forces probed the Brigade's line. At sea, the BARBARA J and the BLAGAR knew the situation was bad. They were about 50 nautical miles south of the beaches. The crews worked against time, trying to manually load supplies into three LCU's. They did not think they could get to the beaches and out again before daylight. They knew that if the ships were caught during daylight by Castro's aircraft, they would all be destroyed. The ships sent the following message to Puerto Cabezas: "BARBARA J, BLAGAR, and LCU's cannot arrive Blue Beach, discharge and leave by daylight. Request jet cover from U.S. in beachhead area." Their next message read: "BLAGAR proceeding Blue Beach with 3 LCU's. If low jet cover not furnished at first light, believe we will lose all ships. Request immediate reply." 51/ There was only one man who could grant this request -- President Kennedy. He was dismayed by the news coming from Giron. The President could not, however, view the invasion in a fishbowl, but had to keep in mind the world situation. He had answered Khrushchev's morning dispatch with stern words of his own but Kennedy was still not ready to commit American forces to save the Brigade. He did concede to provided limited escort for the Brigade aircraft for one hour on Wednesday morning, April 19, 1961, from 0630 to 0730. Abroad the U.S.S. ESSEX, all markings were painted off the carrier's A-4 Skyhawks. The crews were briefed, that they would rendezvous with a flight of Brigade aircraft at 0630 and provide them air cover while they performed their mission. The jets were not to attack ground targets, but were supposed to keep the Castro planes from attacking the Brigade aircraft. The Brigade had only seven of its original sixteen B- 26's left. Again, American pilots had to be used to substitute for the Cubans, who were too exhausted or who refused to fly. Four B-26's, two manned by Americans and two by Cubans, launched from Puerto Cabezas at around 0200, Wednesday, D+2. One of the planes, crewed by Cubans developed engine trouble and turned back shortly after take- off. The other three proceeded toward Giron. They arrived in the air an hour before the jets were to be launched, but were unaware of this. They proceeded to their targets. The results were disastrous. One B-26 was shot down over land in the area of Central Australia. Another was hit by ground fire and crashed into the sea on fire. Both were piloted by the American crews. The third hit targets in the San Blas area, but was damaged by ground fire. He limped back to Puerto Cabezas with thirty-nine rounds through the fuselage and one engine shot out. This was the last bombing mission flown by the Brigade air force. 52/ At the same time that they were striking their targets, a C-46 landed at the Giron airstrip. He delivered 850 pounds of rockets, ammunition, maps and communication equipment. Three aircraft had been launched, but two had turned back. The C-46 picked up a wounded pilot who had crashed in the area on Monday and left after being on the ground for only about 10 minutes. This would be the only aircraft to operate from the strip at Giron throughout the entire operation. After transferring her cargo to the LCU's and steaming toward Blue Beach, the captain of the BLAGAR had sent a request for a destroyer escort into the beach. He claimed that without such an escort, His crew would mutiny. CIA leaders felt that it would be hopeless to ask for a destroyer escort in light of the political climate in Washington; therefore, radioed orders to the BLAGAR to abort and rendezvous at a point 60 miles south of Blue Beach. This ended the last opportunity to resupply the Brigade. 53/ As the B-26 pulled off his last bombing run at San Blas, the Brigade ground commander there sensed the confusion among the Castro forces caused by the air attack. He quickly organized the paratroop unit and the Third Battalion there for a counterattack. He faced a vastly superior number of forces, but moved forward to exploit the success of the air attack. For some reason it worked. The Castro front folded, broke and ran. After a few minutes, however, the attack faltered. The Third Battalion was out of ammunition, fell apart, and began a disorganized retreat. At 1000, Castro's troops entered San Blas and pushed through it toward Giron. There was virtually nothing to stop them until they reached the blocking positions just outside Giron. The Castro forces rolled up on these positions about 1100. The men there, reinforced by two tanks, held out until they too were out of ammunition. This happened about 1400 and then they fell back into the town of Giron. 54/ At around 1000, a tank battle developed on the Northwest front. Olivia held the line there and poured mortar fire onto the oncoming tanks. He was finally able to force the Castro forces to retreat and regroup. The attack was renewed around 1400, and just as the Brigade lines were starting to fail, Olivia ordered a counterattack. This desperate measure worked and the line held. Olivia pulled his forces back into Giron to establish new fighting positions. 55/ San Ramon heard the tanks rumble into Giron from the northeast. He realized the Brigade could not hold. He sent a final message to the BLAGAR. It read: "Am destroying all my equipment and communications. Tanks are in sight. I have nothing left to fight with. Am taking to the woods. I cannot wait for you." 56/ San Ramon destroyed his headquarters and moved into the swamps. As Olivia pulled his men back to Giron, he went to look for San Ramon. He found tanks and machine guns abandoned haphazardly out of ammunition. Men were wandering around aimlessly with nowhere to go and no way out of the beachhead. Many were trying to get out to sea in small boats and rafts. Within right of the shore was the Destroyer U.S.S. EATON. She had come in close enough to make an evaluation of the situation on the beaches. San Ramon was already gone and his headquarters destroyed. Olivia formed a small unit of the men he could find and marched them to the east toward Cienfuegos. A short distance out of Giron, the column was strafed by two Sea Furies and a T-33. The unit broke up and fled individually into the swamps. This ended the last organized fighting of the Bay of Pigs campaign. The Brigade was gone. The beachhead had fallen. The invasion had failed. 57/ ENDNOTES (Chapter IV) 1/ Wyden, p. 133. 2/ Johnson, pp. 83-84. 3/ Johnson, p. 25. 4/ Johnson, p. 26. 5/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 15. 6/ Wyden, pp. 174-175. 7/ New York Times, 16 April 1961, p. 4, col. 1. 8/ New York Times, 16 April 1961, p. 4, col. 1. 9/ Taylor Commission, Memo 1, p. 15. 10/ Wyden, p. 180. 11/ Johnson, p. 89. 12/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 15. 13/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 15. 14/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 17. 15/ Johnson, p. 199. 16/ Wyden, p. 193. 17/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 18. 18/ Wyden, p. 207. 19/ Wyden, p. 218. 20/ Wyden, p. 219. 21/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 18. 22/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 18. 23/ Johnson, p. 105. 24/ Johnson, p. 109. 25/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 20. 26/ Johnson, p. 110. 27/ Johnson, p. 111. 28/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 20. 29/ Johnson, p. 115. 30/ Wyden, p. 230. 31/ Johnson, p. 115. 32/ Wyden, p. 235. 33/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 21. 34/ Taylor Report, Memo 1. 35/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 21. 36/ Johnson, p. 121. 37/ Time, April 28, 1961, p. 19. 38/ Johnson, p. 126. 39/ Johnson, p. 129. 40/ Johnson, p. 132. 41/ Johnson, p. 134. 42/ Johnson, p. 138. 43/ Wyden, p. 270. 44/ Wyden, p. 274. 45/ Johnson, p. 143. 46/ Johnson, p. 145. 47/ Wyden, p. 278. 48/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 23. 49/ Johnson, p. 144. 50/ Taylor Report, Memo 1. 51/ Johnson, p. 151. 52/ Johnson, p. 155. 53/ Taylor Report, Memo 1, p. 24. 54/ Johnson, p. 158. 55, Wyden, p. 282. 56/ Johnson, p. 167. 57/ Wyden, p. 286. CHAPTER V Ransom The next few days were a mass of confusion for the survivors of the invasion. As the ammunition had run out, various parts of the beachhead had broken down at different times. As a unit would run out of ammunition, it would break up into small groups and either make for the open sea in the few small boats that remained or strike out through the swamps. For the men who escaped via the sea, a U.S. task force patrolling the coast to pick them up. There is no accurate count of how many members of the Brigade were rescued at sea, but the number appears to be around 150. 1/ One group of twenty-two men boarded a twenty-two foot sailboat and set out to sea. They sailed for fifteen days before being picked up by an American freighter, 178 miles south of the Mississippi River. Ten of the twenty-two men had died at sea. 2/ For those who escaped into the swamps, being captured was the least of their worries; mere survival was difficult. Some lasted longer than others, but virtually all of them were destined to either die in the swamps or to be captured by Castro's forces. The swamps consisted of mire and thick vegetation, but very little water. The swamps contained little to eat except snakes, lizards and an occasional bird. They were constantly harassed by helicopters flying overhead and random shelling of the swamps by artillery. The troops could not navigate through the thick swamps, and eventually all were forced to return to the roads where the militia patrols were waiting for them. The prisoners were taken back to Giron where they were kept under guard for several days. They were interrogated by officers of Castro's army and questioned by reporters. Castro thus achieved quite a propaganda coup from the round- up of Brigade prisoners. After the interrogations were complete, the prisoners were transported to the Sports Palace in Havana for initial detention. Although they were generally treated well, there was one incident where 149 prisoners were loaded onto an enclosed semi-trailer truck at Giron and transported to Havana; unfortunately, nine men died of suffocation during the transit. 3/ A total of 1,189 men of the Brigade became Castro's prisoners. One hundred and fourteen had died in the operation and around 150 had made their way back to safety in one way or another. For the prisoners, the coming months would be harder than the fighting during the invasion. The entire group of over 1000 prisoners were held for several days in the Sports Palace, where they were made to sit on the hard seats for 21 hours a day. Then they were called forth, one at a time, and interrogated. Several were taken to a television station where, during a live broadcast, they were questioned by a panel. Some of the answers were more than Castro wanted the public to hear, so the broadcasts were stopped after four days. Fidel Castro himself appeared before the assembled Brigade on the night of April 26, 1961. He delivered a speech which lasted from 2330 until after 0300 the next morning; in it the Brigade was berated for its criminal activities and labeled as pawns of U.S. imperialism. Castro ended the speech by telling the men that although he knew they should all be shot, which was what they deserved, he would not kill them, but would spare the lives of those not guilty of committing war crimes. (This meant primarily war crimes under the Batista regime, not during the invasion). The leaders, San Ramon, Olivia, and several others, were kept isolated from the Brigade and from each other. They were interrogated thoroughly, and sometimes brutally, about their training and about the invasion, with speical emphasis on the American role in all phases of the operation. Although they all felt betrayed by the United States, none of the Brigade leaders told their interrogators anything about the American participation and very little about the actual invasion. During the night of May 13, 1961, the Sports Palace was emptied and the entire Brigade was transferred to the unfinished five story Havana Naval Hospital. Here, the men were treated much better. They were assigned twenty to a room and allowed to bathe and sleep on mattresses. In a speech to the National association of Small farmers on May 12, 1961, Castro finally divulged his plan for his prisoners. He told the farmers: If imperialism does not want its worms to work, let it exchange them against tractors and agricultural machinery! Of course, those among such blackguards that may have committed murder, we cannot exchange against anything. Those that have assassinated are not subject to exchange. All others, all others, we will exchange with imperialism, against five hundred bulldozers, if it is interested in rescuing them." 4/ Castro had the prisoners elect a committee of ten men, specifically excluding the leaders of the Brigade, to go to Washington and carry his demands to the U.S. government. They left Cuba for Miami on May 19, 1961. A committee was formed in the United States at the request of President Kennedy to meet with the delegation. The committee was not officially sanctioned by the administration, who felt that it could not deal with any representative of Castro since diplomatic relations had been severed with Cuba in January of 1961. Instead, it was a bipartisan committee of four citizens, ostensibly operating as concerned individuals forming a private organization. The committee became known as the Tractor for Freedom Committee. What had seemed a fairly simple and routine matter to the President soon became a political hot potato. When the Senate met on 22 May, many senators demanded that the administration make its position clear, as to the government with the committee. Many of the lawmakers felt that the nation was being blackmailed by Castro into ransoming the Brigade. Congress felt that the bulldozers would be used to increase Castro's military power instead of for agriculture and that was the last thing the United States wanted. After much debate, The Tractors for Freedom committee offered Castro 500 wheeled tractors with agricultural attachments instead of the bulldozers, which could ostensibly be used for military purposes. Castro refused the offer by sending a fiery cable to the committee restating his demands. On June 13, 1961, a committee delegation went to Havana to negotiate release terms with Castro. Fidel told them he would accept 500 bulldozers or their equivalent in cash, credit or other farm machinery, as long as any combination of these added up to $28 million. When the Committee returned to Washington with the demands, the administration concluded that the demands were impossible in the light of the current political situation, and disbanded the committee. On July 17, 1961, the Brigade prisoners were taken from the Naval Hospital to the Castillo del Principe. This was an old castle which now served as a prison. The men were herded into the cells they would occupy for the next year and the doors slammed shut. The men of the Brigade were faced with months of despair but few gave up hope. On Thursday morning, March 29, 1962, the largest mass trial in Cuba's history began by assembling the Brigade in the courtyard of the prison. A five man tribunal sat in judgement of 1180 men (six had died during imprisonment and three had escaped), all to be judged as one. The Brigade turned down the services of a court appointed defense counsel and told the tribunal that their actions needed no defense. The trial lasted four days and left something to be desired from a strictly legal standpoint. On the fourth day of the trial, final summations were given and the tribunal went into deliberation. Before the verdict was announced, the Cuban Families Committee sent a cable to Castro, saying that they had pledges for the $28 million he had requested. They would deliver the amount in foodstuffs shipped from the U.S. No answer was immediately given by the Cuban leader. On Sunday, April 8, 1962, Castro announced to the world the sentence of the tribunal. The men of the Brigade were sentenced to thirty years imprisonment. He then went on to announce that he would ransom the prisoners for various amounts. He wanted $500,000 each for Olivia and San Ramon, while the remainder of the Brigade had been divided into three groups. Their freedom could be purchased for $25,000 per man in the first group; $50,000 per man in the second group; and $100,000 per man in the third group. The total for the entire Brigade came to $62 million. 5/ Castro released 60 of the most seriously wounded prisoners and was paid their ransom through the Royal Canadian Bank. The money had been raised through the Cuban Families Committee. Negotiations for the remainder of the prisoners dragged on for months. Each time a solution was almost reached, Castro would change the conditions, putting the release of the prisoners just out of reach of the negotiators. Finally, an agreement was reached. This involved complicated transfers of drugs, medicine, medical and surgical supplies, and foodstuffs, to the Cuban government. The items had been donated by private corporations in the United States, induced by large tax incentives provided by the government. On the morning of December 23, 1962, the freighter, AFRICAN PILOT docked in the Havana harbor, and commenced unloading the first of many shipments of drugs and supplies. At 1700, that afternoon, the first planeload of prisoners took off for Florida. At 2145, on December 24, 1962, the last planeload of prisoners arrived in Miami. As Pepe San Ramon stepped down the boarding ladder, the assembled members of the Brigade saluted him. 6/ Now the invasion was over. ENDNOTES (Chapter V) 1/ Wyden, p. 303. 2/ Johnson, p. 201. 3/ Johnson, p. 303. 4/ Johnson, p. 229. 5/ Johnson, p. 282. 6/ Johnson, p. 341. CHAPTER VI Conclusions and the Principles of War Immediately after the collapse of the beachhead in Giron, President Kennedy appointed a committee to study the operation. In a letter of April 22, 1961, he charged General Maxwell Taylor, Robert Kennedy, admiral Arleigh Burke, and Allen Dulles, to "study over governmental practices and programs in the area of military and paramilitary, guerrilla and anti-guerrilla activity, which fall short of outright war with a view toward strengthening our work in this area." 1/ He directed special attention to the lessons which could be learned from the recent events in Cuba (the Bay of Pigs invasion). Although the committee began work immediately, it was hamstrung by the fact that the leaders and participants of the invasion were imprisoned in Cuba. Despite this it set about interviewing everyone they could locate who had a hand in the invasion. These included the decision makers; the planners, both military and CIA; the advisors who had trained the Brigade; and the operatives who had carried out the political and propaganda portions of the operation. They also questioned the few members of the Brigade who had been able to escape and return to the U.S. The results of the committee's investigations were not designed to cover up anything or to place the blame on any particular individual. It had only one goal; to find out what happened, how and why it occurred, and how this type of disaster could be prevented from repeating itself. 2/ The result was four memorandums from the committee to President Kennedy. Memorandum Number I contained a narrative of the events during Operation Zapata. Memorandum Number II discussed the immediate causes of failure of the operation. Memorandum Number III contained the conclusions of the Cuban Study Group and Memorandum Number IV was the recommendation of the Cuban Study Group. Initially, these documents were so sensitive as to be classified "Eyes Only" and were hand carried to designated individuals. A sanitized version was declassified and released in March, 1977. (See appendix I for transcripts of Memorandums II & III.) The foregoing has been the story of the Bay of Pigs invasion of 17-19 April, 1961, from conception to the return of the Brigade to U.S. soil. Volumes have been written concerning the operation, how and why it failed. However, another way to make an interesting analysis would be to take the operation out of its context as a political event, and examine it as a conflict between opposing military forces. To compare the battle, from the Brigade standpoint, to the principles of war and see which were used effectively and which were not. The principles to be examined will be objective, offensive, mass, economy of force, maneuver, unity of command, security, surprise, and simplicity. Some of these elements must be incorporated during the planning stage and some during the execution phase. Both of these will be discussed, although it must be remembered that the Brigade leaders were not part of the planning evolution but were presented with the completed plan and expected to execute it. It should be noted that both Olivia and San Ramon were products of U.S. Army formal schools and could be expected to be aware of these principles. The principle objective states that "every military operation must be directed toward a clearly defined, decisive and obtainable objective." 3/ In the case of the Brigade's invasion, clear objectives were laid down for the, initial stage (amphibious stage) of the operation. The forces crossing Red Beach were to assault, seize, and defend the town of Playa Larga, and control the road leading south from Central Australia within the beachhead. The forces landing across Blue Beach were to assault, seize, and defend the town of Playa Giron, and the airfield and dock facilities adjacent to it. They were to control the roads leading into the beachhead from Cienfuegos, Yaguaramas, and Covadonga. The paratroopers were to drop on the forward edges of the beachhead and set up blocking positions along the enemy avenues of approach in their zone. These objectives were clean, concise, and attainable. In fact, this portion of the plan was executed well, with the exception of the paratroopers dropping out of their planned drop zones. The problems came after the initial objectives were taken. There was no real plan for a breakout from the beachhead to continue the operation to fulfill the ultimate goal of liberating the country. The fact that problems in unloading supplies prevented further movement inland aside, there was no coordinated plan to do so in any event. For the planners to deliver the Brigade to the beaches and then not give them further guidance was, at very least, short sighted. The lack of a plan limited the scope of the operation to the establishment of the beachhead and then "see what happens next". The principles of offensive action states that "offensive action is necessary to achieve decisive results and maintain freedom of action. It permits the commander to exercise initiative and impose his will upon the enemy, to set the pace and determine the course of the battle, to exploit enemy weaknesses and rapidly changing situations, and to meet unexpected developments." 4/ The Brigade was forced into the defensive almost immediately upon landing. They faced a force which was numerically superior on terrain favorable to the defense. They were never quite able to consolidate the beachhead as planned, and the lack of communication handicapped them severely. They were able to use the offense on a limited basis by staging counterattacks to turn the momentum of Castro's forces attacks. In general, their action was almost entirely defensive, as could be expected without a formal plan for action once their initial objectives were achieved. The principle of mass states that "superior combat power must be concentrated at the critical time and place for a decisive purpose. Superiority is adjudged by relating available force to that of the enemy's and results from the proper combination of the elements of combat power." 5/ On initial examination, it would appear that the Brigade never had a chance to employ the principle of mass in the face of vastly superior numbers of forces. This is not true. Although Castro had many times the number of men and weapons than the Brigade possessed, he was forced to employ them on very narrow fronts. The terrain canalized his approach to the battle area, to the point that, only the lead elements of the column were able to engage the Brigade. The leaders of the Brigade chose sites of engagement where they could bring all of their limited combat power to bear on a lead element and therefore, in effect, maintain superior force in the actual battle area. The Brigade leaders proved to have an excellent ability to read the situation and commit their tanks and supporting fires at the moment that they would inflict the most damage, physical or psychological, on the enemy. There was, of course, no way that the Brigade positions could be sustained for an indeterminate length of time in the face of such overwhelming odds. Eventually, the sheer number of Castro's forces was able to wear away the Brigade's defenses. The Brigade was still holding its own when they ran out of ammunition. Although the end result was inevitable, victory would have cost Castro dearly had the supplies held out. The principles of economy of force states that, "skillful and prudent use of combat power enables the commander to accomplish the mission with a minimum expenditure of resources." 6/ This principle implies that the most efficient expenditure of resources will allow you to have the combat power to commit at a decisive point in the battle. If there is an area of weakness in the Brigade's performance, it would have to be the violation of this principle, especially during the first 24 hours of action. The Brigade came ashore, established defensive positions, and became engaged with the enemy almost immediately. For the vast majority of the men, this was their first exposure to combat. Although they had been well trained, they showed very poor fire discipline in both individual weapons or supporting arms. They fired constantly without using aimed fire and consequently, consumed about three days of supply in the initial 24 hours. This should have been expected from green troops, and better controlled by small unit leaders and gun crew supervisors. In defense of the men of the Brigade, it should be noted, that there was really little need for tight fire discipline, in light of the planned logistical support. They had landed with five days of supply and another ten days of supply were to be offloaded from the HOUSTON. Not only this, but there were to be enough arms and ammunition to support all of the indigenous personnel who were expected to join the ranks of the Brigade. There should have been an ample supply of ammunition, even with the poor fire discipline. In an effort to adhere to this principle the Fifth Battalion was held in reserve and not committed. They were staged aboard the HOUSTON, where they could be employed on either front as required. Unfortunately, any advantage this gave the Brigade was lost when the HOUSTON sank five miles south of Red Beach. The Fifth Battalion broke up and never became effective again throughout the invasion. The principle of maneuver states, "the object of maneuver is to dispose forces in such a manner as to place the enemy at a disadvantage and thus achieve results which would otherwise be more costly in men and material." 7/ Maneuver was never a major factor for either side. The terrain positively dictated precise avenues of approach for Castro's forces and restricted his ability to outflank or maneuver against the Brigade forces. Once he had committed a force down a narrow roadway or railway bed, there were but two directions to proceed, attack or withdraw. The Brigade was able to employ maneuver units on a limited basis, especially in setting up blocking positions and ambushes. The fact that they kept their front lines fairly fluid meant that Castro's forces advanced at a very slow pace to avoid ambush. San Ramon was also able to move his tanks around the battlefield to work along or to reinforce an area requiring fire support. He was able to keep his lines from collapsing on several occasions by sending tanks and infantry to another part of the front. although they were holding limited space, and were backed against the sea, the Brigade forces actually had the advantage of better maneuverability over the Castro forces. The principle of unity of command states, "unity of command obtains unity of effort by coordinated action of all forces toward a common goal. While coordination may be achieved by cooperation it is best achieved by vesting a single commander with the requisite authority." 8/ Unity of command in Operation Zapata must be viewed from several vantage points. From the standpoint of the actual combat operation, San Ramon was in complete control of his forces. He vested some of the combat leadership in Olivia on Red Beach, but he retained control as the commander of the Brigade forces. Although his efforts were outstanding, he was operating in a vacuum. San Ramon was, in effect, only the Commander Landing Forces (CLF), and the Commander Amphibious Task Forces (CATF) was, in effect, President Kennedy in Washington, D.C. Although San Ramon did an outstanding job of employing his force tacticly, he remained out of contact with the man who was in full control of the operation. President Kennedy and his staff were making decisions without adequate knowledge of the situation (due, in part, to the loss of the communications equipment aboard the HOUSTON). The chain of command stretched from the oval office to the Zapata swamps. When messages were sent either way, there was a built in time lag, i.e., the order was given for the supply ships to return to the beaches but by the time it was received, the unloading would have been during daylight. The decisions being made by President Kennedy were being made in light of, not only the situation on the beaches, but also the political environment. He weighed the success of the mission against world opinion of the methods and amount of U.S. involvement necessary to achieve that success. The net result was that there were two commanders. One tactical, committed to the goal of achieving his military objectives, and one strategic, weighing the value of that success against its cost in world opinion. The strategic commander, President Kennedy, did not have the same resolve to see the mission through as did the tactical commander, San Ramon. Regardless, the key to the success of the invasion lays not in the hands of San Ramon fighting on the beaches of Cuba, but with President Kennedy in the political world of Washington, D.C. Unfortunately, on his shoulders also rests the responsibility for the failure of the invasion. Another facet of the operation that must be brought out under the subject of unity of command, is the lack of concurrent and parallel planning. As stated earlier, the Brigade was given the completed plan and expected to execute it. They had no hand in the planning process and certainly, no input in decisions which would normally be made by the commander. This must have left Olivia and San Ramon somewhat ignorant of many facets of the operation, no matter how well it was briefed to them. The next principle, that of security, states that "security is essential to the preservation of combat power. Security is achieved by measures taken to prevent surprise, preserve freedom of action, and deny the enemy information of friendly forces." 9/ On the ground, the Brigade performed in an excellent manner placing forward positions to act as security posts. They covered these small units with supporting arms and had them dig in successive positions to allow for a defense in depth. They were generally in contact with the leading edge of Castro's forces throughout the battle and were generally able to hold off large attacking forces with a very small number of men, especially on the Eastern fronts. Security of the Brigade forces from air attack, conversely, was far from adequate and cost the Brigade dearly. At no time were they able to protect themselves from Castro's air assaults. The enemy aircraft did little damage to the actual fighting forces and delivered very little close air support. Instead, they concentrated on destroying the Brigade's ships and supplies, thus defeating their ability to sustain the operation. They also denied the Brigade's aircraft access to the beachhead, thus negating any capability for them to support the ground forces as planned. The major effect, other than the destruction of supplies and shipping, was the denial of the Brigade air force the use of the airfield at Giron. Had the airfield at Giron been available, the Brigade planes could have quadrupled their sortie rate, improved coordination with the ground forces, and in general provided the Brigade ground forces with meaningful support; but the airfield was unusable because Castro's planes would most certainly have destroyed the Brigade's small air force on the ground. Hence the almost seven hour round trip to Puerto Cabezas almost did away with their usefulness. The principle of surprise states that, "surprise can decisively shift the balance of combat power. By surprise success out of proportion to the effort expended may be obtained. Surprise results from striking an enemy at a time, place, and in a manner for which he is not prepared." 