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584038	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickaninny	Pickaninny	Pickaninny (also picaninny, piccaninny or pickinninie) is a word applied originally by people of the West Indies to their babies and more widely referring to small children, as in Melanesian Pidgin. It is a pidgin word form, derived from the Portuguese ("very small", a diminutive version of the word , 'small', also used in Spanish, spelled or ). In contrast to this neutral meaning, the word has been used in North America as a racial slur referring to a dark-skinned child of African descent. In modern sensibility, the term can refer to an archaic depiction or caricature used in a derogatory and racist sense. Usage Pidgin usage Together with several other Portuguese forms, and its diminutive have been widely adopted in many Pidgin or Creole languages, for 'child', 'small' and similar meanings. They are quite common in the creole languages of the Caribbean, especially those which are English-based. The Patois dialect of Jamaica, the word has been shortened to the form or , which is used to describe a child regardless of racial origin, while in the English-based national creole language of Suriname, Sranang Tongo, has been borrowed as for 'small' and 'child'. In the Pidgin English dialects of Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon in western Africa, or , or – also derived from Portuguese – is used to describe a child. It can be heard in songs by African popular musicians such as Fela Kuti's Afrobeat song "Teacher Don't Teach Me Nonsense" and Prince Nico Mbarga's highlife song "Sweet Mother". Both are from Nigeria. The word is used in Tok Pisin, Solomon Pijin and Bislama (the English-based creole languages of Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, respectively) the word for 'child' or 'children'. North American usage Although the Oxford English Dictionary quotes an example from 1653 of the word pickaninny used to describe a child, it may also have been used in early African-American vernacular to indicate anything small, not necessarily a child. In a column in The Times of 1788, allegedly reporting a legal case in Philadelphia, a slave is charged with dishonestly handling goods he knows to be stolen and which he describes as insignificant, "only a piccaninny cork-screw and piccaninny knife – one cost six-pence and tudda a shilling". The anecdote goes on to make an anti-slavery moral however, when the black person challenges the whites for dishonestly handling stolen goods too – namely slaves – so it is perhaps more likely to be an invention than factual. The deliberate use of the word in this context however suggests it already had black-vernacular associations. In 1826 an Englishman named Thomas Young was tried at the Old Bailey in London on a charge of enslaving and selling four Gabonese women known as "Nura, Piccaninni, Jumbo Jack and Prince Quarben". In the Southern United States, pickaninny was long used to refer to the children of African slaves or (later) of any dark-skinned African American. While this use of the term was popularized in reference to the character of Topsy in the 1852 book Uncle Tom's Cabin, the term was used as early as 1831 in an anti-slavery tract "The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave, related by herself" published in Edinburgh, Scotland. According to the scholar Robin Bernstein, who describes the meaning in the context of the United States, the pickaninny is characterized by three qualities: "the figure is always juvenile, always of color, and always resistant if not immune to pain". Other The term piccaninny was used in colonial Australia for an Aboriginal child and is still in use in some Indigenous Kriol languages. The word piccaninny (sometimes spelled picanninnie) was also used in Australia during the 19th and 20th centuries. Its use is reflected in historic newspaper articles and numerous place names. Examples of the latter include Piccaninnie Ponds and Piccaninny Lake in South Australia, Piccaninny crater and Picaninny Creek in Western Australia and Picaninny Point in Tasmania. The term was controversially used ("wide-grinning picaninnies") by the British Conservative politician Enoch Powell when he quoted a letter in his "Rivers of Blood" speech on 20 April 1968. In 1987, Governor Evan Mecham of Arizona defended the use of the word, claiming: "As I was a boy growing up, blacks themselves referred to their children as pickaninnies. That was never intended to be an ethnic slur to anybody." Before becoming the Mayor of London, Boris Johnson wrote that "the Queen has come to love the Commonwealth, partly because it supplies her with regular cheering crowds of flag-waving piccaninnies." He later apologised for the article. Chess term The term is in current use as a technical term in Chess Problems, for a particular set of moves by a black pawn. See: Pickaninny (chess). In popular culture Films 1894 – Thomas Edison's short Kinetoscope demonstration film "Pickaninnies" showed Black children dancing on a plantation 1931 – In the film The Front Page, one of the reporters, played by Frank McHugh, calls in a story to his newspaper about "a colored woman" giving birth to "a pickaninny" in the back of a cab. The term is used twice in the scene. (See also His Girl Friday below, a remake of the same story.) 1935 – the Shirley Temple film The Little Colonel features the grandfather Colonel barking "piccaninny" at two young children. 1935 – Shirley Temple film The Littlest Rebel the word "pickaninny" is used to describe the young slave children who are friends to Virgie, but excluded from her birthday party at the beginning of the film. 1936 – In the film Poor Little Rich Girl, Shirley Temple sings the song "Oh, My Goodness" to four ethnically stereotyped dolls. The fourth doll, representing a black African woman or girl, is addressed as "pickaninny". 1936 – In the Hal Roach feature film General Spanky starring the Our Gang children, Buckwheat gets his foot tangled in the cord that blows the whistle on the river boat. Buckwheat is untangled by the captain of the river boat who hands him over to his master and tells him to "keep an eye on that little pickaninny". 1940 – In the film The Philadelphia Story, photographer Liz Imbrie (Ruth Hussey) uses the term while inspecting the house of Tracy Lord (Katharine Hepburn). 1940 – In the film His Girl Friday, McCue, one of the press room reporters, jokes that "Mrs. Phoebe DeWolfe" gave birth to a pickaninny in a patrol wagon, concluding, "When the pickaninny was born, the Rifle Squad examined him carefully to see if it was Earl Williams [an escaped death-row convict]. Well, they knew he was hiding somewhere." 1959 – In the opening line of Robert Wise's film Odds Against Tomorrow which tackled issues of racism, Robert Ryan's character picks up a young black girl after she bumps into him and says, "You little pickaninny, you're gonna kill yourself flying like that." 1987 – In the film Burglar, Ray Kirschman (played by G. W. Bailey) confronts ex-con Bernice Rhodenbarr (Whoopi Goldberg) in her bookstore by saying "now listen here, pickaninny!" 1995 – "Pickaninny" was used in the Mario Van Peebles film Panther in a denigrating fashion by Oakland police officer characters to describe an African American child who was killed in a car accident. 2000 – In Spike Lee's film Bamboozled, the representation of African-Americans in popular media is examined and pickaninny representations figure prominently in the film. Literature 1755 – Samuel Foote's nonsense prose includes: "there were present the Picninnies, and the Joblillies, and the Garyulies, and the grand Panjandrum himself ..." 1911 – In the novel Peter and Wendy by J. M. Barrie, the Indians of Neverland are members of the Piccaninny tribe. Sarah Laskow described them as "a blanket stand-in for "others" of all stripes, from Aboriginal populations in Australia to descendants of slaves in the United States" who generally communicate in pidgin with lines such as "Ugh, ugh, wah!". 1920 – F. Scott Fitzgerald used the word "pickaninnies" to describe young black children playing in the street, in his short story "The Ice Palace". 1935 – Throughout his travel book Journey Without Maps, British author Graham Greene uses "piccaninny" as a general term for African children. 1936 – In Margaret Mitchell's best-selling epic Gone with the Wind, Melanie Wilkes objects to her husband's intended move to New York City because it would mean that their son Beau would be educated alongside Yankees and pickaninnies. 1938 – Early editions of the longest-running British children's comic book The Beano, launched in 1938, featured a pickaninny character, Little Peanut, on its masthead. 1953 – In his novel Go Tell It on the Mountain, James Baldwin writes, "... shooing the pickannies away from the great porch ...” and “... making much of the pickaninnies and bearing gifts." 1953 – In Flannery O'Connor's short story "A Good Man Is Hard to Find", the grandmother uses the term: In my time,' said the grandmother, folding her thin veined fingers, 'children were more respectful of their native states and their parents and everything else. People did right then. Oh, look at the little pickaninny!' she said and pointed to a negro child standing in the door of a shack. 'Wouldn't that make a picture. 1986 – In Stephen King's novel It, one of Richard Tozier's Voices is a black man named Pickaninny Jim, who refers to the character Beverly Marsh as "Miss Scawlett" in a reference to Gone with the Wind. 1987–2003 – Orson Scott Card's historical fantasy series The Tales of Alvin Maker uses the term, such as in Seventh Son: "Papooses learnt to hunt, pickaninnies learnt to tote ..." Music Many old lullabies have the word "pickaninny" in them – used as an affectionate term for babies – often interchangeable with a child's name, i.e., to personalize the song many families have substituted the child's name. "It's time for little Pickaninnies to go to sleep." Wyoming Lullaby by Gene Williams, Published Lawrence Wright Music Co. Ltd, London WC2 1887 – The word "pickaninnies" appears in the lyrics of Newfoundland folk song Kelligrew's Soiree: "There was boiled guineas, cold guineas, bullock's heads and piccaninnies." 1902 – Scott Joplin wrote the music for a 1902 song with lyrics by Henry Jackson called "I Am Thinking of My Pickanniny Days". 1898 – "Shake Yo' Dusters, or, Piccaninny Rag" is a ragtime song by William Krell. 1914 – The original version of the lullaby "Hush-A-Bye, Ma Baby" ("The Missouri Waltz") contains the line "when I was a Pickaninny on ma Mammy's knee". When it became the state song of Missouri in 1949, the word "pickaninny" was replaced with "little child". 1924 – In the Broadway musical Shuffle Along, the song "Pickaninny Shoes" was composed by singer and songwriter Noble Sissle and pianist Eubie Blake. 1968 – The Country Joe and the Fish album Together includes the fiercely ironic "Harlem Song", with the lyric "Every little picaninny wears a great big grin." 1978 – The Australian folk-rock band Redgum used the word in their song "Carrington Cabaret" dealing with white indifference to the problems of aboriginal Australia on their album If You Don't Fight You Lose. 1978 – The word appears in the song "Warriors Bold" by Rhodesian folk artist John Edmond , as part of this 1978 album Troopiesongs - Phase III . It is used to describe a native African child prior to his joining of the Rhodesian African Rifles. 1987 – The word was used by Australian country music performer Slim Dusty in the lyrics of his "nursery-rhyme-style" song "Boomerang": "Every picaninny knows, that's where the roly-poly goes." Television 2015 - Season 1 Episode 14 of Shark Tank Australia featured Piccaninny Tiny Tots which has since changed its name to Kakadu Tiny Tots 2020 - Episode 8 (Jig-A-Bobo) of the HBO television series Lovecraft Country features a character chased by Topsy and Bopsy, two ghoulish monsters depicted as "pickaninny" caricatures. News 2002 - The Daily Telegraph - Boris Johnson referred to black people in Africa as "Piccanninies" with "Watermelon Smiles" in his Daily Telegraph article, published 10th January 2002. He went on to say “No doubt the AK47s will fall silent, and the pangas will stop their hacking of human flesh, and the tribal warriors will all break out in watermelon smiles to see the big white chief touch down in his big white British taxpayer-funded bird.” Related terms Cognates of the term appear in other languages and cultures, presumably also derived from the Portuguese word, and it is not controversial or derogatory in these contexts. The term is found in Melanesian pidgin and creole languages such as Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea or Bislama of Vanuatu, as the usual word for 'child' (of a person or animal); it may refer to children of any race. For example, Prince Charles used the term in a speech he gave in Tok Pisin during a formal event: he described himself as (i.e. the first child of the Queen). In certain dialects of Caribbean English, the words and are used to refer to children. Also, in Nigerian as well as Cameroonian Pidgin English, the word is used to mean a child. And in Sierra Leone Krio the term refers to 'child' or 'children', while in Liberian English the term does likewise. In Chilapalapa, a pidgin language used in Southern Africa, the term used is . In Sranan Tongo and Ndyuka of Suriname the term may refer to 'children' as well as to 'small' or 'little'. Some of these words may be more directly related to the Portuguese than to , the source of pickaninny. References External links An article on the Pickaninny caricature Anti-African and anti-black slurs Fictional African-American people Portuguese words and phrases Black people in art
585629	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv	Kyiv	Kyiv ( ) or Kiev ( ; , ) is the capital and most populous city of the country of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the seventh-most populous city in Europe. Kyiv is an important industrial, scientific, educational, and cultural center in Eastern Europe. It is home to many high-tech industries, higher education institutions, and historical landmarks. The city has an extensive system of public transport and infrastructure, including the Kyiv Metro. The city's name is said to derive from the name of Kyi, one of its four legendary founders. During its history, Kyiv, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of prominence and obscurity. The city probably existed as a commercial center as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the great trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kyiv was a tributary of the Khazars, until its capture by the Varangians (Vikings) in the mid-9th century. Under Varangian rule, the city became a capital of Kievan Rus', the first East Slavic state. Completely destroyed during the Mongol invasions in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a provincial capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours, first Lithuania, then Poland and ultimately Russia. The city prospered again during the Russian Empire's Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century. In 1918, after the Ukrainian People's Republic declared independence from Soviet Russia, Kyiv became its capital. From 1921 onwards Kyiv was a city of Soviet Ukraine, which was proclaimed by the Red Army, and, from 1934, Kyiv was its capital. The city was almost completely ruined during World War II but quickly recovered in the postwar years, remaining the Soviet Union's third-largest city. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union and Ukrainian independence in 1991, Kyiv remained Ukraine's capital and experienced a steady influx of ethnic Ukrainian migrants from other regions of the country. During the country's transformation to a market economy and electoral democracy, Kyiv has continued to be Ukraine's largest and wealthiest city. Its armament-dependent industrial output fell after the Soviet collapse, adversely affecting science and technology, but new sectors of the economy such as services and finance facilitated Kyiv's growth in salaries and investment, as well as providing continuous funding for the development of housing and urban infrastructure. Kyiv emerged as the most pro-Western region of Ukraine; parties advocating tighter integration with the European Union dominate during elections. Etymology The Ukrainian name is , written in the Ukrainian Cyrillic alphabet, and usually rendered in Latin letters (or romanized) as . Before standardization of the alphabet in the early 20th century, the name was also spelled , , or with the now-obsolete letter yat. The Old Ukrainian spelling from the 14th and 15th centuries was nominally Києвъ, but various attested spellings include кїєва (gen.), Кїєвь and Киев (acc.), кїєво or кїєвом (ins.), києвє, Кіеве, Кїєвѣ, Києвѣ, or Киѣве (loc.). The name descends from Old East Slavic (). Old East Slavic chronicles, such as Laurentian Codex and Novgorod Chronicle, used the spellings Києвъ, Къıєвъ, or Кїєвъ. This is most likely derived from the Proto-Slavic name Kyjevŭ gordŭ (literally, "Kyi's castle"), and is associated with Kyi (, ), the legendary eponymous founder of the city. Kyiv is the romanized official Ukrainian name for the city, and it is used for legislative and official acts. Kiev is the traditional English name for the city, but because of its historical derivation from the Russian name, Kiev became disfavored in many Western media outlets after the outbreak of the Russo-Ukrainian War. The city was known by various names in history. In the Norse sagas it was or , meaning city of the Kyivans (from ), which survives in modern Icelandic . Perhaps the earliest original manuscript to name the city is the Kyivan letter, written ca. 930 AD by representatives of the city's Jewish community, with the name written as . In the Byzantine Greek of Constantine Porphyrogenitus's 10th-century De Administrando Imperio it was , , and "also called Sambatas", . In Arabic, it was in Al-Istakhri's work of 951 AD, and according to ibn Rustah and other 10th-century authors. In the medieval Latin of Thietmar of Merseburg's Chronicon it was mentioned for the year 1015 as . After it was rebuilt in the 15th century, Kyiv was called by the Turkic (Crimean Tatar) name or . As a prominent city with a long history, its English name was subject to gradual evolution. Early English sources spelled this word as Kiou, Kiow, Kiew, Kiovia. On one of the oldest English maps of the region, published by Ortelius (London, 1570) the name of the city is spelled Kiou. On the 1650 map by Guillaume de Beauplan, the name of the city is Kiiow, and the region was named Kÿowia. In the book Travels, by Joseph Marshall (London, 1772), the city is called Kiovia. In English, Kiev appeared in print as early as 1804 in John Cary's "New map of Europe, from the latest authorities", and in Mary Holderness's 1823 travelogue New Russia: Journey from Riga to the Crimea by way of Kiev. The Oxford English Dictionary included Kiev in a quotation published by 1883, and Kyiv in 2018. The Ukrainian version of the name, Kyiw, appears in the Volume 4 of the Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland, published in 1883. After Ukraine's 1991 independence, the Ukrainian government introduced the national rules for transliteration of geographic names into the Latin alphabet for legislative and official acts in October 1995, according to which the Ukrainian name is romanized as Kyiv. These rules are applied for place names and addresses, as well as personal names in passports, street signs, and so on. In 2018, the Ukrainian Foreign Ministry launched #CorrectUA, an online campaign to promote the use of official Ukrainian spellings by countries and organizations, in place of "outdated, Soviet-era" place-names. The place name Kyiv is standardized in the authoritative database of Ukraine's toponyms maintained by Ukraine's mapping agency Derzhheokadastr. It has also been adopted by the United Nations GEGN Geographical Names Database, the United States Board on Geographic Names, the International Air Transport Association, the European Union, English-speaking foreign diplomatic missions and governments, several international organizations, and the Encyclopædia Britannica. Some English-language news sources have adopted in their style guides, including the AP, CP, Reuters, and AFP news services, media organizations in Ukraine, and some media organizations in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, despite more resistance to the spelling change compared to others, like Beijing and Mumbai. Alternative romanizations used in English-language sources include Kyïv, (according to the ALA–LC romanization used in bibliographic cataloguing), Kyjiv (scholarly transliteration used in linguistics), and Kyyiv (the 1965 BGN/PCGN transliteration standard). The US media organization NPR adopted an on-air pronunciation of Kyiv closer to the Ukrainian, responding to the history and identity of the local population, in January 2022. History The first known humans in the region of Kyiv lived there in the late paleolithic period (Stone Age). The population around Kyiv during the Bronze Age formed part of the so-called Trypillian culture, as evidenced by artifacts from that culture found in the area. During the early Iron Age certain tribes settled around Kyiv that practiced land cultivation, husbandry and trading with the Scythians and ancient states of the northern Black Sea coast. Findings of Roman coins of the 2nd to the 4th centuries suggest trade relations with the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. The people of the Zarubintsy culture are considered the direct ancestors of the ancient Slavs who later established Kyiv. Notable archaeologists of the area around Kyiv include Vikentiy Khvoyka. Scholars continue to debate when the city was founded: the traditional founding date is 482 AD, so the city celebrated its 1,500th anniversary in 1982. Archaeological data indicates a founding in the sixth or seventh centuries, with some researchers dating the founding as late as the late 9th century, There are several legendary accounts of the origin of the city. One tells of members of a Slavic tribe (Eastern Polans), brothers Kyi (the eldest, after whom the city was named) Shchek and Khoryv, and their sister Lybid, who founded the city (See the Primary Chronicle). Another legend states that Saint Andrew passed through the area in the 1st century. Where the city is now he erected a cross, where a church later was built. Since the Middle Ages an image of Saint Michael has represented the city as well as the duchy. There is little historical evidence pertaining to the period when the city was founded. Scattered Slavic settlements existed in the area from the 6th century, but it is unclear whether any of them later developed into the city. On the Ptolemy world map there are several settlements indicated along the mid-stream of Borysthenes, among which is Azagarium, which some historians believe to be the predecessor to Kyiv. However, according to the 1773 Dictionary of Ancient Geography of Alexander Macbean, that settlement corresponds to the modern city of Chernobyl. Just south of Azagarium, there is another settlement, Amadoca, which is supposed as the capital of Amadoci people living in area between marshes of Amadoca in the west and Amadoca mountains in the east. Another name for Kyiv mentioned in history, the origin of which is not completely clear, is Sambat, which apparently has something to do with the Khazar Empire. The Primary Chronicle says the residents of Kyiv told Askold "there were three brothers Kyi, Shchek, and Khoriv. They founded this town and died, and now we are staying and paying taxes to their relatives the Khazars". In his book De Administrando Imperio, Constantine Porphyrogenitus mentions a caravan of small-cargo boats which assembled annually, and writes, "They come down the river Dnieper and assemble at the strong-point of Kyiv (Kioava), also called Sambatas". At least three Arabic-speaking 10th century geographers who traveled the area mention the city of Zānbat as the chief city of the Russes. Among them are Ahmad ibn Rustah, Abu Sa'id Gardezi, and an author of the Hudud al-'Alam. The texts of those authors were discovered by Russian orientalist Alexander Tumansky. The etymology of Sambat has been argued by many historians, including Grigoriy Ilyinsky, Nikolay Karamzin, Jan Potocki, Nikolay Lambin, Joachim Lelewel, Guðbrandur Vigfússon. The historian Julius Brutzkus in his work "The Khazar Origin of Ancient Kiev" hypothesizes that both Sambat and Kyiv are of Khazar origin meaning "hill fortress" and "lower settlement" respectively. Brutzkus claims that Sambat is not Kyiv, but rather Vyshhorod (High City) which is located nearby. The Primary Chronicles state that at some point during the late 9th or early 10th century Askold and Dir, who may have been of Viking or Varangian descent, ruled in Kyiv. They were murdered by Oleg of Novgorod in 882, but some historians, such as Omeljan Pritsak and Constantine Zuckerman, dispute that, arguing that Khazar rule continued as late as the 920s (among notable historical documents are the Kyivan letter and Schechter Letter). Other historians suggest that Magyar tribes ruled the city between 840 and 878, before migrating with some Khazar tribes to the Carpathian Basin. The Primary Chronicles also mention movement of Hungarians pass Kyiv. To this day in Kyiv exists a place known as "Uhorske urochyshche" (Hungarian place), which is better known as Askold's Grave. According to the aforementioned scholars the building of the fortress of Kyiv was finished in 840 under the leadership of Keő (Keve), Csák, and Geréb, three brothers, possibly members of the Tarján tribe. The three names appear in the Kyiv Chronicle as Kyi, Shchek, and Khoryv and may be not of Slavic origin, as Russian historians have always struggled to account for their meanings and origins. According to Hungarian historian Viktor Padányi, their names were inserted into the Kyiv Chronicle in the 12th century, and they were identified as old-Russian mythological heroes. The city of Kyiv stood on the trade route between the Varangians and the Greeks. In 968 the nomadic Pechenegs attacked and then besieged the city. By 1000 AD the city had a population of 45,000. In March 1169, Grand Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky of Vladimir-Suzdal sacked Kyiv, leaving the old town and the prince's hall in ruins. He took many pieces of religious artwork - including the Theotokos of Vladimir icon - from nearby Vyshhorod. In 1203, Prince Rurik Rostislavich and his Kipchak allies captured and burned Kyiv. In the 1230s, the city was besieged and ravaged several times by different Rus princes. The city had not recovered from these attacks when, in 1240, the Mongol invasion of Rus', led by Batu Khan, completed the destruction of Kyiv. These events had a profound effect on the future of the city and on the East Slavic civilization. Before Bogolyubsky's pillaging, Kyiv had had a reputation as one of the largest cities in the world, with a population exceeding 100,000 in the beginning of the 12th century. In the early 1320s, a Lithuanian army led by Grand Duke Gediminas defeated a Slavic army led by Stanislav of Kyiv at the Battle on the Irpen' River and conquered the city. The Tatars, who also claimed Kyiv, retaliated in 1324–1325, so while Kyiv was ruled by a Lithuanian prince, it had to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. Finally, as a result of the Battle of Blue Waters in 1362, Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, incorporated Kyiv and surrounding areas into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1482, Crimean Tatars sacked and burned much of Kyiv. With the 1569 (Union of Lublin), when the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was established, the Lithuanian-controlled lands of the Kyiv region (Podolia, Volhynia, and Podlachia) were transferred from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, and Kyiv became the capital of Kyiv Voivodeship. The 1658 Treaty of Hadiach envisaged Kyiv becoming the capital of the Grand Duchy of Rus' within the Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth, but this provision of the treaty never went into operation. Occupied by Russian troops since the 1654 Treaty of Pereyaslav, Kyiv became a part of the Tsardom of Russia from 1667 on the Truce of Andrusovo and enjoyed a degree of autonomy. None of the Polish-Russian treaties concerning Kyiv have ever been ratified. In the Russian Empire, Kyiv was a primary Christian centre, attracting pilgrims, and the cradle of many of the empire's most important religious figures, but until the 19th century, the city's commercial importance remained marginal. In 1834, the Russian government established Saint Vladimir University, now called the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv after the Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861). (Shevchenko worked as a field researcher and editor for the geography department). The medical faculty of Saint Vladimir University, separated into an independent institution in 1919–1921 during the Soviet period, became the Bogomolets National Medical University in 1995. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Russian military and ecclesiastical authorities dominated city life; the Russian Orthodox Church had involvement in a significant part of Kyiv's infrastructure and commercial activity. In the late 1840s the historian, Mykola Kostomarov (), founded a secret political society, the Brotherhood of Saint Cyril and Methodius, whose members put forward the idea of a federation of free Slavic peoples with Ukrainians as a distinct and separate group rather than a subordinate part of the Russian nation; the Russian authorities quickly suppressed the society. Following the gradual loss of Ukraine's autonomy, Kyiv experienced growing Russification in the 19th century by means of Russian migration, administrative actions and social modernization. At the beginning of the 20th century the Russian-speaking part of the population dominated the city centre, while the lower classes living on the outskirts retained Ukrainian folk culture to a significant extent. However, enthusiasts among ethnic Ukrainian nobles, military and merchants made recurrent attempts to preserve native culture in Kyiv, by clandestine book-printing, amateur theatre, folk studies etc. During the Russian industrial revolution in the late 19th century, Kyiv became an important trade and transportation centre of the Russian Empire, specialising in sugar and grain export by railway and on the Dnieper river. By 1900, the city had also become a significant industrial centre, having a population of 250,000. Landmarks of that period include the railway infrastructure, the foundation of numerous educational and cultural facilities, and notable architectural monuments (mostly merchant-oriented). In 1892, the first electric tram line of the Russian Empire started running in Kyiv (the 3rd in the world). Kyiv prospered during the late 19th century Industrial Revolution in the Russian Empire, when it became the third most important city of the Empire and the major centre of commerce of its southwest. In the turbulent period following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Kyiv became the capital of several successive Ukrainian states and was caught in the middle of several conflicts: World War I, during which German soldiers occupied it from 2 March 1918 to November 1918, the Russian Civil War of 1917 to 1922, and the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1921. During the last three months of 1919, Kyiv was intermittently controlled by the White Army. Kyiv changed hands sixteen times from the end of 1918 to August 1920. From 1921 to 1991, the city formed part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which became a founding republic of the Soviet Union in 1922. The major events that took place in Soviet Ukraine during the interwar period all affected Kyiv: the 1920s Ukrainization as well as the migration of the rural Ukrainophone population made the Russophone city Ukrainian-speaking and bolstered the development of Ukrainian cultural life in the city; the Soviet Industrialization that started in the late 1920s turned the city, a former centre of commerce and religion, into a major industrial, technological and scientific centre; the 1932–1933 Great Famine devastated the part of the migrant population not registered for ration cards; and Joseph Stalin's Great Purge of 1937–1938 almost eliminated the city's intelligentsia In 1934, Kyiv became the capital of Soviet Ukraine. The city boomed again during the years of Soviet industrialization as its population grew rapidly and many industrial giants were established, some of which exist today. In World War II, the city again suffered significant damage, and Nazi Germany occupied it from 19 September 1941 to 6 November 1943. Axis forces killed or captured more than 600,000 Soviet soldiers in the great encirclement Battle of Kyiv in 1941. Most of those captured never returned alive. Shortly after the Wehrmacht occupied the city, a team of NKVD officers who had remained hidden dynamited most of the buildings on the Khreshchatyk, the main street of the city, where German military and civil authorities had occupied most of the buildings; the buildings burned for days and 25,000 people were left homeless. Allegedly in response to the actions of the NKVD, the Germans rounded up all the local Jews they could find, nearly 34,000, and massacred them at Babi Yar in Kyiv on 29 and 30 September 1941. In the months that followed, thousands more were taken to Babi Yar where they were shot. It is estimated that the Germans murdered more than 100,000 people of various ethnic groups, mostly civilians, at Babi Yar during World War II. Kyiv recovered economically in the post-war years, becoming once again the third-most important city of the Soviet Union. The catastrophic accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in 1986 occurred only north of the city. However, the prevailing south wind blew most of the radioactive debris away from Kyiv. In the course of the collapse of the Soviet Union the Ukrainian parliament proclaimed the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine in the city on 24 August 1991. In 2004–2005, the city played host to the largest post-Soviet public demonstrations up to that time, in support of the Orange Revolution. From November 2013 until February 2014, central Kyiv became the primary location of Euromaidan. Environment Geography Geographically, Kyiv is located on the border of the Polesia woodland ecological zone, a part of the European mixed woods area, and the East European forest steppe biome. However, the city's unique landscape distinguishes it from the surrounding region. Kyiv is completely surrounded by Kyiv Oblast. Originally on the west bank, today Kyiv is located on both sides of the Dnieper, which flows southwards through the city towards the Black Sea. The older and higher western part of the city sits on numerous wooded hills (Kyiv Hills), with ravines and small rivers. Kyiv's geographical relief contributed to its toponyms, such as Podil (means lower), Pechersk (caves), and uzviz (a steep street, "descent"). Kyiv is a part of the larger Dnieper Upland adjoining the western bank of the Dnieper in its mid-flow, and which contributes to the city's elevation change. The northern outskirts of the city border the Polesian Lowland. Kyiv expanded into the Dnieper Lowland on the left bank (to the east) as late as the 20th century. The whole portion of Kyiv on the left bank of the Dnieper is generally referred to as Left bank (, Livyi bereh). Significant areas of the left bank Dnieper valley were artificially sand-deposited, and are protected by dams. Within the city the Dnieper River forms a branching system of tributaries, isles, and harbors within the city limits. The city is close to the mouth of the Desna River and the Kyiv Reservoir in the north, and the Kaniv Reservoir in the south. Both the Dnieper and Desna rivers are navigable at Kyiv, although regulated by the reservoir shipping locks and limited by winter freeze-over. In total, there are 448 bodies of open water within the boundaries of Kyiv, which include the Dnieper itself, its reservoirs, and several small rivers, dozens of lakes and artificially created ponds. They occupy 7949 hectares. Additionally, the city has 16 developed beaches (totalling 140 hectares) and 35 near-water recreational areas (covering more than 1,000 hectares). Many are used for pleasure and recreation, although some of the bodies of water are not suitable for swimming. According to the UN 2011 evaluation, there were no risks of natural disasters in Kyiv and its metropolitan area. Climate Kyiv has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). The warmest months are June, July, and August, with mean temperatures of . The coldest are December, January, and February, with mean temperatures of . The highest ever temperature recorded in the city was on 30 July 1936. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city was on 11 January 1951. Snow cover usually lies from mid-November to the end of March, with the frost-free period lasting 180 days on average, but surpassing 200 days in some years. Legal status, local government and politics Legal status and local government The municipality of the city of Kyiv has a special legal status within Ukraine compared to the other administrative subdivisions of the country. The most significant difference is that the city is considered as a region of Ukraine (see Regions of Ukraine). It is the only city that has double jurisdiction. The Head of City State Administration – the city's governor – is appointed by the president of Ukraine, while the Head of the City Council – the mayor of Kyiv – is elected by local popular vote. The mayor of Kyiv is Vitali Klitschko, who was sworn in on 5 June 2014, after he had won the 25 May 2014 Kyiv mayoral elections with almost 57% of the votes. Since 25 June 2014, Klitschko is also Head of Kyiv City Administration. Klitschko was last reelected in the 2020 Kyiv local election with 50.52% of the votes, in the first round of the election. Most key buildings of the national government are located along Hrushevskoho Street (vulytsia Mykhaila Hrushevskoho) and Institute Street (vulytsia Instytutska). Hrushevskoho Street is named after the Ukrainian academician, politician, historian, and statesman Mykhailo Hrushevskyi, who wrote an academic book titled: "Bar Starostvo: Historical Notes: XV-XVIII" about the history of Bar, Ukraine. That portion of the city is also unofficially known as the government quarter (). The city state administration and council is located in the Kyiv City council building on Khreshchatyk Street. The oblast state administration and council is located in the Kyiv Oblast council building on ploshcha Lesi Ukrayinky (Lesya Ukrayinka Square). The Kyiv-Sviatoshyn Raion state administration is located near Kiltseva doroha (Ring Road) on prospekt Peremohy (Victory Parkway), while the Kyiv-Svyatoshyn Raion local council is located on vulytsia Yantarna (Yantarnaya Street). Politics The growing political and economic role of the city, combined with its international relations, as well as extensive internet and social network penetration, have made Kyiv the most pro-Western and pro-democracy region of Ukraine; (so called) National Democratic parties advocating tighter integration with the European Union receive most votes during elections in Kyiv. In a poll conducted by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology in the first half of February 2014, 5.3% of those polled in Kyiv believed "Ukraine and Russia must unite into a single state", nationwide this percentage was 12.5. Subdivisions Traditional subdivision The Dnieper River naturally divides Kyiv into the Right Bank and the Left Bank areas. Historically located on the western right bank of the river, the city expanded into the left bank only in the 20th century. Most of Kyiv's attractions as well as the majority of business and governmental institutions are located on the right bank. The eastern "Left Bank" is predominantly residential. There are large industrial and green areas in both the Right Bank and the Left Bank. Kyiv is further informally divided into historical or territorial neighbourhoods, each housing from about 5,000 to 100,000 inhabitants. Formal subdivision The first known formal subdivision of Kyiv dates to 1810 when the city was subdivided into 4 parts: Pechersk, Starokyiv, and the first and the second parts of Podil. In 1833–1834 according to Tsar Nicholas I's decree, Kyiv was subdivided into 6 police raions (districts); later being increased to 10. In 1917, there were 8 Raion Councils (Duma), which were reorganised by bolsheviks into 6 Party-Territory Raions. During the Soviet era, as the city was expanding, the number of raions also gradually increased. These newer districts of the city, along with some older areas were then named in honour of prominent communists and socialist-revolutionary figures; however, due to the way in which many communist party members eventually, after a certain period of time, fell out of favour and so were replaced with new, fresher minds, so too did the names of Kyiv's districts change accordingly. The last raion reform took place in 2001 when the number of raions has been decreased from 14 to 10. Under Oleksandr Omelchenko (mayor from 1999 to 2006), there were further plans for the merger of some raions and revision of their boundaries, and the total number of raions had been planned to be decreased from 10 to 7. With the election of the new mayor-elect (Leonid Chernovetsky) in 2006, these plans were shelved. Each raion has its own locally elected council with jurisdiction over a limited scope of affairs. Demographics According to the official registration statistics, there were 2,847,200 residents within the city limits of Kyiv in July 2013. Historical population According to the All-Ukrainian Census, the population of Kyiv in 2001 was 2,611,300. The historic changes in population are shown in the side table. According to the census, some 1,393,000 (53.3%) were female and 1,219,000 (46.7%) were male. Comparing the results with the previous census (1989) shows the trend of population ageing which, while prevalent throughout the country, is partly offset in Kyiv by the inflow of working age migrants. Some 1,069,700 people had higher or completed secondary education, a significant increase of 21.7% since 1989. The June 2007 unofficial population estimate based on amount of bakery products sold in the city (thus including temporary visitors and commuters) gave a number of at least 3.5 million people. Ethnic composition According to the 2001 census data, more than 130 nationalities and ethnic groups reside within the territory of Kyiv. Ukrainians constitute the largest ethnic group in Kyiv, and they account for 2,110,800 people, or 82.2% of the population. Russians comprise 337,300 (13.1%), Jews 17,900 (0.7%), Belarusians 16,500 (0.6%), Poles 6,900 (0.3%), Armenians 4,900 (0.2%), Azerbaijanis 2,600 (0.1%), Tatars 2,500 (0.1%), Georgians 2,400 (0.1%), Moldovans 1,900 (0.1%). A 2015 study by the International Republican Institute found that 94% of Kyiv was ethnic Ukrainian, and 5% ethnic Russian. Most of the city's non-Slav population comprises Tatars, Caucasians and other people from the former Soviet Union. Language statistics Both Ukrainian and Russian are commonly spoken in the city; approximately 75% of Kyiv's population responded "Ukrainian" to the 2001 census question on their native language, roughly 25% responded "Russian". According to a 2006 survey, Ukrainian is used at home by 23% of Kyivans, 52% use Russian, and 24% switch between both. In the 2003 sociological survey, when the question "What language do you use in everyday life?" was asked, 52% said "mostly Russian", 32% "both Russian and Ukrainian in equal measure", 14% "mostly Ukrainian", and 4.3% "exclusively Ukrainian". According to the census of 1897, of Kyiv's approximately 240,000 people approximately 56% of the population spoke the Russian language, 23% spoke the Ukrainian language, 13% spoke Yiddish, 7% spoke Polish and 1% spoke the Belarusian language. A 2015 study by the International Republican Institute found that the languages spoken at home in Kyiv were Ukrainian (27%), Russian (32%), and an equal combination of Ukrainian and Russian (40%). Jews The Jews of Kyiv are first mentioned in a 10th century letter. The Jewish population remained relatively small until the nineteenth century. A series of pogroms was carried out in 1882, and another in 1905. On the eve of World War I, the city's Jewish population was over 81,000. In 1939 there were approximately 224,000 Jews in Kyiv, some of whom fled the city ahead of the German invasion of the Soviet Union that began in June 1941. On 29 and 30 September 1941, nearly 34,000 Kyivan Jews were massacred at Babi Yar by the German Wehrmacht, SS, Ukrainian Auxiliary Police, and local collaborators. Jews began returning to Kyiv at the end of the war, but experienced another pogrom in September 1945. In the 21st century, Kyiv's Jewish community numbers about 20,000. There are two major synagogues in the city: the Great Choral Synagogue and the Brodsky Choral Synagogue. Cityscape Modern Kyiv is a mix of the old (Kyiv preserved about 70 percent of more than 1,000 buildings built during 1907–1914) and the new, seen in everything from the architecture to the stores and to the people themselves. When the capital of the Ukrainian SSR was moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv many new buildings were commissioned to give the city "the gloss and polish of a capital". In the discussions that centered on how to create a showcase city center, the current city center of Khreshchatyk and Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square) were not the obvious choices. Some of the early, ultimately not materialised, ideas included a part of Pechersk, Lypky, European Square and Mykhailivska Square. The plans of building massive monuments (of Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin) were also abandoned, due to lack of money (in the 1930s–1950s) and because of Kyiv's hilly landscape. Experiencing rapid population growth between the 1970s and the mid-1990s, the city has continued its consistent growth after the turn of the millennium. As a result, Kyiv's central districts provide a dotted contrast of new, modern buildings among the pale yellows, blues and greys of older apartments. Urban sprawl has gradually reduced, while population densities of suburbs has increased. The most expensive properties are located in the Pechersk, and Khreshchatyk areas. It is also prestigious to own a property in newly constructed buildings in the Kharkivskyi Raion or Obolon along the Dnieper. Ukrainian independence at the turn of the millennium has heralded other changes. Western-style residential complexes, modern nightclubs, classy restaurants and prestigious hotels opened in the centre. And most importantly, with the easing of the visa rules in 2005, Ukraine is positioning itself as a prime tourist attraction, with Kyiv, among the other large cities, looking to profit from new opportunities. The centre of Kyiv has been cleaned up and buildings have been restored and redecorated, especially Khreshchatyk and Maidan Nezalezhnosti. Many historic areas of Kyiv, such as Andriyivskyy Descent, have become popular street vendor locations, where one can find traditional Ukrainian art, religious items, books, game sets (most commonly chess) as well as jewellery for sale. At the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009, Kyiv was the only Commonwealth of Independent States city to have been inscribed into the TOP30 European Green City Index (placed 30th). Kyiv's most famous historical architecture complexes are the St. Sophia Cathedral and the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (Monastery of the Caves), which are recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Noteworthy historical architectural landmarks also include the Mariinskyi Palace (designed and constructed from 1745 to 1752, then reconstructed in 1870), several Eastern Orthodox churches such as St. Michael's Cathedral, St. Andrew's, St. Vladimir's, the reconstructed Golden Gate and others. One of Kyiv's widely recognized modern landmarks is the highly visible giant Mother Motherland statue made of titanium standing at the National Museum of the History of Ukraine in the Second World War on the Right bank of the Dnieper River. Other notable sites is the cylindrical Salut hotel, located across from Glory Square and the eternal flame at the World War Two memorial Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, and the House with Chimaeras. Among Kyiv's best-known monuments are Mikhail Mikeshin's statue of Bohdan Khmelnytsky astride his horse located near St. Sophia Cathedral, the venerated Vladimir the Great (St. Vladimir), the baptizer of Rus', overlooking the river above Podil from Saint Vladimir Hill, the monument to Kyi, Shchek and Khoryv and Lybid, the legendary founders of the city located at the Dnieper embankment. On Independence Square in the city centre, two monuments elevate two of the city protectors; the historic protector of Kyiv Michael Archangel atop a reconstruction of one of the old city's gates and a modern invention, the goddess-protector Berehynia atop a tall column. Culture Kyiv was the historic cultural centre of the East Slavic civilization and a major cradle for the Christianization of Kyivan Rus. Kyiv retained through centuries its cultural importance and even at times of relative decay, it remained the centre of primary importance of Eastern Orthodox Christianity . Its sacred sites, which include the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (the Monastery of the Caves) and the Saint Sophia Cathedral are probably the most famous, attracted pilgrims for centuries and now recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site remain the primary religious centres as well as the major tourist attraction. The above-mentioned sites are also part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine collection. Kyiv's theatres include, the Kyiv Opera House, Ivan Franko National Academic Drama Theater, Lesya Ukrainka National Academic Theater of Russian Drama, the Kyiv Puppet Theater, October Palace and National Philharmonic of Ukraine and others. In 1946 Kyiv had four theatres, one opera house and one concert hall, but most tickets then were allocated to "privileged groups". Other significant cultural centres include the Dovzhenko Film Studios, and the Kyiv Circus. The most important of the city's many museums are the Kyiv State Historical Museum, National Museum of the History of Ukraine in the Second World War, the National Art Museum, the Museum of Western and Oriental Art, the Pinchuk Art Centre and the National Museum of Russian art. In 2005, Kyiv hosted the 50th annual Eurovision Song Contest and in 2017 the 62nd annual Eurovision Song Contest Numerous songs and paintings were dedicated to the city. Some songs became part of Russian, Ukrainian and Jewish folklore. The most popular songs are "How not to love you, Kyiv of mine?" and "Kyiv Waltz". Renowned Ukrainian composer Oleksandr Bilash wrote an operetta called "Legend of Kyiv". Attractions It is said that one can walk from one end of Kyiv to the other in the summertime without leaving the shade of its many trees. Most characteristic are the horse-chestnuts (, ). Kyiv is known as a green city with two botanical gardens and numerous large and small parks. The National Museum of the History of Ukraine in the Second World War is located here, which offers both indoor and outdoor displays of military history and equipment surrounded by verdant hills overlooking the Dnieper river. Among the numerous islands, Venetsianskyi (or Hydropark) is the most developed. It is accessible by metro or by car, and includes an amusement park, swimming beaches, boat rentals, and night clubs. The Victory Park (Park Peremohy) located near Darnytsia subway station is a popular destination for strollers, joggers, and cyclists. Boating, fishing, and water sports are popular pastimes in Kyiv. The area lakes and rivers freeze over in the winter and ice fishermen are a frequent sight, as are children with their ice skates. However, the peak of summer draws out a greater mass of people to the shores for swimming or sunbathing, with daytime high temperatures sometimes reaching . The centre of Kyiv (Independence Square and Khreschatyk Street) becomes a large outdoor party place at night during summer months, with thousands of people having a good time in nearby restaurants, clubs and outdoor cafes. The central streets are closed for auto traffic on weekends and holidays. Andriyivskyy Descent is one of the best known historic streets and a major tourist attraction in Kyiv. The hill is the site of the Castle of Richard the Lionheart; the baroque-style St Andrew's Church; the home of Kyiv born writer, Mikhail Bulgakov; the monument to Yaroslav the Wise, the Grand Prince of Kyiv and of Novgorod; and numerous other monuments. A wide variety of farm produce is available in many of Kyiv's farmer markets with the Besarabsky Market located in the very centre of the city being most famous. Each residential region has its own market, or rynok. Here one will find table after table of individuals hawking everything imaginable: vegetables, fresh and smoked meats, fish, cheese, honey, dairy products such as milk and home-made smetana (sour cream), caviar, cut flowers, housewares, tools and hardware, and clothing. Each of the markets has its own unique mix of products with some markets devoted solely to specific wares such as automobiles, car parts, pets, clothing, flowers, and other things. At the city's southern outskirts, near the historic Pyrohiv village, there is an outdoor museum, officially called the Museum of Folk Architecture and Life of Ukraine It has an area of . This territory houses several "mini-villages" that represent by region the traditional rural architecture of Ukraine. Kyiv also has numerous recreational attractions like bowling alleys, go-cart tracks, paintball venues, billiard halls and even shooting ranges. The 100-year-old Kyiv Zoo is located on 40 hectares and according to CBC "the zoo has 2,600 animals from 328 species". Museums and galleries Kyiv is home to some 40 different museums. In 2009 they recorded a total of 4.3 million visits. The National Museum of the History of Ukraine in the Second World War is a memorial complex commemorating the Eastern Front of World War II located in the hills on the right-bank of the Dnieper River in Pechersk. Kyiv fortress is the 19th-century fortification buildings situated in Ukrainian capital Kyiv, that once belonged to western Russian fortresses. These structures (once a united complex) were built in the Pechersk and neighbourhoods by the Russian army. Some of the buildings are restored and turned into a museum called the Kyiv Fortress, while others are in use in various military and commercial installations. The National Art Museum of Ukraine is a museum dedicated to Ukrainian art. The Golden Gate is a historic gateway in the ancient city's walls. The name Zoloti Vorota is also used for a nearby theatre and a station of the Kyiv Metro. The small Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum acts as both a memorial and historical center devoted to the events surrounding the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and its effect on the Ukrainian people, the environment, and subsequent attitudes toward the safety of nuclear power as a whole. Sports Kyiv has many professional and amateur football clubs, including Dynamo Kyiv, Arsenal Kyiv and FC Obolon Kyiv but only Dynamo Kyiv play in the Ukrainian Premier League. Of these three, Dynamo Kyiv has had the most success over the course of its history. For example, up until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the club won 13 USSR Championships, 9 USSR Cups, and 3 USSR Super Cups, thus making Dynamo the most successful club in the history of the Soviet Top League. Other prominent non-football sport clubs in the city include: the Sokil Kyiv ice hockey club and BC Budivelnyk basketball club. Both of these teams play in the highest Ukrainian leagues for their respective sports. Budivelnyk was founded in 1945, Sokil was founded in 1963, during the existence of the Soviet Union. Both these teams play their home games at the Kyiv Palace of Sports. During the 1980 Summer Olympics held in the Soviet Union, Kyiv held the preliminary matches and the quarter-finals of the football tournament at its Olympic Stadium, which was reconstructed specially for the event. From 1 December 2008 stadium the stadium underwent a full-scale reconstruction in order to satisfy standards put in place by UEFA for hosting the Euro 2012 football tournament; the opening ceremony took place in the presence of president Viktor Yanukovich on 8 October 2011, with the first major event being a Shakira concert which was specially planned to coincide with the stadium's re-opening during Euro 2012. Other notable sport stadiums/sport complexes in Kyiv include the Valeriy Lobanovskyi Dynamo Stadium, the Palace of Sports, among many others. Most Ukrainian national teams play their home international matches in Kyiv. The Ukraine national football team, for example, will play matches at the re-constructed Olympic Stadium from 2011. Tourism Since introducing a visa-free regime for EU-member states and Switzerland in 2005, Ukraine has seen a steady increase in the number of foreign tourists visiting the country. Before the 2008–09 recession the average annual growth in the number of foreign visits in Kyiv was 23% over a three-year period. In 2009, a total of 1.6 million tourists stayed in Kyiv hotels, of whom almost 259,000 (ca. 16%) were foreigners. After UEFA Euro 2012, the city became the most popular destination for European tourists. A record number of 1.8 million foreign tourists was registered then along with about 2.5 million domestic tourists. More than 850,000 foreign tourists visited Kyiv in the first half of 2018, as compared to 660,000 tourists over the same period in 2013. As of 2018, the hotel occupancy rate from May to September averages 45–50%. Hostels and three-star hotels are approximately 90% full, four-star hotels 65-70%. Six five-star hotels average 50-55% occupancy. Ordinary tourists generally come from May to October, and business tourists from September to May. City anthem In 2014, the Kyiv city's council established the city's anthem. It became a 1962 song, "Yak tebe ne liubyty, Kyieve mii!" (, roughly "How can I not love you, Kyiv of mine!"). City symbols The horse chestnut tree is one of the symbols of Kyiv. It was heavily present on the city's coat of arms used from 1969 to 1995. Economy As with most capital cities, Kyiv is a major administrative, cultural and scientific centre of the country. It is the largest city in Ukraine in terms of both population and area and enjoys the highest levels of business activity. On 1 January 2010, there were around 238,000 business entities registered in Kyiv. Official figures show that between 2004 and 2008 Kyiv's economy outstripped the rest of the country's, growing by an annual average of 11.5%. Following the global financial crisis that began in 2007, Kyiv's economy suffered a severe setback in 2009 with gross regional product contracting by 13.5% in real terms. Although a record high, the decline in activity was 1.6 percentage points smaller than that for the country as a whole. The economy in Kyiv, as in the rest of Ukraine, recovered somewhat in 2010 and 2011. Kyiv is a middle-income city, with prices comparable to many mid-size American cities (i.e., considerably lower than Western Europe). Because the city has a large and diverse economic base and is not dependent on any single industry and/or company, its unemployment rate has historically been relatively low – only 3.75% over 2005–2008. Indeed, even as the rate of joblessness jumped to 7.1% in 2009, it remained far below the national average of 9.6%. As of December 2021, the average monthly gross salary in Kyiv reached 26,759 UAH (€800 / US$900). Kyiv is the undisputed center of business and commerce of Ukraine and home to the country's largest companies, such as Naftogaz Ukrainy, Energorynok and Kyivstar. In 2010, the city accounted for 18% of national retail sales and 24% of all construction activity. Real estate is one of the major forces in Kyiv's economy. Average prices of apartments are the highest in the country and among the highest in eastern Europe. Kyiv also ranks high in terms of commercial real estate and has Ukraine's tallest office buildings (such as Gulliver and Parus) and some of Ukraine's biggest shopping malls (such as Dream Town and Ocean Plaza) are located. In May 2011, Kyiv authorities presented a 15-year development strategy which calls for attracting as much as EUR82 billion of foreign investment by 2025 to modernize the city's transport and utilities infrastructure and make it more attractive for tourists. * – data not available; – calculated at annual average official exchange rate; * – ILO methodology (% of workforce). Industry Primary industries in Kyiv include utilities – i.e., electricity, gas and water supply (26% of total industrial output), manufacture of food, beverages and tobacco products (22%), chemical (17%), mechanical engineering (13%) and manufacture of paper and paper products, including publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media (11%). The Institute of Oil Transportation is headquartered here. Manufacture Kuznya na Rybalskomu, naval production Antonov Serial Production Plant (former Aviant), airplanes manufacturing Aeros, small aircraft production Kyiv Roshen Factory, confectionery Kyiv Arsenal (former arms manufacturer), specializes in production of optic-precision instruments Obolon, brewery Kyiv Aircraft Repair Plant 410, repair factory located at Zhulyany Airport Education and science Scientific research Scientific research is conducted in many institutes of higher education and, additionally, in many research institutes affiliated with the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. Kyiv is home to Ukraine's ministry of education and science, and is also noted for its contributions to medical and computer science research. In 2016, UNIT Factory (Ukrainian National IT Factory) opened. It offers a completely new format of IT education. The education is completely free for all trainees subject to compliance with the terms of the program. Within this project are the Technology Companies' Development Center (TCDC), BIONIC University open inter-corporate IT-university, as well as two hi-tech laboratories—VR Lab (Crytek) and Smart City lab. University education Kyiv hosts many universities, the major ones being Kyiv National Taras Shevchenko University, the National Technical University "Kyiv Polytechnic Institute", Kyiv-Mohyla Academy and the Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics. Of these, the Mohyla Academy is the oldest, founded as a theological school in 1632, but Shevchenko University, founded in 1834, is the oldest in continuous operation. The total number of institutions of higher education in Kyiv approaches 200, allowing young people to pursue almost any line of study. While education traditionally remains largely in the hands of the state there are several accredited private institutions in the city. Secondary education There are about 530 general secondary schools and ca. 680 nursery schools and kindergartens in Kyiv. Additionally, there are evening schools for adults, specialist technical schools and the Evangel Theological Seminary. Public libraries There are many libraries in the city with the Vernadsky National Library, which is Ukraine's main academic library and scientific information centre, as well as one of the world's largest national libraries, being the largest and most important one. The National Library is affiliated with the Academy of Sciences in so far as it is a deposit library and thus serves as the academy's archives' store. The national library is the world's foremost repository of Jewish folk music recorded on Edison wax cylinders. Their Collection of Jewish Musical Folklore (1912–1947) was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2005. Transportation Local public transport Local public transportation in Kyiv includes the Metro (underground), buses and minibuses, trolleybuses, trams, taxi and funicular. There is also an intra-city ring railway service. The publicly owned and operated Kyiv Metro is the fastest, the most convenient and affordable network that covers most, but not all, of the city. The Metro is expanding towards the city limits to meet growing demand, having three lines with a total length of and 51 stations (some of which are renowned architectural landmarks). The Metro carries around 1.422 million passengers daily accounting for 38% of the Kyiv's public transport load. In 2011, the total number of trips exceeded 519 million. The historic Kyiv tram system was the first electric tramway in the former Russian Empire and the third one in Europe after the Berlin Straßembahn and the Budapest tramway. The tram system consists of of track, including two Rapid Tram lines, served by 21 routes with the use of 523 tram cars. Once a well maintained and widely used method of transport, the system is now gradually being phased out in favor of buses and trolleybuses. The Kyiv Funicular was constructed during 1902–1905. It connects the historic Uppertown, and the lower commercial neighborhood of Podil through the steep Saint Vladimir Hill overseeing the Dnieper River. The line consists of only two stations. All public road transport (except for some minibuses) is operated by the united Kyivpastrans municipal company. It is heavily subsidized by the city. The Kyiv public transport system, except for taxi, uses a simple flat rate tariff system regardless of distance traveled: tickets or tokens must be purchased each time a vehicle is boarded. Digital ticket system is already established in Kyiv Metro, with plans for other transport modes. Discount passes are available for grade school and higher education students. Pensioners use public transportation free. There are monthly passes in all combinations of public transportation. Ticket prices are regulated by the city government, and the cost of one ride is far lower than in Western Europe. The taxi market in Kyiv is expansive but not regulated. In particular, the taxi fare per kilometer is not regulated. There is a fierce competition between private taxi companies. Roads and bridges Kyiv represents the focal point of Ukraine's "national roads" system, thus linked by road to all cities of the country. European routes , and intersect in Kyiv. There are 8 over-Dnieper bridges and dozens of grade-separated intersections in the city. Several new intersections are under construction. There are plans to build a full-size, fully grade-separated ring road around Kyiv. In 2009, Kyiv's roads were in poor technical condition and maintained inadequately. Traffic jams and lack of parking space are growing problems for all road transport services in Kyiv. Air transport Kyiv is served by two international passenger airports: the Boryspil Airport located away, and the smaller, municipally owned Zhulyany Airport on the southern outskirts of the city. There are also the Gostomel cargo airport and additional three operating airfields facilitating the Antonov aircraft manufacturing company and general aviation. Railways Railways are Kyiv's main mode of intracity and suburban transportation. The city has a developed railroad infrastructure including a long-distance passenger station, 6 cargo stations, depots, and repairing facilities. However, this system still fails to meet the demand for passenger service. Particularly, the Kyiv-Pasazhyrskyi Railway Station is the city's only long-distance passenger terminal (vokzal). Construction is underway for turning the large Darnytsia railway station on the left-bank part of Kyiv into a long-distance passenger hub, which may ease traffic at the central station. Bridges over the Dnieper River are another problem restricting the development of city's railway system. Presently, only one rail bridge out of two is available for intense train traffic. A new combined rail-auto bridge is under construction, as a part of Darnytsia project. In 2011, the Kyiv city administration established a new 'Urban Train' for Kyiv. This service runs at standard 4- to 10-minute intervals throughout the day and follows a circular route around the city centre, which allows it to serve many of Kyiv's inner suburbs. Interchanges between the Kyiv Metro and Fast Tram exist at many of the urban train's station stops. Suburban 'Elektrichka' trains are serviced by the publicly owned Ukrainian Railways. The suburban train service is fast, and unbeatably safe in terms of traffic accidents. But the trains are not reliable, as they may fall significantly behind schedule, may not be safe in terms of crime, and the elektrichka cars are poorly maintained and are overcrowded in rush hours. There are 5 elektrichka directions from Kyiv: Nizhyn (north-eastern) Hrebinka (south-eastern) Myronivka (southern) Fastiv (south-western) Korosten (western) More than a dozen of elektrichka stops are located within the city allowing residents of different neighborhoods to use the suburban trains. Twin towns – sister cities Kyiv is twinned with: Ankara, Turkey (1993) Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (2001) Athens, Greece (1996) Baku, Azerbaijan (1997) Beijing, China (1993) Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (1997) Brasília, Brazil (2000) Bratislava, Slovakia (1969) Brussels, Belgium (1997) Buenos Aires, Argentina (2000) Chicago, United States (1991) Chișinău, Moldova (1993) Edinburgh, Scotland (1989) Florence, Italy (1967) Havana, Cuba (1994) Jakarta, Indonesia (2005) Kraków, Poland (1993) Kyoto, Japan (1971) Leipzig, Germany (1956) Lima, Peru (2005) Mexico City, Mexico (1997) Munich, Germany (1989) Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan (1998) Odense, Denmark (1989) Osh Region, Kyrgyzstan (2002) Pretoria, South Africa (1993) Riga, Latvia (1998) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (2000) Santiago, Chile (1998) Sofia, Bulgaria (1997) Suzhou, China (2005) Tallinn, Estonia (1994) Tampere, Finland (1954) Tashkent, Uzbekistan (1998) Tbilisi, Georgia (1999) Toulouse, France (1975) Vilnius, Lithuania (1991) Warsaw, Poland (1994) Wuhan, China (1990) Other cooperation agreements Belgrade, Serbia (2002) Helsinki, Finland Jerusalem, Israel (2000) Lisbon, Portugal Paris, France Rome, Italy Stockholm, Sweden Toronto, Canada (1991) Tripoli, Libya (2001) Vienna, Austria Yerevan, Armenia (1995) Notable people Nikolai Amosov, Soviet and Ukrainian heart surgeon and inventor Oleg Blokhin, Ukrainian football player Leonid Bronevoy, Soviet and Russian actor Nikolai Berdyaev, Russian Orthodox religious and political philosopher Mikhail Bulgakov, Russian writer Konstantin Buteyko, creator of the Buteyko method for the treatment of asthma and other breathing disorders Zino Davidoff (born Sussele-Meier Davidoff), Swiss premium tobacco manufacturer; known as "King of Cigars" Ilya Ehrenburg, Soviet writer, journalist, translator, and cultural figure André Grabar, historian of Romanesque art and the art of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Bulgarian Empire Eugeniusz Horbaczewski, Polish fighter pilot Milton Horn, Russian American sculptor Vladimir Horowitz, classical pianist Milla Jovovich, American actress Jan Koum, American computer programmer, CEO and co-founder of WhatsApp Viktor Kaspruk, political scientist Kateryna Kukhar, prima ballerina Ana Layevska, Ukrainian-Mexican actress Serge Lifar, French ballet dancer Valeriy Lobanovskyi, Soviet and Ukrainian football coach Kazimir Malevich, pioneer of geometric abstract art and the originator of the avant-garde Suprematist movement Natalya Marchenkova, animator and animation director, born in Kyiv. Jonathan Markovitch, Chief Rabbi of Kyiv Natalia Matsak, ballet dancer Golda Meir, Israeli politician, the fourth Prime Minister of Israel Moses of Kiev, 12th century Talmudist Alexander Ostrowski, mathematician Nicholas Pritzker, scion of the Pritzker Family Lev Shestov, Russian existentialist philosopher Andriy Shevchenko, Ukrainian footballer Igor Sikorsky, Russian-American aviation pioneer Alexander Vertinsky, Russian and Soviet singer, composer, poet, cabaret artist, and actor Ludmila Anatolievna Yaroshevskaya, composer Honour Kyiv Peninsula in Graham Land, Antarctica is named after the city of Kyiv. See also Russian Insurgent Army (2014) Notes References Further reading Brutzkus, J. "The Khazar Origin of Ancient Kiev". Slavonic and East European Review. American Series, vol. 3, no. 1, 1944, pp. 108–124. JSTOR. Accessed 16 June 2020. External links Київська міська державна адміністрація – official web portal of the Kyiv City State Administration Kyiv—Official Tourist Guide Capitals in Europe Cities with special status in Ukraine Holy cities Kievsky Uyezd Cossack Hetmanate Kiev Voivodeship Populated places established in the 5th century Rus' settlements Magdeburg rights 5th-century establishments Holocaust locations in Ukraine Populated places on the Dnieper in Ukraine Oblast centers in Ukraine Kyiv metropolitan area