10/ Although Fidel Castro was certainly aware that some type of military action was forthcoming, he did not know when, where, or most importantly, what type of force he would face. The failure of the diversionary landing near Guantanamo had a profound effect on the success of the main invasion. Castro was poised and ready to react. Had the diversionary landing gone as planned, he would have most likely committed at least a portion of his forces to that area, giving the Brigade more time to prepare their positions. San Ramon was able to use the element of surprise in his small unit tactics and use of supporting arms as well. He relied heavily on the ambush and could stop the movement of Castro's column by pouncing on the flanks of the lead elements with small groups. He would commit only a few mortars to a fight and then, at a moment when the tide of battle could be turned, he would unleash massed fire from the other mortars, artillery, and tanks, forcing the Castro forces back just as they sensed victory. The final principle is that of simplicity. It states, "simplicity contributes to successful operations. Direct, simple plans and clear, concise orders minimize misunderstanding and confusion." 11/ San Ramon had no choice but to keep his tactics simple. He was out manned, out gunned, and surrounded on three sides with his back to the sea. He had virtually no communication equipment and relied heavily on messengers. This meant that once he was committed to a course of action, it could be changed only with extreme difficulty. He had to lay out a concept for an operation and then rely on his subordinates to implement it. However, if he had had radio communications, it may have caused him to try more grandiose schemes of maneuver, which may not have worked as well. This look at how the Brigade operated with respect to the principles of war, should indicate that they generally adhered to good solid tactics which served them well. The fact that the Brigade was able to hold on for three days, in the face of such an overwhelming force, is testimony to their training, motivation, tactics and leadership. They proved themselves to be a formidable force, by inflicting over a ten to one kill ratio on the Castro forces. The Brigade lost only 114 men during the invasion, while the Castro forces lost approximately 1250 men. The debate will surely continue about the possible outcome of the invasion if it had received air support, along with any number of other "ifs". The invasion is long since past, but should never be forgotten, if for no other reason than its participants. This was the battle of 1,443 men in a desperate struggle to free their homeland. Their failure to do so is our failure as a nation also for sometime in the future, we may be forced to pay a much dearer price to accomplish the same mission. ENDNOTES (Chapter VI) 1/ Taylor Report, cover letter. 2/ Johnson, p. 220. 3/ FMFM 6-1, Marine Division (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 22 March 1978), p. 2. 4/ FMFM 6-1, p. 2. 5/ FMFM 6-1, p. 2. 6/ FMFM 6-1, p. 2. 7/ FMFM 6-1, p. 3. 8/ FMFM 6-1, p. 3. 9/ FMFM 6-1, p. 3. 10/ FMFM 6-1, p. 3. 11/ FMFM 6-1, p. 3. APPENDIX A 13 June 1961 Memorandum No. 2 IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF FAILURE OF THE OPERATION ZAPATA SUMMARY 1. The proximate cause of the failure of the ZAPATA Operation was a shortage of ammunition which developed from the first day of the landing, April 17th, and became increasingly critical until it resulted in the surrender of the landing force about 1400 on April 19th. 2. There were three primary reasons for this shortage of ammunition. The logistical plan for the landing made ample provision for ammunition with the men and in floating reserve. However, upon landing there is evidence that the Cubans wasted their ammunition in excessive firing, displaying the poor ammunition discipline which is common to troops in their first combat. 3. Far more serious was the loss of the freighters RIO ESCONDIDO and HOUSTON through air attack at about 0930 on the morning of April 17th. The RIO was a particular loss as it had ten days of reserve ammunition on board, as well as other important supplies. The HOUSTON should have been able to land most of its supplies before being hit, but the unloading was delayed by trouble with the outboard motors of the ships boats as well as by the apparent lethargy of the Fifth Battalion charged with the unloading. 4. The air attack which sunk these ships caused all others in the landing area to put out to sea, as the only available protection in the absence of control of the air, with the order to rendezvous 50 miles off the coast. The freighters ATLANTICO and CARIBE headed south and never stopped until intercepted by the U.S. Navy at points 110 miles and 218 miles, respectively, south of Cuba. 5. The CARIBE was so far away that its cargo, principally aviation supplies, was never available for movement to Blue Beach while the fight lasted. The ATLANTICO, which had considerable ammunition on board, did rejoin the other ships of the expedition at 1816, April 18th, at a point about 50 miles south of the beach and transferred her supplies to the waiting two LCI's and three LCU's for a night run to the beach. 6. By the time the supplies were transferred and the convoy had started north it was too late to hope to resupply the beach under cover of darkness. The convoy commander asked CIA Operational Headquarters, Washington, for destroyer excort and U. S. Navy jet cover without which he believed that he would lose his ships to air attack the next morning. He added that without U.S. Navy support the Cuban crew would mutiny if sent back to the beach. 7. As a result of these messages, CIA Headquarters, feeling that it would be futile to order these ammunition craft to attempt a daylight unloading, called off the mission and the attempt to get ammunition to the beach by sea ended. The President was not requested for specific authority to extend the air cover to protect the ammunition convoy. 8. These causes for the ammunition shortage rested in turn on others which lay deeper in the plans and organization of this operation and the attitude toward it on the part of Government officials. The effectiveness of the Castro Air Force over the beach resulted from a failure to destroy the airplanes on the ground (particularly the T-33's whose importance was not fully appreciated in advance) before or concurrently with the landing. This failure was a consequences of the restraints put on the anti-Castro Air Force in planning and executing its strikes, primarily for the purpose of protecting the covert character of the operation. These restraints included: the decision to use only the B-26 as a combat aircraft because it had been distributed widely to foreign countries; the limitation of pre-landing strikes to those which could be flown from non- U.S. controlled airfields under the guise of coming from Cuban strips, thus eliminating the possibility of using jet fighters or even T-33 trainers; the inability to use any non- Cuban base within short turn-around distance from the target area (about nine hours were required to turn around a B-26 for a second mission over the target from Nicaragua); prohibition of use of American contract pilots for tactical air operations; restriction on munitions, notably napalm; and the cancellation of the strikes planned at dawn on D- Day. The last mentioned was probably the most serious as it eliminated the last favorable opportunity to destroy the Castro Air Force on the ground. The cancellation seems to have resulted partly from the failure to make the air strike plan entirely clear in advance to the President and the Secretary of State, but, more importantly, by misgivings as to the effect of the air strikes on the position of the United States in the current UN debate on Cuba. Finally, there was the failure to carry the issue to the President when the opportunity was presented and explain to him with proper force the probable military consequences of a last minute cancellation. 9. The flight of the CARIBE and ATLANTICO might have been prevented had more attention been paid in advance to the control of the ships to include the placing of some American aboard. The CIA officer responsible for all the ships involved was a [ ] who was aboard the LCI BLAGAR with no means to control the freighters, or, indeed, to locate them after they disappeared. Only the initiative of the U.S. Navy in the vicinity brought them back to the scene of action. The absence of Americans on board these vessels was an application of the general order to keep Americans out of the combat area. This order had been violated in a few cases, but it was apparently not considered important to do so in the case of the freighters. 10. The lack of full appreciation of the ammunition situation at the end of D+1 in the CIA Operational Headquarters was largely the result of the difficulty of keeping abreast of the situation on the beach, and the location and movement of the ships at sea from the distance of Washington. Also, there was a confidence in the supply of the beach by air which turned out to be unjustified. Had there been a command ship in the sea area with an advance CIA command post on board, a more effective control would have been possible. 11. The Executive Branch of the Government was not organizationally prepared to cope with this kind of paramilitary operation. There was no single authority short of the President capable of coordinating the actions of the CIA, State, Defense, and USIA. Top level direction was given through ad hoc meetings of senior officials without consideration of operational plans in writing and with no arrangement for recording conclusions and decisions reached. 13 June 1961 Memorandum No. 3 CONCLUSIONS OF THE CUBAN STUDY GROUP 1. It is concluded that: a. A paramilitary operation of the magnitude of ZAPATA could not be prepared and conducted in such a way that all U.S. support of it and connection with it could be plausibly disclaimed. Accordingly, this operation did not fit within the limited scope of NSC 5412/2. By about November 1960, the impossibility of running ZAPATA as a covert operation under CIA should have been recognized and the situation reviewed. The subsequent decision might then have been made to limit the efforts to attain covertness to the degree and nature of U.S. participation, and to assign responsibility for the amphibious operation to the Department of Defense. In this case, the CIA would have assisted in concealing the participation of defense. Failing such a reorientation, the project should have been abandoned. b. Once the need for the operation was established, its success should have had the primary consideration of all agencies in the Government. Operational restrictions designed to protect its covert character should have been accepted only if they did not impair the chance of success. As it was, the leaders of the operation were obliged to fit their plan inside changing ground rules laid down for non-military considerations, which often had serious operational disadvantages c. The leaders of the operation did not always present their case with sufficient force and clarity to the senior officials of the Government to allow the latter to appreciate the consequences of some of their decisions. This remark applies in particular to the circumstances surrounding the cancellation of the D-Day strikes. d. There was a marginal character to the operation which increased with each additional limitation and cast a serious doubt over its ultimate success. The landing force was small in relation to its 36-mile beachhead and to the probable enemy reaction. The air support was short of pilots if the beach was to require cover for a long period. There were no fighters to keep off such Castro airplanes as might escape the initial air strikes. There were few Cuban replacements for the battle losses which were certain to occur on the ground and in the air. It is felt that the approval of so marginal an operation by many officials was influenced by the feeling that the Cuban Brigade was a waning asset which had to be used quickly as time was against us, and that this operation was the best way to realize the most from it. Also, the consequences of demobilizing the Brigade and the return of the trainees to the U.S.A., with its implication that the United States had lost interest in the fight against Castro, played a part in the final decision. e. The Cuban Expeditionary Force achieved tactical surprise in its landing and, as we have said, fought well and inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy. Although there had been considerable evidence of strong pockets of resistance against Castro throughout Cuba, the short life of the beachhead was not sufficient to trigger an immediate popular reaction, and Castro's repressive measures following the landing made coordinated uprisings of the populace impossible. The effectiveness of the Castro military forces, as well as that of his police measures, was not entirely anticipated or foreseen. f. In approving the operation, the President and senior officials had been greatly influenced by the understanding that the landing force could pass to guerrilla status, if unable to hold the beachhead. These officials were informed on many occasions that the ZAPATA area was guerrilla territory, and that the entire force, in an emergency, could operate as guerrillas. With this alternative to fall back on, the view was held that a sudden or disastrous defeat was most improbable. As we have indicated before, the guerrilla alternative as it had been described was not in fact available to this force in the situation which developed. g. The operation suffered from being run from the distance of Washington. At that range and with the limited reporting which was inevitable on the part of field commanders absorbed in combat, it was not possible to have a clear understanding in Washington of events taking place in the field. This was particularly the case on the night of D+1 when an appreciation of the ammunition situation would have resulted in an appeal for U.S. air cover and an all-out effort to supply the beach by all available means. h. The Joint Chiefs of Staff had the important responsibility of examining into the military feasibility of this operation. By acquiescing in the ZAPATA Plan, they gave the impression to others of approving it although they had expressed their preference for TRINIDAD at the outset, a point which apparently never reached the senior civilian officials. As a body they reviewed the successive changes of the plan piecemeal and only within a limited context, a procedure which was inadequate for a proper examination of all the military ramifications. Individually, they had differing understandings of important features of the operation apparently arising from oral briefings in the absence of written documents. f. Although the intelligence was not perfect, particularly as to the evaluation of the effectiveness of the T-33's, we do not feel that any failure of intelligence contributed significantly to the defeat. j. The planning and conduct of the operation would have been improved if there had been an initial statement of governmental policy, assigning the mission and setting the guidelines within which it was to develop. Thereafter, there was a need for a formalized procedure for interdepartmental coordination and follow- up with adequate record-keeping of decisions. 2. In the light of the foregoing considerations, we are of the opinion that the preparations and execution of paramilitary operations such as ZAPATA are a form of Cold War action in which the country must be prepared to engage. If it does so, it must engage in it with a maximum chance of success. Such operations should be planned and executed by a governmental mechanism capable of bringing into play, in addition to military and covert techniques, all other forces, political, economic, ideological, and intelligence, which can contribute to its success. No such mechanism presently exists but should be created to plan, coordinate and further a national Cold War strategy capable of including paramilitary operations. Click here to view image BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Hinkle, Warren and William W. Turner. The Fish is Red. New York: Harper and Row, 1981. Hunt, Howard. Give Us This Day. New York: Arlington House, 1973. Johnson, Haynes, et al. Bay of Pigs. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1964. Lazo, Peter. Dagger in the Heart. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1968. Periodicals New York Times, 16 April 1961. "Stopped in the Swamp," Time, 21 April 1961. Time, 28 April 1961. U.S. News and World Report, 1 May 1961. Government Publications FMFM 6-1. Marine Division. PCN 139 000400 00. Wash- ington, D.C.: GPO, 22 March 1978. Public Papers of the President of the United States: John F. Kennedy. 20 January, 1961 ... 31 December, 1961. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1962. Taylor, Maxwell D. "Narrative of the Anti-Castro Cuban Operation Zapata." Memorandum 1 Taylor Commission Report. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1961. Sanitized version declassified 8 May 1977. Taylor, Maxwell D. "Immediate Causes of Failure of the Operation Zapata." Memorandum 2 Taylor Commission Report. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1961. Sanitized version declassified 8 May 1977. Tyalor Maxwell D. "Conclusion of the Cuban Study Group." Memorandum 3 Taylor Commission Report. Washington, D.C. GPO, 1961. Sanitized version declassified 8 May 1977.
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Which of the essential knots, used extensively in climbing, consits of two opposed half hitches? | U.S. and the World - Dictator of the Month: Fidel Castro - AllGov - News
Dictator of the Month: Fidel Castro
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Tuesday, May 17, 2011
Fidel Castro seized power in Cuba in January 1959, at the age of 31 or 32, and held on until health problems forced him to begin giving up partial control in 2006. He finally retired officially as the leader of the Communist Party of Cuba on April 19, 2011, handing over power to his younger brother, Raúl, who will turn 80 on June 3.
In my book Tyrants: The World's 20 Worst Living Dictators , I included a chapter about Castro. Here is an excerpt.
THE NATION—Cuba is an island about the size of Pennsylvania in the Caribbean Sea, ninety miles south of Florida. The nation of Cuba, which has a population of more than 11 million, includes several smaller islands. Internationally, it was known as little more than a producer of sugar and as a gambling haven until, in the midst of the Cold War, Cuba’s dictator, Fidel Castro, turned his country into the Soviet Union’s leading client state in the Americas.
A DICTATOR IS BORN—Fidel Castro was born on August 13, but like much of his life, the year in which he was born is surrounded by controversy. Castro himself claims the year was 1926, but his sisters have said that he was actually born a year later in 1927. He was definitely born in Manacas, a farming community in the municipality of Birán, in the Mayarí region of northern Oriente, which is literally closer to Haiti, Jamaica, and even the Bahamas than it is to Havana.
Castro’s father, Ángel Castro y Argiz, was born in Lancara, Galicia, Spain, and emigrated to Cuba in 1898. He spent five years working in a brick factory owned by his uncle before moving to Mayarí, which was then dominated by the United Fruit Company. Ángel began to work on the railroad being built by the company, laying down tracks and performing manual labor, before starting a business selling lemonade to workers in the fields. He used the profits to expand his business, going from town to town selling goods and merchandise. Eventually, Ángel leased land from the United Fruit Company, planting sugarcane and employing small farmers. The lands owned or rented by the Castro family grew to some 26,000 acres, with about 300 families living and working on the property. By the time Fidel was born, the family was quite wealthy. The Castros lived in a two-story country house, built in the Galician style with wooden stilts and a space underneath for farm animals. Ángel’s first wife, María Argota, gave birth to two children, Pedro Emilio and Lidia. Although accounts are sketchy, it appears that María died after the birth of her second child, although Juana Castro, Fidel’s younger sister, insists that she simply left the family. With María gone, Ángel soon took up with young Lina Ruz González, who had been working in the Castro household as a maid or cook. The pair had three children out of wedlock, Ángela, Ramón, and Fidel. They married shortly after Fidel’s birth.
The Castro household was unusual. Although wealthy and powerful for the region, their lifestyle remained extremely rural, with livestock and chickens wandering throughout the house. To bring the family in for meals, Lina would shoot a gun outside the kitchen door. Meals were always eaten from a communal pot while standing.
Fidel was named after Fidel Pino Santos, a wealthy Oriente politician and a close friend of Ángel Castro. Fidel also means “faithful,” a fact that Castro would later use in speeches. Fidel was not christened until he was five or six years old, and as a result the other children in Birán called him “Jew.”
Like his father, Fidel was prone to violent tempers, and he could be a very sore loser. His sisters recall him starting a baseball team in Birán with equipment bought by his father. If the game was going poorly or his team began to lose, Fidel would simply stop the game, gather up the equipment and walk off. Castro’s close friend, novelist Gabriel García Márquez, wrote, “I do not think anyone in the world could be a worse loser. His attitude in the face of defeat, even in the slightest events of daily life, seems to obey a private logic: he will not even admit it, and he does not have a moment’s peace until he manages to invert the terms and turn it into a victory.”
As a child, Fidel was sent to study in Santiago, the second-largest city in Cuba. He spent his first two years in Santiago living with his godparents, during which time he was homeschooled. Eventually, he was enrolled in the Marist school La Salle, along with his older brother Ramón and his younger brother Raúl. Fidel quickly gained a reputation as a troublemaker and a bully, starting fights with the other boys as well as with the priests.
Ángel received a report that his sons were cheating and that they were “the three biggest bullies” who had ever gone to the school, so he decided not to send them back to La Salle. Fidel, who was in the fourth grade, responded by threatening to burn down the house. Ultimately, Fidel was reenrolled in school, but this time at a more demanding Jesuit institution. When his father threatened to cut off his allowance if his grades slipped, Fidel forged his report cards with the highest marks to take home, while forging his father’s signature on his real report card.
Although he was a mediocre student, the young Fidel was known for his almost photographic memory. A fellow classmate, José Ignacio Rasco, recalled Castro impressing the other students by reciting the pages of their textbook from memory. The children would call out a page number and Fidel would repeat the exact contents of the page, including whether or not the last word ended in a hyphen.
In November of 1940, Castro wrote a letter to U.S. president Franklin Delano Roosevelt: “My good friend Roosevelt, I don’t know very English, but I know as much as write to you. I like to hear the radio, and I am very happy, because I heard in it, that you will be president of a new era. I am a boy but I think very much but I do not think that I am I [sic] to the President of the United States. If you like, give me a ten dollars bill green America, in the letter, because never, I have not seen a ten dollars bill green American and I would like to have one of them.” Castro received a letter in reply but no money.
Fidel continued his education at the exclusive Jesuit Belén College in Havana. It was here that Fidel learned the skills of public speaking and oration for which he eventually became famous. He attempted to enroll in the Avellaneda Literary Academy, the oratory school at Belén, but was rejected twice after failing to complete a 10-minute speech without notes. Eventually, he earned acceptance and learned to control the stage fright that had paralyzed him.
In another violent episode, Castro got into a fight with a student who called him “crazy.” Fidel bit the student and ran out of the room, only to return with a pistol and brandish it until a priest subdued him. Despite rumors to the contrary, he did not graduate at the top of his class. He was remembered, however, for having received the longest and most enthusiastic ovation from his fellow classmates.
UNIVERSITY DAYS—In October of 1945, Castro entered law school at the University of Havana. At the time, the university was an autonomous and self-governing body, and neither the police nor the army was allowed to enter the campus. As a result, the university became a haven for gangsters and political movements. Between 1944 and 1948, more than 120 mob-style murders were attributed to the gangs. It was also while at university that Castro met some of the people who would become closest to him, including Alfredo Guevara (no relation to Ernesto “Che” Guevara). Guevara would later recall Castro as “a boy who will be José Martí or the worst of the gangsters…”
Around this time, President Ramón Grau San Martín approved a rise in bus fares that provided the impetus for Castro’s first political action. He organized a demonstration against the fare increase and led a group of students on a march to the presidential palace. The students were beaten by police forces and Castro was slightly injured. Castro was quick to use the incident to his advantage, gaining newspaper coverage. Three days later, Castro was part of a student delegation that went to meet President Grau. As they waited in the president’s office for Grau to arrive, Castro joked with the other three students that when Grau entered they should pick him up and throw him from the balcony, then get on the radio and proclaim the victory of the student revolution.
Two main gangster groups were vying for control of the University of Havana, the Socialist Revolutionary Movement (MSR) and the Insurrectional Revolutionary Union (UIR). The MSR was led by Rolando Masferrer, one of Batista’s worst henchmen, while the UIR was headed by Emilio Tró. Conflicts between the two groups were frequent and violent. When Castro entered the university he began to maneuver between the two groups. Initially he tried to foster a relationship with the MSR’s Manolo Castro, then president of the Students’ Federation. In December of 1946, Lionel Gómez, a member of the UIR, was shot in the lung. He named Fidel Castro as his attacker, although there was little evidence actually linking Castro to the crime. Nonetheless, it was widely believed that Fidel had attempted the assassination to ingratiate himself with Manolo Castro and thereby gain entrance into the MSR. Surprisingly, it was Emilio Tró, the head of UIR, who took Fidel under his wing, giving him a pistol, which he took to carrying with him at all times.
Castro’s association with the UIR brought him into conflict with the MSR. Rolando Masferrer sent him an ultimatum: leave the gang scene or face the consequences. Instead, Castro volunteered for a planned invasion of the Dominican Republic. The campaign was being led by a group of Dominican exiles, including future president Juan Bosch, and was largely a response to the horrors of the regime of Rafael Trujillo, who had been in power since 1930. During this time, Trujillo’s troops had massacred at least 12,000 Haitians along the border, and Trujillo had personally killed people at his opulent home, dumping their bodies in the river.
On July 29, 1947, Castro and his companions sailed to Cayo Confites, the launching point for the invasion. The Cayo Confites forces numbered about 12,000 men, mostly students. Fidel received his first military training, although it lasted only a week. The rest of the time was spent waiting on the mosquito-infested island for the order to launch. Unfortunately for the would-be invaders, Trujillo had long since heard about their plans and had had time to prepare his defense and even to complain to the United States. On September 27, after the invading fleet was already on its way, the leadership called off the attack. With the campaign officially over and the Cuban military rounding up the revolutionary vessels, Castro chose to jump ship and swim for shore. After swimming for eight or nine miles, he reached shore the next day and appeared at his family home.
While Fidel was on Cayo Confites, Emilio Tró was killed in Havana by MSR thugs in a gun battle that lasted hours. Less than six months later, Manolo Castro was killed outside of a Havana movie theater that he owned. Castro, sensing a more promising direction for his future, moved away from the gangsters and became more involved in political actions. He once declared that Al Capone was a stupid man because he had never formed an ideology. If he had, Castro insisted, he would be have been world famous, and not remembered only as a gangster.
In 1947, Castro participated in a trip by law students to the Isle of Pines, the location of Cuba’s new “model” penitentiary. Returning to Havana, Fidel criticized the prison and the treatment of the inmates. Six years later, Castro would end up a prisoner in the same penitentiary. In 1948 he traveled to Bogotá, Columbia, with three other students from Havana University, including Alfredo Guevara. The trip was part of a Latin American student congress and was financed by Juan Perón, the leader of Argentina. Arriving in Columbia on April 7, Castro and the other students met with Jorge Gaitán, the leader of the Liberal Party and the man expected to win upcoming elections. They were invited to return on April 9 for a meeting at 2:00 p.m. Less than an hour before their scheduled meeting, Gaitán was shot and killed by a mentally deranged man, Juan Roa Sierra. Bogotá erupted in riots, in which Castro was swept up for two days. During the riots, he became involved in the takeover of a police station. By the time the riots subsided, approximately 3,500 people had been killed and a third of the city had gone up in flames.
SERIOUS POLITICS—Back in Cuba, Castro aligned himself with Senator Eduardo “Eddy” Chibás, the voice of the anti-Grau opposition. Despite coming from a wealthy family, he had spoken out against the corruption of Cuba’s political elite, running on the slogan “Shame of Money.” Disgusted with the state of Cuban politics, Chibás had created the Cuban People’s Party, known as the Ortodoxos because they claimed to stand for the orthodoxy of Jose Martí’s principles. Castro joined the Orthodox Party and campaigned hard for Chibás in his unsuccessful bid for the presidency in 1948. While Fidel presented himself as Chibás’ protégé and political heir, in private the two were never close. Chibás resented the young Castro, while Fidel saw Chibás as an obstacle to his own power. In order to be taken seriously as a politician, Castro knew he had to break free of his gangster ties. In late November 1949, he decided to make a clean break, denouncing the actions of the gangsters in front of a large crowd at the university and naming names and pacts. Not surprisingly, the speech put Castro in a dangerous situation and he was forced into hiding, eventually fleeing to New York City for three months.
Castro eventually graduated with a law degree and briefly started a law practice, although he actually practiced little law, concentrating instead on politics. Meanwhile, he led a relatively quiet social life. He was never known to dance, something exceedingly uncommon in Havana in the 1940s, and he was generally awkward and shy around women. Finally, he met Mirta Díaz-Balart and married her in 1948. Mirta was considered an exceptionally beautiful woman, with blonde hair and green eyes. She came from one of the wealthiest families in Cuba, with close ties to Batista. At their wedding, Mirta’s father gave the young couple $10,000 for a three-month honeymoon in the United States, with $1,000 in spending money provided by Cuba’s dictator, Fulgencio Batista. The couple spent most of their honeymoon in New York City, where Fidel learned English and sat in on courses at Columbia University. Castro later recalled going into a bookstore in Manhattan and being shocked to see Karl Marx’s Das Kapital available.
Upon their return to Cuba, the newlyweds moved into a hotel located across the street from a military camp. On Sept 1, 1949, Mirta gave birth to Fidel Castro Díaz-Balart, nicknamed Fidelito. Castro would never be close to his first son, but he was protective of him.
On Sunday, August 5, 1951, Senator Eduardo Chibás went on his weekly radio program and spoke out, as usual, against the corruption of the political system, accusing the education minister, Aureliano Sánchez Arango, of using political funds to buy a large mansion. At the end of his radio show, Chibás urged the Cuban people to wake up to the corruption in government. He then took out a .38 Colt and shot himself in the abdomen. Unfortunately for Chibás, his speech had gone on a little too long. Several minutes before the pistol shot rang out, the radio engineer had cut him off to play a series of radio commercials, including one advertising a brand of coffee that was “good to the last stomachful.” Chibás was taken to a hospital, where he lingered for eleven days before dying. During this time, Castro kept close to the politician’s bedside. When Chibás lay in state in the University Hall of Honor, Castro stood by as part of the honor guard for more than twenty-four hours and he appeared on the front page of several newspapers.
As the military prepared to move Chibás’ body in a large procession, Castro tried to convince Captain Máximo Rávelo, the army captain commanding the escort of the gun carriage transporting the casket, to divert the procession route to the presidential palace. Castro was apparently convinced that he could trigger a mass uprising. Fearing military action and a possible bloodbath, Rávelo refused. President Carlos Prío himself had packed a bag and prepared a plane in the event that a mass uprising did occur.
Castro continued his political pursuits by running for the Chamber of Deputies in 1952. He sent out 100,000 letters to all the members of the Orthodox Party asking for their support. With broad support from the urban and rural poor, Castro was in line to be elected. In fact, he would have been a strong contender for an eventual seat in the senate, and perhaps ultimately might have been elected president through democratic means. However, the planned elections were disrupted on the morning of March 10, 1952, when Batista walked into the army’s Camp Columbia in Havana along with his officers. They met no resistance, and by the time dawn broke Batista had taken power and Prío had fled the country. When news of Batista’s coup spread, Fidel and his brother Raúl immediately went into hiding. Hours later the secret police arrived at both their houses looking for them.
By this time, Castro had become involved with Natalia Revuelta. “Naty” was known as one of the most beautiful women in Havana, tall, fair and prosperous. She was well educated, having been raised in France and the United States, and was married to a well-known Cuban heart surgeon, Orlando Fernández-Ferrer. She was also a secret admirer of Castro, and she offered him the use of her apartment as a hiding place. Eventually, Naty became central to Fidel’s revolution, providing money and helping print and distribute pamphlets, and even agreeing to let him store firearms and ammunition in her house. The two became lovers, and when Mirta found out, she asked for a divorce in July 1954.
ORGANIZING THE REVOLUTION—Although Castro had been well on his way to being an elected official, Batista’s coup gave him the opportunity to play his favorite role: revolutionary leader. He lost no time in gathering a movement for liberation, choosing to create his own organization rather than working with the Communists. Castro saw the Communists as out of touch with the masses and too large for him to control, while the Communists, who enjoyed some support from Batista, had no need of the young revolutionary.
Castro gathered his forces from Eddy Chibás’ former Orthodox Party and from within the University of Havana. He and his supporters set up a small revolutionary newspaper, which they printed on a mimeograph machine that they hid inside the trunk of a car. Castro also secured two small two-way radios and began broadcasting regular programs. Within fourteen months, Castro had amassed about 1,200 men. During this time of organizing, he drove more than 30,000 miles, some forty times the length of the island.
From the outset, Castro ran his movement like a military organization, with no democratic processes whatsoever. He passed down orders to his officers and they were expected to obey without question. Castro forbade the drinking of alcohol and imposed strict sexual standards, several times forcing his men to marry their girlfriends. He also ordered that weekly meetings be held to analyze the conduct of the movement’s members, and infractions could be punished by expulsion or even death. When another group of student revolutionaries was betrayed by an insider and thrown in prison, Castro became even more security conscious, rarely attending the military training sessions that his group held on university grounds, using the basements of buildings as well as the rooftops of the science building. Many members did not even know that Castro was their leader. Castro developed and employed guerrilla tactics that are still used by underground movements and terrorists today. He based his organization on a cell structure, and nobody within a cell knew people in other cells. Meeting places were kept secret until the last minute.
Soon, Castro faced a critical problem. Although he had the men, he did not have the weapons needed to undertake an armed revolution. Not only that, he did not have enough money to purchase arms for all his men. Castro’s solution was to attack a military base and seize its weapons. He chose the military base in Moncada because it was located in the traditionally rebellious province of Oriente and, in those days of limited communications, it was far enough away from Havana that it would take some time for the action to become known to Batista. Castro also fantasized that the attack would spark a larger armed rebellion throughout the province. The arms seized from the military base would be handed out to the population, who would then join in securing the zone from Batista’s military. Simultaneous to the Moncada attack, a smaller force would attack the Bayamó Barracks, farther to the west, gaining more munitions and closing off the roads into the province, thus creating a “Liberated Zone” within Cuba.
The Moncada attack was planned for the morning of July 26, 1953, but it ran into problems from the start. The 162 revolutionaries bundled into a 26-car motorcade. One car had a flat tire almost immediately after leaving the farm that served as the staging area. Another car took a wrong turn into the center of town and did not arrive until after the attack had already begun. Finally, a group of four students decided not to participate in the attack at all. Fidel told them to wait until the rest of the cars had left, but they wound up leaving in the middle of the convoy. When they took the turn for Havana, the car behind them mistakenly followed. By the time the would-be revolutionaries in this car realized their error, they had gone well past Santiago and were too far away to participate in the attack. Once the remaining cars arrived at Moncada, their problems continued. The plan had been to attack the morning after Carnival, while most of the government soldiers would be sleeping off the previous night’s excesses. As it turned out, however, many of the soldiers were just getting back from their partying, and they had brought back with them to the base even more soldiers to join them in further festivities. The attack was completely unsuccessful. Eight of the revolutionaries were killed and, within a week, the rest had all been captured. Sixty-nine of the rebels were brutally tortured and then killed in prison.
Castro and his co-conspirators were tried before a military tribunal. Castro used the trial as an opportunity for publicity, railing against the Batista regime, denouncing the torture and murder of the prisoners and demanding that the perpetrators be brought to justice. Castro was sentenced to fifteen years in prison. However, his defense statement, “History Will Absolve Me,” would become the most famous of his speeches. The text would later be smuggled out of the prison, written in lemon juice between the lines of letters he would write to his friends and family.
Castro ended up in the Isle of Pines prison, which had originally been built by General Machado in 1931 to house the increasing numbers of political prisoners. When Castro and his rebels arrived, they quickly adopted it as a training ground and school. Castro maintained more strict controls on the behavior of his men than did the guards themselves. If the men were ordered by the guards to get up at 6:00 a.m., Castro would make them get up at 5:30. The rebels became noted for their impeccable behavior and were given more freedoms. They eventually began offering classes in Cuban history, grammar, geography, and English. At one point, Castro was put in solitary confinement for fourteen months as punishment for organizing fellow prisoners to sing a revolutionary anthem during a visit by Batista.
In 1954, running unopposed, Batista was elected president. By the following year, enjoying the support of the U.S. government, he felt secure in his control over the country. On May 6, in a bargain with the Orthodox Party and under pressure from the public and Congress, Batista granted Castro and the rest of the rebels amnesty, announcing that it was a Mother’s Day present. Less than two years after their failed attack on Moncada, Castro and his men walked out of prison.
THE MEXICAN SOJOURN—Castro continued to publish attacks on the government, but after two dissidents were severely beaten by Batista’s thugs and one was killed, he was increasingly worried about his safety and never slept in the same house two nights in a row. Two months after leaving the Isle of Pines, Castro decided to leave Cuba for Mexico. To finance the trip, his sister Lidia sold her refrigerator. Once in Mexico, Castro contacted Alberto Bayo, a former soldier in the Spanish Civil War and an expert on guerrilla warfare who was running a small furniture shop in Mexico. Castro asked Bayo to take charge of training his men. Castro’s forces in Mexico began as a small group of sixty or seventy, living in six rented houses. The members of each house were kept under strict control, forbidden to leave without permission or to visit any of the other houses. They could not use the telephone or speak to anyone on the street. Each house included a rebel tribunal that enforced the rules and meted out punishment, which, in at least one instance, included death. Castro next contacted former Cuban president Prío, who was living in Texas. The two met only once, but the elder politician agreed to give Castro $100,000 to finance the revolution. In exchange, Castro agreed to give Prío advance warning before his assault, so that the two could coordinate their efforts. In fact, Castro had to intention of doing so, and instead planned his attack to coincide with a simultaneous uprising on the island, led by Frank País, the head of a separate revolutionary movement.
It was in Mexico that Fidel met a man who would become central to the Cuban revolution. Ernesto “Che” Guevara was born in Rosario, Argentina, into an upper-class family. The son of a doctor and the eldest of five children, Guevara suffered from frequent and debilitating asthma attacks which would plague him his entire life. A doctor by the age of twenty-three, he set out on an odyssey through Latin America, eventually moving to Mexico with his Peruvian wife Hilda. When Castro and Guevara met, Guevara was already a self-described Marxist and was far more of an ideologue than Fidel.
THE REVOLUTION—Castro chose to launch his revolution from the Mexican port of Tuxpan. He found a small, sixty-foot boat called the Granma that he bought from an American for $20,000. The boat was designed to carry at most twenty-five people and was powered by two small diesel engines. When the eighty-two rebels finally took off, the boat sat so low in the water that they were in constant danger of capsizing. Like the Moncada attack, the assault on Cuba ran into problems from the start. Traveling at 7.2 knots, the tiny ship was battered by bad weather. Two days into the voyage it became clear that the crossing would take at least seven days, instead of the estimated five, and that the landing would therefore miss the planned uprising in Cuba. On the fifth day, still at sea, the rebels heard news over the radio of País’ attempted revolt, and its bloody defeat by Batista.
On December 2, 1956, the rebels landed, or as Che would describe it, shipwrecked, at a muddy place called Purgatory Point. Within an hour, Batista had learned of the force and had sent planes to strafe and bomb the area. According to Castro, only twelve men survived the initial landing and attack. The number was probably chosen more for its religious significance than its accuracy, and other historians have estimated the force to be either eighteen or twenty. The men marched for three days through the forest, covering just twenty-two miles while being continually hounded by bombings and ground troops. On the third day they were surrounded and attacked by a group of soldiers, during which Che was wounded in the shoulder. The rebels hid in a sugarcane field, but with no food or water they were forced to drink their own urine to survive.
Eventually, the rebels reached the Sierra Maestra, where they settled among the rural peasants and began to regroup. The locals, who felt no allegiance to Batista, received them warmly, providing food and supplies. On January 17, 1957, Castro led his men, now numbering thirty-three, on their first attack, against a small garrison in La Plata. The rebels killed two soldiers and wounded five, and carried off a number of guns and munitions. They also behaved according to their strict rules of morality, allowing wounded soldiers to receive medical aid and releasing all prisoners after the initial attack.
A month later Castro felt the time was right for some controlled media coverage, so he sent a rebel to Havana to bring back a foreign journalist. The man chosen was Herbert Matthews of the New York Times, who was sent to the Sierra Maestra to confirm that Castro was actually still alive. Although the rebels still numbered less than fifty, Castro ordered columns of men to march past the camp, then change uniforms and march back again, to make it appear that their forces were larger than they really were. At one point Castro even had one of his officers interrupt the interview to say that a separate regiment of troops had just arrived, a regiment that never in fact existed. The ploy worked, and Matthews wrote a three-part story about the massive build-up of rebels in the mountains.
As the movement grew, Castro began to clash with other members of the revolution, especially Frank País. País, who had survived the failed uprising in December, had continued to lead the guerrilla movement in the cities, a much more difficult and dangerous operation. A strong, handsome, and charismatic leader, he was one of the few people who dared to challenge Castro’s control, and he often clashed with Fidel on how to organize the rebellion. País came from an upper-class background and was vehemently anti-Communist. He wanted to replace Castro’s strict top-down hierarchy with a more democratic and decentralized structure. Unfortunately, País was being tracked ever more closely by Batista and his men. Despite appeals for support to Castro, País was eventually surrounded in one of his hideouts and killed by an assassin.
Popular support for the rebels continued to grow, and more and more Cubans joined their forces. In March 1958, Raúl Castro was given command of the Second Front, based in Oriente, which began to operate semi-independently of the Sierra Maestra group. Although still under his brother’s command, Raúl showed his talent as a military tactician, capturing or destroying many of Batista’s planes, trains, and military vehicles.
In April of the same year, Fidel called on the people of Cuba to participate in a general strike, which he hoped would spark a nationwide uprising. When Batista heard about the strike he gave orders to execute anyone who participated. More than 140 activists, mostly young people, were gunned down. However, Batista’s harsh response only served to increase Castro’s popularity.
By the end of the summer it was clear that the tide was beginning to turn. In September, Che Guevara and Camilio Cienfuegos led two forces of rebels on what would become known as the “Westward March.” Batista’s troops put up practically no resistance, either giving up town after town or actually deserting to the rebels. By November the rebels controlled almost all of the transportation lines in Oriente and were moving slowly but surely toward Havana.
VICTORY—On the night of December 31, 1958, Batista resigned and fled the country. Fearing a takeover by a military junta, Castro and his men left at dawn for Santiago, arriving on January 2. That night Castro gave a speech in front of 200,000 people. He was flanked on one side by the new president, Manuel Urrutia, a quiet judge who had joined the rebel army, and on the other by Archbishop Enrique Pérez Serantez, the priest who had baptized him and whose efforts had gotten him freed from prison. That same day Che Guevara and Camilio Cienfuegos entered Havana and took control. In grand style, Castro chose a symbolic march toward Havana at the head of the victorious rebel army. The march took five days, and he used every opportunity to showcase in front of the masses. He started in the back of a jeep, wearing his olive-green uniform with his precious M-2 rifle with its telescopic sight slung across his shoulder and a cigar clenched between his teeth. Before he entered Havana, he was riding on the back of a captured military tank, and nine-year-old Fidelito joined him for the final entrance.
The victorious rebel army, numbering only 7,250 fighters, had defeated Batista’s 46,000 U.S.-armed troops. The transfer of power was surprisingly orderly. Castro had warned his soldiers against looting and destruction of property. When several caches of arms were found to have been stolen, Castro, worried about the possibility of a separate seizure of power, used his next speech to ask, “Arms for what purpose?” Afterward, the Student Directorate, who had taken the arms, sheepishly returned them.
Castro’s base of power lay in his blindly loyal rebel army, most of whom were illiterate peasants. He realized that he would need the help of educated people to actually run the country. He chose José Miró Cardona, one of his former professors, to be prime minister; Roberto Agramonte, chairman of the Orthodox Party, to be foreign minister; and Manuel Urrutia, to be president. Castro himself was content to be supreme commander of the armed forces, while keeping his closest allies in the background.
Behind the scenes, Castro began to lay the foundation of a parallel system of power, in which he held complete control. Under the name “Bureau for Revolutionary Planning and Coordination,” Fidel brought together many of his old friends from the movement, including Raúl Castro, Che Guevara, Camilio Cienfuegos, and Alfredo Guevara. The group met regularly at Castro’s headquarters, the top three floors of the Havana Libre Hotel (formerly the Havana Hilton). Castro was known as the Máximo Líder (Maximum Leader).
In the weeks after the revolution, some 550 Batista “criminals” were court-martialed and summarily executed. The worst incident occurred in Santiago de Cuba, where seventy prisoners were killed by rebel soldiers at the command of Raúl Castro and then dumped in a mass grave. Three of Batista’s most notorious thugs were put on public trial in the athletic stadium in Havana. The angry crowd chanted “Parédon!”, meaning “Up against the wall.” By the end of the year there had been about 1,900 executions.
In May 1959, Castro instituted a program of agrarian reform, nationalizing foreign holdings on the island, especially those of the U.S. sugar producers. He also created the National Agrarian Reform Institute (INRA), which gave structure to his hidden government. Soon INRA was responsible for nearly all decisions, including the building of infrastructure. INRA was supported by the reconsolidated military, the Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the control of Raúl Castro.
IF YOU DON’T SUPPORT ME, YOU ARE THE ENEMY—With the INRA, backed by the Revolutionary Army, making the political decisions, there was little need for the puppet government. By July, Castro had decided that he no longer needed President Urrutia. On July 16, Castro announced his resignation, saying that he could no longer work with the president and accusing him of betrayal. Castro then disappeared for several days. As planned, the Cuban population responded with massive protests and calls for Urrutia’s removal. Humiliated and fearing for his safety, Urrutia disguised himself as a milkman and took refuge in the Venezuelan embassy before going into exile. Ten days later, Castro was back in power. He cemented his control by placing his most loyal allies in key positions of power. Fidel put Raúl Castro in control of the military and made Che Guevara, despite his complete lack of any relevant economic experience, director of Cuba’s Central Bank.
Still, the purges continued. The next to go were former members of Castro’s own July 26 Movement. In October, Huber Matos, a former Sierra Madre fighter who was in charge of the economically important Camagüey province, sent Fidel Castro a letter of resignation. In it he expressed his concern with the direction of the government and his wish to return home. He did emphasize that he continued to support Castro and wished him success in the future. To Castro, however, anyone not wholly supportive of his regime was his enemy, and he ordered Matos’ arrest, as well as that of forty officers who shared his views. Although Raúl wanted Matos shot, Fidel settled with having him sentenced to twenty years in prison. Soon afterward, Camilio Cienfuegos died under suspicious circumstances. Cienfuegos, who was sympathetic to Matos, was on his way to Havana for a meeting with Castro when his Cessna 310 disappeared. No trace of the aircraft or its passengers was ever discovered.
Having removed all allies even remotely suspected of being disloyal, Fidel and Raúl turned their attention to external security. After taking power, they had incorporated many soldiers and officers from Batista’s army into the Revolutionary Armed Forces, which numbered approximately 100,000 by the beginning of 1960. Over the next twelve months, the army tripled in size. Additionally, the army was supported by hundreds of thousands of lightly armed militias, recruited from the general population. These militia members were expected to use guerrilla tactics to combat any attempted invasion.
With Castro’s blessing, interior minister Ramiro Valdés created a new secret police organization, the G-2, which was supported by the creation of the Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs), whose task it was to track down suspected saboteurs and traitors. Like Batista before him, Castro soon began to silence critical media, shutting down newspapers, radio stations, and television stations.
FINDING A PLACE IN THE COLD WAR—In April of 1959, less than six months after taking control of Cuba, Castro, in his first visit as head of state, traveled to the United States. He was welcomed with open arms, both by the American public and the Cuban exile population, and more than 30,000 people came to see his opening speech in New York’s Central Park. The U.S. government, on the other hand, played it cooler. President Dwight Eisenhower went on a golfing vacation, leaving Vice President Richard Nixon to meet with Castro. In fact, the CIA was already making plans for Castro’s removal, and the U.S. government applied pressure to block the international sale of arms to Cuba.
Back home, Castro made contact with the Soviet Union, and in February 1960, he signed an agreement to trade Cuban sugar for various Soviet products. In July, Raúl Castro traveled to the Soviet Union and reached an agreement with Nikita Khrushchev for a program of military aid. Nevertheless, the leadership of the USSR was wary of the Castro brothers and not yet convinced that it wanted Cuba as an ally.
Castro ordered the American-owned refineries in Cuba to process oil imports from the Soviets. When the companies refused, Castro nationalized their holdings. In response, Eisenhower cut 700,000 tons from the U.S. annual purchase commitment, in what Castro would describe as the American “Dagger Law,” designed to stab the revolution in the back. Castro countered by nationalizing all U.S.-owned agricultural and industrial firms on the island, and then all large commercial businesses still under private control. The American Mafia alone had to write off about $100 million of their holdings in the tourist industry. These nationalizations also created a huge expatriation of the Cuban middle class. Between 1960 and 1962, 200,000 highly educated citizens fled the island, mostly settling in Florida. These included doctors, engineers, technicians, economists and scientists.
BACK IN THE USA—In September 1960, Castro made his second trip to New York. He planned to speak at the United Nations and wanted to attract the world’s attention. When the eighty-three-person Cuban delegation arrived in New York, they claimed that their rooms at the Shelburne Hotel on Lexington Avenue were far too expensive, and that the hotel had asked for a deposit of $10,000. In dramatic style, Castro’s convoy gathered up their luggage, piled into cars and, followed by dozens of reporters, drove to the United Nations building. There, Castro confronted the secretar- general, Dag Hammarskjøld, and told him that they would either sleep in the UN building or in Central Park. Finally, the entire convoy set off for the seedy Hotel Theresa, in the middle of Harlem, where they settled in. It was here that Fidel received the leaders of the non-aligned movement, including Indian premier Jawaharlal Nehru and Egyptian premier Gamal Abdel Nasser, as well as Nikita Khrushchev, whom he welcomed with a big bear hug. In fact, the entire affair had been a publicity ploy. The Cubans had been offered a steeply discounted room rate of only $20 per day at the Shelburne Hotel and wound up paying more for their rooms at the Hotel Theresa. When Castro had stormed out of the Shelburne, he had even been offered free rooms at the Commodore Hotel near the UN building. At the UN General Assembly meeting, Castro spoke for four and a half hours, until even his allies were on the verge of falling asleep.
THE BAY OF PIGS INVASION—By March of 1960, relations between Cuba and the United States had become so strained that President Eisenhower gave the green light for the organization and training of a group of Cuban exiles to invade the island. On January 3, 1961, the United States officially broke diplomatic ties with Cuba. When John F. Kennedy replaced Dwight Eisenhower as president of the United States less than three weeks later, he inherited the planned invasion. At that point, the plot had already been reported in the New York Times, and Castro undoubtedly knew that something was afoot. The CIA and the State Department considered several landing sites for the invading forces and decided on the Bahía de Cochinos, or Bay of Pigs. The bay covered a thirty-mile long stretch of coast, in an isolated and swampy region.
Prior to the invasion, on April 15, the United States made a surprise attack on the Cuban air force in an attempt to disable Castro’s planes. Castro had already hidden many of his aircraft, and although he lost five planes in the air strikes, in the end he still had more airplanes than pilots: eight planes and only seven pilots. After the air raids, Castro ordered the mass arrests of anyone suspected of being involved in an invasion force. By the time the invaders landed, between 100,000 and 250,000 people had been thrown in prison, scuttling chances for a larger popular revolt.
On April 17, Invasion Brigade 2506, escorted by American destroyers, reached the southern coast of Cuba. The force, which had left from Nicaragua three days earlier, numbered 1,511 men, all of them Cuban exiles. As they pulled out of the port at Puerto Cabezas, the Nicaraguan dictator Luis Somoza told them, “Bring me a couple of hairs from Castro’s beard!” The troops landed at dawn at Girón and Larga beaches, but had great difficulty slogging through the swamp to the shore. Many of their small boats got stuck in the reefs, and when the men waded ashore their walkie-talkies became wet, cutting off communication.
Within minutes, word of the landing had reached Castro. He sent his few remaining planes to attack the American support fleet. The Americans were so confident that they had destroyed the Cuban air force that they did not even put anti-aircraft guns in place for defense. By 6:30 a.m., the Cuban planes had scuttled the largest ship, the Houston, and had forced a second ship, the Barbara, back out to sea, leaving the invading force completely unsupported. At the same time, there were 25,000 Cuban troops and more than 200,000 armed militia in the area. Within sixty-five hours, after heavy losses on the Cuban side, the battle ended when the invading force ran out of ammunition. A total of 114 exile fighters had been killed, and 1,189 were captured. The rest escaped into the swamp or disappeared into the Cuban population. The captured men included many of Batista’s former henchmen. Five were executed, and the rest were eventually traded back to the United States in exchange for medical supplies worth $53 million. The attempted invasion of Cuba had failed spectacularly. Dozens of trials were held in front of revolutionary tribunals, resulting in nine executions.
THE NEXT CRISIS—In 1961, Castro announced the creation of the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI), which would eventually become the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC). At the same time, his regime began cracking down on anyone suspected of disloyalty to the revolution. Artists, poets, and intellectuals were the first targets. Catholics, Protestants and members of the Santería cult were also thrown into labor camps. Male and female prostitutes were jailed, as were homosexuals, who had to wear prison uniforms with a large letter “P” on their back, for “pimpillo” or pretty boy.
On December 1, 1961, on national television and radio, Fidel declared “I am a Marxist-Leninist and I shall be a Marxist-Leninist until the day I die.” The Soviet leaders in Moscow, however, were still dubious about taking responsibility for Cuba’s national defense. In their traditional New Year’s message to their friends and allies, they wished Castro, “success in the creation of a new society,” but made no mention of his statement. Almost a month passed before they even acknowledged it. On the American side, however, the response was immediate. The State Department moved to bring charges against Cuba in the Organization of American States and called for a meeting of foreign ministers to discuss Castro’s removal. In February 1962, the U.S. government imposed a total economic blockade of Cuba, causing the loss of some $600 million in foreign currency earnings. The following month, Castro was forced to place restrictions on basic products. Rations were imposed, and Cubans were given a small book of coupons which were supposed to guarantee them access to a fair share of food and other products. Castro blamed the shortages on the U.S. embargo and the move pushed Cuba even closer to Moscow.
In May, the Politburo in the USSR decided to offer Castro the stationing of Soviet missiles on the island. The original plan called for forty mobile ballistic missile launching pads, with a range of between 1,100 and 2,200 nautical miles. By mid-July, shipments of equipment and weapons began to arrive in Cuba. In October, the United States was finally alerted to the presence of missile sites on the island, and the Cuban Missile Crisis had begun. The first real evidence that Cuba had received missiles from the Soviets came on October 14, when Major Richard S. Heyser flew a U-2 spy plane over the San Cristobál area of Western Cuba and recorded photographic evidence of nuclear launch sites. For five days President Kennedy and his advisors struggled over whether to take preemptive military action, to blockade the island until weapons were withdrawn, or to reach a political deal with the Soviets. They reasoned that a military air strike might not guarantee the destruction of all missile sites and nuclear weapons, but it would almost certainly result in a Soviet response. Instead, Kennedy announced a military blockade around the island, which would be lifted only after all nuclear weapons had been withdrawn. He also announced that a military strike by Cuba on any country in the Western Hemisphere would be countered with a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union by the United States.
The crisis escalated, and all U.S. strategic missile units were placed on the highest level of alert, while 250,000 troops were put on standby for a possible military landing on Cuba. Castro sent a letter to Khrushchev urging the Soviets to launch a nuclear strike against the United States if it attempted to invade the island. Events reached a peak on the morning of October 27, when an American U-2A spy plane was shot down over Cuba by a Soviet ground-to-air missile, killing the pilot, Major Rudolf Anderson, Jr. Kennedy was urged to respond with force, but he resisted and the next morning Khrushchev officially announced that the missiles would be removed from Cuba in exchange for a U.S. agreement not to mount an invasion of Cuba nor support an invasion by a third party.