593223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20St.%20Thomas%20%28Minnesota%29	University of St. Thomas (Minnesota)	The University of St. Thomas (St. Thomas) is a private, Catholic university in St. Paul and Minneapolis, Minnesota. Founded in 1885 as a Catholic seminary, it is named after Thomas Aquinas, the medieval Catholic theologian and philosopher who is the patron saint of students. As of fall 2021, St. Thomas enrolls nearly 9,347 students, making it Minnesota's largest private, nonprofit university. History Founded in 1885 by John Ireland, archbishop of Saint Paul and Minneapolis, St. Thomas began as an all-male, Catholic seminary. In 1894, the liberal arts program became an independent college through a gift from local railroad tycoon James J. Hill, who provided funds to establish the Saint Paul Seminary School of Divinity apart from the college. In 1903, the College of St. Thomas established a military program on campus, and it was officially termed a military school by the U.S. War Department in 1906. Initially, the school gave out two-year diplomas in commercial and classical programs before awarding its first academic degrees in 1915. In 1922, military training became optional. From the late 1920s through the mid-1930s, the Holy Cross Fathers, who run the University of Notre Dame, controlled the college's administration. The diocese called those priests in to help with the school's financial problems; those priests were known as a crisis intervention team of sorts for parochial schools of that time. During World War II, St. Thomas served as a training base for naval officers, which kept the school open when men who would have attended college were fighting in the war. After the war, in 1948, the college established "Tom Town" on the eastern end of the lower quadrant, which is currently the site to the O'Shaughnessey-Frey Library and O'Shaughnessey Education Center. Tom Town, made of 20 double-dwelling huts, consisted of white, barracks-like housing units for faculty, students, and their families. The units helped to meet housing demand after World War II. In the latter half of the 20th century, St. Thomas started two of its most notable graduate programs, education in 1950 and business administration in 1974. The school became co-educational in 1977, and although women were not allowed to enroll until then, female students from St. Catherine University (then the College of St. Catherine) often took classes at St. Thomas. Women were also present as instructors and administrators on campus, but the staff, faculty, and administration have seen a vast increase in female employment since the move to co-education. In 1990, the College of St. Thomas became the University of St. Thomas and the following year, the university opened the Minneapolis campus. In 2001, St. Thomas reinstated its School of Law at its Minneapolis campus; it had been shut down during the Great Depression. U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia was the speaker at the grand opening. Campuses Saint Paul The St. Paul campus is the main campus and is home to most undergraduate students. The main campus, built on a farm site once considered "far removed from town", is located where St. Paul's Summit Avenue meets the Mississippi River. The site was farmed by ex-Fort Snelling soldier William Finn, who received the property as a pension settlement after he accidentally shot himself in the hand while on guard duty. The western edge of the campus borders the Mississippi Gorge Regional Park. Summit Avenue, which runs through the middle of the campus, is the country's longest span of Victorian homes. This tree-lined avenue includes the Governor's Mansion, F. Scott Fitzgerald's townhome, and James J. Hill's mansion. In 2005, a new apartment-style residence hall was built on an existing parking lot. McNeely Hall was also built the following year. It is a large classroom building for business that replaced the smaller building of the same name. A new residential village, more parking ramps, and general planning all have been negotiated successfully with the surrounding neighborhood. These developments are expected to begin within the next five years. In early 2012, St. Thomas completed the final stage of its three-building expansion on the St. Paul campus. The two main additions that were completed are the Anderson Athletic and Recreation Center (AARC) and the Anderson Student Center. These projects were completed in the summer of 2010 and January 2012, respectively. The Anderson Athletic and Recreation Center has a field house, basketball arena, weight room, and swimming pool. The track in the field house is home to the most dominant track team in the MIAC conference. Other St. Thomas sports that use the AARC's facilities have also had recent success, including a playoff run for the football team, and a national championship for the men's basketball team. The new Anderson Student Center is home to new food venues, as well as entertainment options, including a game room and bowling alley, and a coffee shop. An art gallery on the second floor is home to the American Museum of Asmat Art. Minneapolis In fall 1992, the university opened a permanent campus at 1000 LaSalle Ave. in Minneapolis. The first building, named Terrence Murphy Hall in May 2000, is headquarters to the university's Opus College of Business. Artist Mark Balma created one of the largest frescoes in the United States on the arched ceiling of its atrium. The seven-panel, fresco was completed in the summer of 1994 and portrays the seven virtues discussed in the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. The Minneapolis campus also holds St. Thomas' School of Education, the School of Law, and Schulze School of Entrepreneurship. Daniel C. Gainey Conference Center (Owatonna) As announced on May 15, 2014, the Daniel C. Gainey Conference Center was to be sold to Meridian Behavioral Health, LLC, with a plan to convert it to a treatment facility for addiction and behavioral disorders. The deal closed in August 2014. The deal included the entire 180-acre property and all the buildings except for the Winston Guest House, which was designed by architect Frank Gehry. St. Thomas is still exploring options for the house, which was to remain on the Gainey property for up to two years. Terms were not disclosed. Bernardi (Rome) Since 1999, the University of St. Thomas has been the only university in the United States to have a formal affiliation with the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicum). Academics Each year, the university awards almost 2,500 degrees, including five different bachelor's degrees (B.A., B.M., B.S., B.S.M.E. and B.S.E.E.). It has 88 major fields at the undergraduate level, with 59 minor fields of study and seven preprofessional programs. At the graduate and professional level, the university offers 41 master's degrees, two education specialist degree, one juris doctor, and five doctorates. Schools and colleges The university offers its degree programs through nine divisions. The College of Arts and Sciences includes undergraduate departments in the arts, humanities, natural sciences, and social sciences, plus a number of interdisciplinary programs. The Opus College of Business has seven departments offering graduate and undergraduate curricula including Executive Education and Professional Development at University of St. Thomas, and is one of six AACSB accredited business schools in Minnesota. St. Thomas also houses the Saint Paul Seminary School of Divinity, which offers master's- and doctoral-level degrees oriented to theological study and the practice of ministry. St. John Vianney Seminary, a minor college seminary, is also at St. Thomas. Other schools include the School of Education, the School of Engineering, and the School of Social Work. The Master of Social Work is offered as a double degree program with the St. Catherine University. Schools housed on the Minneapolis campus include the Graduate School of Professional Psychology, Undergraduate and Graduate Schools of Education, Graduate Programs in Software Engineering, and the School of Law, which was re-opened in 1999 after a 66-year hiatus. The University of St. Thomas is a member of the Associated Colleges of the Twin Cities (ACTC), a consortium of five private liberal arts colleges. This program allows students to take classes at one of the associated colleges for no additional cost. Other schools include Hamline University, St. Catherine University, Macalester College, and Augsburg University. In 2017, St. Thomas was named a Changemaker Campus by joining AshokaU, a higher education consortium that focuses on social innovation in higher education. Athletics St. Thomas's school colors are purple and gray, and the athletic teams are called the Tommies. The mascot for these teams is "Tommie". "Tommy" was changed to the "ie" spelling when women were accepted as full-time students, to be more inclusive. For most of its athletic history, St. Thomas was a member of the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (MIAC), which performs at the NCAA Division III level. Since 1885, athletics have been present on St. Thomas' campus. The first sports teams that became popular were intramural. The top intramural baseball teams in the 1890s were the "Blues" and "Grays", which is where the school colors come from. Varsity sports did not begin until 1904, and UST was a founding member of the MIAC in 1920. St. Thomas celebrated its 100th year of varsity athletics in 2003–2004. St. Thomas' longtime archrival was Saint John's University from Collegeville, Minnesota. Recent national titles include men's basketball in 2011 and 2016; men's baseball in 2009 and 2001; women's softball in 2005 and 2004; men's lacrosse (MCLA Division II) in 2019, 2016, 2013, 2012, 2010 and 2009; women's volleyball in 2012; and dance team in 2017, 2016, 2015, 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011, 2010, 2008 and 2006. St. Thomas also won national championships with women's basketball in 1991; men's cross country in 1986 and 1984; men's indoor track in 1985; and women's cross country in 1987, 1986, 1984 and 1982. In 2012, St. Thomas played for the first time in the Stagg Bowl in Salem, Virginia, which is the Division III Football National Championship game, against the University of Mount Union, losing 28-10. In 2015, St. Thomas reached the Stagg Bowl for the second time, prompting another championship match against Mount Union. St. Thomas ultimately ended up losing the game, with a final score of 49-35. WCCO has broadcast radio coverage of Tommies football games since 2011. On May 22, 2019 it was announced that St. Thomas was "involuntarily removed" from the MIAC. St. Thomas was to have been allowed to remain as a member of the conference until the spring of 2021 while they searched for a new conference had that become necessary but would be allowed to leave at an earlier date should a new conference accept them prior to spring 2021 or should they have decided to become an independent. On October 4, 2019, St. Thomas announced that it had been invited to the Summit League, an NCAA Division I conference. This announcement also noted that St. Thomas had applied for a waiver from the NCAA to move directly from Division III to Division I beginning with the 2021-22 season. While the process of transitioning from Division III to Division I normally takes 12 years and requires transitioning through Division II, on July 15, 2020, the NCAA announced they had approved St. Thomas's application to move directly to Division I. As the Summit League does not sponsor football or ice hockey, St. Thomas joined the Pioneer Football League for football, the CCHA for men's hockey and the WCHA for women's hockey. Student life Student housing Undergraduate housing is found on the St. Paul Campus. Approximately 2,400 residents live in 10 traditional halls and apartments. Additionally, St. John Vianney College Seminary holds approximately 140 students. All but one (Murrary Herrick) traditional halls are single-sex, while apartment residences are co-ed by floor. Residence halls on campus are named after Archbishops of St. Paul-Minneapolis, such as William O. Brady, Austin Dowling, and John Ireland. The all-female traditional hall of John Paul II is named after the former Pope. Built in 1894, Cretin Hall is the oldest hall on campus and was designed (along with Loras and Grace halls) by Emmanuel Louis Masqueray. Recently the department of residence life has purchased additional buildings on what they are calling 'mid-campus' in the area between Grand and Summit Avenues. These buildings house men and women transfer students in one of two buildings, separated by gender. There are two apartment complexes that are specifically designed for sophomores. Students are also housed in the residence above the Child Development Center, a day-care facility on campus. The University of St. Thomas offers special interest floors, or floors that are intended to house specific residents with similar interests or class standing. Almost one-third of all floors are First Year Experience floors, which consist of only freshmen. This practice attempts to create a cohesive community by placing students together who will have a similar experience. First year students have the opportunity to participate in Living Learning Communities (LLCs). These include Sustainability, Aquinas Scholars, Tommies Do Well(ness), Pathways to Engineering, COJO MOJO, Bridging Divides, Catholic Studies, Major Explorers, and Business for the Common Good. Undergraduate Student Government The on-campus student association is the Undergraduate Student Government (USG), formerly known as the ACC. The student government is made up of an executive board and general council. Each executive board member receives a stipend. The executive board consists of the president of the student body, executive vice president, vice president of financial affairs, vice president of academic affairs, vice president of administrative affairs and vice president of public relations. The general council consists of class presidents, class senators and representatives from various university organizations. The student government oversees funding to all clubs on campus, approves new club requests, appoints students to various university committees and represents the student body to the administration. USG has its own offices located in the student center. Elections are held in the fall and spring every academic year. Controversy Desmond Tutu In 2007, the president of the University of St. Thomas, Father Dennis Dease, cancelled a planned speech by Nobel Peace Prize laureate and anti-apartheid figure, Desmond Tutu, on the grounds that his presence might offend some members of the local Jewish community. Many faculty members of Voice for Peace led an email campaign calling on St. Thomas to reconsider its decision, which the president did and invited Tutu to campus. Tutu declined the re-invitation, speaking instead at the Minneapolis Convention Center at an event hosted by Metropolitan State University. However, he addressed the issue two days later while making his final appearance at Metro State. Demolition of Foley Theater In 2008, plans were announced to the public that the theater department at the University of St. Thomas was to be dissolved and that the school would no longer offer this major. Declining numbers of theater majors was publicly cited as the reason. However, during this same time, plans were underway to make space for a new student center to be named after the Anderson family, then the largest single donors to a single private institution in United States history. Despite protests from senior faculty and students, the decision was made to demolish the theater and dissolve the department the same semester; though, according to the Dean of St. Thomas's College of Arts and Sciences, Marisa Kelly, the two decisions were "completely unrelated". Notable faculty and staff John Abraham – professor in the School of Engineering Michael Murphy Andregg – geneticist and peace activist Archbishop William Brady Don J. Briel – Professor of Catholic Studies Glenn Caruso – head football coach Bishop Andrew H. Cozzens – Professor of Divinity Robert Delahunty – internationally recognized professor of law David Durenberger – U.S. Senator from Minnesota Massimo Faggioli – theology professor Father Michael Joncas - professor of Catholic Studies Ellen J. Kennedy – genocide scholar John Jeremiah Lawler – Professor of Divinity Nekima Levy-Pounds – President of the Minneapolis NAACP Whitney MacMillan – former Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Cargill Eugene McCarthy – U.S. Senator and Representative Eoin McKiernan – early scholar in Irish Studies Harry Mehre – football and basketball coach Thomas Mengler – Dean of the School of Law Larry Miggins – baseball coach Leslie Adrienne Miller – poet Charles Morerod – Director of the Rome Program in Catholic Studies Rachel Paulose – Visiting Professor of Law Mary Rose O'Reilley – poet Mark Osler – Professor of Law Bishop Lee A. Piché – theology David Renz – Professor of Public Policy John A. Ryan – moral theologian Patrick J. Schiltz – U.S. federal judge Katarina Schuth – Professor for the Social Scientific Study of Religion Janet E. Smith – moral theologian David Strom – Professor of Political Philosophy Peter Vaill – Professor of Management Robert Vischer – Dean of the School of Law Notable alumni Academia and education Tim Callahan – geologist Dennis Dease – former President of the University of St. Thomas Richard DeMillo – computer scientist Mark Dienhart – educator Tom Dooher – president of Education Minnesota Abraham Kaplan – philosopher Rick Krueger – educator Stephen A. McCarthy – director of the Cornell University libraries John A. Ryan – theologian Edward J. Walsh – journalist Arts and entertainment Felix Biederman – writer, gamer, co-host of Chapo Trap House Larry Bond – game designer and author Dottie Cannon – Miss Minnesota USA 2006 Vince Flynn – author T. R. Knight – actor Glenn Lindgren – TV chef and food writer Thomas Melchior – author T.D. Mischke – radio talk show host Evan Schwartz – author Ali Selim – film director Joe Soucheray – radio talk show host John Vachon – photographer Athletics Adrian Baril – professional football player Brady Beeson – professional football player Jim Brandt – professional football player Herb Franta – professional football player Courtney George – professional curler Tommy Gibbons – Hall of Fame boxer, sheriff of Ramsey County, Minnesota 1934–1959 Neal Guggemos – professional football player Red Hardy – professional baseball player Walt Kiesling – professional football player and coach, member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame John Kundla – first coach for the Minneapolis Lakers Horace LaBissoniere – professional football player Jake Mauer – professional baseball player and coach Chuck Reichow – professional football player Isaac Rosefelt – American-Israeli basketball player Don Simensen – football player Larry Steinbach – football player Roy Vassau – professional football player Joe Warren – professional soccer player Business and leadership Ben Anderson – entrepreneur Robert Buss – managing director, Disciplined Growth Investors Jack Casey – business professional Andrew Cecere – Chief Executive Officer of U.S. Bancorp Ron Fowler – owner, San Diego Padres John Schneider – general manager of the Seattle Seahawks Bob Short – businessman, sport teams owner and politician Ann Winblad – venture capitalist Law, politics, government, and military Semhar Araia – social activist James N. Azim, Jr. – Wisconsin State Assemblyman Mike Beard – member, Minnesota House of Representatives William V. Belanger, Jr. – Minnesota State Senator Michelle Benson – Minnesota State Senator David H. Bieter – mayor of Boise, Idaho John E. Boland – member, Minnesota House of Representatives Stephen F. Burkard – attorney Michael Ciresi – attorney Ted Daley – Minnesota State Senator Gary DeCramer – Minnesota State Senator Terry Dempsey – member, Minnesota House of Representatives Joe Dunn – California State Senator Sondra Erickson – member, Minnesota House of Representatives Peter Fischer – member, Minnesota House of Representatives Burke Harr – Nebraska State Senator John Harrington – chief of metro transit police in Minneapolis/St. Paul Brian H. Hook – former Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs Paul Kohls – member, Minnesota House of Representatives Charles B. Kornmann – United States federal judge Arthur Lenroot, Jr. – Wisconsin State Senator Patrick Lucey – Governor of Wisconsin Erin Maye Quade – member, Minnesota House of Representatives Mike McFadden – 2014 Republican candidate for U.S. Senate from Minnesota Jim Oberstar – former U.S. Congressman James Hugh O'Neill – brigadier general, U.S. Army Cindy Pugh – member, Minnesota House of Representatives Patrick J. Ryan – chief of chaplains of the U.S. Army Henry Timothy ("Tim") Vakoc – first U.S. military chaplain to die from wounds received in the Iraq War Conrado Vega – Minnesota State Senator D.D. Wozniak – former chief judge of the Minnesota Court of Appeals Religion Bishop Joseph John Annabring William Henry Bullock James Joseph Byrne – Archdiocese of Dubuque Bishop Frederick F. Campbell Archbishop. Robert J. Carlson – Archdiocese of St. Louis Bishop Peter F. Christensen Bishop Leonard Philip Cowley Archbishop Blase J. Cardinal Cupich – Archdiocese of Chicago John Francis Doerfler Paul Vincent Dudley Archbishop Paul D. Etienne Lawrence Alexander Glenn David Haas Hilary Baumann Hacker Lambert Anthony Hoch Edward Howard James Keane Francis Martin Kelly Bishop Arthur Kennedy Bishop John Francis Kinney Louis Benedict Kucera Raymond W. Lessard Bishop John M. LeVoir Raymond Alphonse Lucker Bishop Lawrence James McNamara John Jeremiah McRaith William Theodore Mulloy Gerald Francis O'Keefe Bishop Richard Pates Bishop Lee A. Piché Archbishop John Roach – Archdiocese of St. Paul and Minneapolis Archbishop Alexander King Sample – Archdiocese of Portland Francis Joseph Schenk Alphonse James Schladweiler Archbishop Fulton J. Sheen – titular see of Newport, Wales George Henry Speltz Rose Thering – social activist Sylvester William Treinen Nicolas Eugene Walsh Thomas Anthony Welch Stephen S. Woznicki Other Dan Buettner – explorer, educator, author Daerek "LemonNation" Hart – professional League of Legends player Hussein Samatar – politician, banker, and community organizer Will Steger – polar explorer See also List of colleges and universities in Minnesota Higher education in Minnesota References https://www.twincities.com/2021/09/23/former-st-thomas-campus-gop-chair-pleads-not-guilty-in-sex-trafficking-case/ https://apnews.com/article/arrests-cdb6e1763c98489a1a86f9caee512084 Bibliography External links Official website Official athletics website Saint Thomas, University of Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities Universities and colleges in Minneapolis Universities and colleges in Saint Paul, Minnesota 1885 establishments in Minnesota Catholic universities and colleges in Minnesota Liberal arts colleges in Minnesota
600160	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mad%20Dog%20Coll	Mad Dog Coll	Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll (born Uinseann Ó Colla, July 20, 1908 – February 8, 1932) was an Irish-American mob hitman in the 1920s and early 1930s in New York City. Coll gained notoriety for the allegedly accidental killing of a young child during a mob kidnap attempt. Early years Coll was born in Gweedore, an Irish-speaking region of County Donegal, Ireland; related to the notorious Curran family, his family emigrated to the U.S. the following year as steerage passengers on board the S/S Columbia, sailing from port of Derry to the port of New York, April 3 to 12, 1909. Coll was a distant relative of the former Northern Ireland Assemblywoman Bríd Rodgers. At age 12, Coll was first sent to a reform school. After being expelled from multiple Catholic reform schools, he joined The Gophers street gang. Run-ins with the law were almost inevitable. Vincent soon developed a reputation for being a wild child of the streets. At age 16, he was arrested for carrying a gun, and by the age of 23 he had been arrested a dozen times. In the late 1920s he started working as an armed guard for the illegal beer delivery trucks of Dutch Schultz's mob. Mob assassin and kidnapper Coll's ruthlessness made him a valued enforcer to Schultz at first. As Schultz's criminal empire grew in power during the 1920s, he employed Coll as an assassin. At age 19 Coll was charged with the murder of Anthony Borello, the owner of a speakeasy, and Mary Smith, a dance hall hostess. Coll allegedly murdered Borello because he refused to sell Schultz's bootleg alcohol. The charges were eventually dismissed, and many suspect this to have been due to Schultz's influence. Schultz was not happy about Coll's actions. In 1929, without Schultz's permission, Coll robbed a dairy in the Bronx of $17,000. He and his gang posed as armed guards to gain access to the cashier's room. Schultz later confronted Coll about the robbery, but rather than being apologetic, Coll demanded to be an equal partner; Schultz declined. By January 1930, Coll had formed his own gang and was engaged in a shooting war with Schultz. One of the earliest victims was Peter Coll, Vincent's older brother, who was shot dead on May 30, 1931, while driving down a Harlem street. Coll subsequently went into a rage of grief and vengeance. Over the next three weeks he gunned down four of Schultz's men. In all, around 20 men were killed in the bloodletting; the exact figure is hard to pin down as New York was also in the midst of the vicious Castellammarese War at the same time. It was mayhem on the streets of Manhattan, and the police often had difficulty in deciding which corpse belonged to which war. On June 2, Coll and his gang broke into a garage owned by Schultz and destroyed 120 vending machines and 10 trucks. As the war continued, Vincent Coll and his gang killed approximately 20 of Schultz's men. To finance his new gang, Coll kidnapped rival gangsters and held them for ransom. He knew that the victims would not report the kidnappings to police; they would have a hard time explaining to the Bureau of Internal Revenue why the ransom cash had not been reported as income. One of Coll's best-known victims was gambler George "Big Frenchy" DeMange, a close associate of Owney Madden, boss of the Hell's Kitchen Irish Mob. According to one account, Coll telephoned DeMange and asked to meet with him. When DeMange arrived at the meeting place, Coll kidnapped him at gunpoint. He released DeMange 18 hours later after receiving a ransom payment. Alleged child killing On July 28, 1931, Coll allegedly participated in a kidnapping attempt that resulted in the shooting death of a child. Coll's target was bootlegger Joseph Rao, a Schultz underling who was lounging in front of a social club. Several children were playing outside an apartment house. A large touring car pulled up to the curb, and several men pointed shotguns and submachine guns towards Rao and started shooting. Rao threw himself to the sidewalk, and four young children were wounded in the attack. One of them, five-year-old Michael Vengalli, later died at Beth David Hospital. After the Vengalli killing, New York City Mayor Jimmy Walker dubbed Coll a "mad dog". On October 4, 1931, after an extensive manhunt, New York police arrested Coll at a hotel in the Bronx. He had dyed his hair black and grown a mustache and was wearing horn-rimmed glasses. He surrendered peacefully. During a police lineup, a defiant Coll said that he had been in Albany, New York, for the past several months and refused to answer any other questions without an attorney present. On October 5, a grand jury in New York City indicted Coll for the Vengalli murder. The Coll trial began in December 1931. He retained famed defense lawyer Samuel Leibowitz. Coll claimed that he was miles away from the shooting scene and was being framed by his enemies. He added that he would love to tear the throat out of the person who killed Vengalli. The prosecution case soon fell apart. Their sole witness to the shooting, George Brecht, admitted on the witness stand to having a criminal and mental health record, and to making similar testimony in a previous murder case in St Louis, Missouri. At the end of December, the judge issued a directed verdict of not guilty for Coll. Immediately after the Vengalli verdict, a New York City police inspector told Coll that the police would arrest him whenever he was spotted in New York City. He was soon rejailed for carrying a gun. When the inspector referred to Coll as a baby killer, Coll hotly replied, "I'm no baby killer". Soon after his acquittal, Coll married Lottie Kreisberger, a fashion designer in New York. Failed hit In September 1931, between the killing of young Vengalli and his acquittal for that death, Coll was hired by Salvatore Maranzano, who had recently declared himself capo di tutti capi, to murder Charles "Lucky" Luciano, the new acting boss of the Mafia family of the same name. Tommy Lucchese alerted Luciano that he was marked for death. Months earlier, Luciano had ended the Castellammarese War by ordering the assassination of his own boss, Joseph Masseria, which left Maranzano as the most powerful boss in the Five Families. Maranzano soon decided, however, that Luciano was a threat. On September 10, Maranzano summoned Luciano, Vito Genovese and Frank Costello to his office at the 230 Park Avenue in Manhattan. Certain that Maranzano planned to murder them, Luciano decided to act first. He sent four Jewish hitmen whose faces were unknown to Maranzano and his enforcers. They had been secured with the aid of Luciano's close associates Meyer Lansky and Bugsy Siegel. Disguised as government agents, two of the gangsters disarmed Maranzano's bodyguards. The other two, aided by Lucchese, who went along to point Maranzano out, stabbed the Sicilian boss multiple times and then finished him off by shooting him. According to the 1963 testimony of government witness Joseph Valachi, Maranzano had paid Coll $25,000 for all three murders in advance, but when Coll arrived at Maranzano's office that same day intending to kill Luciano, Genovese, and Costello, he found Lucchese and the four Jewish hitmen fleeing the scene. After learning from them that Maranzano was dead, Coll left the building. Gangland death It was said that both Dutch Schultz and Owney Madden had put a $50,000 bounty on Vincent Coll's head. At one point, Schultz had actually walked into a Bronx police station and offered "a house in Westchester" to whoever killed Coll. On February 1, 1932, four or five gunmen invaded a Bronx apartment which Coll was rumored to frequent and opened fire with pistols and submachine guns. Three people (Coll gangsters Patsy Del Greco and Fiorio Basile and bystander Emily Tanzillo) were killed. Three others were wounded. Coll himself did not show up until 30 minutes after the shooting. A week after the Bronx shootings, at 12:30 am on February 8, Coll was using a phone booth at a drug store at Eighth Avenue and 23rd Street in Manhattan. He was reportedly talking to Madden, demanding $50,000 from the gangster under the threat of kidnapping his brother-in-law. Madden kept Coll on the line while it was traced. Three men in a dark limousine soon arrived at the drug store. While one waited in the car, two others stepped out. One man waited outside while the other walked inside the store. The gunman told the cashier, "Keep cool, now", drew a Thompson submachine gun from under his overcoat and opened fire on Coll in the glass phone booth. Coll died instantly. The killers took off in their car. They were chased unsuccessfully up Eighth Avenue by a foot patrolman who had heard the gunshots and commandeered a passing taxi, but the car got away. A total of 15 bullets were removed from Coll's body at the morgue; more may have passed through him. Coll was buried next to his brother Peter at Saint Raymond's Cemetery in the Bronx. Dutch Schultz sent a floral wreath bearing a banner with the message "From the boys". Aftermath Coll's killers were never identified. Dutch Schultz attorney Dixie Davis later claimed that gangster Bo Weinberg was the getaway driver of the limousine. Another suspect was one of Coll's own men, Edward Popke aka Fats McCarthy. The submachine gun that killed Coll was found a year later in the possession of a Hell's Kitchen gunman named "Tough" Tommy Protheroe, who used it during a 1933 saloon killing. On May 16, 1935, Protheroe and his girlfriend Elizabeth Connors were shot and killed by unknown triggermen in Queens. Dutch Schultz continued to operate his rackets for only a few more years. On October 23, 1935, Schultz was killed at the Palace Chophouse in Newark, New Jersey. He was supposedly murdered on orders from Luciano and the new National Crime Syndicate. Coll's widow, Lottie, was convicted of carrying a concealed weapon and sentenced to six months. She refused to leave prison following her parole because she feared the people who had killed her husband would also murder her. In 1935 Owney Madden, still under police scrutiny for the Coll killing, moved to Arkansas, where he died in 1965. Portrayal Film Vincent Coll has been portrayed by the following actors in the following films: Richard Gardner in the 1960 film The Rise and Fall of Legs Diamond. Joseph Gallison in the 1961 film Portrait of a Mobster. John Davis Chandler in the 1961 film Mad Dog Coll. Nicolas Cage plays a fictionalized version of Coll in The Cotton Club. Nicholas Sadler in the 1991 film Mobsters. Christopher Bradley in the 1992 film Mad Dog Coll and reprised in the 1992 film Hit the Dutchman. Television Vincent Coll has been portrayed in the following TV shows: Clu Gulager in a 1959 episode Vincent 'Mad Dog' Coll of The Untouchables television series. Robert Brown in the 1961 two-part episode The Mad Dog Coll Story in the television series The Lawless Years. David Wilson in the 1981 TV series The Gangster Chronicles. Music Vincent Coll has been portrayed in the following songs: Mad Dog Coll by Mad Dog Mcrea on their 2015 album Almost Home. References Further reading Lundberg, Ferdinand. The Rich and the Super Rich: A Study in the Power of Money Today. New York: Bantam Books, 1969. Downey, Patrick. Gangster City: The History of the New York Underworld 1900–1935. New Jersey: Barricade Books, 2004. English, T. J. Paddy Whacked: The Untold Story of the Irish American Gangster. New York: Regan Books, 2005. Delap, Brendan. Mad Dog Coll: An Irish Gangster. Dublin: Mercier Press, 1999. External links Local Boy Makes Bad 'Mad Dog Coll – An Irish Gangster' by Breandán Delap Coll gang line-up Gangster City 1908 births 1932 deaths Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923) American crime bosses American gangsters Deaths by firearm in Manhattan Depression-era gangsters Irish crime bosses Mafia hitmen Murdered American gangsters of Irish descent People from Gweedore People murdered in New York City Criminals from the Bronx Gangsters from New York City Prohibition-era gangsters Burials at Saint Raymond's Cemetery (Bronx)
600351	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scream%203	Scream 3	Scream 3 is a 2000 American meta slasher film directed by Wes Craven and written by Ehren Kruger. It stars David Arquette, Neve Campbell, Courteney Cox, Patrick Dempsey, Scott Foley, Lance Henriksen, Matt Keeslar, Jenny McCarthy, Emily Mortimer, Parker Posey, Deon Richmond, and Patrick Warburton. Released as the third installment in the Scream franchise, it was originally the concluding chapter of the series until the franchise was revived in 2011 with a sequel, Scream 4. The film takes place three years after the previous film and follows Sidney Prescott (Campbell), who has gone into self-imposed isolation following the events of the previous two films but is drawn to Hollywood after a new Ghostface begins killing the cast of the film within a film Stab 3. Scream 3 combines the violence of the slasher genre with comedy and "whodunit" mystery, while satirizing the cliché of film trilogies. Unlike the previous Scream films, there was an increased emphasis on comedic elements in this installment; the violence and horror were reduced in response to increased public scrutiny about violence in media, following the Columbine High School massacre. Scream screenwriter Kevin Williamson provided a five-page outline for two sequels to Scream when auctioning his original script, hoping to entice bidders with the potential of buying a franchise. Williamson's commitments to other projects meant he was unable to develop a complete script for Scream 3, so writing duties were undertaken by Kruger, who discarded many of Williamson's notes. Craven and Marco Beltrami returned to direct and score the film, respectively. Production was troubled with script rewrites, occasions when pages were only ready on the day of filming, and scheduling difficulties with the main cast. Principal photography took place from July to September 1999, and the ending was re-filmed in January 2000. Scream 3 premiered on February 3, 2000, in Westwood, Los Angeles, and was theatrically released the following day, grossing $161million worldwide on a budget of $40million. The film received mixed reviews and is considered by critics and fans as the weakest film in the series. Plot Cotton Weary, now living in Los Angeles and the host of a successful talk show, 100% Cotton, is contacted by Ghostface, who demands to know the whereabouts of Sidney Prescott. Cotton refuses to cooperate, and Ghostface breaks into his home, murdering Cotton and his girlfriend Christine while speaking with Cotton's voice. Detective Mark Kincaid contacts Gale Weathers to discuss the murders, prompting her to travel to Hollywood, where she finds Dewey Riley working as an adviser on the set of Stab 3, the third film in the series based on the Ghostface murders. Using a voice changer as a ruse, Ghostface kills Stab 3 actress Sarah Darling. Sidney is living in seclusion as a crisis counselor for an abused women's hotline, fearing that another killer may strike. Having discovered Sidney's location, the killer begins taunting her by phone with her deceased mother Maureen Prescott's voice, forcing her out of hiding and drawing her to Hollywood. As the remaining Stab 3 cast, along with Dewey and Gale, gather at the home of Jennifer Jolie, Ghostface murders her bodyguard and uses a gas leak to cause an explosion, which kills fellow actor Tom Prinze. Martha Meeks, the sister of Sidney's friend Randy, who was murdered while Sidney was in college, visits Sidney and the others to drop off a videotape that Randy had made before his death, posthumously warning them that the rules of a horror film do not apply to anyone in the third and final film of a horror trilogy and that any of them, including main character Sidney, could die. Dewey, Gale, Jennifer, and the remaining Stab 3 cast, Angelina and Tyson, attend a birthday party for Stab 3s director Roman Bridger, where Ghostface strikes. Gale discovers Roman's dead body in the basement. Angelina wanders off alone before she is also murdered. Tyson attempts to fight Ghostface but the killer manages to throw him off a balcony to his death. Jennifer tries to escape through a secret passage, but is murdered by Ghostface. The killer then orders Sidney to the mansion to save Gale and Dewey, who are being held hostage. When she arrives, Ghostface forces Sidney to abandon her firearm and lures her inside where Gale and Dewey are bound and gagged with duct tape. As Sidney is untying them, Ghostface appears, though Sidney gains the upper hand using a second hidden gun to fight him off. Detective Kincaid shows up but is knocked unconscious by Ghostface. Sidney flees and hides in a secret screening room where she encounters Ghostface. He reveals himself as Roman, having faked his death and survived being shot due to a bulletproof vest. Roman admits to being Sidney's half-brother, born to their mother Maureen when she was an actress in Hollywood. Four years ago, he had unsuccessfully tried reuniting with her, only for her to reject him due to him being the product of rape. Bitter over the rejection, Roman began stalking her, filming all the men she philandered with and showing Billy Loomis the footage of his father with Maureen, which motivated him to kill her, thus setting off the string of murders in Sidney's hometown and at her college. However, when he discovered how much fame Sidney had attracted due to those events, Roman snapped and lured Sidney out of hiding. Roman then tells Sidney of his plan to frame her for the murders, before killing tied-up and gagged Stab producer John Milton, his biological father and their mother's rapist. Sidney furiously denounces Roman, saying he has no excuse for his actions of killing innocent people other than simply choosing to do so, causing Roman to break down into a rage. A fight ensues between Sidney and Roman, which ends when Roman shoots Sidney in the chest, but Sidney survives the shot and stabs Roman multiple times. As he lies bleeding, Sidney shows him that she, too, was wearing a bulletproof vest. Dewey and Gale arrive when a screaming Roman suddenly resurfaces with a knife; unaware of his bulletproof vest, Dewey shoots him in the chest, but Sidney yells at him to shoot Roman in the head, which Dewey does, finally killing him. Sometime after at Sidney's house, Dewey proposes to Gale, who accepts. Sidney returns from a walk with her dog and leaves her gates, which were previously shown to be alarmed, open. She enters her home and is invited to join Dewey, Gale, and Detective Kincaid to watch a movie. As she goes to join the others, her front door blows open behind her, but she walks away leaving it as it is, finally confident that the murders are over. Cast David Arquette as Dewey Riley, a deputy and advisor on the set of Stab 3 Neve Campbell as Sidney Prescott, a crisis counselor and main target of Ghostface Courteney Cox as Gale Weathers, an investigative reporter Patrick Dempsey as Mark Kincaid, a detective Scott Foley as Roman Bridger, director of Stab 3 Lance Henriksen as John Milton, a Hollywood producer Matt Keeslar as Tom Prinze, an actor portraying a fictional Dewey in Stab 3 Jenny McCarthy as Sarah Darling, an actress cast as Candy in Stab 3 Emily Mortimer as Angelina Tyler, an actress portraying a fictional Sidney in Stab 3 Parker Posey as Jennifer Jolie, an actress portraying a fictional Gale in Stab 3 Deon Richmond as Tyson Fox, an actor Kelly Rutherford as Christine Hamilton, Cotton's girlfriend Liev Schreiber as Cotton Weary, a talk show host Patrick Warburton as Steven Stone, a bodyguard Jamie Kennedy as Randy Meeks, who appears in a videotape recording made in college before he was murdered Roger L. Jackson as the voice of Ghostface Additionally, Josh Pais appears as Wallace, a detective, Heather Matarazzo appears as Martha Meeks, Randy's sister, and Lynn McRee as Maureen Prescott (née Roberts) / Rina Reynolds, an actress and Sidney's deceased mother Schreiber, McRee, Campbell, Foley, Cox and Arquette also briefly voice Ghostface when the latter character is impersonating their characters with a voice changer. Skeet Ulrich and Matthew Lillard additionally make vocal cameos as Billy Loomis and Stu Macher, whose voices Ghostface similarly impersonates, while Jay Mewes and Kevin Smith make a cameo as Jay and Silent Bob. When Gale and Jennifer visit the film studio's archives, the receptionist at the archives is a woman named Bianca, who was portrayed by Carrie Fisher. In the scene, Bianca acknowledges she looks like Fisher after Jennifer initially confuses Bianca for Fisher. Bianca says she almost had the role of Princess Leia but Fisher got it because she slept with George Lucas. Production Development Scream 3 was released just over two years after Scream 2, greenlit with a budget of $40million, a significant increase over the budgets of Scream at $15million and Scream 2 at $24million. Williamson's involvement had been contracted while selling his Scream script, to which he had attached two five-page outlines for potential sequels, which would become Scream 2 and Scream 3, hoping to entice buyers with the prospect of purchasing a franchise rather than a single script. Craven too had been contracted for two potential sequels following a successful test screening of Scream and he returned to direct the third installment. Shortly before production began on the film, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold killed 12 students, a teacher, and themselves at their school, in what became known as the Columbine High School massacre. In the aftermath of the incident, many parties began looking for reasoning behind their actions and there came an increased scrutiny on the role of the media in society, including video games and film, and the influence it could have on an audience. With production of Scream 3 not yet underway, there were considerations about whether the film should be made at that time, aware of the potential for negative attention but the studio decided to press forward, albeit with changes. The studio remained however much more apprehensive concerning violence and gore in Scream 3 than with previous installments, pressing for a greater emphasis on the series' satiric humor while scaling back on the violence. At one point in the production, the studio went as far as demanding that the film feature no blood or on-screen violence at all, a drastic departure for the series, but Craven directly intervened. According to Kruger, "[Craven ...] said 'Be serious, guys. Either we make a Scream movie or we make a movie and call it something else. But if it's a Scream movie, it's going to have certain standards.'" Writing Bob and Harvey Weinstein approached Williamson in early 1999 to pursue a full script for a third installment to the Scream franchise, Scream 3. However, following his successes with the Scream series and other projects such as I Know What You Did Last Summer, Williamson had become involved in multiple projects including the development of the short-lived TV series Wasteland and directing his self-penned film Teaching Mrs. Tingle (1999) which Williamson had written prior to Scream and which had languished in development hell since.' Unable to develop a full script for the production, Williamson instead wrote a 20–30 page draft outline for the film that involved the return of Ghostface to the fictional town of Woodsboro where the "Stab" series, a fictional series of films within a film that exist within the Scream universe and are based on the events of Scream, would be filmed. The Weinsteins hired Arlington Road scribe Ehren Kruger to replace Williamson and helm writing duties, developing a script based on Williamson's notes. The environment for Scream 3s development had become more complicated than with previous films. There was an increased scrutiny on the effects of violence in media and the effect it could have on the public in the aftermath of the Columbine High School massacre which occurred shortly before production would begin on the film. In addition, since the release of the original Scream films, various acts of violence had taken place which had gained notoriety and media attention when they were linked to, or blamed on, the films. Eager to avoid further criticism or connection to such incidents, Williamson's notes were largely discarded as the studio insisted that the script should focus on the comedic elements of the series while significantly reducing the violence. The setting of the film was changed from Woodsboro to Hollywood upon which Kruger commented that he believed the characters should be moving to "bigger" places from high school, to college to the city of Hollywood. Behind the scenes however, the move away from Woodsboro was mandated as it was considered that a film containing violent acts of murder in and around the small town of Woodsboro and the associated school would attract significant negative criticism and attention that could be detrimental to the production and studio, the film set for release less than a year following the Columbine incident. Kruger agreed to develop the script for Scream 3 primarily to work with Craven and the executives under Miramax; he said of his decision to take on writing duties on the film: To help in developing the script, Kruger read copies of Williamson's scripts for Scream and Scream 2, as well as watched the earlier films to better understand the characters and tone. In an interview, Kruger admitted that his lack of involvement with the development of the principal cast of Scream hampered his ability to portray them true to their previous characterization. Early scripts for Scream 3 had the character of Sidney Prescott much like "Linda Hamilton in Terminator 2: Judgment Day" – a more action-orientated heroine – at which point Craven would intervene and correct the script to bring the characters closer to their previous appearances. Kruger admitted that despite not receiving any writing credit, Craven had a significant hand in developing the script for Scream 3. Like Scream 2, the script for Scream 3 was subject to repeated alterations with pages sometimes completed only on the day on which they were to be filmed. Multiple scenes were rewritten to include previously absent characters or change elements of the plot when it was decided that they were not connecting with other scenes. In a 2013 interview, Williamson further detailed his original script, which would have seen the killers be a "Stab" fan club of Woodsboro kids. All the members of the club would have been involved in the killings and the final twist "of the movie was when Sidney walked into the house after Ghostface had killed everyone ... and they all rose up. None of them were actually dead and they'd planned the whole thing." Williamson later adapted this story for his 2013 TV series The Following. Casting Neve Campbell, Courteney Cox, David Arquette, and Liev Schreiber all returned to their roles as Sidney Prescott and news reporter Gale Weathers, Dewey Riley, and Cotton Weary, now host of a TV show, respectively for Scream 3, their characters being the only central roles to survive the events of the previous two films. In an interview, Craven stated that convincing the central cast to return to film a new Scream film was not difficult but as with Scream 2, their burgeoning fame and busy schedules made arranging their availability with the film's production period difficult. The consequence of Campbell's commitments in particular meant she was only available to film her role for 20 days forcing the script to reduce the series' main character to a smaller role while focusing on the other characters played by Cox and Arquette. Lynn McCree finally makes a physical appearance in the series as Maureen Prescott (though only through an hallucination of Sidney), and Sidney now is a crisis counselor. Roger L. Jackson again returned to voice the antagonist Ghostface and Jamie Kennedy reprised his role as Randy Meeks in spite of the character's death in Scream 2. Negative feedback following the death of Randy had the production consider methods to have had his character survive to appear in Scream 3 including having the character's family hide him away for safety while recuperating from his injuries, but it was deemed too unbelievable and the idea was replaced with the character appearing in a minor role via a pre-recorded video message. Many of the supporting cast played fictitious actors taking part in the film within a film Stab 3 including Emily Mortimer as Angelina Tyler, Parker Posey as Jennifer Jolie, Matt Keeslar as Tom Prinze, Jenny McCarthy as Sarah Darling, and Deon Richmond as Tyson Fox with Scott Foley as the film's director, Roman Bridger. Additional cast included Lance Henriksen as film producer John Milton, Patrick Dempsey as detective Mark Kincaid, Patrick Warburton as bodyguard Steven Stone, and Kelly Rutherford as Christine Hamilton, girlfriend to Cotton Weary. Rutherford was cast after filming had begun as the production was undergoing constant rewrites and the opening scene evolved from requiring only a female corpse to needing a live actress with whom Schreiber could interact. Shortly after being cast, Mortimer was found to lack the necessary work permit to allow her involvement in the film, requiring her to be flown to Vancouver to obtain one. Scream 3 also featured the first live on-screen appearance of Sidney Prescott's mother Maureen Prescott, played by Lynn McRee, the actress previously having represented the character in photographs during the previous films. Lawrence Hecht and C.W. Morgan appeared in minor roles reprising their characters of Sidney's father Neil Prescott and Hank Loomis respectively. Nancy O'Dell appeared as an unnamed reporter, having previously appeared in Scream 2 and would go on to appear in Scream 4 in the same role. Scream 3 featured several cameo appearances including the fictional characters of Jay and Silent Bob from the 1994 film Clerks played by Jason Mewes and Kevin Smith, and director Roger Corman as an on-set studio executive. Carrie Fisher made a cameo in the film as former actress Bianca Burnette at the suggestion of Bob Weinstein; Fisher helped to write her character. In a 2009 interview, Matthew Lillard, who played Stu Macher in Scream, said that he had been contracted to reprise his role in Scream 3 as the primary antagonist, having survived his apparent death, orchestrating new Ghostface attacks from prison on high school students and ultimately targeting Sidney. Following the Columbine High School massacre shortly before production began, the script was scrapped and re-written without his character and this plot to avoid development of a film which associated violence and murder with a high school setting. Filming Principal photography for Scream 3 began on July 6, 1999 in and around Hollywood, Los Angeles on a budget of $40million and finished on September 29, 1999 after twelve weeks. Filming took place largely in the areas of San Fernando Valley, Macarthur Park, Beverly Hills, Hollywood Hills and Silverlake with the isolated home of Campbell's character situated in Topanga Canyon. The opening scene involves Cotton Weary (Schreiber) driving before arriving home where he is murdered by the Ghostface character. For the driving scene, the production filmed on Hollywood Boulevard but the following scene in Cotton's apartment was changed frequently, requiring alterations to the driving scene to maintain continuity, modifying who speaks to Cotton by phone and what the conversation entailed. Unable to return to Hollywood Boulevard, the scene was reshot on a street outside of the production studio in San Fernando Valley and intermixed with footage taken on the Boulevard. The opening attack scene was filmed partially at the exterior and interior of Harper House in West Hollywood but changes were made to the scene including introducing a live girlfriend for Cotton instead of her being dead when Cotton arrives. It was later decided that the confrontation between Cotton and Ghostface, featuring Cotton physically dominating the character and attempting to escape by skylight, was unrealistic and made Ghostface appear weak and this scene was reshot. Again however, they were unable to return to Harper House to conduct filming and resorted to constructing a replica of the apartment interior to produce the necessary footage which had the Ghostface character appear more dominant and completely excised the attempted skylight escape. Cox's character is introduced during a seminar which takes place within a classroom at UCLA, a location previously used in Scream 2 to represent the fictional Windsor College. The film studio where the fictional Stab 3 is filmed is represented by the CBS Studio Center in Studio City, San Fernando Valley while scenes at the home of Posey's character were filmed in the Hollywood Hills at Runyon Ranch in Runyon Canyon Park. The finale, featuring the final attacks of the film and confrontation between the antagonist and Sidney, was filmed at the Canfield-Moreno Estate, a mansion in Silverlake. A scene in the film involved Campbell being pursued by Ghostface through filmset replicas of locations from the original Scream including her character's home. The scene was not present in the script itself but Craven paid to have the sets constructed, knowing he wanted to revisit the original film in some manner. After the construction of the sets, the scene was then written around the resulting areas producing the scene in the final film. The script underwent changes repeatedly as filming was conducted with pages regularly only available on the day of filming. Additionally, if the production decided to change a scene this sometimes meant refilming other scenes to maintain continuity requiring further rewrites. The production team purposely filmed large amounts of footage containing different variations of each scene based on the different script developments in order that, should the script further change, they would ideally have a scene they could use without having to film new ones at a later date, requiring them to obtain access to locations or build sets. The opening scene in particular had several alternate versions filmed, initially altering the girlfriend of Schreiber's character from dead to alive, resulting in the prior driving scene being changed to alter dialog and tone to make sense with the changes. Additionally, a three-minute scene featuring the character of Randy Meeks had over two hours of footage filmed. The script for the film was so in flux that the epilogue scene was filmed with three variants of Patrick Dempsey's character – one with him absent, one where his arm is bandaged and one with him in a normal condition – as the production were not certain what his ultimate fate would be following the finalization of the film. Post-production In January 2000, three months after completing principal photography for Scream 3, the ending was refilmed when it was decided to be an inadequate conclusion. Originally the ending consisted of Sidney (Campbell) easily defeating Roman (Scott Foley) which led into an early morning scene of police arriving and then into the final scene of Sidney in her home. The production considered that this amounted to essentially three endings, damaging the pacing of the film and there was also consideration that, being the concluding chapter of the trilogy, the audience needed to believe that Sidney could lose and die, something her easy victory did not achieve. To create the alternate ending, the fight scene between Sidney and Roman was extended and an addition involved Roman shooting Sidney, seemingly to death where previously she had simply hidden from the character. A major addition was the presence of the character Mark Kincaid (Patrick Dempsey), who had previously been completely absent from the finale, after the production realized that his character simply disappeared from the plot and his story arc went nowhere. As with production of Scream, Craven encountered repeated conflicts over censorship with the MPAA regarding violence, and the director stated in an interview that the issues made him consider leaving the horror genre. Music Marco Beltrami returned to score Scream 3, having scored the previous two films in the series. For the film, Beltrami employed seven orchestrators to aid in scoring the extensive orchestral accompaniment featured in the film's score. He experimented with new styles of sound production by recording instruments in abnormal circumstances such as inserting objects into a piano and recording at various velocities to create a distorted, unnatural sound and modifying the results electronically. Beltrami continued to incorporate a heavy vocal orchestra throughout the score as he had with the previous films. There was consideration that Beltrami was forced to hire multiple orchestrators to complete the score to meet the film's deadline. Beltrami took inspiration from other composers for the score, again incorporating excerpts of the score to Broken Arrow by Hans Zimmer in the track "Sid Wears a Dress". Reception Scream 3 held its premiere on February 3, 2000, at the AMC Avco theater in Westwood, Los Angeles, California with a public release following on February 4, 2000. Box office The film set a record in its opening weekend in February 2000 for the number of screens in the United States with 3,467, which also made it the 7th widest opening for an R-Rated film. This was surpassed the same year in May by Mission: Impossible 2 with 3,653. The film earned $34,713,342 during its opening weekend ranking number one at the box office. It is the 11th highest grossing opening weekend in a February. It went on to accrue $89.1million in the US and $72.7million in other territories with a world lifetime-gross of $161.8million, making it the second-lowest financially performing film in the Scream series; the lowest is Scream 4. Critical reaction On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 41% based on 126 reviews, and an average rating of 5.20/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Despite some surprising twists, Scream 3 sees the franchise falling back on the same old horror formulas and cliches it once hacked and slashed with postmodern abandon." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale. Time Out London was particularly critical of the film, calling the film's metafiction commentary a poor imitation of Craven's own horror film Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994). Of the characters, Roger Ebert said "[the characters] are so thin, they're transparent" but praised Campbell's appearance saying, "The camera loves her. She could become a really big star and then giggle at clips from this film at her AFI tribute." In a positive review, the Los Angeles Times called the film, "Genuinely scary and also highly amusing", and the BBC stated that "as the conclusion to the trilogy it works more effectively than anyone had a right to expect". Variety also praised the film as the end of the Scream trilogy, saying "Aficionados will be the best able to appreciate how wittily Craven has brought down the curtain on his much-imitated, genre-reviving series" while Empire called it "satisfying" though believed the premise of the series had worn thin. Post-2017 re-evaluation In the wake of the scandal involving the Scream films' executive producer Harvey Weinstein, several publications noted the parallels between Weinstein's behavior and the themes of abuse featured in the film, particularly those involving Maureen Prescott, the late mother of the film series' protagonist, Sidney. In 2017, Kristen Yoonsoo Kim noted the scene in which John Milton, portrayed by Lance Henriksen, discusses taking advantage of aspiring actresses. In 2019, the film's editor, Patrick Lussier, discussed those particular themes and Wes Craven's approach to them, saying of Henriksen's character: "Wes, I think, was very interested in that character as not necessarily the villain—he certainly is a villain—but as a catalyst for the villain's motivation. He's really the spark for the events, or retconned that he is the spark for the events, in the entire series." In 2020, Adam White wrote that the film was "an angry indictment of sexual misconduct in Hollywood, predatory men and the casting couch". He noted several instances of "transactional sex" within the film, including the characters Jennifer and Angelina both making references to having sex with filmmakers in order to secure roles in the fictional Stab film, and Carrie Fisher in a cameo role (as a lookalike of Fisher herself) who claims that the role of Princess Leia in the Star Wars franchise was won by "the one who [slept] with George Lucas". White also noted that Rose McGowan, who appeared in the first Scream film, later accused Weinstein of raping her in a hotel room a year after the film was released. McGowan revealed in 2017 that she received a $100,000 settlement as a result of this attack. Writing for SyFy Wire, Emma Fraser commented that throughout the series, the late Maureen is "slut-shamed" and "victim-blamed". Fraser also lamented the film's lack of exploration of these themes, stating that the film "could have been a fascinating look at the crimes of this industry and the relationship horror has with sex". Home media Scream 3 was released in US territories on VHS and on DVD on July 4, 2000, by Buena Vista Home Video. The video was later released as a bonus edition on October 24, 2000, by Buena Vista Home Video. The DVD version was only released as a Collector's Edition featuring deleted scenes, outtakes, audio commentary, music videos of songs featured in the film, trailers for the film and biographies on the cast and crew involved in the film's production. Following the release of Scream 3 as what was then the concluding chapter of the series, Collector's Editions of Scream, Scream 2, and Scream 3 were packaged in "The Ultimate Scream Collection" DVD boxset by Dimension Films on September 26, 2000, which included "Behind the Scream", a short documentary about the production of the films, outtakes, deleted scenes, screentests of actors involved in the films and other miscellaneous materials related to the series. In 2001, the DVD release of Scream 3 was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Home Video Release but lost to Princess Mononoke (1997). Scream 3 remained unreleased in foreign territories including Europe and Japan until 2001 where it was simultaneously released with Scream and Scream 2 on February 26 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment. Each film contained the additional content found in the Collector's Edition version of their US release including deleted scenes, outtakes, theatrical trailers, music videos and commentary from each respective film's crew. Additionally, the three films were collected together in a single pack, again released on February 26 and released as "Scream Trilogy". Scream 3 was released on the Blu-ray Disc format on March 29, 2011, alongside Scream, and Scream 2, two weeks prior to the release of Scream 4, by Lionsgate Home Entertainment, hosting the films in 1080p high definition and included audio commentary, theatrical trailers and behind-the-scenes footage for each respective film. Soundtrack Scream 3: The Album is the original soundtrack album to the film Scream 3. Released on January 25, 2000 by Wind-up Records, the album features 18 songs consisting largely of the metal genre by artists such as System of a Down, Slipknot, Powerman 5000, Full Devil Jacket, Godsmack, Sevendust, Incubus, Static-X and Coal Chamber, some of which are represented in the film. The Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds song "Red Right Hand" is played in the film, having been heard in all three films. Nick Cave wrote a "sequel" to the song just for the film, which can be heard in the closing credits. This song was later included in The Seeds' B-Sides & Rarities album. Additionally, Marco Beltrami uses a few notes from the song in his score. Also, the Creed song "What If" features a music video which resembles the happenings of the movie, and includes a cameo by David Arquette. The video can be seen in the DVD release of the movie. Creed also recorded the song "Is This the End" just for the film and can also be heard in the closing credits. On February 23, 2000, Scream 3: The Album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, signifying that the album achieved sales in excess of 500,000 units. The album fared better than its predecessors, spending 14 weeks on the Billboard 200 and reaching a top rank of number 32. It scored a 2.5 out of 5 from music guide AllMusic. Reviewer Steve Huey said that the "high pedigree" of the album's contributors had produced a "pretty listenable album". The album was released on iTunes on February 1, 2012. Notes References External links 2000 films 2000 horror films 2000 independent films 2000s comedy horror films 2000s mystery thriller films 2000s slasher films American black comedy films American films American independent films American mystery thriller films American satirical films American sequel films Dimension Films films Films about filmmaking Films about fratricide and sororicide Films about Hollywood Films about siblings Films directed by Wes Craven Films produced by Cathy Konrad Films scored by Marco Beltrami Films set in Los Angeles Films set in studio lots Films shot in Los Angeles Films with screenplays by Ehren Kruger Post-traumatic stress disorder in fiction Self-reflexive films 3
602388	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20McAfee	John McAfee	John David McAfee ( ; 18 September 1945 – 23 June 2021) was a British-American computer programmer, businessman, and two-time presidential candidate who unsuccessfully sought the Libertarian Party nomination for president of the United States in 2016 and 2020. In 1987, he wrote the first commercial anti-virus software, founding McAfee Associates to sell his creation. He resigned in 1994 and sold his remaining stake in the company. McAfee became the company's most vocal critic in later years, urging consumers to uninstall the company's anti-virus software, which he characterized as bloatware. He disavowed the company's continued use of his name in branding, a practice that has persisted in spite of a short-lived corporate rebrand attempt under Intel ownership. McAfee's fortunes plummeted in the financial crisis of 2007–2008. After leaving McAfee Associates, he founded the companies Tribal Voice (makers of the PowWow chat program), QuorumEx, and Future Tense Central, among others, and was involved in leadership positions in the companies Everykey, MGT Capital Investments, and Luxcore, among others. His personal and business interests included smartphone apps, cryptocurrency, yoga, light-sport aircraft and recreational drug use. He resided for a number of years in Belize, but returned to the United States in 2013 while wanted in Belize for questioning on suspicion of murder. In October 2020, McAfee was arrested in Spain over U.S. tax evasion charges. U.S. federal prosecutors brought criminal and civil charges alleging that McAfee had failed to pay income taxes over a four-year period. On 23 June 2021, he was found dead due to an apparent suicide by hanging in his prison cell near Barcelona shortly after his extradition to the U.S. was authorized by the Spanish National Court. His death generated speculation and conspiracy theories about the possibility that he was murdered. McAfee's wife, Janice McAfee, said she did not believe McAfee committed suicide, and that the suicide note was a forgery. Early life McAfee was born in Cinderford, in the Forest of Dean, Gloucestershire, England, on 18 September 1945, on a U.S. Army base (of the 596th Ordnance Ammunition Company), to an American father, Don McAfee, who was stationed there, and a British mother, Joan (Williams). His father was from Roanoke, and McAfee was himself primarily raised in Salem, Virginia, United States. He said he felt as much British as American. When he was 15, his father, whom a BBC columnist described as "an abusive alcoholic", killed himself with a gun. He had spent his childhood living in fear that a beating from his father could happen at any time, and struggled to make sense of why this was happening to him. McAfee received a bachelor's degree in mathematics in 1967 from Roanoke College in Virginia, which subsequently awarded him an honorary Doctor of Science degree in 2008. After receiving his bachelor's degree, McAfee began working towards a doctorate in mathematics at Northeast Louisiana State College but was expelled, in about 1968, because of a relationship with an undergraduate student, who became his first wife. Ventures NASA, Univac, Xerox, CSC, Booz Allen and Lockheed McAfee was employed as a programmer by NASA's Institute for Space Studies in New York City from 1968 to 1970 working on the Apollo program. From there, he went to Univac as a software designer, and later to Xerox as an operating system architect. In 1978, he joined Computer Sciences Corporation as a software consultant. He worked for consulting firm Booz Allen Hamilton from 1980 to 1982. In 1986, while employed by Lockheed, he read about the Brain computer virus made for the PC, and he found it terrifying. Sensing a business opportunity, he went about creating an antivirus software that could detect the computer virus and remove it automatically. In 1987 McAfee created McAfee Associates Inc. to sell this software, which he named VirusScan. This was the first anti-virus software brought to market, and one of the first software products to be distributed over the internet. McAfee Associates Initially McAfee did not seek a large userbase of paying users, but rather wanted to raise awareness of the need to be protected from computer viruses. However, by making people fear such malware, he managed to generate millions of sales, and by 1990 he was making five million dollars a year. The company was incorporated in Delaware in 1992, and had its initial public offering the same year. In August 1993, McAfee stepped down as chief executive and remained with the company as the chief technical officer. He was succeeded by Bill Larson. In 1994 he sold his remaining stake in the company. He had no further involvement in its operations. After various mergers and ownership changes, Intel acquired McAfee in August 2010. In January 2014, Intel announced that McAfee-related products would be marketed as Intel Security. McAfee expressed his pleasure at the name change, saying, "I am now everlastingly grateful to Intel for freeing me from this terrible association with the worst software on the planet." The business was soon de-merged from Intel, once more under the McAfee name. PowWow, QuoromEx, MGT and more Other business ventures that were founded by McAfee include Tribal Voice, which developed one of the first instant messaging programs, PowWow. In 2000, he invested in and joined the board of directors of Zone Labs, makers of firewall software, prior to its acquisition by Check Point Software in 2003. In the 2000s McAfee invested in and advertised ultra-light flights, which he marketed as aerotrekking. In August 2009 The New York Times reported that McAfee's personal fortune had declined to $4 million from a peak of $100 million due to the effect of the financial crisis of 2007–2008 on his investments. In 2009, McAfee was interviewed in Belize for the CNBC special The Bubble Decade, in which it was reported that he had invested in and/or built many mansions in the USA that went unsold when the 2007 global recession hit. The report also discussed his quest to raise plants for possible medicinal uses on his land in Belize. In February 2010, McAfee started the company QuorumEx, headquartered in Belize, which aimed to produce herbal antibiotics that disrupt quorum sensing in bacteria. In June 2013, McAfee uploaded a parody video titled How to Uninstall McAfee Antivirus onto his YouTube channel. In it, he critiques the antivirus software while snorting white powder and being stripped by scantily clad women. It received ten million views. He told Reuters the video was meant to ridicule the media's negative coverage of him. A spokesman for McAfee Inc. called the video's statements "ludicrous". Also in 2013, McAfee founded Future Tense Central, which aimed to produce a secure computer network device called the D-Central. By 2016, it was also an incubator. In February 2014, McAfee announced Cognizant, an application for smartphones, which displays information about the permissions of other installed applications. In April 2014, it was renamed DCentral 1, and an Android version was released for free on Google Play. At the DEF CON conference in Las Vegas in August 2014, McAfee warned people not to use smartphones, suggesting apps are used to spy on clueless consumers who do not read privacy user agreements. In January 2016, he became the chief evangelist for security startup Everykey. In February 2016, McAfee publicly volunteered to decrypt the iPhone used by Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik in San Bernardino, avoiding the need for Apple to build a backdoor. He later admitted that his claims regarding the ease of cracking the phone were a publicity stunt, while still asserting its possibility. In May 2016, McAfee was appointed chairman and CEO of MGT Capital Investments, a technology holding company. It initially said it would rename itself John McAfee Global Technologies, although this plan was abandoned due to a dispute with Intel over rights to the "McAfee" name. He changed MGT's focus from social gaming to cybersecurity, saying "anti-virus software is dead, it no longer works", and that "the new paradigm has to stop the hacker getting in" before he or she can do damage. Soon after joining MGT, McAfee said he and his team had exploited a flaw in the Android operating system that allowed him to read encrypted messages from WhatsApp. Gizmodo investigated his claim, and reported that he had sent reporters malware-infected phones to make this hack work. He replied: "Of course the phones had malware on them. How that malware got there is the story, which we will release after speaking with Google. It involves a serious flaw in the Android architecture." McAfee moved MGT into the mining of bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies, both to make money for the company, and to increase MGT's expertise in dealing with blockchains, which he thought was important for cybersecurity. In August 2017, McAfee stepped down as CEO, instead serving as MGT's "chief cybersecurity visionary". In January 2018, he left the company altogether. Both sides said the split was amicable; he said he wanted to spend all of his time on cryptocurrencies, while the company told of pressure from potential investors to disassociate itself from him. On 13 August 2018, McAfee took a position of CEO with Luxcore, a cryptocurrency company focused on enterprise solutions. Politics Positions McAfee was a libertarian, advocating the decriminalization of cannabis, an end to the war on drugs, non-interventionism in foreign policy, a free market economy which does not redistribute wealth, and upholding free trade. He supported abolishing the Transportation Security Administration. McAfee advocated increased cyber awareness and more action against the threat of cyberwarfare. He pushed religious liberty, saying that business owners should be able to deny service in circumstances that contradict their religious beliefs, adding: "No one is forcing you to buy anything or to choose one person over another. So why should I be forced to do anything if I am not harming you? It's my choice to sell, your choice to buy." 2016 presidential campaign On 8 September 2015, McAfee announced a bid for president of the United States in the 2016 presidential election, as the candidate of a newly formed political party called the Cyber Party. On 24 December 2015, he re-announced his candidacy bid saying that he would instead seek the presidential nomination of the Libertarian Party. On the campaign trail, he consistently polled alongside the party's other top candidates, Gary Johnson and Austin Petersen. The three partook in the Libertarian Party's first nationally televised presidential debate on 29 March 2016. His running mate was photographer, commercial real estate broker and Libertarian activist Judd Weiss. McAfee came second in the primaries and third at the 2016 Libertarian National Convention. Notable endorsements Adam Kokesh, talk show host and activist John Moore, Nevada assemblyman L. Neil Smith, science fiction author and activist 2020 presidential campaign Contrary to his assertion at the 2016 convention, McAfee tweeted on 3 June 2018 that he would run for president again in 2020, either with the Libertarian Party or a separate party that he would create. He later chose to run as a Libertarian. He mainly campaigned for wider cryptocurrency use. On 22 January 2019, McAfee tweeted that he would continue his campaign "in exile", following reports that he, his wife, and four campaign staff were indicted for tax-related felonies by the IRS. He said he was in "international waters", and had previously tweeted that he was going to Venezuela. The IRS has not commented on the alleged indictments. He defended Communist revolutionary Che Guevara on Twitter, putting himself at odds with Libertarian National Committee chairman Nicholas Sarwark, who wrote, "I hear very little buzz about McAfee this time around ... making a defense of Che Guevara from Cuba may ingratiate him with the Cuban government, but it didn't resonate well with Libertarians." In a tweet on 4 March 2020, McAfee simultaneously suspended his 2020 presidential campaign, endorsed Vermin Supreme, and announced his campaign for the Libertarian Party vice presidential nomination. The next day, he returned to the presidential field, reversing the suspension of his bid, as "No one in the Libertarian Party Would consider me For Vice President." The next month, he endorsed Adam Kokesh and became Kokesh's vice-presidential candidate, while still seeking the presidency for himself. At the 2020 Libertarian National Convention, he again lost, now to Jo Jorgensen and Spike Cohen for the presidential and vice-presidential slots. Economic views McAfee contended that taxes were illegal, and claimed in 2019 that he had not filed a tax return since 2010. He referred to himself as "a prime target" of the Internal Revenue Service. In July 2017, McAfee predicted on Twitter that the price of a bitcoin would jump to $500,000 within three years, adding: "If not, I will eat my own dick on national television." In July 2019, he predicted a price of $1 million by the end of 2020. In January 2020, he tweeted that his predictions were "a ruse to onboard new users", and that bitcoin had limited potential because it is "an ancient technology." Legal issues McAfee was named a defendant in a 2008 civil court case related to his Aerotrekking light-sport aircraft venture and the death of nephew Joel Bitow and a passenger. On 30 April 2012, McAfee's property in Orange Walk Town, Belize, was raided by the Gang Suppression Unit of the Belize Police Department. A GSU press release said he was arrested for unlicensed drug manufacturing and possession of an unlicensed weapon. He was released without charge. In 2012, Belize police spokesman Raphael Martinez confirmed that McAfee was neither convicted nor charged, only suspected. In January 2014, while in Canada, he said that when the Belizean government raided his property, it seized his assets, and that his house later burned down under suspicious circumstances. On 2 August 2015, McAfee was arrested in Henderson County, Tennessee, on one count of driving under the influence and one count of possession of a firearm while intoxicated. In July 2019, McAfee and members of his entourage were arrested while his yacht was docked at Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic, on suspicion of carrying high-caliber weapons and ammunition. They were held for four days and released. Weapons were seized, according to the Public Ministry. On 11 August 2020, McAfee falsely stated that he was arrested in Norway during the COVID-19 pandemic after refusing to replace a lace thong with a more effective face mask. He later tweeted a picture of himself with a bruised eye, claiming it occurred during this arrest. The photo of the alleged arrest shows an officer with the German word for "police" on his uniform, invalidating McAfee's claim of having been arrested in Norway. The Augsburg police later said he tried to enter Germany on that day, but was not arrested. Death of Gregory Faull On 12 November 2012, Belize police began to search for McAfee as a person of interest in connection to the homicide investigation of American expatriate Gregory Viant Faull, who was found dead of a gunshot wound the day before, at his home on the island of Ambergris Caye, the largest island in Belize. Faull was a neighbor of McAfee's. In a contemporary interview with Wired, McAfee said he had been afraid police would kill him and refused their routine questions and evaded them. He buried himself in sand for several hours with a cardboard box over his head. Belize's prime minister, Dean Barrow, called him "extremely paranoid, even bonkers". He fled Belize rather than cooperate. In December, the magazine Vice accidentally gave away McAfee's location at a Guatemalan resort, when a photo taken by one of its journalists accompanying him was posted with the EXIF geolocation metadata still attached. While in Guatemala, McAfee asked Chad Essley, an American cartoonist and animator, to set up a blog so he could write about his experience while on the run. He then appeared publicly in Guatemala City, where he unsuccessfully sought political asylum. On 5 December, he was arrested for illegally entering Guatemala. Shortly afterward, the board reviewing his asylum plea denied it and he was taken to a detention center to await deportation to Belize. On 6 December, Reuters and ABC News reported that McAfee had two minor heart attacks in the detention center and was hospitalized. His lawyer said he had no heart attacks, rather high blood pressure and anxiety attacks. McAfee later said he faked the heart attacks to buy time for his attorney to file a series of appeals that ultimately prevented his deportation to Belize, thus hastening that government's decision to send him back to the United States. On 12 December, McAfee was released and deported to the United States. On 14 November 2018, the Circuit Court in Orlando, Florida, refused to dismiss a wrongful death lawsuit against him for Faull's death. U.S. tax evasion charges and planned extradition In January 2019, McAfee announced that he was on the run from U.S. authorities, and living internationally on a boat following the convening of a grand jury to indict him, his wife, and four of his 2020 Libertarian Party presidential primaries staff on tax evasion charges. At the time, the Internal Revenue Service had not independently confirmed the existence of any such indictment. On 5 October 2020, McAfee was arrested in Spain at the request of the United States Department of Justice for tax evasion. The June indictment, which was unsealed upon his arrest, alleged he earned millions of dollars from 2014 to 2018, and failed to file income tax returns. On 6 October, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filed a complaint further alleging McAfee and his bodyguard promoted certain initial coin offerings (ICOs) in a fraudulent cryptocurrency pump and dump scheme. It claims he presented himself as an impartial investor when he promoted the ICOs, despite allegedly getting paid $23 million in digital assets in return. On 5 March 2021, the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York formally indicted him and an executive adviser on these charges. McAfee was jailed in Spain, pending extradition to the United States. On 23 June 2021, the Spanish National Court authorized his extradition to face charges in Tennessee; McAfee is suspected to have committed suicide several hours after the authorization. The New York extradition case was still pending in a lower Spanish court. Personal life McAfee married three times. He met his first wife circa 1968 while he was working towards a doctorate at Northeast Louisiana State College and she was an undergraduate student. Their affair led to his expulsion from the college. He married his second wife, Judy, a former flight attendant at American Airlines, circa 1987; they divorced in 2002. The night after McAfee arrived in the United States after being deported from Guatemala in December 2012, he was solicited by and slept with Janice Dyson, then a sex worker 30 years his junior in South Beach, Miami Beach, Florida. They began a relationship and married in 2013. She claims that he saved her from human traffickers. The couple moved to Portland, Oregon, in 2013. In a 2012 article in Mensa Bulletin, the magazine of the American Mensa, McAfee said developing the first commercial antivirus program had made him "the most popular hacking target" and "[h]ackers see hacking me as a badge of honor". For his own cybersecurity, he said he has other people buy his computer equipment for him, uses pseudonyms for setting up computers and logins, and changes his IP address several times a day. When asked on another occasion if he personally used McAfee's antivirus software, he replied: "I take it off[...]it's too annoying." In 2015, he resided in Lexington, Tennessee. In December 2018, he tweeted that he has "47 genetic children". His third wife described him in a Father's Day message as "father of many, loved by few". Death On 23 June 2021, McAfee was found dead in his prison cell at the near Barcelona, hours after the Spanish National Court ordered his extradition to the United States on criminal charges filed in Tennessee by the United States Department of Justice Tax Division. The Catalan Justice Department said "everything indicates" he killed himself by hanging. An official autopsy confirmed his suicide. McAfee's death ignited speculation about the possibility that he was murdered. McAfee's death drew comparisons to the circumstances of the death of American financier Jeffrey Epstein, who was found dead in August 2019 while awaiting trial on sex trafficking charges. Several times, McAfee claimed if he were ever found dead by hanging, it would mean he was murdered. Minutes after the report of his death, an image of the letter Q was posted to his Instagram feed (his account was subsequently taken down), apparently in reference to QAnon conspiracy theories. The day after his death, his lawyer told reporters that while he regularly maintained contact with McAfee in prison, there were no signs of suicidal intent. McAfee's widow reaffirmed this position in her first public remarks since her husband's death, and also called for a "thorough" investigation. On 13 February 2022, Spanish court ruled McAfee died by suicide. In the media Gringo: The Dangerous Life of John McAfee is a Showtime Networks documentary about the portion of McAfee's life spent in Belize. It began airing in September 2016. It covers allegations against him of raping his former business partner, Allison Adonizio, and murdering Belizean David Middleton and American expat Gregory Faull. In an interview with Bloomberg's Pimm Fox and Kathleen Hayes on 8 September 2016, he said these incidents were fabricated, and "Belize is a third-world banana republic and you can go down there and make any story you want if you pay your interviewees, which Showtime did." In March 2017, it was reported that Glenn Ficarra and John Requa would direct a film about McAfee titled King of the Jungle, written by Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski. At various points, Johnny Depp, Michael Keaton, and Seth Rogen were reported to have taken roles and later to have left the project. In November 2019, Zac Efron was reported to star as journalist Ari Furman. On 12 May 2017, McAfee and his wife were interviewed on ABC News's 20/20 regarding Faull's alleged murder. Books Computer Viruses, Worms, Data Diddlers, Killer Programs, and Other Threats to Your System. What They Are, How They Work, and How to Defend Your PC, Mac, or Mainframe, (with Colin Haynes) St. Martin's Press, 1989 The Secret of the Yamas: Spiritual Guide to Yoga, McAfee Pub, 2001 The Fabric of Self: Meditations on Vanity and Love, Woodland Publications, 2001 Into the Heart of Truth, Woodland Publications, 2001 Beyond the Siddhis. Supernatural Powers and the Sutras of Patanjali, Woodland Publications, 2001 References Further reading External links Appearances on C-SPAN John McAfee's website 1945 births 2021 deaths 2021 suicides 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American politicians Activists from Virginia American computer programmers American expatriates in Belize American people of British descent American people who died in prison custody American prisoners and detainees American tax resisters British expatriates in Belize British people of American descent British people who died in prison custody British prisoners and detainees British tax resisters Businesspeople from Virginia Candidates in the 2016 United States presidential election Candidates in the 2020 United States presidential election Computer security specialists Drug policy reform activists English activists English emigrants to the United States English libertarians Fugitives wanted by the United States Lockheed people McAfee Mensans NASA people Non-interventionism People associated with Bitcoin People associated with cryptocurrency People extradited from Guatemala People from Cinderford People from Lexington, Tennessee People from Salem, Virginia People who committed suicide in prison custody Politicians from Roanoke, Virginia Prisoners who died in Spanish detention Privacy activists Roanoke College alumni Suicides by hanging in Spain Tennessee Libertarians