Castro was left out of the decision-making process. Neither Khrushchev nor Kennedy had consulted him, and in the end he only heard about the agreement through radio and newswire reports. From then on, although the Soviets would continue to offer significant economic aid to Cuba, their relationship would be little more than one of convenience. Khrushchev invited Castro to cover up his humiliation by making a forty-day trip through the Soviet Union. The gesture of reconciliation included assurances of generous amounts of economic aid. The U.S. government also took several steps to improve ties with Cuba. Back-channel communications were restarted between Havana and Washington, and Kennedy hinted at ending the economic embargo if Castro stopped supporting guerrilla groups in Latin America and distanced himself from the Soviets.
This warming of U.S.-Cuban relations was derailed, however, when Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963. Castro was outraged when he heard about attempts being made to link him to the assassination.
COMPAÑERO CHE GUEVARA—Che Guevara, meanwhile, had grown into the ideological brains of the revolution. By 1963, however, Che’s socialist idealism had begun to conflict with Soviet economic plans for Cuba. The nation’s agricultural output fell by 23 percent, leaving a foreign trade deficit and lower living standards throughout Cuban society. The sugar harvest was the lowest since the end of World War II. As the regime’s industry minister, Che was held responsible and he openly criticized aspects of the regime, including its close ties to the Soviets. The following year, Castro signed a five-year agreement to sell Cuban sugar to the Soviet Union at a price above the world-market rate. In 1964, Castro agreed to remove Che from his ministry post and allow him to deal instead with foreign policy. Although he publicly denied having quarreled with Castro, Che began making long trips abroad to support foreign struggles for independence and armed revolutions, spending less and less time in Cuba. He traveled to Algeria, after which Castro agreed to send a battalion of Cuban soldiers and tanks to help the Algerian government in its armed conflict with Morocco. Previously, he had given Cuban military aid to the Algerian National Liberation Front in its struggle against France. Che visited various areas in Africa where colonial struggles were taking place, including Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, the Congo, Senegal, Ghana, Tanzania, and Egypt. While in Algiers, Che gave a speech criticizing the Soviet Union’s economic practices and calling for an end to Cuba’s trade agreements with the Soviets.
When Che returned to Cuba on March 15, 1965, he was brought before Fidel and Raúl, and during their closed-door meeting the friendship among the three finally ended. Che left Cuba on April 2, without saying goodbye to Fidel, and set off for the Congo. There he joined a group of guerrilla fighters around Laurent Kabila, who would eventually become that nation’s dictator. Che continued to travel, reaching Bolivia in November 1966. Within a year, he had been tracked down by Bolivian officers and soldiers, and was eventually killed by Bolivian soldiers trained by Green Berets and the CIA.
SUGAR FANTASIES—Meanwhile, back in Cuba, Castro had announced sweeping changes to the agrarian system, embarking on what would be a series of agricultural fiascos. The Cuban trade deficit with the USSR had mushroomed to $4 billion, so Castro tried to increase agricultural production. His first plan revolved around the sugar harvest, and he announced a target of 5.5 million tons for 1965, increasing to 7 million tons and eventually reaching 10 million tons by 1970. Castro called 1970 “the year of the ten million tons,” but from the beginning, more realistic observers doubted whether the target could be achieved. Castro poured all of Cuba’s energy into the sugar cane harvest, leaving almost all other economic activity at a standstill. Virtually the entire Cuban population was put to work cutting cane, including mothers, children, pensioners, white-collar workers, and the military. Even visiting foreign dignitaries were asked to cut cane, and Castro himself cut for four hours almost every day. Christmas was abolished for 1969, and growing cycles were changed to allow for more production. With so much effort going into cutting cane, the rest of the Cuban economy fell between 20 and 40 %. Worse yet, it soon became clear that the target was indeed impossible to achieve. In July 1970, Fidel was forced to announce that the ten million tons had been a failure. In his usual style, he made an impassioned plea to the people and announced his resignation. The Cuban population responded with their support and he quickly returned to power.
SUPERCOW—In the early 1960s, Castro became increasingly interested in the techniques and science of farming and animal husbandry. His ideas and schemes to improve Cuban agriculture abounded, and included a campaign to rid the island of all weeds, an idea to plant a circle of coffee plants in a huge ring around the island, and a plan to produce a Cuban Camembert that would rival that of Normandy. In 1964, he invited a noted French agronomist, André Voisin, to make a lecture tour of Cuba. Castro had been impressed by Voisin’s book, Grass Productivity. When Voisin arrived, Castro arranged an exuberant series of dinners, social events, lectures, and sightseeing tours. Evidently the strain of celebrity was too much for Voison because, on December 21, after three weeks of being feted, Voisin suffered a heart attack and died while visiting a state farm. Undaunted, Castro continued to look for ways to improve the Cuban agricultural industry, this time in dairy production.
Prior to the revolution, Cuba had had a population of cattle in the millions, mostly the indigenous Cebú variety. The cattle were well-adapted to the tropical climate, but were notoriously poor producers of milk. American Holsteins, by contrast, languished during the dry season but produced far more milk. Fidel ordered the purchase of several thousand of the most expensive Holsteins from Canada. Within the first few weeks, nearly one-third died in the intense Cuban heat. Castro then ordered the construction of special air-conditioned dairy farms, a move that might have benefited André Voisin had Castro thought of it earlier. Castro next announced a plan to cross-breed the Cebú cattle with the imported Holsteins. The resulting F-1 hybrid, he claimed, would inherit the vigor of the tropical cows with the productive capacity of the purebreds. Ignoring the protests of animal husbandry experts and breeders, Castro poured resources and propaganda into the project. One cow, named Ubra Blanca, or White Udder, became so famous that after her death Castro ordered her stuffed and placed in a museum. Unfortunately, the project was a complete failure. Even fifteen years later, the resulting F-1s were still producing less than half the milk of the average American Holstein.
TRYING TO GAIN INTERNATIONAL RESPECTABILITY—Although he was the ruler of a small country, Fidel Castro had dreams of glory. By the end of the 1970s he was providing aid to thirty-five Third-World countries. Part of this outreach had to do with medical training and health care, a legitimate specialty of Castro’s Cuba. Even today, Cuba has a lower infant mortality rate and a higher life expectancy than the United States. However, Castro also wasted a lot of his nation’s limited resources in support of dubious military ventures, including the bloody civil war in Angola and a war between Ethiopia and Somalia. In September 1979, Castro’s international efforts reached their peak when Havana played host to the Sixth Non-Aligned Conference, which made Castro its official spokesman for the next four years.
FLEEING THE SOCIALIST PARADISE—In 1965 the United States declared its willingness to accept any Cubans who sought asylum. Over the next six years, so many Cubans chose to flee the country that there were fears that almost one in every five Cubans would emigrate. The loss of income and of skilled labor, the “brain drain,” was considerable, and Castro finally forbade the flights. Between 1959 and 1980, a total of 800,000 people are estimated to have left the island. This exodus came to a head on April 1, 1980, when a bus crashed through the front gates of the Peruvian embassy in Havana, killing a guard. The six people inside the vehicle asked for political asylum. Outraged, Castro made a tactical error, removing all protection from the embassy. When the news spread that no one would be prevented from entering or leaving the grounds, Cubans flooded into the compound. Within five days, 10,000 people had descended upon the embassy, occupying nearly every square inch. When the Peruvian government refused to accept the refugees, Costa Rican President Rodrigo Carazo offered to allow the Cubans to go to his country. Castro responded by announcing that anyone in the embassy grounds could go home, pack their bags, and leave for wherever they wanted. The next day hundreds of boats packed with families from all over the country left Cuba. By September, when Castro reintroduced travel restrictions, an estimated 125,000 people had fled the country, many headed for the United States. Photographs and video of the massive exodus were shown around the world, delivering a blow to Castro’s image of Cuba as a socialist paradise. It is estimated that between the 1959 revolution and the year 2000, 10 to 15 percent of the Cuban population fled the country, with a majority of them settling in Florida.
SUGAR RUSH—In the early 1980s, sugar prices and harvests were so good that the Cuban economy was growing at a rate of 24 %, while Latin America as a whole declined by 9 %. Then a worldwide slump in sugar prices drove Cuba’s debt to the West from $2.8 billion in 1983 to $6 billion in 1987. Even worse, the Cuban debt to the Eastern bloc rose to almost $19 billion. The Soviet Union tried to save Castro’s Cuba by increasing trade between the two countries. In 1989 the Communist governments in Eastern Europe fell apart and all economic agreements with them became worthless. To make matters worse, in the early 1990s, a series of hurricanes swept across Cuba, decreasing sugar production even more and causing almost $1 billion in damage.
The struggling economy meant that military spending had to be scaled back, and restrictions placed on food and household supplies. Milk was available only for children and those with special needs, and soap, detergent, toilet paper, and matches became precious commodities. Cooking oil and flour were distributed only on a limited basis, as were fruit, jam, and butter. Every two years citizens were entitled to buy four pairs of underwear or bras, two pairs of socks, one shirt or blouse, and four meters of material to make trousers or dresses. At the same time, the black market shot up, from $2 billion to $14.5 billion in less than four years. Energy consumption was slashed by fifty percent, and electricity became sporadic throughout the country. Tractors were replaced with ox carts, and people began to wait two to three hours for infrequent city buses.
Faced with an economy on the verge of collapse, in 1993 Castro gave permission for Cubans to start private businesses, mostly in the service sector. He also allowed them to own and spend U.S. dollars. In September 1994, he reestablished farmers’ markets. The following year, he enacted a law that permitted foreign investors to own Cuban businesses in almost every area of the economy, a right that had previously been limited to the tourist industry. Cuba’s economic output, which had declined 40% between 1989 and 1994, stabilized and began to grow.
In 1995, U.S. president Bill Clinton attempted to counter this trend by signing into law the Helms-Burton Act, a strengthening of the thirty-five-year-old embargo against Cuba that included a ban on any loan or financial assistance to the island; a ban on the import from a third country of any products that contained materials processed in Cuba; and a stipulation that the embargo could only be lifted once a transition government was in power in Cuba that moved toward a market-oriented economic system and that did not include either Fidel or Raúl Castro. The act also required the return of all property seized by the rebels from U.S. citizens.
The biggest beneficiary of Castro’s economic reforms has been the military, which is run by his brother Raúl. The Ministry of Armed Forces manages GAESA (Grupo de Adminstración de Empresarial), a huge conglomerate of businesses involved in tourism, mining, consulting, construction and international trade, and is thought to employ at least 20% of Cuban workers.
CATHOLICISM AND COMMUNISM— Since the early days of his revolution, Castro had had difficulty with the Catholic Church. In 1962, Pope Pius XII excommunicated Castro after his announcement that he was a Marxist-Leninist. From that point on, Castro restricted and persecuted the church and its followers. Much of its property was confiscated and many members of the clergy were expelled from the country. Castro officially proclaimed Cuba an atheist country. He finally became more tolerant of religion in 1992, allowing religious Cubans to join the Communist Party. In 1998, Pope John Paul II was invited to tour Cuba and give large public masses. The pope spoke out against the human rights abuses within the country, but encouraged greater cooperation and reconciliation between the church and Cuba. That same year Castro approved nineteen visas for foreign priests to take up residence in the country. He also allowed Cubans to celebrate Christmas as a holiday for the first time since the 1960s.
THE OVER-THE-HILL DICTATOR—The 1990s found Fidel an aging, lonely dictator. He had quit smoking his trademark cigars in 1985, as part of an anti-smoking campaign on the island. Most of his close allies had been either killed or exiled. He kept up his practice of not sleeping in the same place more that two nights in a row, and he now traveled in a column of three bullet-proof Mercedes limousines with a heavily armed guard.
By 1999, the Cuban National Assembly approved a series of measures that increased penalties for crimes, including a death penalty for drug-related crimes and longer prison sentences for robbery with violence. Sentences of up to twenty years were threatened against anyone providing information to the U.S. government or any foreign enemy or collaborating by any means with foreign media for the purpose of destabilizing the socialist state. At the time, an estimated 110,000 people, roughly one percent of the population, was serving time in prison or labor camps. Of these, at least 3,000 were presumed to be political prisoners. According to a 2005 report by Amnesty International, “the Cuban authorities continue to suppress any form of dissent by methods such as harassment, threats, intimidation, detention and long-term imprisonment.”
THE REVOLUTION DEVOURS ITS CHILDREN—At the same time that Cuba was rising to power in the international sphere, Castro was imposing more restrictions on domestic liberties. In 1971, in response to the arrest of Cuban poet Heberto Padilla, an open letter was published in the French paper Le Monde, criticizing the repressive system in Cuba. The signatories included authors of both the left and the right, including Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Mario Vargas Llosa, Carlos Fuentes, Susan Sontag, and Gabriel García Márquez. In 1989, one of the most celebrated “Heroes of the Revolution” was brought down: Arnaldo Ochoa Sánchez, a general in the Cuban army and a veteran of the Sierra Maestra, the Bay of Pigs, and guerrilla campaigns in Venezuela, the Congo, Ethiopia, Angola, and Nicaragua. The popular Ochoa had become a magnet for disaffected army officers and veterans, who gathered at his house in increasing numbers. Sensing a threat, Castro ordered Ochoa and three other high-ranking officers arrested for drug smuggling. The trial was a sham, and it received worldwide attention when all four were given death sentences, despite the fact that the maximum sentence for drug smuggling was twenty years in jail. Ochoa maintained his innocence, and his allegiance to the regime, until his execution by firing squad. He was buried in an unmarked grave. With Ochoa’s execution, Castro sent a strong message to the increasingly disillusioned military that he would tolerate no dissent within the armed forces or society in general.
In March 2003, Castro took advantage of the world’s preoccupation with the U.S. invasion of Iraq to crack down again on political activists and dissidents. Cuban police arrested seventy-eight journalists, political students, and independent librarians and charged them with conspiring to overthrow the government. Most were sentenced, in closed-door trials, to between fifteen and twenty-eight years in prison. Over the next year, fourteen of the dissidents were released, but the majority have remained in prison. In response to the arrests, Cuban activist Oswaldo Paya delivered a petition to the Cuban National Assembly with more than 14,000 signatures, demanding a referendum to change the Cuban political system and protect civil liberties. It was the second year that Paya had delivered the petition. When he did so in 2002, with more than 11,000 signatures, Castro responded by conducting his own referendum, winning an overwhelming majority (98.97% of the vote according to the Cuban government) to amend the constitution and declare socialism on the island “irrevocable.”
CIA PLOTS—Marita Lorenz, Fidel Castro’s former translator and lover, was recruited by the CIA in a plot to kill Castro using a pill made from shellfish toxin. At the last moment, however, she could not bring herself to go through with the plan, and instead flushed the pill down the toilet. Two years later, a barman by the name of Santos de la Caridad was hired to slip a botulism pill into Castro’s milkshake during his weekly visit to the bar. The plan was foiled, however, when the pills stuck to the inside of the freezer and shattered as they were being removed. Santos was too nervous to pick up the pieces of the pills and put them into the drink. Other CIA assassination ideas included a plan to give Castro a box of poisoned cigars, a plan to coat the inside of his diving suit with tuberculosis bacteria, and a plan involving a rifle disguised as a television camera. The CIA even devised a plan to slip Castro a substance that would make his beard fall out, thus humiliating him and causing him to lose the respect of the Cuban people.
THE NUMBER 26—Castro remains superstitious about certain dates and numbers. He attaches great importance to the number 26, having been born in 1926, on April 13 (which is half of 26) and having started his conspiracy against Batista in 1952, at the age of twenty-six. The attack on the military base in Moncada, for which Castro chose the date, took place on July 26, 1953, and his revolutionary movement took the name The 26th of July Movement. Castro frequently chooses the twenty-sixthday of the month to deliver key speeches or to make major decisions, such as March 26, 1962, when he spoke out against the so-called Sectarians of the Communist Party, who were challenging his rule. Of course, all this good luck would be ruined if he acknowledged that, as his sisters claim, he was really born in 1927.
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An official Disney Princess, what is the name of the princess of Agrabah, heroine of the film Aladdin? | Aladdin (Film) | Disney Princess Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
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Summary
Common thief Aladdin is cunned by Jafar into stealing a lamp from the Cave of Wonders that was home to an all powerful Genie, only to realize the Genie can help him win the heart of his true love Princess Jasmine.
Plot
The story takes place in the mystical city of Agrabah, which is based mainly on the medieval city of Baghdad, the home of the 1001 Arabian Nights, and there are some inconsistencies in the time period. The sultan (who is never given a name) of Agrabah is secretly being controlled by his grand vizier, Jafar . Jafar, who is also a sorcerer, wants to be the sultan himself and rule Agrabah; to further his goals, he has spent years searching for the Cave of Wonders, so he can harness the magical mystical power of the genie of the lamp found within. However, Jafar discovers that only one person, a metaphorical "Diamond in the Rough", can enter the cave, or anyone accompanied by that person.
The sultan, meanwhile, is having problems with finding a prince for his daughter, Princess Jasmine , to marry. By mesmerizing him with his magical snake staff, Jafar convinces the sultan that Jafar needs the sultan's ring to find Jasmine a husband. Jafar actually needs the ring to discover the identity of the "Diamond in the Rough."
Jasmine, who does not want to be married off, decides to run away disguised as a peasant girl. In the anarchy of the streets, she is saved by a street urchin named Aladdin, though she doesn't learn his name. Meanwhile, Jafar discovers that Aladdin is the "Diamond in the Rough", and he sends palace guards to "capture the street rat." When Jasmine asks what happened to her savior, Jafar lies to Jasmine by saying he had been executed at dawn for "kidnapping the princess."
Later, Jafar, disguised as an old man, shows Aladdin a hidden passageway out of the dungeon to free and take him to the Cave of Wonders. Jafar tells Aladdin that if he brings back the lamp, he will be rewarded. The Cave's tiger-shaped head allows Aladdin to enter, but he can only touch the lamp. Inside the Cave, Aladdin successfully finds the lamp, but his pet monkey, Abu , loses control and attempts to take a jewel, causing the cave to melt around them. Aladdin and Abu manage to escape with the aid of a flying carpet named Carpet . Upon his escape, Aladdin hands Jafar the lamp, and Jafar decides to give him his "eternal reward", preparing to attack with his dagger. Abu saves Aladdin by biting Jafar's arm, and Abu and Aladdin fall back into the cave as it closes.
Aladdin, Abu and Carpet are all trapped inside the Cave of Wonders. Jafar discovers, to his dismay, that Abu got the lamp from him before they disappeared. Aladdin discovers that the lamp is home to an eccentric, fun-loving genie (simply named "Genie"), who will grant him any three wishes, excluding wishes to force a person to fall in love, to kill someone, to bring someone back from the dead, or to give his master extra wishes.
Aladdin tricks Genie into getting them out of the cave, without technically wishing for him to do so. Once out of the cave, Aladdin gets to know Genie, and asks him what he would wish for if he had the chance; Genie says he'd wish for freedom, but that can only be granted if his master is benevolent enough to free him with a wish. Aladdin promises to set Genie free with his last wish.
Aladdin, who has fallen in love with Princess Jasmine, is disappointed that he can't wish to make her fall in love with him. However, the law states that only a prince can marry a princess, so he wishes to become a prince.
Meanwhile, Jafar, who is worried that the princess might have him beheaded as punishment for supposedly having Aladdin executed, comes up with the idea to convince the sultan to let him become her husband with the help of his parrot, Iago . He later tries to mesmerize the sultan into granting this request with his staff, but is interrupted when the sultan is startled by the noise from Aladdin's approaching consort.
As "Prince Ali Ababwa", Aladdin returns to Agrabah and, although offending Jasmine by appearing as another typical rich and self-important prince, eventually wins Jasmine's love by taking her on a romantic ride on the flying carpet. Afterwards, Jasmine tricks Aladdin into admitting he's the street urchin she met in the marketplace. Aladdin naturally wishes to impress her, so he deceives her by telling her that he really is a prince and had just pretended be a commoner in order to escape the restrictions of palace life, much like what Jasmine did.
Jafar, who is afraid that "Prince Abooboo", as he incorrectly calls him, may win Princess Jasmine over, ruining his own evil plans to marry her, orders Aladdin out of the way. He orders the guards to have Aladdin gagged and tied up in shackles (which is not a problem, as Razoul , the chief guard, is plagued with a lust for killing). He tells him that he has "worn out his welcome," and a guard hits Aladdin over the head, knocking him unconscious. Aladdin comes to when the guards drop him over a cliff into the sea. They have attached a large metal ball-and-chain to his ankles, so he sinks very quickly. He hits the bottom, and his turban floats down. The lamp tumbles out and he begins to struggle towards it (which is difficult as the ball-and-chain attached to his ankles pulls him back), but passes out from lack of oxygen before he can reach it. Aladdin, bound and gagged, slides down towards the lamp, and rolls over, causing it to rub against his fingers. Genie appears, and saves Aladdin, using up his second wish. Aladdin and Genie return to the palace and Aladdin confronts Jafar over trying to have him killed. Jafar uses his staff to try to convince the sultan that Aladdin is lying, but Aladdin, seeing what he is doing, grabs the staff and shatters it. He then shows the sultan that Jafar has been controlling him and plotting against him. The sultan calls for the guards to arrest Jafar, but he manages to escape, and, before doing so, sees the lamp in Aladdin's possession. The sultan is convinced that his troubles are over as Jasmine has finally chosen a suitor.
All seems well, but the weight of his future responsibilities begins to distress Aladdin. He begins to consider going back on his promise to free Genie so he can keep a wish in reserve, which severely offends the spirit. Chastened, Aladdin decides to tell Jasmine the whole truth of the matter. Unfortunately, Aladdin leaves the lamp in his chamber and Jafar sends Iago to steal it. Lamp in hand, Jafar becomes Genie's next master, and wishes to become sultan. When the former sultan and Jasmine refuse to bow to him, he wishes to be the most powerful sorcerer in the world. With his new powers, Jafar forces them to bow to him.
Jafar then uses his magic to reveal that "Prince Ali" is merely the street urchin Aladdin, and after Jafar slaps Aladdin in the face, he banishes him to "the ends of the earth", in one of the palace towers. "The ends of the earth" appear to be Antarctica, the Arctic or possibly the Himalayas . Luckily, Abu and Carpet were banished with him, and Aladdin is able to fly back to Agrabah, with the intent of reclaiming the lamp.
Meanwhile, Jafar, who is angry that Jasmine does not wish to become his queen, makes a wish for Genie to cause her to fall in love with him. Genie tries to tell him that he cannot grant that wish, but Jafar does not listen. Jasmine, who sees Aladdin sneaking into the palace, pretends that the wish has taken effect, much to Genie's surprise, in order to distract Jafar. She even goes so far as to kiss him, causing Aladdin, Abu, the Genie and even Iago to blanche. At first it seems to be working; Jafar, however, sees Aladdin's reflection in Jasmine's crown and confronts him before he can reach the lamp.
Jafar uses magic to imprison or transfigure all the good characters other than Aladdin himself so they cannot steal the lamp back. Jafar eventually turns himself into a giant cobra and fights Aladdin. When Aladdin appears to be defeated, Jafar tells Aladdin that he was a fool for thinking he could defeat "the most powerful being on earth." Aladdin reminds Jafar he is not the most powerful being on earth and that honor belongs to Genie, since he gave Jafar his power in the first place.
Jafar decides to use his final wish to become the most powerful genie in the world. Jafar is at first convinced that his new powers will allow him to rule the universe, but he realizes too late that Aladdin tricked him, since as a genie, Jafar is no longer free. Jafar is imprisoned in his own lamp along with Iago. Genie sends them to the Cave of Wonders.
Of course, Aladdin is now no longer a prince and is not eligible to marry Jasmine. Genie insists that Aladdin use his final wish to make himself a prince again, but nevertheless, he keeps his promise and wishes for Genie's freedom. When all seems lost for Aladdin and Jasmine, the sultan decides that, between his loyalty to Genie and his courage in defeating Jafar, Aladdin has proven his worth; the sultan therefore changes the law so that "the princess shall marry anyone she deems worthy" meaning Aladdin and Jasmine can be married. Genie flies away to see the world while the happy couple begin their new life together.
Cast
A Whole New World (Reprise)
Trivia
In an attempt to boost box office sales by increasing boy's interest in the film, Aladdin was featured more in the previews than Jasmine.
When Rajah changes back to his normal self, his head turns into Mickey Mouse's for a split second.
Seven different video games based on the movie were produced. Each one released for the Sega Genesis, Sega Game Gear, Super Nintendo Entertainment System (later ported to the Game Boy Advance), Game Boy, Game Boy Color and Sony PlayStation. The PlayStation version is actually an alternate sequel to the film, telling a whole new story compared to the theatrical release or either of its direct-to-video siblings.
Robin Williams, the voice of the Genie, also voiced the Merchant. This is because the Merchant was originally supposed to return at the end singing a reprise of the opening song "Arabian Nights", revealing that he himself was at one time the Genie but had transformed into a human. This was changed during production and the Merchant only reappeared at the end of Aladdin and the King of Thieves , singing the "Arabian Nights" reprise that had already been recorded for the original movie.
The Genie of the Magic Lamp (played voice of Hans Conried ) in the 1981 movie 1001 Arabian Nights.
The genie's appearance is similar to that of the genie in the 1940 movie, The Thief of Bagdad. That film's villain, an evil vizier named Jafar, is virtually the same character as Jafar in Aladdin -- from his appearance to his manner of speaking to his actions (bewitching the sultan, wooing the princess so he can become sultan himself). The film also features a human sidekick named Abu.
The movie was also featured in the video game Kingdom Hearts , mirroring the plot of the movie loosely, but was cut down and altered to fit the game. In Agrabah, Aladdin teams up with Sora to fight off the Heartless invading his home. Princess Jasmine was kidnapped by Jafar and the Heartless, as she was revealed to be one of the Princesses of Heart. Once the Keyhole was sealed, Genie joins up with Sora as a summon under Aladdin's request to help them save Jasmine. A facsimile of Agrabah was also used for Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories for the Game Boy Advance. The world returns for Kingdom Hearts II , although the story involves more elements from The Return of Jafar , with the peddler from the start of the first film replacing Abis Mal.