606255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Museum	World Museum	World Museum is a large museum in Liverpool, England which has extensive collections covering archaeology, ethnology and the natural and physical sciences. Special attractions include the Natural History Centre and a planetarium. Entry to the museum is free. The museum is part of National Museums Liverpool. History The museum was originally started as the Derby Museum as it comprised the 13th Earl of Derby's natural history collection. It opened in 1851, sharing two rooms on Duke Street with a library. However, the museum proved extremely popular and a new, purpose-built building was required. Land for the new building, on a street then known as Shaw's Brow (now William Brown Street), opposite St George's Hall, was donated by local MP and Merchant William Brown, as was much of the funding for the building which would be known as the William Brown Library and Museum. Around 400,000 people attended the opening of the new building in 1860. Reports detailing the museum's activities and acquisitions were presented to the committee of the borough, city and corporation of Liverpool annually. In the late 19th century, the museum's collection was beginning to outgrow its building so a competition was launched to design a combined extension to the museum and college of technology. The competition was won by Edward William Mountford and the College of Technology and Museum Extension opened in 1901. Liverpool, being one of the UK's major ports, was heavily damaged by German bombing during the blitz. While much of the Museum's collection was moved to less vulnerable locations during the war, the museum building was struck by German firebombs and suffered heavy damage. Parts of the museum only began to reopen fifteen years later. One of the exhibits destroyed in 1941 was the little yawl City of Ragusa, which twice crossed the Atlantic in 1870 and 1871 with a crew of two men. The museum underwent an £35 million refurbishment in 2005 in order to double the size of the display spaces and make more of the collections accessible for visitors. A central entrance hall and six-storey atrium were created as part of the work. Major new galleries included "World Cultures", the "Bug House" and the "Weston Discovery Centre". On reopening the museum's name was changed again to World Museum. Exhibits Astronomy, Space and Time The physical sciences collection of World Museum was built after the devastation caused by the incendiary fire of 1941. The collection has expanded, in part, due to transfers from the Decorative Arts Department, Regional History Department, Walker Art Gallery and the Prescot Museum. The collection also contains several significant collections from the Liverpool Royal Institution, Bidston Observatory, later the Proudman Institute of Oceanographic Sciences, and the Physics Department of the University of Liverpool. Collections such as these are often made up of items of a singular type designed for a particular experiment such as DELPHI or LEP at CERN – the European Organization for Nuclear Research, or the Equatorium, a post-Copernican planetary calculator made to special order in the early 17th century. As a consequence the collection is small but contains a number of significant items. Planetarium World Museum is home to a planetarium. The planetarium opened in 1970 and has 62 seats. It currently attracts about 90,000 people per year. Shows cover various aspects of space science, including the Solar System and space exploration; there are also special children's shows. Human History Archaeology and Egyptology The archaeological collection includes many fine British objects, including the Anglo-Saxon Kingston brooch and Liudhard medalet, with other objects from the Canterbury-St Martin's hoard. The Egyptian antiquities collection contains approximately 15,000 objects from Egypt and Sudan and is the most important single component of the Antiquities department's collections. The chronological range of the collection spans from the Prehistoric to the Islamic Period with the largest archaeological site collections being Abydos, Amarna, Beni Hasan, Esna and Meroe. Over 5000 Egyptian antiquities were donated to the museum in 1867 by Joseph Mayer (1803–1886), a local goldsmith and antiquarian. Mayer purchased collections from Joseph Sams of Darlington (which contained material from the Henry Salt sale in 1835), Lord Valentia, Bram Hertz, the Reverend Henry Stobart, and the heirs of the Rev. Bryan Faussett. Mayer had displayed his collection in his own ‘Egyptian Museum’ in Liverpool with a purpose of giving citizens who were unable to visit the British Museum in London some idea of the achievements of the Egyptian civilization. On the strength of this substantial donation other people began to donate Egyptian material to the museum, and by the later years of the 19th century the museum had a substantial collection that Amelia Edwards described as being the most important collection of Egyptian antiquities in England next to the contents of the British Museum. The quality of the Mayer donation is high and there are some outstanding items, but with a few exceptions the entire collection is unprovenanced. The collection was systematically enhanced through subscription to excavations in Egypt. Altogether the museum subscribed to 25 excavations carried out by the Egypt Exploration Fund (now Egypt Exploration Society), the British School of Archaeology in Egypt, and the Egyptian Research Account between 1884 and 1914. It was further developed through links with the Institute of Archaeology at Liverpool University and important collections came to the museum from the excavations of John Garstang who was honorary reader in Egyptian archaeology at Liverpool University 1902–07, and Professor of Methods and Practice of Archaeology 1907–41. The museum has always had a close relationship with the university; in the early 1920s Percy Newberry, Brunner Professor of Egyptology, and his successor T. Eric Peet, catalogued the collection, assisted with the rearrangement of the displays, and produced a handbook and guide to the Egyptian collection (1st ed., 1923). In May 1941, at the height of the Liverpool Blitz, a bomb fell on the museum, which was burnt to a shell. Large parts of the collection had been removed at the outbreak of the war, but much remained on display or in store and many artefacts were destroyed. What remained was quite inaccessible and it was not until 1976 that a permanent Egypt gallery was opened in the rebuilt museum. Following the war the museum actively augmented the collection through collecting of new material from excavations in Egypt and Sudan and the purchase of other museum collections. In 1947 and 1949 the material from Garstang’s excavations at Meroe came to the museum, and in 1955 Liverpool University placed substantial amounts from its own collections within the museum, including many items from Beni Hasan and Abydos. In 1956 the museum purchased almost the entire non-British collections of the Norwich Castle Museum. This included EES excavated material from Amarna and other sites, botanical remains from Kahun and the private collection of Sir Henry Rider Haggard. In 1973 the collection was increased further by the acquisition of part of the Sir Henry Wellcome Collection, and by the bequest of Colonel J. R. Danson in 1976, which included more material from Amarna and from Garstang’s excavations at Abydos. A handy lavishly illustrated guide to the collection is available: Gifts of the Nile (London: HMSO, 1995). Following a successful application to the Museums & Galleries Improvement Fund of the DCMS and the Wolfson Foundation the museum will be opening a new Egypt gallery in August 2008. The project with a total budget of £600,000 aims to build on the success of the hugely popular World Museum by revitalising the Egyptian gallery, which is now 30 years old. Ethnology The ethnology collection at World Museum ranks among the top six collections in the country. The four main areas represented are: Africa, the Americas, Oceania and Asia. The exhibition includes interactive displays. Natural History In the Natural World area can be seen a range of exhibits, including live colonies of insects and historic zoological and botanical exhibits. Visitors can examine the collections up close in the award-winning Clore Natural History Centre, where there are interactive displays. World Museum's Natural History collection is divided into the Botany, Entomology and other Invertebrates, Geology and Vertebrate Zoology collections. Vertebrate Zoology The 13th Earl of Derby founded the original museum with a major donation of zoological specimens in 1851, including many rare and 'type' specimens, the ones that act as standards for the species. This collection was vastly increased with the purchase of Canon Henry Baker Tristram's collection of birds in 1896.There also specimens of several extinct species housed in the museum, including the Liverpool pigeon, the great auk (and an egg), the Falkland Islands wolf, the South Island piopio, the Lord Howe swamphen, the dodo, the long-tailed hopping mouse and the thylacine. Another attraction in the Natural world area is an art gallery with pictures of natural artist Edward Lear.Botany The museum’s collections have grown considerably since then and now also include important botanical specimens dating back over 200 years, which represent most of Britain and Ireland’s native flora. Geology The geological collection at World Museum contains over 40,000 fossils as well as extensive rock and mineral collections. Each of these exhibits show information about the origins, structure and history of the planet earth. Founded in 1858, only seven years after the museum's establishment, much of the original collection was destroyed during the Second World War. The post-war collections have expanded considerably, thanks in part to the acquisition of several significant museum and university collections. The largest of these was the University of Liverpool's geological collection that includes some 6,600 fossil specimens. The collection covers the following areas: palaeontology, rocks and minerals. Facial recognition system Facial recognition technology, widespread in China, was used at Liverpool's World Museum, during the China's First Emperor and the Terracotta Warriors exhibition. The museum claimed the scanning equipment was used on the advice of local police (Merseyside Police), not the Chinese lenders. In a statement, the director of Big Brother Watch, Silkie Carlo, said that the, “Authoritarian surveillance tool is rarely seen outside of China.” In 2019 Information Commissioner, Elizabeth Denham, launched an investigation into the use of facial recognition software in the King's Cross area of London. Notes and references External links World Museum Liverpool Planetarium A feature on the museum from Liverpool's 'Nerve' magazine 1853 establishments in England National Museums Liverpool Archaeological museums in England Natural history museums in England Planetaria in the United Kingdom Museums in Liverpool Egyptological collections in England Museums of ancient Rome in the United Kingdom Museums of ancient Greece in the United Kingdom Numismatic museums in the United Kingdom Geology museums in England Insectariums Science museums in England Museums established in 1853 Neoclassical architecture in Liverpool
610714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk%20Franklin	Kirk Franklin	Kirk Dewayne Franklin (born January 26, 1970) is an American choir director, gospel singer, dancer, songwriter, and author. He is best known for leading urban contemporary gospel choirs such as The Family, God's Property, and One Nation Crew (1NC) among many others. He has won numerous awards, including 16 Grammy Awards. Variety dubbed Franklin as a "Reigning King of Urban Gospel", and is one of the inaugural inductees into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame. Early life A native of Fort Worth, Texas, Franklin was raised by his aunt, Gertrude, having been abandoned as a baby by his mother. Gertrude recycled aluminum cans to raise money for Kirk to take piano lessons from the age of four. Kirk excelled and was able to read and write music while also playing by ear. At the age of seven, Franklin received his first contract which his aunt turned down. He did join the church choir and became music director of the Mt. Rose Baptist Church adult choir at 11 years of age. In his teenage years, Franklin rebelled against his strict religious upbringing, and in an attempt to keep him out of trouble, his grandmother arranged an audition for him at a professional youth conservatory associated with a local university. He was accepted, but later he had to deal with a girlfriend's pregnancy and his eventual expulsion from school for bad behavior. Franklin studied music with Jewell Kelly and the Singing Chaparrals at Oscar Dean Wyatt High School. He continued under her tutelage and ultimately became the pianist for the choir. When he was aged 15 he witnessed the death of a friend by shooting, after which Franklin returned to the church, where he again directed the choir. He also co-founded a gospel group The Humble Hearts, which recorded one of Franklin's compositions and got the attention of gospel music legend Milton Biggham, musical director of the Georgia Mass Choir. Impressed, Biggham enlisted him to lead the DFW Mass Choir in a recording of Franklin's song "Every Day with Jesus". This led to Biggham hiring Franklin, just 20 years old at the time, to lead the choir at the 1990 Gospel Music Workshop of America Convention, an industry gathering. Career Choirs (1992–2000) In 1992, Franklin organized "The Family", which was a 17-voice choir, formed from neighborhood friends and associates. In 1992, Vicki Mack-Lataillade, the co-founder of fledgling GospoCentric Records label, heard one of their demo tapes and was so impressed she immediately signed up Kirk & The Family to a recording contract. In 1993, the group, now known as "Kirk Franklin & The Family," released their debut album, Kirk Franklin & The Family. It spent almost two years on the gospel music charts and charted on the R&B charts, eventually earning platinum sales status. It remained at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Gospel Albums chart for 42 weeks. It was the first gospel music album to sell over a million units. Two years later, after releasing a 1995 Christmas album entitled Kirk Franklin & the Family Christmas, the group released Whatcha Lookin' 4 in 1996. The album was certified 2x platinum and earned Franklin his first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Soul Gospel Album. 1997 brought another album, a collaboration with the vocal ensemble God's Property, aptly named God's Property from Kirk Franklin's Nu Nation. The lead single, "Stomp", featuring Cheryl "Salt" James (of Salt-N-Pepa), was a big hit, enjoying heavy rotation on MTV and other music channels and charting at No. 1 on the R&B Singles Airplay chart for two weeks, even making it into the Top 40. God's Property from Kirk Franklin's Nu Nation was No. 1 on the R&B Albums chart for five weeks, No. 3 on the Pop charts, and would go on to be certified 3x platinum. It also brought Franklin another Grammy for Best Contemporary Soul Gospel Album, as well as three Grammy nominations. In 1996, Franklin's song "Joy" was recorded by Whitney Houston and the Georgia Mass Choir. With production by Houston and Mervyn Warren, the composition was included on the best-selling gospel album of all time, soundtrack to The Preacher's Wife. On November 2, 1998, God's Property sued Franklin. The lawsuit, filed in Los Angeles Superior Court, alleges that Franklin induced God's Property founder Linda Searight into signing an "onerous and one-sided" contract with B-Rite Music. The Nu Nation Project was released in 1998. The first single, "Lean on Me", produced by Franklin and pop producer Dan Shea, featured several mainstream artists, including R. Kelly, Mary J. Blige and Bono of U2 together with Crystal Lewis and The Family. "Lean on Me" and the second single "Revolution" (featuring Rodney Jerkins) were considerable hits, and the album contained a version of a Bill Withers song "Gonna Be a Lovely Day". The Nu Nation Project went on to top the Billboard Contemporary Christian Albums chart for 23 weeks and the Billboard Gospel Albums chart for 49 weeks, and brought Franklin his third Grammy. Also in 1998, Franklin had made a guest appearance on the hit television sitcom Sister, Sister. In 2000, members of The Family filed a multimillion-dollar lawsuit for royalties for their work on The Nu Nation Project against Franklin and GospoCentric Records. This saw the end of the "Kirk Franklin & The Family" records, as Kirk went on to become a solo artist, except for his CD Kirk Franklin Presents 1NC, which he did in collaboration with One Nation Crew and recording the live portion 'Rebirth' in June 2000 at Lakewood Church with The Vocals of Life which were both done that same year. On January 16, 2010 at the 25th Annual Stellar Awards show taping in Nashville, Tennessee, Kirk Franklin & The Family reunited briefly on stage to perform songs made popular by them in the 1990s. Solo artist (2001–present) In 2001, he produced the soundtrack for the film Kingdom Come. The soundtrack included gospel artists Mary Mary, Trin-i-tee 5:7, Crystal Lewis, and Franklin's group 1NC, as well as mainstream artists Az Yet, Jill Scott, Tamar Braxton, Shawn Stockman of Boyz II Men and others. The Rebirth of Kirk Franklin was released in February 2002 after Franklin worked on more songs and modified the original live recorded songs from 2000 to October 2001. It topped the Gospel Albums chart for 29 weeks, was No. 1 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and was certified Platinum. The album featured collaborations with Bishop T.D. Jakes, Shirley Caesar, Willie Neal Johnson, TobyMac, Crystal Lewis, Jaci Velasquez, Papa San, Alvin Slaughter, and Yolanda Adams. On October 4, 2005, Hero was released in the United States. The album was certified Gold on , and Platinum on , by the Recording Industry Association of America. It reached No. 1 on both the Billboard Top Christian and Top Gospel albums. The first single, "Looking for You", was a hit, as was the follow-up "Imagine Me", which made it onto the R&B charts. At the 2007 Grammy Awards, Franklin won two Grammys for Hero. Additionally, Hero was the 2007 Stellar Awards CD of the Year. Franklin's 10th album, The Fight of My Life, was released in the United States on . The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at No. 33 with 74,000 copies sold in the first week. It reached No. 1 on both the Billboard Top Gospel and Top Christian albums charts, and also peaked at No. 7 on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums Chart. The first single, "Declaration (This is It)," was released on , and peaked at No. 35 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart. The album features guest appearances from Rance Allen, Isaac Carree, TobyMac, Da' T.R.U.T.H., Doug Williams (singer) and Melvin Williams (singer). The song "Jesus" was released as the album's second single in 2008 and was sent to Urban AC radio on July 15, 2008. In January 2010, after Haiti had a devastating earthquake, Franklin got an ensemble of gospel artists together to sing the song he wrote, called "Are You Listening". They included Yolanda Adams, Jeremy Camp, Shirley Caesar, Dorinda Clark-Cole, Natalie Grant, Fred Hammond, Tamela Mann, David Mann, Mary Mary, Donnie McClurkin, Bishop Paul S. Morton, J. Moss, Smokie Norful, Marvin Sapp, Karen Clark-Sheard, Kierra Sheard, BeBe Winans, CeCe Winans, and Marvin Winans. In 2005, Franklin appeared with his wife on The Oprah Winfrey Show to discuss how he ended his pornography addiction. In 2010, he published The Blueprint: A Plan for Living Above Life's Storms, a book in which he recounts the family difficulties experienced during his childhood, and how he got out of a sexually active life and an addiction to pornography. Franklin served as the host and co-executive producer of the BET original series Sunday Best and the musical co-host of GSN's The American Bible Challenge with Jeff Foxworthy. Franklin's 11th studio album called Hello Fear was released on March 22, 2011. The album features Marvin Sapp, Mali Music, Marvin Winans, John P. Kee, and Rance Allen. The first single, "I Smile", peaked at No. 85 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it his first appearance on that chart in six years. In 2013, Franklin started his own record label imprint, Fo Yo Soul Recordings, which is in association with RCA Records, and he has signed acts such as The Walls Group and artists like Tasha Page-Lockhart. These two artists received ten Stellar Award nominations at the 30th Stellar Awards. The Walls Group won seven awards, while Page-Lockhart won three of her own, and Franklin won two more for his label. In September 2015, Franklin announced his 12th studio album, Losing My Religion, and the album was released on November 13, 2015. The first single off the album, "Wanna Be Happy?", was released on August 28, 2015. It was at this point that Vinson Cunningham referred to him as a hype man when writing for the New Yorker. Franklin contributed to Tori Kelly's Hiding Place album, released September 14, 2018. They had intended to collaborate on one song, but it turned into a larger project. On January 25, 2019, Franklin released his new single "Love Theory" and official music video for the song. "Love Theory" is the first single from his 13th studio album, Long Live Love. Franklin released his second single, "Just for Me", in April 2019. His third single, "OK", was released in May 2019. Long Live Love was released on May 31. In February 2019, it was announced that BET's gospel music reality singing competition, Sunday Best would return from a four-year hiatus. Franklin will reprise his role as host. After Trinity Broadcasting Network aired the 2019 GMA Dove Awards on October 20, 2019, Franklin commented that his acceptance speech was edited to remove comments he made in relation to the killing of Atatiana Jefferson by a police officer. He stated that he was boycotting the award show going forward as it was not the first time they had edited his acceptance speech to remove "reflections on police violence against Black Americans". GMA president, Jackie Patillo, apologized to Franklin and GMA made an unedited version of the speech available but stated that it was an unintentional action and that they were attempting to reduce the running time to meet a two-hour time-slot. Several other artists supported Franklin's boycott. In 2021, he was among the inaugural inductees into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame. On May 21, 2021, Franklin and American rapper Lil Baby released the song "We Win" for the soundtrack to the 2021 film Space Jam: A New Legacy. Personal life On January 20, 1996, Franklin married long-time friend Tammy Collins. When they wed, they each had one child from previous relationships. As a couple, they have two children together. Carrington became engaged to Maxx Nakwaasah in October 2015. In March 2021, Franklin's oldest son, Kerrion, released an audio recording of a private conversation between him and his father in which both can be heard using profanities. Franklin subsequently apologized to his fans and followers. Discography Kirk Franklin & The Family Kirk Franklin & The Family (1993) Kirk Franklin & the Family Christmas (1995) Whatcha Lookin' 4 (1996) Kirk Franklin's Nu Nation God's Property from Kirk Franklin's Nu Nation (1997) The Nu Nation Project (1998) Kirk Franklin and 1 Nation Crew Kirk Franklin Presents 1NC (2000) Kirk Franklin The Rebirth of Kirk Franklin (2002) Hero (2005) The Fight of My Life (2007) Hello Fear (2011) Losing My Religion (2015) Long, Live, Love (2019) Awards Franklin has received many awards, including Grammy Awards, GMA Dove Awards, BET Awards, Soul Train Music Awards and Stellar Awards. He received 16 Grammys and 22 Dove Awards. References Further reading External links Another Kirk Franklin's Biography Fo Yo Soul Recordings profile Kirk Franklin 2016 Radio Interview at Soulinterviews.com 1970 births Living people 20th-century American musicians 20th-century Christians 21st-century American musicians 21st-century Christians African-American Christians American evangelicals American performers of Christian hip hop music Performers of Christian contemporary R&B music GospoCentric artists Grammy Award winners Interscope Records artists Musicians from Texas People from Fort Worth, Texas 20th-century African-American musicians 21st-century African-American musicians
621915	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knighton%2C%20Powys	Knighton, Powys	Knighton ( or ) is a border market town and community in Powys, Wales and Shropshire, England, on the River Teme. It lies on the England–Wales border. The Teme is not navigable in its higher reaches and the border does not follow its course exactly. Originally an Anglo-Saxon settlement, Knighton is located on Offa's Dyke, the ancient earthwork that divided the two countries. It later became a Norman defensive border town. Toponymy The Welsh name, Tref-y-clawdd, meaning and referring to "town on the dyke", was first recorded in 1262 and officially given to the town in 1971. The name Knighton probably derives from the Old English cniht (a soldier, thane or freeman) and tūn (farm, settlement or homestead), and may have been founded through a grant of land to freemen. History Knighton's earliest history is obscure, despite some local clues: Caer Caradoc (an Iron Age hill fort associated with Caradoc or Caractacus) is away, off the road to Clun. Watling Street, a Roman road, passes a few miles to the east at Leintwardine. Any settlements in the Knighton area would have belonged to the Iron Age kingdom of Cornovii, which coincided with the modern counties of Cheshire, Shropshire, North Staffordshire, North Herefordshire, and parts of Powys and Worcestershire. Knighton includes a preserved section of Offa's Dyke. The parallel Wat's Dyke a few miles to the east, runs north and south along the English/Welsh border from Basingwerk near Holywell to Oswestry. Dykes aside, two Norman castles, earthen mottes, likely to be from 12th and 13th centuries, are the oldest surviving structures in modern Knighton. There is disagreement about the chronology of the two castles, although the earlier is likely to be the one above the town in Castle Road, with its more defensible position, wider panorama and clear evidence of a bailey. The first castle built here would also have overlooked the market place in Market Street and the town planned between Broad Street and St Edwards Church. The town became a borough in 1203, with a charter permitting a weekly market and annual fair. The presence of two castles within a comparatively small town suggests that one (the earlier motte and bailey sited atop the town) went out of use before the establishment of the second (the motte with no bailey at Bryn y Castell). As Knighton Castle was captured and destroyed by Llywellyn ap Gruffudd in 1262, it seems likely that the second, later castle at Bryn y Castell was undertaken after that and was likely sited on lower ground so as to guard the crossing point of the River Teme. Bryn y Castell, as the one surviving castle in Knighton by then, was besieged by Owain Glyndŵr in 1402 and destroyed along with much of the town. The major battle of the rebellion was fought in the same year at Pilleth (Welsh: Bryn Glas) , south of the town. Though documents pertaining to the defence of Knighton during the Glyndwr rebellion state that Knighton had stout and defensible walls, no historical, archaeological or topographic evidence for a town wall, even of timber, has been found. So it is thought more likely that the statement referred to the castle walls, rather than the town. The town church dates from the 11th century, but much of it was rebuilt in the 19th century. It is one of only two in Wales dedicated to St Edward, patron saint of England before St George was chosen. This English dedication is a symptom of the dual English/Welsh nature of the town, which was not legally resolved until 1535, when Knighton was finally confirmed as part of Wales by the Acts of Union. Knighton also has a Baptist chapel and a small Catholic church. Knighton first prospered as a centre of the wool trade in the 15th century and was later an important point on the two drover routes from Montgomery to Hereford, and from London to Aberystwyth. Otherwise, Knighton was remote from centres of commerce. It seemed likely that the railways would also fail to reach the town; the 1840s and 1850s saw rapid railway building right across Great Britain, but Radnorshire had a small population and little industry. Construction of a railway was made economically just viable by an entrepreneurial drive to connect the Mumbles and Milford Haven with the cities and factories of the industrial Midlands. The Knighton Railway Company was formed by local landowners and businessmen to build a line from Craven Arms to the town. Work began in August 1858 and the line reached Knighton in March 1861. The station itself ensued in 1865. To mark the accession of H. M. Queen Elizabeth II in 1953, the initials "ER" were planted in deciduous trees in an evergreen forest on a hill to the north of the town. In August 1970, Knighton hosted a rock festival with bands such as The Move, along with Pete Brown & Piblokto, Roger Bunn, Forever More, Clark-Hutchinson, James Litherland's Brotherhood (James was originally part of Colosseum) and Killing Floor. The compères were radio DJ Pete Drummond and local resident and bluesman Alexis Korner, who also performed. Governance Politics After the Acts of Union, Knighton belonged for nearly 450 years to the traditional County of Radnorshire. This, like several other counties, ceased to exist in 1974, being merged into the county of Powys. The town council of 13 councillors elects once a year a largely ceremonial mayor. Real municipal authority lies with Powys County Council. Knighton electoral ward was represented by two county councillors on Powys County Council until 1999, then only one. These have been Independent councillors or Liberal Democrats. Since May 2017 it has been represented by the Independent Ange Williams. Above the county council, the Senedd Cymru – Welsh Parliament forms the next tier of government. Knighton falls within the Westminster constituency of Brecon and Radnorshire, currently held by Fay Jones of the Welsh Conservative Party. Until Brexit, Wales formed one large Wales European Parliamentary constituency. Knighton belongs to the Welsh Parliament constituency of Brecon and Radnorshire, represented by Kirsty Williams, a Welsh Liberal Democrat. The town returns one councillor to Powys County Council, currently Peter Medlicott. English part The few roads and houses that lie across the border in England belong to the civil parish of Stowe, Shropshire. They form part of the Westminster constituency of Ludlow, where the current MP is Philip Dunne, a Conservative. Before Brexit they lay in the European Parliamentary Constituency of West Midlands (European Parliament constituency). Public services Knighton has a fire station served by a part-time crew and part of the Mid and West Wales Fire and Rescue Service. The local police force is Dyfed-Powys Police, but the town has no police station. Knighton Hospital in Ffrydd Road occupies the site of the old workhouse and uses some of its former buildings. It has maternity facilities, but no accident and emergency capability. Primary care is provided by a GP practice and a Boots pharmacy. Social housing is largely provided by two housing associations, one in Wales (Mid Wales Housing Association) and another in England (South Shropshire Housing Association). Twinning Knighton has been twinned with the small Breton town of Varades since August 2009. Demography Statistics confirm Knighton's slow growth since the early 19th century. The population was estimated in 2019 at 2,912. The 2001 Census provides a snapshot of Knighton today and allows comparisons with the county and Wales as a whole. Knightonians are less likely to describe their identity as Welsh than inhabitants of other parts of Wales. It is also more homogenous and enjoys higher employment rates. Culture Attractions The town includes visible remains of two early castle mottes, one at Bryn-y-Castell and the other hidden behind the fire station and in a private garden. The Clock Tower was built in 1872 and is similar to those in Rhayader, Hay on Wye and Machynlleth. On the last Saturday in August the town normally holds an annual Carnival and Show, which attracts visitors from around the world, though it did not take place in 2020 due to COVID-19. Its two parades, one at midday and another around 8 pm, consist of various themed carnival floats with people in fancy dress. The show takes place at the town's showground at Bryn-y-Castell, which is also home to Knighton Town F.C., Knighton Cricket Club and Knighton Hockey Club. Just outside Knighton and visible for many miles is an observatory with a telescope, Europe's largest camera obscura, and a planetarium. This is part of the Spaceguard UK project, which searches for asteroids. Knighton Community Centre is the town's largest venue for discos, performances, wrestling, bands, artists, and local clubs and organisations. Knighton includes two National Trails: Glyndŵr's Way and Offa's Dyke Path. The Offa's Dyke Association has a visitors' centre in the town alongside the site of the ceremony at which John Hunt, Baron Hunt of Llanfair Waterdine inaugurated the long-distance footpath system in 1971. Much of the route is a bridle path as well as a footpath, with even some vehicles allowed to use it. It is a walk recommended by the Daily Telegraph. The Jack Mytton Way passes nearby and another Wat's Dyke Way was proposed. Cultural references Knighton has featured in two major films. Gone to Earth, released in 1950 and directed by Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger, used the nearby location of Pentre, New Invention. Second Best, released in 1994 and starring William Hurt, was filmed partly in Knighton. The Oscar-winning actor Julie Christie lived nearby in the 1970s. The actor Richard Thorp, famous as the tubby former publican Alan Turner in Emmerdale, lived at Skyborry. Knighton is mentioned in A Shropshire Lad by A. E. Housman: Bruce Chatwin was inspired to write a novel, On the Black Hill, by a hill of that name just north of the town, on the road to Clun. He stayed nearby in Purslow with friends in the 1970s. On a less literary note, Guy N. Smith's book Knighton Vampires is based locally. The musician, songwriter, historian, and broadcaster Alexis Korner also lived nearby in the 1970s. Sport Knighton has rugby, cricket, football and hockey teams. It has a nine-hole golf course, designed by Harry Vardon in 1906. Knighton Town F.C. plays in the Mid Wales League and for the Aspidistra Radnorshire Cup. Arthur Rowley, brother of England international Jack Rowley, managed the team. Knighton has a swimming pool and leisure centre. In July 2009, Knighton hosted Round 2 of the British Enduro Championship. The Tour of Britain cycle race passed through Knighton in 2014. Notable residents In birth order: Alfred Edwards (1850–1923), businessman, was with Herbert Kilpin one of the charter members of the Italian club A.C. Milan, originally named Milan Foot-Ball and Cricket Club. He was also elected its first president. Kenneth Turpin (1915–2005), a former Provost of Oriel College, Oxford and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Oxford, retired to the town. Saxophonist and composer Dick Heckstall-Smith (1934–2004) was raised near the town. Emma, Duchess of Rutland (born 1963), estranged wife of the 11th Duke of Rutland and châtelain of Belvoir Castle, was born and raised locally. Her maiden name was Emma Watkins. Ed James (born 1976) was born in Knighton. He has been Chairman of Birmingham Press Club since 2012 and a radio presenter of Heart West Midlands. Chaz Davies (born 1987), motorcycle racer, was born in Knighton. He was the 2011 World Supersport champion. Economy The town's shops serve a large rural hinterland and employ 18 per cent of the active population – almost as many as manufacturing, at 18.81 per cent. Otherwise Knighton has little industry. Most young people leave after completing their education. Tourism is a crucial area hit hard by the foot and mouth epidemic of 2001. Although wages are low and over 20 per cent of families have no car, Knighton has an unemployment rate (2001) of just 2.88 per cent. Responsibility for economic development lies with the Welsh Assembly Government. The town's remoteness means it has few commuters. Most of the employed (69.45 per cent in 2001) work within a area. Education Knighton has a primary school, but for state secondary education pupils travel by bus to John Beddoes School in Presteigne. Until 1974 Knighton had a secondary modern school, on the site of the current primary school. Knighton Church in Wales Primary School (until 1998 Knighton Voluntary Primary School) had 299 pupils in 2008. In its most recent Estyn inspection it was graded Good or Satisfactory, the inspectors being largely positive, but critical of "low expectations". Geography Location Knighton is from the UK capital city, London, from the Welsh capital of Cardiff, and from the county town, Llandrindod Wells. For the smaller part of Knighton that lies in Shropshire, the unitary authority administrative centre, and county town of Shrewsbury is away. The town is remote, but connected with the following towns and villages. Geology and geomorphology Knighton is at , in a sparsely populated tract of mid-Wales and the English border marked by a hilly plateau cut by narrow river valleys with a broadly east–west axis. To the west, ground rises steeply towards Radnor Forest, and to the north more gently to the summit of Clun Forest. Turning east, the elevation falls gently to the Shropshire Plain. To the south of the town stands Llan Wen hill. The town centre lies some above sea level, although the surrounding hills – Bailey Hill is the highest – rise to . The only major river is the River Teme. According to Samuel Lewis (a mid 19th-century visitor): Knighton rests on Ludlovian rocks of the Silurian Period. It was close to the southern edge of the ice-sheet during the last ice age. Climate The average temperature and rainfall figures, taken between 1971 and 2000 at the Met Office weather station in Shawbury, can be seen on that page. Though away, Shawbury is the nearest recording station and has a similar climate. Knighton is in the rain shadow of the Cambrian Mountains, making it slightly warmer and notably drier than the average for Wales. On 18 August 2004, fish fell from the sky in one of the most recent instances of raining animals within the United Kingdom. Transport Knighton is about midway between Shrewsbury and Hereford, at the junction of the A4113 and the A488 road. Local bus services are limited and subsidised. Knighton railway station is on the Heart of Wales Line. Transport for Wales Rail provides direct trains to Shrewsbury and to Swansea via Llandrindod. The station itself is just inside Shropshire, England. The nearest international airport is at Birmingham. Light aircraft can fly from Welshpool Airport and Shobdon Aerodrome. See also References External links The town in Victorian times Local Chamber of Trade Offa's Dyke Association BBC local page Aerial photograph of Knighton looking west – east Photos of Knighton on Geograph Towns in Powys Communities in Powys Towns of the Welsh Marches Market towns in Wales Wards of Powys
624896	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Titfield%20Thunderbolt	The Titfield Thunderbolt	The Titfield Thunderbolt is a 1953 British comedy film directed by Charles Crichton and starring Stanley Holloway, Naunton Wayne, George Relph and John Gregson. The screenplay concerns a group of villagers trying to keep their branch line operating after British Railways decided to close it. The film was written by T.E.B. Clarke and was inspired by the restoration of the narrow gauge Talyllyn Railway in Wales, the world's first heritage railway run by volunteers. "Titfield" is an amalgamation of the names Titsey and Limpsfield, two villages in Surrey near Clarke's home at Oxted. Michael Truman was the producer. The film was produced by Ealing Studios and was the first of its comedies shot in Technicolour. There was considerable inspiration from the book Railway Adventure by established railway book author L.T.C. Rolt, published in 1953. Rolt had acted as honorary manager for the volunteer enthusiasts running the Talyllyn Railway for the two years 1951–52. According to British rail enthusiast and film historian John Huntley's book Railways in the Cinema (published by Ian Allan in 1969), T.E.B. Clarke actually visited the Talyllyn Railway in 1951 and spent two days learning about the tribulations faced by its volunteers. A number of scenes in the film, such as the emergency re-supply of water to the locomotive by buckets from an adjacent stream, or passengers being asked to assist in pushing the carriages, were taken from incidents on the Talyllyn Railway recounted in Railway Adventure. Plot The residents of the village of Titfield are shocked to learn that their railway branch line to the town of Mallingford is to be closed. Sam Weech, the local vicar and a railway enthusiast, and Gordon Chesterford, the village squire, decide to take over the line by setting up a company through a Light Railway Order. Upon securing financial backing from Walter Valentine, a wealthy man with a fondness for daily drinking, the men learn that the Ministry of Transport will give them a month's trial period, in which they must pass an inspection at the end of this period to make the Order permanent. While Weech is helped by Chesterford and retired track layer Dan Taylor in running the train, volunteers from the village help to operate the station. Bus operators Alec Pearce and Vernon Crump, who bitterly oppose the idea and wish to set up a bus line between Titfield and Mallingford, attempt to sabotage the men's plans. Aided by Harry Hawkins, a steam roller operator who hates the railway, Crump and Pearce attempt to block the line on its first run and sabotage the line's water tower, but are thwarted by Weech and the line's supportive passengers. After Chesterford refuses to accept a merger offer from them, Crump and Pearce hire Hawkins to help them derail the steam locomotive and passenger coach entitled to the villagers by British Railways, the night before the line's inspection. Blakeworth, the village's solicitor, is mistakenly arrested for this, despite trying to stop the attempt, while the villagers become disheartened that their line will now close without any rolling stock and a working steam locomotive. Valentine visits Taylor, who suggests that they borrow a locomotive from Mallingford's rail yards. Despite being both drunk, they manage to acquire one, but accidentally crash it after they're spotted taking it. Both men are promptly arrested by the police as a result. Meanwhile, Weech is inspired by a picture of the line's first locomotive, the Thunderbolt, which is now housed in the Mallingford's Town Hall museum. Upon securing Blakeworth's release, he helps them to acquire the locomotive for the branch line. To complete their new train, the villagers use Taylor's home, an old railway carriage body, hastily strapped to a flat wagon. In the morning, Pearce and Crump drive to the village to prepare to take passengers, but are shocked to see the train waiting at the station. Distracted from his driving, Pearce crashes the bus into the police van transporting Valentine and Taylor, and when Crump lets slip that they have been involved in sabotaging the line they are promptly arrested. With Taylor arrested, Weech takes help from Ollie Matthews, a fellow railway devotee and the Bishop of Welchester, in running the Thunderbolt for the inspection run. The train departs Titfield late because the police demand transport to Mallingford for them and the arrested men. Despite a mishap with the coupling, the villagers help the train complete its run to Mallingford. Upon arriving, Weech learns that the line passed every requirement for the Light Railway Order, but barely. In fact, had they been any faster, their application would have been rejected. Cast Stanley Holloway as Walter Valentine George Relph as Vicar Sam Weech Naunton Wayne as George Blakeworth John Gregson as Squire Gordon Chesterford Godfrey Tearle as Ollie Matthews, the Bishop of Welchester Hugh Griffith as Dan Taylor Gabrielle Brune as Joan Hampton Sid James as Harry Hawkins Reginald Beckwith as Coggett Edie Martin as Emily Michael Trubshawe as Ruddock Jack MacGowran as Vernon Crump Ewan Roberts as Alec Pearce Herbert C. Walton as Seth John Rudling as Clegg Nancy O'Neil as Mrs Blakeworth Campbell Singer as Police Sergeant Frank Atkinson as Station Sergeant Wensley Pithey as Policeman Driver Ted Burbidge, fireman Frank Green and guard Harold Alford were not actors but British Railways employees from the Westbury depot, located on the former-Great Western Railway main line from London to Bristol. Originally they were provided only to operate the locomotives employed in the film on location but, when Charles Crichton talked to them and realised they "looked and sounded the part", they were given speaking roles and duly credited. When interviewed for an article in Railway World, T.E.B. Clarke revealed that he based Mr. Valentine on an elderly gentleman that he remembered in the hotel bar while on a holiday. Production As related in an article focused on the production published in the March 1953 edition of The Railway Magazine, the script requirements called for several weeks' filming (in 1952) on a suitable single-track railway line passing through attractive scenery, complete with a main line junction, a level crossing, and a pleasant branch line terminus station. Assistance was provided by the Railway Executive in charge of British Railways, and a number of branch lines were examined in pre-production, including the Kelvedon and Tollesbury Light Railway, the Mid-Suffolk Light Railway, the Kent & East Sussex Railway and the Lambourn Valley Railway. Shooting was largely carried out near Bath, Somerset, on the Camerton branch of the Bristol and North Somerset Railway, along the Cam Brook valley between Camerton and . The branch had closed to all traffic on 15 February 1951, but was reopened for filming. Titfield railway station was in reality Monkton Combe railway station, whilst Titfield village was nearby Freshford, with other scenes being shot at the disused Dunkerton Colliery. Mallingford railway station in the closing scene was Bristol Temple Meads railway station. The opening scene shows Midford Viaduct on the Somerset & Dorset Joint Railway, where the branch line passed underneath. The scene of the Squire attempting to overtake Harry Hawkins' steam roller was filmed in Carlingcott. The scene where a replacement locomotive is 'stolen' used a wooden mock-up 'locomotive' mounted on a lorry chassis: the rubber tyres can (just) be spotted between the locomotive's driving wheels. The scene was jointly filmed in the Oxfordshire market town of Woodstock and in Richmond Park, London, but the lead-in scene with the turntable was filmed at Oxford locomotive depot with a real engine. The earlier scene of GWR 1400 Class No. 1401 crashing and getting wrecked as it heads down an embankment used realistic scale models filmed on a set at Ealing Studios. The Thunderbolt itself was represented by an actual antique museum resident, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway locomotive Lion, built in 1838 and so at the time 114 years old. It was repainted in a colourful red and green livery to suit the Technicolor process and ran under its own power in the film. In the scene in which the Thunderbolt is "rear-ended" by the uncoupled train, the locomotive's tender sustained some actual damage, which remains visible beneath the buffer beam to this day. The scene where Thunderbolt is removed at night from its museum was filmed in the (now demolished) Imperial Institute building near the Royal Albert Hall in London, but shots were created using a studio-built model for this. Release The film had its gala premiere at Leicester Square Theatre in London on 5 March 1953, as part of the British Film Academy's award ceremony, before going on general release from the 6th. Critical reception The British Film Institute's Monthly Film Bulletin for April 1953 found the script 'disconcertingly short on wit, and some of its invention seems forced.' The film has become compared unfavourably with other Ealing comedies. Ivan Butler in his Cinema in Britain called it 'A minor Ealing perhaps even a little tired towards the evening of their long comedy day but a very pleasant sunset for all that.' George Perry in his history of the Ealing Studios, Forever Ealing, compared it to Whisky Galore and Passport to Pimlico, as this film shares "the theme of the small group pitted against and universally triumphing over the superior odds of a more powerful opponent.' But, quoting a location report by Hugh Samson of Picturegoer, he suggests there was a lack of sympathy for the subject: "Odd point about this railway location: not a single railway enthusiast to be found in the whole crew. T.E.B.'Tibby' Clarke, writer of the script, loathes trains. Producer Michael Truman can't get out of them fast enough. And director Crichton - well, you wouldn't find him taking engine numbers at Paddington Station." Charles Barr in Ealing Studios felt that the film did not identify with audiences who, for instance in Passport to Pimlico, were yearning for the end of rationing; "There is no grasp of a living community, or of the relevance of the train to people's daily needs." Ealing Studios head Sir Michael Balcon expressed dissatisfaction with the end result, believing that it didn't quite match up to what had been written in the script. References Sources Further reading External links The Titfield Thunderbolt Filming Locations http://www.lionlocomotive.org.uk/ Lion, an interesting 'Old Locomotive', probably best known as taking a starring part in the film Titfield Thunderbolt 1953 films 1953 comedy films British films British comedy films English-language films Fictional locomotives Rail transport films Films directed by Charles Crichton Films with screenplays by T. E. B. Clarke Films scored by Georges Auric Ealing Studios films
638709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Island%20of%20Doctor%20Moreau	The Island of Doctor Moreau	The Island of Doctor Moreau is an 1896 science fiction novel by English author H. G. Wells (1866–1946). The text of the novel is the narration of Edward Prendick who is a shipwrecked man rescued by a passing boat. He is left on the island home of Doctor Moreau, a mad scientist who creates human-like hybrid beings from animals via vivisection. The novel deals with a number of philosophical themes, including pain and cruelty, moral responsibility, human identity, and human interference with nature. Wells described it as "an exercise in youthful blasphemy." The Island of Doctor Moreau is a classic work of early science fiction and remains one of Wells's best-known books. The novel is the earliest depiction of the science fiction motif "uplift" in which a more advanced race intervenes in the evolution of an animal species to bring the latter to a higher level of intelligence. It has been adapted to film and other media on many occasions. Plot Edward Prendick is an Englishman with a scientific education who survives a shipwreck in the southern Pacific Ocean. A passing ship called Ipecacuanha takes him aboard and a man named Montgomery revives him. Prendick also meets a grotesque bestial native named M'ling who appears to be Montgomery's manservant. The ship is transporting a number of animals which belong to Montgomery. As they approach the island which is Montgomery's destination, the captain demands Prendick leave the ship with Montgomery. Montgomery explains that he will not be able to host Prendick on the island. Despite this, the captain leaves Prendick in a dinghy and sails away. Seeing that the captain has abandoned Prendick, Montgomery takes pity and rescues him. As ships rarely pass the island, Prendick will be housed in an outer room of an enclosed compound. The island belongs to Dr. Moreau. Prendick remembers that he has heard of Moreau, formerly an eminent physiologist in London whose gruesome experiments in vivisection had been publicly exposed, and who fled England as a result of his exposure. The next day, Moreau begins working on a puma. Prendick gathers that Moreau is performing a painful experiment on the animal and its anguished cries drive Prendick out into the jungle. While he wanders, he comes upon a group of people who seem human but have an unmistakable resemblance to swine. As he walks back to the enclosure, he suddenly realises he is being followed by a figure in the jungle. He panics and flees, and the figure gives chase. As his pursuer bears down on him, Prendick manages to stun him with a stone and observes that the pursuer is a monstrous hybrid of animal and man. When Prendick returns to the enclosure and questions Montgomery, Montgomery refuses to be open with him. After failing to get an explanation, Prendick finally gives in and takes a sleeping draught. Prendick awakes the next morning with the previous night's activities fresh in his mind. Seeing that the door to Moreau's operating room has been left unlocked, he walks in to find a humanoid form lying in bandages on the table before he is ejected by a shocked and angry Moreau. He believes that Moreau has been vivisecting humans and that he is the next test subject. He flees into the jungle where he meets an Ape-Man who takes him to a colony of similarly half-human/half-animal creatures. Their leader is a large grey unspecified creature named the Sayer of the Law who has him recite a strange litany called the Law that involves prohibitions against bestial behavior and praise for Moreau. Suddenly, Dr. Moreau bursts into the colony looking for Prendick, but Prendick escapes to the jungle. He makes for the ocean where he plans to drown himself rather than allow Moreau to experiment on him. Moreau explains that the creatures called the Beast Folk were not formerly men, but rather animals. Prendick returns to the enclosure where Moreau explains that he has been on the island for eleven years and has been striving to make a complete transformation of an animal to a human. He explains that while he is getting closer to perfection, his subjects have a habit of reverting to their animal form and behaviour. Moreau regards the pain he inflicts as insignificant and an unavoidable side effect in the name of his scientific experiments. He also states that pain is an animalistic instinct that one who is truly human cannot have, cutting his thigh with a penknife with no apparent reaction, to further prove his point. One day, Prendick and Montgomery encounter a half-eaten rabbit. Since eating flesh and tasting blood are strong prohibitions, Dr. Moreau calls an assembly of the Beast Folk and identifies the Leopard-Man (the same one that chased Prendick the first time he wandered into the jungle) as the transgressor. Knowing that he will be sent back to Dr. Moreau's compound for more painful sessions of vivisection, the Leopard-Man flees. Eventually, the group corners him in some undergrowth, but Prendick takes pity and shoots him to spare him from further suffering. Prendick also believes that although the Leopard-Man was seen breaking several laws, such as drinking water bent down like an animal, chasing men (Prendick), and running on all fours, the Leopard-Man was not solely responsible for the deaths of the rabbits. It was also the Hyena-Swine, the next most dangerous Beast Man on the island. Dr. Moreau is furious that Prendick killed the Leopard-Man but can do nothing about the situation. As time passes, Prendick becomes inured to the grotesqueness of the Beast Folk. However one day, the half-finished puma woman rips free of her restraints and escapes from the lab. Dr. Moreau pursues her, but the two end up fighting each other, leading to their mutual deaths. Montgomery breaks down and decides to share his alcohol with the Beast Folk. Prendick resolves to leave the island, but later hears a commotion outside in which Montgomery, his servant M'ling, and the Sayer of the Law die after a scuffle with the Beast Folk. At the same time, the compound burns down because Prendick has knocked over a lamp. With no chance of saving any of the provisions stored in the enclosure, Prendick realizes that Montgomery has also destroyed the only boats on the island during the night. Prendick lives with the Beast Folk on the island for months after the deaths of Moreau and Montgomery. As the time goes by, the Beast Folk increasingly revert to their original animal instincts, beginning to hunt the island's rabbits, returning to walking on all fours, and leaving their shared living areas for the wild. They cease to follow Prendick's instructions. Eventually the Hyena-Swine kills Prendick's faithful companion, the Dog-Man created from a St. Bernard. With help from the Sloth Creature, Prendick shoots the Hyena-Swine in self-defence. Prendick's efforts to build a raft have been unsuccessful. Luckily for him, a lifeboat that carries two corpses drifts onto the beach (perhaps the captain of the ship that picked Prendick up and a sailor). Prendick uses the boat to leave the island and is picked up three days later. When he tells his story, he is thought to be mad. So he feigns amnesia. Upon his return to England, Prendick is no longer comfortable in the presence of humans, all of whom seem to him to be about to revert to an animal state. He leaves London and lives in near-solitude in the countryside, devoting himself to chemistry and astronomy in the studies of which he finds some peace. Main characters Humans Edward Prendick – The narrator and protagonist. Dr. Moreau – A vivisectionist who has fled upon his experiments being exposed and has moved to a remote island in the Pacific Ocean to pursue his research of perfecting his Beast Folk. Montgomery – Dr. Moreau's assistant and Prendick's rescuer. A medical doctor who enjoyed a measure of happiness in England, he is an alcoholic who feels some sympathy for the Beast Folk. Beast Folk The Beast Folk are animals which Moreau has experimented upon, giving them human traits via vivisection for which the surgery is extremely painful. They include: M'ling – Montgomery's servant who does the cooking and cleaning. Moreau combined a bear, a dog, and an ox to create him. As Prendick describes M'ling, he states that M'ling is a "complex trophy of Moreau's skill, a bear, tainted with dog and ox, and one of the most elaborately made of all the creatures". He has glowing eyes and furry ears. M'ling later dies protecting Montgomery from the other Beast Folk on the beach. Sayer of the Law – A large, grey-haired animal of unspecified combinations that recites Dr. Moreau's teachings about being men to the other Beast Folk. The Sayer of the Law serves as a governor and a priest to the Beast Folk. He is later killed in an unseen scuffle between Montgomery, M'ling, and the Beast Folk. Ape-Man – A monkey or ape creature that considers himself equal to Prendick and refers to himself and Prendick as "Five Men", because they both have five fingers on each hand, which is uncommon among the Beast Folk. He is the first Beast Man other than M'ling to whom Prendick speaks. He has what he refers to as "Big Thinks" which on his return to England, Prendick likens to a priest's sermon at the pulpit. Sloth Creature – A small, pink sloth-based creation described by Prendick as resembling a flayed child. He is one of the more relatively benign creatures and helps Prendick kill the Hyena-Swine before fully regressing. Hyena-Swine – A carnivorous hybrid of hyena and pig who becomes Prendick's enemy in the wake of Dr. Moreau's death. He is later killed by Prendick in self-defence. Leopard-Man – A leopard-based rebel who breaks the Law by running on all fours, drinking from the stream, and chasing Prendick. The Leopard-Man is killed by Prendick to spare him further pain, much to the dismay of Dr. Moreau. Ox-Men – A group of gray ox-based creatures who appear twice, first when Prendrick is introduced to the Beast Folk and then again after Montgomery's death. Satyr-Man – A hybrid of a goat and an ape. Prendrick describes him as unsettling and "Satanic" in form. Swine-Men and Swine-Woman – A group of pig-based Beast Folk who appear during Prendrick's introduction to the Beast Folk. Mare-Rhinoceros Creature – A hybrid between a horse and a rhinoceros who appeared during Prendrick's introduction to the Beast Folk. Wolf-Men and Wolf-Women – A group of wolf-based Beast Folk who appear during Prendrick's introduction to the Beast Folk. Bear-Bull Man - A hybrid of a bear and a cattle who appeared during Pendrick's introduction to the Beast Folk. Dog-Man – A Beast Man created from a St. Bernard who, near the end of the book, becomes Prendick's faithful companion. He is so like a domestic dog in character that Prendick is barely surprised when he reverts to a more animalistic form. The Dog-Man is later killed by the Hyena-Swine. Fox-Bear Woman – A female hybrid of a fox and a bear who passionately supports the Law. Prendick quickly takes a dislike to her and described her as being evil-smelling. Wolf-Bear Man - A hybrid of a wolf and a bear who was mentioned during the hunt for the Leopard-Man as hunting his fellow Beast-Folk a wee-bit too much. Half-Finished Puma-Woman – The last beast-person created by Moreau. She is halfway through her process of being turned into one of the Beast Folk, but was in so much pain from the surgery that she uses her strength to break free of her restraints and escape. Moreau then chases after her with a revolver. He and the creature fight each other which ends in a mutual kill. Ocelot-Man – One of the smaller creatures which briefly appears after Moreau's death and is shot by Montgomery during his scuffle with the Beast Folk on the beach. Historical context At the time of the novel's publication in 1896, there was growing discussion in Europe of the possibility of the degeneration of the human race. Increasing opposition to animal vivisection led to formation of groups like the National Anti-Vivisection Society in 1875, and the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection in 1898. The Island of Dr. Moreau reflects the ethical, philosophical, and scientific concerns and controversies raised by these themes and the ideas of Darwinian evolution which were so disrupting to social norms in the late 1800s. In the introduction to the Atlantic Edition, H.G. Wells explained that the book was a reaction to the trial of Oscar Wilde and a covert condemnation of homophobia influenced by Swift. Reception The novel has been criticised as lacking a scientific basis to form the plot of the story. It has almost 5,000 reviews on Goodreads, with an average rating of 3.73 out of 5. The Island of Doctor Moreau in popular culture The novel has been adapted to films and other media on multiple occasions. In addition, the novel has influenced many fictional works. The following are some of the works which are related to the character of Dr. Moreau and his story: In literature Maurice Renard's 1908 French novel Le Docteur Lerne, sous-dieu was inspired by The Island of Doctor Moreau, and dedicated to H. G. Wells by its author. JLA: Island of Dr. Moreau (2002) is a one-shot tale where Dr. Moreau creates an animal version of the Justice League. As in the novel they start returning to their animal behavior. In Mikhail Bulgakov's novel Heart of a Dog (1925) a Moscow surgeon Dr. Preobrazhensky transplants human organs into the body of homeless dog. As a result, the animal transforms into the man, Poligraf Poligrafovich Sharikov. In the end of the novel Preobrazhensky undergoes another operation to return him to the dog's state. The title figure in Argentinian writer Adolfo Bioy Casares novel The Invention of Morel (1940), a scientific genius of questionable morality, alludes to Wells's Moreau. Moreau's Other Island (1980), by Brian Aldiss, is an updating of the original to a near-future setting. US Under-Secretary of State Calvert Madle Roberts is cast ashore on the eponymous island where he discovers the cyborgised Thalidomide victim Mortimer Dart carrying on Moreau's work. It transpires that Dart's work is intended to produce a 'replacement' race that can survive a post-nuclear environment, and that Roberts approved Dart's funding. The Madman's Daughter trilogy (2013), written by Megan Shepherd, tells the story of Dr. Moreau's daughter Juliet. However, each book is based on a different classic novel: the first book is based on this novel by Wells, the second one on Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), and the final book is based on Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818). In chapter 1 of Daniel Pinkwater's novel Lizard Music, Victor watches a late-night film on TV which is identified in chapter 2 as The Island of Dr Morbo. In chapter 61 of The Fallen (2013), book five of Charlie Higson's post-apocalyptic horror series, The Enemy, the expedition party from the museum encounters a strange set of malformed children at the biomedical company Promithios, who recite the Litany of the Law. The Isles of Dr Moreau (2015), by Heather O'Neill in her short story collection Daydreams of Angels tells of a grandfather who, when he was young, meets an eccentric, albeit humane scientist named Dr Moreau on "the Isle of Noble and Important and Respectable Betterment of Homo sapiens and Their Consorts". Moreau's experiments involve combining animal DNA with human DNA and the story unfolds as the grandfather meets (and dates) several of these humanoid creatures. Dr. Franklin's Island (2002), by Ann Halam, is a loose adaptation of the story, in which the eponymous scientist performs transgenic experiments upon the narrator and two other survivors of a plane crash, transforming them into mostly-animal hybrids. Sherlock Holmes: The Army of Dr. Moreau (2012), by Guy Adams, puts Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson on the trail of several of the hybrids on the loose in London. The Strange Case of the Alchemist's Daughter (2017) by Theodora Goss features the half-finished puma woman from The Island of Dr Moreau as one of its main characters, Catherine. In Wonder Woman (2016) Chapter 76, Greek goddess Aphrodite is reading a book with the title "The Island of Dr. Moreau" In Moon Over Soho (2011), the investigation into the Faceless Man uncovers a deserted sex parlor which the malign wizard's predecessor had operated in the 1970s. Upon learning that it'd specialized in magically-altered human "chimeras" with animalistic features, Peter nicknames it the "Strip Club of Dr. Moreau". The Daughter of Doctor Moreau (2022) by Silvia Moreno-Garcia is an upcoming novel billed as "a dreamy reimagining of The Island of Doctor Moreau set against the backdrop of nineteenth-century Mexico." In music The song Toes by the alternative band Glass Animals is based on the book's story. The music video for the song Eaten Alive by Diana Ross. The song No Spill Blood by Oingo Boingo. The song Island of Lost Souls by The Meteors. The debut studio album by the American new wave band Devo was titled Q. Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo! (1978) from a line in the litany of the Law, spoken by the Speaker of the Law to the Beast Folk. Hip Hop group House of Pain took their name from the novel. In radio David Calcutt adapted the story for a BBC Radio 4 Saturday Night Theatre dramatization in 1990, with Kenneth Colley as Montgomery, Garard Green as Moreau, Terry Molloy as M'Ling, Kim Wall as Prentice and Neal Foster as Prentice's Nephew. Jonathan Pryce read a five-part abridgment for Book at Bedtime on BBC Radio 4 in 2008. In television In Orphan Black, a BBC America science fiction thriller series, the book plays an important role beginning in the third season. An old copy of the book contains Professor Duncan's cryptic key to human cloning. The fourth season establishes an island similar to Moreau's, called Westmoreau, referred to in the series as simply "The Island of Dr. Moreau." On the island, a Dr. Moreau type figure, P.T. Westmoreland, is the reclusive head of a mysterious and powerful scientific elite who performs experiments on human subjects. Much of the fifth season is set on the island. The Simpsons annual Halloween special adapted the novel as a segment in their "Treehouse of Horror XIII" episode called "The Island of Dr. Hibbert", in which the doctor invites unsuspecting Springfield residents to his island resort, and turns them into human-animal hybrids including Homer to a walrus, Marge to a panther, Lisa to a hawk, Bart to a spider, Maggie to an giant anteater, Mr. Burns to a fox, Chief Wiggum to a pig, Groundskeeper Willie to an orangutan, Ned Flanders to a cow-centaur, and Comic Book Guy to a faun-themed parody of the Sayer of the Law. The cartoon series Spliced is a lighthearted take on the concept. The American television show South Park features a recurring character who seems to be based on the 1996 Brando portrayal of Dr. Moreau, a mad scientist who experiments on animals and is even the president of the North American Marlon Brando Lookalike Association (NAMBLA) The Courage the Cowardly Dog episode "Klub Katz" is a spoof on the novel. The Batman: The Animated Series episode "Tyger, Tyger" borrows heavily from the story where a mad scientist named Dr. Emile Dorian (voiced by Joseph Maher) creates the cat-like artificial lifeform Tyger, spliced the DNA of a human and a gorilla to create his henchman Garth, and turns Selina Kyle into an actual cat woman. The third-season Sliders episode This Slide of Paradise features an island where a scientist (played by Michael York, co-star of the 1977 movie adaptation) has created human-animal hybrids. The “Thriller Bark” story arc in the anime series One Piece draws heavily from the novel. It includes a surgeon named Dr. Hogback who disappears from the public eye and begins work on animal-human hybrid zombies as well as several characters who are direct references to the Beast Folk from the novel like Absalom who has the snout of a lion, the skin of an elephant, and the combined muscles of a bear and a gorilla. The Johnny Bravo episode "The Island of Mrs. Morceau" features a scientist named Dr. More (voiced by Jennifer Hale) who turns people into animal hybrids where she turns Johnny into a hamster hybrid. The episode "Venture Libre" of The Venture Bros. features an island that Dr. Venture visits filled with, among other strange creatures, animal-human hybrids resulting from unethical experiments performed by unscrupulous scientists. In The Mighty Boosh episode "Mutants", the zoo animals are mysteriously disappearing, and we discover that Bainbridge and Bob Fossil have been splicing the animals together in a secret lab. In the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine episode "The Begotten'", changeling policeman Odo deplores the experimental investigation of his physiology during infancy by his teacher Doctor Mora. In cinema Ile d'Epouvante (1913, The Island of Terror), a French silent film (also spelled L'Ile d'Epouvante and Isle d'epouvante). The 23-minute, two-reel film, directed by Joe Hamman in 1911 was then released in 1913. By late 1913, the film had been picked up by US distributor George Kleine and renamed The Island of Terror for its release in Chicago. Die Insel der Verschollenen (1921), a German silent adaption directed by Urban Gad. Island of Lost Souls (1932), with Charles Laughton and Bela Lugosi. In the film, Dr. Moreau creates his Beast Folk through "plastic surgery, blood transfusions, gland extracts, and ray baths". In addition, the Sayer of the Law is depicted as a wolf-like humanoid. Terror Is a Man (1959), with Francis Lederer, Greta Thyssen, and Richard Derr. This Filipino film, directed by Gerardo de Leon, was re-released in the United States years later as Blood Creature. At the age of 13, Tim Burton made an amateur adaptation on Super-8 of Wells' novel as The Island of Doctor Agor (1971). The Twilight People (1972), starring John Ashley and with an early role for Pam Grier, is Eddie Romero's version of the original story. The Island of Dr Moreau, a 1977 film with Burt Lancaster and Michael York. In this film, Dr. Moreau injects the animals with a serum containing human genetic material. The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996), a 1996 film with Marlon Brando, Val Kilmer, David Thewlis, Fairuza Balk, and Ron Perlman. In this film, Dr. Moreau introduces human DNA into the animals in his possession to make them more human. The film's version of the Sayer of the Law is depicted as a blind goat-like creature. Unlike the books and earlier films, the Sayer of the Law survives the ordeal and sees off the main protagonist. In Spy Kids 2: The Island of Lost Dreams (2002), a lunatic scientist named Romero (portrayed by Steve Buscemi) creates miniature hybrid animals on a mysterious island where technology fails to work. Unfortunately, some of them grow upon being exposed to an experimental growth formula, causing Romero to remain in his lab to avoid being eaten. These creations include Spider Monkeys (a half-monkey half-spider creature with a drider-like appearance), Slizards (a lizard with a snake head and neck), Sporks (a pig/stork variation of a flying pig), Turtleroos (a creature with the head and shell of a turtle and the body of a kangaroo), Bullfrogs (a cattle with the hindquarters of a frog), Catfish (a cat with the head and tail of a fish), Horse-Flies (a horse with the head and wings of a house fly), Sheepdogs (a sheep with the head and legs of a bulldog), and Tiger Sharks (a tiger with the head and back fin of a bull shark). After having been briefly captured by Donnagan Giggles, Romero is confronted by his creations who don't eat him as he had feared. The hybrids help thwart Donnagan's plot to use the Transmooker, where the Spork snatches it and a Slizzard eats it. The film Dr. Moreau's House of Pain (2004), made by cult horror studio Full Moon Pictures, is billed as a sequel to the novel. Christopher Lambert plays Dr. Moreau in the 2018 Italian horror film La Voce del Lupo. In gaming In the 1997 video game Fallout, a grossly mutated human by the moniker of "Master" shares similar characteristics with Doctor Moreau. Vivisector: Beast Within is a Ukrainian developed first-person shooter game released in the CIS in 2005 and later in the rest of Europe in 2006. The game is heavily inspired by the novel, originally developed as a Duke Nukem title. The video game Champions Online features Dr. Phillippe Moreau, the grandson of Dr. Henry Moreau and member of the terrorist organization VIPER (short for Venomous Imperial Party of the Eternal Reptile). Phillippe used his technology to perfect his father's work where he created the Manimals. Doctor Merlot, the main villain of the 2016 game RWBY: Grimm Eclipse, is heavily inspired by Doctor Moreau. Resident Evil Village features as one of its primary antagonists a mutant named Salvatore Moreau. In-game journal entries describe his experiments on other human subjects with the same parasitic organism that caused his grotesque transformation. Scientific plausibility In the short essay "The Limits of Individual Plasticity" (1895), H.G. Wells expounded upon his firm belief that the events depicted in The Island of Doctor Moreau are entirely possible should such vivisective experiments ever be tested outside the confines of science fiction. However, modern medicine has shown that non-human animals lack the necessary brain structure to emulate human faculties like speech. In addition, immune responses to foreign tissues make transplantation within one species very complicated, let alone between species. References Further reading Canadas, Ivan. "Going Wilde: Prendick, Montgomery and Late-Victorian Homosexuality in The Island of Doctor Moreau." JELL: Journal of the English Language and Literature Association of Korea, 56.3 (June 2010): 461–485. Hoad, Neville. “Cosmetic Surgeons of the Social: Darwin, Freud, and Wells and the Limits of Sympathy on The Island of Dr. Moreau”, in: Compassion: The Culture and Politics of an Emotion, Ed. Lauren Berlant. London & New York: Routledge, 2004. 187–217. Reed, John R., “The Vanity of Law in The Island of Doctor Moreau”, in: H. G. Wells under Revision: Proceedings of the International H. G. Wells Symposium: London, July 1986, Ed. Patrick Parrinder & Christopher Rolfe. Selinsgrove: Susquehanna UP / London and Toronto: Associated UPs, 1990. 134-44. Wells, H. G. The Island of Dr. Moreau, Ed. Steven Palmé. Dover Thrift Editions. New York: Dover Publications, 1996. Wells, H. G. The Island of Doctor Moreau: A Critical Text of the 1896 London First Edition, with Introduction and Appendices, Ed. Leon Stover. The Annotated H.G. Wells, 2. Jefferson, N.C., and London: McFarland, 1996. External links The Island of Doctor Moreau at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions) A draft of the 1996 films screenplay, dated 26 April 1994 Compares the three adaptations of the novel, focuses on the scientists and the science in the film, considering the year of the production and what was known about genes and cells at the time. Analysis of The Island of Dr. Moreau on Lit React 1896 British novels British science fiction novels 1896 science fiction novels Novels by H. G. Wells Doctor Moreau Castaways in fiction Doctor Moreau Heinemann (publisher) books Novels adapted into comics British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into plays Experimental medical treatments in fiction Science fiction novels adapted into films Moreau, Dr. Biopunk novels
642893	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metairie%20Cemetery	Metairie Cemetery	Metairie Cemetery is a cemetery in southeastern Louisiana. The name has caused some people to mistakenly presume that the cemetery is located in Metairie, Louisiana, but it is located within the New Orleans city limits, on Metairie Road (and formerly on the banks of the since filled-in Bayou Metairie). History This site was previously a horse racing track, Metairie Race Course, founded in 1838. The race track was the site of the famous Lexington-Lecomte Race, April 1, 1854, billed as the "Great States” race. Former President Millard Fillmore attended. While racing was suspended because of the American Civil War, it was used as a Confederate Camp (Camp Moore) until David Farragut took New Orleans for the Union in April 1862. Metairie Cemetery was built upon the grounds of the old Metairie Race Course after it went bankrupt. The race track, which was owned by the Metairie Jockey Club, refused membership to Charles T. Howard, a local resident who had gained his wealth by starting the first Louisiana State Lottery. After being refused membership, Howard vowed that the race course would become a cemetery. After the Civil War and Reconstruction, the track went bankrupt and Howard was able to see his curse come true. Today, Howard is buried in his tomb located on Central Avenue in the cemetery, which was built following the original oval layout of the track itself. Mr. Howard died in 1885 in Dobbs Ferry, New York when he fell from a newly purchased horse. Metairie Cemetery was previously owned and operated by Stewart Enterprises, Inc., of Jefferson, Louisiana. However, in December 2013, Service Corporation International bought Metairie Cemetery and other Stewart locations. Sights Metairie Cemetery has the largest collection of elaborate marble tombs and funeral statuary in the city. One of the most famous is the Army of Tennessee, Louisiana Division monument, a monumental tomb of Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War. The monument includes two notable works by sculptor Alexander Doyle (1857–1922): Atop the tomb is an 1877 equestrian statue of General Albert Sidney Johnston on his horse "Fire-eater", holding binoculars in his right hand. General Johnston was for a time entombed here, but the remains were later removed to Texas. To the right of the entrance to the tomb is an 1885 life size statue represents a Confederate officer about to read the roll of the dead during the American Civil War. The statue is said to be modeled after Sergeant William Brunet of the Louisiana Guard Battery, but is intended to represent all Confederate soldiers. Other notable monuments in Metairie Cemetery include: the pseudo-Egyptian pyramid; Laure Beauregard Larendon's tomb, which features Moorish details and beautiful stained glass; the former tomb of Storyville madam Josie Arlington; the Moriarty tomb with a marble monument with a height of tall, which required the construction of a temporary special spur railroad line to transport the monument's building materials to the cemetery; and the memorial of 19th-century police chief David Hennessy, whose murder sparked a riot. The initial construction of at least one of these elaborate final resting places – restaurateur Ruth Fertel's mausoleum – is estimated to have cost between $125,000 to $500,000 (in late 20th century dollars). List of notable and celebrity burials Calogero Minacore, also known as “Carlos Joseph Marcello,” reputed crime boss and leader of the New Orleans crime family from the late-1940s to the early-1980s. Silvestro Carollo, crime boss and leader of the New Orleans crime family from the 1920s to the 1940s. Algernon Sidney Badger, New Orleans government official during and after Reconstruction T. L. Bayne, first Tulane University football coach and organizer of first football game in New Orleans P. G. T. Beauregard, Confederate General, former Superintendent at West Point Tom Benson, owner of New Orleans Saints and New Orleans Pelicans John Bernecker, stunt performer Renato Cellini, operatic conductor William C. C. Claiborne, first U.S. Governor of Louisiana Marguerite Clark, stage and film actress Lewis Strong Clarke, sugar planter and Republican politician Isaac Cline was the chief meteorologist at the Galveston, Texas office of the US Weather Bureau from 1889 to 1901. In that role, he became an integral figure in the devastating Galveston Hurricane of 1900. Hamilton D. Coleman was a businessman who held Louisiana's 2nd congressional district seat from 1889 to 1891. He was the last Republican member of the U.S. House from Louisiana until 1973. Al Copeland, founder of Popeyes Louisiana Kitchen Nathaniel Cortlandt Curtis Jr., architect, founder of Curtis and Davis Architects and Engineers. Jefferson Davis was buried at Metairie Cemetery, but his remains were later moved to Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia. Dorothy Dell, film actress of the 1930s Dorothy Dix, advice columnist Charles E. Dunbar, New Orleans attorney and civil service reformer Charles E. Fenner, founder of brokerage house that became part of Merrill Lynch, Pearce, Fenner, & Smith Joachim O. Fernández, U.S. Representative from Louisiana's 1st congressional district from 1931 to 1941 Ruth U. Fertel, founder of Ruth's Chris Steak House Benjamin Flanders, Reconstruction-era state governor and New Orleans mayor Jim Garrison, New Orleans District Attorney Edward James Gay III, U.S. Senator Michael Hahn, Speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives and Governor of Louisiana William W. Heard, Governor of Louisiana from 1900 to 1904 William G. Helis Sr., American oilman, racehorse/owner breeder Andrew Higgins, inventor of the "Higgins Boat" Al Hirt, jazz trumpeter Ken Hollis, state senator from Jefferson Parish John Bell Hood, Confederate General Chapman H. Hyams, stockbroker, businessman and philanthropist John E. Jackson Sr., New Orleans lawyer and state Republican chairman from 1929 to 1934 Grace King, author Richard W. Leche, Governor of Louisiana Harry Lee, Sheriff of Jefferson Parish, Louisiana Samuel D. McEnery, Governor of Louisiana Louis H. Marrero, Jefferson Parish Police Juror & President, Jefferson Parish Sheriff, Senator, Lafourche Basin Levee Board John Albert Morris, the "Lottery King" deLesseps Story "Chep" Morrison Sr., Mayor of New Orleans deLesseps Story "Toni" Morrison Jr., state legislator from Orleans Parish Isidore Newman, New Orleans philanthropist and founder of the Maison Blanche department store chain and the regarded Isidore Newman School Elwyn Nicholson, state senator from 1972 to 1988, grocery store owner Margaret Norvell, lighthouse keeper and namesake of the coastguard cutter USCGC Margaret Norvell Alton Ochsner, surgeon, co-founder of Ochsner Clinic (now Ochsner Health System) Lionel Ott, member of the Louisiana State Senate from 1940 to 1945 and the last New Orleans finance commissioner from 1946 to 1954 Mel Ott, Hall of Fame Major League Baseball Player Benjamin M. Palmer, pastor of First Presbyterian Church of New Orleans (1856–1902) John M. Parker, governor of Louisiana P. B. S. Pinchback, first African American Governor of Louisiana 1872-1873 Louis Prima, bandleader Stan Rice, poet Anne Rice, author John Leonard Riddell, melter and refiner of Mint 1839–1848, Postmaster 1859–1862, inventor of the binocular microscope John G. Schwegmann, supermarket pioneer and member of both houses of the Louisiana State Legislature James Z. Spearing, U.S. representative, 1924–1931, from Louisiana's 2nd congressional district Edgar B. Stern, businessman and civic leader Edith Rosenwald Stern, philanthropist Norman Treigle, opera star Helen Turner, painter Cora Witherspoon, stage and screen character actress See also Historic Cemeteries of New Orleans List of United States cemeteries References External links Lake Lawn Funeral home, Metairie Cemetery Find a Grave Metairie Cemetery Times-Picayune video tour Cemeteries on the National Register of Historic Places in Louisiana Protected areas of New Orleans Buildings and structures in New Orleans Defunct horse racing venues in the United States 1872 establishments in Louisiana National Register of Historic Places in New Orleans Rural cemeteries
644791	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Mascolo	Joseph Mascolo	Joseph Peter Mascolo (March 13, 1929 – December 8, 2016) was an American musician and dramatic actor. During his long career, he acted in numerous motion pictures and television series. He was best known for playing Stefano DiMera in 1982 on NBC's soap opera Days of Our Lives and Massimo Marone in 2001 on CBS' soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful. Early life Mascolo was born on March 13, 1929, and raised in West Hartford, Connecticut. His parents, Anna Mascolo (née DeTuccio; 1910–2010) and Peter Mascolo (1901–2008), were immigrants from Naples, Italy, and had their 80th wedding anniversary shortly before his father died. Mascolo had one sister, Marie LaVoie. He attended the United States Military Academy after graduating high school. Mascolo attended the University of Miami. To support himself financially, he studied acting under famed acting coach Stella Adler in New York City. He originally was trained in classical music and opera. Career Theatre Mascolo was in the 1962 production of Night Life as Kazar and the understudy of Neville Brand. He was in the 1966 production of Dinner at Eight as Ricci. Mascolo was in the 1969 production of The Time of Your Life as Blick. His final theatrical appearance was in 1972's That Championship Season as Phil Romano. Film Mascolo's first film appearance was in 1968's Hot Spur as Carlo. He was in 1972's neo-noir action crime–drama film Shaft's Big Score! as Gus Mascola. Mascolo was in 1973's The Spook Who Sat by the Door and 1978's Jaws 2 as Len Peterson. He was in 1981's Sharky's Machine as JoJo Tipps and 1982's Yes, Giorgio Mascolo's last film appearance was in 1986's Heat as Baby. Television Mascolo was best known in the recurring role of Stefano DiMera on Days of Our Lives from 1982 to 1985, returning briefly in 1988, again from 1993 to 2001, and making appearances again since 2007 until Stefano's death in 2016, making his final appearance on February 9, 2017, airing 2 months after his death, and won three Soap Opera Digest Awards. He has also played a wide range of roles on many different series including (but not limited to) a Stefano-like villain named Nicholas Van Buren on General Hospital, and Carlos Alvarez on Santa Barbara. Before achieving his fame, he was seen in the earlier soap operas Where the Heart Is and From These Roots. He also made primetime television appearances on All in the Family, The Eddie Capra Mysteries, Lou Grant and The Rockford Files. Mascolo portrayed Massimo Marone on CBS's The Bold and the Beautiful beginning August 2001. He decided not to renew his contract with the show in July 2006, due to a lack of storyline and decided to return to Days of Our Lives, where his character Stefano DiMera was resurrected after six years. Mascolo also appeared in The Incredible Hulk in October 1979, as Mr. Arnold in the episode "Brain Child". 10 years later, he would appear again in NBC's The Trial of the Incredible Hulk, as Albert G. Tendelli, a police confidant of Daredevil. He also appeared in an episode of Hart to Hart on 1/3/84 as villan Mr. Rhodes. Personal life and death Mascolo married Rose Maimone in 1953. Together they had a son named Peter. Maimone died in 1986. In 2005, he married his second wife, Patricia Schultz. In January 2016, Mascolo told Soap Opera Digest that he had suffered from a stroke in the spring of 2015. "During my rehab, I thought this would be a good time for Stefano to leave." Mascolo died on December 8, 2016, in Santa Clarita, California at the age of 87 after years of battling Alzheimer's disease. Mascolo was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills). Theatre Filmography Film Television References Sources External links 1929 births 2016 deaths American male film actors American male soap opera actors American male television actors American people of Italian descent Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills) Male actors from Connecticut People from West Hartford, Connecticut University of Miami alumni Military personnel from Connecticut Deaths from Alzheimer's disease Neurological disease deaths in California
647442	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father%20Divine	Father Divine	Father Divine (September 10, 1965), also known as Reverend M. J. Divine, was an African-American spiritual leader from about 1907, until his death. His full self-given name was Reverend Major Jealous Divine, and he was also known as "the Messenger" early in his life. He founded the International Peace Mission movement, formulated its doctrine, and oversaw its growth from a small and predominantly black congregation into a multiracial and international church. Due to his ideology, many consider him to be a cult leader. Father Divine claimed to be God. He made numerous contributions toward his followers' economic independence and racial equality. He was a contemporary of other religious leaders such as Daddy Grace, Charles Harrison Mason, Noble Drew Ali, James F. Jones (also known as Prophet Jones), Wallace Fard Muhammad, Elijah Muhammad and Jim Jones. Life and career Prior to 1912: Early life and original name Little is known about Father Divine's early life, or even his real given name. Father Divine and the peace movement he started did not keep many records. Father Divine himself declined several offers to write his biography, saying that "the history of God would not be useful in mortal terms". He also refused to acknowledge relationship to any family. Newspapers in the 1930s had to dig up his probable given name: George Baker. This name is not recognized by the Library of Congress, and from 1979, there is no further use of that name as a heading for Father Divine in libraries' catalogs. Federal Bureau of Investigation files record his name as George Baker alias "God". In 1936 Eliza Mayfield claimed to be Father Divine's mother. She stated that his real name was Frederick Edwards from Hendersonville, North Carolina, and he had abandoned a wife and five children, although Mayfield offered no proof and claimed to not remember his father's name. Father Divine replied that "God has no Mother." Father Divine's childhood remains a contentious point. Some, especially earlier researchers, suppose that he was born in the Deep South, most likely in Georgia, as the son of sharecroppers. Newer research by Jill Watts, based on census data, finds evidence for a George Baker Jr. of appropriate age born in an African-American enclave of Rockville, Maryland, called Monkey Run. If this theory is correct, his mother was a former slave named Nancy Baker, who died in May 1897. Most researchers agree that Father Divine's parents were freed black slaves. Notoriously poor records were kept about this generation of African Americans, so controversy about his upbringing is not likely to be resolved. On the other hand, he and his first wife, Peninniah (variant spellings: Penninah, Peninnah, Penniah) claimed that they were married on June 6, 1882. Father Divine was probably called George Baker around the turn of the century. He worked as a gardener in Baltimore, Maryland. In a 1906 sojourn in California, Father Divine became acquainted with the ideas of Charles Fillmore and the New Thought movement, a philosophy of positive thinking that would inform his later doctrines. Among other things, this belief system asserted that negative thoughts led to poverty and unhappiness. Songwriter Johnny Mercer credited a Father Divine sermon for inspiring the title of his song "Ac-Cent-Tchu-Ate the Positive". Father Divine attended a local Baptist Church, often preaching, until 1907, when a traveling preacher called Samuel Morris spoke and was expelled from the congregation. Morris, originally from Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, had a soft-spoken and uncontroversial sermon until the end, when he raised his arms and shouted, "I am the Eternal Father!" This routine had him thrown out of many churches in Baltimore, and was apparently unsuccessful until Morris happened upon the receptive Father Divine. In his late 20s, Father Divine became Morris's first follower and adopted a pseudonym, "The Messenger". The Messenger was a Christ figure to Morris's God the Father. Father Divine preached with Morris in Baltimore out of the home of former evangelist Harriette Snowden, who came to accept their divinity. Morris began calling himself "Father Jehovia". Divine and Father Jehovia were later joined by John A. Hickerson, who called himself Reverend Bishop Saint John the Vine. John the Vine shared the Messenger's excellent speaking ability and his interest in New Thought. In 1912, the three-man ministry collapsed, as John the Vine denied Father Jehovia's monopoly on godhood, citing 1 John 4:15 to mean God was in everyone: Father Divine parted ways with his former associates. Denying that Father Jehovia was God, and saying that not everyone could be God, he declared that he himself was God, and the only true expression of God's spirit. 1912–14: In the South Father Divine traveled south, where he preached extensively in Georgia. In 1913, conflicts with local ministers led to him being sentenced to 60 days in a chain gang. While he was serving his sentence, several prison inspectors were injured in an auto accident, which he viewed as the direct result of their disbelief. Upon his release, he attracted a following of mostly black women in Valdosta, Georgia. He taught celibacy and the rejection of gender categorizations. On February 6, 1914, several followers' husbands and local preachers had Divine arrested for lunacy. This actually expanded his ministry, with reporters and worshipers deluging his prison cell. Some whites even began calling on him. Former Mercer University professor and lay preacher, J. R. Moseley of Macon, Georgia, befriended Divine and arranged for J. B. Copeland, a Mercer alum and respected Valdosta lawyer, to represent him pro bono. Moseley was interested in what he termed "this unusual man" in his autobiography Manifest Destiny." Decades later, in the 1930s, Moseley met Divine in New York City when he received word that the man going by that name might in fact be the same person he met in Georgia. Father Divine was found mentally sound in spite of "maniacal" beliefs. He had given no name when arrested and was tried as "John Doe (alias God)". 1914–1919: Brooklyn and marriage to Peninniah In 1914, Father Divine traveled to Brooklyn, New York, with a small number of followers and an all-black congregation. Although he claimed to be God incarnate fulfilling biblical prophecy, he lived relatively quietly. He and his disciples formed a commune in a black middle-class apartment building. He forbade sex, alcohol, tobacco and gambling among those who were living with him. By 1919, he had adopted the name Reverend Major Jealous Divine. "Reverend Major" was chosen as a title of respect and authority, while "Jealous" was a reference to Exodus 34:14, where the Lord says he is a "jealous god" and that God's name is Jealous. His followers affectionately called him Father Divine. In this period, Father Divine was married to a follower, Peninniah (variant spellings: Penninah, Peninnah, Penniah), who was a few years older than he was. Like Father Divine, her early life is obscure, but she is believed to be from Macon, Georgia. The date of the marriage is unknown but probably occurred between 1914 and 1917. In addition to lending her dignified look to Father Divine, Peninniah served to defuse rumors of impropriety between him and his many young female followers. Both Penninah, who was often called "Mother Divine", and Father Divine would assert that the marriage was never physically consummated. 1919–1931: Sayville, New York Father Divine and his disciples moved to Sayville, New York (on Long Island), in 1919. He and his followers were the first black homeowners in town. Father Divine purchased his 72 Macon Street house from a resident who wanted to spite the neighbor he was feuding with. The two neighbors, both German Americans, began fighting when one of them changed his name from Felgenhauer to Fellows in response to anti-German sentiment. His neighbor taunted him, and the feud escalated until Fellows decided to move. As a final insult, he specifically advertised his home for sale to a "colored" buyer, presumably to lower his neighbors' property value. In this period, his movement underwent sustained growth. Father Divine held free weekly banquets and helped newcomers find jobs. He began attracting many white followers as well as black. The integrated environment of Father Divine's communal house and the apparently flaunted wealth of his Cadillac infuriated neighbors. Members of the overwhelmingly white community accused him of maintaining a large harem and engaging in scandalous sex, although the Suffolk County district attorney's office found the claims baseless. In order to try to please his neighbors, he had a sign posted at his driveway warned guests: NOTICE—Smoking—Intoxicating Liquors—Profane Language—Strictly Prohibited. Contrary to the charges of Sayville residents, Angels claimed that Father Divine prohibited singing after eight o'clock and by ten o'clock had closed all windows and blinds." Nonetheless, the neighbors continued to complain. 1931–1932: Sayville arrests, trial, notoriety, and prison On May 8, 1931, a Sayville deputy arrested and charged Father Divine with disturbing the peace. Remarkable during the Depression, Father Divine submitted his $1000 bail in cash. The trial, not as speedy as the neighbors wanted, was scheduled for late fall, allowing Father Divine's popularity to snowball for the entire Sayville vacation season. Father Divine held banquets for as many as 3000 people that summer. Cars clogging the streets for these gatherings bolstered some neighbors' claims that Father Divine was a disturbance to the peace and furthermore was hurting their property values. On Sunday, November 15, at 12:15 am, a police officer was called to Father Divine's raucously loud property. By the time state troopers, deputies and prison buses were called in, a mob of neighbors had surrounded the compound. Fearing a riot, the police informed Father Divine and his followers that they had fifteen minutes to disperse. Father Divine had them wait in silence for ten minutes, and then they filed into police custody. Processed by the county jail at 3 am, clerks were frustrated, because his followers often refused to give their usual names and stubbornly offered the "inspired" names they adopted in the movement. Seventy-eight people were arrested altogether, including fifteen whites. Forty-six pleaded guilty to disturbing the peace and incurred $5 fines, which Father Divine paid with a $500 bill, which the court was embarrassingly unable to make change from. Penninah, Father Divine, and thirty followers resisted the charges. Father Divine's arrest and heterodox doctrines were sensationally reported. The New York frenzy made this event and its repercussions the single most famous moment of Father Divine's life. Although mostly inaccurate, articles on Father Divine propelled his popularity. By December, his followers began renting buildings in New York City for Father Divine to speak in. Soon, he often had several engagements on a single night. On December 20, he spoke to an estimated 10,000 in Harlem's Rockland Palace, a spacious former basketball venue, Manhattan Casino. By May 1932, meetings were regularly held at the Rockland and throughout New York and New Jersey. Father Divine had supporters in Washington state, California and throughout the world thanks to New Thought devotees like Eugene Del Mar, an early convert and former Harlem journalist, and Henry Joerns, the publisher of a New Thought magazine in Seattle. Although the movement was predominantly black, followers outside the Northeast were mostly middle class whites. In this period of expansions, several branch communes were opened in New York and New Jersey. Father Divine's followers finally named the movement: the International Peace Mission movement. Father Divine's trial was held on May 24, 1932. His lawyer, Ellee J. Lovelace, a prominent Harlem African American and former US attorney had requested the trial be moved outside of Suffolk County, due to potential jury bias. The court acquiesced, and the trial took place at the Nassau County Supreme Court before Justice Lewis J. Smith. After a long trial, with many witnesses, "Justice Smith instructed the jury to ignore the statements made by witnesses not present on the night of the raid. Smith's order invalidated most of the testimony in Father Divine's favor and severely crippled the defense." The jury found him guilty on June 5 but asked for leniency on behalf of Father Divine. Ignoring this request, Justice Smith lectured on how Father Divine was a fraud and "menace to society" before issuing the maximum sentence for disturbing the peace: one year in prison and a $500 fine. Smith, 55, died of a heart attack days later on June 9, 1932. Father Divine was widely reported to have commented on the death, "I hated to do it." He wrote to his followers, "I did not desire Judge Smith to die. ... I did desire that MY spirit would touch his heart and change his mind that he might repent and believe and be saved from the grave." The impression that Justice Smith's death was divine retribution was perpetuated by the press, which failed to report Smith's prior heart problems and implied the death to be more sudden and unexpected than it was. During his brief prison stay, Father Divine read prodigiously, notably on the Scottsboro Nine. After his attorneys secured release through an appeal on June 25, 1932, he declared that the foundational documents of the United States of America, such as the Constitution and Declaration of Independence, were inspired. Father Divine also taught that contemporary leaders strayed from these ideals, but he would become increasingly patriotic through his life. 1932–1942: Harlem Father Divine moved to Harlem, New York, where he had accumulated a significant following in the black community. Members, rather than Father Divine himself, held most deeds for the movement, but they contributed toward Father Divine's comfortable lifestyle. Purchasing several hotels, which they called "Heavens", members could live and seek jobs inexpensively. He opened one hotel "near Atlantic City, New Jersey, so that blacks could access the beach." Father Divine and the Peace Mission, became the largest property owners in Harlem at one point in time. The movement also opened several budget enterprises, including restaurants and clothing shops, that sold cheaply by cutting overheads. These proved very successful in the depression. Economical, cash-only businesses were part of Father Divine's doctrine. By 1934, branches had opened in Los Angeles, California, and Seattle, Washington, and gatherings occurred in France, Switzerland, Canada, and Australia, but the membership totals were drastically overstated in the press. Time magazine estimated nearly two million followers, but the true figure of adherents was probably a few tens of thousands and a larger body of sympathizers who attended his gatherings. Nonetheless, Father Divine was increasingly called upon to offer political endorsements, which he initially did not. For example, New York mayoral candidates John P. O'Brien and Fiorello H. LaGuardia each sought his endorsement in 1933, but Father Divine was apparently uninterested. An odd alliance between Father Divine and the Communist Party of America began in early 1934. Although Father Divine was outspokenly capitalist, he was impressed with the party's commitment to civil rights. The party relished the endorsement, although contemporary FBI records indicate some critics of the perceived huckster were expelled from the party for protesting the alliance. In spite of this alliance, the movement was largely apolitical until the Harlem Riot of 1935. Based on a rumor of police killing a black teenager, it left four dead and caused over $1 million in property damage in Father Divine's neighborhood. Father Divine's outrage at this and other racial injustices fueled a keener interest in politics. In January 1939, the movement organized the first-ever "Divine Righteous Government Convention", which crafted political platforms incorporating the Doctrine of Father Divine. Among other things, the delegates opposed school segregation and many of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's social programs, which they interpreted as "handouts". At the zenith of Father Divine's influence, several misfortunes struck the movement. On December 16, John Hunt, a white millionaire and disciple from California calling himself John the Revelator, met the Jewett family of Denver, Colorado. He kidnapped their 17-year-old daughter Delight and took her back to California without her parents' consent. Renaming her "Virgin Mary", John the Revelator began sexual relations with her. He announced that she would give birth to a "New Redeemer" by "immaculate conception" in Hawaii. Father Divine summoned Hunt to New York, separated the couple and chastised his eccentric follower. The Jewetts, finding their daughter apparently brainwashed into believing she was literally the Virgin Mary, demanded compensation. After the movement's attorneys conducted an internal investigation, they refused. Outraged, the Jewetts offered their story to William Randolph Hearst's New York Evening Journal, an established critic of the movement. After a manhunt and trial, John Hunt was sentenced to three years and adopted a new name, the "Prodigal Son". Father Divine publicly endorsed the conviction of John the Revelator, contrary to some expectations (some followers expected him to once again "smite" the judge). The scandal brought bad publicity to Father Divine. News coverage implied his followers were gullible and dangerous. In March 1937, Penninah fell ill in Kingston, New York. Father Divine rarely comforted her on what was widely believed to be her deathbed. He kept running the church, only visiting her once in Kingston, again causing bad publicity. Penninah, however, claimed that she was not seriously ill or in pain. On April 20, 1937, a violent outburst occurred in a meeting when two men tried to deliver Father Divine a summons. One of the men, Harry Green, was stabbed as Father Divine fled. Father Divine went into hiding to evade authorities. During this time, one of Father Divine's most prominent followers, called Faithful Mary, defected and took control of a large commune, which was technically in her name. Of the Father she said, "he's just a damned man." She furthermore alleged that he defrauded his followers to maintain a rich lifestyle for himself. Faithful Mary also made a number of sexual allegations, including a charge that Father Divine coerced women to have sex with key disciples. In early May 1937, Father Divine was located and extradited from Connecticut and faced criminal charges in New York. That summer, Hearst's Metronone newsreel distributed mocking footage of Father Divine's followers singing outside police headquarters, "Glory, glory, hallelujah! Our God is in our land!" Later in May 1937, an ex-follower called Verinda Brown filed a lawsuit for $4,476 against Father Divine. The Browns had entrusted their savings with Father Divine in Sayville back in 1931. They left the movement in 1935 wishing to live as husband and wife again, but were unable to get their money back. In light of their evidence and testimony from Faithful Mary and others critical of the movement, the court ordered repayment of the money. However, this opened up an enormous potential liability from all ex-devotees, so Father Divine resisted and appealed the judgment. In 1938, Father Divine was cleared of criminal charges and Mother Divine recovered. Faithful Mary, impoverished and broken, returned to the movement. Father Divine made her grovel for forgiveness, which she did. By the late 1930s, the movement stabilized, although it had clearly passed its zenith. Father Divine's political focus on anti-lynching measures became more resolved. By 1940, his followers had gathered 250,000 signatures in favor of an anti-lynching bill he wrote. However, passage of such statutes came slowly in New York and elsewhere. The Verinda Brown lawsuit against Father dragged on and was sustained on appeal. In July 1942, he was ordered to pay Brown or face contempt of court. Instead, Father Divine fled the state and re-established his headquarters in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He still visited New York, however. State law forbade serving subpoenas in New York on Sunday, so he often spoke on the Sabbath day in Harlem, the Promised Land (his Kingston commune), and Sayville. 1942–1965: Pennsylvania After moving to Philadelphia, Father Divine's wife, Penninah, died. The exact date is not known, because Father Divine never talked about it or even acknowledged her death. However, it occurred sometime in 1943, and biographers believe Penninah's death rattled Father Divine, making him aware of his own mortality. It became obvious to Father Divine and his followers that his doctrine might not make one immortal as he asserted, at least not in the flesh. In 1944, singer/songwriter Johnny Mercer came to hear of one of Divine's sermons. The subject was "You got to accentuate the positive and eliminate the negative". Mercer said, "Wow, that's a colorful phrase!" He went back to Hollywood and got together with songwriter Harold Arlen ("Over the Rainbow"), and together they wrote "Ac-Cent-Tchu-Ate the Positive", which was recorded by Mercer and the Pied Pipers in 1945. It was also recorded by Bing Crosby with the Andrews Sisters that same year. After his first wife died, Father Divine married a white Canadian woman called Edna Rose Ritchings in Washington, D.C., on April 29, 1946. The ceremony was kept secret even from most members until Ritching's visa expired. Critics of the movement believed that Father Divine's seemingly scandalous marriage to 21-year-old Ritchings would destroy the movement. Instead, most followers rejoiced, and the marriage date became a celebrated anniversary in the movement. To prove that he and Ritchings adhered to his doctrine on sexual abstinence, Father Divine assigned a black female follower to be her constant companion. He claimed that Ritchings, later called "Mother S. A. Divine", was the reincarnation of Penninah. Reincarnation was not previously part of Father Divine's doctrine and did not become a fixture of his theology. Followers believed that Penninah was an exceptional case and viewed her "return" as a miracle. Going into the 1950s, the press rarely covered Father Divine, and when it did, it was no longer as a menace, but as an amusing relic. For example, light-hearted stories ran when Father Divine announced Philadelphia was capital of the world and when he claimed to inspire invention of the hydrogen bomb. Father Divine's predominantly lower-class following ebbed as the economy swelled. In 1953, follower John Devoute gave Father Divine Woodmont, a 72-acre (0.3 km2) hilltop estate in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, outside of Philadelphia. This French Gothic manor served as his home and primary site of his increasingly infrequent banquets until his death in 1965. As his health declined, he continued to petition for civil rights. In 1951, he advocated reparations to be paid to the descendants of slaves. He also argued in favor of integrated neighborhoods. However, he did not participate in the burgeoning American civil rights movement because of his poor health and especially his dislike of the use of racial labels, denying he was black. On September 10, 1965, Father Divine died of natural causes at his Woodmont estate. His widow and remaining followers insist his spirit is still alive and always refer to Father Divine in the present tense. Believers keep the furnishings of Father Divine's personal rooms at Woodmont just as they were as a shrine to his life. The widow Edna Rose Ritchings became spiritual leader of the movement. In 1972, she fought an attempt by Jim Jones to take over the movement's dwindling devotees. Jones based some of his doctrines on the International Peace Mission movement and claimed to be the reincarnation of Father Divine. Although a few members of the Mission joined the Peoples Temple after Jones made his play for leadership of the movement, the power push was, in terms of its ultimate objective, a failure. That Jones was 34 years old at the time of Father Divine's death made his claims of being a new incarnation rather hard to sustain - Jones claimed Divine's spirit had entered his body upon the passing of the elder man - and Ritchings was left unimpressed by Jones' impassioned rhetoric. Jones' custom of tape-recording all his sermons was copied from Divine, who "spoke" to his followers via archived sermon tapes once ill health forced him to cease speaking at meetings. Physical characteristics and preaching style Father Divine was a slight, black man at a diminutive . Through most of his life, he maintained a fastidious appearance and a neat mustache that he kept well groomed, his hair was invariably neatly combed, and since his days in Sayville, New York, he almost always wore a suit in public. Father Divine was said to be very charismatic. His sermons were emotionally moving and freely associated between topics. His speech was often peppered with words of his own invention like "physicalating" and "tangiblated". An attendee at a Harlem "kingdoms" meeting in the 1930s recalled that he rhythmically intoned "Tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, millions. Tens, hundreds, ... millions." Although this seemed nonsense to the visitor, he reported that at the end the true believers chanted, "Yes, he's God. Yes he's God." Other eccentricities were drawn from his doctrine. For example, nearly every sermon began with the greeting and exhortation "Peace!" Father Divine believed that peace should replace hello. Doctrine Father Divine preached of his divinity even before he was known as "Father Divine" in the late 1910s. His doctrine taught that his life fulfilled all biblical prophecies about the second coming, regarding himself as Jesus Christ reborn. Father Divine also lectured that Christ existed in "every joint" of his follower's bodies, and that he was "God's light" incarnated in order to show people how to establish heaven on earth and to show them the way to eternal life. For example: Father Divine and his followers capitalized pronouns referring to him, much like "LORD" translated from the tetragrammaton is capitalized in the English Bible. Father Divine's definition of God became quite celebrated at the time because of its unusual use of language: "God is not only personified and materialized. He is repersonified and rematerialized. He rematerialized and He rematerialates. He rematerialates and He is rematerializatable. He repersonificates and He repersonifitizes." Positive thought Father Divine can be considered part of the New Thought movement; indeed, many of his white followers came from this tradition. Welfare Father Divine was particularly concerned with the downtrodden of society, including but not limited to Blacks. He was opposed to people accepting welfare. He believed in capitalism, and "In his opinion, capitalism was not at fault; the individual was to blame for the depression." He thought Americans could make it better if they had positive thoughts and channeled God's spirit. Race Scholars disagree about whether Father Divine, an African American, was a civil rights activist, but he certainly advocated some progressive changes to race relations. For example, because he believed that every human was accorded equal rights, he believed that all members of lynch mobs ought to be tried and convicted as murderers. Father Divine's anti-lynching campaigns resonated in the black ghettos where his congregations lived, and he got over a quarter million people to sign his anti-lynching proposals. Patriotism Father Divine advocated that followers think of themselves as simply Americans. He believed that America was the birthplace of the "Kingdom of God", which would ultimately encompass truths of all religious principles, promoting equality and brotherhood. The movement was supportive of the United States Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and particularly the Bill of Rights as inspired documents, believing that they outlined a more ideal life. Communal living Toward this life, followers of Father Divine owned and managed property collectively. The movement strove to alleviate poverty by feeding the poor and through education in written English, which the movement believed was the "universal language". Chastity Father Divine established an "International Modesty Code" which forbids smoking, drinking, and profanity. Additionally, it forbade tips, bribes, receiving presents, and "undue mixing of the sexes", along with women wearing slacks or short skirts and men wearing short sleeves. Although Father Divine himself was married, the movement discouraged marriage, along with any excessive mingling of the sexes. In the "Heavens" and other living spaces the movement maintained, separate areas existed for men and women. Thrift and business practices Father Divine advocated a number of economic practices, which his followers abided by. He opposed life insurance (which converts were to cancel), welfare, social security, and credit. Thus, the movement advocated economic self-sufficiency. His insistence that his followers refuse welfare not related to employment was estimated to have saved New York City $2 million during the Depression. Business owners in the movement named their ventures to show affiliation with Father Divine, and obeyed all of these practices. They dealt only in cash, refusing credit in any of its forms. Each was to sell below competitor's prices while refusing any sorts of tips or gratuities. Finally, they refrained from trade in alcohol or tobacco. Legacy Civil rights Some biographers, such as Robert Weisbrot, speculate that Father Divine was a forerunner to the civil rights movement during the 1950s and 1960s, heavily influenced by his upbringing in the segregated South. Others, such as Jill Watts, reject not only this characterization, but also the theory that Father Divine grew up in the Deep South. Watts asserts that Rockville was less oppressive than the South or even Baltimore, Maryland, and believes his civil rights positions are unintelligible without evaluating them in the context of the Doctrine of Father Divine. Religious Edna Rose Ritchings (Mother Divine) conducted services for the old and dwindling congregation until her death. The movement owns several properties, such as Father Divine's Gladwyne estate Woodmont, his former home in Sayville, New York, and the Circle Mission Church on Broad Street in Philadelphia, which also houses the movement's library. Chapters exist in Pennsylvania and possibly elsewhere, but the movement is not centralized and exists through a number of interrelated groups. In 2004, Gastronomica magazine published an article about Mother S. A. Divine and the movement's feasts. In 2000, the Divine Lorraine Hotel near Temple University on North Broad Street was sold off by the international Peace Mission movement. It was a budget hotel with separate floors for men and women in accord with Father Divine's teachings. The Divine Tracy Hotel in West Philadelphia was sold in 2006. See also List of people who have been considered deities God complex References Further reading God Comes to America: Father Divine and the Peace Mission Movement, Kenneth E. Burnham, Boston: Lambeth Press, 1979 Father Divine and the Struggle for Racial Equality, Robert Weisbrot, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983 Father Divine, Holy Husband, Sara Harris, Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1953 Promised Land: Father Divine's Interracial Communities in Ulster County, New York, Carleton Mabee, Fleischmanns: Purple Mountain Press, 2008 "Who Is This King of Glory?", St. Clair McKelway and A.J. Liebling, New Yorker, June 1936, reprinted (pp. 80–122) in Reporting at Wit's End: Tales from the New Yorker, St. Clair McKelway, Bloomsbury USA, 2010, External links www.peacemission.info website about Father Divine and his International Peace Mission movement The Father Divine Project — A Database Documentary Ronald M. White, New Thought Influences on Father Divine (Masters Thesis, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 1980). Abstract International Peace Mission movement Homepage Father Divine and the International Peace Mission Documentary website Father Divine Papers at Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library 1870s births 1965 deaths Activists from Georgia (U.S. state) African-American religious leaders American anti-lynching activists Deified people Founders of new religious movements International Peace Mission movement People from Lowndes County, Georgia Self-declared messiahs American reparationists 20th-century African-American people
647811	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20physicians	List of physicians	This is a list of famous physicians in history. Chronological list of physicians Ancient world 1200 BC Sushruta - Indian physician, author of Sushruta Samhita, considered as father of surgery and father of plastic surgery 300 BC Charaka - one of the principal contributors to ayurveda, a system of medicine and lifestyle developed in Ancient India and author of Charaka Saṃhitā 460–370 BC Hippocrates - considered the most outstanding figure in the history of medicine. 129 AD – /), Galen the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, d. 260 Gargilius Martialis short Latin handbook on Medicines from Vegetables and Fruits 325–400 Oribasius 70 volume encyclopedia 369 Basil of Caesarea founded at Caesarea in Cappadocia an institution (hospital) called Basilias, with several buildings for patients, nurses, physicians, workshops, and schools 375 Ephrem the Syrian - opened a hospital at Edessa They spread out and specialized nosocomia for the sick, brephotrophia for foundlings, orphanotrophia for orphans, ptochia for the poor, xenodochia for poor or infirm pilgrims, and gerontochia for the old. 400 first hospital in Latin Christendom was founded by Fabiola at Rome 420 Caelius Aurelianus - doctor from Sicca Veneria (El-Kef, Tunisia) handbook On Acute and Chronic Diseases in Latin. Middle Ages 5th–16th centuries 480–547 Benedict of Nursia founder of "monastic medicine" 525–605 Alexander of Tralles Alexander Trallianus 500–550 Aetius of Amida Encyclopedia 4 books each divided into 4 sections 550–630 Stephanus of Athens 560–636 Isidore of Seville c. 630 Paul of Aegina Encyclopedia in 7 books very detailed surgery used by Albucasis 790–869 Leo Itrosophist also Mathematician or Philosopher wrote "Epitome of Medicine" Islamic Middle Ages 9th–12th c. 800–873 Al-Kindi (Alkindus) De Gradibus 820 Benedictine hospital founded, School of Salerno would grow around it 857d Mesue the elder (Yūḥannā ibn Māsawayh) Syriac Christian c. 830–870 Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) Syriac-speaking Christian also knew Greek and Arabic. Translator and author of several medical tracts. c. 838–870 Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, writes an encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic. d. 896 Theodosius Romanus c. 910d Ishaq ibn Hunayn 9th century Yahya ibn Sarafyun Syriac physician Johannes Serapion, Serapion the Elder c. 865–925 Rhazes pediatrics, and makes the first clear distinction between smallpox and measles in his al-Hawi. d. 955 Isaac Judaeus Isḥāq ibn Sulaymān al-Isrāʾīlī Egyptian born Jewish physician 913–982 Shabbethai Donnolo alleged founding father of School of Salerno wrote in Hebrew d. 990 Al-Tamimi, the physician d. 982–994 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi Haly Abbas 1000 Albucasis (936–1018) surgery Kitab al-Tasrif, surgical instruments. d. 1075 Ibn Butlan Christian physician of Baghdad Tacuinum sanitatis the Arabic original and most of the Latin copies, are in tabular format 1018–1087 Michael Psellos or Psellus a Byzantine monk, writer, philosopher, politician and historian. several books on medicine 1021 Alhazen c. 1030 Avicenna The Canon of Medicine The Canon remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 18th century. c. 1071–1078 Simeon Seth or Symeon Seth an 11th-century Jewish Byzantine translated Arabic works into Greek 1084 First documented hospital in England Canterbury 1087d Constantine the African 1083–1153 Anna Komnene Latinized as Comnena 1095 Congregation of the Antonines, was founded to treat victims of "St. Anthony's fire" a skin disease. late 11th early 12th century Trotula 1123 St Bartholomew's Hospital founded by the court jester Rahere Augustine nuns originally cared for the patients. Mental patients were accepted along with others 1127 Stephen of Antioch translated the work of Haly Abbas 1100–1161 Avenzoar, teacher of Averroes 1126–1198 Averroes Scholastic Medicine 13th–16th centuries c. 1161d Matthaeus Platearius 1204 Innocent III organized the hospital of Santo Spirito at Rome inspiring others all over Europe 1242 Ibn an-Nafis suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation c. 1248 Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany and pharmacy, studied animal anatomy and medicine veterinary medicine. 1249 Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness 1257–1316 Pietro d'Abano also known as Petrus De Apono or Aponensis 1260 Louis IX established, Les Quinze-vingt; originally a retreat for the blind, it became a hospital for eye diseases, and is now one of the most important medical centers in Paris 1284 Mansur hospital of Cairo c. 1275 – c. 1328 Joannes Zacharias Actuarius a Byzantine physician wrote the last great compendium of Byzantine medicine 1300 concave lens spectacles to treat myopia developed in Italy. 1292–1350 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya William of Saliceto also known as Guilielmus de Saliceto (c. 1210–1277) Henri de Mondeville (c. 1260–1316) Mondino de Luzzi (1275–1326) "Mundinus" carried out the first systematic human dissections since Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier. Guy de Chauliac (d.1368) John of Arderne (1306–1390) Heinrich von Pfolspeundt (f.1460) Antonio Benivieni (1443–1502) Pathological anatomy Renaissance to Early Modern period 16th–18th centuries Paracelsus (1493–1541) - burned the works of Avicenna, Galen, and Hippocrates and denounced humoral medicine On the relationship between medicine and surgery surgery book Ambroise Paré (1510–1590) - pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds. Bartholomeo Maggi at Bologna, Felix Wurtz of Zurich, Léonard Botal in Paris, and the Englishman Thomas Gale (surgeon), (the diversity of their geographical origins attests to the widespread interest of surgeons in the problem), all published works urging similar treatment to Paré's. But it was Paré's writings which were the most influential. Pierre Franco (1500?–1561) Caspar Stromayr or Stromayer Sixteenth Century Hieronymus Fabricius His "Surgery" is mostly that of Celsus, Paul of Aegina, and Abulcasis citing them by name. William Clowes (1540–1604) Surgical chest for military surgeons Peter Lowe (1550–1612) Richard Wiseman (1621–1676) William Cheselden (1688–1752) Lorenz Heister (1683–1758) Percivall Pott (1714–1789) John Hunter (1728–1793) Pierre-Joseph Desault (1744–1795) First surgical periodical Dominique Jean Larrey (1766–1842) - Surgeon to Napoleon Antonio Scarpa (1752–1832) Astley Cooper (1768–1843) lectures principles and practice The Bells of Scotland Benjamin Bell (1749–1806) - Leading surgeon of his time and father of a surgical dynasty system of surgery Charles Bell (1774–1842) John Bell (1763–1820) 19th century: Rise of modern medicine Baron Guillaume Dupuytren (1777–1835) - Head surgeon at Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, The age Dupuytren James Marion Sims (1813–1883) - Vesico-vaganial surgery Father of surgical gynocology Biography Joseph Lister (1827–1912) - Antiseptic surgery Father of modern surgery Physicians famous for their role in advancement of medicine William Osler Abbott (1902–1943) — co-developed the Miller-Abbott tube William Stewart Agras (born 1929) — feeding behavior Virginia Apgar (1909–1974) — anesthesiologist who devised the Apgar score used after childbirth Jean Astruc (1684–1766) — wrote one of the first treatises on syphilis Averroes (1126–1198) — Andalusian polymath Avicenna (980–1037) — Persian physician Gerbrand Bakker (1771–1828) — Dutch physician, with works in Dutch and Latin on midwifery, practical surgery, animal magnetism, worms, the human eye, comparative anatomy, and the anatomy of the brain Frederick Banting (1891–1941) — isolated insulin Christiaan Barnard (1922–2001) — performed first heart transplant Charles Best (1899–1978) — assisted in the discovery of insulin Norman Bethune (1890–1939) — developer of battlefield surgical techniques Theodor Billroth (1829–1894) — father of modern abdominal surgery Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910) — first woman to receive a medical degree in the United States; first openly identified woman to receive a medical degree; pioneered the advancement of women in medicine Alfred Blalock (1899–1964) — noted for his research on the medical condition of shock and the development of the Blalock-Taussig Shunt, surgical relief of the cyanosis from Tetralogy of Fallot, known commonly as the blue baby syndrome, with his assistant Vivien Thomas and pediatric cardiologist Helen Taussig James Carson (1772–1843) Charaka (c. 100 BCE – 200 CE) — Indian physician Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) — pioneering neurologist Guy de Chauliac (1290–1368) — one of the first physicians to have an experimental approach towards medicine; also recorded the Black Death Loren Cordain (born 1950) — American nutritionist and exercise physiologist, Paleolithic diet Harvey Cushing (1869–1939) — American neurosurgeon; father of modern-day brain surgery Garcia de Orta (1501–1568) — revealed herbal medicines of India, described cholera Gerhard Domagk (1895–1964) — pathologist and bacteriologist; credited with the discovery of sulfonamidochrysoidine (KI-730), the first commercially available antibiotic; won 1939 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Charles R. Drew (1904–1950) — blood transfusion pioneer Helen Flanders Dunbar (1902–1959) — important early figure in U.S. psychosomatic medicine Galen (129–c. 210) — Roman physician and anatomist Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) — German scientist; won the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; developed Ehrlich's reagent Christiaan Eijkman (1858–1930) — pathologist, studied beriberi Pierre Fauchard — father of dentistry René Gerónimo Favaloro (1923–2000) — Argentine cardiac surgeon who created the coronary bypass grafting procedure Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) — Scottish scientist, inventor of penicillin Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) — wrote on syphilis, forerunner of germ theory Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) — founder of psychoanalysis Daniel Carleton Gajdusek (1923–2008) — studied Kuru, Nobel prize winner George E. Goodfellow (1855–1910) — recognized as first U.S. civilian trauma surgeon, expert in gunshot wound treatment Henry Gray (1827–1861) — English anatomist and surgeon, creator of Gray's Anatomy Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) — physician and anatomist William Harvey (1578–1657) — English physician, described the circulatory system Henry Heimlich (1920–2016) — inventor of the Heimlich maneuver and the Vietnam War-era chest drain valve Orvan Hess (1906–2002) — fetal heart monitor and first successful use of penicillin Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE) — Greek father of medicine John Hunter (1728–1793) — father of modern surgery, famous for his study of anatomy Kurt Julius Isselbacher (1928–2019) — Former editor of Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, prominent Gastroenterologist, founder of the Massachusetts General Hospital Cancer Center, Association of American Physicians Kober Medal winner Edward Jenner (1749–1823) — English physician popularized vaccination Elliott P. Joslin (1869–1962) — pioneer in the treatment of diabetes Carl Jung (1875–1961) — Swiss psychiatrist Leo Kanner (1894–1981) — Austrian-American psychiatrist known for work on autism Seymour Kety (1915–2000) — American neuroscientist Robert Koch (1843–1910) — formulated Koch's postulates Theodor Kocher (1841–1917) — thyroid surgery; first surgeon to win the Nobel Prize Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781–1826) — inventor of the stethoscope Janet Lane-Claypon (1877–1967) — pioneer of epidemiology Thomas Linacre (1460–1524) — founder of Royal College of Physicians Joseph Lister (1827–1912) — pioneer of antiseptic surgery Richard Lower (1631–1691) — studied the lungs and heart, and performed the first blood transfusion Paul Loye (1861–1890) — studied the nervous system and decapitation Wilhelm Frederick von Ludwig (1790–1865) — German physician known for his 1836 publication on the condition now known as Ludwig's angina Amato Lusitano (1511–1568) — discovered venous valves, studied blood circulation Madhav (8th century A.D.) — medical text author and systematizer Maimonides (1135–1204) Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) — Italian anatomist, pioneer in histology Barry Marshall (born 1951) Charles Horace Mayo (1865–1939) — co-founder, Mayo Clinic William James Mayo (1861–1939) — co-founder, Mayo Clinic William Worrall Mayo (1819–1911) — co-founder, Mayo Clinic Salvador Mazza (1886–1946) — Argentine epidemiologist who helped in controlling American trypanosomiasis William McBride (1927-2018) — discovered teratogenicity of thalidomide Otto Fritz Meyerhof (1884–1951) — studied muscle metabolism; Nobel prize George Richards Minot (1885–1950) — Nobel prize for his study of anemia B. K. Misra - first neurosurgeon in the world to perform image-guided surgery for aneurysms, first in South Asia to perform stereotactic radiosurgery, first in India to perform awake craniotomy and laparoscopic spine surgery. Frederic E. Mohs (1910–2002) — responsible for the method of surgery now called Mohs surgery Egas Moniz (1874–1955) — developed lobotomy and brain artery angiography Richard Morton (1637–1698) — identified tubercles in consumption (phthisis) of lungs; basis for modern name tuberculosis Herbert Needleman (1927–2017) — scientifically established link between lead poisoning and neurological damage; key figure in successful efforts to limit lead exposure Charles Jean Henri Nicolle (1866–1936) — microbiologist who won Nobel prize for work on typhus Ian Olver (born 1953) Gary Onik (born 1952) — inventor and pioneer of ultrasound guided cryosurgery for both the prostate and the liver William Osler (1849–1919) — "father of modern medicine" Ralph Paffenbarger (1922–2007) — conducted classic studies demonstrating conclusively that active people reduce their risk of heart disease and live longer George Papanicolaou (1883–1962) — Greek pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detection; inventor of the Pap smear Paracelsus (1493–1541) — founder of toxicology Ambroise Paré (1510–1590) — advanced surgical wound treatment Wilder Penfield (1891–1976) — pioneer in neurology Marcus Raichle (born 1937) — father of functional neuroimaging Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934) — father of modern neuroscience for his development of the neuron theory Joseph Ransohoff (1915–2001) — neurosurgeon who invented the modern technique for removing brain tumors Sir William Refshauge (1913–2009) — Australian public health administrator Rhazes (c. 865–925) (Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi) Juan Rosai (1940–2020) — advanced surgical pathology; discovered the desmoplastic small round cell tumor and Rosai–Dorfman disease Jonas Salk (1914–1995) — developed a vaccine for polio Lall Sawh (born 1951) — Trinidadian surgeon/urologist and pioneer of kidney transplantation in the Caribbean Martin Schurig (1656–1733) — first physician to occupy himself with the anatomy of the sexual organs. Ignaz Semmelweis (1818–1865) — a pioneer of avoiding cross-infection — introduced hand washing and instrument cleaning Victor Skumin (born 1948) — first to describe a previously unknown disease, now called Skumin syndrome (a disorder of the central nervous system of some patients after receiving a prosthetic heart valve) John Snow (1813–1858) — anaesthetist and pioneer epidemiologist who studied cholera Thomas Starzl (1926–2017) — performed the first liver transplant Andrew Taylor Still (1828–1917) — father of osteopathic medicine Susruta (c. 500 BCE) — Indian physician and pioneering surgeon Thomas Sydenham (1642–1689) — clinician James Mourilyan Tanner (1920–2010) — developed Tanner stages and advanced auxology Helen B. Taussig (1898–1986) — founded field of pediatric cardiology, worked to prevent thalidomide marketing in the US Carlo Urbani (1956–2003) — discovered and died from SARS Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) — Belgian anatomist, often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy Vidus Vidius (1508–1569) — first professor of medicine at the College Royal and author of medical texts Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) — German pathologist, founder of fields of comparative pathology and cellular pathology Carl Warburg (1805–1892) — German/British physician and clinical pharmacologist, inventor of Warburg's Tincture, a famed antipyretic and antimalarial medicine of the Victorian era Otto Heinrich Warburg (1883–1970) — German physiologist, medical doctor; Nobel prize 1931 Allen Oldfather Whipple (1881–1963) — devised the Whipple procedure in 1935 for treatment of pancreatic cancer Priscilla White (1900–1989) — developed classification of diabetes mellitus and pregnancy to assess and reduce the risk of miscarriage, birth defect, stillbirth, and maternal death Carl Wood (1929–2011) — developed and commercialized in-vitro fertilization Alfred Worcester (1855–1951) — pioneer in geriatrics, palliative care, appendectomy, cesarean section, student health, nursing education Ole Wormius (1588–1654) — pioneer in embryology Sir Magdi Yacoub (born 1935) — one of the leading developers of the techniques of heart and heart-lung transplantation Boris Yegorov (1937–1994) — first physician in space (1964) Zhang Xichun (1860–1933) — first physician to integrate Chinese and Western medicine Physicians famous chiefly as eponyms Among the better known eponyms: Thomas Addison (1793–1860) – Addison's disease Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915) – Alzheimer's disease Hans Asperger (1906–1980) – Asperger syndrome John Brereton Barlow (1924–2008) – Barlow's syndrome Karl Adolph von Basedow – Basedow disease Hulusi Behçet – Behçet's disease Paul Broca – Broca's area David Bruce – Brucellosis Denis Parsons Burkitt – Burkitt lymphoma Albert Calmette (1863–1933) – Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG), a vaccine for tuberculosis Carlos Chagas (1879–1934) – Chagas disease Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) – Maladie de Charcot, Charcot joints, Charcot's triad, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease Jerome W. Conn (1907–1981) – Conn's Syndrome (primary hyperaldosteronism) Burrill Bernard Crohn (1884–1983) – Crohn's disease Harvey Cushing – Cushing's disease John Langdon Down – Down syndrome Bartolomeo Eustachi – Eustachian tube Gabriele Falloppio – Fallopian tube Camillo Golgi (1843–1926) – Golgi apparatus Ernst Gräfenberg – Gräfenberg spot (G-spot) Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (1738–1814) – guillotine Gerhard Armauer Hansen – Hansen's disease Thomas Hodgkin – Hodgkin's disease George Huntington – Huntington's disease Moritz Kaposi – Kaposi's sarcoma Wilhelm Frederick von Ludwig (1790–1865) – Ludwig's angina Charles Mantoux (1877–1947) – Mantoux test for tuberculosis Antoine Marfan (1858–1942) – Marfan syndrome Silas Weir Mitchell (1829–1914) – Mitchell's disease James Paget (1814–1899) – Paget's disease James Parkinson (1755–1824) – Parkinson's syndrome Juan Rosai (born 1940) – Rosai–Dorfman disease Daniel Elmer Salmon – Salmonella Gunnar B. Stickler – Stickler syndrome Georges Albert Édouard Brutus Gilles de la Tourette – Tourette syndrome Max Wilms (1867–1918) – Wilms' tumor Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson – Wilson's disease Physicians famous as criminals John Bodkin Adams – British general practitioner; suspected serial killer, thought to have killed over 160 patients; acquitted of one murder in 1957 but convicted of prescription fraud, not keeping a dangerous drug register, obstructing a police search and lying on cremation forms Karl Brandt (1904–1948) – Nazi human experimentation Edme Castaing – murderer George Chapman – Polish poisoner and Jack the Ripper suspect Robert George Clements – murderer Nigel Cox – only British doctor to be convicted of attempted euthanasia Thomas Neill Cream – murderer Hawley Harvey Crippen – executed for his wife's murder Baruch Goldstein (1956–1994) – assassin Linda Hazzard – convicted of murdering one patient but suspected of 12 in total H.H. Holmes – American serial killer Shirō Ishii – headed Japan's Unit 731 during World War II which conducted human experimentation for weapons and medical research Mario Jascalevich - killed 9 hospital patients using curare Radovan Karadžić (born 1945) – convicted of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes in Yugoslavia Jack Kevorkian (1923–2011) – convicted of second-degree murder, Michigan, April 13, 1999 Jeffrey R. MacDonald – murdered a pregnant wife and two daughters in 1979 Josef Mengele (1911–1979) – known as the Angel of Death; Nazi human experimentation Samuel Mudd (1833–1883) – condemned to prison for setting the leg of Abraham Lincoln's assassin Herman Webster Mudgett (1860–1896) – American serial killer Conrad Murray – convicted of involuntary manslaughter in death of pop star Michael Jackson Arnfinn Nesset – Norwegian serial killer William Palmer – British poisoner Marcel Petiot – French serial killer Herta Oberheuser (1911–1978) – Nazi human experimentation Richard J. Schmidt – American physician who contaminated his girlfriend with AIDS-tainted blood Harold Shipman (1946–2004) – British serial killer Michael Swango (born 1953) – American serial killer An A-Z list of Wikipedia articles of Nazi doctors Physicians famous as writers Among the better known writers: Mikhail Bulgakov (1891–1940) - Russian novelist and playwright Louis-Ferdinand Celine (1894–1961) - French novelist, author of Journey to the End