Some of the original songs before the story was rewritten and half of the characters were cut: "Proud of Your Boy" (supposed to be sung by Aladdin to his mother [who was later removed from the story] while she was sleeping), "Call Me A Princess", "Why Me", "Babkak, Omar, Aladdin, Kassim", "Humiliate The Boy" (sung by Jafar, cut as it was considered too cruel for the film), "High Adventure", and "Count on Me" (which was something Aladdin sung to his friends and family), which was changed to "A Whole New World". Rough versions of "High Adventure" and "Proud of Your Boy" can be found in the Special Edition Soundtrack. "Why Me" was recorded in the studio with Jonathan Freeman and can be found on the compilation album Aladdin: Magical Selections.
Vocal doubles were used for the singing voices of the three major characters--Brad Kane for Scott Weinger (Aladdin), Lea Salonga for Linda Larkin (Jasmine), and Bruce Adler for Robin Williams (The Merchant), although Williams did do his own singing voice for the Genie.
In 2003, Disney's California Adventure opened "Aladdin--A Musical Spectacular," a stage show based on the movie. The show has been quite popular due to the fact that while roughly 90% of it is scripted, the dialogue of the Genie constantly changes to reflect popular culture of the time. The show also carries an additional song by Jasmine that was cut from the movie "To Be Free."
While in this film, the Genie only transforms twice into another Disney character; throughout the entire trilogy, he performs such transformations 12 times (not counting a second appearance as Jafar).
In The Story of Prince Ahmed and Periebanou, a story found in the 1001 Arabian Nights, "Prince Ali" is the name of a brother of Prince Ahmed, the hero of the story.
It has been said that Bill Plympton was originally considered to animate the Genie, as his animated shorts tend to feature many transformations.
The Prince bitten by Rajah at the start of the film is addressed by the Sultan as Prince Achmed. Possibly a reference to the 1926 animated film The Adventures of Prince Achmed.
The design of the Genie resembles that of a character shown in a 1959 Disney short, "Eyes in Outer Space" which can be found in the Walt Disney Treasures: Tomorrowland DVD set.
The animated character of Aladdin was originally designed based on actor Michael J. Fox but during production it was decided that he wasn't "appealing enough" and they decided to draw to instead resemble actor Tom Cruise.
Aladdin was one of the American Film Institute's 500 nominees for the 100 Funniest American Movies, but it did not make the final list.
This is the first Disney movie to mention Allah or any other religious figure outside of Christianity.
Plans were to re-release this movie in theaters in Fall 1998 and Spring 2004.
| Jasmine |
That dietary staple of seafarers for over 400 years, hard tack is a type of what? | Disney Princess (franchise) | Disney Fanon Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
The character line-up has varied since the creation of the franchise; Princesses Snow White , Cinderella , Aurora , Ariel , Belle , Jasmine , Pocahontas , Fa Mulan , Tiana , Rapunzel Merid a, Anna, Elsa and Kida.
The Disney Princesses are featured in various sing-a-long video series released through The Walt Disney Company. In addition, the franchise includes dolls, miniature castles and other toys. The princesses are also featured in the nightly “ Fantasmic! Nighttime Show Spectacular” in Disneyland and Disney's Hollywood Studios and beginning in 2011 at Tokyo DisneySea in Japan.
Since 2013, with the exception of Tiana, Rapunzel and Merida, the princesses are showcased in their redesigned outfits instead of the ones that they wear in their own movies.
Contents
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History
In early 2000, when Andy Mooney was hired by the Disney consumer-products division to help combat dropping sales, the idea for the Disney Princess franchise was born. Soon after joining Disney, Mooney attended his first “ Disney on Ice ” show. While waiting in line, he found himself surrounded by young girls dressed as princesses. “They weren’t even Disney products. They were generic princess products,” he mused. Soon after realizing the demand, the Disney Princess line was formed.
Despite limited advertising and no focus groups, the various Disney Princess items released became a huge success. Sales at Disney Consumer Products rose from $300 million in 2001 to $3 billion in 2006. Today there are over 25,000 products based on the franchise.
The princesses to be featured in the line were chosen from classic Disney films. The characters were not chosen specifically for their royal titles, but rather for how well they fit into what Disney executives deemed “the Princess mythology”. Mulan is an example of this concept; she has no familial ties to royalty, but is still included in the character list. Tinker Bell was once included under the same principle before it was decided she was not suited for the "mythology". [2 ] Recently though, Tinker Bell has starred in her own Disney franchise, Disney Fairies . Other fairies were created specifically for the franchise. The line began with a book series by Gail Carson Levine, and has since spawned toys, direct-to-video movies and other products based on the characters. However, the franchise may have began much earlier, perhaps in the mid-to-late 1990s, where all of the Princesses up to Pocahontas were already included (Mulan would be added much later). Also, at one point Esmeralda and Jane Porter were both considered to be included in the line-up, but were never realized.
Character Background
The characters themselves, despite appearing in separate films, have distinct similarities. The princesses show good will towards all creatures, evidenced by the common ability to commune with animals. The princesses are known for their inner and outer beauty as well as having beautiful singing voices, apart from Merida who doesn't sing at all in her film.
Each princess, excluding Merida, has a romance that is resolved by the end of her debut film; the male counterparts known as " Disney Princes ". These charismatic girls carry a similar personality in their eras, in the beginning with the first three (Snow White, Cinderella and Aurora), their characteristics were well known as classy, graceful and romantic daydreamers and who suffered from the actions caused by others. They held an inner strength through compassion, love, kindness and, particularly with Snow White, a strong sense of resillience.
After the renaissance era these popular heroines became more active then reactive with Ariel, Belle, Jasmine, Pocahontas and Mulan. Their characteristics were known to be strong-willed, adventurous, feisty, cunning and determined. As well their goals were more on adventure and freedom than love, these girls were more fighters for their dreams than the first three. The latest ones: Tiana and Rapunzel are in their modern era; Tiana, an original character, is much more a realist than the others, she doesn't want magic to make a dream come true but with only hard work, whereas Rapunzel is much more like the idealistic ones than Tiana.
Snow White, Aurora, Ariel, Jasmine, Rapunzel and Merida are born of royal heritage as daughters of kings and queens. Pocahontas can be considered as being of royal heritage, as she is the daughter of a chief and considered Native American royalty by the English. Cinderella, Belle and Tiana become royalty by marriage. Mulan is the only Disney princess who does not become royalty by blood or marriage, but she does, however, receive a grace of honor from the Emperor of China making her the only woman to ever do so.
Snow White
Main article: Snow White (character)
The character of Snow White first originated in a Brothers Grimm fairy tale "Schneewittchen" about a beautiful German princess with a jealous step-mother . In 1937, Walt Disney turned this classic fairy tale into his very first animated feature film. Her true love is Prince Ferdinand, who breaks her sleeping death 'slumber' with love's first kiss. She befriends the seven dwarfs during her stay at their cottage. She is the youngest princess, being about 14 during the film's events.
Speaking Voice and Singing Voice: Adriana Caselotti (Original Film), Mary Kay Bergman (80's and 90's merchandise), Carolyn Gardner (2000-2010, Kingdom Hearts series, House of Mouse and others) and Katherine Von Till (2011-present).
Live-Action Reference Model: Marge Champion .
Cinderella
Main article: Cinderella (character)
The best-known version of Cinderella is the fairy tale "Cendrillon" by Charles Perrault in 1697. In 1950, it was turned into an animated feature-length film by Walt Disney. Cinderella is probably the eldest of all the Disney princess. She is either 19 or 20 years of age. Her stepmother turned her into the family's sole servant after the passing of her father. With magical help from her Fairy Godmother , she attends the ball and meets the prince of her kingdom , and eventually marries him, thus freeing her from her life of servitude. She is often considered the "Leader of the Disney Princesses".
Speaking Voice and Singing Voice: Ilene Woods (Original Film), Jennifer Hale (Speaking, sequels, House of Mouse, Kingdom Hearts series; Currently) and Tami Tappan Damiano (Singing, sequels).
Live-Action Reference Model: Helene Stanley .
Aurora
Main article: Princess Aurora
Best known as the heroine of the 1959 animated classic Sleeping Beauty which is very loosely based on Charles Perrault's "La Belle au Bois Dormant". Although her dress changes from blue to pink (thanks to two of her guardians, Merryweather and Flora) she is most commonly seen wearing pink. She was cursed at birth by an evil fairy called Maleficent , who predicted her death on her 16th birthday. One of the three good fairies, Merryweather, softened the curse by changing her death to a deep slumber that will only be awakened by true love's kiss. By falling in love with Prince Phillip , the prince of a neighboring kingdom, she is freed from the curse by the end of the film after the evil fairy is defeated.
Speaking Voice and Singing Voice: Mary Costa (Original Film), Jennifer Hale (Speaking 2000-2005, 2007-present Kingdom Hearts series, various apparances), Erin Torpey (Speaking, various appearances 2005-2007) and Cassidy Ladden (Singing various appearances).
Live-Action Reference Model: Helene Stanley .
Ariel
Main article: Ariel
The heroine of the 1989 film, loosely based on the Danish fairy tale "Den Lille Havfrue" by Hans Christian Andersen, and the daughter of King Triton , ruler of the sea, 16 year old mermaid Ariel falls in love with a dashing human prince named Eric . She has always dreamt of life on land. She trades her voice to the sea witch Ursula (who was supposed to be her aunt in the uncut version of the film) in order to become a human and be with him forever. However, Ursula was not who she seemed. Ariel was featured in three Disney movies: The Little Mermaid, The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea and The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning. She is the first and only princess to have a child, a human and mermaid princess named Melody . The co-directer, Ron Clemets, changed the original character (from Hans Christian Andersen tale), seeing her as 'too tragic'; resulting in Ariel. It is known that, Ariel is the only princess and one of few Disney Heroines to be a mother.
Speaking Voice and Singing Voice: Jodi Benson .
Live-Action Reference Model: Sherri Stoner .
Belle
Main article: Belle (Beauty and the Beast)
French commoner who is the heroine of the 1991 animated classic Beauty and the Beast , loosely based on the French fairy tale "La Belle et la Bête" abridged version by Madame Jeanne-Marie le Prince de Beaumont, her name is translated from the French word for "beauty". She trades her freedom for her father's with the Beast and becomes his prisoner, but she soon learns to see the good hidden behind his hideous appearance and falls in love with him over time. By confessing her love at the end of the movie, the Beast is turned back into a human along with his enchanted servants and Belle becomes his princess. Though, her princess hood is only technical since she never marries the Beast. Belle's prince (the beast) is named Adam.
Speaking Voice and Singing Voice: Paige O'Hara (Original Film, sequels, Kingdom Hearts series, various others 1991-2011), Jodi Benson (House of Mouse) and Julie Nathanson (2011-present).
Live-Action Reference Model: Sherri Stoner .
Jasmine
Main article: Princess Jasmine
The spunky, independent Arabian Princess of Agrabah , who dreams of seeing what's beyond her palace and be freed from her father's constant pestering of royal marriage. She falls in love with the title character in 1992's Aladdin , whom she marries at the end of the third movie, Aladdin and the King of Thieves . She is loosely based on Princess Badroulbadour (Arabic بدر البدور, badru l-budūr, "full moon of full moons") featured in the story of "Aladdin and his Wonderful Lamp" from "1001 Arabian Nights". Interestingly, the original story took place in China, and not the Middle East.
Speaking Voice: Linda Larkin (Original Film, sequels, House of Mouse, TV series, Kingdom Hearts series various others).
Singing Voice: Lea Salonga (Original Film) and Liz Callaway (sequels).
Pocahontas
Main article: Pocahontas (character Disney's Pocahontas is loosely based on the real-life Native American princess whose name was Matoaka (Pocahontas was her nickname and meant 'Little Mischief'). She falls in love with a man named John Smith , who helps her prevent a war from commencing between their people. At the end of the film, John is wounded and sent back to London for treatment, and so they lose contact with one another. Years later, Pocahontas travels to London as her people's representative to prevent a potential war between the English and the Native Americans. Though they succeed in stopping the conflict, Pocahontas finds her path different from John Smith's and sails back to her country with her new lover, John Rolfe .
Speaking Voice: Irene Bedard (Original Film, sequel), Singing Voice: Judy Kuhn (Original film, sequel).
Mulan
Main article: Fa Mulan Fa Mulan is a brave Chinese heroine who dresses up like a soldier and goes to war in place of her crippled father, risking death and dishonor. She is loosely based on the heroine from the ancient Chinese epic poem "The Legend of Hua Mulan"(花木蘭傳奇) and she is the only Disney Princess who is not royal by blood or marriage and is literally not one, however, she has honor of a princess because she achieved honor from the Emperor himself by saving China. She comes close to marrying a prince in her second movie. During her stay in the army, she falls in love with the captain, Li Shang and they marry at the end of the second movie.
Speaking Voice: Ming-Na (Original Film, sequel).
Singing Voice: Lea Salonga (Original Film, sequel).
Tiana
Main article: Tiana
Partly inspired from E.D Baker's 2002 novel The Frog Princess, Tiana is the heroine of the 2009 animated film The Princess and the Frog and is the first Princess of African-American decent. She dreams of opening her own restaurant through hard work. By kissing Prince Naveen in frog form, she is turned into a frog (because the magic can only be broken by a princess) and they are forced to set on a journey to find a way to undo the magic. Eventually, she finds herself falling for the handsome, but spoiled prince and willingly sacrifices her own humanity to be with him. By marrying the prince, Tiana becomes a real princess and so breaks the spell with a kiss. They have their own restaurant at the end of the film.
Speaking Voice and Singing Voice: Anika Noni Rose .
Rapunzel
Main article: Rapunzel
The heroine from the animated feature Tangled is loosely based on the German title character from the Brothers Grimm fairy tale "Rapunzel". Her long hair, which is said to measure 70 feet in length, not only has magical healing powers, but can be used as a weapon. Given the power by a magic golden flower, Mother Gothel kidnaps her as an infant to use her power to keep herself young. 18 years later, Rapunzel sneaks away from her tower with a thief, Flynn Rider , and sets on her own journey to find the flying lanterns that float into the sky every year on her birthday. To free her from Gothel's clutches, Flynn cuts her hair, thus destroys her power, and she is returned to her family. Rapunzel was "officially welcomed into the Disney Princess Royal Court" during a promotional event at Kensington Palace in London on October 2, 2011. Speaking Voice and Singing Voice: Mandy Moore .
Expected Future Princesses
Princesses who are expected to join the Disney Princess line-up but must wait until they either make the cut or not.
Anna will join in November 2014
Elsa will join alongside with Anna
Sarah from The Labyrinth will join next year
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Merida is the sixteen-year-old daughter of Queen Elinor, who rules the kingdom alongside King Fergus. Queen Elinor's expectations of her daughter make Merida see Elinor as being distant while also causing friction between the two. Despite Elinor's desire to see Merida as a proper royal lady, Merida is an impetuous girl with natty, unruly ginger hair who wants to take control of her own destiny. Merida has honed her skill in archery, and is one of the most skilled archers ever seen. She is also skilled in sword-fighting and racing across the countryside on her horse, Angus. She is the first princess from a Pixar movie, the first original princess in the line-up that hasn't been inspired by either literature (Snow White, Cinderella, etc.) or real-life (Pocahontas) works, and the first without a love interest. She also never sings a major song, thus breaking away the traditional line-up, though as a child she sang a small verse of a song in Gaelic.
Speaking Voice: Kelly Macdonald (Original Film)
Guest Characters
Princess Collection 2 : Songs by Maid Marian , Nala and Megara are included.
Disney Princess Sing Along Songs: Once Upon a Dream: Sing along segments by Princess Minnie Mouse , Megara , and Ting-Ting, Su and Mei are included.
Disney Princess Sing Along Songs: Enchanted Tea Party: Sing along segments by Alice , Maid Marian and Melody are included.
Disney Princess Sing Along Songs: Perfectly Princess: Sing along segments by Alice and Melody are included.
Once Upon A Princess: Volume 1: A story book segment by Esmeralda is included.
Disney Princess: "It's not Just Make Believe" Music Video: Alice and Melody are included.
Disney Princess Dolls: Esmerelda, Tinker Bell and Megara are included.
Disney Princess Magazines: Esmeralda, Alice and Jane Porter appeared in magazines, and in the case of Jane, she came to be presented as a new princess for the franchise in one of the magazines.
My Princess Collection (books collection): Dot , Jessie , Alice and Kida are included. [3 ]
Unofficial Princesses
Disney heroines and actual Princesses who are not part of official Disney Princess franchise. Heroines with their name in boldface have appeared in some official Disney Princess products.
Animated shorts and feature films
Kilala Reno (Kiala Princess)
Mickey’s Pirate and Princess Party
Begining on January 22, 2007, the Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World hosted their newest hard ticket (separate admission) event, “Disney’s Pirate and Princess Party”, renamed “Mickey’s Pirate and Princess Party” in 2008. The event combines the “ Pirates of the Caribbean ” attraction and movie series and the Disney Princess line, and cosplaying as both pirates and royalty is encouraged. Visitors can have meet and greets with characters from both franchises, as well as the other classic characters dressed as buccaneers and royals, and take part in various activities. Other features include the "Disney’s Enchanted Adventures Parade” and the “ Magic, Music and Mayhem ” fireworks spectacular. Because the event has become so popular, Pirate and Princess events has become an annual hard-ticket staple with dates into August and September of 2007 and January through June of 2008.
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Despite being originated from different countries, each princess actually talks in English.
This would be so children would not get confused by the different languages.
Even though Mulan II is in English, Mushu somewhat mentions that they're actually speaking Chinese, when Mulan is complaining about Shang, Mushu ask her if she understands Chinese.
Aurora, Pocahontas and Tiana are the only princesses to speak in English in reality (due to the former being born in England, and the latter two in the US).
The ages of the Princesses are somewhat ambiguous, save for a few canon remarks by their film's makers (although a few get their age addressed in-universe). For now, their ages rank as follows; Snow White is 14, Cinderella is 19, Aurora is 16 (canon), Ariel is 16 (canon) and 17 (during Kingdom Hearts II ), Belle is 17, Jasmine turns 16 at the end of the film (canon), Pocahontas is 18, Mulan is 16 (canon) then 17 in second film, Tiana is 19 (canon), Rapunzel is 18 (canon) and Merida is 16 (canon).
Out of the eleven Disney Princesses, only six of them are royal by birth; Snow White, Aurora, Ariel, Jasmine, Rapunzel and Merida. Cinderella, Belle and Tiana become princesses by marrying a prince, and Pocahontas is the daughter of a Native-Indian chief, which is considered Native Indian Royalty by the English. Mulan also isn't actually a princess (she is the daughter of a war hero) but she does however receive a grace of honor from the Emperor of China whose royalty makes her the only woman to ever do so. Pocahontas and Mulan are included in the princess line-up because of their high status (Pocahontas is the daughter of the tribe's leader and is graced while Mulan saved China) and significant acts of heroism in their films.
Kida from the film Atlantis, who is the daughter of the emperor of Atlantis, and Eilonwy from The Black Cauldron are the only actual born Princesses not to be officially part of the Disney Princess line. In fact, according to a Disney Executive, Kida couldn't be included in the line-up unless Eilonwy was added as well.
Conversely, Tinker Bell is the only princess to actually be dropped from the official line-up, and was originally considered as an official member during the franchise's early years. However, in 2005 , she received her own spin-off franchise .
Aurora, Jasmine, Rapunzel and Merida are the only princesses to celebrate their birthday in their film.
Snow White is the only Disney Princess with short hair, all the rest have either long or shoulder-length hair, some of which are sometimes tied in a bun. Mulan had to cut hers shorter to be a soldier, and Rapunzel had her hair cut off which changed it to brown by Eugene.
Kairi is the only Princess of Heart that is not an original Disney Character, nor an official Disney Princess.
Ariel is the only Princess to be a Mythical Creature. All of the others are humans.
Tiana is the only Princess to be an animal (in her case, a frog, but only temporarily).
The Princesses made their LEGO Duplo debut in 2012 and also appear in 2013 sets.
Only five of the official Princesses are Princesses of Heart (Snow White, Jasmine, Belle, Cinderella and Aurora) in Kingdom Hearts.
Alice is the only unofficial Princess to be a Princess of Heart in Kingdom Hearts.
Though Ariel and Mulan appear in Kingdom Hearts, they aren't Princesses of Heart, but two of your allies.
Pocahontas, Tiana, Rapunzel and Merida have not been featured in any of the latest Kingdom Hearts series yet.
Cinderella and Pocahontas are the only Disney Princesses that didn't have their antagonists killed in their movies. Although Jafar does not die at the end of the first Aladdin, he does at the end of The Return of Jafar.
Currently, Snow White, Tiana and Merida are the only three Disney Princesses that don't have sequels to their movies.
Princess Snow White, Aurora and Ariel, are at the same time, royal by blood and marriage.
Out of eleven Disney Princesses, only six were seen wearing tiaras/royal crowns in their film. They are Aurora, Cinderella, Tiana, Rapunzel, Ariel and Merida. Although in the new promotional photos of the Disney Princess, each princess is seen wearing a tiara.
The three Disney Princesses that became royalty by marriage (Cinderella, Belle and Tiana) all wore opera gloves, and are the only princesses to have done so.
Five princesses (Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Jasmine and Merida) wear outfits with their shoulders seen.
Mulan and Tiana are the only Princesses to kill the main antagonist in their respective films; all other villains either were not killed, killed by accident or killed by allies.
Snow White, Cinderella, Belle, Pocahontas, Mulan and Rapunzel are the only princesses to get their names from their original stories.
Snow White and Cinderella are the only two orphaned Princesses.
The last Princess from Disney Renaissance is Mulan, additionally the last Disney Heroine from the Renaissance is Jane Porter.
And Mulan is the last Disney Princess of the Disney Renaissance.
Five of the Princesses (Snow White, Jasmine, Pocahontas, Mulan and Tiana) have brown eyes (though in different shades, Pocahontas' and Mulan's eyes are darker), but this is due to four of them being of different ethnicities. Snow White is the only Caucasian princess that has brown eyes. Cinderella, Ariel and Merida are the only three Princesses to have blue eyes, Aurora the only one with violet eyes, Belle with hazel eyes, and Rapunzel with green eyes. However, most of the female human characters (including unofficial members) are all depicted with blue eyes. This may eventually be balanced or overtaken in 2014 with the inclusion of Anna and Elsa.
The same five Princesses that have brown eyes also have black hair, while none of the others have black hair.
Belle is the first Disney Heroine to teach her love interest how to read, Jane Porter is the second.
Aurora is currently the only true blonde Princess. Cinderella has orange-colored strawberry-blonde hair, and Rapunzel is blonde by the sun's magic, but is brunette by genetics.
Strangely enough, all of Disney's redheaded princesses (Ariel, Merida and possibly Cinderella) have blue eyes.
Anna will be the first true blonde-haired and blue-eyed princess.
Ironically, opposite to Cinderella's case, Anna has been converted to a honey-blonde.
Not counting Rapunzel, Belle is the only brunette Princess.
Belle and Rapunzel, both brunettes, have a green-related eye color - Belle has hazel eyes, and Rapunzel has green eyes.
Pocahontas, Mulan and Merida are currently the only Princesses to not originate from the traditional fairy tales.
Pocahontas and Mulan are the least popular princesses in the official line-up since they rarely appear in any merchandise let alone several group shots.
All of the Princesses have at least one animal sidekick: Snow White has various forest animals; Cinderella has various mice (including Jaq and Gus) and birds, as with Major the horse and Bruno the bloodhound; Aurora has her fairies, birds and squirrels; Ariel has Flounder the fish, Sebastian the crab and Scuttle the seagull; Belle has Philippe the horse, Jasmine has Rajah the tiger, Pocahontas has Meeko the raccoon, Flit the hummingbird and eventually Percy the pug (originally owned by Governor Ratcliffe); Mulan has Mushu the dragon (who will turn Hayabusa to their side later in the film), Cri-Kee the cricket, Khan the horse and Little Brother the dog; Tiana has Louis the alligator and Ray the firefly (in all appearances after the film's events she now only has the former as the latter is now already dead); and Rapunzel has Pascal the chameleon and Maximus the horse; Merida has her pet horse, Angus and her triplet brothers in the form of bear cubs. Anna will likely have Olaf the Snowman, Sven the reindeer, as well as possibly a slew of Arctic wildlife (polar bear, walrus, wolf, arctic fox, snowshoe hare, snowy owl, muskox, ermine, caribou(reindeer), ptarmigan, etc).
All princesses sing their film's theme songs except for Belle, who doesn't sing the title song from her film. Mrs Potts sings it instead. Julie Fowlis sings the theme for "Brave".
At least one horse has appeared in each one of their films. But only 8 of them are horsewomen. This includes Snow White (she rides The Prince's horse when she is traveling to his castle), Cinderella (she rides her horse along with Prince Charming in the third movie, as well as Major), Ariel (she asks to ride the carriage to Eric), Belle (rides her father's horse Phillipe to and from the Beast's castle), Jasmine (she rides and tames Sahara, her mother's favorite horse), Mulan (she rides her family's horse Khan), Rapunzel (she is able to tame Maximus, assuming she also rides him) and Merida (rides her horse Angus several times in her film). Only 6 of the Princesses' horses are named, Sahara, Khan, Maximus, Major, Phillipe and Angus.
None of the Princesses ever make eye contact with each other whenever they are seen together. However, this is because all the images with the Princesses together are for promotional purposes, and there has yet to be an animated show or movie where any of them interact with each other. Yet at some point, they interacted in House of Mouse.
Five out of the Disney Princesses have danced with their respective love interest, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle and Tiana. Snow White, Jasmine, Pocahontas, Mulan and Rapunzel did not. The Kingdom Dance doesn't count as a dance between Rapunzel and Eugene for they only end up with each other at the dance's end.
Some of the Disney Princesses have appeared in the ABC series Once Upon a Time , with the series centering on Emma Swan, the daughter of Snow White who has to break a curse. The ABC Studios is owned by Disney and therefore, they have rights to the princesses. Snow White, Cinderella, Belle, Aurora and Mulan have appeared so far in Seasons 1 & 2. Ariel, Jasmine and Rapunzel have yet to featured. Pocahontas most likely will not be featured on Once Upon a Time since her story is based on actual events. Tiana also might not appear since her story takes place in New Orleans during the 1920s. But Tiana's original story may appear, The Frog Prince. 3 of the princesses, Snow White, Belle and Cinderella, are all associated with Red Riding Hood in Storybrooke with their Storybrooke counterparts, respectively.