of the Night Graham Chapman (1941–1989) - writer and actor, founding member of Monty Python Anton Chekhov (1860–1904) - Russian playwright Robin Cook - American author of bestselling novels, wrote Coma Michael Crichton (1942–2008) - American author of Jurassic Park A. J. Cronin (1896–1981) - Scottish novelist and essayist, author of The Citadel Anthony Daniels (born 1949) - as 'Theodore Dalrymple' and under his own name, a British author, critic and social and cultural commentator Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930) - British author of Sherlock Holmes fame Khaled Hosseini (born 1965) - American author, originally from Afghanistan, of bestselling novels The Kite Runner and A Thousand Splendid Suns John Keats (1795–1821) - English poet Morio Kita - Japanese novelist and essayist; son of Mokichi Saitō Jean Baptiste Lefebvre de Villebrune (1732–1809) - French physician who translated several works from Latin, English, Spanish, Italian, and German into French Luke the Evangelist - one of the four Gospel writers of the Bible John S. Marr - proposed natural explanations for the ten plagues of Egypt W. Somerset Maugham (1874–1965) - British novelist and short story writer, wrote Of Human Bondage Alfred de Musset (1810–1857) - French playwright, discovered sign of syphilitic aortitis Taslima Nasrin Mori Ōgai - Japanese novelist, poet, and literary critic Walker Percy (1916–1990) - American philosopher and writer François Rabelais (1483–1553) - French author of Gargantua and Pantagruel Mokichi Saitō - Japanese poet Friedrich von Schiller (1759–1805), German writer, poet, essayist and dramatist William Carlos Williams (1883–1963) - American poet and essayist And others: Patrick Abercromby (1656–c. 1716) - historian Chris Adrian Jacob Appel - short story writer John Arbuthnot Janet Asimov (1926-2019) (née Janet O. Jeppson) - American psychiatrist, wife of Isaac Asimov Arnie Baker - cycling coach Cora Belle Brewster (1859–?), writer, editor Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682) - British writer Georg Büchner - German dramatist Ludwig Büchner - German philosopher Thomas Campion - poet, composer Ethan Canin - novelist, short story writer Deepak Chopra - Indian/American writer of self-help and health books Alex Comfort (1920–2000) - British writer and poet, author of The Joy of Sex Ctesias (5th century B.C.) - Greek historian Steven Clark Cunningham (born 1972), children's poem writer Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802) - British poet, grandfather of Charles Darwin Georges Duhamel (1884–1966) - French writer, dramatist, poet and humanist Havelock Ellis (1859–1940) - British writer and poet, author of The Psychology of Sex Viktor Frankl (1905–1997) - Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist, author of Man's Search for Meaning Samuel Garth (1661–1719) - British author and translator of classics Elmina M. Roys Gavitt (1828–1898) - American physician; medical journal founder, editor-in-chief Atul Gawande - surgeon and New Yorker medical writer William Gilbert - British author; father of W. S. Gilbert Oliver Goldsmith - British author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. (1809–1894) - American essayist Richard Hooker - author of MAS*H Arthur Johnston (1587–1641) - poet Charles Krauthammer (1950–2018) - American psychiatrist, syndicated political columnist R. D. Laing - Scottish writer and poet, leader of the anti-psychiatry movement Stanisław Lem (1929–2006) - Polish author of science-fiction (Solaris) Carlo Levi (1902–1975) - Italian novelist and writer David Livingstone (1813–1873) - Scottish medical missionary, explorer of Africa, travel writer Adeline Yen Mah - Chinese-American author Paolo Mantegazza (1831–1910) - Italian writer, author of science fiction book L'Anno 3000 Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793) - French writer, a leader of French Revolution; assassinated in bathtub Silas Weir Mitchell (1829–1914) - American writer Mungo Park - Scottish physician and explorer Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman - Indian author and translator of classical manuscripts José Rizal (1861–1896) - Filipino novelist, scientist, linguist, and national hero João Guimarães Rosa - Brazilian writer Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932) - British writer and poet, discovered the malarial parasite Theodore Isaac Rubin (1923–2019) - American author of David and Lisa Oliver Sacks (1933–2015) - British essayist (The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat) Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965) - German charitative worker, Nobel Peace Prize laureate (1952), theologian, philosopher, organist, musicologist Frank Slaughter (1908–2001) - American bestseller author, wrote (Doctor's Wives) Tobias Smollett (1721–1771) - author Benjamin Spock (1903–1988) - American pediatrician, wrote Baby and Child Care Patrick Taylor - Canadian best-selling novelist Osamu Tezuka - Japanese cartoonist and animator; the "father of anime" Lewis Thomas (1913–1993) - American essayist and poet Sir Henry Thompson — British surgeon and polymath Vladislav Vančura (1891–1942) - Czech writer, screenwriter and film director Francis Brett Young (1884–1954) - English novelist and poet Physicians famous as politicians Ayad Allawi - interim Prime Minister of Iraq Salvador Allende (1908–1973) - Chilean president Emilio Álvarez Montalván - Foreign Minister of Nicaragua Arnulfo Arias - Panamanian President Firdous Ashiq Awan - Pakistani politician Bashar Al-Assad - Syrian national leader Michelle Bachelet (born 1951) - Chilean president Hastings Kamuzu Banda (1898–1997) - Prime Minister, President and later dictator of Malawi Gro Harlem Brundtland (born 1939) - first Norwegian female prime minister; Director-General of the World Health Organization Margaret Chan - Director General of the WHO; former Director of Health of Hong Kong Chen Chi-mai - former mayor of Kaohsiung, Taiwan York Chow - Secretary for Health, Welfare and Food of Hong Kong Denzil Douglas - Prime Ministers of Saint Kitts and Nevis, 1995–2015 François Duvalier (1907–1971) - also known as Papa Doc; President and later dictator of Haiti Antônio Palocci Filho - Brazilian politician, Finance Minister Christian Friedrich, Baron von Stockmar - Anglo-Belgian statesman Che Guevara - Latin American revolutionary leader George Habash - founder of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine Ibrahim al-Jaafari - Prime minister of Iraq Radovan Karadžić (born 1945) - first President of Republika Srpska, now facing charges for genocide and crimes against humanity Mohammad-Reza Khatami - Iranian politician Ewa Kopacz - Polish Prime Minister who succeeded Donald Tusk, 2014–2015 Juscelino Kubitscheck - Brazilian president Mahathir bin Mohamad - Malaysian prime minister Agostinho Neto (1922–1979) - MPLA leader and president of Angola Navin Ramgoolam - Prime minister of Mauritius Lloyd Richardson - President of the Parliament of Sint Maarten, 2014–2015 José Rizal (1861–1896) - Filipino revolutionary and national hero Bidhan Chandra Roy - Indian politician Hélio de Oliveira Santos - Brazilian politician, mayor of Campinas Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925) - founder of the Republic of China Tabaré Vázquez - former Uruguayan President Ali Akbar Velayati (born 1945) - Iranian Foreign Minister, 1981–1997 Ursula von der Leyen (born 1958) - German Federal Minister of Defence William Walker (1824–1860) - ruler of Nicaragua Ram Baran Yadav (born 1948) - first elected president of the republic of Nepal Yeoh Eng-kiong - former Secretary for Health and Welfare of Hong Kong Argentina Luis Agote (1868–1954) Nicolas Bazan (born 1942) Hermes Binner Eduardo Braun-Menéndez (1903–1959) Ramón Carrillo (1906–1956) Bernardo Houssay (1887–1971) René Favaloro (1923–2000) Arturo Umberto Illia - 35th President of Argentina (1963–1966) Luis Federico Leloir (1906–1987) Julia Polak (1939–2014) Alberto Carlos Taquini (1905–1998) Azerbaijan Karim bey Mehmandarov Australia Bob Brown - parliamentary leader of the Australian Greens Andrew Laming - Australian politician Peter Macdonald Brendan Nelson - Australian politician Sir Earle Page - Prime Minister of Australia Dinesh Palipana - first quadriplegic medical graduate in Queensland, disability advocate Andrew Refshauge - Australian politician Mal Washer Michael Wooldridge Canada Thomas "Tommy" Douglas Carolyn Bennett Stanley K. Bernstein Frederick William Borden - Canadian MP and minister of the Militia Bernard-Augustin Conroy John Waterhouse Daniel Hedy Fry (born 1941) - Canadian politician, member of parliament Dennis Furlong Charles Godfrey Grant Hill - former Canadian MP Wilbert Keon - Canadian senator Keith Martin - Portuguese Canadian MP William McGuigan - mayor of Vancouver, British Columbia Théodore Robitaille - Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, Quebec MNA and Senator Bette Stephenson - Ontario MPP and former Minister of Labour, Minister of Education and Minister of Colleges and Universities Donald Matheson Sutherland - MP and former minister of National Defence David Swann Sir Charles Tupper (1821–1915) - Prime Minister of Canada (1896) and Premier of Nova Scotia (1864–1867); High Commissioner in Great Britain (1884–1887) France Louis Auguste Blanqui - French revolutionary socialist Georges Clemenceau (1841–1929) - French statesman Jean-Paul Marat - French revolution leader Italy Guido Baccelli (1830–1916) - seven times Minister of education Japan Tomoko Abe - Representative of Japan Ichirō Kamoshita - Representative of Japan, former Environment Minister Taro Nakayama - former Representative of Japan, former Foreign Minister Chikara Sakaguchi - Representative of Japan, former Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare Koichiro Shimizu - former Representative of Japan, one of Koizumi Children Tsutomu Tomioka - former Representative of Japan, one of Koizumi Children Pakistan Firdous Ashiq Awan Asim Hussain Ghulam Hussain The Netherlands Frederik van Eeden J. Slauerhoff Simon Vestdijk Leo Vroman United Kingdom Liam Fox - British Secretary of State for Defence John Pope Hennessy - former Governor of Hong Kong David Owen - British politician United States Stewart Barlow - member of the Utah House of Representatives Larry Bucshon (born 1962) - U.S. Congressman from Indiana Michael C. Burgess (born 1950) - U.S. Congressman from Texas Ben Carson (born September 18, 1951) - United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Tom Coburn (1948-2020) - U.S. Senator Howard Dean (born 1948) - former Governor of Vermont Scott Ecklund - member of the South Dakota House of Representatives Joe Ellington (born 1959) - member of the West Virginia House of Delegates Bill Frist (born 1952) - United States Senate Majority Leader Joe Heck (born 1961) - U.S. Congressman Steve Henry (born 1953) - Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky Jim McDermott - U.S. Congressman Larry McDonald - U.S. Congressman Ralph Northam (born 1959) - Governor of Virginia Christopher Ottiano (born 1969) - member of the Rhode Island Senate Rand Paul (born 1963) - U.S. Senator Ron Paul (born 1935) - U.S. Congressman Tom Price (American politician) (born October 8, 1954) - U.S. Congressman from Georgia and former Secretary of Health and Human Services David Watkins - member of the Kentucky House of Representatives Dave Weldon - U.S. Congressman and autism activist Ray Lyman Wilbur (1875–1949) - United States Secretary of the Interior, president of Stanford University Milton R. Wolf Thomas Wynne (1627–1691) - physician to William Penn, speaker of the first two Provincial Assemblies in Philadelphia (1687 & 1688) Physicians famous as sportspeople Tenley Albright — Olympic figure skating champion Lisa Aukland — American professional bodybuilder and powerlifter Sir Roger Bannister (1929–2018) — first man to break the four-minute mile; English neurologist Tim Brabants — sprint kayaker, Olympic gold medalist Felipe Contepomi — Argentine rugby union footballer Ted Eisenberg — American 2018 world champion in long distance tomahawk throwing Gail Hopkins — American professional baseball player David Gerrard — New Zealand swimmer Randy Gregg — ice hockey player Jack Lovelock (1910–1949) — Olympic athlete Richard Mamiya (1925–2019) — football player Doc Medich, American baseball player Stephen Rerych — American swimmer, Olympic champion, and former world record-holder Dot Richardson — American softball player, Olympics; orthopedic physician Sócrates (Sócrates Brasileiro Sampaio de Souza Vieira de Oliveira) — Brazilian soccer player, played for the national team 1979–1986 Physicians famous for their role in television and the media Australia Jeremy Cumpston Jonathan LaPaglia Peter Larkins Renee Lim Andrew Rochford Rob Sitch Brazil Lúcia Petterle Finland Emilia Vuorisalmi Germany Marianne Koch Gunther Philipp Ireland Ronan Tynan Malta Gianluca Bezzina Norway Anders Danielsen Lie Gro Harlem Brundtland (born 1939) - first Norwegian female prime minister; Director-General of the World Health Organization Pakistan Shaista Lodhi Ayesha Gul Fahad Mirza South Africa Phil du Plessis Spain El Gran Wyoming Sweden Staffan Hallerstam Jesper Salén Rebecka Liljeberg United Kingdom Carina Tyrrell Tony Gardner Harry Hill Christian Jessen Sunshine Martyn Pixie McKenna Sir Jonathan Wolfe Miller Darwin Shaw Hank Wangford United States Jennifer Ashton Andrew Baldwin Jennifer Berman Deepak Chopra Lyn Christie Terry Dubrow Garth Fisher Leo Galland Anthony C. Griffin Sanjay Gupta Randal Haworth Jason Todd Ipson Matt Iseman Ken Jeong Sean Kenniff Will Kirby C. Everett Koop John S. Marr Lucky Meisenheimer Paul Nassif Andrew P. Ordon Mehmet Oz Nicholas Perricone Drew Pinsky Bernard Punsly Brent Ridge Nancy Snyderman Benjamin Spock Travis Stork Physicians famous as beauty queens Mahmure Birsen Sakaoğlu, Miss Turkey 1936 Eva Andersson-Dubin, Miss Sweden 1980 Deidre Downs, Miss America 2005 Anna Malova, Miss Russia 1998 Lúcia Petterle, Miss World 1971 Limor Schreibman-Sharir, Miss Israel 1973 Physicians famous as first ladies Susan Lynch (pediatrician), First Lady of New Hampshire Mildred Scheel, wife of Walter Scheel Physicians famous for other activities Anderson Ruffin Abbott Jane Addams — social activist Dav and ultrasound technologies to Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Oswald Avery (1877–1955) — molecular biologist who discovered DNA carried genetic information Ali Bacher — cricketer Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi — traveller Roger Bannister — runner, first sub-four-minute miler Josiah Bartlett — American statesman and chief justice of New Hampshire T. Romeyn Beck (1791–1855) — American forensic medicine pioneer Ramon Betances — surgeon, PR nationalist Maximilian Bircher-Benner (1867–1939) — nutritionist Oscar Biscet — human rights advocate Herman Boerhaave — humanist Alexander Borodin — composer, chemist Thomas Bowdler — censor Lafayette Bunnell — explorer of Yosemite Valley John Caius (1510–1573) — physician and educator Roberto Canessa — survivor of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571, which crashed in the Andes Mountains in 1972 Gerolamo Cardano — mathematician Alexis Carrell — transplant surgeon, eugenicist, Vichy sympathizer Ben Carson — African-American neurosurgeon Anton Chekhov — Writer Laurel B. Clark (1961–2003) — American astronaut, killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) — mathematician and astronomer Merv Cross Ted Eisenberg — Guinness World Record holder for most breast augmentation surgeries performed. Steven Eisenberg — known as "The Singing Cancer Doctor." Sextus Empiricus (2nd–3rd century C.E.) — philosopher Ken Evoy Giovanni Fontana — Venetian physician, engineer, and encyclopedist Luigi Galvani — physicist Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) — philosopher William Gilbert (1544–1603) — physicist Carl Goresky — physician and scientist W. G. Grace — cricketer John Franklin Gray (1804–1881) — American educator, first practitioner of homeopathy in the US Nehemiah Grew — botanist Samuel Hahnemann — founder of homeopathy Armand Hammer — entrepreneur Daniel Harris Karin M. Hehenberger — diabetes expert Hermann von Helmholtz — physicist Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577–1655) — physiologist Harry Hill — British comedian Courtney Howard, Yellowknife-based ER physician and one-time leadership candidate, Green Party of Canada Samuel Gridley Howe — abolitionist Ebenezer Kingsbury Hunt (1810–1889) — President of the Connecticut State Medical Society; director of the Retreat for the Insane Varsha Jain - UK Space doctor/researcher for women's health Mae Jemison (born 1956) — astronaut David Johnson — American swimmer Stuart Kauffman (born 1939) — biologist John Keats — poet and author John Harvey Kellogg — cereal manufacturer Charles Krauthammer (1950–2018) — columnist and political commentator Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) — based his system of criminology on physiognomy John McAndrew (1927–2013) — All-Ireland Gaelic Footballer June McCarroll — inventor of lane markings Pat McGeer — Canadian basketball player James McHenry (1753–1816) — signer of the United States Constitution Archibald Menzies — naturalist Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) — proponent of mesmerism and the idea of animal magnetism Jonathan Miller (1934–2019) — television presenter and stage director Paul Möhring (1710–1792) — zoologist, botanist Maria Montessori — educator Boris V. Morukov — cosmonaut Lee "Final Table" Nelson — professional poker player Haing S. Ngor — Oscar-winning film actor Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (1758–1840) — astronomer Dinesh Palipana — physician with disability and advocate Roza Papo — army general James Parkinson — physician, geologist, political activist Claude Perrault — architect Christian Hendrik Persoon — South African botanist Pope John XXI — pope Scott Powell — co-founder of the nostalgia group Sha Na Na Weston A. Price — traveler, educator Syed Ziaur Rahman — physician and medical scientist John Ray — plant taxonomer Prathap C. Reddy Bradbury Robinson — threw the first legal forward pass in American football history while a medical student at St. Louis University Peter Mark Roget — English lexicographer Jacques Rogge — sports official Mowaffak al-Rubaie — human rights advocate, member of the Interim Iraqi Governing Council Benjamin Rush — signer of the United States Constitution Daniel Rutherford (1749–1819) — chemist Bendapudi Venkata Satyanarayana Félix Savart — physicist Albert Schweitzer — humanist Michael Servetus (1511–1553) — burnt at the stake by Calvinists for heresy Paul Sinha — British comedian Rob Sitch — Australian comedian Sócrates (1954–2011, Sócrates Brasileiro Sampaio de Souza Vieira de Oliveira) — Brazilian football (soccer) player James Hudson Taylor (1832–1905) — British missionary to China and founder of the China Inland Mission Norman Earl Thagard — astronaut Debi Thomas (born 1967) — Olympic figure skater William E. Thornton — astronaut John Tidwell — American basketball player Nasiruddin al-Tusi — astronomer Andrew Wakefield — conducted studies on disputed link between vaccines and neurodevelopmental disorders, which had many serious consequences William Walker — Latin American adventurer Moshe Wallach (1866–1957) — founder and director of Shaare Zedek Hospital, Jerusalem, for 45 years John Clarence Webster — Canadian historian Wilhelm Weinberg — with G. H. Hardy, developed the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium model of population genetics JPR Williams — rugby union player Hugh Williamson — American patriot, statesman, Surgeon General of SC Thomas Young — scientist See also List of fictional physicians List of psychiatrists List of neurologists and neurosurgeons List of presidents of the Royal College of Physicians List of Iraqi physicians List of Russian physicians and psychologists List of Slovenian physicians List of Turkish physicians References
647989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20Counties%20Railway	Eastern Counties Railway	The Eastern Counties Railway (ECR) was an English railway company incorporated in 1836 intended to link London with Ipswich via Colchester, and then extend to Norwich and Yarmouth. Construction began in 1837 on the first nine miles at the London end. Construction was beset by engineering and other problems, leading to severe financial difficulties. As a result, the project was truncated at Colchester in 1843 but through a series of acquisitions (including the Eastern Union Railway who completed the link between Colchester and Norwich) and opening of other lines, the ECR became the largest of the East Anglian railways. In 1862 ECR was merged with a number of other companies to form the Great Eastern Railway. Opening In 1835 a surveyor called Henry Sayer presented a plan for a new railway from London to York via Cambridge to London solicitors Dimes & Boyman. Together with John Clinton Robertson who was to become the first secretary of the ECR and engineers John Braithwaite it was concluded that this scheme was too optimistic and a scheme from London to Norwich via Colchester and Ipswich would be more viable. A tour of the key towns on the route followed where considerable opposition from landowners, from sections of the press and members of the public was encountered. Despite this the prospectus of the Grand Eastern Counties Railway was first prepared in 1834 by John Braithwaite. The bill was introduced into the House of Commons on 19 February 1836, and after a stormy passage (two rival schemes had also surfaced in the interim as well as continuing opposition from land owners), it was authorised by an Act of Parliament on 4 July 1836. Construction of the line began in late March 1837 and progress east of Stratford was relatively easy as the land was largely arable. Indeed, a good number of windmills had to be demolished in order to get the railway built. West of Stratford the line had to cross the unstable Bow Marshes and after that, the built-up nature of the area meant that the railway had to be built on expensive viaducts. The two-track railway opened on 20 June 1839 from a temporary terminus at in Mile End, Middlesex, as far as in Essex. On opening day, two trains topped and tailed by locomotives proceeded along the line watched by crowds of people. Guests of the company enjoyed a sumptuous banquet at Romford enlivened by the sound of cannon and the band of the Coldstream Guards. The strain of building the initial line and continuing disputes with landowners continued to take its toll on the company's finances. ECR backers in Norfolk and Suffolk were demanding work start in their area and the company was forced to go to Parliament to increase its capital, although this move was rejected. Later in 1839 shareholders made a call for £3 per share should be made (in effect an additional payment by them) although this was reduced to £2 per share in January 1840 which released enough money for the ECR to continue construction. On 1 July 1840 the ECR opened an extension at the London end to its permanent terminus at Shoreditch (renamed Bishopsgate in 1846) and at the country end to . The line between Stratford and Shoreditch was, from 15 September 1840, used by trains of the Northern and Eastern Railway whose line to Broxbourne opened although at first the N&ER trains were not permitted to call at Stratford. By 1840 it was clear that additional money would be required to complete the ECR line to Colchester. This stretch included 64 bridges or viaducts in addition to numerous culverts, embankments and cuttings. A successful application for more capital was made to parliament and work continued. The winter of 1841 proved very wet and delayed work even further. Finally, on 25 February 1843, a special inspection train left Shoreditch for Colchester. However, the train was stopped at Brentwood as a timber viaduct at Mountnessing had subsided and it was unsafe to continue. On 7 March 1843 goods trains started operation followed by the commencement of passenger services on 29 March. The costs were as follows: The line ran to , a distance of 51 miles to Shoreditch station; the route is now part of the Great Eastern Main Line. Development In 1843 the ECR directors were approached with a proposal to build a line from Stratford to the River Thames with the intention of sending out agricultural produce by rail with coal forming the bulk of the traffic the other way. A bill became before Parliament sponsored by the Eastern Counties, Stratford & Thames Junction Railway Company and it was the ECR that built the line through to opening on 14 June 1847. As mentioned above the N&ER had built a line from Stratford – Broxbourne and shared the ECR Shoreditch terminus. This railway had extended to in 1842 and in 1843 and was in the process of extending its line towards . Following on from negotiations in 1843, the ECR took over operation of the N&ER from 1 January 1844 paying rent and dividing the profits until this railway was finally acquired by the Great Eastern Railway in 1902. Following the acquisition of the N&ER the ECR concentrated on building the line towards Newport (Essex) and on 4 June 1844, Parliament passed an act authorising the ECR to extend to Cambridge and Brandon in Norfolk where an end on connection with the Norfolk Railway would offer a through route to . This route opened on 29 July 1845. In 1845 the ECR was surveying towards Ardleigh with the intention of extending to Harwich although this scheme failed to get parliamentary backing. Late in 1845 George Hudson was invited by the ECR shareholders to become chairman and an upswing in the lines finances resulted. Hudson then proposed various schemes designed to take the ECR towards York and Lincoln joining up with his North Midland Railway at South Milford. One scheme that came to fruition was the line from Peterborough via March to Ely which opened on 14 January 1847. Increasing passenger numbers at Bishopsgate (renamed from Shoreditch in 1846) saw that station extended in the same year. It is worth noting that the refusal of the ECR to extend northwards towards Ipswich, led to the formation of the Eastern Union Railway who opened their line between Colchester and Ipswich in 1846. Other ECR openings in 1847 included to Wisbech East on 3 May and on 17 August, Cambridge to St Ives where a junction with the East Anglian Railway's (EAR) St Ives to Huntingdon line was created. In fact the ECR operated the to line on behalf of the EAR, but it proved so unprofitable that they threatened to withdraw from the arrangement in October 1849. In the end operation by the ECR restarted with them paying the EAR 25 shillings per day to do so. The financial depression of 1847/1848 saw the ECR rein back some of its ambitions although the loop line from St Ives to was opened on 1 February 1848 and the ECR took over the working of the Norfolk Railway on 2 May which extended the ECR empire to Fakenham, Lowestoft and Great Yarmouth. Construction also started on a branch to in March 1847 and the first goods trains ran in August 1848 followed by the opening to passenger trains on 2 October of the same year. By 1849 things were starting to go wrong for the ECR chairman George Hudson and following his non-attendance at the AGM the shareholders, who had received a very small dividend, set up a committee to look into his financial management of the company. A short branch to Enfield was opened on 1 March 1849. This linked to the current station (then called Edmonton). Later the same month the to Fakenham line, the building of which had been started by the Norfolk Railway, was opened by the ECR on 20 March 1849. The ECR did not enjoy good relations with the London & Blackwall Railway. They had built the London & Blackwall Extension Railway from Stepney East which was supposed to have a junction with the ECR at Bow Junction. This was not connected and an ill-served interchange station called Victoria Park & Bow lasted until 1850. Both the L&BR and the ECR had been promoting railways to Tilbury and it was in September 1851 that the L&BR directors asked George Parker Bidder to approach the ECR with regard to a joint bill. There were no additions to the ECR network in 1850 and in 1851 a short branch from what is now Shepreth Branch Junction near Shelford to Shepreth was built. Back in 1848 Parliament granted authority to the Royston and Hitchin Railway to extend their line from Royston. Although Cambridge was its goal, Parliament sanctioned only an extension as far as Shepreth (as the Eastern Counties Railway had opposed the extension to Cambridge). The line was completed in 1851 and initially the GNR, who had leased the Royston and Hitchin Railway in the interim, ran a connecting horse-drawn omnibus service. This proved unsuccessful so the new line and the line to Hitchin were leased to the Eastern Counties Railway for 14 years, with a connection at Shepreth to enable the ECR to run trains from Cambridge to Hitchin. In 1852 the ECR took over operation of the East Anglian Railway. The company's property had been taken over by the receiver in June 1850 and the EAR was leased to the Great Northern Railway (GNR). The GNR had running powers over the ECR line between Peterborough, March and Wisbech (opened 1847). Unfortunately, they had not applied for running rights over the line that linked the ECR and EAR stations at Wisbech and the ECR refused access so that the passengers had to change stations by horse-bus. However, shareholder opposition within the GNR and EAR were the real reason why the GNR withdrew from the arrangement allowing the ECR to take over operation of the EAR. In 1853 the Eastern Union Railway was in serious financial trouble having built lines to Norwich, Bury St Edmunds (as the Ipswich and Bury Railway), Sudbury and had a branch to Harwich under construction. Negotiations began between the EUR and ECR and on 1 January 1854 the ECR took over the working of the EUR although this was not formally ratified until the Act of Parliament of 7 August 1854. The two companies did not formally merge until they amalgamated with other railways to form the Great Eastern Railway in 1862. The Harwich branch whilst built by the EUR was opened by the ECR, the following week on 15 August. The ECR also took over the Newmarket Railway in 1854 which linked Cambridge with Ipswich Bury St Edmunds. In 1854 the ECR/L&BR owned London Tilbury and Southend Railway started operating over the Forest Gate Junction to Bow Junction and onto . Early trains split at Stratford with a portion of the train to Bishopsgate station. A third line between Stratford and Bow Junction was built to help accommodate this traffic and ECR services had running rights into Fenchurch Street via the London and Blackwall Railway extension route. A line was also provided linking Victoria Park station on the North London Railway with Stratford Low Level and Stratford Market stations which was primarily for goods traffic. The Loughton branch of the ECR was opened on 22 August 1856 with a junction just north of Stratford on the Cambridge line. In 1859 the East Suffolk Railway finished building a series of lines in Suffolk and south east Norfolk. These were all taken over by the ECR on opening day 1 June 1859. The ECR line from Ipswich (East Suffolk Junction) to Woodbridge (at the south end of the ESR) also opened on this day giving a through route between Ipswich, Lowestoft and Great Yarmouth (South Town). The final railway opened by the ECR before the incorporation of the GER in 1862 took place on 12 April 1860 when the Leiston branch in East Suffolk was extended to Aldeburgh. Operations Accidents and incidents In September 1840, a train was in a rear-end collision with a passenger train at Old Ford, Middlesex. One person was killed. In November 1846, an Inquest was held at the New Inn, Roydon, yesterday week, on the body of Elizabeth Coleman, aged eleven years, who was killed upon the above line. The deceased was, it appeared, endeavouring to cross the line at a point near the Roydon station where the Lockroad crosses the line on a level, when she was struck by the buffer of a Cambridge train, and killed upon the spot. The jury returned a verdict of "Accidental death". The inquest would have taken place on Wednesday, 25 November 1846 In September 1853, a freight train came to a halt near , Suffolk, due to a defect on the locomotive. The driver of a second freight train ignored a red signal and consequently his train was in a rear-end collision with the first. Time interval working was in force. On 20 February 1860, a passenger train derailed at Tottenham when a tyre broke on the locomotive hauling it. Seven people were killed. Engine sheds and works The first engine shed was located at Whalebone Lane, Chadwell Heath opening in 1839 with the railway. Following the extension of the ECR to Brentwood in 1840, a "railway factory" at Romford (between the current stations of Chadwell Heath and (on the east side of the line) was built being fully operational by 1842. The most significant task the factory undertook was the gauge conversion of the ECR stock in 1844. As the ECR grew it became apparent that a new site would be needed and land was acquired at Stratford between the ECR Colchester line and the N&ER line to Cambridge. The N&ER had already established an engine shed at this location when their line to Broxbourne had opened in 1840. At this stage Stratford was a largely rural location with plenty of land being available and in connection with this move the ECR built 300 new houses for the work force. Stratford engine shed and Stratford Works initially shared this site and it was not until the 1860s that the GER moved the engine sheds to the other side of the Cambridge line. Various other engine sheds grew up around the expanding ECR network either being constructed by the ECR or the railways it took over; for example Ipswich engine shed which was built by the Eastern Union Railway. Locomotives Early Eastern Counties locomotives In order to build the line, the ECR purchased four 0-4-0 Ballast locomotives delivered in late 1838 and named Suffolk, Norfolk, Essex and Middlesex. These and the next six engines ordered were built by Braithwaite, Milner and Co. Six 2-2-0 locomotives (original numbers 1-6) were the first ECR passenger engines and had a poor reputation with regard to derailments. Braithwaite, Milner and Co supplied another similar locomotive in 1839 which was number 7. Two 0-4-0 goods engines (8 and 9) were also ordered from Braithwaite, Milner and Co in 1840 lasting until 1849 when they were sold. In 1841 Lancashire firm Jones, Turner and Evans supplied four 2-2-0 locomotives (Nos 12-15) which lasted until 1850. Later the same year Burys supplied two 0-4-2 passenger locomotives (Nos 10 and 11) to the ECR. Numbers 16 and 17 were 2-2-0 passenger singles ordered from Bury and Co and were in service in early 1842. Later in 1842 The ECR board ordered eight more Bury singles (numbers 18-26). Some of these engines survived until 1859/60. These were all the locomotives purchased before the acquisition of the Northern and Eastern Railway in 1844 and the gauge conversion of late 1844 when many of these engines were converted to UK standard gauge at the Romford factory. Locomotive fleet as at 1856 As described above, the ECR grew up in piecemeal fashion at times ordering its own locomotives, and then acquiring other companies' locomotives when the firms were taken over. This makes the history quite complex and the table below is an overview of the company's locomotives in 1856. Robert Sinclair After Gooch’s departure Robert Sinclair took over as Locomotive Superintendent. In 1858 he designed a small class of 2-4-0 (known as Z class) built by Rothwell and Co. These were locos numbered 301-306. As can be seen from the table above he inherited a mixed bag of locomotives and set out on a road of standardisation. Perhaps the best example of this was his Y class 2-4-0 introduced in 1859 which when building finished (in Great Eastern days and after Sinclair had departed the company) numbered 110 locomotives. Although the general design was the same the locomotives were built by a number of different companies including Kitsons, Vulcan and in 1865 (in GER days) the French railway firm Schneider at cie. The ECR sent the first Y class no 327 (an example built by Stephenson) to the 1862 International Exhibition where it caught the eye of the Egyptian government who ordered 11 similar locomotives. Sinclair’s only other design (for the ECR) was the five strong X class 2-4-0WT introduced in 1862 and built at Stratford Works. Numbered 120-124 (noting the similarly numbered locomotives in the above table had been renumbered or withdrawn) these were deployed on the line to North Woolwich. Carriages The Railway Act 1844 laid down standards for third-class carriages. Facilities were very spartan with wooden benches seating 46 passengers who could access the three compartments through three doors. The middle compartment seated 18 passengers whilst the end compartments seated 14 each. It is known that carriages were built at Stratford Works and Fairfield Works in Bow. An ECR first class carriage has survived and is part of the UK national collection. Goods traffic Goods traffic on the ECR was largely agricultural in nature. The table below shows a breakdown of the traffic carried week ending 6 May 1849. Innovations Use of steam excavating machine Railways in the UK were generally built by pick, shovel and large numbers of railway navvies. Engineer John Braithwaite deployed the first steam excavating machine used on a UK railway at Brentwood (exact date unknown but working in 1843). Two wheel pony truck The ECR was the first railway company to use a two-wheel pony truck, in 1859, using the design of American inventor Levi Bissell. This innovation was patented in the USA on 2 November 1858 and on 1 December 1858 in Great Britain. In the summer of 1859 the ECR fitted the truck to locomotive 248, a Kitsons built 2-4-0 of 1855, and it was reported that the ride of the locomotive was improved and wheel flange wear noticeably reduced. An early steam coach In 1849 the ECR introduced a steam rail motor called Enfield which worked on the Enfield Branch Line. This locomotive was a 2-2-0 locomotive and 36 seat four compartment coach on one frame and was built by William Bridges Adams in 1849 at Fairfield Works, Bow. It proved reasonably successful and in fact not long after delivery covered the 126-mile route from Bishopsgate to Norwich (via Cambridge) in a creditable (for the time) 3 hours 35 minutes. Enfield was later converted to a 2-2-2T locomotive as the difficulty of a combined locomotive/carriage (presumably too long for early turntables?) became apparent. Track gauge At the time of the railway's construction, there was no legislation dictating the choice of gauge. The ECR directors favoured the Great Western Railway's broad gauge of but, mainly on the grounds of cost, construction engineer John Braithwaite recommended a gauge of . The N&ER, which was planning to use the ECR between Stratford and Bishopsgate, was forced to adopt the same gauge. With the extension of the ECR in the early 1840s, it became apparent that was a better choice, and in September and October 1844 gauge conversion was carried out, along with the N&ER, which had merged with the ECR on 1 January 1844. People Railway organisation (1830/1840s) The directors were responsible for appointing staff whilst a finance committee decided the wages. The engineer was responsible for rolling stock and permanent way whilst the traffic manager dealt with operations. Stations were run by a police sergeant who had ticket clerks under them and they reported to a number of inspectors and an overall manager. Other policemen were responsible for the operation of points and signals as well as more familiar duties. Conductors were in charge of trains assisted by guards and a small number of porters. Locomotive superintendents John Hunter 1846-1850 John Viret Gooch 1850-1856 was dismissed for financial irregularities (details on that entry). Robert Sinclair 1856 – 1863 was the first Locomotive Superintendent of the Great Eastern Railway. Chairmen William Tite the architect, was the first chairman. 1836-1845 Henry Bosanquet – a director of the Westminster Bank 1845-1849 George Hudson Hudson was appointed chairman of the ailing Eastern Counties Railway in 1845 and one of his first actions was to appoint David Waddington as his vice chairman. Hudson was interested in the ECR as he felt it offered an opportunity for an alternative route from York to London although the truth was the ECR had an appalling reputation for time keeping and safety at this time; Hudson immediately ordered the payment of a generous dividend for the shareholders. Later investigation showed that whilst Hudson decided the levels of dividends to be paid to shareholders it was Waddington's job to doctor the traffic accounts to make it appear legally earned. Waddington also siphoned off £8,000 of the ECR's money into a parliamentary slush fund which strained relations between Hudson and Waddington. Hudson cut costs in a similar way on the North Midland Railway and an accident at Romford on 18 July 1846 led the satirical magazine Punch to petition Hudson to the effect that: "by reason of the misconduct, negligence and insobriety of drivers and sundry stokers, engineers, policemen, and others, your Majesty's subjects, various and several collisions, explosions and oversettings are continually taking place on the railways, your Majesty's dominion". 1849 -1850 Edward Ladd Betts – rail contractor and business partner of Samuel Morton Peto. 1851-1856 David Waddington – Waddington had been vice-chairman under the Hudson regime and was dismissed after investigation of financial irregularities along with Gooch. 1856-1862 Horatio Love – Love was the first chairman of the Great Eastern Railway between 1862 and 1863. Woolwich Ferry Following the opening of the line to North Woolwich the ECR ordered two ferries called Essex and Kent from Blyth & Co of Barking. The two wooden paddle steamers weighed 65 tons (gross), 78.5 feet long, 14.9 beam and 7.3 feet depth. The cost for each boat was £3,250. In June – August 1854 113,315 passengers used the ferry whilst a year later this had risen to 141,025. In 1856 the two ferries were overhauled at Blyth & Co and continued in use on the ferry for a number of years after the 1862 merger with the Great Eastern. Merger into the Great Eastern Railway Between 1851 and 1854 the ECR had under the chairmanship of David Waddington negotiated arrangements to work most of the other railways in East Anglia resulting in a network of lines totalling 565 miles. Whilst Parliament favoured competition it was also aware that the ECR was constantly at war with its neighbours and whilst these working arrangements were approved there was a condition that a bill for full amalgamation was to be presented to Parliament by 1861. Waddington departed under a cloud in 1856 and was replaced by Horatio Love. By 1860 many shareholders were unhappy listing several grievances they saw as getting in the way of their dividend payments. These included, continual conflict over the working of other lines, suspicion and distrust of the joint committee, inadequate services to and from London, on-going litigation and legal costs and a lack of progress on amalgamation. By February 1862 the bill had its second reading and was then followed by a lengthy committee process where various parties petitioned against the bill. On 7 August 1862 the bill passed and the Great Eastern Railway was formed by the amalgamation of the Eastern Counties Railway and a number of smaller railways. References Bibliography The Railway Year Book, 1912 Further reading Railway companies established in 1839 Railway companies disestablished in 1862 Early British railway companies Pre-grouping British railway companies History of rail transport in London 5 ft gauge railways in the United Kingdom British companies established in 1839
657363	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20serial%20killers%20by%20country	List of serial killers by country	This is a list of notable serial killers, by the country where most of the killings occurred. Convicted serial killers by country Afghanistan Abdullah Shah: killed at least twenty travelers on the road from Kabul to Jalalabad while serving under warlord Zardad Khan; also killed his wife; executed 2004. Argentina Marcelo Antelo: known as "The San La Muerte Killer"; drug addict who killed at least four people in Buenos Aires between February and August 2010, allegedly in the name of a pagan saint; sentenced to life imprisonment. Juan Catalino Domínguez: ranch hand who killed eight people around southeast Buenos Aires Province from 1944 to 1948 while on the run; shot dead by police in 1948. Florencio Fernández: known as "The Argentine Vampire"; killed 15 women in his hometown of Monteros, Tucumán Province, during the 1950s, died in jail in 1968. Dismissed as an urban legend by several Argentine sources. Cayetano Santos Godino: known as "Petiso Orejudo" ("Big Eared Midget"); at 16, killed four children in 1912; died in prison in 1944. Cayetano Domingo Grossi: the first known serial killer in Argentine history; Italian immigrant who murdered five of his newborn children between 1896 and 1898; executed in 1900. Francisco Antonio Laureana: known as "The Satyr of San Isidro"; murdered 15 women from 1974 to 1975 in the northern area of Greater Buenos Aires, raping 13 of them; killed in a shootout with the police in February 1975. Yiya Murano: known as "The Poisoner of Monserrat", poisoned three female acquaintances over borrowed money in Buenos Aires in 1979. Javier Hernán Pino: killed and robbed five people between February and October 2015 in three cities in different provinces across the country; sentenced to life imprisonment. Robledo Puch: known as "The Death Angel"; killed 11 people before his arrest in 1972; sentenced to life imprisonment in 1980. Australia John Balaban: known as "The Romanian Maniac"; Romanian emigrant who murdered at least five people in France and Australia from 1948 to 1953, including his wife and her family; executed in 1953. David and Catherine Birnie: responsible for "The Moorhouse Murders"; couple from the Perth suburb of Willagee who raped and murdered four women in 1986. Gregory Brazel: Victoria man who shot a woman to death in a 1982 armed robbery, and murdered two prostitutes in 1990. John Bunting, Robert Wagner and James Vlassakis: convicted of the Snowtown murders of 12 people between 1992 and 1999. Also known as the "Bodies in the Barrels Murders". Robert Francis Burns: Irish convict transported to Australia in 1862; confessed to eight killings; hanged in Ararat in 1883. Eric Edgar Cooke: known as "The Night Caller"; killed at least eight people and attempted to kill many more in and around Perth between 1959 and 1963; last person to be hanged in Western Australia. John Leslie Coombes: killed two men in 1984 and one woman in 2009 around the Victoria area. Bandali Debs: convicted of murdering two police officers and two prostitutes in the 1990s. Paula Denyer: known as "The Frankston Killer"; murdered three women in 1993 in the Melbourne suburb of Frankston; sentenced to life imprisonment. Peter Dupas: serving three life sentences for multiple murder and rape charges in Victoria. Bradley Robert Edwards: responsible for the "Claremont serial killings"; killed at least two women Claremont from 1996 to 1997; suspect in the disappearance of a third; sentenced to life imprisonment. Kathleen Folbigg: murdered four of her infants between 1991 and 1999. Leonard Fraser: known as "The Rockhampton Rapist"; convicted of killing four women in Rockhampton, Queensland. John Wayne Glover: known as "The Granny Killer"; killed six elderly women on Sydney's North Shore; committed suicide in 2005. Caroline Grills: known as "Auntie Thally"; a serial poisoner of five family members in New South Wales between 1947 and 1953. Paul Steven Haigh: sentenced to life imprisonment without parole for the murders of seven people in Victoria in the late 1970s. Matthew James Harris: strangled a friend's brother, a female friend, and a male neighbor to death over five weeks in 1998 in Wagga Wagga. Thomas Jeffries: Tasmanian penal colony escapee responsible for the murders of five people; executed in 1826. Frances Knorr: known as "The Baby Farming Murderess"; English-born baby farmer who killed three infants; executed 1894. Eddie Leonski: known as "The Brownout Strangler"; United States Army soldier who killed three women in Melbourne; executed in 1942. John Lynch: known as "The Berrima Axe Murderer"; killed ten people from 1835 to 1841. William MacDonald: known as "The Mutilator"; English immigrant who killed at least five men between June 1961 and April 1963 throughout Sydney. John and Sarah Makin: late 19th century baby farmers who killed and buried 12 children at a succession of their homes. Malachi Martin: convicted of killing Jane Macmanamin and suspected of murdering four additional people as well as being implicated in the suspicious death of his mother; hanged at the Adelaide Gaol in 1862. Ivan Milat: killed at least seven tourists in Belanglo State Forest, New South Wales between 1989 and 1993, which became known as the "Backpacker Murders"; suspected in similar disappearances in Newcastle. Martha Needle: known as "The Black Widow of Richmond," poisoner of four family members and her boyfriend's brother; executed in 1894. Alexander Pearce: Irish convict who escaped with seven other convicts from imprisonment in Van Diemen's Land; five of them were killed and cannibalised, leaving Pearce the only one left; hanged 1824. Derek Percy: murdered a child in 1969, but also linked to the deaths of eight other children in the 60s; died in prison from lung cancer. Martha Rendell: killed three stepchildren with hydrochloric acid in 1907–08; last woman to be hanged in Western Australia. Lindsey Robert Rose: New South Wales serial and contract killer who murdered five people between 1984 and 1994. 'Snowy' Rowles: committed the "Murchison Murders"; stockman who murdered three people using a method from a then unpublished book of author Arthur Upfield. Albert Schmidt: known as "The Wagga Murderer"; German immigrant who murdered at least three travelling companions from 1888 to 1890; executed for one murder in 1890. Arnold Sodeman: known as "The School-girl Strangler"; killed four children in Melbourne in the 1930s. Executed at Pentridge Prison, Coburg, on 1 June 1936. John Whelan: Tasmanian penal colony escapee responsible for the murders of five people; executed in 1855. Christopher Worrell and James Miller: known as "The Truro Murderers"; were convicted of killing seven people in 1976–1977. Austria Elfriede Blauensteiner: known as "The Black Widow"; poisoner of three individuals; died in prison in 2003. Max Gufler: poisoned and drowned women; convicted of four murders and two attempted murders, but believed to have committed 18; died 1966. Dariusz Kotwica: known as "The Euro Ripper"; Polish vagrant who murdered at least three pensioners in Austria and Sweden in 2015; suspected of more murders in the Netherlands, Czech Republic and the United Kingdom; sentenced to involuntary commitment. Lainz Angels of Death: four nurses at the Lainz General Hospital in Vienna who admitted to murdering 49 patients between 1983 and 1989. Martha Marek: poisoned three family members and a lodger in her house with thallium between 1932 and 1937; executed 1938. Wolfgang Ott: sex offender and suspected serial killer who kidnapped several women in 1995, killing two of them; sentenced to life imprisonment in 1996. Harald Sassak: gasworks employee who between 1971 and 1972 killed six people for the purpose of robbery; died from an undisclosed illness in 2013. Hugo Schenk: known as "The Viennese Housemaids Killer"; swindler who killed four maids in 1883 with his accomplice Karl Schlossarek; suspected of more murders; executed 1884. Franz Schmidt: killed a young girl in Innsbruck in 1957, later released and committed a double murder in Redlham in 1984; suspected of a child murder in 1982; sentenced to life, released in 2013. Jack Unterweger: author and sexual sadist; convicted of ten murders; believed to have killed 12 women; committed suicide in prison in 1994. Guido Zingerle: known as "The Monster of Tyrol"; Italian who brutally raped women in Italy and Austria between 1946 and 1950, killing at least two by burying them under a pile of stones; died in prison in 1962. The Bahamas Cordell Farrington: killed four children and his homosexual lover from 2002 to 2003; sentenced to death and later commuted to life imprisonment. Michaiah Shobek: known as "The Angels of Lucifer Killer"; American emigrant who murdered three fellow US tourists from 1973 to 1974; executed 1976. Bangladesh Roshu Kha: enraged over rejection by his lover, Roshu killed at least 11 garment workers in Chandpur District. He pretended to love them, later killing them brutally. Ershad Sikder: career criminal and corrupt politician responsible for the torture-murders of numerous people in the 1990s; convicted on seven counts of murder and executed in 2004. Belarus Ivan Kulesh: drunkard who killed three saleswomen between 2013 and 2014 in the Grodno Region; executed 2016. Yuri Kurilsky: known as "The Monster with the Black Volga"; raped and killed two women and one teenager around the Vitebsk Region from 2004 to 2005; executed 2007. Eduard Lykov: Russian immigrant who killed five people in drunken quarrels from 2002 to 2011; executed in 2014. Gennady Mikhasevich: police volunteer who investigated his own mission-oriented murders of 36 women between 1971 and 1985; executed in 1987. Igor Mirenkov: known as "The Svietlahorsk Nightmare"; child killer who murdered six boys from 1990 to 1993; executed in 1996. Sergey Pugachev and Alexander Burdenko: leaders of "The Polotsk Four"; criminals responsible for killing two girls and two car enthusiasts from 2001 to 2002, as well as numerous robberies with two other accomplices; Pugachev was executed in 2005 and Burdenko was sentenced to life imprisonment. Alexander Sergeychik: killed six people from 2000 to 2006 in the Shchuchyn and Grodno Districts; confessed to 12 murders; executed 2007. Belgium Marie Alexandrine Becker: poisoned at least 11 people with Digitalis; sentenced to life imprisonment; died 1938. Michel Bellen: known as "The Strangler of the Left Bank"; raped and killed four women in Leuven between 1964 and 1982; died in prison from heart failure in 2020. Jan Caubergh: strangled his pregnant neighbour, his girlfriend and their child in 1979; sentenced to death but it was converted to life imprisonment; was the longest-serving prisoner in the country until his death in 2013. Étienne Dedroog: known as "The Lodgers' Killer"; killed a B&B owner in France and a couple in Belgium from October to November 2011; also suspected of a murder in Spain; sentenced to life imprisonment. Marc Dutroux: convicted of having kidnapped, tortured and sexually abused six girls ranging in age from 8 to 19, during 1995 and 1996. Four of his victims were murdered; the final two were rescued. Staf Van Eyken: known as "The Vampire of Muizen"; raped and strangled three women from 1971 to 1972 in Muizen and Bonheiden; sentenced to death, commuted to life imprisonment. Renaud Hardy: known as "The Parkinson's Murderer"; murdered between two and three women in the Flemish Community from 2009 to 2015; sentenced to life imprisonment. Ronald Janssen: killed a woman in 2007 and later his neighbour and her boyfriend in 2010 in Flemish Brabant; admitted to five rapes committed in 1993, but is suspected of 20; sentenced to life imprisonment in 2011. Marie-Thérèse Joniaux: poisoned three of her family members between 1894 and 1895; sentenced to death in 1895, but was commuted to life imprisonment; died in Antwerp in 1923. Junior Kabunda: known as "The Monster of Brussels"; murdered pianist Benjamin Rawitz-Castel in 2006 during a robbery, later killing his daughter and her grandmother in 2009; sentenced to life imprisonment. András Pándy: known as "Vader Blauwbaard" (Father Bluebeard); Hungarian immigrant convicted of the murder and rape of his two wives and four children in Brussels between 1986 and 1990 with the aid of his daughter, Ágnes Pándy; died in prison in 2013. Nestor Pirotte: known at "The Crazy Killer"; considered one of the worst Belgian criminals, responsible for the murders of up to seven people from 1954 to 1981, including his great-aunt; died from a heart attack in 2000. Bolivia Ramiro Artieda: killed his brother in the early 1920s for monetary purposes; emigrated to the United States, but later returned and killed seven women until 1938; was arrested in 1939, confessed and was executed by firing squad. Bosnia and Herzegovina Edin Gačić: shot and killed four people between 1998 and 2019, among them his mother and a police officer; killed by security forces in 2019. Brazil José Augusto do Amaral: known as "Preto Amaral"; first documented Brazilian serial killer; suspected of murdering and then raping the corpses of three young men in São Paulo in 1926; died from tuberculosis while imprisoned before he could be put on trial. Marcelo Costa de Andrade: known as "The Vampire of Niterói"; raped and killed fourteen children. Marcelo de Jesus Silva: known as "Chucky"; dwarf man convicted of twenty counts of murder, robbery, drug trafficking and death squad. Luiz Baú: known as "The Monster of Erechim"; schizophrenic who murdered and mutilated a boy in 1975; imprisoned, but escaped in 1980, committing four more murders in four days; recaptured, but escaped yet again, with his ultimate fate unknown. José Paz Bezerra: known as "The Morumbi Monster"; sexually violated, tortured and murdered more than 20 women in São Paulo and Pará during the 1960s and 1970s; sentenced to 30 years imprisonment and released in 2001. Fortunato Botton Neto: known as "The Trianon Maniac"; male prostitute who stabbed and strangled between three and thirteen clients in São Paulo from 1986 to 1989; sentenced to 8 years in prison, dying behind bars in 1997. Febrônio Índio do Brasil: delusional religious maniac and habitual criminal who murdered at least six people from 1925 to 1927, mostly young boys and teens; acquitted by reason of insanity and sent to a mental institution, in which he died in 1984 from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Abraão José Bueno: Rio de Janeiro nurse who killed four child patients; sentenced to 110 years imprisonment in 2005. Francisco das Chagas Rodrigues de Brito: pedophile who sexually abused, murdered and mutilated between 30 and 42 young boys from 1989 to 2003 in Maranhão and Pará; sentenced to 217 years imprisonment. Pedro Rosa da Conceição: Brazilian mass murderer who killed three people and wounded thirteen others on April 22, 1904. Killed his cellmate and a guard in 1911, and is said to have murdered a family of 12 people in an unspecified date and year. Died in 1919. Pedro Rodrigues Filho: known as "Pedrinho Matador"; convicted and sentenced to 128 years imprisonment for 70 murders; however, the maximum one can serve in Brazil is 30 years; claimed to have killed more than 100 victims, including 40 prison inmates. Roneys Fon Firmino Gomes: known as "The Tower Maniac"; murdered at least six prostitutes in the city of Maringá between 2005 and 2015, disposing of their bodies under electric towers; sentenced to 21 years imprisonment. Paulo José Lisboa: known as "The Chain Maniac"; killed five prostitutes in the 1980s; fled prison in 1998 and killed six more in Espírito Santo until his arrest in 2008; imprisoned but paroled in 2017, living as a free man until his death in 2022. Francisco de Assis Pereira: known as "O Maníaco do Parque" (The Park Maniac); arrested for the torture, rape and death of 11 women and for assaulting nine in a park in São Paulo during the 1990s. Tiago Henrique Gomes da Rocha: security guard who has claimed to have killed 39 people in the state of Goiás. Edson Izidoro Guimarães: nurse who killed four patients in the Rio de Janeiro neighborhood of Méier; suspected of 131 deaths in total. Paulo Sérgio Guimarães da Silva: known as "The Cassino Maniac"; fisherman who attacked couples in Rio Grande do Sul between 1998 and 1999, killing seven; sentenced to 184 years imprisonment. José Vicente Matias: former artisan who raped, murdered and dismembered six women between 1999 and 2005, cannibalizing one of them; sentenced to 23 years imprisonment. Florisvaldo de Oliveira: known as "Cabo Bruno"; former police officer accused of more than 50 murders on the outskirts of São Paulo in 1982; murdered by unknown assailants in 2012. Sebastião Antônio de Oliveira: known as "The Monster of Bragança"; mentally-ill man who murdered five children and raped at least eight between 1953 and 1975; committed suicide before trial in 1976. Laerte Patrocínio Orpinelli: known as "The Bicycle Maniac"; vagrant who raped, tortured and killed children around São Paulo from 1990 to 1999; suspected in hundreds of murders; sentenced to 100 years, died in prison. Diogo Figueira da Rocha: career criminal responsible for at least 50 murders between 1894 and 1897 around São Paulo; supposedly killed in a shootout with the police in 1897. José Ramos: known as "The Butcher of Rua de Arvoredo"; together with his wife and another accomplice (whom he later killed), lured at least eight men into his Porto Alegre house between 1863 and 1864, killing and dismembering them; allegedly made the remains into sausages which he sold at his shop; died in hospital in 1893. Leandro Basílio Rodrigues: known as "The Guarulhos Maniac"; strangled at least five women in Guarulhos from 2007 to 2008, raping their corposes afterwards; sentenced to 111 years imprisonment. Orlando Sabino: known as "The Monster of Capinópolis"; suspected of murdering 12 people in several municipalities around Minas Gerais and Goiás; died from a heart attack in 2013. Anísio Ferreira de Sousa: gynecologist from Altamira who was convicted of the murder of three children but linked to the disappearance of a total of 19. Jorge Luiz Thais Martins: former Military Firefighters Corps colonel who killed nine drug addicts from August 2010 and January 2011 to avenge the death of his son. Marcos Antunes Trigueiro: known as "The Industrial Maniac"; former taxi driver who killed five women from 2009 to 2010 in Contagem and Belo Horizonte. Bulgaria Sokrat Kirshveng: known as "The Killer with the Adze"; murdered two of his lovers in 1919, for which he was sentenced to death; commuted to 17 years imprisonment, and upon release in 1937, murdered his aunt and uncle-in-law; executed in 1937. Lenko Latkov: murdered three elderly women in Haskovo Province from 1999 to 2000 and raped two children; suspected in another three killings in Plovdiv Province; murdered by his cellmate in 2003. Mihail Leshtarski: known as "The Killer from the Cave"; habitual thief who lived in the mountains, suspected of murdering at least five elderly pensioners from 2009 to 2011; convicted of one murder and sentenced to life imprisonment. Ludwig Tolumov and Ivan Serafimov: known as "The Sour and The Sweet"; criminal duo jointly responsible for three murders from May to July 2000; Serafimov, solely responsible for a 1996 murder, was later murdered by Tolumov, who was himself arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment. Canada Gerald Thomas Archer: known as "The London Chambermaid Slayer"; killed three female hotel employees in his hometown of London, Ontario between 1969 and 1971; died of a heart attack in 1995. Paul Bernardo: known as "The Scarborough Rapist"; a Toronto serial rapist who killed three teenage girls (including his wife's sister) with the aid of his wife Karla Homolka. Wayne Boden: known as "The Vampire Rapist"; killed four women between 1968 and 1971; died in prison 2006. Camille Cléroux: murdered two wives and a neighbour in Ottawa between 1990 and 2010; sentenced to life imprisonment; died in prison 2021. John Martin Crawford: convicted in 1996 for the murders of three women in Saskatoon; died in prison 2020. Léopold Dion: known as "The Monster of Pont-Rouge"; raped and killed four young boys in 1960. Murdered in 1972 by a fellow prison inmate. William Patrick Fyfe: convicted of killing five women in Montreal between 1979 and 1999; suspect in several other murders. Russell Maurice Johnson: known as "The Bedroom Strangler"; convicted of raping and murdering three women in the 1970s; total number of victims later found to be higher. Gilbert Paul Jordan: known as "The Boozing Barber", killed between eight and ten women by alcohol poisoning in Vancouver; died in 2006. Simmi Kahlon: Indian immigrant who murdered her three newborn children in Calgary between 2005 and 2009; died from complications in childbirth before crimes were discovered. Joseph LaPage: known as "The French Monster"; murdered four women in Canada and the US from 1867 to 1875; executed 1878. Cody Legebokoff: one of Canada's youngest serial killers, convicted of murdering three women and a teenage girl around Prince George, British Columbia between 2009 and 2010. Allan Legere: known as "The Monster of the Miramichi"; killer of five individuals. Bruce McArthur: Toronto man who killed and dismembered eight men between 2010 and 2017; sentenced to life in prison in 2019. Michael Wayne McGray: killed seven people, including a woman and child and a cellmate, claims to have killed eleven others. Dellen Millard: convicted of murdering three people, including his father; two were killed with help from accomplice Mark Smich. Clifford Olson: murdered eleven children in British Columbia in the early 1980s; died in prison 2011. Robert Pickton: Port Coquitlam, British Columbia man charged with the first degree murders of 26 women; allegedly confessed to 49 murders; convicted December 9, 2007 of six charges; reduced to second degree murder. Yves Trudeau: known as "The Mad Bumper"; former member of an outlaw motorcycle gang took part in 43 murders between 1973 and 1985; died of bone-marrow cancer in 2008. Elizabeth Wettlaufer: registered nurse who murdered eight senior citizens in Ontario with fatal injections of insulin, and gave non-fatal injections to six others, between 2007 and 2016. Russell Williams: former Colonel of the Canadian Forces; killed two women and is suspected of murdering a third; sentenced to life imprisonment. Peter Woodcock: murdered three children in 1956 and 1957 in Toronto and a fellow psychiatric institute patient in 1991; died while incarcerated in 2010. Chile Émile Dubois: French-born murderer and folk hero who's revered as "The Chilean Robin Hood" for killing alleged usurers; executed in 1907. Catalina de los Ríos y Lisperguer: known as "La Quintrala"; 17th century landowner tried for over 40 murders; died 1665. Julio Pérez Silva: known as "The Psychopath from Alto Hospicio", sentenced to life imprisonment for murdering 14 women from 1998 to 2001. Jorge Sagredo and Carlos Topp: known as "The Viña del Mar Psychopaths"; committed ten murders and four rapes from 1980 to 1981 in Viña del Mar; executed 1985; they were the last people executed in Chile. People's Republic of China Bai Baoshan: robber who attacked several police stations in three provinces; killed 15 people; executed 1998. Chen Yongfeng: killed and dismembered 10 male scrap merchants in Wenzhou between February and May 2003; executed 2004. Cheng Ruilong: fugitive robber who killed between 11 and 13 people in six provinces between 1996 and 2005, including police officers; executed 2010. Dong Wenyu: burglar-rapist who killed six people during break-ins between March and May 2006; also raped the female victims' corpses; executed 2007. Duan Guocheng: known as "The Red Dress Killer"; murdered 13 women in Wuhan between 1999 and 2001; sentenced to life in prison. Fa Ziying and Lao Rongzhi: killed 7 people between 1996 and 1999; Fa was executed in 1999, while Lao was sentenced to death in 2021. Hu Daoping: killed seven people under the alias Wu Jun during robberies between 2003 and 2005; executed 2006. Hua Ruizhuo: killed 14 prostitutes in Beijing between 1998 and 2001 out of hatred for them, after learning that a former girlfriend was one; executed 2002. Jia Jianhu: killed 12 prostitutes in six provinces from 1998 to 2003, to "take revenge" on society; executed 2004. Li Guangjun: raped, robbed and killed six women along the China National Highway 310 between September and November 2006, after going on the run for murdering his wife's sister in February; sentenced to death. Li Pingping: committed a triple murder in 1995; after that, between 2002 and 2003, stabbed and mutilated four prostitutes in Beijing while working as a taxi driver; executed 2004. Li Shikang: killed six people and wounded 17 others with letter bombs sent to medical staff for whom he blamed for not curing his sexually transmitted disease. Li Yijiang: killed seven people in the early 2000s; shot in 2004. Liu Pengli: 2nd century BC Han prince; one of the earliest serial killers attested by historical sources. Long Zhimin: together with his wife Yan Shuxia, lured in and subsequently murdered 48 people in his home for various reasons between 1983 and 1985; both executed 1985. Gao Chengyong: known as "The Chinese Jack the Ripper", killed 11 women between 1988 and 2002 in Baiyin and Inner Mongolia; executed 2019. Gong Runbo: found guilty of the murders of six children and teenagers aged between 9 and 16 from 2005 to 2006 in Jiamusi; executed 2007. Huang Yong: between September 2001 and 2003 killed at least 17 teenage boys; executed in 2003. Shen Changyin and Shen Changping: found guilty of the murders of 11 prostitutes between 1999 and 2004 in Lanzhou and Taiyuan; sentenced to death in 2005. Song Jinghua: along with accomplice Yan Jinguang; robbed, murdered and dismembered nine women in Beijing between 2005 and 2007, in apparent revenge for his brothers death; executed 2011. Wang Qiang: 45 murder victims and ten rapes; executed on 17 November 2005. Wang Zongfang and Wang Zongwei: known as "Er Wang"; murderers who killed soldiers using guns and grenades in Hunan, Hubei and Jiangsu; killed by armed forces in 1983. Yang Xinhai: known as "The Monster Killer"; confessed to killing 65 people between 2000 and 2003; executed in 2004. Zhang Jun: robber who killed 28 people from 1993 to 2000 throughout China with accomplices; captured and executed in 2001. Zhang Yongming: killed 11 males between March 2008 and April 2012; executed in 2013. Zhao Zhihong: known as "The Smiling Killer"; raped and killed six women in Inner Mongolia between 1996 and 2005; confessed to a murder for which an innocent man was executed; executed 2019. Zhou Kehua: former soldier who targeted ATM users; killed ten people in Jiangsu and Chongqing and evaded the law for eight years, before being killed in 2012 in a shootout with police after a year-long manhunt. Zhou Wen: known as "The Taxi Demon"; taxi driver who murdered six female passengers in the summer of 2003, dumping their bodies along open ground roadside holes within the city of Anshan; arrested November 2003. Zhou Youping: karaoke singer who strangled men during sex games in Changsha from October to November 2009; executed 2014. Colombia Andrés Leonardo Achipiz: known as "The Fish"; psychopathic hired killer who killed between 30 and 35 people in Bogotá from 2009 to 2013. José William Aranguren: bandit who murdered approximately 115 people in three municipalities from 1956 to 1964; killed by commandos on a farm in 1964, along with his three accomplices. Daniel Camargo Barbosa: known as "The Sadist of El Charquito", who is believed to have raped and killed over 150 young girls in Colombia and Ecuador during the 1970s and 1980s. Jairo Alexander Beltrán Castañeda: known as "El Monstruo de Llana" (The Monster of the Plains); kidnapper who murdered a woman in Meta in 2015; suspected of at least three other murders, after bodies were found in mass graves; currently incarcerated. Manuel Octavio Bermúdez: known as "El Monstruo de los Cañaduzales" (The Monster of the Cane Fields); confessed to raping and killing at least 21 children in remote areas of Colombia. Black Widow Gang: group of predominantly women who lured and then killed at least three men for life insurance in Antioquia between 2008 and 2011; imprisoned. Esneda Ruiz Cataño: known as "The Predator"; murdered three husbands for life insurance between 2001 and 2010. Tomás Maldonado Cera: known as "The Satanist"; murdered between seven and ten people in satanic rituals in Barranquilla. Cristopher Chávez Cuellar: known as "The Soulless"; killed six people, including four underage brothers, in 2015; suspected of at least 15 murders dating back to the 1990s; sentenced to 40 years imprisonment. Luis Garavito: known as "The Beast"; admitted to murder and rape of 140 young boys in the 1990s. Rubén Villalobos Herrera: known as "The Black Canes Monster"; necrophile who raped and murdered nine women from 2012 to 2017; currently awaiting trial. María Concepción Ladino: known as "The Killer Witch"; defrauded and murdered six people from 1994 to 1998; sentenced to 40 years imprisonment. Pedro López: known as "The Monster of the Andes"; claimed to have raped and killed more than 300 girls across South America between 1969 and 1980. Jaime Iván Martínez: known as "The Guarne Killer"; killed at least four people in Guarne from 2005 to 2016, including his wife and two children; sentenced to 42 years imprisonment. Nepomuceno Matallana: fraudster convicted of a 1947 murder of a merchant, but suspected of other murders; died 1960 from bronchitis combined with heart failure. Luis Alberto Malagón Suárez: known as "The Sadist of Rincón"; kidnapped, raped, and killed five girls from 1995 to 1997 in Suba; imprisoned in 2012 for the 2001 murder of his wife. Élver James Melchor Bañol: known as "The Predator of Picaleña"; serial child rapist who murdered a girl in Tolima in 2019, after being released on parole for three similar murders and sex crimes; sentenced to 60 years imprisonment. John Jairo Moreno Torres: known as "Johnny the Leper"; gang leader who brutally murdered at least four people between 1997 and 1998 in Bogotá; murdered in prison by several inmates in 1998. Harlis Alexis Murillo Moreno: sex offender who killed two women in Cali and Bucaramanga in 2017; suspected of two more murders in Bogotá; sentenced to 36 years imprisonment. Yadira Narváez: known as "The Queen of Scopolamine"; poisoned between five and six men with Carbofuran in 2011, but confessed to other murders; sentenced to 100 years imprisonment. Hernando Arturo Prada: known as "The Angel of Death"; criminal who killed at least 10 people in Bucaramanga during the 1990s; killed by a paramilitary group in 2000 after hijacking a plane. Diego Fernando Ramírez: known as "The Butcher of Buga"; cattle rancher who murdered two men in January 2007 in the rural town of Buga; suspected in other similar disappearances from 2006. Luis Gregorio Ramírez Maestre: killed 30 motorists in various municipalities; captured in 2012; expected to be released in 2032. Fredy Armando Valencia: known as "The Monster of Monserrate"; raped and strangled at least nine drug-addicted women in the Eastern Hills region between 2012 and 2014; confessed to more murders; sentenced to 36 years imprisonment. Costa Rica Adrián Arroyo Gutiérrez: known as "The Southern Psychopath"; raped and strangled between six and eleven drug-addicted prostitutes in San José; sentenced to 110 years imprisonment. Croatia Milka Pavlović: milkmaid who poisoned her husband and other peasants with arsenic in Stari Pavljani between March and July 1934; executed 1935. Vinko Pintarić: murdered five people, including his wife, between 1973 and 1990; escaped from custody three times, killed in a 1991 shootout with the police. Cyprus Nikos Metaxas: Cypriot Army officer who killed five women and two children between September 2016 and August 2018 in the so-called Mitsero murders; sentenced to life imprisonment. Czech Republic Oto Biederman: member of "The Kolínský Gang" who murdered five people from 1993 to 1995, including a former accomplice; sentenced to life imprisonment. Jan Philopon Dambrovský: Roman Catholic priest who poisoned four archbishops in the 16th-century; arrested and later executed. Jaroslava Fabiánová: murdered four men between 1981 and 2003 for financial reasons; sentenced to life imprisonment. Ladislav Hojer: sadist who raped and strangled at least five women from 1978 to 1981 around Czechoslovakia; executed 1986. Kateřina z Komárova: 16th-century noblewoman who tortured and maimed between 14 and 30 serfs in Pičín and Příbram; exiled to Prague Castle, where she died in March 1534. Václav Mrázek: convicted of the murders of seven women around Chomutov; executed in 1957. Martin Lecián: responsible for killing three policemen and a prison officer; executed in 1927. Orlík killers: five-man gang who killed people for monetary gain from 1991 to 1993, then stuffed their bodies in barrels and dumped them in dams; sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. Hubert Pilčík: killed at least five people whom he helped cross the border from Czechoslovakia into West Germany; committed suicide in prison in 1951. Martin Roháč: former soldier who robbed and killed 59 people between 1568 and 1571 with his accomplices; all were executed in 1571. Ivan Roubal: occultist who murdered five people from 1991 to 1994; sentenced to life imprisonment and died in 2015. Svatoslav Štěpánek: known as "The Roudnice Monster"; killed one child and at least two women in Roudnice nad Labem from 1926 to 1936, mutilating the female victims' bodies; executed 1938. Jaroslav and Dana Stodolovi: couple who robbed and killed eight pensioners from 2001 to 2002; both sentenced to life imprisonment. Jiří Straka: known as "The Spartakiad Killer"; teenager who raped and robbed 11 women in Prague between February and May 1985, killing three; sentenced to 10 years imprisonment and psychiatric treatment, released in 2004. Petr Zelenka: male nurse convicted of murdering seven patients in Havlíčkův Brod by lethal injections to "test" doctors; sentenced to life imprisonment. Denmark Ane Cathrine Andersdatter: maid who killed three of her children between 1853 and 1861, drowning them in ditches or wells; executed 1861, the last woman to be executed in the country. Christina Aistrup Hansen: nurse who killed three patients at the Nykøbing Falster Hospital; charges changed from three murders to four attempted manslaughter charges; initially sentenced to life imprisonment, changed to 12 years in prison. Peter Lundin: killed his mother in the United States in 1991, then killed his mistress and her two children in Denmark nine years later; sentenced to life imprisonment. Dagmar Overbye: childcare provider who killed between nine and twenty-five children in her care in Copenhagen; sentenced to death in 1921 then reprieved; died in prison on 6 May 1929. Sanjay Sharma: drowned his first wife in a bathtub in Austria in 1997; indicted for the murder, but fled to Denmark, where he killed a second wife and her daughter in 1999; sentenced to life imprisonment for the latter murders. Ecuador Gilberto Chamba: known as "The Monster of Machala"; murdered eight people in Ecuador and one in Spain; sentenced to 45 years in prison in Spain on 5 November 2006. Jairo Humberto Giraldo: known as "The Gay Strangler"; Colombian male prostitute who strangled and robbed other gay men in Quito between April and September 2002; sentenced to 25 years imprisonment. Juan Fernando Hermosa: known as "El Niño del Terror"; minor responsible for killing twenty-three people from 1991 to 1992 in Quito, mostly taxi drivers and homosexuals; sentenced to four years imprisonment and then released, later murdered on his 20th birthday by unknown assailants. Egypt Ramadan Abdel Rehim Mansour: known as "Al-Tourbini"; gang leader who raped and murdered homeless children across Egypt by throwing them off trains in the 2000s, sometimes burying them alive; executed in 2010. Saad Iskandar Abdel Masih: known as "The Butcher of Karmouz"; murdered a mistress for her money in his hometown of Asyut in 1948, before moving to Alexandria and committing at least two more murders until 1951; executed 1953. Raya and Sakina: Egypt's most famous serial killers and the first Egyptian women to be executed by the modern state of Egypt; executed along with their husbands in 1921. Estonia Johannes-Andreas Hanni: murderer, rapist, and cannibal who killed three people in 1982; committed suicide in police custody. Anatoli Neželski: murdered his ex-wife's boyfriend and two other people in robberies between 1994 and 1996 in Tallinn; sentenced to 15 years imprisonment, and released in 2013. Märt Ringmaa: known as "The Bomb Man of Pae Street"; killed seven people over the course of ten years in Tallinn using IEDs that exploded in public places. Aleksandr Rubel: Ukrainian who was convicted the murderers of six people in Tallinn as a minor in the late 1990s; released from prison in 2006 and subsequently returned to Ukraine. Juri Sulimov: Ukrainian immigrant who murdered two prisoners in 1983 and 1986, and an acquaintance in 1994 after his release; sentenced to death, commuted to life imprisonment. Yuri Ustimenko and Dmitry Medvedev: Russian duo who committed robberies, killing five people; Medvedev was killed by police in Latvia, and Ustimenko was captured in Poland, extradited to Estonia and sentenced to life imprisonment. Finland Juhani Aataminpoika: known as "Kerpeikkari"; murdered twelve people in the span of two months in 1849, including his parents; sentenced to death, commuted to life imprisonment; died in 1854. Esa Åkerlund: murdered three men at a McDonald's in Porvoo in 2010, after being released for the 1995 murder of his wife; suspected, but acquitted, of a 1993 murder; sentenced to 15 years imprisonment. Matti Haapoja: convicted murderer of three, but admitted to the killing of 18; evidence suggests having killed as many as 22–25 people between 1867 and 1894 in Finland and Siberia; sentenced to life imprisonment, but committed suicide by hanging in a prison cell. Ismo Junni: killed his wife in 1980, then killed four people in arson attacks at the Kivinokka allotment garden in Helsinki from 1986 to 1989; committed suicide while in custody. Ensio Koivunen: known as "Häkä-Enska"; abducted and murdered three female hitchhikers between July and August 1971; sentenced for 25 years to prison, but released in the 1980s; died in 2003. Jukka Lindholm: murdered three women from 1985 to 1993 in and around Oulu and one in Helsinki in 2018; sentenced to life imprisonment, and is currently appealing the decision; has spent 25 years in prison between his crimes. Tommi Nakari: murdered his two common-law wives and his mother in drunken rampages between 1992 and 2008, claiming that he couldn't remember the killings afterwards; sentenced to 14.5 years imprisonment. Aino Nykopp-Koski: female nurse convicted of five murders and five attempted murders between 2004 and 2009. Sentenced to life in prison. Kaisa Vornanen-Karaduman: purposefully neglected her five newborn children, starving them to death between 2005 and 2013; initially convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, later reduced to 13 years imprisonment for manslaughter. France Germany Ghana Charles Quansah: known as "The Accra Strangler"; convicted of the strangulation deaths of nine women in Accra; suspected of killing 34; sentenced to death in 2003. Greece Antonis Daglis: known as "The Athens Ripper"; convicted in 1997 of the strangulation murder and dismemberment of three women and the attempted murder of six others; committed suicide in police custody in 1997. Hermann Duft and Hans Wilhelm Bassenauer: West Germans who murdered six people in Greece within a short period in 1969; executed in 1969. Aristidis Pagratidis: known as "The Ogre of Seikh Sou"; allegedly attacked couples in the forested area of Seikh Sou in suburban Thessaloniki from 1958 to 1959, killing three people; executed in 1968, and since then his guilt has been questioned. Kyriakos Papachronis: known as "The Ogre of Drama"; murdered three women from 1981 to 1982, committing other crimes as well; sentenced to life imprisonment, released on bail in 2004. Giannis and Thymios Retzos: brothers responsible for numerous kidnapping and murders in Epirus between 1917 and 1924; released under amnesty, then orchestrated a robbery in 1928, during which eight people died; both executed 1930. Mariam Soulakiotis: known as "The Woman Rasputin"; convent abbot who lured, tortured and killed 177 wealthy women and children from 1939 to 1951; died 1954. Dimitris Vakrinos: killed five people and attempted seven more murders in and around Athens for minor quarrels between 1987 and 1996; hanged himself in the prison showers in 1997. Hong Kong Lam Kor-wan: sexual sadist who murdered and dismembered four women in the 1980s; sentenced to death (commuted to life imprisonment as per tradition at that time). Lam Kwok-wai: murdered three women, apprehended in 1993 and sentenced to life imprisonment (capital punishment already abolished). Hungary Angel Makers of Nagyrév: group of women led by Susanna Fazekas who poisoned around 300 people in the village of Nagyrév between 1914 and 1929. Aladár Donászi: robber who killed four people from 1991 to 1992 with his accomplice László Bene; committed suicide in prison in 2001. Zoltán Ember: known as "The Szentkirályszabadja Monster"; killed four pensioners and his brother from 1991 to 2004 in Szentkirályszabadja, binding his latter victims; sentenced to life imprisonment, committed suicide in 2016. Margit Filó: known as "The Rókus Black Widow"; poisoned and strangled between four and six people close to her from 1958 to 1968 for monetary gain; imprisoned in a mental asylum, where she later died. Viktória Fődi: known as "Pista Pipás"; strangled two men around Szeged in 1919 and 1922, staging the deaths as suicides; suspected of more than 30 murders; sentenced to death, commuted to life and died in prison. Mária Gerzsány: poisoned an ex-husband and two other men in Kistelek between 1905 and 1911, but is believed to be responsible for upwards of 50 murders; sentenced to life imprisonment, dying sometime in the 1920s. Pál Gyömbér: killed and robbed elderly people in the Great Hungarian Plain from February to November 1888, spending the stolen items on his wife; executed 1890. Piroska Jancsó-Ladányi: strangled five teenage girls in Törökszentmiklós between 1953 and 1954, molesting their corpses afterwards; executed 1954. Béla Kiss: murdered at least 23 women and one man, escaped justice in the confusion of World War I. Péter Kovács: known as "The Martfű Monster"; truck driver who raped and killed between four and five women from 1957 and 1967, possibly responsible for more murders; executed 1968. Tibor Kruchió: together with accomplice Lajos Kocsis, killed four people around Szeged from September to October 2001 for robbery purposes; sentenced to life imprisonment. Gusztáv Léderer: gendarme who robbed and killed a man in Budapest with his wife in 1925; suspect in other murders during the White Terror; executed 1926. Gusztáv Nemeskéri: known as "The Katóka Street Killer"; killed four people between 1996 and 1999 to settle his debts, including his half-brother; sentenced to life imprisonment. Erzsébet Papp: known as "The Nicotine Killer"; poisoned four people close to her with nicotine between 1957 and 1958; initially sentenced to life imprisonment, resentenced to death and hanged 1962. Zoltán Szabó: known as "The Balástya Monster"; killed and mutilated at least four women on his farm in Balástya between 1998 and 2001; committed suicide while imprisoned in 2016. Iceland Björn Pétursson: known as "Axlar-Björn"; killed at least nine travellers in the 16th century. India Thug Behram: alleged to have killed over 900 people; executed in 1840. Seema Gavit and Renuka Shinde: sisters who kidnapped and murdered five children between 1990 and 1996. M. Jaishankar: known as "Psycho Shankar", involved in about 30 rapes, murders and robbery cases around Tamil Nadu. Chandrakant Jha: befriended and murdered seven male migrants from 1998 to 2007; sentenced to life imprisonment. Joshi-Abhyankar serial murders: series of ten murders committed by four art students in Pune; all were executed in 1983. KD Kempamma: known as "Cyanide Mallika"; poisoned six women from 1999 to 2007 with cyanide; India's first convicted female serial killer; sentenced to death, commuted to life imprisonment. Surendra Koli: convicted of raping and murdering four children in Delhi in 2005 and 2006 with another 12 cases pending. Mohan Kumar: known as "Cyanide Mohan"; killed twenty female victims with cyanide, claiming they were contraceptive pills; sentenced to death in 2013. Ravinder Kumar: killed the children of poor families from 2008 until his arrest in 2015. Motta Navas: killed pavement dwellers in their sleep during a three-month period in 2012 in Kollam. Santosh Pol: known as "Dr. Death"; killed six people with succinylcholine in the town of Dhom. Raman Raghav: known as "Psycho Raman"; Mumbai man who killed homeless people and others in their sleep. Umesh Reddy: confessed to 18 rapes and murders, convicted in nine cases. Ripper Jayanandan: known as "The Singing Serial Killer"; killed seven people during robberies. Satish: known as "The Bahadurgarh Baby Killer"; confessed to and convicted for ten murders; sentenced to life imprisonment. Auto Shankar: murdered nine teenage girls in Thiruvanmiyur, Chennai during a six-month period in 1988; executed in 1995. Kampatimar Shankariya: killed at least 70 people with hammer in 1977–78; hung in Jaipur. Devendra Sharma: doctor who murdered taxi and truck drivers across India between 2002 and 2004, dumping their bodies in canals; suspected of more than 100 murders; sentenced to life imprisonment. Darbara Singh: convicted for two murders, 17 suspected victims. Singh had three children; his wife expelled him from their house, because of his "bad habits". Died in Prison in 2018. Akku Yadav: murdered at least three people and dumped their bodies on the railroad tracks; lynched by a mob of around 200 women in Nagpur. Indonesia Baekuni: pedophile who killed between 4 and 14 boys from 1993 to 2010; sentenced to life imprisonment, later changed to the death sentence. Rio Alex Bulo: known as "Rio the Hammerhead"; murdered at least 4 car rental salesmen with a hammer between 1997 and 2001, and later his cellmate in 2005; executed 2008. Very Idham Henyansyah: known as "The Singing Serial Killer"; convicted and sentenced to death in 2008 for the killing of 11 people. Astini Sumiasih: killed and then dismembered three neighbors to whom she owned money in Malang from 1992 to 1996; executed 2005. Ahmad Suradji: admitted to killing 42 women around Medan; sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on 10 July 2008. Iraq Abu Tubar: known as "The Hatchet Man"; murdered an undetermined number of people with a hatchet in 1970s Baghdad; executed 1980. Ali Asghar Borujerdi: known as "Asghar the Murderer"; killed 33 young adults in Iraq and Iran; executed in June 1934. Louay Omar Mohammed al-Taei: medical doctor found to have killed 43 wounded policemen, soldiers and officials in Kirkuk; was a member of an insurgent cell. Iran Farid Baghlani: known as "The Cyclist Killer"; murdered 15 women, girls and one boy from 2004 to 2008 out of hatred for women; executed 2010. Mohammed Bijeh: known as "The Tehran Desert Vampire"; killed at least 41 young boys near Tehran; executed in 2005. Saeed Hanaei: known as "The Spider Killer"; killed at least 16 women around Mashhad; executed in 2002. Gholamreza Khoshroo Kurdieh: known as "The Night Bat"; murdered nine women in Tehran in 1997, burning the bodies afterwards; executed 1997. Majid Salek Mohammadi: murdered twenty-four people from 1981 to 1985, primarily women he considered unfaithful to their husbands; committed suicide in prison before he could be sentenced. Esmail Rangraz: murdered a young girl in 2017, confessing to the murder of two women in 2012 and 2014 after his arrest; executed 2017. Mahin Qadiri: first known female serial killer in the country; acquitted of murder in 2006, before going on to rob and kill five elderly women in Qazvin from February to May 2009; executed 2010. Republic of Ireland Geoffrey Evans and John Shaw: Englishmen who traveled to Ireland in 1976 and vowed to murder a woman once a week, killing two; both apprehended and sentenced. Until his 2012 death, Evans was one of Ireland's longest-serving prisoners. Darkey Kelly: brothel-keeper who killed six men in the 18th century; accused of witchcraft and was burned at the stake in 1761. Alice Kyteler: known as "The Witch of Kilkenny"; alleged witch who poisoned four husbands in the 14th century; fled to England, fate unknown. Mark Nash: murdered two female patients in Grangegorman in March 1997, followed by a couple in Ballintober in August; another man was wrongfully convicted of the first double murder; sentenced to life imprisonment. Israel Nicolai Bonner: known as "The Haifa Homeless Killer"; Moldovan immigrant who killed four homeless people in Haifa between February and May 2005, burning the bodies afterwards; sentenced to life imprisonment. Yahya Farhan: Bedouin serial killer, who murdered between two and four people from 1994 to 2004, including Dana Bennett; sentenced to three consecutive life sentences, and later acquitted of one murder. Vladimir Piniov: known as "The Bat Yam Homeless Killer"; Russian immigrant who murdered as least three vagrants in Bat Yam during drunken quarrels between 1999 and 2000; committed suicide before trial. Italy Wolfgang Abel and Marco Furlan: German-Italian duo who committed between 10 and 28 murders in Italy, Germany and the Netherlands between 1977 and 1984; sentenced to life, but released on parole. Beasts of Satan: Satanic cult members who committed three notorious ritual murders from 1998 to 2004. Marco Bergamo: known as "The Monster of Bolzano"; murdered five women in Bolzano from 1985 to 1992; died from a lung infection in 2017. Donato Bilancia: known as "The Monster of Liguria"; murdered 17 people in seven months between 1997 and 1998, died in prison. Antonio Boggia: known as "The Monster of Milan"; murdered four people for monetary purposes between 1849 and 1859; hanged 1862. Ralph Brydges: known as "The Monster of Rome"; English pastor who is widely believed to have murdered five girls in Rome in the 1920s, and four in other countries; never convicted of his crimes and died a free man. Sonya Caleffi: nurse who poisoned terminally ill patients between 2003 and 2004, killing five of them; sentenced to 20 years of imprisonment. Luigi Chiatti: known as "The Monster of Foligno"; kidnapped and killed two children in 1992 and 1993; sentenced to two life sentences, but he was found unfit to stand trial and was reduced to 30 years in a mental hospital. Leonarda Cianciulli: known as "The Soap-Maker of Correggio"; murderer of three women between 1939 and 1940; died in a women's criminal asylum in 1970. Ferdinand Gamper: known as "The Monster of Merano"; killed six people in 1996. Pier Paolo Brega Massone: murdered at least four people in Milan and maimed other dozens of victims through unnecessary surgeries to illegally obtain a large amounts of money refunds; convicted and given a life sentence. Andrea Matteucci: known as "The Monster of Aosta"; murdered a merchant and three prostitutes in Aosta from 1980 to 1995; sentenced to 28 years imprisonment and three years in a mental institution. Maurizio Minghella: killed five women in his hometown of Genoa in 1978; imprisoned and released, after which he murdered at least four more and is suspected of other murders between 1997 and 2001; sentenced to life imprisonment. Giorgio Orsolano: known as "The Hyena of San Giorgio"; raped, killed, and dismembered three girls from 1834 to 1835 in his hometown of San Giorgio Canavese; executed 1835. Ernesto Picchioni: known as "The Monster of Nerola"; murdered people around his home; died of cardiac arrest in 1967. Milena Quaglini: murdered her husband and two men who tried to rape her from 1995 to 1999; committed suicide while imprisoned in 2001. Cesare Serviatti: known as "The Landru of the Tiber"; strangled and dismembered at least three women he sought through lonely hearts ads from 1928 to 1932; executed 1933. Gianfranco Stevanin: known as "The Monster of Terrazzo"; raped and murdered prostitutes after violent sex games between 1993 and 1994; violated the corpse of one victim; sentenced to life imprisonment. Giulia Tofana: leader of a group of female poisoners in the 17th century; died in her bed, never been arrested. Giorgio Vizzardelli: shot and killed five people around Sarzana from 1937 to 1939; sentenced to life imprisonment; committed suicide by slitting his throat with a kitchen knife in 1973. Umberto Zadnich: killed his common-law wife in Trieste in 1974, and later a cellmate at the mental hospital in 1976; after release, killed his daughter in 1987; interned at a psychiatric hospital. Jamaica Lewis Hutchinson: Scottish immigrant convicted of shooting dozens of people in the 18th century; executed in 1773. Japan Katsutaro Baba: strangled and mutilated five women and one infant in present-day Tatsuno from 1905 to 1907, stealing their gallbladders post-mortem; executed 1908. Ryuun Daimai: known as "The Nun Slayer"; former monk who raped and killed at least five people in several cities between 1905 and 1915; executed 1916. Sachiko Eto: known as "The Drumstick Killer"; cult leader who murdered six of her followers with Taiko sticks from 1994 to 1995; executed 2012. Satarō Fukiage: raped and killed at least seven girls in the early 20th century; executed 1926. Sokichi Furutani: murdered eight elderly people in several western Japanese cities for more than a month in 1965; suspected of four earlier murders, for two of which an accomplice was executed; executed 1985. Takeshige Hamada: killed three people in Fukuoka for life insurance policies from 1978 to 1979, with help from his wife and two accomplices; sentenced to death, died while awaiting execution in 2017. Hiroaki Hidaka: killed four prostitutes in Hiroshima in 1996; executed 25 December 2006. Yoshitomo Hori: killed a couple in Hekinan in 1998, then aided in the murder of Rie Isogai in 2007; sentenced to death. Hayato Imai: paramedic who pushed at least three elderly nursing home patients to their deaths between November and December 2014; suspected of other murders; sentenced to death. Miyuki Ishikawa: midwife who murdered five infants, but could have been up to 84, between 1946 and 1948. Chisako Kakehi: poisoned her husband and two other men to death, attempted to kill a fourth man, and is a suspect in another seven deaths; sentenced to death in 2017. Yasutoshi Kamata: known as "The Osaka Ripper"; strangled four women and one girl in Osaka between 1985 and 1994, dismembered their bodies and dumped then near forests; executed 2016. Kiyotaka Katsuta: firefighter who shot and strangled at least eight people, some during robberies, between 1972 and 1982. Kanae Kijima: known as "The Konkatsu Killer"; marriage fraudster who poisoned between three and seven men for money, from 2007 to 2009; sentenced to death. Kau Kobayashi: poisoned her husband in 1952, and later killed an inn proprietor and his wife in 1960 with the help of her accomplice; executed 1970. Yoshio Kodaira: rapist thought to have killed eleven people in Japan and China as a soldier; executed 1949. Genzo Kurita: killed six women and two children and engaged in rape and necrophilia; executed 1959. Hiroshi Maeue: known as "The Suicide Website Murderer"; Osaka man who lured people from suicide clubs promising to kill himself with his victims; executed 2005. Futoshi Matsunaga and Junko Ogata: tortured and killed at least seven people between 1996 and 1998, including Ogata's family. Tsutomu Miyazaki: known as "The Otaku Murderer"; killed four pre-school-age girls and ate the hand of a victim; executed in 2008. Seisaku Nakamura: known as "The Hamamatsu Deaf Killer"; murdered at least nine people in war-time Hamamatsu; executed in 1943. Akira Nishiguchi: killed five people and engaged in fraud; executed 1970. Shojiro Nishimoto: killed a taxi driver and three elderly people during robberies to pay off his debts from January to September 2004; executed 2009. Masakatsu Nishikawa: killed a snack bar hostess in Tottori in 1974; after parole, killed four more during a robbery spree in December 1991; executed 2017. Kiyoshi Ōkubo: known as "Tanigawa Ivan"; raped and murdered eight young women in Gunma Prefecture over a period of 41 days in 1971. Shige Sakakura: baby farmer who killed more than 200 infants in present-day Nagoya between 1898 and 1913 with her two accomplices; all three were executed in 1915. Gen Sekine: responsible for the "Saitama Dog Lover Murders"; poisoned at least four clients with his wife and an accomplice in Kumagaya from April to August 1993, dismembering and burning the bodies afterwards; sentenced to death, died in prison in 2017. Sadakichi Shimizu: first recorded Japanese serial killer; robbed and murdered five people and a police officer in Tokyo between 1882 and 1886; executed 1887. Takahiro Shiraishi: known as "The Twitter Killer"; murdered nine women and young girls at his apartment in Zama that he met through social media after making bogus suicide pacts with them; sentenced to death. Sadame Sugimura: fatally poisoned three women to steal their money in Kumamoto Prefecture from November to December 1960; executed 1970. Miyoko Sumida: tortured and killed at least 8 people at her house condominium in Amagasaki from 1987 to 2012, often helped by their brainwashed relatives; committed suicide before trial. Yasunori Suzuki: robbed and killed three women in the Fukuoka Prefecture from 2004 to 2005; executed 2019. Ryuichi Tsukamoto: teenager who strangled three women during house burglaries in three prefectures from 1966 to 1967; sentenced to life imprisonment, but later paroled. Miyuki Ueta: former snack hostess who murdered between two and six men she dated in Tottori, from 2004 to 2009; sentenced to death. Yukio Yamaji: murdered his own mother in 2000, and then murdered a 27-year-old woman and her 19-year-old sister in 2005; executed 2005. Kazakhstan Nikolai Dzhumagaliev: known as "Metal Fang"; raped and hacked seven women to death with an axe in Almaty in 1980, then cannibalised them using his unusual false teeth. Yuri Ivanov: known as "The Ust-Kamenogorsk Maniac"; raped and killed 16 girls and young women who spoke badly of men in Ust-Kamenogorsk from 1974 to 1987; executed 1987. Ivan Mandzhikov: known as "The Kazgugrad Monster"; raped and strangled four female students and one man in the vicinity of the KazGU University between 1988 and 1989; executed 1993. Oleg Murayenko: murdered an inmate in 1998; after release, murdered six women between March and November 2000 in and around Petropavl; executed 2002. Kyrgyzstan Viktor Selikhov: known as "The Naked Demon"; attacked and raped young girls and women in Frunze and its surroundings between 1962 and 1964, killing at least three; executed 1965. Latvia Ansis Kaupēns: army deserter who committed 30 robberies and 19 murders from 1920 to 1926; executed 1927 in Vircava Parish. Yuri Krinitsyn: known as "The Riga Upyr"; mentally-ill Russian immigrant who killed three men, including two KGB operatives, in Riga in 1975; sentenced to involuntary commitment. Kaspars Petrovs: killed between 13 and 38 elderly women in Riga until 2005; sentenced to life imprisonment. Stanislav Rogolev: known as "Agent 000"; robbed, raped and killed ten women from 1980 to 1982; suspected of having inside information for the investigation on him; executed 1984. Lebanon George and Michel Tanielian: known as "The Taxi Driver Killers"; Syrian brothers who killed and robbed mostly taxi drivers in the Matn District from July to November 2011; both sentenced to death. Lithuania Valentinas Laskys: together with his daughter, killed 4 people in Lithuania and Belarus during robberies from 1990 to 1992; executed 1993. Antanas Varnelis: murdered and robbed six pensioners between July and December 1992 around several municipalities; executed 1994. Malta Silvio Mangion: only known serial killer in Malta; murdered three elderly pensioners during robberies between 1984 and 1998; sentenced to life imprisonment. Mexico Macario Alcala Canchola: known as "Jack Mexicano" ("Mexican Jack"), was a Jack the Ripper copycat active in the 1960s. Sara Aldrete: known as "La Madrina"; cult follower of Adolfo Constanzo; convicted in 1994 of murdering several individuals during her association with Constanzo. David Avendaño Ballina: known as "The Hamburger"; alleged leader of a sex servant gang who robbed and poisoned their clients from 1997 to 2007; arrested in 2008. Juana Barraza: known as "Mataviejitas" ("Old Lady Killer"); operated within the metropolitan area of Mexico City until 25 January 2006. José Luis Calva: cannibal; police found the remains of multiple female victims in his house; committed suicide prior to capture in 2007. Gregorio Cárdenas Hernández: known as "The Strangler of Tacuba"; strangled four women in the Tacuba neighborhood in 1942; died in 1999 of natural causes. Andrés Ulises Castillo Villarreal: known as "The Chihuahua Ripper"; drugged, raped, killed, and mutilated three men in Chihuahua in 2015; confessed to 12 more murders, but suspected of 20 overall; sentenced to 120 years imprisonment. Flor Cazarín González: known as "The Godmother"; together with her son and another man, she killed and robbed two women in Chihuahua City in 2016; suspected in a total of 25 murders; sentenced to 44 years imprisonment. The Ciudad Juárez Rebels: gang of serial killers who killed women in Ciudad Juárez from 1995 to 1996; convicted of eight murders, suspected of killing between 10 and 14; claimed to have worked for Abdul Latif Sharif. Adolfo Constanzo: known as "The Godfather of Matamoros"; serial killer and cult leader in Mexico; committed suicide in 1989. Edgar Álvarez Cruz and Francisco Granados: responsible for the so-called "Feminicides of the cotton field"; Cruz, with the help of the drugged Granados, kidnapped, raped, tortured, and killed at least eight to ten young women in satanic rituals between 1993 and 2003; suspected of committing a total of fourteen murders. Pedro Padilla Flores: known as "El Asesino de Rio Bravo" (“The Killer of the Bravo River”); killed three women in 1986; escaped to the U.S. but was deported back to Mexico; suspect in the Ciudad Juárez murders. Óscar García Guzmán: known as "The Monster of Toluca"; killed six people between 2006 and 2019, including his father, in Toluca; awaiting trial for murder. Gabriel Garza Hoth: known as "The Black Widower"; killed three women in Mexico City between 1991 and 1998, his victims were wives and lovers. Delfina and María de Jesús González: known as "Las Poquianchis"; killed a total of 91 in Guanajuato; arrested and sentenced to 40 years in prison in 1964. Francisco Guerrero Pérez: known as "El Chalequero" ("The man of the vests"); the first documented serial killer in Mexico; committed approximately 20 murders in Mexico City between 1880 and 1888 plus one more in 1908. Fernando Hernández Leyva: convicted of 33 murders in 1986, suspected of 137 killings. Juan Carlos Hernández and Patricia Martínez: pair from Ecatepec, State of Mexico, known as "The Monsters of Ecatepec"; who raped, murdered, and cannibalized between 10 and 20 women. Active between 2012 and 2018. Luis Oscar Jiménez Herrera: known as "The Tinaco Killer"; murdered 16 women in Nuevo León between 2013 and 2016, but also suspected of a 2010 murder in San Luis Potosí; sentenced to 123 years imprisonment. César Armando Librado Legorreta: known as "El Coqueto" ("The Coquette"); raped and killed six women in the Greater Mexico City between 2011 and 2012; sentenced to 240 years in prison. Los Huipas: gang of four indigenous homosexual men, led by Eusebio Yocupicio Soto, who murdered seven men who made fun of them between 1949 and 1950; initially sentenced to death, later commuted to 30 years imprisonment. Rudolfo Infante and Anna Villeda: couple from Matamoros responsible for the murders of eight women. Apprehended in 1991. Abdul Latif Sharif: known as "The Ciudad Juárez Predator"; Egyptian man responsible for murdering an unknown number of women in Ciudad Juárez, possibly as many as 15 but convicted of only one; died in prison. Daniel Audiel López Martínez: killed five women in Ciudad Juárez between 2007 and 2010. Raúl Osiel Marroquín: known as "El Sadico" ('The Sadist'); killed four gay men in Mexico City. Filiberto Hernández Martínez: killed six people between 2010 and 2013 in San Luis Potosí. Jorge Humberto Martínez Córtez: known as "El Matanovias"; killed between two and three of his romantic partners from 2011 to 2014; currently awaiting sentencing. Guadalupe Martínez de Bejarano: known as "La Mujer Verdugo"; tortured and then murdered three young girls in Mexico City in 1887 and 1892; died in prison. Alejandro Máynez: may have killed over 50 women with accomplices; fugitive. Tadeo Fulgencío Mejía: responsible for several murders during the 1890s and 1900s, motivated by delirious idea of contacting his deceased wife. Now the house in Guanajuato, where he committed the crimes, is known as "The House of Laments" (Casa de los lamentos), and according to legend is haunted. Silvia Meraz: Sonora woman involved in an occult sect, killed three people with the aid of family members; sentenced to 180 years in prison. Agustín Salas del Valle: known as "Jack the Strangler"; killed more than 20 women in Mexico City's Central Zone. Felícitas Sánchez Aguillón: known as "The Ogress of Colonia Roma"; nurse, midwife and baby farmer responsible for an unknown number of murders during the 1930s, possibly 50 victims, in Mexico City. Cristina Soledad Sánchez Esquivel: known as "La Matataxistas"; killed between five and six taxi drivers in Nuevo León in 2010 with her accomplice Aarón Herrera Hernández; sentenced to 130 years imprisonment. Magdalena Solís: religious fanatic, proclaimed "The High Blood's Priestess"; killed eight people in ritual sacrifices Mario Alberto Sulú Canché: killed three young girls between 2007 and 2008 in Mérida, Yucatán; later died in prison. Moldova Alexander Skrynnik: known as "The Moldavian Chikatilo"; killed and then mutilated three women in Chișinău and Yakutia from the mid–1970s to 1980; executed 1981. Morocco Abdelaâli Hadi: known as "The Butcher of Taroudant"; raped and murdered nine young children in Taroudant between 2001 and 2004; sentenced to death. Hadj Mohammed Mesfewi: known as "The Marrakesh Arch-Killer"; drugged and killed 36 women; died 1906. Netherlands Klaas Annink: known as "Huttenkloas"; robber and murderer from Twente who killed along with his wife, Anna, and son, Jannes; both he and his wife were executed in 1775. Hendrikje Doelen: 19th century farm-wife who poisoned several people in a poorhouse from 1845 to 1846, killing three of them; died of natural causes in prison in 1847. Willem van Eijk: known as "The Beast of Harkstede"; convicted of the murders of five women between 1971 and 2001; died in prison in 2019. Koos Hertogs: convicted of the murders of three women between 1979 and 1980; died in jail in 2019. Aalt Mondria: escaped mental patient who murdered a family of three in 1978; after release, murdered his girlfriend's son in 1997; died 2011 from untreated Hepatitis C. Gustav Müller: German watchmaker who murdered his wife and son in Rotterdam in 1897; surrendered and subsequently confessed to killing his parents and at least 14 other wives around the world; acquitted by reason of insanity and confined to an asylum. Hester Rebecca Nepping: poisoned an elderly boarder, her father and husband in two months in 1811; executed 1812. Patrick Soultana: strangled two women in 2010, suspected of three more murders; sentenced to 25 years plus provision in 2014. Michel Stockx: Belgian man who murdered three children around Assen in 1991; sentenced to 20 years in prison in 1992; died of severe burns from an incident during his work therapy in 2001. Maria Swanenburg: suspected of killing between 27 and 90 people with arsenic in Leiden in the 1880s; died in prison in 1915. Hans van Zon: Utrecht man who murdered three people from April to August 1967, including a former lover; suspected of several other murders; died 1998 from alcohol poisoning. New Zealand Robert Butler: Irish highwayman who allegedly killed a family of three in Dunedin in 1880; acquitted, but was later hanged for shooting a man in Australia. Daniel Cooper: known as "The Newlands Baby Farmer"; killed two infants and supposedly his first wife; executed 1923. Minnie Dean: Scottish immigrant baby farmer who killed at least three children by Laudanum poisoning and suffocation in the 1890s; executed by hanging in 1895. Hayden Poulter: murdered at least three people in Auckland in 1996. Labelled in the media as New Zealand's first serial killer; committed suicide in 2018. Nigeria Gracious David-West: confessed to the murders of 15 women predominantly in Port Harcourt in 2019; sentenced to death in 2020. North Korea Park Myung-sik: known as "The Organ Harvester"; killed 12 teenagers in Sinpo from April to October 1990, so he could eat their livers and supposedly cure his cirrhosis; executed 1991. North Macedonia Viktor Karamarkov: known as "The Macedonian Raskolnikov"; drug addict who murdered four elderly women in Skopje from March to October 2009; sentenced to life imprisonment. Vlado Taneski: crime reporter arrested in June 2008 for the murder of three elderly women, with another possible victim, on whose deaths he had written articles; committed suicide in police custody. Norway Roger Haglund: murdered four people in Tistedalen between 1991 and 1992; suspected of a double murder in Sweden in the 1980s; sentenced to 21 years imprisonment, released and died a free man in 2011. Sofie Johannesdotter: Swedish maid who poisoned at least three people with arsenic in present-day Halden from 1869 to 1874; executed 1876. Arnfinn Nesset: manager of an Orkdal geriatric nursing home who poisoned twenty-two residents with suxamethonium chloride over a period of years before being convicted in 1983. Pakistan Javed Iqbal: believed to have raped and killed 100 boys; committed suicide while in prison in 2001. Amir Qayyum: known as "The Brick Killer"; murdered 14 homeless men in Lahore with rocks or bricks when they were asleep; sentenced to death in May 2006. Panama Silvano Ward Brown: known as "The Panamá Strangler"; first known serial killer in Panamanian history; strangled three women from 1959 to 1973 in the Panamá Province; released in 1993 after serving a 20-year sentence. Gilberto Ventura Ceballos: Dominican man who murdered five Panamanian youths of Chinese descent in La Chorrera from 2010 to 2011; sentenced to 50 years imprisonment. William Dathan Holbert: known as "Wild Bill"; American expatriate who had the bodies of five other Americans buried on his property; he would kill people to get their money and properties; his wife, Laura Michelle Reese, was also arrested. Peru Pedro Pablo Nakada Ludeña: known as "The Apostle of Death"; convicted of seventeen murders and claimed 25; sentenced to 35 years in prison. Poland Bogdan Arnold: murdered four women in Katowice from 1966 to 1967; also attempted to poison his third wife; executed 1968. Władysław Baczyński: killed a woman and three men in Wrocław and Bytom from 1946 to 1957; executed 1960. Józef Cyppek: known as "The Butcher of Niebuszewo"; dismembered his neighbour in 1952; was sentenced to death and executed that same year; suspected of other murders. Tadeusz Ensztajn: known as "The Vampire of Łowicz"; raped and killed seven women in Łowicz and the surrounding areas in 1933; sentenced to 15 years in prison in 1934. Krzysztof Gawlik: known as "Scorpio"; murdered five people with a silenced machine gun in 2001; sentenced to life imprisonment. Ferdynand Grüning: known as "The Łódź Vampire"; tinsmith imprisoned for murdering a young girl in 1926, later released and killed two more children until 1938; sentenced to death, fate unknown. Tadeusz Grzesik: leader of the so-called "Bureaucrats Gang"; killed between 8 and 20 people in several Polish voivodeships with his gang, mainly owners of exchange offices; suspected of more murders; sentenced to life imprisonment. Joachim Knychała: known as "The Vampire of Bytom" or "Frankenstein"; murdered five women between 1975 and 1982. Edmund Kolanowski: necrophile who murdered three women from 1970 to 1982; also mutilated and desecrated corpses he excavated from chapels; executed 1986. Karol Kot: killed two people from 1964 to 1966 in his native Kraków, attempted to murder many more; executed 1968. Henryk Kukuła: known as "The Monster from Chorzów"; pedophile who murdered four children from 1980 to 1990; sentenced to 28 years in prison, expected to be released in 2020. Tadeusz Kwaśniak: known as "The Towel Strangler"; violent pedophile who raped and murdered five boys from 1990 and 1991; also responsible for numerous robberies; hanged himself in his prison cell before he could be sentenced. Zdzisław Marchwicki: known as "The Zagłębie Vampire"; convicted of murdering 14 women; executed in 1976. Nikifor Maruszeczko: criminal who killed four men for the purpose of robbery; executed 1938. Władysław Mazurkiewicz: known as "The Gentleman Killer"; killed up to 30 women; executed by hanging in 1957. Stanisław Modzelewski: murdered seven women in Łódź during the 1960s; executed in 1970. Henryk Moruś: killed seven people in the Piotrków Voivodeship from 1986 to 1992; sentenced to 25 years imprisonment; died of probable heart failure in 2013. Grzegorz Musiatowicz: violent criminal who killed three men between 2002 and 2014; sentenced to life imprisonment. Katarzyna Onyszkiewiczowa: known as "The Female Demon"; habitual thief who poisoned at least three men across Austrian Galicia from 1869 to 1870; sentenced to 30 years imprisonment, later died in prison. Leszek Pękalski: known as "The Vampire of Bytów"; killed up to 17 women. Kazimierz Polus: pedophile who killed two boys and one man from 1971 to 1982; executed 1985. Skin Hunters: paramedics and doctors in Łódź who killed patients for profit; the four were convicted and officials are investigating possible accomplices. Mariusz Sowiński: known as "The Stefankowice Vampire"; raped and killed four women from 1994 to 1997; sentenced to 50 years in prison. Mariusz Trynkiewicz: known as "The Satan of Piotrków"; serial rapist who murdered four boys in July 1988 in Piotrków Trybunalski; released in 2014, rearrested in 2015 for possessing child pornography. Paweł Tuchlin: known as "Scorpion"; killed nine women and attempted to kill 11 more to feel better; executed 1987. Zakrzewski family: father and two sons who killed eight people, including a family of five, around Rzepin Pierwszy from 1954 to 1969 due to their communist leanings; father and elder son were executed in 1972, while the younger, sentenced to 25 years imprisonment, hanged himself in prison. Mieczysław Zub: known as "Fantomas"; killed four women the area of Ruda Śląska; committed suicide in 1985. Portugal Diogo Alves: known as "The Aqueduct Murderer"; Spanish man who robbed and threw poor people off Lisbon's Águas Livres Aqueduct between 1836 and 1840; executed in 1841. Luísa de Jesus: known as "The Foundling Wheel Killer"; baby farmer who strangled at least 33 babies in Coimbra from 1760s to 1772; executed 1772, the last woman to be executed in the country. António Luís Costa: ex-GNR officer from Santa Comba Dão who murdered three women between 2005 and 2006; sentenced to 25 years in prison. Romania Vera Renczi: poisoned two husbands, one son, and 32 of her suitors in the 1920s and 1930s. Ion Rîmaru: murdered and raped young women in Bucharest from 1970 to 1971; executed in 1971. Ioan Sârca: known as "The Monster from Valcău"; raped and strangled at least 20 boys and teenagers between 1943 and 1945, selling their clothes at flea markets afterwards; sentenced to life, died in prison in 1991. Adrian Stroe: known as "The Taxi Driver of Death"; strangled three women between January and September 1992 near Bucharest, dumping their bodies in Lake Cernica; sentenced to life imprisonment, but paroled in 2018. Vasile Tcaciuc: known as "The Butcher of Iași"; murdered victims with an axe and confessed to have committed at least 26 murders; shot dead by a policeman while trying to escape from prison. Romulus Vereș: convicted of five murders in the 1970s; sent to a mental institution; died in 1993. Russia Saudi Arabia Awdah Ahmad Awdah Salem: known as "The Yanbu Serial Killer"; Yemeni expatriate who raped and murdered three Indonesian housemaids in Yanbu between 2007 and 2009, burying their bodies afterwards; executed in August 2014. Serbia Baba Anujka: known as "The Witch of Vladimirovac"; professional poisoner who poisoned between 50 and 150 people until apprehended in 1928. Singapore Sek Kim Wah: 19-year-old NS conscript who was responsible for killing five people between June 1983 to July 1983 in two separate murder cases in Singapore, the latter of which became known as the Andrew Road triple murders; executed in 1988. Slovakia Matej Čurko: known as "The Slovak Cannibal"; killed and cannibalized two willing victims in 2010 in Kysak, suspected of another 28 such cases from 2009 to 2011; killed by police in 2011. Juraj Lupták: known as "The Strangler from Banská Bystrica"; shepherd who raped and strangled three women from 1978 to 1982; executed 1987 in Bratislava. Ondrej Rigo: known as "The Sock Killer"; killed, raped, and mutilated nine women in the Netherlands, Germany and Slovakia, always wearing socks on his hands; sentenced to life imprisonment. Jozef Slovák: after serving just eight years for his first murder from 1978, Slovák killed at least four other women in Slovakia and Czech Republic in the early 1990s; highly intelligent, holder of numerous patents in electronics. Marek Zivala: sexual sadist who strangled three women in the Czech Republic and Slovakia from 1996 to 1998; sentenced to life imprisonment. Slovenia Silvo Plut: killed three women in Slovenia and Serbia from 1990 until 2006; committed suicide in prison in 2007. Metod Trobec: raped and killed at least five women between 1976 and 1978; committed suicide in prison in 2006. South Africa Asande Baninzi: killed 18 people in the span of three months in 2001 with accomplice Mthutuzeli Nombewu; was given 19 life sentences and 189 years imprisonment. Pierre Basson: first documented South African serial killer; killed nine people in Claremont between 1903 and 1906 and buried them in his backyard; committed suicide to avoid arrest. Sibusiso Duma: murdered seven people in the Pietermaritzburg area of KwaZulu Natal in 2007. Gamal Lineveldt: responsible for "The Cape Flats Murders"; murdered four European women from October to November 1940; executed 1942. Cedric Maake: known as "The Wemmer Pan Killer"; serial rapist; murdered at least 27 people from 1996 to 1997. Bulelani Mabhayi: known as "The Monster of Tholeni"; killed 20 women and children from 2007 to 2012 in the village of Tholeni in the Eastern Cape. Simon Majola: together with accomplice Themba Nkosi, known as "The Bruma Lake Killers"; robbed and drowned at least eight men in Bruma Lake from 2000 to 2001; both sentenced to life imprisonment. Fanuel Makamu: known as "The Mpumalanga Serial Rapist"; along with accomplice Henry Maile, robbed, raped, and murdered six women from February to September 2000; Maile was shot by police on 14 September, while Makamu was captured and sentenced to 165 years imprisonment. Jimmy Maketta: known as "The Jesus Killer"; convicted on 16 counts of murder, 19 counts of rape from 1996 to 1999. Andries Makgae: raped and murdered at least three women in Onderstepoort between 2012 and 2013; suspected of other murders, including his best friend; sentenced to life imprisonment. Johannes Mashiane: known as "The Beast of Atteridgeville" 13 counts of murder, twelve counts of sodomy from 1982 to 1989. Daisy de Melker: poisoner; killed two husbands and one son between 1923 and 1932; executed in 1932. Samuel Bongani Mfeka: strangled six women from 1993 to 1996 in KwaZulu-Natal. Jack Mogale: known as "The West-End serial killer"; convicted of raping and murdering 16 women in Johannesburg in 2008 and 2009. Elifasi Msomi: known as "The Axe Killer"; murdered 15 people from 1953 to 1955, claiming that he was under the influence of the Tokoloshe. Mukosi Freddy Mulaudzi: known as "The Limpopo Serial Killer"; escaped convict, originally responsible for two murders in 1990, who murdered 11 more people between 2005 and 2006; given 11 life sentences. Nicholas Lungisa Ncama: murdered six people in the Eastern Cape in 1997; sentenced to life in prison. Velaphi Ndlangamandla: known as "The Saloon Killer"; robber who murdered 19 people around Mpumalanga from April to September 1998; sentenced to 137 years imprisonment. David Randitsheni: known as "The Modimolle Serial Killer"; raped and murdered ten children (kidnapped and raped more) from 2004 to 2008. Gert van Rooyen: allegedly abducted and murdered at least six girls from across South Africa from 1988 to 1989; committed suicide to avoid apprehension. Louis van Schoor: former security guard who confessed to murdering 100 people; released on parole. Khangayi Sedumedi: known as "The Century City Killer"; raped, robbed, and murdered between four and six women in Century City from 2011 to 2015; sentenced to life imprisonment. Samuel Sidyno: known as "The Capital Hill Serial Killer"; murdered seven people in Pretoria from 1998 to 1999. Norman Afzal Simons: known as "The Station Strangler"; raped, sodomised and murdered 22 children on the Cape Flats from 1986 to 1994. Moses Sithole: known as "The ABC Killer"; raped and killed at least 38 young women in Atteridgeville, Boksburg and Cleveland from 1994 to 1995. Thozamile Taki: known as "The Sugarcane Serial Killer"; robbed and killed ten women in KwaZulu Natal and three in Eastern Cape, dumping their bodies in sugarcane and tea plantations. Sipho Thwala: known as "The Phoenix Strangler"; raped and murdered 19 women in the sugarcane fields of KwaZulu Natal from 1996 to 1997. Stewart Wilken: known as "The Boetie Boer"; raped, sodomized, and murdered at least seven victims in and around Port Elizabeth from 1990 to 1997. Tommy Williams: known as "The City Serial Killer"; strangled to death three acquaintances from 1987 to 2008; deemed the country's longest-active serial offender; sentenced to life imprisonment. Elias Xitavhudzi: known as "The Pangaman"; murdered 16 people in Atteridgeville in the 1950s; executed 1960. Christopher Mhlengwa Zikode: known as "The Donnybrook Serial Killer"; murdered 18 people in Donnybrook, KwaZulu-Natal from 1994 to 1995. South Korea Ahn Nam-gi: taxi driver who raped and murdered at least three female passengers in Cheongju from 2004 to 2010; suspected in other murders; sentenced to death, commuted to life imprisonment. Chijon family: gang of cannibals that was sentenced to death for killing five people; sentenced to death in 1994; all members were executed by hanging on November 2, 1995. Véronique Courjault: French woman who confessed to killing three of her babies, stuffing two of them in a freezer at their family home in South Korea; sentenced to 8 years imprisonment in 2009, released 2010. Crown Prince Sado: Joseon prince who raped and killed his palace staff; sealed in a rice chest and died. Jeong Du-yeong: killed an officer in 1986; after release, killed eight other people in robberies from 1999 to 2000; sentenced to death. Jeong Nam-gyu: sexually assaulted and killed fourteen people from 2004 to 2006; died in hospital after failing to hang himself the previous day. Jeong Seong-hyeon: misogynist who killed a karaoke assistant in Gunpo in 2004, then two young girls in Anyang in 2007; sentenced to death. Kang Ho-sun: sentenced to death in 2010 for killing ten women, including his wife and mother-in-law. Kim Dae-doo: killed 17 people during house invasions across three provinces between August and October 1975; executed 1976. Kim Hae-sun: violent drunkard who raped and killed three children in 2000; sentenced to death in 2001. Kim Sun-ja: poisoned five people with potassium cyanide between 1986 and 1988 for monetary reasons; executed 1997. Kim Yong-won: raped and killed two women and one underage girl around North Chungcheong Province from March to June 2005; suspect in the 1994 murder of a man; sentenced to death in September 2005. Lee Choon-jae: responsible for "The Hwaseong serial murders"; murdered fifteen women, including his sister-in-law, and raped numerous others; sentenced to life imprisonment for one murder in 1994, and connected to the others decades later. Pocheon poisonings: poisonings of three family members with herbicides, committed by a woman known only as "Noh", between 2011 and 2014 in Pocheon; sentenced to life imprisonment. Yoo Young-chul: cannibal; killed twenty-one people from September 2003 to July 2004, mainly young women and rich men; sentenced to death in 2004. Spain Andrés Aldije Monmejá and José Muñoz Lopera: responsible for "The Frenchman's Garden Murders"; owners of an illegal gambling house who killed six visitors from 1889 to 1904; both garroted in 1906. Francisca Ballesteros: known as La Viuda Negra ("The Black Widow"), poisoned her husband and three children in Valencia between 1990 and 2004 (one survived), sentenced to 84 years in prison in 2005. Manuel Blanco Romasanta: travelling salesman who claimed to be a werewolf, confessed to thirteen murders and was convicted of eight in 1853; his initial death sentence commuted in order to make a study in clinical lycanthropy, died in prison ten years later. Manuel Delgado Villegas: known as El Arropiero ("The Arrope Trader"), wandering criminal with XYY syndrome that confessed to 48 murders in Spain, France and Italy, including his girlfriend; considered guilty of seven and interned in a mental institution until his death in 1998. Joaquín Ferrándiz Ventura: insurance salesman who murdered five women in Castellón Province between 1995 and 1996. Alfredo Galán: known as "The Playing Card Killer"; Spanish Army corporal who killed six individuals in 2003. Juan Díaz de Garayo: known as "The Sacamantecas"; killed six people from 1870 to 1879 in Álava. Executed by garrote in 1881. Francisco García Escalero: known as El Mendigo Asesino ("The Killer Beggar"); schizophrenic beggar convicted of eleven murders, confined to a psychiatric hospital since 1995. Gila Giraldo: known as "La Serrana de la Vera"; alleged 15th–16th century serial killer who beheaded men she slept with. Tony Alexander King: known as "The Costa Killer"; British sex offender who murdered two girls in Málaga in 1999 and 2003; suspected of possibly committing more murders in his native UK; sentenced to 19 years imprisonment. Ramón Laso: killed his two wives, child and brother in law in order to pursue extra-marital relationships. Enriqueta Martí: self-proclaimed witch who kidnapped, prostituted, murdered and made potions with the remains of small children in early 20th century Barcelona (12 bodies were identified in her home); murdered in prison while awaiting trial in 1913. Jorge Ignacio Palma: known as "The Butcher"; Colombian drug trafficker linked to the murders of at least three prostitutes in Valencia between 2019 and 2020; awaiting murder trial. Dámaso Rodríguez Martín: known as El Brujo ("The Warlock"); serial rapist and voyeur imprisoned in 1981 after attacking a couple, killing the man and raping the woman. Escaped from prison to the Anaga mountains in 1991, where he killed two German hikers (one of them was raped); killed by police in 1991. José Antonio Rodríguez Vega: known as El Mataviejas ("The Old Lady Killer"), raped and killed at least sixteen elderly women, sentenced to 440 years in prison in 1995, murdered by fellow inmates in 2002. Abdelkader Salhi: known as "The 10 Killer"; German convicted of a robbery-murder in 1988 in Germany, later moving to Spain and allegedly murdering three prostitutes from August to September 2011; currently awaiting sentencing. Margarita Sánchez Gutiérrez: known as "The Black Widow of Barcelona"; poisoned family members and relatives, killing four of them; acquitted of the murders, but sentenced to 34 years for other crimes. Gustavo Romero Tercero: known as "The Valdepeñas Killer"; killed three people from 1993 to 1998. Joan Vila Dilmé: known as "The Caretaker of Olot"; nurse who poisoned at least 11 elderly patients at a nursing home in Olot; sentenced to 127 years imprisonment. Joaquín Villalón Díez: known as "The Gentleman Murderer"; strangled and dismembered his mistress in Andorra in 1981, and later killed two transsexuals in Madrid in 1992; sentenced to 58 years imprisonment, released in 2013. Swaziland David Thabo Simelane: raped and killed 28 women, suspected of 45; sentenced to death. Sweden Anders Hansson: hospital orderly in Malmö who poisoned his victims with detergents Gevisol and Ivisol between October 1978 and January 1979; his actions were called the "Malmö Östra hospital murders". Anders Lindbäck: vicar who poisoned poor people with arsenic, three of them who died; committed suicide in custody in 1865. John Ingvar Lövgren: confessed to four murders committed between 1958 and 1963 in the Stockholm region. Hilda Nilsson: known as "The Angel Maker on Bruk Street"; Helsingborg baby farmer who murdered eight children; committed suicide in custody in 1917. She was the last person sentenced to death in Sweden not to be pardoned. Switzerland Roger Andermatt: known as "The Death-Keeper of Lucerne"; nurse who killed twenty-two people from 1995 to 2001; sentenced to life imprisonment. Werner Ferrari: child killer who lured his victims from popular festivals, strangling them afterwards; sentenced to life imprisonment. Erich Hauert: sex offender who committed eleven rapes and three murders from 1982 to 1983; sentenced to life imprisonment; his case impacted treatment of dangerous sexual offenders in Switzerland tremendously. Taiwan Chang Jen-bao: murdered three women from 1993 to 2003, also sexually violating the first victim; sentenced to death. Chen Jui-chin: known as "The Chiayi Demon"; murdered five relatives and one girlfriend for insurance money between 1985 and 2003; also suspected in two other disappearances; executed 2013. Lin Yu-ju: fatally poisoned three relatives in Puli to pay off gambling debts between 2008 and 2009; sentenced to death. Thailand Boonpeng: known as "Boonpeng the Iron Chest"; corrupt bhikkhu who killed and dismembered between two and seven people in Bangkok from 1917 to 1918, stuffing their bodies in iron chests; executed 1919. Si Ouey: Chinese immigrant who was accused of murdering between five and seven children from 1954 and 1958, cannibalizing their organs; executed 1959. Actual guilt is highly disputed. Somkid Pumpuang: known as "Kid the Ripper"; transient who murdered five masseuses between January and June 2005; initially sentenced to life, released and committed a new murder in 2019, for which he was sentenced to death. John Martin Scripps: British man who murdered and dismembered a South African tourist in Singapore and was responsible for killing a mother and son in Thailand and other alleged murders in several other countries; hanged in April 1996. Charles Sobhraj: killed at least 12 Western tourists in Southeast Asia during the 1970s; imprisoned in India (released) and Nepal (in prison). Nirut Sonkhamhan: known as "The Pickup Truck Killer"; poisoned nine taxi drivers around Thailand from 2011 to 2012 to steal their vehicles, killing six; hanged himself in jail before trial. Tunisia Naceur Damergi: known as "The Butcher of Nabeul"; rapist who killed thirteen minors in the Nabeul region in the 1980s; executed 1990. Turkey Orhan Aksoy: known as "The Parcel Killer"; strangled five people in Istanbul from 2000 to 2001, then stuffed their bodies in boxes and dumped them around the city; sentenced to life imprisonment. Süleyman Aktaş: known as "The Nailing Killer"; killed five people and nailed them in the eyes and head; he is kept in a psychiatric hospital. Adnan Çolak: known as "The Beast of Artvin"; killed seventeen elderly women in Artvin, Turkey from 1992 to 1995; in 2000 he was sentenced to death six times, and 40 years in prison. However, since October 1984, Turkey has not executed any prisoners, and , Turkey does not have capital punishment. Seyit Ahmet Demirci: known as "The Furniture Dealers' Killer"; killed three furniture dealers selected at random and because he was sexually abused by his employer during his youth; sentenced to death. Özgür Dengiz: serial killer from Ankara, who killed four people and cannibalized at least one. Atalay Filiz: killed three people between 2012 and 2016; suspect in disappearance of his girlfriend in France; sentenced to life imprisonment. Ali Kaya: known as "The Babyface Killer"; responsible for ten murders. Hamdi Kayapınar: known as "Avcı" ("Hunter"); killed eight people from 1994 to 2018; sentenced to life imprisonment. Yavuz Yapıcıoğlu: known as "The Screwdriver Killer"; responsible for at least eighteen murders between 1994 and 2002. Özkan Zengin: known as "The Well Driller Killer"; convicted of murdering three gay men in 2008; confessed to killing five. Ukraine Zaven Almazyan: known as "The Voroshilovgrad Maniac"; Russian soldier who raped and killed three women in Voroshilovgrad; executed 1973. Oleksandr Berlizov: known as "The Night Demon"; sexual psychopath who raped numerous women from 1969 to 1972 in Dnipropetrovsk, killing nine of them; executed 1972. Sergei Dovzhenko: killed between seventeen and nineteen people in his native home of Mariupol for "mocking" him; sentenced to life imprisonment. Tamara Ivanyutina: known as "The Kyiv Poisoner"; poisoned people from personal spite 1976 to 1987, killing nine of them; executed 1987. Ruslan Khamarov: seduced and murdered eleven women in his home from 2000 to 2003; sentenced to life imprisonment. Oleg Kuznetsov: known as "The Balashikha Ripper"; killed a total of ten people in Russia and Ukraine; sentenced to death, commuted to life and died in prison. Anatoly Onoprienko: known as "The Terminator"; murdered 52 people from 1989 until his capture in 1996; died in prison in 2013. Viktor Sayenko and Igor Suprunyuk: known as "The Dnepropetrovsk Maniacs"; teenagers in Dnipropetrovsk who bludgeoned 21 people to death in 2007 with the aid of a third teenager, often filming their murders; sentenced to life in prison in 2009. Serhiy Tkach: convicted of raping and murdering 36 women between 1980 and 2005; claims the total is 100. Anatoliy Tymofeev: burglar who strangled at least 13 pensioners across Ukraine and Russia between 1991 and 1992; suspect in four additional murders; executed in 1996. Vladyslav Volkovich and Volodymyr Kondratenko: known as "The Nighttime Killers"; charged with shooting, stabbing and bludgeoning sixteen victims to death in Kyiv between 1991 and 1997; Kondratenko committed suicide in prison during the trial; Volkovich was found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment. United Kingdom England Stephen Akinmurele: known as "The Cul-de-sac killer"; Nigerian immigrant suspected of killing five elderly people in Blackpool and the Isle of Man between 1995 and 1998; committed suicide in prison before trial. Beverley Allitt: known as "The Angel of Death"; Lincolnshire paediatric nurse who killed four children in her care and injured at least nine others; sentenced to life imprisonment in 1991. Levi Bellfield: known as "The Bus Stop Stalker"; convicted of the 2002 murder of Amanda Dowler and two fatal hammer attacks on young women in South West London in 2003 and 2004. John Bishop and Thomas Williams: known as "The London Burkers"; English copycats of Burke and Hare. Geordie Bourne: 16th-century Scottish bandit who killed seven people around the East English Marches; executed by unknown means. Ian Brady and Myra Hindley: known as "The Moors Murderers"; murdered five children, aged between 10 and 17 between 1963 and 1965. Buried at least four of their victims on Saddleworth Moor. Mary Ann Britland: poisoned her daughter, husband, and the wife of her lover in 1886; first woman to be executed by hanging at Strangeways Prison in Manchester in 1886 by executioner James Berry. Paul Brumfitt: strangled two men, one in Tilbury and another in Denmark, in 1979; sentenced to life, but released in 1994, and later killed a prostitute in Woodsetton in 1999; sentenced to three life terms. Peter Bryan: institutionalized for fatal hammer attack on woman in 1993; re-apprehended for cannibalizing a friend in 2004, but able to batter a fellow patient to death months later. David Burgess: Murdered three young girls in the Berkshire village of Beenham in 1966 and 1967. Only originally convicted of two murders, he was released in 1996, only to be convicted of the third murder in 2012 after new DNA evidence was found. John Cannan: Serial rapist and abductor of women convicted of one murder in 1987, considered to have murdered at least 2 more. George Chapman: Polish-born poisoner who murdered three women between 1897 and 1902; suspected by some authors of being Jack the Ripper. Executed in 1903. John Childs: known as the most prolific hit man in the United Kingdom, he was convicted in 1979 of six contract killings, though none of the bodies have been found. John Christie: gassed, raped and strangled at least five women from 1943 to 1953, hiding the bodies at his house in Notting Hill, London; also strangled his wife Ethel, as well as the wife and baby daughter of neighbour Timothy Evans, who was wrongfully executed for their murders. Christie was himself executed in July 1953. Robert George Clements: doctor who committed suicide when due to be arrested for poisoning his fourth wife; his other three wives all died suspiciously during the interwar period. Mary Ann Cotton: Victorian killer; said to have poisoned more than twenty victims; hanged in 1873. Sidney Cooke: Described in 1999 as "Britain's most notorious paedophile", Cooke is known to have killed three boys with a group of other paedophiles and the group is suspected of murdering up to 20. Thomas Neill Cream: known as "The Lambeth Poisoner"; began his killing spree in the United States then moved to London; hanged in 1892. Dale Cregan: sentenced to a whole life order in prison for four counts of homicide in 2012 involving the use of firearms, including killing two police officers, and three separate counts of attempted murder in Greater Manchester. Gordon Cummins: known as "The Blackout Ripper"; murdered four women in London during the wartime blackout in 1942, and suspect in two previous murders from 1941; executed 1942. Joanna Dennehy: stabbed three men to death and tried to kill two others selected at random in what would become known as "The Peterborough Ditch Murders" in 2013; sentenced to life in prison. John Duffy and David Mulcahy: known as "The Railway Killers"; killed three women near railway stations in the 1980s. Amelia Dyer: murdered infants in her care; executed 1896. Nicola Edgington: Edgington stabbed to death her own mother in 2005, she was later released and on 10 October 2012 murdered and attempted to murder two random women in the street in Bexleyheath. Kenneth Erskine: known as "The Stockwell Strangler"; sentenced to life imprisonment in 1988 for murdering seven pensioners. Catherine Flannigan and Margaret Higgins: two Irish women known as "The Black Widows of Liverpool"; killed at least four people by poisoning in the 1880s in order to obtain insurance money. Steven Grieveson: known as "The Sunderland Strangler"; murdered four teenage boys in Sunderland, Tyne and Wear between 1990 and 1994. Stephen Griffiths: known as "The Crossbow Cannibal"; convicted of murdering three prostitutes in Bradford in 2009 and 2010. Allan Grimson: Royal Navy petty officer convicted of two murders from 1997 to 1998; suspected of murdering up to twenty people across the UK, Gibraltar and New Zealand; sentenced to life imprisonment. John Haigh: known as "The Acid Bath Murderer"; active in England during the 1940s; convicted of six murders, but claimed to have killed nine; executed in 1949. Anthony Hardy: known as "The Camden Ripper"; convicted of three murders, but suspected of up to five more; sentenced to life imprisonment, died in prison. Trevor Hardy: known as "The Beast of Manchester"; killed three teenage girls in Manchester from 1974 to 1976. Philip Herbert: known as "The Infamous Earl of Pembroke"; 17th century nobleman convicted of manslaughter but discharged; later killed the prosecutor and pardoned for a third murder. Walter Horsford: known as "The St. Neots Poisoner"; poisoned his cousin in 1898 with strychnine, suspected of three previous murders; executed 1898. Colin Ireland: known as "The Gay Slayer"; killed five gay men in London in the early 1990s; died in prison in 2012. Ronald Jebson: Paedophile responsible for the 1970 Babes in the Wood murders and the murder of another child, Rosemary Papper, in 1974; died in prison in 2015. Theodore Johnson: Jamaican immigrant who murdered his wife and two girlfriends from 1981 to 2016; sentenced to 26 years imprisonment. Kieran Patrick Kelly: Irish vagrant who pushed two men to their deaths off London's subways from 1975 to 1983, but confessed to 31 murders in total; sentenced to life imprisonment and died in prison. Bruce George Peter Lee: arsonist responsible for 26 deaths in the town of Hull from 1973 to 1979; sentenced to life imprisonment. Robin Ligus: drug addict convicted of robbing and bludgeoning three men to death with an iron bar in Shropshire in 1994. Michael Lupo: known as "The Wolf Man"; Italian-born man convicted of the murders of four men and two attempted murders in London in the 1980s; died in prison in 1995. Patrick Mackay: charged with the murders of five individuals in London and Kent, convicted of three; confessed to killing eleven people from 1974 to 1975. Mark Martin: Murdered three homeless women with accomplices in Nottingham between December 2004 and January 2005. Robert Maudsley: known as "Hannibal The Cannibal"; killer of four; killed three in prison. Raymond Morris: known as "The A34 Killer"; convicted of one murder, considered to have committed at least two more. Robert Hicks Murray: bigamist who murdered his first wife and three children, and then killed himself in a murder-suicide in 1912; posthumously connected to the killings of at least seven previous wives. Robert Napper: known as "The Green Chain Rapist"; killed two women and a child in the 1990s. Sentenced to an indefinite hospital order in 2008. Donald Neilson: known as "The Black Panther"; killed four people, including heiress Lesley Whittle. Dennis Nilsen: known as "The Muswell Hill Murderer"; killer of fifteen (possibly 16) men between 1978 and 1983 in North London. Colin Norris: nurse who murdered four patients in Leeds hospitals during 2002. William Palmer: known as "Palmer the Poisoner"; doctor suspected of numerous murders, convicted of one; executed 1856. Stephen Port: known as "The Grindr Killer"; serial rapist who drugged, raped and murdered four young men in Barking, London between 2014 and 2015; sentenced to life imprisonment. Elizabeth Ridgeway: poisoned her husband in 1684; after arrest, confessed to poisoning three more people with mercuric chloride and arsenic starting from 1681; executed 1684. Amelia Sach and Annie Walters: known as "The Finchley Baby Farmers"; baby farmers who used chlorodyne to poison an unknown number of infants; both hanged at the HM Prison Holloway in 1903. Harold Shipman: known as "Dr. Death"; doctor convicted of fifteen murders; a later inquiry stated he had killed at least 215 and possibly up to 457 people over a 25-year period; committed suicide in 2004 in prison. George Joseph Smith: known as "The Brides in the Bath Killer"; murdered three women by drowning them in his bathtub; executed 1915. Rebecca Smith: Wiltshire woman who poisoned her infant son with arsenic in 1849, later confessing to doing the same to seven of her other children; executed 1849. John Straffen: murdered three children between 1951 and 1952; Britain's longest-serving prisoner until his death in 2007. Peter Sutcliffe: known as "The Yorkshire Ripper"; convicted in 1981 of murdering thirteen women and attacking seven more from 1975 to 1980; died in prison in 2020. Thomas Griffiths Wainewright: artist considered to have poisoned four people; convicted of forgery and transported to Australia, where he died. Margaret Waters: baby farmer from Brixton who drugged and starved the infants in her care; believed to have killed at least nineteen children; executed 1870. Fred and Rose West: known as "The House of Horrors Murderers"; she was convicted of ten murders; both are believed to have tortured and murdered at least twelve young women between 1967 and 1987, many at their home in Gloucester, including their teenage daughter; he committed suicide in 1995 while awaiting trial. Catherine Wilson: nurse considered to have poisoned seven people in the 19th century; executed in 1862. Mary Elizabeth Wilson: known as "The Merry Widow of Windy Nook"; convicted of murdering two husbands by poisoning and considered to have killed two others. Steve Wright: known as "The Suffolk Strangler"; killed five women in six weeks around Ipswich in late 2006; sentenced to life imprisonment. Graham Young: known as "The Teacup Poisoner"; killed three people from 1962 to 1971; died in prison in 1990. Jordan Monaghan: killed his two children and one of his girlfriends between 2013 and 2019; sentenced to life imprisonment. Northern Ireland Shankill Butchers: Ulster loyalist gang—many of whom were members of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF)—that was active between 1975 and 1982 in Belfast, Northern Ireland; the gang was based in the Shankill area and were responsible for the deaths of at least twenty-three people, most of whom were Irish Catholics killed in sectarian attacks. Gang leader Lenny Murphy was shot and killed by the Provisional IRA on 16 November 1982. Scotland Robert Black: lorry driver who killed at least four young girls across the UK between 1981 and 1986; suspected of more murders in Britain and continental Europe; died in prison (shortly before he was to be charged for a fifth murder). William Burke and William Hare: notorious body snatchers in Edinburgh who killed 16 people; Burke was executed, while Hare was granted immunity and released. Archibald Hall: known as "The Monster Butler"; killed five in the 1970s, three with accomplice Michael Kitto; died in prison in 2002. Peter Manuel: known as "The Beast of Birkenshaw"; American-born murderer of seven, suspected of killing 15; executed in 1958. Robert Mone: shot a schoolteacher to death in 1967, later killed a staff member and patient at Carstairs Hospital after escaping in 1976, subsequently murdered a police officer. Edward William Pritchard: English doctor who poisoned his wife and her mother in Glasgow in 1865; suspect in the mysterious death of his maid; executed 1865. Angus Sinclair: convicted of the murders of four young women, including "The World's End Murders" in Edinburgh, believed to have murdered eight; died in prison in 2019. Peter Tobin: rapist and killer of at least three women in Scotland and England between 1991 and 2006; sentenced to life in prison. Wales John Cooper: known as "The Wildman" and "The Bullseye Killer"; Pembrokeshire burglar responsible for the robbery and shotgun double-murders of a brother and sister in 1985 and a couple in 1989; sentenced to life imprisonment. Joseph Kappen: known as the "Saturday Night Strangler", murdered three 16-year-old girls in Llandarcy and Tonmawr near Port Talbot in 1973 and is suspected to have committed a fourth murder in 1976, posthumously identified as the murderer of the three girls in 1973 after his body was exhumed and DNA testing established his DNA matched the murderer's. Peter Moore: known as "The Man in Black"; businessman who killed four men at random in North Wales in 1995; sentenced to life imprisonment. United States Uruguay Pablo García Cejas: known as "The Maldonado Murderer"; murdered three acquaintances between April and June 2015 in Maldonado Department; sentenced to 30 years imprisonment. Pablo Goncálvez: Spanish-born murderer who killed tennis player Patricia Miller's half-sister and two other women; freed in 2016 but was arrested in 2017 in Paraguay for carrying an unregistered weapon and a quantity of cocaine. Uzbekistan Polatbay Berdaliyev: raped, murdered and robbed a total of eleven women in Uzbekistan and neighboring Kazakhstan with accomplice Abduseit Ormanov between 2011 and 2012; both sentenced to life imprisonment in both countries. Zokhid Otaboev: murdered three of his neighbors' children between 2010 and 2017 to "take revenge on them for mocking him"; sentenced to life imprisonment. Venezuela Dorángel Vargas: known as "El Comegente"; killed and cannibalized ten men between 1997 and 1999 in San Cristóbal, Táchira; killed four more in prison in 2016. Yemen Abdallah al-Hubal: killed seven people in 1990 after the Yemeni reunion; fled prison and killed a young couple and three other people in 1998; killed in a shootout with the police. Mohammed Adam Omar: known as "The Sana'a Ripper"; Sudanese morgue assistant who killed between two and 51 women across Yemen and other countries from 1975 to 1999; guilt has been questioned; executed 2001. Dhu Shanatir: 5th-century Himyarite ruler who molested and killed young boys; murdered by a would-be victim. Zambia Mailoni Brothers: three brothers who killed at least twelve people from 2007 to 2013 in Central Province; killed by police in 2013. Zimbabwe Richard McGown: known as "Dr. Death"; Scottish doctor responsible for administering fatal doses of morphine to at least five patients in Harare from 1986 to 1992; convicted of two counts of culpable homicide and sentenced to a year in prison, after which he was released and returned to the UK. Unidentified serial killers This is a list of unsolved murders which are believed to have been committed by unidentified serial killers. It includes circumstances where a suspect has been arrested, but not convicted. Australia Bowraville Murders: murders of three Aboriginal children in 1990 and 1991. The Family Murders: murder and mutilation of five young men and boys from 1979 to 1983. Bevan Spencer von Einem was convicted of one murder. Tynong North and Frankston Murders: murders of six females in Tynong North and Frankston in 1980 and 1981. Belgium Brabant killers: gang of serial killers who operated in the Brabant province from 1982 until 1985; murdered 28 people and injured 40. The Butcher of Mons: unidentified serial killer who committed five murders from January 1996 to July 1997 in Mons; Montenegrin murderer Smail Tulja is suspected of being the Butcher. Belize Belize Ripper: abducted, tortured, raped and murdered five young girls in Belize City between 1998 and 2000, mutilating their bodies post-mortem. Brazil Paturis Park murders: also known as the "Rainbow Maniac"; series of thirteen gunshot murders of gay men between July 2007 and August 2008 in Paturis Park in Carapicuiba. Canada Highway of Tears: death and disappearance of around 40 young women in British Columbia since 1969. Toronto hospital baby deaths: deaths of at least eight babies at Toronto's Hospital for Sick Children in 1980 and 1981 were initially alleged to be digoxin poisonings, a theory which was cast into doubt by new evidence in 2010–2011. Colombia Monster of the Mangones: kidnapped, raped, tortured and then murdered between 30 and 38 boys and teenagers in Cali from 1963 to the 1970s; suspected motive is clinical vampirism. Costa Rica El Psicópata: killed nineteen people from 1986 to 1996 in Cartago, Curridabat and Desamparados; suspected of other similar crimes. Finland Helsinki cellar killer: suspected of raping and strangling three women in Helsinki cellars between 1976 and 1981, including Susanne Lindholm; the validity of this theory has been disputed. Järvenpää Serial Killer: responsible for the so-called "Hausjärvi Gravel Pit Murders"; killed a woman in 1991 and suspected in the disappearance of another in 1993; possibly responsible for other abductions and murders in the late 20th century. Germany India Beer Man: murdered seven people in south Mumbai between October 2006 and January 2007. Stoneman: responsible for thirteen murders in Kolkata in 1989. Italy Monster of Florence: committed eight murders of couples in a series of sixteen between 1968 and 1985. Giancarlo Lotti and Mario Vanni were convicted of four of the murders, but this conviction has been widely criticized. Monster of Udine: killed at least four victims in the Province of Udine, Italy. Japan Paraquat murders: series of indiscriminate poisonings carried out in Japan in 1985 where twelve people were killed. Tokyo Metropolitan Murders: series of rapes, strangulations and burnings of mostly female victims between 1968 and 1974 in the Greater Tokyo Area; construction worker Etsuo Ono was convicted of one murder and later acquitted in a highly publicized trial, but convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for an unrelated murder. Wednesday Strangler: killed seven children and women in Saga Prefecture between 1975 and 1989, most of them on Wednesdays; a suspect was indicted for three of the murders, but later acquitted. Mexico Femicides in Ciudad Juárez: also known as "The dead women of Juárez"; the violent deaths of hundreds of women since 1993 in the northern Mexican city of Ciudad Juárez. Namibia B1 Butcher: murdered at least five women between 2005 and 2007, with all murders related to the National Road B1. Nicaragua San Juan del Sur Psychopath: murdered between two and ten men in the coastal town of San Juan del Sur, from 2000 to 2002; a German illegal alien residing in Managua was arrested on suspicion, but later cleared of the murders. Poland Łódź Gay Murderer: murdered seven homosexual men from 1988 to 1993 in Łódź. Portugal Lisbon Ripper: murdered three women in Lisbon between 1992 and 1993. Russia South Africa Sleepy Hollow Killer: thought to be responsible for the murders of at least thirteen women in the late 1990s, including three more in 2007, around Pietermaritzburg and the surrounding area. United Kingdom Bible John: thought to be responsible for the deaths of three women in Glasgow, Scotland, in the late 1960s. Jack the Ripper: murdered prostitutes in the East End of London in 1888. Jack the Stripper: responsible for the London "Hammersmith nude murders" between 1964 and 1965. Thames Torso Murderer: thought to be responsible for the murder and dismemberment of four women in London between 1887 and 1889. United States See also List of non-state terrorist incidents (includes Unabomber, Theodore Kaczynski) List of serial killers before 1900 List of serial killers by number of victims Mass murder Spree killer References serial killers serial country Serial killers by nationality