An easy way to remember the Princesses' names to by saying the sentence, "Snow White came (Cinderella) skipping back (Sleeping Beauty (Aurora)) again (Ariel) before (Belle) joyfully (Jasmine) picking (Pocahontas) more (Mulan) tulips (Tiana) and roses (Rapunzel) monthly (Merida) annually (Anna)."
The first eight Princesses were once represented as elements on a periodic table at a candy store at Downtown Disney in Orlando, FL.
Although Vanellope von Schweetz is revealed to be the princess of Sugar Rush from Wreck-It Ralph , she is not included in the Disney Princess line-up, due to her age and rejecting her royal title to become a president.
Aurora, Jasmine and Elsa are the only three Princesses to not be the main protagonists of their movies. Belle's protagonism status is debatable. Since Aurora's screentime is 18 minutes and Sleeping Beauty is actually told from the fairies' point of view and they're the real main protagonists of the movie, and according to Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale, the Beast was supposed to be the protagonist of Beauty and the Beast. However, Belle shares the role of protagonist with the Beast.
Unless there was an official coronation in the film, proclaiming the princess as a queen and not an official princess in the film, none of the Disney Princesses are queens.
Some of the recent Disney Princess home releases may ironically contain previews for Disney films outside the franchise containing princesses: The Princess and the Frog contained a preview for a Black Cauldron DVD re-release, and the Blu-ray releases of Mulan, Aladdin and/or The Little Mermaid may potentially contain a preview for an Atlantis Blu-ray release.
Brave is the first Princess film not to be a musical.
The Princess line may have began as early as the mid-to-late 1990s, following the releases of The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin and Pocahontas. The first line-up actually featured Tinker Bell as an official Princess, but was eventually dropped, and Mulan and Esmeralda were eventually added later by the year 1999. In 2000, Jane Porter was suggested, but never incorporated, and in 2004 Esmeralda was removed from the line-up.
The Disney Princess logo is a sparkly pink oval containing the brand name with a tiara on it. Most non-Princess Disney franchises use a blue oval with the word "Disney" on it. Aladdin's marketing logo is different, it is colored purple instead of blue, since pink mixed with blue makes purple.
Pocahontas, Mulan, Tiana, Rapunzel and Merida are the only princesses not to be featured in the golden Disney Princess franchise. Although, Mulan, Tiana, Rapunzel and Merida were featured in the jeweled Disney Princess Franchise.
The Princesses' designs changed over the years. Originally they simply wore their plain outfits, then they were redesigned each with new poses and a tiara (excluding Aurora, Tiana and Rapunzel, who's tiaras remain but added with more jewels) , which later matched their dresses with capes and jewels, then their dresses were recolored gold (Ariel was sometimes shown with a gold tail), then they were drawn with sparkles, then more metallic, and now with more modernized fashions. Also, during holidays, their dresses change into the holiday's theme.
Pocahontas is the only Princess whose official artwork remained unchanged. However, at one point she was shown wearing her London dress from Journey to a New World.
The Disney princesses that are usually paired or seen next to each other in promotional photos are:
Snow White and Cinderella.
Tiana, Rapunzel and Merida.
Tiana is the last princess to be shown in classical 2D animation.
The Disney Princesses created after Mulan did not appear in House of Mouse, since they were created after the show ended in early 2002.
If a princess from a Disney film loses her position of being a princess (e.g. she becomes a queen), then she can't be considered a Disney Princess.
Merida will be the first contrasting princess:
the first princess to have her movie made outside of the Disney animated feature film canon (being produced by Pixar).
the first princess without a love interest.
the first princess with a film not being a musical.
the first original princess in the line-up that hasn't been inspired by either literature or real life.
Each of the princesses have experienced magic in their life:
Snow White was poisoned by the Queen's dark magic.
Cinderella was able to go to the ball thanks to her Fairy Godmother.
Maleficent cast a spell on the spindle to put Aurora to sleep, and Flora, Fauna and Merryweather used magic on her outfit (tiara and ball gown).
Ariel was changed into a human, both using Ursula's temporary dark magic and King Triton's good magic.
Belle broke the spell upon the Beast by saying that she loves him.
Genie and Jafar have cast spells on Jasmine.
Pocahontas can talk to grandmother Willow, and she has the power to command the winds.
Mushu being assigned by Mulan's ghost ancestors as her guardian.
Tiana being changed into a frog.
Rapunzel's hair, and its ability of healing sickness and injuries, and bringing back youth.
Merida went to a witch's house to get a potion in order for her to "change her fate", and her mom and three brothers turn into bears.
Anna would probably be involved in a disagreement that would cause her sister Elsa to become the Snow Queen, run away, and curse her kingdom, resulting in her trying to find Elsa's whereabouts, "warm her up" and send her home.
Despite Merida being expected to be green-lighted into the franchise on May 11, 2013 and Anna sometime in 2014, a potential Blu-ray release of Atlantis: The Lost Empire may be promoted with a redesigned Kida probably shown in her queen clothes to make her appear more family-friendly. It is currently unknown whether or not this could challenge the Princess franchise as a whole, or even cause Disney to question about Kida.
According to Disney, the only way for a Princess to "graduate" (a.k.a. exit the line-up), is to have her become a queen. Since none of the Princesses ever become queens (and only one that did), this is unlikely.
There was actually a ripoff of Disney Princess by infamous Brazilian animation studio Video Briquendo called Little Princess School, featuring Cindy (Cinderella), Bianca (Snow White, "bianca" is Italian for "white"), Hime (hybrid of Ariel and Mulan and possibly Megara; "hime" is Japanese for "princess"), Iria (Tiana) and Zade (Jasmine).
The book The Art of the Disney Princess features the princesses being drawn using different art styles.
Some fanart also depict the Princesses in a stylized manner: for example, Jefftoons depicts the Princesses in a Darker and Edgier art style, and steveinlove depicts them in more revealing clothing.
Even though new, Rapunzel and Tiana gained more attention and popularity than Mulan and Pocahontas.
Each princess has wore a hair accessory.
Five of the Disney Princesses have run away from their respective love interest upon meeting them(Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel and Pocahontas). Rapunzel knocked out her love interest, hid him, and tied him up.
In the franchise: Cinderella, Aurora and Belle are the only princesses to wear ball gowns. Ariel is the only princess to wear a bouffant gown. Snow White and Merida are the only princesses to wear their court dresses. Jasmine is the only princess to wear casual attire. Tiana is the only princess to wear a wedding gown. Rapunzel is the only princess to wear a peasant gown (yet the color signifies royalty). Pocahontas and Mulan are the only princesses to wear ethnic dresses.
Ever since Tiana joined the franchise, the current focus of the franchise is to add more princesses and improve their designs.
However, it is still unknown whether or not this would include retroactive princesses (princesses created during an earlier year, but are currently not in the line-up.
Ariel, Jasmine, Pocahontas and Tiana are the only four Princesses that do not wear underdresses, although some artwork of Ariel as a human show her actually showing an underdress.
Mulan and Merida are the only two Princesses that are shown only in their undergarments at one point in their films (one of Rapunzel's character models behind the scenes shows her wearing only an underdress, with a similar model used for Merida; an outside example would be Esmeralda).
It's unknown if Anna will sport underdresses underneath her gown.
Except for Ariel and Pocahontas, each princess are seen doing chores or servant work.
Two Disney Princesses starred in live-action films that are more of terror and action than fairy tale. Snow White (Snow White & the Huntsman) and Princess Aurora (Maleficent).
Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Jasmine and Mulan are the only princesses to have an aftermath story with their love interest, after their marriage.
Disney did not come up with its own definition of "princess" until 1986, explaining why Disney has a limit to how many princesses that will be in the official line-up.
Each princess has shown an independent side.
Each of the princesses meet each other in Once Upon a Time:
Snow White met Cinderella, Aurora, Mulan and Belle.
Cinderella met Snow White.
Aurora met Snow White and Mulan.
Belle met Snow White and Mulan.
Mulan met Aurora, Snow White and Belle.
Starting January 2013, the princesses, including Mulan and Pocahontas, will be franchised in their redesigns. Also, Tiana, Rapunzel and possibly Merida will be placed at the center of the photos.
As mentioned above, the Atlantis Blu-Ray may be promoted with a redesigned Kida (she would be shown as a queen instead of a princess), although its effect on the Princess franchise has yet to be determined.
All The Disney Princesses who had a female villain in their original film never had an experience with a male villain in any of their sequels, the same applies to all the Disney Princesses who only had a male villain in their original film. The exception to this is Ariel and Jasmine for due to the two of them being stars of animated series they faced several villains both male and female.
Some Disney artwork featuring various animated Disney characters promoting Disney as a whole will not only feature the official Disney Princesses (including Pocahontas and Mulan), but also Megara and/or Jane Porter as well despite the two not being official Disney Princesses.
In various group shots of the Disney Princesses, Tiana, Rapunzel and possibly Merida are gradually moving toward the center, bypassing Cinderella, Ariel, Belle and Aurora, while Snow White, Jasmine, Pocahontas and Mulan are gradually moving toward either end, implying that the first three are gaining popularity, while the last four are losing popularity. Possibly, due to film and franchise ratings, and the significance of heroism shown in their film.
Several of the Disney Princesses are animated by the same person. Marc Davis animated Snow White, Cinderella and Aurora, Glen Keane animated Ariel, Pocahontas and Rapunzel, and Mark Henn animated Belle, Jasmine, Mulan and Tiana.
The music for five of the Disney Princess films was composed by Alan Menken (The Little Mermaid, Beauty and The Beast, Aladdin, Pocahontas and Tangled respectively). He also composed the music for movies with several unofficial Disney Princesses being The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Hercules and Enchanted.
All the Disney Princesses are the main characters of at least one book.
The princesses also appear to be placed in four categories:
Classic (Storybook): Snow White, Cinderella and Aurora.
Rebellious: Ariel, Belle and Jasmine.
Ethnic: Pocahontas, Mulan and Tiana.
CGI: Rapunzel, Merida, followed by Anna and Elsa.
Each of the Princesses have a signature color based on their outfits:
Snow White: red (despite her dress being mostly blue and yellow)
Cinderella: blue (despite her dress being silvery-blue in the film)
Aurora: pink (and occasionally, blue)
Ariel: aqua (as a mermaid, salmon as a human)
Belle: yellow (and ocassionally blue)
Jasmine: light blue (and occasionally, purple)
Pocahontas: orange
Fa Mulan: chartreuse (and occasionally pink)
Tiana: green (and occasionally blue)
Rapunzel: purple
Jasmine: dry season (since her kingdom had only 2 seasons)
Pocahontas: summer
Mulan: spring (though it might have expanded into other seasons)
Tiana: late winter (due to the fact that most of the movie's setting takes place around Mardi Gras)
Rapunzel: summer
Merida: summer
Anna and Elsa: winter
In early promotions of the redesigns, Ariel's dress was pink instead of green, and Mulan's dress was more reddish with sparkles, and Pocahontas remained the same. Cinderella was the only princess with more than one photo of her in her redesign. Jasmine's top is ripped instead of the redesigned top. Aurora had a long sash on her hips instead of the triangular cutouts.
This year (2013), the last film in the franchise will be released on Blu-ray (The Little Mermaid, Aladdin and Mulan). Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was released in the format during the year 2009. Cinderella in 2012, Sleeping Beauty in 2008, Beauty and the Beast in 2010, Pocahontas in 2012, The Princess and the Frog and Tangled in 2010 and 2011 respectively. Atlantis: The Lost Empire is expected be released on Blu-ray this year, however Kida is not yet part of the franchise. Brave has been released in 2012.
Each Disney Princess have been in life or death situations, either mentally or physically. Though out of the 11 princesses Belle and Merida one would say experienced the most gruesome situation; being eaten alive by a pack of wolves and a huge black bear respectively.
Of the 11 princesses, only four were present in row FairyTale Princess Collector from Barbie doll, released in the 90s. They were Snow White (1999), Cinderella (1997), Aurora (1998) and Belle (2000). Ariel, Jasmine, Pocahontas and Mulan were not present, though his films were already released. Tiana's film had not yet been released. The first doll launched in 1995 for the line was Rapunzel, however, was the character of fairy tales instead of the Disney character, since Disney haven't adapt the story that time. Brave had not been released at that time, thus Merida could not appear.
All 11 Disney Princesses have all twirled around in a full circle either during a song, or at a relatively happy moment for them during their moves. However for a majority of the Disney Princesses those happy moments slowly become sour for generally when they receive bad news after or something bad happens to them. For example, Ariel spins around the statue of Prince Eric, then she sees King Triton angry as her enters her grotto. Jasmine spins around telling her father she is so happy, then he tells her she must wed Jafar. In addition Cinderella has the most amount of twirls at about nine alone in her original movie!
Each princess was afraid of her love interest at first, except Cinderella, Ariel and Jasmine. Cinderella running away from her prince does not count: A) it was not at the start and B) she was running away before her dress disintegrated, not from the prince specifically.
It could be noted that Ariel might have been scared of humans at some point in her life (though highly unlikely), and Jasmine hated Aladdin when she thought he was Prince Ali.
With the exception of Snow White, Belle, and Tiana, all the Disney Princesses had either uncomfortable conversations or arguments with their parental authority figures which slowly lead to a turning point in their lives. A few examples would be Triton arguing with Ariel and eventually destroying her collection, drives her to going to Ursula to becoming a human, Jasmine's conversation with the Sultan about getting married leads her to run away, Aurora finding out from the Three Good Fairies that she's a princess and she's having unwanted marriage leads her to prick her finger on the spindle, Rapunzel being yelled at by Gothel telling Rapunzel she can't leave the tower leads to Rapunzel to trust Flynn and leaves the tower, Merida's heated argument with her mother which results her bow thrown into the fireplace and runs away and comes across the Witch, and Anna and Elsa arguing about Elsa's cold behavior and not wanting to bless Anna to marry Hans until her ice powers are discovered and then runs away.
None of the Princesses ever care for their own subjects nor are they ever involved in politics or the welfare of their respective kingdoms, instead that role is obviously taken by their kings or queens.
But Aurora is seen signing papers, taking care of her subjects' needs for her father, King Stefan, in her sequel.
But Mulan is serving her country as a warrior or at least reserve or guard as seen in the second movie and was also offered a place in the Imperial Council.
Most of the Princesses have received their facial characteristics from their mothers:
Snow White: Hair (Father), Eyes (Mother), Facial Structure (Mother).
Cinderella: Hair (Neither), Eyes (Mother), Facial Structure (Mother & Father).
Aurora: Hair (Mother & the Gift of Beauty), Eyes (The Gift of Beauty), Facial Structure (Mother).
Ariel: Hair (Mother & Father), Eyes (Father), Facial Structure (Mother).
Belle: Hair (Father), Eyes (Neither), Facial Structure (Mother).
Jasmine: Hair (Mother), Eyes (Mother & Father), Facial Structure (Mother).
Pocahontas: Hair (Mother & Father), Eyes (Mother & Father), Facial Structure (Mother).
Mulan: Hair (Mother & Father), Eyes (Mother & Father), Facial Structure (Neither).
Tiana: Hair (Mother & Father), Eyes (Mother & Father), Facial Structure (Mother & Father).
Rapunzel: Hair (From the sun's magic, but naturally Mother & Father), Eyes (Mother), Facial Structure (Mother).
Merida: Hair (Father), Eyes (Father), Facial Structure (Mother).
Tiana, Rapunzel and Merida are the only princesses with the least redesign updates, having only sparkles on their gowns.
All of the Disney Princesses had some crying or worried moments. However, for a majority of the Disney Princesses, those sour moments slowly become happy for generally when they recieve good news after or something good happens to them. For example, Aurora cries about the man she met in the woods until she pricks her finger on the spindle and fell into deep sleep until the spell is broken and then Prince Phillip comes and wakes her up, Ariel cries after the ship leaves and she goes to the boat to return her voice from Ursula's necklace and then she gets her voice back, Jasmine tells her father that she choses Prince Ali until Aladdin comes back, then Jasmine is happy and relieved, Cinderella cries in her room until Jaq and Gus came with the key and then she realizes that she's going to get unlocked so she can try on the glass slipper, Rapunzel cries about Flynn's death and then he comes back to life and Rapunzel is very overjoyed.
Out of all the Disney Princess (Anna and Elsa excluded) Pocahontas is the only one not to have her mother seen in any form.
Snow White’s mother – rare stories have an image of her.
Cinderella’s mother – in art with Cinderella as a child.
Aurora’s mother – seen in the feature film, short features and a few stories.
Ariel’s mother – seen in the third Little Mermaid movie.
Belle’s mother – seen in Once upon a Princess Vol. 2 and in a painting image that will be featured in Maurice’s Cottage.
Jasmine’s mother – seen in Once upon a Princess Vol. 1.
Mulan’s mother – seen in the feature film and the sequel.
Tiana’s mother – seen in the feature film and short stories.
Rapunzel’s mother – seen in feature film and sequel.
Merida’s mother – seen in feature film.
Snow White is the only Princess whose father isn't shown.
Though not a princess Esmeralda is featured in Once upon a Princess Vol. 1.
Some of the princesses would occasionally be seen promoting holidays other than Christmas, like Jasmine for Idul Fitri, Mulan for Chinese New Year, Tiana for Mardi Gras, Merida for St. Patrick's Day, Pocahontas for Thanksgiving, and Anna for St. Lucia's Day. For some reason, Jasmine can occasionally be seen celebrating Christmas despite being Muslim.
All of the Princesses are presumably Christians except for Jasmine (who is Muslim), Pocahontas (native mythology, the real Pocahontas eventually converted to Christianity) and Mulan (ancestor worship though she has appeared singing a Christmas song on the Disney Princess Christmas album).
Rapunzel, Merida, Anna, and Elsa are the only princesses to have a change of title in their film from their fairy tale, which is a modern day fashion.
Each princess is represented by one or more objects:
Snow White – red apple, blue bird, white dove
Cinderella – glass slipper, pumpkin, midnight
Aurora – golden tiara, spindle, spinning wheel, pink rose
Ariel – dinglehopper, seashell, trident
Belle – red rose, book, hair ribbons
Jasmine – the lamp, white flower, tiger
Pocahontas – her mother’s necklace, a feather, the compass
Mulan – peach blossom, a fan, sword
Tiana – her father’s gumbo pot, lily pad flower, frog
Rapunzel – sun, lantern, paintbrush, golden flower
Merida – bow/arrow, bear, will-o-wisp, bear pendant
Anna - magenta flower, reindeer
Elsa - snowflake, snowman
Disney Princess made a commercial as a tribute to young girls around the world. The video can be seen here.
There are no princesses from other genres, like science fiction.
The first six princesses have home releases in the form of "Disney Vault" limited time only editions.
Except for Ariel, Pocahontas, Mulan, Tiana and Merida, each princess has a movie narration at the beginning book.
Each princess has shown curiosity at some point in their film.
Excluding Merida, Anna, and Elsa Pocahontas is the only princess not only not too be seen married, but also not have a wedding dress in the franchise whether in a book or as a doll.
Snow White is the only princess not to show any spunky, rebellious or tough side.
All the girls of the West and Latin America, which had / has between 5 and 12 years from 2000 till today, used, or compare any product won the Disney Princess.
In November 1999, Jane Porter was announced as part of the franchise for Disney Princess official magazine of the United Kingdom. [4 ] In February 2000, she made another appearance in the magazine, then was never talked about Jane in the franchise. [5 ]
Merida will be the first princess to break the tradition of the line-up.
Two of the Princesses have short hair, four medium and six long and one very long.
Short: Snow White and Rapunzel (after her hair is cut).
Medium-length: Cinderella, Tiana, Mulan (Though Mulan's hair was originally long and shown long in merchandise).
Long: Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Jasmine, Pocahontas, Merida, Anna, and Elsa.
Rapunzel (Ironically however after her hair was cut Rapunzel had the second-shortest hair).
Even outside of the franchise, Tinker Bell is still present in the toy Princesas Magic Light from Yellow Brinquedos, Brazil. [6 ]
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was the only film in the franchise won an honorary Oscar. The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin and Pocahontas are the only films in the franchise to win two Oscars (Best Soundtrack, Best Original Song). Brave is the only film in the franchise to win an Oscar as Best Animated Feature Film of the Year. Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty, Mulan, The Princess and the Frog and Tangled are the only ones to be nominated and not win the award. If Jane Porter had entered the franchise, it would be the first "princess" franchise to win a single award.
To date, Jasmine and Merida are the only franchise of princesses who have not earned a doll dressed as a ballerina. Snow White, Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Pocahontas and Mulan were part of the collection "Disney Princess Ballerina". Tiana was part of the collection "Ballerina Princesses", and Rapunzel was part of the line "Disney Princess Bath Magic". However, there was a photo of the popular eight Disney Princesses depicted as ballerinas.
Maid Marian and Dot are the only non-human characters to be present in a product franchise.
Out of all twelve Princesses (including Anna) only half, Snow White, Ariel, Jasmine, Pocahontas, Merida, Anna, and Elsa were raised as royalty. However Snow White did do servant work and Cinderella grew up knowing she was the daughter of a nobleman.
Vanellope is the first computer-animated Unofficial Disney Princess.
Pocahontas and Merida are the only princesses who have not won a playset for your movies with the franchise brand. However, Pocahontas has appeared with the other princesses in playsets.
Roy E. Disney was against the creation of the Disney Princess franchise, as he said, "Cinderella and Snow White could never be seen together because their stories take place in different times and places."
To date, Beauty and the Beast, Tangled and Brave is the only princess movie that was shown in theaters in 3D.
Merida is currently the only Princess to wield a weapon in merchandise, not counting Rapunzel wielding her hair. However she is the third to wield a weapon in her feature film with a bow and arrow, Mulan and Rapunzel being the first and second with a sword and frying pan.
The "My Princess Collection" series of books not only feature stories about the first eight princesses told in first-person narration, but also those about Alice, Princess Dot, Jessie the Cowgirl, and Kida as well.
Jessie is the only character to appear on any product in the franchise, which is not a living being, but a toy. Interestingly, as Dot, she was featured in a 2D image in the products of the franchise. However, a 3D image was also used in other products.
External links
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The oldest annual marathon in the world, what well known road race got its start on April 19, 1897 and attracts a world wide field of entrants each April? | Boston Marathon - The Full Wiki
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Boston Marathon
See also: Boston Rowing Marathon
The Boston Marathon is an annual marathon hosted by the city of Boston , Massachusetts , on Patriots' Day , the third Monday of April. Begun in 1897 and inspired by the success of the first modern-day marathon competition in the 1896 Summer Olympics , [1] the Boston Marathon is the world's oldest annual marathon and ranks as one of the world's most well-known road racing events. It is one of five World Marathon Majors .
Today, the Boston Athletic Association (B.A.A.) manages this event. Amateur and professional runners from all over the world compete in the Boston Marathon each year, braving the hilly New England terrain and varying weather to take part in the race.
The event attracts an average of about 20,000 registered participants each year. In the 100th running of the Boston Marathon in 1996, the number of participants reached 38,000. While there are cash prizes awarded to the winners of the marathon, most of the runners participate for the accomplishment of having run the race at all.
Contents
See also: List of winners of the Boston Marathon
Boston Marathon Finish Line, 1910.
The Boston Marathon was originally a local event, but its fame and status have attracted runners from all over the world. For most of its history, the Boston Marathon was a free event, and the only prize awarded for winning the race was a wreath woven from olive branches. However, corporate -sponsored cash prizes began to be awarded in the 1980s, when professional athletes began to refuse to run the race without cash awards. The first cash prize for winning the marathon was awarded in 1986.
Women were not allowed to enter the Boston Marathon officially until 1972. Roberta "Bobbi" Gibb is recognized as the first woman to run the entire Boston Marathon (in 1966). In 1967, Kathrine Switzer , who had registered as "K. V. Switzer", was the first woman to run with a race number. She finished, despite a celebrated incident in which race official Jock Semple tried to rip off her numbers and eject her from the race. [2] In 1996 the B.A.A. retroactively recognized as champions the unofficial women's leaders of 1966 through 1971.
Race
5hrs 00min
5 hrs 30min
The Boston marathon is open to all runners, male and female , from any nation , but they must meet certain qualifying standards. [3] To qualify, a runner must first complete a standard marathon course certified by a national governing body affiliated with the International Association of Athletics Federations within a certain period of time before the date of the desired Boston Marathon (usually within approximately 18 months prior). Prospective runners in the age range of 18–34 must run a time of no more than 3:10:59 (3 hours and 10 minutes) if male, or 3:40:59 (3 hours and 40 minutes) if female; the qualifying time is adjusted upward as age increases. For example, a 40–44 year old male can still qualify with a time of 3:20:59. An exception to the qualification requirement is awarded to 1,250 runners who raise a pre-determined level of sponsorship for officially designated local charities.
Besides the Olympic trials and the Olympic marathons, Boston is the only major American marathon that requires a qualifying time. Thus for many marathoners to qualify for Boston (to "BQ") is a goal and achievement in itself, making it a "people's Olympic event."
In the 1980s and 1990s, membership in USA Track & Field was required of all runners, but this requirement was eliminated.
Race day
The race has traditionally been held on Patriots' Day , a state holiday in Massachusetts, and until 1969 that was every April 19, whichever day of the week that fell on. Starting in 1969, the holiday was observed on the third Monday in April and so the marathon date was correspondingly fixed to that Monday, often referred to by local residents as "Marathon Monday."
Start time
Through 2005, the race began at noon , ( wheelchair race began at 11:25 a.m., and the elite women at 11:31 a.m.) at the official starting point in Hopkinton, Massachusetts . Beginning with the 2006 event, the race has used a staggered "wave start," where (in 2006) top seeded runners (the elite men's group) and a first batch of up to 10,000 runners started at noon, with a second group starting at 12:30. Beginning in 2007 the starting times for the race were moved to 10:00 a.m. and 10:30 a.m. for the two wave starts, with the wheelchair and elite women's divisions starting at 9:25 a.m. and 9:35 a.m., respectively. These changes were made primarily because of the runners' desire to begin the race earlier to take advantage of cooler temperatures, though another added benefit is that many roads along the course can reopen to traffic earlier in the day. [4] [5]
Course
Robert Kipkoech Cheruiyot in the 2006 Boston Marathon, where he set a new course record.
The course runs through 26.22 miles (42.195 km) of winding roads , following Route 135 , Route 16 , Route 30 and city streets into the center of Boston, where the official finish line is located at Copley Square , alongside the Boston Public Library . For this reason, the MBTA suspends service to the Copley Square stop for the day, and runs increased service to the area. The race runs through eight Massachusetts cities and towns: Hopkinton , Ashland , Framingham , Natick , Wellesley , Newton , Brookline , and Boston . [6]
The Boston Marathon is considered to be one of the more difficult marathon courses because of the Newton hills, which culminate in Heartbreak Hill near Boston College . While the three hills on Commonwealth Avenue (Route 30) are better known, a preceding hill on Washington Street (Route 16), climbing from the Charles River crossing at 16 miles, is regarded by Dave McGillivray, the 2007 race director, as the course’s most difficult challenge. [7] [8] This hill, which follows a 150 foot drop over the course of one half-mile, forces many lesser-trained runners to a walking pace.
Heartbreak Hill
Heartbreak Hill is an ascent over 0.4 mile (600 m) of the Boston Marathon course, between the 20 and 21 mile marks, in the vicinity of Boston College . It is the last of four " Newton hills", which begin at the 16 mile mark. The Newton hills confound contestants (out of proportion to their modest elevation gain) by forcing a late climb after the downhill trend of the race to that point. Heartbreak Hill itself rises only 88 vertical feet (27 m), from an elevation of 148 feet at the bottom to an elevation of 236 feet at the top, [9] but is positioned at a point on a marathon course where muscle glycogen stores are likely to be depleted—a phenomenon referred to by marathoners as " hitting the wall ."
The nickname "Heartbreak Hill" originated with an event in the 1936 race. On this stretch, defending champion John A. Kelley caught race leader Ellison "Tarzan" Brown , giving Brown a consolatory pat on the shoulder as he passed. His competitive drive apparently stoked by this gesture, Tarzan Brown rallied, pulled away from Kelley, and went on to win—in the words of Boston Globe reporter Jerry Nason, "breaking Kelley's heart." [10]
Records
Current course records, as of 2009, are 2:07:14 and 2:20:43 for men's open and women's open, respectively.
On only three occasions have world record times for marathon running been set in Boston. In 1947, the men's record time set was 2:25:39, by Suh Yun-Bok of South Korea . In 1975, a women's world record of 2:42:24 was set by Liane Winter of West Germany , and in 1983, Joan Benoit Samuelson of the United States ran a women's world record time of 2:22:43.. The course is now considered invalid for international records because the finish is substantially lower in elevation than the start, and also because the start and finish are too far apart, leading to the possibility of a consistent tailwind. [11]
The race's organizers keep a standard time clock for all entries, though official timekeeping ceases after the six hour mark.
Spectators
Spectators watching the 2006 Boston Marathon
With approximately 500,000 spectators, the Boston marathon is New England 's most widely-viewed sporting event. [12] More than 1,100 media members from over 250 outlets were expected to receive media credentials in 2006.
For the entire distance of the race, thousands line the sides of the course to cheer the runners on, encourage them, and provide free water and snacks to any of the runners. The crowds are even more encouraging for the amateur runners and first time runners. At Wellesley College , located in the 13th mile, it is tradition for the students to cheer on the runners in what is referred to as the "scream tunnel." [13] [14]
Every year, the Boston Red Sox play a home game at Fenway Park , starting at 11:05 a.m. (10:05 a.m. starting in 2007). When the game ends, the crowd empties into Kenmore Square to cheer as the runners enter the final mile. This tradition started in 1903. In the 1940s the Red Sox and the Boston Braves (now Atlanta Braves ) would alternate yearly as to which team would play the morning game. In 2007, the game between the Red Sox and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim was delayed until 12:05 p.m. due to heavy rain. The marathon, which had previously been run in a wide variety of weather conditions, was not delayed.
The B.A.A.
Main article: Boston Athletic Association
The Boston Athletic Association is a non-profit , organized sports association that organizes the Boston Marathon and other events.
Among the nation's oldest athletic clubs, the Boston Athletic Association was established on March 15, 1887 under its first president, Robert F. Clark, and with the support of George Walker Weld and other leading sports enthusiasts, entrepreneurs and politicians of the day. The B.A.A. is now headquartered at 40 Trinity Place. It relies on the support of John Hancock Financial Services Inc. and other sponsors and contributors not only with its signature event, the Boston Marathon, but also in its year-round community programming.
Divisions
The Boston Marathon does not only offer running divisions for both men and women. In 1975, a tradition of offering racing opportunities to those with disabilities and impairments began when one wheelchair racer decided to take the challenge and complete the entire distance of the marathon. Since then, three new divisions have emerged, including a push rim wheelchair division, a visually impaired/blind division, and a mobility impaired division. Similar to the running divisions, a set of realistic qualifying times has been developed for these divisions to ensure the continuation of competitive excellence for which the Boston Marathon is so widely acclaimed. In 1986, the Boston Athletic Association, which is responsible for running the event, introduced prize money into the push rim wheelchair division and made this purse the highest purse in the history of the sport. To date, more than 1,000 people with different disabilities and impairments have participated in the wheelchair division, with the other divisions gaining popularity each year. The wheelchair division frequently gains a great deal of national and international attention considering the performances in the Boston Marathon are often record-breaking performances that demonstrate the continued evolution and advancement in the sport.
Memorial
The Boston Marathon Memorial in Copley Square, not far from the finish line, was installed to mark the one-hundredth running of the race. A circle of granite blocks set in the ground include a central medallion that traces the race course and other segments that show an elevation map of the course and the names of the winners. [15]
Notable events
Dick and Rick Hoyt
One of the most recognized duos each year at the Boston Marathon is Dick and Rick Hoyt . Dick is the father of Rick, who has cerebral palsy . While doctors originally said he would never have a shot at a normal life and thought that institutionalizing Rick was the best option, Dick and his wife disagreed and raised him like an ordinary child. Eventually a computer device was developed that helped Rick communicate with his family and the family learned of one of his biggest passions: sports. Dick and Rick started competing in charity runs, with Dick pushing Rick in a wheelchair. The father and son began to enjoy racing so much that they started entering marathons and even triathlons , with Dick towing Rick in a little boat during the swim and carrying him on the front of his bike during the cycling portion. Dick and Rick have competed in 66 marathons and 229 triathlons (as of August 2008) and finish with competitive times, often faster than 90% of the pack. Their top marathon finish was an astonishing 2:40:47, a time unattainable for most average marathoners. The team completed their 27th Boston Marathon in 2009, when Dick was 68 and Rick was 47. When asked about their motivation to continue racing, they both say that they hope to prove to people all over the world that disabled individuals should not be left in the corner and forgotten about, but rather included so that they can have the life experiences others are so lucky to have. [16]
Rosie Ruiz scandal
Scandal came to the Boston Marathon in 1980 when amateur runner Rosie Ruiz came from out of nowhere to win the women's race. Marathon officials became suspicious when it was found Ruiz didn't appear in race videotapes until near the end of the race. A subsequent investigation concluded that Ruiz had skipped most of the race and blended into the crowd about one mile from the finish line, where she then ran to her apparent victory. Ruiz was officially disqualified, and the winner was proclaimed to be Canadian Jacqueline Gareau .
Death
2002 - Cynthia Lucero, 28, of hyponatremia [17]
References
| Boston Marathon |
What authors books includes such works as The Pale Horse, The Body in the Library, The Man in the Brown Suit, and Death on the Nile | Sartell V18 I15 by The Newsleaders - issuu
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Reaching Everybody!
Presorted Standard U.S. Postage Paid St. Joseph Newsleader St. Joseph, MN 56374 Permit No. 21 ECRWSS Postal Customer
Newsleader Sartell
Friday, April 12, 2013 Volume 18, Issue 15 Est. 1995
Town Crier CSB’s Gorecki hosts Bert Blyleven
Circle Me History with Bert Blyleven fundraiser for Stearns History Museum will be held Wednesday, April 24 at Gorecki Center, 37 S. College Ave. N, St. Joseph. To purchase tickets or for more information, contact Stearns History Museum at www.stearns-museum.org or 320-253-8424.
Compost site opening delayed
Because of the nasty vagaries of Mother Nature, the Sartell Compost Site will not open Saturday, April 13, as earlier planned. As soon as the weather starts acting like spring, the site will open. To find out when, visit the City of Sartell website at www.sartellmn. com, watch local-cable Charter Channel 19 or keep an eye on the community digital sign on Pinecone Road S.
City seeks volunteer for park commission
The City of Sartell is seeking a volunteer to serve on the Park Commission due to a recent resignation. The person would fill out the remaining nine months of a three-year term. To obtain an application, visiting www.sartellmn.com or stop by City Hall. Deadline to apply is noon Monday, April 15.
SHS performs ‘Fiddler on Roof’
Sartell High School will perform “Fiddler on the Roof” at 7 p.m. Thursday-Saturday, April 18-20 and at 12:30 p.m. April 20. Tickets may be purchased at the door.
Earth Day Run is April 19-20
Central Minnesota’s largest running event returns with the April 19-20 Earth Day Run. About 4,500 runners, spectators and volunteers are expected to participate. To register and for more information, visit www.thenewsleaders.com and click on Criers. For additional criers, visit www. thenewsleaders.com and click on Criers.
Postal Patron
Four residents prepare for Boston Marathon by Dennis Dalman [email protected]
As she looks forward to running in the Boston Marathon, Laura Nordby of Sartell feels a mixture of nervousness and excitement. It will be the Sartell woman’s first time in the world-famous event. “I’m nervous, thinking this can’t be real,” she said. “But I’m very excited after all I’ve heard about the Boston marathon.” Nordby is one of five Sartell residents who qualified for this year’s marathon, which will take place in the greater Boston area on Patriots’ Day, Monday, April 15. The others are Jereme Fimrite, Shane Johnson, Curt Karolus and Dr. Liliana Lucas. Although Lucas, who participated in last year’s marathon, did qualify again, she had to change her plans. She will, however, take part in the Boston Marathon next year. Nordby has been training for the big event all winter. Her training, indoor treadmill and outdoor running, is based on a marathontraining book suggested by Dr. Liliana Lucas, who has been a running partner – usually on weekends – for several years. Nordby qualified for the Boston event by her performance at the Grandma’s Marathon in Duluth. “I’ve always liked running, ever since I was in track in high school,” Nordby said. “Since then, I’ve just kept running. I love running because all it takes is yourself and a pair of shoes.”
She and her husband, Sam, will fly to Boston on the weekend of April 12. Their young chil-
dren – Dutch, Anna and Lincoln – wish they could go, too, but they will have a chance to see the
marathon, and perhaps “mama,” on YouTube or on a television Marathon • page 4
‘What’s the buzz, DON’T tell me all about it’
photos by Jack Hellie
Above: Minnesota State Trooper Tony Mazzone talks with a student following an assembly April 5 at Sartell High School. Mazzone visited the school to share insights about the dangers of distracted driving, including texting while driving. He also emphasized the importance of wearing seatbelts for the driver and all passengers in any vehicle. Left: Mazzone answers a question from the audience.
Chamber honors Hurd as ‘Senior Volunteer of Year’ by Dennis Dalman [email protected]
One morning recently, Ron Hurd was enjoying a morning ritual – having a chat session and coffee with his retired buddies – when a woman popped in holding a bunch of balloons. To Hurd’s surprise, the woman from the Sartell Area Chamber of Commerce announced to Hurd he had been selected as the chamber’s “Sartell Senior Volunteer of the Year.” He will be formally honored, along with other honorees, in April at the annual Chamber Banquet. Hurd was surprised; his pals weren’t. Even though they joshed him, they knew he deserves the award, aware as they are of all the volunteerism he does. In fact, Hurd’s life practically revolves around volunteering. He has learned how to combine
volunteer tasks with his hobby, woodworking, and how to make volunteer work not “work” but lots of fun. His “reward,” he said is seeing smiles on the faces of those who benefit from his volunteering. One of those tasks was to build a wheelchair ramp at the
home of an 8-year-old handicapped girl. When she took her first “trip” down that ramp in her wheelchair, she looked up at Hurd, smiled and said a big “thank you!” “That smile said it all,” Hurd said. “That smile was the best thank you I could ever get.”
Another time he built a wheelchair ramp in the dead of winter for a Vietnam veteran, who hadn’t been out of the house in four months. The man was as eager as a caged tiger to scoot his wheelchair down the ramp, get on a bus at the end Volunteer • page 5
Vagle humbled by ‘Citizen of Year’ award by Dennis Dalman [email protected]
Pastor Doug Vagle was stunned with surprise when one day recently someone showed up at his office carrying balloons and telling him he has been honored as “Sartell Citizen of the Year” by the Sartell Area Chamber of Commerce. Vagle was stunned and surprised because he never expects to be rewarded for the kinds of service he loves to do anyway. “I was absolutely so humbled,”
he said to the Newsleader. “I’m never looking for an honor. I love to serve because it’s my calling.” Vagle, who is the pastor of The Waters church, was officially recognized April 11 at the annual Sartell Area Chamber of Commerce banquet, along with “Senior Citizen Volunteer of the Year” Ron Hurd. The winner of the “Sartell Business of the Year” was announced as a surprise on the banquet night (to be featured in the April 19 edition as winner’s name was unavailable at press time).
www.thenewsleaders.com
Vagle was honored for his many volunteer activities that help make Sartell a better place to live. He serves, for example, as the Sartell Police Department chaplain. He, his family and parishioners, also do a tremendous amount of volunteer activities for the Sartell-St. Stephen School District – its students, staff and teachers. “We love to give back to Sartell,” Vagle said. One of the mottos of The Waters church is this: “Families are Citizen * page 8
Sartell Newsleader • www.thenewsleaders.com
Friday, April 12, 2013
People contributed photo
The St. Joseph Jaycees held its annual Community Easter Party on March 30 at All Saints Academy, St. Joseph. More than 170 kids participated. The big winners of the day (left to right) Aryana Suess, 6, Rockville; Amber Field, 7, Cold Spring, Will Hemmesch, 4, Sartell; Lennox Henningsgaard, 2, Duluth; Anja Harju, 3, St. Joseph; and Shiloh Henningsgaard, 4, Duluth. contributed photo
The Sartell PeeWee B1 hockey team recently won the district championship and qualified for the state hockey tournament by finishing second in the regional tournament. Team members include (front row, left to right) Austin Adelman, Jonathan Lommel, Colten Sigurdson, Mitchell Marthaler, Luke Jones, Nicholas Bulceag-Arama and Brock Boerger; (back row) Gavin Reitz, Blake Webster, Trevor Skinner, Nathan Stoebe, Bryant Hanna, Grace McCabe and Brooke Walters. The team played Edina in their first game at the state tournament. They took them to overtime, but lost 3-2. They played Moose Lake in their second game and won 3-2 in double overtime. They took on North Metro in the consolation championship and lost 6-3. Coaches are Brent Boerger, Anthony Reynolds, Joe Marthaler and Jason Jones.
photo by Jack Hellie
The newly elected members of the Sartell High School National Honor Society are (left to right) Shawn Sullivan, treasurer; Janessa Engelmeyer, secretary; and Grace Kuhl and Mary Lindell, co-presidents. They will serve for the 2013-14 school year. The Sartell High School chapter of the National Honor Society held its annual banquet April 8, elected officers and inducted members for the 2013-14 school year. The executive board for next year will be co-presidents Mary Lindell and Grace Kuhl, secretary Janessa Engelmeyer and treasurer Shawn Sullivan. Thirty-four current members of the honor society will graduate at the end of this school year. Forty-five new members from the class of 2014 and 2015 were inducted at the banquet. They are Hosam Alkhatib, Haley Anderson, Amelia Barkley, Ben Bierscheid, Collin Campbell, Michaela Connoly, Samy
Czeck, Mackenzie Dockendorf, Laurana Deuel, Greta Evavold, Megan Franz, Miranda Garman, Mitchell George, Kia Grindland, Gaby Hagen, Jacob Huen, Riley Isaacson, Seth Jenkins, Matthew Jurek, Carter Kasianov, Spencer Kight, Haley Klundt, Jason Koopman, Ryan Kororll, Alysha Lohn, Jacob Lund, Clay Mackenthun, Lindsey Martens, Rowan McDonnell III, Anna Neeser, Aiden Nelson, Mackenzie Nies, Alayna PaulsonTrombley, Grace Peterson, Jackie Pinkerton, Anna Poplinski, Tianna Raden, Kendra Raths, Ginessa Ross, Austin Rutten, Avalon Schlect, Brandon Snowberger, Abby Spanier, Rachel Stroh and Jessica Warzecha.
CMAB/McKnight artist awards go to nine local artists Nine CMAB/McKnight Individual Artist Award recipients were recently announced. A panel of six professional artists volunteered more than 29 hours reviewing applications and art samples before making a recommendation to the CMAB board of directors who accepted the panel recommendations at their March 13 board meeting. The IAA program awards outstanding artists in the region who have demonstrated prominent artistic achievement. The $5,000 Established Artist Award is designed for artists with a history of exhibition, performances, publications or other notable contributions to their local arts community through personal creative output. The $3,000 Emerging Artist Awards recognize and encourage outstanding artists in various stages of their careers. Established Artist Award recipients were Mary Bruno, St. Joseph, letterpress printer; and Douglas Wood, Sartell, author of children and adult books.
Emerging Artist Award recipients included the following: J.D. Jorgenson, St. Joseph, woodfired ceramics; Stephen Zapf, Sauk Rapids, wood-strip canoes; David Paul Lange, O.S.B., Collegeville, figurative sculptures; Dan Mondloch, St. Cloud, water-media landscape paintings; Glenn Quist, Elk River, acrylic paintings; Andrea Fedele, St. Cloud, oboe musician; and Kao Lee Thao, St. Cloud, vinyl and ink paintings. For more information and to view samples of the artist’s work online, visit the Central Minnesota Arts Board website at www. centralmnartsboard.org.
United Way difference made in Sartell Employees of Sartell businesses contributed $125,999 to this year’s United Way of Central Minnesota campaign. Throughout the year, UWCM partners with community employers, individuals and organizations to address community conditions through employee campaigns, fundraising projects and volunteerism. The need is great, and the response to this need by the Sartell community is just as great. Last year in Sartell: 2,231 children and adults received food, clothing, resided in an emergency shelter or transitional housing, received short-term financial assistance or other basic necessities; 1,091 children between birth and age five received books through
United Way’s Imagination Library program; and 69 households increased their level of financial stability and understanding of budgeting basics to help them move forward in their lives. This year’s UWCM campaign has so far raised a total of $3.7 million of our $4-million goal. On behalf of the United Way board, the staff and the numerous volunteers who conduct the UWCM work and projects in our community, thank you for your support and generosity. The Sartell community truly knows what it means to Live United.
Sartell students excel at Math Meet Sartell students scored several triumphs at the 46th annual Math Meet April 4 at St. Cloud State University, with two top team awards and an individual award. Both the Sartell-St. Stephen seventh-grade and eighth-grade teams scored first place in their grade categories. The seventh-
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St. Cloud Federal Credit Union announces results of board election St. Cloud Federal Credit Union, a community credit union with
grade team is comprised of David Anderson, Nicholas Juntunen and Cindy Zhang. The eighth-grade team members are Morgan Gugger, Joshua MaricleRoberts and Bryn Rogers. Rogers also garnered a thirdplace win in eighth-grade individual competition. In that contest, a student from Willmar placed first, and a student from Champlin was second. In the seventh-grade team competition, teams from Osseo and Lino Lakes earned the second- and third-place awards, behind Sartell. In eighth-grade competition, teams from Willmar and Anoka were second and third, after Sartell. More than 2,000 students from 46 schools throughout Minnesota, grades seven through 12, competed in the event. Area schools that also earned honors at the Math Meet are St. Cloud Tech, St. Cloud Cathedral and St. John’s Prep School. Mounds View High School won the most awards, individual and team, at the event.
assets of $100 million, with offices in Sartell and St. Cloud, recently announced its volunteer board and supervisory (audit) committee members for 2013. Following a recent membership election, the board of directors includes Andrew Johannes, chairperson (elected by the board); Rick Wurst, first vice chairperson; Jackie Schoenfelder, second vice chairperson; and Paula Erdmann, Larry Keenan, Barry Kirchoff and Melissa Johnson, directors. Board-appointed supervisory committee members include Rod Heiser, Gary Gillitzer, Jill Hoffmann, Luke Seifert and Jon Grahek. The credit union website is https://stcloudfcu.coop. Everyone who lives, works or worships in Stearns, Benton or Sherburne counties is eligible to become a credit-union member.
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The award-winning Sartell Student Council members are (front row, left to right) Lindsey Martens; Paige Seegers-Kyle; Mac Nies, secretary; Hannah Yackley; Theresa Slivnik; Haley Kaufman; Kaylee Isaacson; Hayley Johnson, president; and Karrie Fredrickson, advisor; (second row) Jack Hellie; Eden Garmen; and Tianna Raden; (third row) Shawn Sullivan, activities coordinator; Kelsey Frank, treasurer; Emily Schmidt; Katie Stuttgen; Grace Kuhl; Tucker Isaacson; Gopi Ramanathan; and Lauren Hennen; (fourth row) Paige Pawlenty; Maiah Cameron; and Ryan Kororll; (back row) Bryan Sanchez; Riley Isaacson; Thron Haley; Brady Anderson, vice president; Hosam Alkhatib; and Curt Koopmeiners. Not pictured are Amelia Barkley, Sam Chappell, Mytch Johnson, Izzy Plaine, Cody Ranschau.
‘Gold Excellence’ award given to SHS Student Council by Dennis Dalman [email protected]
The Sartell Student Council has been honored with a “National Gold Council of Excellence Award” from the National Association of Student Councils. It is one of 180 high-school councils nationwide honored by the NASC, but only 163 of those, including Sartell Student Council, earned the highest “Gold” award. The Sartell council was cited for meeting a wide range of award criteria, which includes having a written constitution, holding regular meetings, maintaining a democratic election process, leadership training for council members, teacher/staff appreciation activities, studentrecognition programs, schooland community-service projects, goal-setting, financial planning and participation in state and national council associations.
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“I am very proud of them,” said Karrie Fredrickson, socialstudies teacher and council advisor. “They work so hard all the time, including in the summer. And their leadership skills are spread to other students.” Sartell High School Principal Brenda Steves also expressed pride in the council’s award. “I am very proud of the Sartell High School Student Council,” Steve said. “They (members) continue to provide leadership for our students and are integral to several activities and programs that happen at our school. They are deserving of this award for their high-quality work, dedication and service.” NASC promotes leadership development that helps students serve their schools and cities. NASC is a program of the National Association of SecondarySchool Principals. The NASSP also sponsors the National Honor Society.
If any readers have tips concerning crimes, they should call the Sartell Police Department at 320-2518186 or Tri-County Crime Stoppers at 320-255-1301 or access its tip site at www.tricountycrimestoppers. org. Crime Stoppers offers rewards up to $1,000 for information leading to the arrest and conviction of those responsible for crimes. March 23 7:39 p.m. Dog complaint. 4th Avenue N. A complaint was made regarding a dog being outside all day and barking. The caller was concerned the dog was not being cared for. Officers spoke with the homeowner who showed the dog had access into the garage. The dog did not seem to be in any distress. 11:59 p.m. Suspicious vehicle. Riverside Avenue N. While on patrol, an officer noticed a vehicle parked in a driveway with the trunk left open. An officer contacted the homeowner who stated they just forgot to shut it.
March 24 1:37 a.m. Open door. While checking local businesses, a reserve officer found an unlocked door. The building was cleared and the keyholder was contacted to secure the building. 2:31 p.m. Theft. Walmart. A fe-
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male was witnessed attempting to leave the store with unpaid merchandise. She admitted to the theft. She was issued a citation and released. March 25 11:35 a.m. Disorderly conduct. 14th Avenue E. A male had become enraged and threatened staff while in a local business. He threw open a door and caused damage to the sheet rock. He was issued a citation for disorderly conduct and property damage. 5:03 p.m. DWI. Riverside Avenue N. A report was made of an intoxicated male who had driven into a yard and was stuck in the ice. Officers arrived and performed field sobriety testing. He was arrested and transported to Stearns County Jail. March 26 2:12 p.m. Stalled vehicle. Highway 15. An officer came across a vehicle stalled on the side of the highway. The male stated his wife ran out of gas and she took his truck while he waited for Andy’s to bring gas for her vehicle. The officer transported him to a local gas station to obtain gas and then brought him back to the vehicle. March 27 3:45 p.m. Traffic stop. 7th Street N. A vehicle was witnessed traveling
3 49 mph in a posted 20-mph zone. The driver stated she was unaware of her speed. She was issued a citation and released. 11:19 p.m. Vehicle theft. CR 120. Sometime between 2:30 p.m. and 11 p.m. Someone removed a side mirror from a vehicle. March 28 6:25 a.m. Suspicious person. CR 120. Complaints were made regarding a male yelling and banging on a car window while a female was inside. Officers arrived and found the male and female were in a verbal argument. The female stated it was not physical. It was found the male had a warrant for his arrest. Officers placed him under arrest and transported him to Stearns County Jail without incident. 8:33 a.m. Stalled vehicle. Riverside Avenue. While on patrol, an officer came across a vehicle stalled in the turn lane. The driver stated she didn’t know what was wrong and that it needed to be towed. The officer called a tow service and provided safety lights until the tow truck arrived. 7:45 p.m. Traffic stop. Pinecone Road. A vehicle was witnessed traveling 64 mph in a posted 40-mph zone. The driver stated he was unaware of the speed limit. He was issued a citation and released.