665641	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%20naming%20customs	Spanish naming customs	Spanish names typically consist of a given name (simple or composite) followed by two surnames. Historically, the first surname was the father's first surname, and the second the mother's first surname. In recent years in Spain, the order of the surnames in a family is decided when registering the first child, but the traditional order is nearly universally chosen (99.53% of the time). Often, the practice is to use one given name and the first surname most of the time (e.g. "Miguel de Unamuno" for Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo); the complete name is typically reserved for legal, formal, and documentary matters. Both surnames are sometimes systematically used when the first surname is very common (e.g., Federico García Lorca, Pablo Ruiz Picasso or José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero) to get a more customized name. In these cases, it is even common to use only the second surname, as in "Lorca", "Picasso" or "Zapatero". This does not affect alphabetization: "Lorca", the Spanish poet, must be alphabetized in an index under "García Lorca", not "Lorca" or "García". Basic structure Currently in Spain, people bear a single or composite given name (nombre in Spanish) and two surnames (apellidos in Spanish). A composite given name comprises two (or more) single names; for example Juan Pablo is considered not to be a first and a second forename, but a single composite forename. The two surnames refer to each of the parental families. Traditionally, a person's first surname is the father's first surname (apellido paterno), while their second surname is the mother's first surname (apellido materno). For example, if a man named Eduardo Fernández Garrido marries a woman named María Dolores Martínez Ruiz (note that women do not change their name with marriage) and they have a child named José, there are several legal options, but their child would most usually be known as José Fernández Martínez. Spanish gender equality law has allowed surname transposition since 1999, subject to the condition that every sibling must bear the same surname order recorded in the Registro Civil (civil registry), but there have been legal exceptions. Since 2013, if the parents of a child were unable to agree on the order of surnames, an official would decide which is to come first, with the paternal name being the default option. The only requirement is that every son and daughter must have the same order of the surnames, so they cannot change it separately. Since June 2017, adopting the paternal name first is no longer the standard method, and parents are required to sign an agreement wherein the name order is expressed explicitly. The law also grants a person the option, upon reaching adulthood, of reversing the order of their surnames. However, this legislation only applies to Spanish citizens; people of other nationalities are issued the surname indicated by the laws of their original country. Each surname can also be composite, with the parts usually linked by the conjunction y or e (and), by the preposition de (of), or by a hyphen. For example, a person's name might be Juan Pablo Fernández de Calderón García-Iglesias, consisting of a forename (Juan Pablo), a paternal surname (Fernández de Calderón), and a maternal surname (García-Iglesias). There are times when it is impossible, by inspection of a name, to correctly analyse it. For example, the writer Sebastià Juan Arbó was alphabetised by the Library of Congress for many years under "Arbó", assuming that Sebastià and Juan were both given names. However, "Juan" was actually his first surname. Resolving questions like this, which typically involve very common names ("Juan" is rarely a surname), often requires the consultation of the person involved or legal documents pertaining to them. Forms of address A man named José Antonio Gómez Iglesias would normally be addressed as either señor Gómez or señor Gómez Iglesias instead of señor Iglesias, because Gómez is his first surname. Furthermore, Mr. Gómez might be informally addressed as José Antonio José Pepe (nickname for José) Antonio Toño (nickname for Antonio) Joselito, Josito, Joselillo, Josico or Joselín (diminutives of José) Antoñito, Toñín, Toñito, Ñoño or Nono (diminutives of Antonio) Joseán (apocopation). Very formally, he could be addressed with an honorific such as don José Antonio or don José. It is not unusual, when the first surname is very common, like García in the example above, for a person to be referred to formally using both family names, or casually by their second surname only. For example, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (elected President of the Spanish Government in the 2004 and 2008 general elections) is often called simply Zapatero, the name he inherited from his mother's family since Rodríguez is a common surname and may be ambiguous. The same occurs with another former Spanish Socialist leader, Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba, with the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca, and with the painter Pablo Ruiz Picasso. As these people's paternal surnames are very common, they are often referred to by their maternal surnames (Rubalcaba, Lorca, Picasso). It would nonetheless be a mistake to index Rodríguez Zapatero under Z or García Lorca under L. (Picasso, who spent most of his adult life in France, is normally indexed under "P".) In an English-speaking environment, Spanish-named people sometimes hyphenate their surnames to avoid Anglophone confusion or to fill in forms with only one space provided for the last name: for example, U.S. Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, who is of Puerto Rican heritage, is named "Ocasio-Cortez" because her parents' surnames are Ocasio-Roman and Ocasio-Cortez (née Cortez). She has publicly corrected people who referred to her as "Cortez" rather than "Ocasio-Cortez." Forenames Parents choose their child's given name, which must be recorded in the Registro Civil (Civil Registry) to establish his or her legal identity. With few restrictions, parents can now choose any name; common sources of names are the parents' taste, honouring a relative, the General Roman Calendar nomina (nominal register), and traditional Spanish names. Legislation in Spain under Franco legally limited cultural naming customs to only Christian (Jesus, Mary, saints) and typical Spanish names (Álvaro, Jimena, etc.). Although the first part of a composite forename generally reflects the gender of the child, the second personal name need not (e.g. José María Aznar). At present, the only naming limitation is the dignity of the child, who cannot be given an insulting name. Similar limitations applied against diminutive, familiar, and colloquial variants not recognized as names proper, and "those that lead to confusion regarding sex"; however, current law allows registration of diminutive names. María and José Girls are often named María, honouring the Virgin Mary, by appending either a shrine, place, or religious-concept suffix-name to María. In daily life, such women omit the "Mary of the ..." nominal prefix, and use the suffix portion of their composite names as their public, rather than legal, identity. Hence, women with Marian names such as María de los Ángeles (Mary of the Angels), María del Pilar (Mary of the Pillar), and María de la Luz (Mary of the Light), are normally addressed as Ángeles (Angels), Pilar (Pillar), and Luz (Light); however, each might be addressed as María. Nicknames such as Maricarmen for María del Carmen, Marisol for "María (de la) Soledad" ("Our Lady of Solitude", the Virgin Mary), Dolores or Lola for María de los Dolores ("Our Lady of Sorrows"), Mercedes or Merche for María de las Mercedes ("Our Lady of the Gifts"), etc. are often used. Also, parents can simply name a girl María, or Mari without a suffix portion. It is not unusual for a boy's formal name to include María, preceded by a masculine name, e.g. José María Aznar (Joseph Mary Aznar) or Juan María Vicencio de Ripperdá (John Mary Vicencio de Ripperdá). Equivalently, a girl can be formally named María José (Mary Joseph), e.g. skier María José Rienda, and informally named Marijose, Mariajo, Majo, Ajo, Marisé or even José in honor of St. Joseph. María as a masculine name is often abbreviated in writing as M. (José M. Aznar), Ma. (José Ma. Aznar), or M.ª (José M.ª Morelos). It is unusual for any names other than the religiously significant María and José to be used in this way except for the name Jesús that is also very common and can be used as "Jesús" or "Jesús María" for a boy and "María Jesús" for a girl, and can be abbreviated as "Sus", "Chus" and other nicknames. Registered names The Registro Civil (Civil Registry) officially records a child's identity as composed of a forename (simple or composite) and the two surnames; however, a child can be religiously baptized with several forenames, e.g. Felipe Juan Froilán de Todos los Santos. Until the 1960s, it was customary to baptize children with three forenames: the first was the main and the only one used by the child; if parents agreed, one of the other two was the name of the day's saint. Nowadays, baptizing with three or more forenames is usually a royal and noble family practice. Marriage In Spain, upon marrying, one does not change one's surname. In some instances, such as high society meetings, the partner's surname can be added after the person's surnames using the preposition de (of). An example would be a Leocadia Blanco Álvarez, married to a Pedro Pérez Montilla, may be addressed as Leocadia Blanco de Pérez or as Leocadia Blanco Álvarez de Pérez. This format is not used in everyday settings and has no legal value. Generational transmission In the generational transmission of surnames, the paternal surname's precedence eventually eliminates the maternal surnames from the family lineage. Contemporary law (1999) allows the maternal surname to be given precedence, but most people observe the traditional paternal–maternal surname order. Therefore, the daughter and son of Ángela López Sáenz and Tomás Portillo Blanco are usually called Laura Portillo López and Pedro Portillo López but could also be called Laura López Portillo and Pedro López Portillo. The two surnames of all siblings must be in the same order when recorded in the Registro Civil. Patrilineal surname transmission was not always the norm in Spanish-speaking societies. Prior to the mid-eighteenth century, when the current paternal-maternal surname combination norm was adopted, Hispanophone societies often practiced matrilineal surname transmission, giving children the maternal surname and occasionally giving children a grandparent's surname (borne by neither parent) for prestige – being perceived as gentry – and profit, flattering the matriarch or the patriarch in hope of inheriting land. Spanish naming customs include the orthographic option of conjoining the surnames with the conjunction particle y, or e before a name starting with 'I', 'Hi' or 'Y', (both meaning "and") (e.g., José Ortega y Gasset, Tomás Portillo y Blanco, or Eduardo Dato e Iradier), following an antiquated aristocratic usage. Not every surname is a single word; such conjoining usage is common with doubled surnames (maternal-paternal), ancestral composite surnames bequeathed to the following generations – especially when the paternal surname is socially undistinguished. José María Álvarez del Manzano y López del Hierro is an example, his name comprising the composite single name José María and two composite surnames, Álvarez del Manzano and López del Hierro. Other examples derive from church place-names such as San José. When a person bears doubled surnames, the means of disambiguation is to insert y between the paternal and maternal surnames. In case of illegitimacy – when the child's father either is unknown or refuses to recognize his child legally – the child bears both of the mother's surnames, which may be interchanged. Occasionally, a person with a common paternal surname and an uncommon maternal surname becomes widely known by the maternal surname. Some examples include the artist Pablo Ruiz Picasso, the poet Federico García Lorca, and the politician José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. With a similar effect, the foreign paternal surname of the Uruguayan writer Eduardo Hughes Galeano (his father was British) is usually omitted. (As a boy, however, he occasionally signed his name as Eduardo Gius, using a Hispanicised approximation of the English pronunciation of "Hughes".) Such use of the second last name by itself is colloquial, however, and may not be applied in legal contexts. Also rarely, a person may become widely known by both surnames, with an example being a tennis player Arantxa Sánchez Vicario – whereas her older brothers Emilio and Javier, also professional tennis players, are mainly known only by the paternal surname of Sánchez in everyday life, although they would formally be addressed as Sánchez Vicario. Navarrese and Álavan surnames Where Basque and Romance cultures have linguistically long coexisted, the surnames denote the father's name and the (family) house or town/village. Thus the Romance patronymic and the place-name are conjoined with the prepositional particle de ("from"+"provenance"). For example, in the name José Ignacio López de Arriortúa, the composite surname López de Arriortúa is a single surname, despite Arriortúa being the original family name. This can lead to confusion because the Spanish López and the Basque Arriortúa are discrete surnames in Spanish and Basque respectively. This pattern was also in use in other Basque districts, but was phased out in most of the Basque-speaking areas and only remained in place across lands of heavy Romance influence, i.e. some central areas of Navarre and most of Álava. To a lesser extent, this pattern has been also present in Castile, where Basque-Castilian bilingualism was common in northern and eastern areas up to the 13th century. A notable example of this system was Joaquina Sánchez de Samaniego y Fernández de Tejada, with both paternal and maternal surnames coming from this system, joined with a y ("and"). Nominal conjunctions The particle "de" (of) In Spanish, the preposition particle de ("of") is used as a conjunction in two surname spelling styles, and to disambiguate a surname. The first style is in patronymic and toponymic surname spelling formulæ, e.g. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Pedro López de Ayala, and Vasco Núñez de Balboa, as in many conquistador names. The spellings of surnames containing the prepositional particle de are written in lower-case when they follow the name, thus José Manuel de la Rúa ("of the street") and Cunegunda de la Torre ("of the tower"), otherwise the upper-case spellings doctor De la Rúa and señora De la Torre are used. Without a patronymic Juan Carlos de Borbón. Unlike in French, Spanish orthography does not require a contraction when a vowel begins the surname, with the exception de el ("of the"), which becomes del. E.g. Carlos Arturo del Monte (Charles Arthur of the Mountain). The patronymic exception The current (1958) Spanish name law, Artículo 195 del Reglamento del Registro Civil (Article 195 of the Civil Registry Regulations) does not allow a person to prefix de to their surname, except as the clarifying addition of de to a surname (apellido) that might be misunderstood as a forename (nombre); thus, a child would be registered as Pedro de Miguel Jiménez, to avoid the surname Miguel being mistaken as the second part of a composite name, as Pedro Miguel. Bearing the de particle does not necessarily denote a noble family, especially in eastern Castile, Alava, and western Navarre, the de usually applied to the place-name (town or village) from which the person and his or her ancestors originated. This differs from another practice established in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, i.e. the usage of de following the one's own name as a way of denoting the bearer's noble heritage to avoid the misperception that he or she is either a Jew or a Moor. In that time, many people, regardless of their true origins, used the particle, e.g. Miguel de Cervantes, Lope de Vega, etc.; moreover, following that fashion a high noble such as Francisco Sandoval Rojas called himself Francisco de Sandoval y Rojas. During the eighteenth century, the Spanish nobility fully embraced the French custom of using de as a nobility identifier, however, commoners also bore the de particle, which made the de usages unclear; thus, nobility was emphasised with the surname's lineage. The particle "y" (and) In the sixteenth century, the Spanish adopted the copulative conjunction y ("and") to distinguish a person's surnames; thus the Andalusian Baroque writer Luis de Góngora y Argote (1561–1627), the Aragonese painter Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (1746–1828), the Andalusian artist Pablo Diego Ruiz y Picasso (1881–1973), and the Madrilenian liberal philosopher José Ortega y Gasset (1883–1955). In Hispanic America, this spelling convention was common to clergymen (e.g. Salvadoran Bishop Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez), and sanctioned by the Ley de Registro Civil (Civil Registry Law) of 1870, requiring birth certificates indicating the paternal and maternal surnames conjoined with y – thus, Felipe González y Márquez and José María Aznar y López are the respective true names of the Spanish politicians Felipe González Márquez and José María Aznar López; however, unlike in Catalan, the Spanish usage is infrequent. In the Philippines, y and its associated usages are retained only in formal state documents such as police records, but is otherwise dropped in favour of a more American-influenced naming order. The conjunction y avoids denominational confusion when the paternal surname might appear to be a (first) name: without it, the physiologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal might appear to be named Santiago Ramón (composite) and surnamed Cajal, likewise the jurist Francisco Tomás y Valiente, and the cleric Vicente Enrique y Tarancón. Without the conjunction, the footballer Rafael Martín Vázquez, when referred to by his surnames Martín Vázquez mistakenly appears to be forenamed Martín rather than Rafael, whilst, to his annoyance, the linguist Fernando Lázaro Carreter occasionally was addressed as Don Lázaro, rather than as Don Fernando (Lázaro can be either forename or surname). Moreover, when the maternal surname begins with an i vowel sound, written with either the vowel I (Ibarra), the vowel Y (Ybarra archaic spelling) or the combination Hi + consonant (Higueras), Spanish euphony substitutes e in place of y, thus the example of the Spanish statesman Eduardo Dato e Iradier (1856–1921). Denotations To communicate a person's social identity, Spanish naming customs provide orthographic means, such as suffix-letter abbreviations, surname spellings, and place names, which denote and connote the person's place in society. Identity and descent h. (son of): A man named like his father, might append the lower-case suffix h. (denoting hijo, son) to his surname, thus distinguishing himself, Juan Gómez Marcos, h., from his father, Juan Gómez Marcos; the English analogue is "Jr." (junior). The suffix -ez Following the Visigothic invasion of the Iberian peninsula, the local population adopted to a large extent a patronymic naming system: the suffix -icī (a Latin genitive meaning son of) would be attached to the name of a man's father. This suffix gradually evolved into different local forms, depending on the language. For example, the son of Fernando would be called: Basque: Fernanditz Castillan: Fernández Catalan: Ferrandis Portuguese and Galician: Fernandes This system was most common in, but not limited to, the central region of Castile. Bare surnames, i.e. the father's name without the suffix -itz/-ez/-is/-es, can also be found, and are especially common in Catalonia. This said, mass migration in the 20th century has led to a certain leveling off of such regional differences. In Catalan speaking areas the suffixed surname Ferrandis is most common in the South (the Valencian Country) while in the North (Catalonia) the bare surname Ferran is more common. Furthermore, language contact led to the creation of multiple hybrid forms, as evidenced by the multiple Catalano-Castillan surnames, found especially in the Valencian Country: Fernàndez, Fernandis, Fernàndiz, Ferrandez, Ferràniz, Ferranis, etc. Not every similar surname is patronymic. Due to the letters z and s being pronounced alike in Latin American dialects of Spanish, many non-patronymic surnames with an -es have come to be written with an -ez. In Hispano-American Spanish, the -ez spellings of Chávez (Hugo Chávez), Cortez (Alberto Cortez) and Valdez (Nelson Valdez) are not patronymic surnames, but simply variant spellings of the Iberian Spanish spelling with -es, as in the names of Manuel Chaves, Hernán Cortés and Víctor Valdés. For more on the -z surnames in Spanish see Influences on the Spanish language. A number of the most common surnames with this suffix are: Álvarez – the son of Álvar, Álvaro Antúnez – the son of Antón, Antonio Benéitez, Benítez – the son of Benito Díaz, Díez, Diéguez – the son of Diego Domínguez – the son of Domingo Enríquez – the son of Enrique Estévez – the son of Esteve, Estevo, Esteban Fernández – the son of Fernando Giménez, Jiménez, Ximénez – the son of Gimeno, Jimeno, Ximeno Gómez – the son of Gome or Gomo González – the son of Gonzalo Gutiérrez – the son of Gutierre, Gutier Hernández – the son of Hernando Ibáñez – the son of Iván, Juan López – the son of Lope Márquez – the son of Marco, Marcos Méndez – the son of Mendo Míguez, Miguélez – the son of Miguel Martínez – the son of Martín Muñoz – the son of Munio Núñez – the son of Nuño Peláez – the son of Pelayo Pérez – the son of Pedro Rodríguez – the son of Rodrigo Ruiz – the son of Ruy, Roy Ramírez – the son of Ramiro Sánchez – the son of Sancho Suárez – the son of Suero Téllez – the son of Tello Vásquez, Vázquez – the son of Vasco, Velasco Velázquez, Velásquez – the son of Velasco Vélez – the son of Vela Foundlings Anonymous abandoned children were a problem for civil registrars to name. Some such children were named after the town where they were found (toponymic surname). Because most were reared in church orphanages, some were also given the surnames Iglesia or Iglesias (church[es]) and Cruz (cross). Blanco (with the meaning "blank", rather than "white") was another option. A toponymic first surname might have been followed by Iglesia(s) or Cruz as a second surname. Nameless children were sometimes given the surname Expósito/Expósita (from Latin exposĭtus, "exposed", meaning "abandoned child"), which marked them, and their descendants, as of a low caste or social class. Due to this, in 1921 Spanish law started to allow holders of the surname Expósito to legally change their surname. In the Catalan language, the surname Deulofeu ("made by God") was often given out to these children, which is similar to De Dios ("from God") in Castilian. Furthermore, in Aragón abandoned children would receive the surname Gracia ("grace") or de Gracia, because they were thought to survive by the grace of God. Foreign citizens In Spain, foreign immigrants retain use of their cultural naming customs, but upon becoming Spanish citizens, they are legally obliged to assume Spanish-style names (one forename and two surnames). If the naturalised citizen is from a one-surname culture, their current surname is either doubled, or their mother's maiden name is adopted. For example, a Briton with the name "Sarah Jane Smith" could become either "Sarah Jane Smith Smith" or "Sarah Jane Smith Jones" upon acquiring Spanish citizenship. Formally, Spanish naming customs would also mean that the forename "Sarah" and middle name "Jane" would be treated as a compound forename: "Sarah Jane". Flamenco artists Historically, flamenco artists seldom used their proper names. According to the flamenco guitarist Juan Serrano, this was because flamenco was considered disreputable and they did not want to embarrass their families: This tradition has persisted to the present day, even though Flamenco is now legitimate. Sometimes the artistic name consists of the home town appended to the first name (Manolo Sanlúcar, Ramón de Algeciras); but many, perhaps most, of such names are more eccentric: Pepe de la Matrona (because his mother was a midwife); Perico del Lunar (because he had a mole); Tomatito (son of a father known as Tomate (tomato) because of his red face); Sabicas (because of his childhood passion for green beans, from niño de las habicas); Paco de Lucía, born Francisco ("Paco") Gustavo Sánchez Gomes, was known from infancy after his Portuguese mother, Lucía Gomes (de Lucía = [son] of Lucía). And many more. However, when referring to these artists by their noms de plume, it makes no sense to shorten their name to the qualifier, as in "Lucia" or "de Lucia"; Paco, or perhaps "el de Lucia", are the only options. Spanish hypocoristics and nicknames Many Spanish names can be shortened into hypocoristic, affectionate "child-talk" forms using a diminutive suffix, especially -ito and -cito (masculine) and -ita and -cita (feminine). Sometimes longer than the person's name, a nickname is usually derived via linguistic rules. However, in contrast to English use, hypocoristic names in Spanish are only used to address a person in a very familiar environment – the only exception being when the hypocoristic is an artistic name (e.g. Nacho Duato born Juan Ignacio Duato). The common English practice of using a nickname in the press or media, or even on business cards (such as Bill Gates instead of William Gates), is not accepted in Spanish, being considered excessively colloquial. The usages vary by country and region; these are some usual names and their nicknames: Adelaida = Ade, Adela Adelina = Deli, Lina Adrián (Male) or Adriana (Female) = Adri Alberto = Alber, Albertito, Beto, Berto, Tico, Tuco, Tito, Albi Alejandra = Sandra, Ale, Álex, Álexa, Aleja, Jandra, Jana Alejandro = Ale, Álex, Alejo, Jandro, Jano, Cano, Sandro, Pando Alfonso = Alfon, Fon, Fonso, Fonsi, Poncho, Loncho Alfredo = Fredi Alicia = Ali, Licha Ana Isabel = Anabel Anacleto = Cleto Andrea, Andreo, Andrés, Andressa = Andi, Andresito, Andresita Agustín = Agus, Tin Antonia = Toña, Tona, Toñi, Toñita, Tonia, Antoñita Antonio = Antón, Tonio, Toni, Tono, Tonino, Tonito, Toño, Toñín, Antoñito, Antuco, Antuquito Antonino = Nino Ariadna = Ari Arturo = Arturito, Turito, Art, Lito Arcenio = Arcenito, Cheno Armando = Mando, Mandi Ascensión = Ascen, Choni Asunción = Asun, Susi, Suni Aurelio = Yeyo, Aure Beatriz = Bea, Beti, Betina Begoña = Bego Benjamín = Ben, Benja, Benjas, Benji, Jamín Berenice = Bere Bernabé = Berna Bernardino= Bérnar, Nino Bernardo= Bérnar, Ber, Nardo Bonifacio= Boni Buenaventura= Ventura, Ventu, Venturi Candelaria= Can, Cande, Candi, Candelita, Canda, Candela Cándido/a = Candi Caridad = Cari, Carita, Caruca, Cuca Carla = Carlita Carlos = Carlito, Carlitos, Carlo, Calo, Calín, Carlines, Litos, Charli, Chepe Carmen = Mamen, Carmita, Carmenchu, Menchu, Carmencha, Carmencita, Carmelita, Carmela, Carmina Carolina = Caro, Cárol, Caroli, Carito Catalina = Cata, Lina, Cati, Catina, Caty Cecilia = Ceci, Cece, Cilia, Chila, Chili Celestino = Celes, Cele, Tino César = Checha, Cesito, Cesítar Ciro = Cirino Claudia = Clau, Claudi (Inmaculada) Concepción = Conchi, Conchita, Concha, Conce, Ciona, Cione, Chon, Choni, Inma, Macu Consolación = Conso Constantino = Tino Consuelo = Consu, Chelo, Coni Covadonga = Cova, Covi Cristian = Cris Cristina = Cris, Cristi, Tina Cristóbal = Cris, Cristo, Toba Cristóforo = Cuco, Chosto Cruz = Crucita, Chuz Dalia = Dali Dalila = Lila Daniel (Male) or Daniela (Female) = Dani David = Davo, Davilo Dolores = Lola, Loli, Lolita, Loles Eduardo = Edu, Lalo, Eduardito, Duardo, Guayo Eladio = Lalo, Yayo Elena = Nena Eloísa = Elo Encarnación = Encarna, Encarni, Encarnita Enrique = Quique, Quico, Kike, Kiko Ernesto = Neto, Netico, Tito Esmeralda = Esme, Mera Esperanza = Espe, Pera, Lancha, Pancha, Peri Esteban = Estebi Estefanía = Estefa, Estefi Eugenia = Genita Eugenio = Genio, Genín, Genito Eva = Evita Facundo = Facu Federico = Fede, Fico Felícita = Feli, Felacha Felipe = Fele, Pipe, Lipe Faustino = Tino, Tinín Fermín = Mincho, Fermo Fernanda = Fer, Nanda, Feña Fernando = Fer, Nando, Nano, Ferni, Feña, Fercho Florencia = Flor, Flora, Florci, Florcita, Florchi, Florchu, Lencha Florencio = Floro, Lencho Francisca = Fran, Paqui, Paquita, Sisca, Cisca, Pancha, Curra, Paca, Quica, Panchita, Panchi Francisco = Fran, Francis, Paco, Sisco, Cisco, Chisco, Curro, Quico, Kiko, Franco, Frasco, Frascuelo, Pacho, Pancho, Panchito Gabriel = Gabo, Gabri Gabriela = Gabi, Gabrielita Gerardo = Gera, Yayo, Lalo Germán = Mancho Gertrudis = Tula Gloria María = Glorimar Gonzalo = Gonza, Gon, Gonzo, Gonchi, Lalo, Chalo, Talo, Tali Graciela = Chela Gregorio = Goyo, Gorio Griselda = Gris, Celda Guadalupe = Lupe (female & male), Guada, Pupe, Lupita, Lupilla (female) & Lupito, Lupillo (male), Pita (female) Guillermo = Guille, Guíller, Guillo, Meme, Momo, Memo Gumersindo = Gúmer, Gume, Sindo. Héctor = Tito, Torín, Hertico Hermenegildo = Hildo Hortensia = Horten, Tencha Humberto, Huberto, Adalberto = Berto, Beto Ignacia = Nacha, Nacia, Ina Ignacio = Nacho, Nacio, Nachito, Naco, Iñaqui, Iñaki Inocencia = Chencha Inocencio = Chencho Isabel = Bela, Beli, Belica, Sabel, Sabela, Chabela, Chavela, Chavelita, Chabelita, Isa Ismael = Isma, Mael, Maelo Israel = Irra, Rai Iván = Ivi, Ivo Jacobo = Cobo, Yaco, Yago Jaime = Jaimón, Jimmy Javier = Javi, Javo, Javito Jorge = Jorgecito, Jorgis, Jorgito, Gorge, Jecito, Coque, Koke Jesús = Jesu, Chus, Xus, Chuso, Chusi, Chucho, Chuchi, Chuy, Suso, Susi, Chuyito Jesús Alberto = Jesusbeto, Chuybeto Jesús Manuel = Jesusma Jesus María = Chumari, Chusma, Jesusmari Jesús Ramón = Jerra, Jesusra, Chuymoncho, Chuymonchi Jesusa = Susi, Sus, Chusa, Susa, Chucha, Chuy, Chuyita Joaquín = Joaco, Juaco, Quin, Quim, Quino, Quincho José = Jose, Pepe, Chepe, Pepito, Chepito, Pito, Pepín, Pepu, Chechu, Cheo José Ángel/José Antonio = Josean, Josan José Carlos = Joseca José Luis = Joselo, Joselu, Pepelu, Selu José Manuel = Josema, Chema, Chemita, Chemanu José María = Chema, Chemari, Josemari, Josema José Miguel = Josemi, Jomi, Chemi José Ramón = Peperramón, Joserra Josefa = Pepa, Pepi, Pepita, Fina, Fini, Finita Josefina = Jose, Fina, Pepa, Pepita, Chepina, Chepita Juan = Juanito, Juanín, Juancho, Juanelo, Juampi, Juanci Juan Andrés = Juanan Juan Camilo = Juanca, Juancho, Juanqui, Juanquis Juan Carlos = Juanca, Juáncar, Juanqui Juan Cristóbal = Juancri, Juancris Juan Ernesto = Juáner Juan Esteban = Juanes Juan Felipe = Juanfe, Pipe Juan Fernando = Juánfer Juan Francisco = Juanfran Juan Ignacio = Juancho Juan Javier = Juanja Juan José = Juanjo, Juancho Juan Leonardo = Juanle Juan Luis = Juanlu Juan Manuel = Juanma Juan Miguel = Juangui, Juanmi Juan Pablo = Juampa, Juampi, Juampis Juan Rafael = Juanra Juan Ramón = Juanra Juan Salvador = Juansa Juan Vicente = Juanvi Julián = Juli, Julianito, Julianillo Julio = Julín, Julito, Juli Laura = Lalita, Lala, Lauri, Lauris, Lau, Laurita Leticia = Leti Lorena = Lore Lorenzo = Lencho, Enzo Lourdes = Lourditas, Lulú Lucía = Luci, Lucita Luciano = Chano, Ciano, Lucho Luis = Lucho, Luisito, Güicho, Luisín, Sito Luis Felipe = Luisfe Luis Manuel = Luisma Luis María = Luisma Luis Mariano = Luisma Luis Miguel = Luismi Magdalena = Magda, Mada, Malena, Mane, Manena, Lena, Leni, Lenita Manuel = Manu, Lolo, Meño, Manuelito, Lito, Lillo, Mani, Manué, Manel, Mel, Nel, Nelo Manolo = Lolo, Manolito, Manolillo, Lito, Lillo, Manolín Marcelina = Lina, Marce, Celina, Chela, Marce Marcelo = Chelo, Marce Margarita = Marga, Margari, Magui, Rita, Mague María = Mari, Maruja, Marujita, Marica, Marita, Mariquita, Mariquilla, Iah María Aurora = Marora María Auxiliadora = Chilo, Mauxi, Mausi, Dori María de Dolores = Lola, Loles, Loli, Lolita, Mariló María de Jesús = Marichú María de la Cruz = Maricruz María de la Luz = Mariluz, Luz, Malú María de las Nieves = Marinieves, Nieves María de los Ángeles = Marielos, Marian, Ángeles, Ángela, Angie, Angy, Mariángeles María de Lourdes = Malula, Marilú, Lulú María del Carmen = Maricarmen, Mamen, Mai, Maica, Mayca, Mayka, Mari María del Mar = Marimar, Mar María del Rosario = Charo, Chari, Charito, Chayo María del Refugio = Cuca, Cuquis María del Socorro = Maricoco, Coco, Socorro María del Sol/María de la Soledad = Marisol, Sol, Sole, Chole María Engracia = Graci, Gracita María Elena = Malena, Marilena María Eugenia = Maru, Marugenia, Yeni, Kena, Kenita María Fernanda = Mafe, Mafer, Marifer María Fuensanta = Mari Santi, Tanti, Fuen María Isabel = Maribel, Mabel, Marisabel, Marisa María José/María Josefa = Cote, Coté, Jose, Josefa, Mai, Ajo, Majo, Mariajo, Marijó, Marijose, Maripepa, Maripepi, Pepa, Pepi, Pepita María Laura = Malala María Luisa = Marisa, Mariluisa, Malu, Maluli, Magüi María Milagros = Mila, Milagritos, Mili, Mimi, Marimili María Paz = Maripaz, Paz, Pacita María Pilar = Pilar, Pili, Mapi, Maripí, Maripili María Teresa = Maritere, Maite, Mayte, Teté, Mari, Mariate, Marité María Victoria = Mariví, Mavi Marta = Martuqui, Tuqui Mario = Mayito Mauricio = Mau, Mauro, Mauri Máximo = Maxi, Max, Maximino, Mino Mayra = Mayrita, Mayris Mayola = May Mercedes = Merce, Merche, Merchi, Merceditas, Meche, Meches Micaela = Mica Miguel = Migue, Míchel, Miki Miguel Enrique = Ige, Ike, Mige, Mike, Migo, Miko Minerva = Mine, Míner Míriam = Miri Mónica = Moni, Mo Montserrat = Monse, Montse, Mon Natividad = Nati, Tivi Nicolás = Nico, Colás Nicolasa = Nico, Colasa Norberto = Nórber, Berto, Bertín Norma = Normi, Normita, Tita Oriana = Ori, Nana, Nanita, Ana, Anita Orlando = Lando Pablo = Pablete, Pablín, Pablito, Blete, Blin, Blito Pacificación = Paz Paloma = Palo Paola = Pao, Paolita, Payoya Paula = Pau Paulina = Pau, Pauli Patricia = Patri, Tricia, Pato, Pati Patricio = Pato, Patri Pedro = Perucho, Pedrito, Perico, Peyuco, Peret, Pedrín Pilar/María del Pilar = Pili, Pilarín, Piluca, Petita, Maripili Primitivo = Pivo, Tivo Rafael = Rafaelito, Rafa, Rafi, Rafita, Rafo, Fael, Falo, Fali, Felo, Fefo, Fefi Ramón = Mon, Moncho, Monchi, Mongo, Monguito, Ramoncito Raúl = Rauli, Raulito, Raulillo, Rul, Rulo, Rule, Ral, Rali Refugio = Cuca, Cuquita Reinaldo = Rey, Naldo Remedios = Reme Reposo = Repo Ricardo = Rica, Rícar, Richi, Rici, Rocho, Ríchar Roberto = Robe, Róber, Berto, Robertito, Tito, Beto Rocío = Roci, Chio, Ro, Roco Rodolfo = Fito, Fofo, Rodo, Bofo, Rudi Rodrigo = Rodriguito, Rodri, Ruy, Roy, Ro Rogelio = Roge, Coque Rosalía = Chalia, Rosa, Rosi, Rosita Rosalva = Chava Rosario = Charo, Chayo, Chayito Salomé = Salo Salomón = Salo Salvador = Salva, Chava, Chavito, Chavita, Salvita, Salvi, Chavi, Salvidor Santiago = Santi, Yago, Diejo, Chago, Tiago Sara = Sarita Sebastián = Sebas, Seba Sergio = Chucho, Checo, Chejo, Checho,Chencho, Keko, Yeyo Simón = Monsi Sofía = Sofi Soledad = Sol, Sole, Chole, Chol Susana = Susi, Sus, Su Teodoro = Teo, Doro Teresa = Tere, Teresita, Teresica, Teresina Timoteo = Teo, Teín Trinidad = Trini Tomás = Tomi, Tomasito, Tomasín Valentina = Val, Vale, Valen, Tina, Tinita, Valentinita Valentino = Val, Vale, Valen, Tino, Tinito, Valente, Valentinito Verónica = Vero, Nica, Verito, Veru Vicente = Chente, Vicen, Vicho, Sento Víctor, Victorio = Vítor, Vis, Vico, Vito Victoria = Viqui, Tori, Toria, Toya Visitación = Visi Yolanda = Yola, Yoyi, Yoli Spain's other languages The official recognition of Spain's other written languages – Catalan, Basque, and Galician – legally allowed the autonomous communities to re-establish their vernacular social identity, including the legal use of personal names in the local languages and written traditions – banned since 1938 – sometimes via the re-spelling of names from Castilian Spanish to their original languages. Basque names The Basque-speaking territories (the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre) follow Spanish naming customs (given names + two family names, the two family names being usually the father's and the mother's). The given names are officially in one language (Basque or Spanish) but often people use a translated or shortened version. A bilingual Basque-Spanish speaker will not necessarily bear a Basque name, and a monolingual Spanish speaker can use a Basque name or a Basque hypocoristic of an official Spanish name; e.g. a Francisco (official Spanish name) may be known as Patxi (Basque hypocoristic). Some Basque-language names and surnames are foreign transliterations into the Basque tongue, e.g. Ander (English: "Andrew"; Spanish: Andrés), Mikel (English: "Michael"; Spanish: Miguel), or Ane (English: "Anne"; Spanish: Ana). In some cases, the name's original-language denotation is translated to Basque, e.g., Zutoia and Zedarri denote the Spanish Pilar (English: "Pillar"). Moreover, some originally Basque names, such as Xabier and Eneko (English "Xavier" and "Inigo") have been transliterated into Spanish (Javier and Íñigo). Recently, Basque names without a direct equivalent in other languages have become popular, e.g. Aitor (a legendary patriarch), Hodei ("cloud"), Iker ("to investigate"), and Amaia ("the end"). Some Basque names without a direct Spanish meaning, are unique to the Basque language, for instance, Eneko, Garikoitz, Urtzi. Basque names, rather than Spanish names, are preponderant in the Basque Country, countering the Spanish-name imposition of the Franco régime requiring people being given only Spanish names at birth. After Franco's death and the restoration of democracy in Spain, many Basque adults changed their Spanish names to the Basque equivalent, e.g. from Miguel to Mikel. A source for modern Basque names is Sabino Arana's Deun-Ixendegi Euzkotarra ("Basque saint-name collection", published in 1910). Instead of the traditional Basque adaptations of Romance names, he proposed others he made up and that in his opinion were truer to the originals and adapted better to the Basque phonology. For example, his brother Luis became Koldobika, from Frankish Hlodwig. The traditionals Peru (from Spanish "Pedro"), Pello or Piarres (from French "Pierre"), all meaning "Peter", became Kepa from Aramaic כיפא (Kepha). He believed that the suffix -[n]e was inherently feminine, and new names like Nekane ("pain"+ne, "Dolores") or Garbiñe ("clean"+ne, "Immaculate [Conception]") are frequent among Basque females. Basque surnames usually denote the patronymic house of the bearer; e.g. Etxebarria – "the new house", from etxe (house) + barri (new) + a (the), denotes "related to a so-named farmhouse"; in the same way, Garaikoetxea – "the house in the heights", garai ("height") + etxe ("house") + a (the). Sometimes, surnames denote not the house itself but a characteristic of the place, e.g. Saratxaga – "willow-place", from saratze ("willow") + -aga ("place of"); Loyola, from loi ("mud") + ola ("iron smithery"); Arriortua – "stone orchard", from harri ("stone") + ortua ("orchard"). Before the 20th century all Basque men were considered nobles (indeed, some Basque surnames, e.g. Irujo or Medoza, were related to some of the oldest Spanish noble families), and many of them used their status to emigrate with privileges to other regions of the Spanish Empire, especially the Americas, due to which some Basque surnames became common to the Spanish-American world; e.g. Mendoza – "cold mountain", from mendi ("mountain" + hotza ("cold"); Salazar – "old hall", from sala ("hall") + zahar ("old"). Until 1978, Spanish was the single official language of the Spanish civil registries and Basque surnames had to be registered according to the Spanish phonetical rules (for example, the Spanish "ch" sound merges the Basque "ts", "tx", and "tz", and someone whose surname in Standard Basque would be "Krutxaga" would have to write it as "Cruchaga", letter "k" also not being used in Spanish). Although the democratic restoration ended this policy, allowing surnames to be officially changed into their Basque phonology, there still are many people who hold Spanish-written Basque surnames, even in the same family: a father born before 1978 would be surnamed "Echepare" and his children, "Etxepare". This policy even changed the usual pronunciation of some Basque surnames. For instance, in Basque, the letter "z" maintained a sibilant "s"-like sound, while Spanish changed it; thus, a surname such as "Zabala" should be properly read similar to "sabala" (), although in Spanish, because the "z" denotes a "th" sound (), it would be read as "Tha-bala" (). However, since the letter "z" exists in Spanish, the registries did not force the Zabalas to transliterate their surname. In the Basque provinces of Biscay and Gipuzkoa, it was uncommon to take a surname from the place (town or village) where one resided, unless one was a foundling; in general, people bearing surnames such as Bilbao (after the Basque city of Bilbao) are descendants of foundlings. However, in the Basque province of Alava and, to a lesser extent, in Navarre, it was common to add one's birth village to the surname using the Spanish particle de to denote a toponymic, particularly when the surname was a common one; for instance, someone whose surname was Lopez and whose family was originally from the valley of Ayala could employ Lopez de Ayala as a surname. This latter practice is also common in Castile. Basque compound surnames are relatively common, and were created with two discrete surnames, e.g. Elorduizapaterietxe – Elordui + Zapaterietxe, a practice denoting family allegiances or the equal importance of both families. This custom sometimes conduced to incredibly long surnames, for compound surnames could be used to create others; for example, the longest surname recorded in Spain is Basque, Burionagonatotoricagageazcoechea, formed by Buriona+ Gonatar + Totorika + Beazcoetxea. Finally, the nationalist leader Sabino Arana pioneered a naming custom of transposing the name-surname order to what he thought was the proper Basque language syntax order; e.g. the woman named Miren Zabala would be referred to as Zabala'taŕ Miren – the surname first, plus the -tar suffix denoting "from a place", and then the name. Thus, Zabala'taŕ Miren means "Miren, of the Zabala family". The change in the order is effected because in the Basque tongue, declined words (such as Zabala'taŕ) that apply to a noun are uttered before the noun itself; another example of this would be his pen name, Arana ta Goiri'taŕ Sabin. This Basque naming custom was used in nationalist literature, not in formal, official documents wherein the Castilian naming convention is observed. Catalan names The Catalan-speaking territories also abide by the Spanish naming customs, yet usually the discrete surnames are joined with the word i ("and"), instead of the Spanish y, and this practice is very common in formal contexts. For example, the former president of the Generalitat de Catalunya (Government of Catalonia) is formally called El Molt Honorable Senyor Carles Puigdemont i Casamajó. Furthermore, the national language policy enumerated in article 19.1 of Law 1/1998 stipulates that "the citizens of Catalonia have the right to use the proper regulation of their Catalan names and surnames and to introduce the conjunction between surnames". The correction, translation, and surname-change are regulated by the Registro Civil (Civil Registry) with the Decree 138/2007 of 26 June, modifying the Decree 208/1998 of 30 July, which regulates the accreditation of the linguistic correctness of names. The attributes and functions of Decree 138/2007 of 26 July regulate the issuance of language-correction certificates for translated Catalan names, by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans (Institute of Catalan Studies) in Barcelona. Nevertheless, there are Catalan surnames that conform to neither the current spelling rules nor to the traditionally correct Catalan spelling rules; a language-correction certification can be requested from the institute, for names such as these: Aleñà to Alenyà Caballé to Cavaller Cañellas to Canyelles Casas to Cases Corominas to Coromines Fàbregas to Fàbregues Farré to Ferrer Figueras to Figueres Gabarra to Gavarra Gafarot to Gaferot Gumbau to Gombau Domènech to Domènec Jufré to Jofré Junqueras to Jonqueres Mayoral to Majoral Montañà to Montanyà Perpiñá to Perpinyà Pijuan to Pijoan Piñol to Pinyol Puyol to Pujol Roselló to Rosselló Rusiñol to Rossinyol Tarradellas to Tarradelles Viñallonga to Vinyallonga Viñes to Vinyes Catalan hypocoristics and nicknames Many Catalan names are shortened to hypocoristic forms using only the final portion of the name (unlike Spanish, which mostly uses only the first portion of the name), and with a diminutive suffix (-et, -eta/-ita). Thus, shortened Catalan names taking the first portion of the name are probably influenced by the Spanish tradition. The influence of Spanish in hypocoristics is recent since it became a general fashion only in the twentieth century ; example Catalan names are: Antoni/Antònia = Toni, Tònia, Tonet/a Bartomeu = Tomeu Concepció = Ció Cristina = Tina Dolors = Lloll, Dolo, Loles Elisabet/h = Bet, Beth, Eli, Lis Eulàlia = Laia, Olaia, Lali Francesc/a = Cesc, Quico/a, Xesco/a, Xisco/a, Cisco/a, Sisquet/a Gabriel = Biel Ignasi = Nasi Isabel = Bel, Bet Jacint = Cinto Joaquim/a = Quim/a, Ximo/a (in Valencia) Jordi = Toti Jordina = Jordi Josefina = Fina, Fineta Josep Maria = Pemi Josep/a = Pep/o/a, Pepet/a, Pepito/a Magdalena = Talena, Magda Manel = Nel, Nelo, Nel·lo Maria del Mar = Mar Maria dels Àngels = Mariàngels, Àngels, Màngels Maria Lluïsa = Marissa Maria Soletat = Marissol Mariona = Ona, Miona Meritxell = Txell, Meri Montserrat = Serrat, Montse, Munsa, Muntsa Narcís/isa = Narciset/a, Ciset/a, Ciso/a Núria = Nuri Onofre = Nofre Oriol = Uri Rafel = Fel, Feló, Rafa Salvador = Vadó, Voro (in Valencia) Sebastià/ana = Tià/ana, Sebas Sergi = Keki Vicent = Vicentó, Cento Xavier = Xavi, Xevi, Javi (the J is pronounced as in English) Galician names The Galician-speaking areas also abide by the Spanish naming customs. Main differences are the usage of Galician given names and surnames. Galician surnames Most Galician surnames have their origin in local toponymies, being these either Galician regions (Salnés < Salnés, Carnota, Bergantiños), towns (Ferrol, Noia), parishes or villages (as Andrade). Just like elsewhere, many surnames were also generated from jobs or professions (Carpinteiro 'carpenter', Cabaleiro 'Knight', Ferreiro 'Smith', Besteiro 'Crossbowman'), physical characteristics (Gago 'Twangy', Tato 'Stutterer', Couceiro 'Tall and thin', Bugallo 'fat', Pardo 'Swarthy'), or origin of the person (Franco and Francés 'French', Portugués 'Portuguese'). Although many Galician surnames have been historically adapted into Spanish phonetics and orthography, they are still clearly recognizable as Galician words: Freijedo, Spanish adaptation of freixedo 'place with ash-trees'; Seijo from seixo 'stone'; Doval from do Val 'of the Valley'; Rejenjo from Reguengo, Galician evolution of local Latin-Germanic word Regalingo 'Royal property'. Specially relevant are the Galician surnames originated from medieval patronymics, present in local documentation since the 9th century, and popularized from the 12th century on. Although many of them have been historically adapted into Spanish orthography, phonetics and traditions, many are still characteristically Galician; most common ones are: Alonso (medieval form Afonso, from the latinicised Germanic name Adefonsus): Spanish 'Alfonso', 'Alonso'. Álvarez (from médieval Alvares, from the Germanic name Halvar(d), latinicised as Alvarus). Ares (from the name Arias' or the town of Ares): Spanish 'Arias'. Bermúdez (medieval form Vermues, from the latinicised Germanic name Veremodus + suffix -ici-). Bernárdez (from the Frankish name Bernard + suffix -ici-). Vieitez, Vieites (from the name Bieito, from Latin Benedictus + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Benítez'. Diz, Díaz (from the name Didacus + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Díaz'. Domínguez (medieval form Domingues, derived of the name Domingo, from Dominicus, + suffix -ici-). Enríquez (medieval form Anrriques, from the Frankish name Henric + suffiz -ici-). Estévez (medieval form Esteves, from the name Estevo, derived of Stephanus + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Estébanez'. Fernández (medieval form Fernandes, from the name Fernando, derived from the Germanic name Fredenandus + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Hernández'. Froiz (medieval form Froaz, from the Germanic name Froila 'Lord' + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Flores'. García (medieval form Garçia, from the name Garcia). Giance (from the name Xian, old orthography Jiam, derived of Latin Iulianus + suffix -ici-), with no Spanish equivalent. Gómez (medieval form Gomes, from the name Gomes). González (medieval form Gonçalves, from the latinicised Germanic name Gundisalvus + suffix -ici-). López (medieval form Lopes, from the Latin nickname Lupus 'wolf'). Lourenzo, Lorenzo (medieval form Lourenço, from the Latin name Laurentius). Martínez, Martín, Martís (from the Latin name Martinus + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Martínez'. Méndez (medieval form Meendes, from the name Mendo, from Menendus + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Menéndez', 'Méndez'. Miguéns (from the name Miguel, derived of Michael + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Miguélez'. Núñez (medieval form Nunes, derived from the name Nunnus + suffix -ici-). Paz, Paes, Pais (from the name Paio, derived from Pelagius + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Peláez'. Pérez (medieval form Peres, from the name Pero, derived of Petrus, + suffix -ici-). Raimúndez (from the Frankish name Raimund + suffix -ici-). Rodríguez (from the name Rodrigo, from the latinicised Germanic form Rodericus + suffix -ici-). Rois (from the name Roi, nickname of Rodrigo + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Ruiz'. Sánchez (medieval form Sanches, from the name Sancho, derived from Latin Sanctius + suffix -ici-). Sueiro, Suárez (medieval forms Sueiro, Suares, from the name Suarius, with and without suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Suárez'. Vázquez (medieval form Vasques, from the name Vasco, from Velasco, + suffix -ici-): Spanish 'Velázquez'. Yanes (medieval forms Eanes, Ianes. from Iohannes, Yohannes + suffix -ici-): Spanish Eáñes 'Yáñez'. Some of them (namely Páez, Méndez, Vázquez) are characteristically Galician due to the drop of intervocalic -l-, -d-, -g- and -n-, but the most present surnames in Galicia could also be of Spanish origin (although Lugo is the only province in Spain with a majority of people surnamed López). Galician given names and nicknames Some common Galician names are: Afonso [m] (Spanish Alfonso): nicknames Fonso, Pocho. Alberte [m] Alberta [f] (Spanish Alberto): Berto, Berta. Alexandre [m] (Spanish Alejandro): Xandre, Álex. Anxo [m] (Spanish Ángel): Xeluco. Antón [m], Antía" [f] (Spanish Antonio, Antonia): Tonecho. Artai [m] (Without Spanish translation). Brandán [m], Brenda [f] (Celtic origin, "distinguished warrior) Baldomero [m]: Mero Brais [m] (Spanish Blas) Breogán [m] (name of a mythological Galician Celtic warrior, with no Spanish equivalent). Carme [f] (Spanish Carmen): Carmiña, Mela, Carmela, Carmucha, Carmuxa. Catarina [f] (Catherine): Catuxa. Cibrao,Cibrán [m] (Greek origin meaning "Cypriot", Spanish Cipriano) Edelmiro, Delmiro [m]: Edel, Miro. Erea [f] (Greek origin meaning "peace", Spanish Irene) Estevo [m] (Spanish Esteban) Fernán [m] (Spanish Fernando) Francisco [m]: Farruco, Fran. Icía [f] (Spanish Cecilia) Iago [m] (Spanish Santiago) Lois [m] (Spanish Luis): Sito Lúa [f] (Spanish luna (moon)) María [f]: Maruxa, Marica. Manuel, Manoel [m] (Spanish Manuel): Manolo, Lolo. Olalla, Baia [f] (Spanish Eulalia, Olaya) Paio [m] (Spanish Pelayo) Paulo [m], Paula [f] (Spanish Pablo, Paula) Roi [m] (Spanish Rodrigo, Ruy) Sabela [f] (Spanish Isabel): Beluca Tareixa [m] (Spanish Teresa) Uxío [m] Uxía [f] (Spanish Eugenio, Eugenia) Xavier [m] (Spanish Javier) Xacobe [m] (Spanish Jacobo) Xaquín [m] (Spanish Joaquín): Xocas. Xela [f] (Spanish Ángela) Xián [m] (Spanish Julián) Xoán, Xan [m] (Spanish Juan) Xosé [m] (Spanish José): Che, Pepe. Xurxo [m] (Spanish Jorge) Nicknames are usually obtained from the end of a given name, or through derivation. Common suffixes include masculine -iño, -ito (as in Sito, from Luisito), -echo (Tonecho, from Antonecho) and -uco (Farruco, from Francisco); and feminine -iña, -ucha/uxa (Maruxa, Carmucha, from Maria and Carme), -uca (Beluca, from Isabeluca), and -ela (Mela, from Carmela). Ceuta and Melilla As the provincial Surname distribution map (above) indicates, Mohamed is an often-occurring surname in the autonomous Mediterranean North African cities of Ceuta and Melilla (respectively registered 10,410 and 7,982 occurrences), Hispanophone Muslims use the Spanish "Mohamed" spelling for "Muhammad". As such, it is often a component of Arabic names for men; hence, many Ceutan and Melillan Muslims share surnames despite not sharing a common ancestry. Furthermore, Mohamed (Muhammad) is the most popular name for new-born boys, thus it is not unusual to encounter a man named Mohamed Mohamed Mohamed: the first occurrence is the given name, the second occurrence is the paternal surname, and the third occurrence is the maternal surname. Indexing In English, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends that Spanish and Hispanophone names be indexed by the family name. When there are two family names, the indexing is done under the father's family name; this would be the first element of the surname if the father's and mother's or husband's family names are joined by a y. Depending upon the person involved, the particle de may be treated as a part of a family name or it may be separated from a family name. The indexing of Hispanophone names differs from that of Portuguese or Lusophone names, where the final element of the name is indexed because the Portuguese custom is for the father's surname to follow, rather than precede, the mother's. The effect is that the father's surname is the one indexed for both Spanish and Portuguese names. See also Basque surnames Filipino names French names Gitanos List of personal naming conventions (for other languages) List of common Spanish surnames Maiden and married names Name for general coverage of the topic Naming customs of Hispanic America Nobiliary particle Portuguese names Notes and references Footnotes External links Hispanic Heraldry – Information about Hispanic surnames Catalan Society of Heraldry – Information about Catalan surnames Spanish words and phrases to describe your family Territorial distribution of surnames (Data from the Register on 1 January 2006) and several Excel tables about name and surname distribution by age and province, from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain). Names Names Spanish given names Names by culture Spanish-language names
673964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Gordon%20%28character%29	Jim Gordon (character)	James W. "Jim" Gordon is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, most commonly in association with the superhero Batman. Created by Bill Finger and Bob Kane as an ally of Batman, the character debuted in the first panel of Detective Comics #27 (May 1939), Batman's first appearance, making him the first Batman supporting character ever to be introduced. As the police commissioner of Gotham City, Gordon shares Batman's deep commitment to ridding the city of crime. The character is typically portrayed as having full trust in Batman and is even somewhat dependent on him. In many modern stories, he is somewhat skeptical of Batman's vigilante methods, but nevertheless believes that Gotham needs him. The two have a mutual respect and tacit friendship. Gordon is the father or adoptive father (depending on the continuity) of Barbara Gordon, the first modern Batgirl and the information broker Oracle. Jim Gordon also has a biological son, James Gordon Jr., a psychopathic serial killer who first appeared in Batman: Year One. One of Batman's most notable and enduring allies and supporting characters, Gordon has appeared in various forms of non-comics media, and has been portrayed in live-action by Lyle Talbot in the Batman and Robin 1949 serial, Neil Hamilton in the 1960s Batman show and film, Pat Hingle in the Tim Burton/Joel Schumacher Batman film series, and Gary Oldman in The Dark Knight Trilogy, with Ben McKenzie portraying the character in Gotham, and J. K. Simmons portraying the character in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). He will be portrayed by Jeffrey Wright in the 2022 film The Batman. In 2011, Jim Gordon was ranked 19th in IGN's "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes". Publication history Created by Bill Finger and Bob Kane, Gordon debuted in the first panel of Detective Comics #27 (May 1939), in which he is referred to simply as Commissioner Gordon. The character's name was taken from the earlier pulp character Commissioner James W. "Wildcat" Gordon, also known as "The Whisperer", created in 1936 by Henry Ralston, John Nanovic, and Lawrence Donovan for Street & Smith. Fictional character biography Of Scottish descent, Gordon had served in the United States Marine Corps prior to becoming a police officer. In most versions of the Batman mythos, Jim Gordon is at one point or another depicted as commissioner of the Gotham City Police Department. Gordon frequently contacts Batman for help in solving various crimes, particularly those committed by supervillains. Generally it is Gordon who uses the Bat-signal to summon Batman, and it has become a running joke of sorts that the Dark Knight will often disappear in the middle of the discussion when Gordon's back is turned. Gordon is usually depicted with silver or red hair, eyeglasses, and a mustache. In most incarnations, he is seen wearing a trenchcoat, necktie, and on occasion, a fedora hat. He is also sometimes pictured with a cane, although it is not revealed why he uses it. Because DC Comics retconned its characters' history in the 1985 miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths, and because of different interpretations in television and film, the details of Gordon's history vary from story to story. He has been married twice; first to Barbara Eileen Kean and then to Sarah Essen. Early characterizations In the original pre-Crisis version of his history, Gordon is a police detective who initially resents the mysterious vigilante's interference in police business. He first appears in Detective Comics #27, in the very first Batman story, in which they both investigate the murder of a chemical industrialist. Although Batman fights on the side of justice, his methods and phenomenal track record for stopping crimes and capturing criminals embarrasses the police by comparison. Eventually, Batman meets up with Gordon and persuades the detective that they need each other's help. Gordon deputizes Batman, and thereafter the Dark Knight works with Gordon as an agent of the law. In Batman Special #1, it is revealed that Gordon, as a young cop, shot and killed two robbers in self-defense in front of their son. The results of this event would lead the boy to become the first Wrath, a cop killer with a costume and motif inspired by Batman, who would come after Gordon for revenge years later. Post-Crisis Batman: Year One The post-Crisis version of the character was introduced in the 1987 storyline Batman: Year One, written by Frank Miller. In this version, James W. Gordon is transferred back to Gotham City after spending more than 15 years in Chicago. A man of integrity, Gordon finds that Batman is his only ally against the corrupt administration, which is in the pocket of mob boss Carmine Falcone. One of the most significant differences in this version is that Batman is never deputized and Gordon's relationship with him is kept out of the public eye whenever possible. It is also added that he is a special forces veteran who is capable in hand-to-hand combat; he retaliates against an intimidation attempt by corrupt fellow officers with equal violence. He is depicted as having an extra-marital affair with a fellow detective, Sarah Essen. Gordon breaks off their affair after being blackmailed by the corrupt police commissioner, Gillian B. Loeb. Falcone sends his nephew, Johnny Viti, to kill Gordon's wife and son; Batman saves them, however, and helps Gordon expose Loeb's corruption. After Loeb resigns, Gordon is promoted to captain. The 1998 miniseries Gordon of Gotham takes place nearly 20 years prior to the current events of the DC Universe and two months before his arrival in Gotham in Batman: Year One. It reveals that Gordon, during his tenure in Chicago, struggled with his wife over conceiving a child while taking night classes in criminology. He becomes a minor celebrity after a foiling a late-night robbery attempt. When he decides to investigate a corrupt fellow officer, however, the officer and his cronies assault him, and the police department discredits him in order to cover up the scandal. Gordon then uncovers evidence of rigging in the city council election and brings down two of his fellow officers, which leads to his commander transferring him to Gotham. The story Wrath Child, published in Batman Confidential issues 13–16, retcons Gordon's origin yet again: in this continuity, Gordon started his career in Gotham, but transferred to Chicago after shooting a corrupt cop and his wife (the parents of the original Wrath). The transfer was arranged by Loeb, then a captain, in an attempt to keep himself and his fellow corrupt cops from being exposed. Loeb threatens the future Wrath's life in order to force Gordon to comply with the transfer. Gordon later transfers back to Gotham around the same time Batman starts his career. While still a lieutenant, Gordon convinces Loeb's successor to implement the Bat-Signal as a means to contact Batman and also to frighten criminals. It is around this time that the first Robin, Dick Grayson, becomes Batman's sidekick. Gordon initially disapproves of Batman recruiting a child to fight dangerous criminals, but soon grows to not only accept the boy but trust him as much as he does Batman. Gordon quickly rises to the rank of commissioner after he and Batman weed out corruption within the department. After the death of his brother and sister-in-law, he adopts his niece, Barbara. Soon after he adopts Barbara, he divorces his wife, who returned to Chicago with their son James Jr., while he retains custody of Barbara, who eventually becomes Batgirl. Gordon quickly deduces the heroine's true identity, and attempts to confront her about it, going so far as to search her bedroom for proof. However, he was semi-tricked out of this belief, when Batman (after sanctioning Batgirl officially) had Robin dress up as Batgirl while Barbara is on the roof with her father. Gordon would continue to believe his daughter is indeed Batgirl, but would not confront her about it again, until years later. Batman: The Killing Joke In the 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke, the Joker kidnaps Gordon after shooting and paralyzing Barbara. He then cages Gordon in the freak show of an abandoned amusement park and forces him to look at enlarged photos of his wounded daughter in an effort to drive him insane, thus proving to Batman that even seemingly normal people can lose their minds after having "one bad day". Batman eventually apprehends the Joker and rescues Gordon. Despite the intense trauma he has endured, Gordon's sanity and ethical code are intact; he insists that Batman apprehend the Joker without harming him in order to "show him that our way works". Marriage Soon after Sarah Essen returns to Gordon's life, they rekindle their romance and get engaged. However, Essen cannot comprehend why Gordon needs Batman so much, which occasionally puts a strain on their relationship. Later, Gordon suffers a heart attack; his chain-smoking over the years has weakened his heart. This event later lead DC Comics to partner with the American Heart Association to create a public service announcement to raise awareness of the danger of tobacco smoking and how it would threaten one's health. In Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2, shortly before their planned wedding, former Lieutenant Arnold Flass (Gordon's former partner) beats Gordon and kidnaps James Jr. for ransom in exchange for letting a corrupt judge go free. Batman saves James Jr., while Gordon, Essen, Flass and the judge are trapped and must work together to escape. For a brief period following the Knightfall and Prodigal storylines, Gordon is removed from his post as commissioner and replaced by his own wife, due partly to his own disinclination to trust Batman after two substitutes — Jean-Paul Valley and Dick Grayson — assume the role and do not bother to tell him about the switch. No Man's Land The No Man's Land storyline takes place after Gotham is destroyed by an earthquake and isolated from outside assistance. Inside Gotham, Gordon struggles to maintain order in the midst of a crime wave. Batman is mysteriously absent for the initial three months, and Gordon feels betrayed. He forges an uneasy alliance with Two-Face, but the partnership does not last; Two-Face kidnaps Gordon, putting him on trial for breaking their "legally binding" alliance. Gordon escapes, however, and later meets with Batman once again. In this confrontation, Gordon berates Batman for letting Gotham "fall into ruin". Batman offers to prove his trust by revealing his secret identity, but Gordon refuses to look when Batman removes his mask. Eventually, the two repair their friendship. At the end of the No Man's Land storyline, the Joker kills Sarah Essen-Gordon. An enraged Gordon barely restrains himself from killing Joker, shooting the madman in the knee instead. Not long afterward, Gordon is shot by a criminal seeking revenge for a previous arrest. Though seriously injured, he survives, and eventually makes a full recovery. Retirement Gordon retires from the police force after having served for more than 20 years. He remains in Gotham, and occasionally enjoys nighttime visits from Batman. Despite being retired, Gordon often finds himself drawn to a series of life-and-death circumstances, such as the Joker sending him flowers during Last Laugh, or being contacted by the temporarily reformed Harvey Dent to stop Batman from killing the Joker, to being kidnapped by Francis Sullivan, grandson of one of Gotham's notorious serial killers, during the Made of Wood storyline. After the attack by Sullivan, Batman gives Gordon an encrypted cellphone, the so-called Batphone, in case he needs to contact him, which also carries a transmitter in case of trouble. He also still has contacts with the country's law enforcement agencies, through which the sheriff's departments request Gordon to contact Batman for help investigating a series of unusual murders on a suburb territory outside the city's limits; it turns out to be a paranormal case involving black magic, occult rituals, and the supernatural. Commissioner Michael Akins has taken his position, with many officers expressing reluctance to follow him out of loyalty to Gordon. After Barbara requires surgery to counter the life-threatening effects of the Brainiac virus, Gordon visits her in Metropolis. She reveals to him her current role as Oracle, as well as her past as Batgirl. Gordon admits that he knew of her life as Batgirl, but is pleasantly surprised to know of her second career as Oracle. Return As part of DC's "One Year Later", Gordon has once again become Gotham's police commissioner. He rebuilds the Bat-Signal, but still carries the mobile Batphone that Batman gave him. The circumstances behind this are currently unknown, though there have been allusions to extreme corruption within the GCPD. These allusions are supported by events within Gotham Central, especially involving Detective Jim Corrigan. Gordon survives an attempt on his life by the Joker (Batman #655), who had drugged him with Joker Venom in an attack on the GCPD. He is taken to the hospital in time. Blackest Night During the Blackest Night crossover, while mourning the passing of the original Batman, who was apparently killed in action during Final Crisis, Gordon and his daughter witness Green Lantern crash into the Bat-Signal, after being assaulted by a reanimated version of the deceased Martian Manhunter. After offering the hero a spare car, the Gordons then find themselves fighting for their lives against the reanimated versions of the original Batman's rogues gallery at Gotham Central, where Gordon makes short work of serial killer Abattoir (in Black Lantern form) with a shotgun. They are rescued by the current Dark Knight, Robin, Red Robin, and Deadman, but are later attacked by Batman and Red Robin's parents, the reanimated Graysons and the Drakes. While Batman and Red Robin battle the Black Lanterns, Robin takes the Gordons to their underground base. It is later shown that Alfred Pennyworth tends his wounds (Gordon is unconscious, thus protecting the team's secret identities) along with Barbara's at the bunker's infirmary. The New 52 In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Jim Gordon is still the commissioner of the GCPD and a former Marine but is younger than his traditional portrayal; he still has the red hair and mustache from Batman: Year One. He is still married to his wife Barbara, and he and Barbara are the biological parents of Barbara "Babs" Gordon (aka Batgirl). During the Forever Evil storyline, commissioner Gordon enters Blackgate Penitentiary in order to save the warden. When a turf war erupts between the Arkham inmates, Gordon helps to evacuate the citizens from Gotham City. In Batman Eternal, the storyline begins when Gordon is tricked into shooting at an unarmed suspect in an underground train station, resulting in a train derailing and Gordon being arrested. While incarcerated, Gordon is visited by his son, who makes arrangements to leave his father's cell open and provide him with an opportunity to escape Blackgate, believing that his father's actions are the result of him at least subconsciously acknowledging the 'truth' that Gotham is beyond saving and his attempts to be a hero are pointless. However, despite his doubts, Gordon decides to remain in prison, concluding that Gotham is still worth saving and simply musing that he may just be getting old and made a mistake. Although villains such as the Penguin attempt to attack Gordon while in prison, Gordon uses Batman's example to inspire fear in his 'fellow inmates' with minimal effort until he is released as the final assault on Gotham begins, proceeding to rally all of Gotham to stand up and take back their city to aid Batman for everything he has ever done for them. Following Bruce Wayne's apparent death in battle with the Joker during the events of Batman (vol. 2) #40, Gordon took up the mantle of Batman using a mecha style suit to fight crime in Gotham City. Gordon first appears as Batman in Divergence #1, a DC Comics 2015 Free Comic Book Day issue, in which he is shown to be sponsored by the mega-corp Powers International. He also notes that this is "the worst idea in the history of Gotham", as he suits up, but agreed to the offer when various sources argued that there was nobody else capable of understanding Gotham the way Batman had done over the years, Gordon contemplating the merits of a Batman who works with the system rather than outside it. However, he begins to recognize the problems of this approach when he discovers that some of his past arrests have been murdered while out on parole and he is forbidden from investigating the crime himself. Gordon later meets the currently-depowered Superman when Clark comes to Gotham to investigate evidence that the weapons currently being used against him were created in Gotham, but their initial meeting results in a fight as Superman doesn't believe that Gordon is the new Batman and Gordon doubts Superman due to him currently working with Luthor. Although Gordon doubts Superman's abilities as a hero due to his current powerless state, he eventually works with Superman to stop Vandal Savage stealing an artificial sun created in Gotham to use as part of his latest plan, their alliance helping Gordon recognize Superman's continued merits as a hero while Superman in turn acknowledges that the new Batman gets the job done. Gordon later works with the Justice League to investigate the death of a large monster, the heroes noting after the case has concluded that Batman's high opinion of Gordon's abilities as a detective were well-founded. Despite Gordon's best efforts, political issues in the department result in new villain Mr. Bloom destroying his armour and mounting a massive assault on Gotham after seriously injuring Gordon, prompting the amnesic Bruce Wayne- ironically inspired by a conversation with the equally-amnesic Joker- to try and reclaim his role as Batman. The crisis concludes with Bloom defeated by the returned Batman using some of Gordon's equipment while working with his old ally. The return of the true Batman prompts the GCPD to shut down the program and restore Gordon to his role as commissioner, Gordon musing that the world needs Batman to face its nightmares so that normal human beings can learn to cope with the more regular problems. DC Rebirth In June 2016, the DC Rebirth event relaunched DC Comics' entire line of comic book titles, in which Jim Gordon has a continued role in Detective Comics and the third volume of Batman. In December 2017, DC Comics ended the Rebirth branding, opting to include everything under a larger DC Universe banner and naming, and Gordon continues to be featured in Detective Comics and the third volume of Batman. For a time Gordon is corrupted by the toxin used by The Batman Who Laughs, an alternate version of Batman contaminated by the chemicals that drove the Joker insane, but Batman is able to get help from Superman in capturing Gordon and the other infected heroes until a cure can be found. In 2021, DC began publishing a new Joker series. The first story arc (at least through the first six issues) is told primarily from Gordon's perspective. He has retired from public service and agrees to look for Joker on behalf of a secretive organization. His daughter Barbara provides intelligence and communications support. Gordon and Batman's identity In most versions of the mythos, Gordon is ignorant of Batman's identity. There is usually the implication that Gordon is intelligent enough to solve the mystery, but chooses not to in order to preserve Batman's effectiveness and maintain his own plausible deniability. In the 1966 Batman film, Gordon explicitly states his desire not to know for just such a reason. In the pre-Crisis era, a 1952 story (Batman #71) shows Gordon trying to uncover Batman's identity merely for his own satisfaction, but Batman discovers Gordon's scheme