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Marathon from front page broadcast. Sam will be one of an estimated 500,000 cheering supporters who line the streets of the greater Boston area every year for the event. Such supporters come from all over the world to cheer on the runners and wheelchair-bound racers. The actual race participants number as high as 36,000. Nordby has been to Boston before but never as a marathon runner. At one time, she never dreamed she would one day participate in “the Boston,” but because of personal contacts, including runners she knows like Lucas, she realized it could – and did – become a possibility. Nordby has met and spoken with famed runner, Minneapolisborn Dick Beardsley, who placed a close second in the Boston Marathon in 1982. He vividly described to her the excitement and drama of the race. Nordby is a stay-at-home mom who formerly taught third grade and fifth grade at Cold Spring Elementary School. Husband Sam is a counselor at the St. Cloud Area Learning Center.
Lucas
contributed photos
Above: Laura Nordby is one of several Sartell residents who will run in the famed Boston Marathon April 15. This is a photo of Nordby running in the last Grandma’s Marathon in Duluth. Inset: Jereme Fimrite, Sartell, will have plenty of fans tuned into television sets and iPhones during the April 15 Boston Marathon. Besides his four children and many friends, Fimrite’s students are also keenly interested in the marathon. Fimrite teaches sixth-grade math at South Junior High School in St. Cloud.
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Dr. Liliana Lucas, owner of Pediatric Dentistry in Sartell, knows very well the excitement Nordby can look forward to at the Boston Marathon. It wasn’t an easy course, though, that’s for sure. “The weather was 85 degrees last year,” she said. “It was so hot that day. But running in the marathon was wonderful. The crowd along the way was just amazing, and the race was so well organized. It was my first time in Boston, which is a very fun city. And the crowds’ support from mile one all through was wonderful.” Lucas finished the 26-mile course in 3:27:00. Just being a qualifier for the Boston Marathon is a “huge accomplishment,” Lucas said, largely because qualifications become tighter every year in every age category. The race organizers take people’s qualifying times from other marathons, and then most get weeded off the lists as only the fastest runners are selected to be in the race. Before last year’s race, Lucas spent months training on a treadmill in her home. “Being in Minnesota (with the winter weather) makes training for it more challenging,” she said. Lucas enjoys lots of camaraderie while training outdoors. She gets up at 5:30 a.m. and runs with one or more women who live in her Sartell neighborhood: Lisa Bollinger, Hilary Burns, Shannon Houghton, Erin Lemke, Ally Parker and Jill Smith. Houghton and Smith have already qualified for the Boston Marathon for next year. The others may well qualify soon. “When we run together, it’s also our social time,” Lucas said. “We’re all busy moms.” Lucas has enjoyed running at Central High School in LaCrosse, Wis., where she was raised. Other marathons she’s run in include Grandma’s in Duluth and races in
the Twin Cities, Chicago, Madison (Wis.) and LaCrosse. Her husband, Josh, and their children Mark, Nathan and Lauren are very proud of her and are already looking forward to seeing her compete next year in “the Boston.” It will be good to be there as a celebration of my qualifying in the Twin Cities.”
Jereme Fimrite
Jereme Fimrite is going to Boston with a buoyant attitude. He considers the Boston Marathon a “celebration” of his diligent training that paid off. Qualifying for the famous race was not easy. In one Minnesota marathon, Fimrite’s finishing time was 3:17:00, just seven seconds short of the time he needed to qualify for Boston. That disappointment just made Fimrite more determined. After four months of strenuous training, he ran the Twin Cities Marathon and qualified for the Boston Marathon. That was last October, and he has been training ever since, despite what he described as a “lousy, horrible spring for training.” But nasty weather didn’t stop him. Last week, for instance, Fimrite’s running sessions totaled 88 miles. “I’m ready for Boston, and I’m excited,” Fimrite said. “I don’t have a goal for the Boston Marathon. It will just be good to be there as a celebration of my qualifying in the Twin Cities.” Fimrite said it took him five years “to forget” the pain of his first marathon – the “Grandma’s” in Duluth in 2005. After that brutal experience, Fimrite more or less gave up the idea of such long running. But friends, much later, convinced him to give marathons another try. They convinced him, and he was hooked. Two years ago, he tried the Duluth event again. “I enjoyed it more that time, even though a friend suffered a stress fracture during the run,” he said. “But he vowed to do it again, and so last year we finished the Grandma’s. My third time.” Fimrite’s entire approach to running is to “do a little bit better than last time, to better my time every time.” He and his wife Tammy, a chiropractor at Minzer Chiropractic, plan to spend a week on the East Coast after the marathon. They’re looking forward to seeing a Boston Red Sox game in Fenway Park. Back home, their fans will be watching the marathon. Those fans include his children – Michaele, Nathanael, Madalyn and Maycee; and his students. Fimrite is a sixth-grade math teacher at South Junior High School in St. Cloud.
History of the race
The Boston Marathon, which began in 1897, is the oldest annual footrace marathon in the world and arguably the most famous. It’s also well known for its men’s and women’s wheelchair races. It began by coordinators who were impressed by the first modern-day running marathon a year before, in the 1896 Summer Olympics. For the first race, there were only 18 participants. During the Boston Centennial Marathon in
Friday, April 12, 2013 1996, the number had grown to almost 36,000 finishers in the race. This year, about 27,000 entrants are expected to compete. Operated by the Boston Athletic Association, the 26-mile marathon course runs through eight cities in the greater Boston area, starting at noon at Hopkinton and ending with the finish line at Copley Square next to the Boston Public Library. The course is known for several brutally challenging hills, including “Heartbreak Hill,” where runners typically lose steam and sometimes even drop out. Women were not officially allowed to participate in the marathon until 1972, although a few chose to run, unofficially, as early as 1966. Nowadays, female participants average slightly more than 40 percent each year. Besides the thousands of runners, the marathon typically attracts 500,000 or more spectators – many of them from countries throughout the world who line the streets and loudly cheer on the participants. The event always takes place on Patriots’ Day in Boston, which is the third Monday in April. Last year, a man and a woman from Kenya were the winners of the event – Wesley Korir and Sharon Cherop. Korir had a time of 2:12:40; and Cherop’s time was 2:31:50. The all-time record runner in the marathon’s 116-year history is Geoffrey Mutai, also of Kenya, who crossed the finish line with a time of 2:03:02, which is an unofficial world’s record for a 26-mile footrace. The first winner of the marathon was American John. J. McDermott with a time of 2:55:10. In the first 50 years or so of the race, almost all winners were either Americans or Canadians. As the race became more famous worldwide, more people from other countries began to enter it, resulting in many winners from around the world. Runners from Kenya, known for their intensive training and running stamina, won the Boston Marathon for 10 consecutuive years from 1991 to 2000, and some of those Kenyan runners were repeat winners with several having won two and three times previously. Since 1991, 20 of the winners have been Kenyans, with two from Ethiopia and one from South Korea. In 2008, Kenyan Robert Kipkoech Cheruiyot won his fourth Boston Marathon race. Female winners from Kenya and Ethiopia have also dominated the race in the past 20 or so years. United States runners will hold the record for total wins in the 116 years of the race, with 95 men’s and women’s winners combined. Kenya is second with 29 winners, Canada third with 21 winners and Japan fourth with 15 winners. The all-time champs for multiple wins are Ernst Van Dyk (South Africa) in the Men’s Wheelchair Division (nine wins), Clarence DeMar (United States) in the Men’s Open Division (seven wins) and Catherine Ndereba (Kenya) in the Women’s Open Division (four wins).
Friday, April 12, 2013
Volunteer from front page of the block and spend the day people-watching at Crossroads shopping center in St. Cloud. Hurd’s volunteering runs the gamut: building handicapped ramps, working at the Bernick’s Arena, building log furniture for a number of good causes, such as for the Boys and Girls Club silent auctions, all kinds of work for his church (St. Francis Xavier), tasks for the Senior Connection (Hurd is a member of the group’s board) and other jobs here and there too numerous to mention. When there is a good deed to be done, Hurd is eager to step up, roll up his sleeves and lend a helping hand. Hurd is also a member of the current task force studying options for building a community center in Sartell. “It’s so much fun to do things for people,” he said. One of his most gratifying volunteer jobs is to build ramps for the annual deer hunting
Sartell Newsleader • www.thenewsleaders.com event at Camp Ripley for physically disabled veterans. Another impetus for Hurd to volunteer, besides his love of people, is the fact he grew up in Sartell, a city he dearly loves. He attended grade school in what is now the School District Services Building. Then he graduated from Tech High School (Sartell did not have a high school in those days). For many years, Hurd worked as a pipefitter in the construction trade in the greater St. Cloud area. After his knees became problematic, he became a realestate broker for Castle Realty for about a dozen years until he retired at age 57. His wife, Sandy, worked for Northwestern Bell Telephone in St. Cloud for many years. One of the groups both Ron and Sandy do volunteer work for is “Telephone Pioneers,” a group of retired telephonecompany workers. One of their tasks is to build handicapped ramps. Sandy does a number of other volunteer jobs, including singing with the “Family Fun” singers who perform at nursing homes, churches, schools and other venues.
When Hurd isn’t sharing time with family or volunteering, he can often be found in his large basement woodworking shop, making his specialty log items: coffee tables, chairs and just about anything imaginable. Some of his rustic log chairs for children seem to have come right out of the storybook of “Goldilocks and the Three Bears.” Hurd chooses the poplar logs from the woods way up north. Back home, he debarks them and then his imagination takes over as he cuts, sands, glues and polishes. Most of his woodwork is donated for good causes. The Hurds have two sons – Eric, who works for Northland Capital, a leasing company; and Brian, a teacher at Mary of Lourdes Catholic School. Eric’s wife is Lee Hurd, executive vice president of Bursch Travel; and Brian’s wife is Terry, a social studies teacher at Sartell Middle School. Despite Hurd’s busy life, he makes sure he finds time for his morning ritual – shooting the breeze over coffee with his old-time buddies. All of them, despite some age differences,
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photo by Dennis Dalman
Hurd prepares to drill a hole on the side of one of his children’s “time out” chairs, as he kiddingly calls them. grew up in Sartell and most still live in the city. The most regular members of the group are Bob Becker, Jan Bettenberg, Jim DeZurik, Lint Edgerly, Neal
Pearson, Bill Smoley and Craig Stevens. And if the walls had ears, oh, the stories they could tell.
Task force seeks comments from women veterans by Dennis Dalman [email protected]
A national American Legion task force will take comments from women military veterans at a “Women Veterans Town Hall” meeting from 6-7 p.m. Monday, April 15 at the American Legion Club in Sauk Rapids. Any women veterans in the area are encouraged to attend the meeting to share their thoughts and feelings, both pro and con about medical services they have received. Male veterans may also attend the meeting. What is needed are comments from the veterans about the quality of care they have received from Veterans Administration medical centers, in St. Cloud or elsewhere. The committee gathering testimony is known as the “System Worth
Saving Task Force.” It was created in 2003 to evaluate the quality of care at VA facilities throughout the nation. The task force interviews veterans far and wide. After all of the visits and interviews, the force will compile a detailed report this fall after their visits to 15 cities where there are VA medical centers. After they are through, the conclusions and recommendations will then be shared at the U.S. Congress’s veterans affairs committees and with the president. After the April 15 meeting in Sauk Rapids, the task force will spend time at the St. Cloud Veterans Administration Medical Center interviewing veterans there. The task force goes through that process every year, but this year it will concentrate mainly on the kinds and quality of care women veterans have been re-
ceiving. The task force’s ultimate goal is to improve the quality of care for all veterans in the nation. Phil Ringstrom of Sartell is keenly interested in the task force’s work, and he will be present during the meeting in Sauk Rapids. Ringstrom is chairman of the American Legion’s Department of Minnesota Veterans Affairs and Rehabilitation Committee. Recently, he returned from Washington, D.C. where he and other Minnesotans were lobbying on behalf of veterans’ needs. There are five veterans on the Rehabilitation Committee, including Ringstrom, two men and two women from throughout Minnesota. The committee members will join the national task force during its visit to the St. Cloud VA Medical Center April 15. Veterans • page 7
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Friday, April 12, 2013
Opinion Our View
Kudos to school district for honoring all arts It’s a treat to see the interior of Sartell High School – and other schools – in Sartell so enlivened with art works. Most of us take art for granted. Life would be quite humdrum dreary without art. Imagine what the daily world would be like without all of the elements of art, of beauty. Without the architectural harmonies of public buildings and homes. Without landscaped parks and other green spaces. Without sculptures, paintings, theater and all of the other arts that surround us. It would, indeed, be a dull world. Many school districts have whittled down their arts and music programs to virtual non-existence, which is a crying shame. Some people, apparently, think arts and music are either frivolous subjects or unnecessary – the first to go during a budget crunch. That view is just plain wrong. Studies have shown students exposed to art and music not only live happier, enriched lives, but they are also more productive. The arts and music sharpen the senses, open the mind, pique curiosity and lead to innovative ways of approaching problems and finding solutions. Thank goodness the Sartell-St. Stephen School District realizes the importance of art and music. The two recent mural projects at Sartell High School are just two examples of how art is honored and is interwoven with other activities at the schools. It’s such a pleasure to see how the arts come together in the many excellent theatrical productions in Sartell schools. Those arts include music, singing, acting, stage sets, costume design, lighting and other components that add up to entertainment and often thought-provoking performances of quality plays. Our hats go off to all the art, theater and music teachers in the district. We also extend our kudos to the many fine artists-in-residence who share their talents year-round at the schools in Sartell. They include painters, poets, theater people, musicians and other instructors of amazing talents. It’s always impressive how those visiting masters instantly inspire the students, unleashing a flurry of creativity and bursts of imagination. We also want to thank the Sartell-St. Stephen Education Foundation, which funds so many artsrelated projects. Three cheers for the “Arts in Motion” program at Sartell High School and all of the other “arts in motion” that thrive in the Sartell-St. Stephen School District.
Fairness and ethics
Newsleader staff members have the responsibility to report news fairly and accurately and are accountable to the public. Readers who feel we’ve fallen short of these standards are urged to call the Newsleader office at 363-7741. If matters cannot be resolved locally, readers are encouraged to take complaints to the Minnesota News Council, an independent agency designed to improve relationships between the public and the media and resolve conflicts. The council office may be reached at 612-341-9357.
If not ObamaCare, then what? As implementation of the Affordable Health Care Act approaches, Obamahaters are licking their chops, hoping to see it nose-dive. One of those detractors is our very own Rep. Michele Bachmann (R-Stillwater), who delivered recently in the U.S. House of Representatives what may be the most ludicrous speech in recent memory. “Repeal this failure before it kills women, kills children, kills senior citizens,” she said in her pretend-crisis voice, calling once again for the repeal of ObamaCare. Her soap-opera delivery was such bad acting, I’m surprised lightning didn’t strike. Her, I mean. Bachmann was the first to submit a bill to repeal ObamaCare years ago. She won’t be the last. The latest spoiler, Sen. Ted Cruz (R-Texas), introduced yet another effort to repeal ObamaCare, the 36th time Senate Republicans have tried. Reasonable opposition to the Affordable Health Care Act is somewhat understandable. Much as I applaud it, I’ve said repeatedly in columns and to anyone who will listen that if ObamaCare does not lower health-care costs and healthcare premiums (the two are not always mutually related), Obama had better head back to the drawing board. There are efforts underway to sabotage Obama’s plan by those guarding extravagant profits made possible by the status-quo system. As many as 40 million good, hard-working Americans still
Dennis Dalman Editor don’t have insurance and can’t afford to get it. I know all too well, personally, what that can mean. A few years ago, after decades of employer-provided health insurance, I became a freelance writer. Because of a lower income, I was eligible to pay a reasonable monthly premium to MinnesotaCare (a kind of ObamaCare). Thanks to that, I was able to get a test and surgical procedure that saved my life. It was a cancerous tumor on a vocal cord I had no idea was there. Without MinnesotaCare, I would have put off that doctor’s visit, convincing myself that, oh well, it was just a persistent sore throat. Many others I know – hard-working people – cannot afford health-care insurance. They make too much (in many cases slightly too much) to qualify for MinnesotaCare or they don’t make nearly enough to afford premiums on the open market. Will ObamaCare change that? Make it better for all? I’ve got my fingers crossed and am hoping it’s a success. However, I actually do consider what opponents of ObamaCare have to say, unless they are histrionic divas like Bachmann who
live in dread of any Obama success. The reason I listen is because I believe ObamaCare is not the best solution to lopsided health care. The one-payer system like the rest of the civilized world has is much better, in my opinion. (Oh, my goodness, as I write this, I can just hear the angry letters I will receive: people dying to come to America for health care, people waiting in long lines, death panels in those evil socialist countries.) Before you write your angry letters, readers, please do some research about just which country’s health care is the best, in delivery and in numbers of people insured. And please do some research into what has been tried before, including the fabled “managed competition,” variations of which are still being trumpeted, uselessly, by those who want to cling to the status quo. Unlike Bachmann and her Tea Party naysayers, I hope ObamaCare works. It’s better than nothing, and it’s infinitely better than status quo (people dying or going broke without insurance). And most of all, I challenge those who despise ObamaCare to come up with an alternative. Do you have any solutions whatsoever other than the current disgrace under which so many of our fellow Americans are living in anxiety, going broke, suffering or dying because of lack of affordable health care? I await your solutions. Are you listening, Rep. Bachmann?
Early education investments will place kids on path to success Much has been written about the longterm benefits of high-quality early education and all-day kindergarten, especially for poor children. Research abounds to support investments in young learners as a critical way to close achievement gaps and improve student outcomes. Gov. Mark Dayton’s budget contains significant new investments for both early childhood education and all-day kindergarten, and every sign indicates substantial investments for early learning will be coming out of the legislature as well. Minnesota is home to some of the most compelling research on the high return of investment for early learning – up to $16 for every $1 invested according to former Federal Reserve Chair Art Rolnick. And there’s more: Childdevelopment researchers at the University of North Carolina recently published a study that found low-income students who attended preschool had higher math and reading scores in third grade than their low-income peers who did not. City University of New York conducted a study showing one in six students who can’t read at grade level by third grade will not finish high school by age 19 – nearly four times the rate of their more proficient peers. A study begun in 1962 in Michigan tracked two groups of low-income students – those who attended preschool and those who did not – and found at age 40, participants who attended preschool had attained higher levels of education, earned higher wages, were more likely to own a home and were less likely to have been incarcerated than those who did not attend preschool. Yet, despite the evidence, pockets of opposition continue to question the wis-
Brenda Cassellius MN Commissioner of Education dom of early childhood education. To which I say this: if you want a real life success story that illustrates the potential for high- quality early education to change a life, look at me. I was a Head Start baby. I can personally attest to the value of early learning, not only the early benefits to a poor girl growing up in the projects of south Minneapolis, but the long-term effects on my life. I could easily have ended up in a cycle of poverty and dependence, but I didn’t. Why? For many reasons, including hard work and a little bit of luck, but also because of the early opportunities I received and the parenting support given to my mother, who had my sister at 16 and me at 20. Head Start allowed me to develop school-readiness skills and a love of learning that have lasted a lifetime. I remember the fun of outlining my 4-yearold body on a big sheet of paper and labeling my parts, of watching a celery stalk turn red in a glass full of tinted water, of reading my first book, Harold and the Purple Crayon, and imagining my own dreams for adventure as I drew them with a purple crayon. My best memory, though, is when my teacher would round us up in a circle at the end of the day to touch the tip of her “magic wand” to the top of our heads, and if we were good and had done all of our work, the magic star on the end would light up. Why do these experiences matter now,
nearly four decades later? Because they taught me perhaps preschool’s greatest contribution to a students’ future success; the so-called “soft skills,” which help children learn how to pay attention and stay on task. My earliest teachers shaped me by instilling not only a love of learning, but also the principles of hard work, goodness and perseverance. These qualities cannot be measured by a test, but they matter a great deal in a competitive and diverse global economy and are necessary for success in life. I’ve been lucky. Lucky to be born in the right decade and that my mother had access to resources and support. Lucky to have had great teachers who pushed me to be my best. Lucky that wise Minnesotans who came before me realized a good education for every child was the surest way to strengthen our state’s competitive edge, leading a generation’s War on Poverty and crafting a Minnesota Miracle along the way. But should it come down to luck? The Governor and I believe not. We believe all children deserve access to the same great start I had. Investing now, this year, in our youngest learners – with more scholarships for high-quality earlyeducation programming and increased access to all-day kindergarten – gives us the best chance to fully leverage the potential that lies within every child. We may never be able to fully measure the profound impact early learning has on life success. Or maybe we can. Maybe we’re just waiting for a future education commissioner – a little girl or boy learning and dreaming in a sun-filled classroom today – to show us just how it’s done.
Friday, April 12, 2013
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Emergency-responder fashion show set for April 15 by Dennis Dalman [email protected]
Emergency-response women will strut down the runway, modeling their responder gear, during a fashion show called “Response Couture” from 4-6 p.m. Monday, April 15 in the ballroom near the Gorecki Center on the campus of the College of St. Benedict. If the weather is decent, the event may take place outdoors. “Response Couture” is free and open to anyone. The fashion show is a chance to give women and men information about careers involving emergency response and emergency management. Organizers of “Response Couture” are members of EMPOWER-Minnesota, which means
“Emergency Management Professionals for Women’s Enrichment.” One of those members is Jill Luehmann, a Sartell police officer. The purpose of the organization is to let women know there are professional-development opportunities available for careers in emergency response and management. The runway modeling shows will take place at 4:15 p.m. and again at 5:15 p.m. At the fashion show there will be many women from area police departments, fire departments, emergency-management agencies, public health, the American Red Cross, community emergency-response teams and the Minnesota Responds Medical Reserve Corps. This year, the target group
for the event is Girl Scouts of Central Minnesota, as EMPOWER-Minnesota wants to make young girls aware of the potential for rewarding careers in those fields. Rachel Erickson is the emergency-preparedness specialist for the St. Cloud Hospital. As a member of EMPOWER-Minnesota, she serves as logistics and coordinator for events. EMPOWER is a nationwide network of organizations. Its local groups are non-profit. EMPOWER-Minnesota was started three years ago. There are eight core members, each of which has a specific duty in its chain-ofcommand structure. Erickson said she hopes people of all ages and walks of life come to the “Response Cou-
ture” event because there are so many things to learn there. For example, there will be a “rollover simulator” that gives participants a first-hand feel of what it’s like to roll over in a vehicle during an accident. The professionals at the event will all have equipment on hand, and they will show visitors how they use that equipment in an
informal setting. They will also answer any questions visitors may have. There will also be ambulances, fire trucks and other emergency equipment at the event. People don’t have to register; they can show up. They are also welcome to attend part of the show and leave, Erickson noted.
Veterans
Ringstrom is encouraging women veterans, of whatever age or years of military service, to attend the Sauk Rapids meeting. The Sauk Rapids American Legion is located at 415 Benton Drive N.
from page 5 “We’ll be there mainly as observers,” Ringstrom said.
Community Calendar
Friday, April 12 Cloud Blood Donation Center, 1301 Knights of Columbus Burger W. St. Germain St. Cloud 1-800-RED Sale, 9:30 a.m.-5 p.m., St. Joseph CROSS or redcrossblood.org. Meat Market, 26 1st Ave. NW, St. Joseph, 320-363-8834. Wednesday, April 17 Ninth-grade Career ConferSaturday, April 13 ences, 8:30-11 a.m., Apollo and Tech Spaghetti dinner, sponsored by high schools. 320-202-6892. Boy Scout Troop 84, 4-7:30 p.m., American Legion Post 328, 101 W Thursday, April 18 Minnesota St., St. Joseph. Chronic Pain Self-management, Llama Llama Read to Me with 9-11:30 a.m., today and April 25, CSB Volleyball Team, 11 a.m.-noon May 2, 9, 16 and 23, Realife Coat the Waite Park Library, 253 5th operative at Mueller Gardens, 6670 Ave N., Waite Park, Advanced regis- Northwood Lane, St. Cloud. 320tration required. 320-253-9359. Monday, April 15 55+ driver improvement (eighthour first-time course), 5:30-9:30 p.m. tonight and April 16, Whitney Senior Center, 1527 Northway Drive, St. Cloud. 1-888-234-1294. St. Joseph Rod and Gun Club meeting, 7 p.m., American Legion, Post 328, 101 W Minnesota St., St. Joseph. Blood drive, noon-6 p.m., St. Cloud Blood Donation Center, 1301 W. St. Germain St. 1-800-RED CROSS or redcrossblood.org. Sock Knitting Workshop, 5:308 p.m. today and April 22 at the Waite Park Library, 253 5th Ave N. Waite Park, Preregistration required.320-253-9359. Tuesday, April 16 “Lazy Landscaping,” a Master Gardener seminar, 1-2 p.m., Great River Regional Library, 1300 W. St Germain St., St Cloud. 320-2556169. 4-H 4-Paws Dog Project meeting, 6:30 p.m., Midtown Square Mall, 3400 First St. N., Room 218, St. Cloud. www.extension.umn.edu. Blood drive, 10 a.m.-4 p.m., St.
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229-4591. iPad Basics, professional development for busy people, noon-1 p.m., Resource Training and Solutions, 4150 2nd St. S., Ste. 550, St. Cloud. 320-255-3236. Blood drive, noon-6 p.m., St. Cloud Blood Donation Center, 1301 W. St. Germain St. Cloud 1-800-RED CROSS or redcrossblood.org. Fortify your Spine, diagnosis and treatment, 6:30-8 p.m., Windfeldt Room, CentraCare Health Plaza, 1900 CentraCare Circle, St. Cloud. 320-229-5139 or centracare.com.
Coffee and Conversation, a senior discussion group, 9 a.m., Country Manor, Sartell. “Fiddler on the Roof,” 7 p.m., Sartell High School, 748 7th St. N. Sartell.
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Amendment Forum, 9 a.m.-noon and 1:15-3 p.m., Atwood Memorial Center Little Theatre, St. Cloud State University. Sabres All Sports Booster Club Spring Social, 8-11 p.m., Blackberry Ridge, 3125 Clubhouse Road, Sartell, 320-257-4653. Blood drive, 8 a,m,-2 p.m., St. Cloud Blood Donation Center, 1301 W. St. Germain St. Cloud 1-800-RED CROSS or redcrossblood.org. “Fiddler on the Roof,” 7 p.m., Sartell High School, 748 7th St. N., Sartell.
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Seamstress Barbara Howard – expert bridal- and formal-wear alterations; master tailoring for men’s, women’s and military; alterations, repairs, mending and custom sewing; and theatrical and historical re-enactment costuming. By appointment, 320-310-2024. 9-14x-p.
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