and skillfully outwits him. A later story in the 1960s shows Gordon giving a bedridden Bruce Wayne (who had contracted a nearly fatal fever as Batman) "Chinese oranges", a natural treatment for the fever. Later, Bruce opines to Dick Grayson if it is possible that Gordon is beginning to suspect Batman's identity. In Batman: Year One, Gordon claims not to see the unmasked Batman well (whom his wife at that time, Barbara, also sees) because he wasn't wearing his eyeglasses. Gordon suspects that Bruce Wayne may be Batman, though he never follows up on his suspicions. In Batman: The Animated Series, Gordon has implied he deliberately avoids deep investigation on the subject of Batman or Batgirl's identity. Likewise, in the 1980s Detective Comics storyline Blind Justice, the world at large incorrectly supposes Batman is dead and Gordon comments to Bruce Wayne that Batman has earned the right to retirement if he so desires. He then rather pointedly asks Bruce's advice on whether or not he should reveal that Batman still lives. When Hugo Strange attempted to determine Batman's identity early in his career (in a story written in the post-Crisis era), he began his research by focusing on muggings and murders committed in the last few years based on the idea that Batman was prompted into his current role by a traumatic loss as a result of criminal activity, prompting Gordon – upon learning of Strange's research – to reflect that Strange had already made a mistake as he was underestimating the physical demands that would be required for Batman to have reached his current level of skill by looking at crimes committed such a short time ago, suggesting that Gordon had already considered such an avenue of investigation (even if he may or may not have followed it up). A chronologically later storyline involving Strange pre-Crisis involved Alfred being hospitalized as part of Strange's scheme, and during a conversation between Gordon and Batman over the phone after Strange's defeat, Gordon pointedly tells Batman to inform an unnamed 'mutual acquaintance' that Gordon has checked on the acquaintance's friend in the hospital and the doctors expect a full recovery. During No Man's Land, Batman attempts to regain Gordon's trust by revealing his identity. Gordon refuses to look at him after he removes the cowl, however, stating that if he wanted to know Batman's identity, he could have figured it out years ago, and even cryptically saying, "And for all you know, maybe I did." During the Hush story arc, while working with Superman, Batman discusses whether or not Perry White has figured out Superman's secret identity. Theorizing that White is too good a reporter to not have figured it out, he draws the same comparison to himself and Gordon, stating that Gordon is too good a cop to not have figured it out. In that same story arc, Gordon, in an attempt to stop Batman from killing the Joker, tells Batman to remember who his role models are (his parents) and the beliefs they instilled in him. As well, he asks Batman to remember who and what made him who he is, a rather obvious reference to the criminal who gunned down his parents in front of him, suggesting that Gordon knows that Bruce Wayne is Batman. Barbara reveals her identities to her father in Birds of Prey #89. Gordon then reveals that he was well aware of her status as the first Batgirl all along, though he purposefully avoided looking into what she was doing after she was paralyzed. Batman chides her for revealing herself, saying it was a mistake, but she counters that, while he taught her to fight criminals, it was her father who taught her to be human. In Blackest Night: Batman, Gordon is present when Deadman refers to the current Batman as "Grayson" and after the current Robin took Gordon and his daughter to the new Batman's underground base. It is implied that Gordon is unconscious when they meet Alfred Pennyworth. At the conclusion of Batman: The Black Mirror, Gordon strongly implies to Dick Grayson that he is aware of the secret identities of Grayson and the Waynes, when he thanks Grayson for everything he had done for him over the course of the story. Grayson attempts to brush this off, thinking Gordon meant only the forensic assistance he had given, from which Gordon cuts him off, saying "I mean, thank you. On all fronts." A long moment of silence follows, and Grayson accepts his thanks. During Gordon's brief career as Batman when Bruce was suffering total amnesia after his temporary death in his last fight with the Joker, Gordon meets with Bruce Wayne and introduces himself as Batman, noting how strange it is to be saying that to Bruce, but his response could suggest that he considers it strange based on the public perception that Bruce Wayne was Batman's financial backer rather than making it clear that he knows who Bruce was. After Bruce is forced to sacrifice his new persona to download his old memories as Batman into his mind to save Gotham from new villain Mr. Bloom, Gordon apologizes for making Batman come back, noting that his friend was at peace while he was away, and starts to call him 'B...' before stopping himself, but Batman ignores the near-name in favor of assuring Gordon that the man he might have been without Batman died long ago. Knowledge in other continuities In Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns, Gordon and Bruce Wayne are portrayed as close friends in their civilian identities, with Gordon having discovered Batman's identity years before around the time of Bruce's retirement in his mid-forties (Bruce is explicitly identified as being 55 at the time of the story). In the Batman: Year 100 storyline, which takes place in 2039, Captain Jim Gordon, grandson of commissioner Gordon, finds an old laptop in the attic of a country home owned by Gordon and discovers a secret file which he assumes contains long-lost information on Batman. After unsuccessfully trying numerous passwords with relevance to the Batman universe he inputs "Bruce Wayne" and is granted access to the file contents. In the Flashpoint universe, Gordon knows about Thomas Wayne's identity as Batman and works with him in both his identities. In the Batman - Vampire trilogy in the Elseworlds series, Gordon is shown to be aware of Batman's connection to Alfred Pennyworth by the second graphic novel in the trilogy, working with Alfred as Batman succumbs to his new, darker nature, but his knowledge of Batman's identity as Bruce Wayne is virtually irrelevant as Batman had abandoned his life as Bruce Wayne after he was transformed into a full vampire while fighting Dracula. As in most continuities, Gordon decides in the Christopher Nolan trilogy that he prefers to remain ignorant of Batman's identity and agrees that his anonymity – even in death – has sociological value. Immediately prior to Batman's apparent self-sacrifice near the end of The Dark Knight Rises, Gordon learns the truth when Batman makes a reference to Gordon's kindness to him as a child. Following Batman's apparent death in a nuclear detonation, Gordon attends Wayne's empty-casket burial with Blake and Wayne's/Batman's confidants, Alfred Pennyworth and Lucius Fox. In Sean Murphy's Batman: White Knight, the Joker – now known as Jack Napier – is cured of his mental illness and legally prosecutes Gordon and the GCPD, holding them accountable for cooperating with Batman for decades. As a member of the city council, Napier suggests redrecting funds dedicated to repairing damages to the city caused by Batman to the GCPD and argues that Batman should have shared his technology with the GCPD long ago. Napier's arguments cause a rift between Gordon and Batman, ending with Batman unmasking himself to Gordon in order to regain his trust. Initially, Gordon discourages Batman from revealing his secret identity to the public, but in the sequel, Batman: Curse of the White Knight, Gordon changes his mind when the Joker publicly reveals Batgirl's secret identity, believing that this would not have happened if Batman had publicly unmasked. Even though Gordon expresses regret over blaming Batman for the Joker's actions, they never get a chance to reconcile as Gordon is murdered shortly thereafter by Azrael. Family Pre-Crisis Anthony "Tony" Gordon In Pre-Crisis continuity, Jim Gordon is the biological father of Anthony "Tony" Gordon. Originally referred to as a college student, Tony later disappears while hiding from Communist spies. He is later reunited with his sister, Barbara, and dies in a battle with the Sino-Supermen (Batman Family #12, Detective Comics #482). In Post-Crisis continuity, there has been no mention of Tony Gordon. Barbara "Barb" Gordon Barbara "Barb" Gordon is the biological daughter of James "Jim" Gordon in Pre-Crisis continuity. She also leads a double life as a librarian and as costumed crimefighter Batgirl. Barbara is also the link of the DC Universe Oracle. Her father is aware of her crime-fighting career and is proud of her for it. Post-Crisis Barbara Eileen Kean Barbara Eileen Kean is Gordon's ex-wife and mother of Barbara Gordon in Post-Crisis continuity. Her history and existence has been repeatedly retconned over the years, sometimes implying that she died in a car crash, other times that she left Gotham with James for Chicago. During the New 52 era, Barbara left her family because she was afraid that James Jr. would hurt his sister. Several years later, she returns to Gotham in the hopes of re-connecting with her daughter. In Batman: Year One, Detective Gordon has a brief affair with Detective Sarah Essen. Gordon tries to rebuild his relationship with his family after Essen leaves Gotham. Gordon and his wife attend marriage counseling. Melinda McGraw portrayed Barbara Kean in The Dark Knight. Grey DeLisle voiced her in Batman: Year One. Erin Richards portrays Barbara Kean in Gotham. Introduced as Jim Gordon's fiancée, she turns to crime after murdering her wealthy parents, and eventually becomes one of the most powerful gangsters in the city. In the show's final season, she becomes pregnant after a one-night stand with Gordon, who has by now left her for Lee Thompkins, and gives birth to their daughter, Barbara Lee. The show's series finale portrays her years later having given up crime and become a legitimate businesswoman, and sharing custody of Barbara Lee with Gordon and Thompkins. The series also portrays her as being bisexual, and having on-off relationships with Renee Montoya and Tabitha Galavan. Sara J. Southey portrays Barbara Kean in Batwoman. In the episode "We're All Mad Here", Barbara is an art gallery owner and member of Black Glove. After witnessing James Jr. tie a labradoodle to the train tracks, Barbara used different medicines on him which left him in a vegetative state at Arkham Asylum. Marquis Jet later kidnapped her, Jada Jet, and the other Black Glove members where Marquis subjected Barbara to the same medicines through a special gas mask. Batwoman was able to save her and Jada while arranging for Barbara to get medical help. Kari Wuhrer voiced her in Batman: Gotham by Gaslight. Lake Bell voiced her in Harley Quinn. Amy Landecker voiced her in Batman: The Long Halloween. James Gordon Jr. Gordon and his wife, Barbara Kean are the parents of a son named James Gordon Jr. (Batman #404-407). James Jr. and his mother moved to Chicago after she divorced the elder Gordon. After his introduction in Batman: Year One, the character appeared almost exclusively in comics set during the Year One era, and went virtually unmentioned in present day. Scott Snyder's story Batman: The Black Mirror reintroduced James Jr. as an adult, and establishes that he is a sociopath who tortures and kills for pleasure. He is institutionalized as a teenager after he disfigures a school bus driver who insulted him. After he is released years later, he commits a series of brutal murders, while trying to frame the Joker for his crimes. After nearly killing his mother, and capturing his step-sister, James Jr. is apprehended by his father and Batman (Dick Grayson), and institutionalized in Arkham. In The New 52, James Jr. appears in the Batgirl series. He escapes from Arkham, and begins stalking his sister, whom he views as a rival for his father's affection. The series reveals that he deliberately caused the divorce of his parents: he killed a cat his mother had bought for Barbara and then threatened to kill his sister if she did not leave the family and threatened to kill Barbara if she tried to contact them ever again. A different version of James Gordon Jr. appears briefly in the films Batman Begins and The Dark Knight, in which he is portrayed as the young son of James and Barbara. In the latter film, Two-Face tries to kill the boy in order to get back at Gordon, whom he blames for the death of his fiancée, Rachel Dawes. Batman saves James Jr. by tackling Two-Face off of a roof, killing him. Sarah Essen Sarah Essen (Batman Annual #13, Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight Annual #2) was first referenced as Gordon's wife during the future tale The Dark Knight Returns. She first appeared fully in Batman: Year One as a co-worker with whom Gordon has an extra-marital affair. After realizing they could not be together, she transferred out of state. Years after his divorce, Sarah returns to Gotham, and the two renew their relationship. After marrying Gordon, Sarah is murdered by Joker at the end of the No Man's Land storyline. Flashpoint altered the events in the DC Universe's timeline, so during The New 52 era, Sarah's marriage to Gordon never happened. However, starting with 2016's DC Rebirth, characters have begun to remember pre-New 52 events. As such, in The Joker (vol. 2) #6, Jim Gordon refers to Barbara Kean Gordon as his first wife, which implies that he married another woman after her. Other versions The Dark Knight Returns Jim Gordon appears in the limited series Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, which presents a future where a retiring Gordon not only knows Batman's identity, but is good friends with Bruce Wayne. He then makes a cameo on Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again. Now retired, he has written a book about Batman, who is believed to be dead. Gordon is also referred to in the first issue of the series, All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder, set in the same universe as and prior to The Dark Knight Returns. He made a full appearance on issue #6, as a police captain, having a conversation with his ex-partner, Sarah Essen, about Batman. He's still married to Barbara Kean, who is now an alcoholic, and has a troubled son, James Jr. Just as other continuities, his daughter, Barbara, who is 15, becomes Batgirl. Frank Miller has commented that the series is set in his Dark Knight Universe, which includes all of the Batman works by Frank Miller, therefore Barbara's inclusion confirms that Gordon had two children during Batman: Year One, at least in Miller's version of the continuity. At the end of the series, it's implied that, despite being married to Barbara Kean, he's still in love with Sarah. JLA: Earth 2 On the Anti-Matter Earth, where the evil Crime Syndicate of America live, Commissioner Gordon's counterpart is a crime boss named Boss Gordon, an ally to Owlman. Boss Gordon is the city's leading crime boss until his empire is toppled by Batman and commissioner Thomas Wayne. JLA: The Nail In a world where Superman was never found by the Kents, reference is made to Gordon having been murdered shortly before the events of the story, resulting in Gotham's police department being granted extra powers of authority in his absence, although these are never fully explained. Batman: Gotham Noir In the Elseworlds title Batman: Gotham Noir, Jim Gordon is an alcoholic hard-boiled private detective who had left the police force following a failure to solve the disappearance of a judge. He is Selina Kyle's former lover and Bruce Wayne's wartime partner. Batman: In Darkest Knight In the Elseworlds story Batman: In Darkest Knight, Jim Gordon is an honest cop who distrusts Green Lantern (who in this reality is Bruce Wayne) because of his near-limitless power. Lantern comes to Gordon in order to find the identity of the man who killed his parents, but Gordon rebukes him. Later on, he changes his mind and starts investigating, but he is then interrupted and killed by Sinestro, who ruptures his heart. Vampire Batman In the Vampire Batman Elseworlds trilogy that began with Batman & Dracula: Red Rain, Gordon learns that a coven of vampires, led by Count Dracula himself, is behind a series of murders. Dracula captures him, but he defies the vampire even as he is bled from a cut on his neck, with Batman arriving in time to save Gordon from bleeding to death before confronting Dracula, the Dark Knight now a vampire himself thanks to the aid of renegade vampires opposing Dracula. In the sequel Batman: Bloodstorm, as Batman acts alone while struggling to resist his thirst for blood, Gordon and Alfred collaborate to form a team to eliminate a new family of vampires in daylight while they sleep, but even after the other vampires have been destroyed, Gordon and Alfred are forced to stake Batman after he succumbs to his thirst and drains the Joker's blood. The third part of the trilogy— Batman: Crimson Mist— sees Gordon and Alfred forced to work with Two-Face and Killer Croc to stop the vampire Batman, returned from the staking and having already targeted and killed Penguin, Riddler, Scarecrow and Poison Ivy, Gordon grimly stating that, even if he is only killing criminals, the man they knew would never have killed. The story concludes with Gordon being crushed by debris from the Batcave roof after explosives are planted to destroy it, thus exposing Batman to the sunlight and ending his reign of terror. Earth-8 In Lord Havok and the Lord Havok and the Extremists #3, an alternate version of Gordon, known as Zombie Gordon is featured as part of Monarch's army. A flesh-hungry beast, Zombie Gordon is kept in line by Bat-Soldier, via a large chain. Flashpoint In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, James Gordon is the chief of police, instead of being commissioner, and also works with Thomas Wayne, the Flashpoint version of Batman. Later, Gordon tries to convince Batman that he does not have to fight villains by himself, but Batman refuses. When Gordon locates Martha Wayne (this continuity's version of the Joker) in old Wayne Manor, he goes in without backup. Gordon is then tricked into shooting Harvey Dent's daughter, having been disguised as Joker, as she had been taped to a chair and had her mouth taped shut with a smile painted on the tape. Martha then appears and slashes Gordon's throat, and Gordon dies by Joker venom. Earth One In the graphic novel by Geoff Johns and Gary Frank, Batman: Earth One, Jim Gordon is featured as a central character. In the story, he's a broken man who has given up on fighting corruption until the emergence of Batman. He is also partnered with a young Harvey Bullock. On the trail of the "Birthday Boy" killings, Gordon and Batman put aside their differences and stop the killer while saving Gordon's daughter Barbara. In the sequel, Gordon begin his alliance with Batman to combat the Riddler, who plots to takeover the remnant of Oswald Cobblepott's criminal empire. He is also being promoted as police captain after he arrested his corrupted predecessor. Injustice: Gods Among Us In the prequel to the video game Injustice: Gods Among Us, Gordon learns via Superman's x-ray vision that he has terminal lung cancer. Later on he, Bullock and Montoya join forces with Batman's Insurgency to fight the Regime, and together they attack the Hall of Justice. Batman's inside man, Lex Luthor, notes that Gordon's cancer is worsening due his taking "super pills" that give people superhuman abilities. Gordon takes two of the super pills to save Barbara from Cyborg on the Watchtower, as he is scanning to find her location, accelerating the cancer to the point that he has only minutes to live. After the battle, Gordon thanks Batman and says goodbye to Barbara as he dies, looking down on the Earth. Batman: Damned In the Batman: Damned miniseries, printed under the DC Black Label, Gordon is seen questioning a homeless man who had apparently witnessed the showdown between Batman and the Joker that led to Joker's death. Gordon is next seen at the police standoff with Harley Quinn and the rest of the Joker's henchmen, attempting in vain to get them to stand down. Dark Multiverse Various versions of Gordon appear in the Dark Multiverse depicted in Dark Nights: Metal: In the world of the Dawnbreaker, where Bruce Wayne received a Green Lantern ring after the deaths of his parents, Gordon attempts to confront the Dawnbreaker about his use of lethal force on criminals, but the Dawnbreaker kills him. In the world of the Batman Who Laughs, Gordon's death contributed to Batman's final confrontation with the Joker, which led to Batman being contaminated by his foe's blood and transformed into the twisted 'Batman Who Laughs'. In the world of the Grim Knight, where Batman's use of guns and lethal force led to him turning Gotham into a police state, Gordon was eventually able to determine Batman's secret identity with the aid of information from Alfred, who became unable to countenance Batman's use of lethal force on all criminals, allowing him to arrest Bruce Wayne. In other media Television Live-action In the 1960s Batman series, Commissioner Gordon was played by Neil Hamilton, and is portrayed as not only having the Bat-Signal at his disposal, but also a red emergency hotline telephone (known as the Bat-Phone) that connects directly to the Batcave, the Batmobile and (unbeknownst to Gordon) Bruce Wayne's study. Gordon's switchboard operators are twice shown to be able to trunk incoming lines into the Batphone circuit, enabling him to telephone Batman from remote locations (ironically once from Wayne Manor, and the other from a phone booth adjacent to that being used by Bruce Wayne). Batman (Adam West) and Robin (Burt Ward) are regular visitors to his office. The series occasionally made light of his dependence on Batman. In "The Devil's Fingers", when Batman is apparently unavailable, Gordon and Police Chief O'Hara (Stafford Repp) lament that they will have to solve a case by themselves; this contrasted the cold open of the pilot episode "Hi Diddle Riddle", in which Gordon reluctantly decides to summon Batman only after O'Hara and all of his bureau chiefs gather and unanimously agree that the Riddler (Frank Gorshin) is beyond their abilities. This version of Gordon has at least two grown children, the elder of whom is unspecified but has given him at least two grandchildren, and the younger being Barbara (Yvonne Craig), who, unbeknownst to her father, is Batgirl. His wife is occasionally mentioned but never named. Commissioner James "Jimmy" Gordon is mentioned in The Flash episode "Flash of Two Worlds". In the 2014 Fox drama Gotham, James "Jim" Gordon is played by Ben McKenzie and is portrayed as an idealistic rookie detective in the corrupt Gotham City Police Department and a war veteran of the United States Army. His late father was Gotham's district attorney, whom crime boss Carmine Falcone (John Doman) claims was on his payroll. Gordon is the first police officer to interview Bruce Wayne (David Mazouz) after his parents are murdered in the pilot episode, and vows to solve the murders. He is quickly drawn into the city's underbelly, thanks to his shady partner Harvey Bullock (Donal Logue) and small-time criminal Oswald Cobblepot (Robin Lord Taylor). He also makes two new acquaintances: a teenage street thief named Selina Kyle (Camren Bicondova) who witnessed the Waynes' murder, and Gotham's young assistant district attorney, Harvey Dent (Nicholas D'Agosto), who pledges to help Gordon find the killer. The series also portrays his turbulent romances with socialite Barbara Kean (Erin Richards) and Arkham physician Leslie Thompkins (Morena Baccarin), his efforts to rid the GCPD of corruption, and his quest to stop corrupt billionaire Theo Galavan (James Frain) and the Sacred Order of Saint Dumas from taking over the city. This version of the character is forced to kill in self-defense a gangster while "collecting a debt" for Cobblepot and commits what could arguably be considered murder. He shoots the unarmed Galavan (who is later resurrected) in the head. In the series finale, "The Beginning...", Gordon has been Gotham's Police Commissioner for 10 years, and is the first to see the vigilante Batman. Commissioner Gordon is mentioned in the Titans episode "Dick Grayson", in which Gordon is killed by Joker in a potential future. In the episode "Barbara Gordon", the characters mention that Mr. Freeze trapped Commissioner Gordon in a block of ice with his freeze gun. Gordon died of a heart attack after being thawed, and his daughter Barbara Gordon became the new police commissioner. A photograph of Gordon appears in this episode. Animation Ted Knight provided the voice of James Gordon in The Batman/Superman Hour. Jim Gordon makes two appearances in Super Friends: He first appeared in Challenge of the Super Friends, voiced by Danny Dark. In the episode "Super Friends, Rest In Peace", the Riddler and Cheetah hold Gordon hostage so they can kill Batman with the Noxium Crystal. The second is in The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians. In the episode "The Fear", Gordon and Jonathan Crane try to find and arrest the Scarecrow. Gordon and Batman are both unaware that Crane is Scarecrow. He also appeared in some of the comics related to the show. In Filmation's 1977 The New Adventures of Batman, Commissioner Gordon is voiced by Lennie Weinrib. The character has been featured in the DC Animated Universe, voiced by veteran voice actor Bob Hastings: Commissioner Gordon initially appeared in the 1990s Batman: The Animated Series. His relationship with Batman was similar to that in the comics. Many scenes in the series portray Batman and the commissioner having clandestine meetings at the Bat-Signal. A flashback in the episode "Robin's Reckoning" depicts the young version as having red hair. In the episode "I Am the Night", it is revealed that Batman sees Gordon as a surrogate father - the same age had his own father still been alive - and is deeply upset when Gordon is seriously wounded by the criminal Jimmy "The Jazzman" Peek. Commissioner Gordon also appeared in Batman: Mask of the Phantasm and Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero. In the latter movie, he is shown to be aware of Dick Grayson's relationship with his daughter and after Grayson gets injured trying to rescue her, states that he approves of it. Commissioner Gordon has appeared in The New Batman Adventures. Like the rest of the cast, Gordon was redesigned for the new series. Although his design remains relatively similar to before, his build became more slender than previously, and his hair was then cropped into a flat-top design. In the episode "Holiday Knights", it is shown that Batman and Gordon meet every year on New Year's Eve in a diner to celebrate 'survival' as Gordon puts it. In the episode "Over the Edge", Barbara Gordon suffers from the Scarecrow's fear toxins, producing a nightmare where Batgirl is killed while fighting escaped Arkham inmates, without telling her father her secret. Gordon blames Batman for Barbara's death, and launches a manhunt against his former ally after discovering his secret identity on Barbara's computer. After the nightmare, Barbara tries to admit her secret identity to her father, but he says that he trusts her with whatever choices she makes, and that she doesn't need to tell him anything. The episode implies that Gordon already knows that his daughter is Batgirl, but keeps it to himself. Commissioner Gordon also appeared in Superman: The Animated Series. In "World's Finest, Part One" he investigates a robbery where a dragon statue made of Kryptonite is stolen. In "Knight Time", Gordon waits for Batman with Detective Renee Montoya. What Gordon doesn't know is that he is speaking with Superman in disguise. Commissioner Gordon appeared in Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman as well. Commissioner Gordon appeared in Static Shock. In the episode "Hard as Nails", Batman and Static visit him when Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn hijack a cargo ship carrying gold bricks. The spin-off Batman Beyond portrays Barbara Gordon, who by then retired from vigilantism as having followed in her father's footsteps as Gotham's new police commissioner; a picture of Jim Gordon appears on Barbara's desk in the third episode "Black Out". In Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker, Barbara Gordon reveals to Terry McGinnis that her father is one of the few people besides Dr. Leslie Thompkins and possibly Alfred Pennyworth and Dick Grayson who knew about Tim Drake's traumatic encounter with the Joker, implying that he also learned and kept secret Batman's and possibly Robin's true identities up until he passed away. Jim Gordon appeared in The Batman, voiced by Mitch Pileggi. This version is depicted as a newly appointed Gotham City police commissioner after an incident involving the Joker, Penguin, and Riddler. He ends the manhunt against Batman and goes public with his support for the crime fighter in order to help make Gotham safer for his daughter Barbara Gordon. Commissioner Gordon is alluded in Batman: The Brave and the Bold. In the episode "Deep Cover for Batman!", Batman calls the commissioner to tell him that he has thwarted the Riddler's crossword puzzle crime spree. In the episode "The Color of Revenge", a flashback reveals that Batman got a call from Gordon that Crazy Quilt had broken into the museum to steal the Stimulated Emission Light Amplifier. At the episode's end, Batman gets a message from Gordon stating that Killer Moth has hijacked the Gotham Bank Money Train. In the episode "The Knights of Tomorrow", Gordon makes an appearance at Bruce Wayne and Selina Kyle's wedding as part of a story that Alfred Pennyworth is writing. He also appears with no lines in the episode "Joker: The Vile and The Villainous". His Zur-En-Arrh counterpart Chancellor Gor-Zonn (voiced by Corey Burton) appears in the episode "The Super Batman of Planet X", informing the Batman of Zur-En-Arrh of Rothul's attacks. Commissioner Gordon appears in the Young Justice animated series episode "Misplaced", voiced by Corey Burton. Commissioner Gordon appears in the Super Best Friends Forever series of shorts. Commissioner Gordon makes cameo appearances in Teen Titans Go!. Most of his appearances have him in the company of Batman. In the episode "La Larva de Amor", while Silkie is floating down a river in a bucket, Silkie floats past Batman and Gordon who are fishing on a dock. In "Girls Night Out", Gordon is seen in his police car laughing with Batman when they see Starfire, Raven and Jinx speed by with the police in pursuit. In the episode "Sidekick", Gordon is shown enjoying the ultimate batarang with Batman, both of them laughing. In the episode "Slumber Party", the Titans sneak onto Wayne Manor and tee-pee his fountain statue to resemble Batgirl. Batman and Gordon then go outside and find the statue, causing both of them to laugh, implying that he knows Batman's secret identity. He next appears in "The Cruel Giggling Ghost" where he, along with Batman, dress up as the two-headed ghoul to scare people away from the amusement park so they wouldn't have to wait in line for the bumper cars. A younger version of Jim Gordon appears in Beware the Batman, voiced by Kurtwood Smith. He starts out as a lieutenant who distrusts Batman, clashing with Barbara's support for him. Gordon reluctantly teams up with Batman to save Barbara from Tobias Whale and Phosphorus Rex, and gradually begins to trust Batman and work alongside him, even installing the Bat-Signal. In "Nexus", Gordon is promoted to police commissioner after Commissioner Correa is killed by ninjas working for the League of Assassins. Commissioner Gordon makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League Action episode "Galaxy Jest". Commissioner Gordon appears in the 2019 animated series DC Super Hero Girls, voiced by Fred Tatasciore. This version of the character has retired as Gotham City's police commissioner and moved to Metropolis with his teenage daughter Barbara. Commissioner Gordon appears in Harley Quinn, voiced by Christopher Meloni. Unlike most versions, this Gordon has succumbed to the toils and stress of policing Gotham and its supervillains. As such, he has become exhausted, constantly nervous, alcoholic, and at times borderline psychotic; often ranting and raving before being reined in by Batman. It has also been suggested that his job has been damaging his marriage, as he reveals that his wife was cheating on him before quickly admitting he understood why. In a flashback sequence during " All the Best Inmates Have Daddy Issues", Gordon was depicted as having an athletic slim physique before becoming overweight in the present. During season two, Gordon lost control of GCPD's remnants and his wife amidst the chaos of Joker destroying Gotham and seemingly killing Batman. While crashing with his daughter Barbara, he unknowingly inspired her to become Batgirl, and was later asked by a recuperating Batman to work with her to keep Gotham safe. After losing more of his self-confidence, Barbara reveals her identity to her father, inspiring him to overcome his alcoholism and retake the GCPD headquarters from Two-Face. Once he becomes commissioner again, Gordon is immediately tasked by the President of the United States to kill Harley Quinn so Gotham can rejoin the U.S. Though she brings an army of Parademons to combat his rallied Gotham citizens, she ultimately forfeits the battle. While helping Batman round up the Parademons, he was forced to team up with Harley to defeat a vengeful Doctor Psycho after he uses his psychic powers to enslave the Parademons and most of Harley's crew in order to conquer Gotham and, subsequently, the world. In the season two finale, "The Runaway Bridesmaid", Gordon is left frustrated when Gotham's mayor fails to recognize his efforts in saving the city. After listening to his rants, Two-Face manipulates him into running for mayor and earning recognition by arresting all of the attending supervillains at Poison Ivy and Kite Man's wedding. Though he and his officers successfully infiltrate the wedding and nearly succeed, Harley foils his plans, forcing him to call for reinforcements and turn the wedding into an all-out war. Film Live-action In the 1949 15-episode movie serial Batman and Robin, commissioner Gordon was portrayed by Ed Wood regular Lyle Talbot. Commissioner Gordon was played by Neil Hamilton in Batman: The Movie, based on the 1960s TV series. He advised Batman and Robin which supervillains were at large. Burton/Schumacher series In the Tim Burton/Joel Schumacher film adaptations of Batman, Commissioner Gordon is portrayed by Pat Hingle. In the script written by Tom Mankiewicz for the unmade The Batman film, which was later made as the 1989 film Batman, Gordon was set to appear as Commissioner and named David, instead of James Worthington. William Holden was considered for the role. In Batman (1989), Gordon regards Batman (Michael Keaton) as a rumor at best and vigilante at worst, though by the end of the film, Gordon publicly acknowledges the hero's usefulness and helps present the Bat-Signal. Gordon's wife briefly appears in Batman, but is not seen or mentioned in the sequels. In Batman Returns (1992), when the Penguin (Danny DeVito) has Batman framed for murder, it is implied Gordon is not entirely convinced, as he is not willing to use lethal force in order to apprehend him, and publicly refers to Batman's batarang at the crime scene as "purely circumstantial". In Batman Forever (1995), Gordon is shown to be fairly well acquainted with Bruce Wayne (Val Kilmer), but unaware that he is Batman. He arrives at the scene of Wayne Enterprises employee Fred Stickley's (Ed Begley, Jr.) apparent suicide, unaware that he was actually murdered by Edward Nygma (Jim Carrey). Gordon is also present at the circus when Two-Face (Tommy Lee Jones) murders Dick Grayson's (Chris O'Donnell) family, and he later brings Dick to Wayne Manor after Bruce volunteers to take care of the young man. Although Barbara Gordon is his daughter in most continuities, in Batman & Robin (1997), Batgirl is characterized as Alfred Pennyworth's (Michael Gough) niece, Barbara Wilson (Alicia Silverstone). In Commissioner Gordon's last appearance in the film, Poison Ivy (Uma Thurman) uses her pheromones to make him fall in love with her in order to get the keys to police headquarters and the Bat-Signal, and almost kills him with her toxic kiss before changing her mind because of him, "being too old for her". Gordon was planned for the aborted reboot Batman: Year One written by Darren Aronofsky and Frank Miller. In this script Gordon has lived in Gotham for years, and is trying to leave for the sake of his pregnant wife; also Gordon's wife is renamed Ann, instead of Barbara, and Gordon's character would have been suicidal. The Dark Knight Trilogy In the rebooted Dark Knight Trilogy by Christopher Nolan, Gordon is played by Gary Oldman. Batman Begins (2005) concerns Gordon's rise from beat cop to sergeant and lieutenant by the end of the film. In the beginning of the film, Gordon does his best to comfort the eight-year-old Bruce Wayne after the murder of his parents. Bruce (Christian Bale) later recognizes him as one of the few honest cops in Gotham City, and thus, after he becomes Batman, Gordon is the first person in law enforcement that Batman contacts. The two form a secret alliance against Carmine Falcone's (Tom Wilkinson) criminal empire. Gordon proves important when Batman fights Ra's al Ghul (Liam Neeson). Batman gives Gordon the task of destroying a monorail track using the Tumbler, halting Ra's' plan to destroy the city. He is promoted to lieutenant and presents the Bat-Signal. The movie ends with Gordon talking about another criminal robbing banks and leaving a calling card in the form of a Joker playing card. Many critics, and writer David S. Goyer, have noted that Gary Oldman's portrayal bears a strong resemblance to the way the character was drawn by David Mazzucchelli in Batman: Year One. In The Dark Knight (2008), Gordon is leading the GCPD Major Crimes Unit and forms a tenuous alliance with Batman and the newly elected district attorney Harvey Dent (Aaron Eckhart) to take down Gotham's organized crime syndicates. When the Joker (Heath Ledger) reveals that Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb (Colin McFarlane) is one of his upcoming targets, Gordon arrives at his office with other officers to offer protection, but he is unable to stop Loeb from drinking a glass of poisoned Scotch. At Loeb's funeral, Gordon foils the Joker's attempt on Mayor Anthony Garcia's (Nestor Carbonell) life, in the process faking his own death to protect his family. After Dent claims to be Batman, Gordon disguises himself as a SWAT officer and commandeers the armored truck that is carrying him to the county lockup for processing. Following a vehicular battle with the Joker, Gordon rescues both Batman and Dent, captures the Joker, and is promoted to police commissioner by the Mayor. Hours later, two corrupt cops and the Joker's men abduct Dent and Rachel Dawes (Maggie Gyllenhaal), placing them in separate buildings with oil drums rigged to explode. Batman chooses to save Rachel, while Gordon and several officers go to save Dent, unaware that the Joker has switched their locations as part of a plan to orchestrate Dent's downfall. While Batman is able to rescue Dent, Gordon arrives at Rachel's location just as the bomb explodes and kills her. Disfigured in the explosion and driven insane by grief, Dent seeks vengeance against Gordon for Rachel's death. Dent kidnaps Gordon's wife and two children, and forces Gordon to plead for their lives at the site of Rachel's death. He flips his trademark coin to decide whether Gordon's son (Nathan Gamble) should die, but Batman tackles Dent off the building, killing him. In order to preserve Dent's image as the city's 'White Knight', Batman decides to take the blame for all of Dent's murders. Gordon reluctantly agrees, having come to highly respect the Caped Crusader. After eulogizing Dent as a hero to the city, Gordon destroys the Bat-Signal and calls for a manhunt against Batman. As Batman flees, Gordon assures his son that Batman is not just a hero: he is the city's protector, a "Dark Knight". In The Dark Knight Rises (2012), Gordon feels remorse for concealing Dent's crimes, and contemplates resigning and revealing the truth to the city. By now, Gordon's wife has left him and taken their children. Bane's (Tom Hardy) men shoot Gordon, putting him in critical condition. A disguised Bruce Wayne visits him in the hospital, and Gordon implores his former ally to return to crimefighting. He also befriends John Blake (Joseph Gordon-Levitt) and promotes the rookie police officer to detective, seeing in the young man the dedication and idealism he once had. After Bane defeats Batman and traps most of the Gotham City Police Department underground, Gordon gets himself out of bed and defeats the League of Shadows operatives who tried to kill him in his hospital room. Bane publicly exposes Dent's crimes and Gordon's complicity in the coverup, and takes Gordon and his men prisoner. Gordon later finds a truck carrying a nuclear bomb meant to annihilate the city and places a device on it to block the trigger signal. In the final battle against Bane, Talia al Ghul (Marion Cotillard), and the League of Shadows, Batman cryptically reveals his true identity to Gordon before apparently sacrificing himself to thwart the League of Shadows' plan to destroy the city. After giving the eulogy at Bruce Wayne's funeral, Gordon discovers the Bat-Signal has been repaired and realizes that Bruce is still alive. DC Extended Universe J. K. Simmons portrays Commissioner James Gordon in Justice League, which is part of the larger DC Extended Universe. Bryan Cranston (who had previously voiced Gordon in the animated adaptation of Batman: Year One) revealed to Geeking Out that he was up for the part but turned it down. Simmons also appeared as Gordon in the 2021 director's cut Zack Snyder's Justice League, and will reprise his role in the HBO Max film Batgirl. Matt Reeves' The Batman Jeffrey Wright signed on to portray Gordon in the upcoming The Batman, directed by Matt Reeves and is the first African American actor to portray the character in live action. Animated In Justice League: The New Frontier, the character makes a cameo appearance in the interrogation scene with King Faraday and Martian Manhunter. Commissioner Gordon appeared in Batman: Gotham Knight, voiced by Jim Meskimen. Commissioner Gordon makes a cameo appearance in Batman: Under the Red Hood (voiced by Gary Cole albeit uncredited) during the showdown between the Joker and the Red Hood. Emmy award-winner Bryan Cranston voiced Lt. James Gordon in the animated film adaptation of Batman: Year One. Commissioner Gordon appears in the two-part Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, voiced by David Selby. Commissioner Gordon appears in Lego Batman: The Movie - DC Super Heroes Unite, an adaptation of the video game of the same name, voiced by Townsend Coleman. Commissioner Gordon appears in Son of Batman, voiced by Bruce Thomas, he reprises is role in subsequent sequels Batman: Bad Blood, and Batman: Hush. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman: Assault on Arkham, voiced by Chris Cox. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman Unlimited: Animal Instincts, voiced by Richard Epcar. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman Unlimited: Monster Mayhem, voiced again by Richard Epcar. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman: The Killing Joke, voiced by Ray Wise. In the film, Gordon is kidnapped by the Joker, who attempts to drive him mad by crippling Barbara and subjecting him to photo evidence of his crime, along with other psychological tortures. However, in the end, Gordon maintains his sanity, telling Batman to bring in Joker by the book. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman: Return of the Caped Crusaders, voiced by Jim Ward. Ward reprises the role in Batman vs. Two-Face sequel. Commissioner Gordon appears in The Lego Batman Movie, voiced by Héctor Elizondo. Commissioner Gordon appears in the DC Super Hero Girls films, voiced by Tom Kenny. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman: Gotham by Gaslight, voiced by Scott Patterson. Whilst an adaptation of the graphic novel of the same name, in this storyline Gordon is revealed to be the alter ego of the infamous serial killer Jack The Ripper as the main antagonist of the film, where he was still a hero in the source material, serving as a composite character with James Gordon Jr. When Batman discovers Gordon's true identity, he also learns that Gordon has been abusing his wife Barbara, torturing her with acid to try and 'burn out' her sins. Jim Gordon makes a brief cameo in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman vs. Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, with Jim Meskimen reprising his role. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman: Death in the Family, with Gary Cole reprising his role. Commissioner Gordon appears in the animated film Batman: The Long Halloween, voiced by Billy Burke. Video games Commissioner Gordon appears on Batman: Vengeance voiced by Bob Hastings. He awaits for Batman along his GCPD squad outside the old gasworks building, in which the Dark Knight was investigating, before being mysteriously beaten by a Batarang. This led the whole GCPD to come after Batman to arresting him. At the end of the game it was found out that was Harley Quinn to hit Jim with the Batarang, so he called Bruce to apologize. He also appears on the sequel Batman: Rise of Sin Tzu, with Bob Hastings reprising his role. In the game he helps Batman via Batcommunicator to come after Sin Tzu and the other villains and their thugs who escaped from both the Arkham Asylum and the Stonegate Penitentiary. He was also kidnapped by the Scarecrow before being saved by the Dark Knight. James Gordon appears in the Batman Begins video game tie-in voiced by Gavin Hammon. Unlike the movie, in the videogame he's already Commissioner and even older than the film's counterpart. Commissioner Gordon appears in DC Universe Online, voiced by Ken Webster. He appears as a supporting character for the heroes. Commissioner Gordon makes a cameo appearance in Injustice: Gods Among Us. In the opening scene which takes place in an alternate reality, he is seen watching the news about the Joker destroying Metropolis with a nuclear missile. In Batgirl's ending, it was revealed that the alternate version of her father was killed by the Regime for aiding the Insurgency. Commissioner Gordon appears as a supporting character in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure. Commissioner Gordon appears in Batman: Dark Tomorrow, voiced by Ron McLarty. Commissioner Gordon is mentioned in the 2021 video game, Gotham Knights. He has died prior to the game's events, which led to the GCPD becoming corrupt. Lego series Commissioner Gordon appears in Lego Batman: The Video Game for the PlayStation 3, Nintendo DS, Wii, PlayStation 2, PC, and Xbox 360 with his vocal effects are provided by Keith Ferguson. He serves as a boss in the villains' story (with the exception of the DS version) and is a playable character. Commissioner Gordon appears in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Townsend Coleman. He is present after Lex Luthor engineered a prison break at Arkham Asylum. Around the end of the video game, Commissioner Gordon is seen when he and his police officers arrest Lex Luthor and Joker. The Dark Knight Trilogy iteration of James Gordon appears in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham. Commissioner Gordon appears in Lego Dimensions, voiced by Steven Blum. He appears in the DC Comics World where he requires the player's assistance after one of his police officers accidentally blew up a truck full of valuables. Commissioner Gordon appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, voiced by Tom Kane. At the beginning of the story, he oversees the transfer of the player-created character, dubbed "The Rookie", to Stryker's Island in Metropolis, and enlists the help of an incarcerated Lex Luthor to monitor the new villain's powers, offering him a reduction of his prison sentence in return. However, the prison is then attacked by Luthor's bodyguard Mercy Graves, who frees both Luthor and the Rookie. Arkham series Commissioner Gordon is a supporting character in the Batman: Arkham franchise where he is voiced by Tom Kane in Arkham Asylum, Rick D. Wasserman as a young man in a flashback in Arkham Asylum, David Kaye in Arkham City, Michael Gough in Arkham Origins and Jonathan Banks in Arkham Knight. In Batman: Arkham Asylum, he is introduced accompanying Batman with the readmission of the recently captured Joker in the beginning of the game. Once Joker breaks free Batman tells Gordon to alert the Warden and goes after Joker. Once Batman follows Joker to the other end of intensive treatment, Joker shows video footage of Frank Boles (a guard working with Joker) taking Gordon hostage. On the way to free Gordon, Batman encounters the Scarecrow dragging Gordon away and apparently kills him. It is later revealed the dead person Batman found earlier was actually a guard who had been seen as Gordon due to Scarecrow's gas. Though Boles is quickly killed once Joker realizes the guard was being tracked by Batman, Harley Quinn keeps Gordon under watch in the medical facility. Batman arrives to stop Harley and frees Gordon informing him that Bane is also in the area. After the battle with Bane, which results in the Batmobile destroyed and Bane underwater, Gordon boards a ferry with a guard to be sent back to Gotham by Batman to handle the bomb case. Gordon isn't seen again until the end of the game when Batman confronts Joker for the final time. Once the Dark Knight defeats the two Titan-induced guards and multiple Joker goons, Gordon is dropped from the ceiling tied up (how, when and why he returned to the island is never explained but the officer driving the boat could have been another one of Joker's "inside men"). Joker aims the Titan dart gun at Gordon and pulls the trigger, but Batman quickly jumps in front of Gordon taking a hit for him. Joker then uses the Titan on himself. Gordon is later seen on the roof strapped to an electric chair while Titan Joker and Batman (who uses the cure on himself) battle. Once Joker is defeated, Gordon and Batman are quickly joined by multiple members of GCPD and SWAT members. Gordon is talking to his daughter Barbara Gordon (a.k.a. Oracle) about the events that night. Gordon offers a ride home to Batman, considering the Batmobile was destroyed, when an alert on Gordon's radio states that Two-Face has robbed Gotham's second national bank and watches as Batman takes off in the Batwing. It is also mentioned in a Scarecrow-induced flashback that Gordon was the only officer who was sympathetic to the young Bruce Wayne on the night his parents were murdered. In Batman: Arkham City, he sends cops led by Sergeant Tom Miller to find out what Arkham City is really about. He appears at the end of the game right before the credits, repeatedly asking an unresponsive Batman about what happened within Arkham City while Batman was carrying away the Joker's corpse. Scanning the radio for the GCPD signal shortly after Bruce Wayne's arrest in the game will give the player a sound bit of him telling a dispatcher to inform all officers to take arrests to GCPD instead of Arkham City because as he puts it "Wayne's lawyers will have a field day with this." Gordon also appears in the DLC Harley Quinn's Revenge, being another one of the Dark Knight's allies that is concerned about his mental state since Joker's death. In Batman: Arkham Origins, a younger James "Jim" Gordon is featured as a GCPD Captain. Being set over a decade in the past, Gordon has yet to forge an alliance with Batman, seeing the Dark Knight as a menace and a lunatic, as opposed to his daughter Barbara Gordon seeing the vigilante as a hero he is. During Batman's break-in at the GCPD, Batman runs into Gordon while trying to escape and harmlessly disarms him, futilely trying to explain that they're on the same side. After saving Gordon's life when SWAT leader Branden nearly shoots him by accident, he escapes, though Gordon is knocked out in the process. Gordon later appears arresting Joker after the firefight at the Royal Hotel, and later again when he takes control of the police to stop Firefly from demolishing the bridge. When Batman arrives, he refuses to listen to his warnings about the bombs and insists Batman surrender to Firefly. Eventually he sees reason and the bomb squad disables the last bomb, allowing Batman to defeat Firefly. When the Joker takes over Blackgate Prison, Gordon arrives to stop the chaos only for his life to be put in danger when Joker straps him to an electric chair that will go off if Batman does not kill Bane in time. Batman momentarily stops Bane's heart in time to save Gordon, and the two work together to defeat Joker. Though Gordon still feels obligated to arrest Batman, the latter disappears, and Gordon decides the city needs Batman. He later reluctantly requests Batman's help in rounding up several escaped Blackgate prisoners. Jim Gordon is featured in Batman: Arkham Origins Blackgate. In Batman: Arkham Knight, Gordon loses trust in Batman after Barbara is kidnapped by Scarecrow and Batman revealed that she was kidnapped because she was working with him. He tries to go after Scarecrow himself, but gets captured and witnesses the confrontation between the Arkham Knight and Batman making him discover that Batman is Bruce Wayne. They confront Scarecrow on the roof of the building where Scarecrow orders Gordon to kill Batman to save Barbara. He shoots Batman, but Crane throws Barbara regardless. However, Gordon shot Batman in the chest piece on purpose (since it has extra armor) and Batman saves Barbara as Gordon is kidnapped by the Scarecrow with Robin. Scarecrow forces Gordon to unmask Batman on live television. When Batman finally defeats Scarecrow, Bruce tells Gordon to look after Tim and Barbara as it is the end for Batman. In the epilogue that takes place one year later, Gordon became the Mayor of Gotham City and goes to meet with his daughter. The story pack DLC Batgirl: A Matter of Family, taking place before the events of Arkham Asylum, centers around Gordon being kidnapped and held hostage by Joker and Harley Quinn in a defunct oil rig, as Batgirl and Robin attempt to rescue him. Telltale's Batman James "Jim" Gordon appears in Batman: The Telltale Series and Batman: The Enemy Within, voiced by Murphy Guyer. In the first season, Lt. Gordon is a reluctant ally of Batman and one of his supports within the GCPD. He is also the officer in charge of the investigation into Thomas Wayne and Martha Kane's connections to organized crime. During the series, he is able to create an alliance between the GCPD and Batman to combat the Children of Arkham, despite objections from the Commissioner, Peter Grogan, and other officers on the force. Gordon can also become associated with Bruce Wayne, depending on options taken by the player, such as giving him a file on Carmine Falcone's empire or helping him arrest the Penguin. At the end of the series, Gordon is promoted to Acting Commissioner after Grogan is killed by either Harvey Dent's enforcers or the Children of Arkham. During his appointment speech, Gordon is supported by either Bruce Wayne or Batman. In the second season, The Enemy Within, Gordon has now been given the title of Commissioner permanently and still allied with Batman. When Amanda Waller and her organization the Agency arrive in Gotham, he and the GCPD are forced to cooperate with them and, after a failed operation to capture the Riddler, relinquish law enforcement in Gotham to the Agency. Gordon's relationship with Batman is also tested after he learns about the vigilante's indirect involvement in an attack on Wayne Enterprises and if the vigilante cooperates with the Agency. After attempting to arrest Bruce Wayne for his association with the Pact, Gordon, having been warned by Waller, is fired from the GCPD. During the Joker's attacks on Gotham, Gordon either helps Batman track him down after he kidnaps Waller in Joker's vigilante path or is forced to betray Batman in return for the locations of bombs hidden through Gotham in Joker's villain path only to be crippled by the criminal. Waller states that Gordon won't be able to walk without a cane. During the epilogue of the game, Batman can arrange to either have Gordon reinstated as Commissioner, honored for his choice, or have him retired from law enforcement. Web series James "Jim" Gordon appears in the web series DC Super Hero Girls, voiced by Tom Kenny. He is the forensics teacher at Super Hero High School and the protective father of Barbara Gordon/Batgirl. Miscellaneous Commissioner Gordon is featured in the Smallville Season 11 digital comic based on the TV series. In the "Batmobile" OnStar commercial, Batman calls Gordon to tell him he will be coming to meet him. An unknown actor says "Gordon here" when Batman calls. In several comics during 1992, such as Action Comics #673, DC ran full-page advertisements on behalf of the American Heart Association showing a picture of Gordon in a hospital bed. The text of the ad explained that Gordon had a heart attack due to stress, poor diet, lack of exercise and tobacco use. Since then, DC has had Gordon living a more healthy lifestyle. James Gordon is portrayed by Lauren Lopez in the web-musical, Holy Musical B@man! In the Saturday Night Live digital skit "Commissioner Gordon Learns Batman Has No Boundaries", he is portrayed by Steve Buscemi (who was hosting the episode that this sketch was in). References External links Commissioner James Gordon at DC Comics' official website Characters created by Bill Finger Characters created by Bob Kane Comics characters introduced in 1939 DC Comics male characters DC Comics television characters Fictional American police detectives Fictional criminologists Fictional police captains Fictional police commissioners Fictional police lieutenants Fictional police sergeants Fictional United States Marine Corps personnel Fictional smokers Fictional special forces personnel Fictional characters from Chicago Gotham City Police Department officers Fictional Chicago Police Department detectives Male characters in film Male characters in television Superhero film characters Batman characters DC Animated Universe characters
684168	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%20College%20%28New%20York%29	Columbia College (New York)	Columbia College is the oldest undergraduate college of Columbia University, situated on the university's main campus in Morningside Heights in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It was founded by the Church of England in 1754 as King's College, receiving a royal charter from King George II of Great Britain. It is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth oldest in the United States. Columbia College (along with Columbia Engineering) is ranked as the second best college in the United States by U.S. News & World Report in 2021. The college is distinctive for its comprehensive Core Curriculum and is among the most selective colleges in its admissions. History Columbia College was founded as King's College, by royal charter of King George II of Great Britain in the Province of New York in 1754. Due in part to the influence of Church of England religious leaders, a site in New York City in the Trinity Church yard, Wall Street on the island of Manhattan was selected, however it would only remain at this site for less than a decade. Samuel Johnson was chosen as the college's first president and was also the college's first (and for a time only) professor. During this period, classes and examinations, both oral and written, were conducted entirely in Latin. By 1760, Columbia had relocated from the Trinity Church site to one along Park Place, near today's New York City Hall. In 1767, Samuel Bard established a medical college at the school, now known as the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, which was the first medical school to grant the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree in America. Due to the American Revolutionary War, instruction was suspended from 1776 until 1784, but by the beginning of the war, the college had already educated some of the nation's foremost political leaders. Even at this young age, King's College had already educated Alexander Hamilton, who served as military aide to General George Washington, initiated and authored most of The Federalist Papers, and then as the first Secretary of the Treasury; John Jay, author of several of the Federalist Papers and the first Chief Justice of the United States; Robert Livingston, one of the Committee of Five who drafted the Declaration of Independence; and Gouverneur Morris, who authored most of the United States Constitution. Hamilton's first experience with the military came while a student during the summer of 1775, after the outbreak of fighting at Boston. Along with Nicholas Fish, Robert Troup, and a group of other students from King's College, he joined a volunteer militia company called the "Hearts of Oak" and achieved the rank of Lieutenant. They adopted distinctive uniforms, complete with the words "Liberty or Death" on their hatbands, and drilled under the watchful eye of a former British officer in the graveyard of the nearby St. Paul's Chapel. In August 1775, while under fire from HMS Asia, the Hearts of Oak (the "Corsicans") participated in a successful raid to seize cannon from the Battery, becoming an artillery unit thereafter. Ironically, in 1776 Captain Hamilton would engage in the Battle of Harlem Heights, which took place on and around the site that would later become home to his alma mater more than a century later, only to be entombed after his dueling death some years later at the original home of King's College in Trinity Church yard. With the successful Treaty of Paris in 1783, the domestic situation was stable enough for the college to resume classes in 1784. With the new nation's independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, the name of the institution was changed from King's College to Columbia College, the name by which the institution continues to be known today. The college was briefly chartered as a state institution, lasting only until 1787, when due to a lack of public financial support the school was permitted to incorporate under a private board of trustees. This 1787 charter remains in effect. The renamed and reorganized college, located in the new national capital under the Constitution and free from its association with the Church of England, students from a variety of denominations came to Columbia as a response to its growing reputation as one of the finest institutions of higher learning in the new nation. Columbia was located at its Park Place campus near New York City Hall for nearly a century, from approximately 1760 to 1857, at which point the college moved to 49th Street and Madison Avenue in Manhattan. During the college's forty years at this third location, in addition to granting the Bachelor of Arts and Doctor of Medicine degrees, the faculties of the college were expanded to include the Columbia Law School (founded 1858), the Columbia School of Mines (founded 1864, now known as the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science). The Columbia School of Mines awarded the first Ph.D. from Columbia in 1875. At this time, Columbia College was now not only the name of the original undergraduate college founded as King's College, but it also encompassed all of the other colleges and schools of the institution. (Though technically known as the "School of Arts," the undergraduate division was often called "The College proper" to avoid confusion.) After Seth Low became president of Columbia College in 1890, he advocated the division of the individual schools and colleges into their own semi-autonomous entities under the central administration of the university. The complexity of managing the institution had been further increased when Barnard College for Women became affiliated with Columbia in 1889 followed by Teachers College of Columbia University in 1891. Also by this time, graduate faculties issuing the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree in philosophy, political science, and the natural sciences had also developed. Thus, in 1896, the trustees of Columbia College, under the guidance of Seth Low, approved a new name for the university as a whole, Columbia University in the City of New York. At this point, the name Columbia College returned to being used solely to refer to the original undergraduate college, founded as King's College in 1754 and renamed Columbia College in 1784. In addition to reclaiming the identity of Columbia College and making it the focus of the newly rearranged Columbia University, Low was also responsible for the monumental relocation of the university to its current location atop a hill in Morningside Heights in uptown Manhattan. A tract for the campus was purchased which extended from 114th St. to 120th St. between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue. Charles McKim of McKim, Mead, and White was selected to design the new campus, which was to be patterned after the buildings of the Italian Renaissance. While most American universities at this point had followed more medieval and Gothic styles of architecture, the neoclassical style of the new Columbia University campus was meant to reflect the institution's roots in the Enlightenment and the spirit of intellectual discovery of the period. Columbia College and Columbia University as a whole relocated to the new campus in 1897. The academic history of traditions of Columbia College clearly had their beginnings in the classical education of the Enlightenment, and in this mold, the college's famous Core Curriculum was officially recognized and codified in 1919 with John Erskine's first seminar on the great books of the western tradition. Also in 1919, a course, War and Peace, was required of all Columbia College students in addition to the Great Books Honors Seminar. During the 1960s, Columbia College, like many others across the United States, experienced unrest and turmoil due to the ongoing civil rights movement and opposition to the Vietnam War. On April 23, 1968, more than 1,000 students forcefully occupied five campus buildings in protest to the proposed expansion of the university's campus into Morningside Park and to protest the university's sponsorship of classified military research. University officials wished to build new gymnasium facilities in the park, which while located directly adjacent to the university, is separated by a steep cliff. Plans to create separate entrances for students and local residents was the primary objection of the student protesters to the proposed expansion plan. A fence at the site was torn down, and police arrested one student, whose release became one of the demands of the protest. After five days, the functions of the university were brought to a halt, and early on the morning of April 30 the students were forcibly removed by the New York City Police Department. As a result of the student protests, the university president Grayson L. Kirk retired, classified research projects on campus were abruptly ended, long-standing ROTC programs were expelled, and the proposed expansion plans were canceled. The university experienced financial difficulties throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, and admissions standards in the college slightly relaxed to hasten the diversification of the student body following the 1968 protests. Paralleling a national trend after 1970, Columbia classes in the 1970s and 1980s earned lower SAT scores than did Columbia students in the late 1960s.The scores were, however, similar to other Ivy schools except Harvard, Yale, and Princeton—a position not acceptable to Columbia's ambitious administration. After two committees reported in 1980 and 1981 that the all-male college's competitiveness with other Ivy League universities was decreasing, women were admitted in 1983. The median SAT score of the class of 1991 was the highest since the early 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, the college experienced a drastic increase in gifts and endowment growth, propelling it from the periphery to the forefront of a university historically dominated by its graduate & professional schools. During the leadership of university presidents Michael Sovern and George Erik Rupp, many of Columbia College's facilities were extensively expanded and renovated. The number of residence halls was increased to accommodate all Columbia College students for all four years of the undergraduate education. Hamilton Hall, the primary academic building of Columbia College has undergone extensive renovations, and the college's athletic facilities, located at Baker Field Athletics Complex on Manhattan's far northern tip at 218th Street, were renovated and expanded. Columbia College today Academics Columbia College is known for its rigorous Core Curriculum, a series of mandatory classes and distribution requirements that form the heart of Columbia College students' academic experience. The Core has changed slightly over the years, but students are currently required to take the following: Students are also required to pass a swimming test before receiving their diploma. The foreign language requirement, however, may be skipped if the student passes a placement exam or demonstrates requisite proficiency. Most students graduate within four years with a Bachelor of Arts degree. Campus Most of the College's facilities are located on Columbia University's Morningside Heights campus, especially in Hamilton Hall, which houses its administrative and admissions offices, as well as the directors of the Core Curriculum. Butler Library, Columbia University's main library, is home to more than 2 million volumes of the University's humanities collection. The facility recently underwent an extensive 4-year renovation, including the creation of a new wing, named Philip L. Milstein Family College Library in honor of its donor. Included is a specialized collection of approximately 100,000 volumes containing subject matter in history, literature, philosophy, and the social sciences specifically intended to complement the Columbia College curriculum. The collection of the Columbia University Libraries consists of more than 9.2 million volumes held in 25 specialized libraries as well as a digital library, however Columbia College students do not have unlimited access to all specialized libraries. Students at Columbia College are guaranteed campus housing for four years. Residence halls, which also house undergraduate students of Columbia's engineering school, are either located on the Morningside Heights main campus or within 10 blocks of the 116th Street entrance. First-year students are housed on the main quad in John Jay, Carman, Wallach, Hartley and Furnald Halls. The two main dining facilities are John Jay Dining Hall and Ferris Booth Commons; all freshmen are required to have a full meal plan. Other school dining facilities available on the Morningside Heights campus are located in the recently remodeled student center, Alfred Lerner Hall, and Uris Hall. Governance In 2011, after the resignation of Michele Moody-Adams, James Valentini replaced her as Dean of Columbia College. The students of Columbia College elect the Columbia College Student Council (CCSC) to serve as their primary representative, advocate, and liaison to the Columbia University community, including its administration, faculty, alumni and students, as well as to the public. Noted people Many eminent individuals have attended or taught at Columbia College or King's College, its predecessor. Among those College alumni categorized as "remarkable" by the university during its 250th anniversary celebrations in 2004 were Founding Fathers of the United States Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and Gouverneur Morris (author of Preamble to U.S. Constitution, "We, The People"). Other political figures in this group include statesman and educator Nicholas Murray Butler, New York Governor DeWitt Clinton, U.S. Secretary of State Hamilton Fish, South African anti-apartheid leader Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Chinese diplomat Wellington Koo, many New York City mayors, including Seth Low and John Purroy Mitchel, as well as spymaster William Joseph Donovan. Academics listed include philosophers Mortimer Adler and Irwin Edman, historians Jacques Barzun and Alfred Thayer Mahan, economist Arthur Burns, paleontologist Niles Eldredge, drama scholar Brander Matthews, art historian Meyer Schapiro and literary critic Lionel Trilling. Public intellectuals and journalists, including broadcaster Roone Arledge, social critic Randolph Bourne, environmentalist Barry Commoner, and writers like Henry Demarest Lloyd and Norman Podhoretz are also prominent on the list. Major publishers included were Alfred Knopf, Arthur Sulzberger, and Bennett Cerf. Rabbi Stephen Wise is also considered prominent. Columbia College graduates recognized in the arts include pianist Emanuel Ax, actor James Cagney, musician Art Garfunkel, composers Richard Rodgers and John Corigliano, lyricists Oscar Hammerstein II and Lorenz Hart, playwrights Samuel Spewack, Tony Kushner and Terrence McNally, writers Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Herman Wouk, John Berryman, Thomas Merton, Clement Clarke Moore, Ben Coes, and Clifton Fadiman, screenwriter Herman Mankiewicz, filmmaker Joseph Mankiewicz, sculptor Isamu Noguchi, and violinist Gil Shaham. Architects James Renwick Jr., Robert A.M. Stern, engineer William Barclay Parsons, baseball player Lou Gehrig, football player Sid Luckman, and business leader John Kluge were also Columbia College students. Additionally, highly visible former Columbia College students in recent years include former President Barack Obama, former United States Attorney General William Barr, and former Attorneys General Michael Mukasey and Eric Holder, New York Governor David Paterson, New Hampshire Senator Judd Gregg, former New Jersey Governor Jim McGreevey, Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti, Texas Congressman Beto O'Rourke, New York Congressman Jerry Nadler, Estonian president Toomas Hendrik Ilves, political advisor and commentator George Stephanopoulos, actors Maggie Gyllenhaal, Jake Gyllenhaal, Anna Paquin, Casey Affleck, Amanda Peet, Matthew Fox, Timothée Chalamet, George Segal, Julia Stiles, Cinta Laura, and Kate McKinnon, radio personality Max Kellerman, directors Jim Jarmusch, Brian De Palma and Bill Condon, television showrunners Jenji Kohan and Beau Willimon, writer Paul Auster, historian Eric Foner, the chart-topping alt-rock band Vampire Weekend, and Grammy Award-winning R&B singer and songwriter Alicia Keys. Among its graduates and attendees, Columbia College can count at least 16 Nobel Prize winners, 8 Emmy Award winners, 8 Tony Award winners, over 20 Academy Award winners, and 30 Pulitzer Prize winners. References External links 1754 establishments in New York Columbia University Educational institutions established in 1754
696196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Flying%20Nun	The Flying Nun	The Flying Nun is an American sitcom about a community of nuns which included one who could fly when the wind caught her cornette. It was produced by Screen Gems for ABC based on the 1965 book The Fifteenth Pelican, written by Tere Rios. Sally Field starred as the title character, Sister Bertrille. The series originally ran on ABC from September 7, 1967 to April 3, 1970, producing 82 episodes, including a one-hour pilot episode. Overview Developed by Bernard Slade, the series centered on the adventures of a community of nuns in the Convent San Tanco in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The series focuses on Sister Bertrille, a young, idealistic novice nun who discovers she can fly, whose order teaches largely underprivileged and orphaned children and assists the poor of a diverse Hispanic community (a rare setting for network TV in the era). In the hour-long series pilot, Chicago native Elsie Ethrington arrives in San Juan from New York City after her arrest for having been involved in a protest; she then adopts the name of Sister Bertrille. It is also later learned (in the episode "My Sister, The Sister") that Sister Bertrille comes from a family of physicians, and that she is the only member of that family who did not follow in their footsteps. She instead became a nun, joining the Convent San Tanco, after being impressed by the missionary work of her aunt, and broke up with her boyfriend of eight months, a toy salesman. Sister Bertrille could be relied upon to solve any problem that came her way by her ability to catch a passing breeze and fly. This was generally attributed to her weighing under , high winds at the Convent high on the ocean bluffs, and the large, heavily starched cornette that was the headpiece for her habit. (The cornette was based on one worn until the middle 1960s by the Daughters of Charity, although Sister Bertrille was never said to belong to that order. Indeed, the order which included the Convent San Tanco was never actually specified in the series.) Her flying talents could cause as many problems as they solved, per the sitcom format, but she most often used her gift to help people, or at least with good intentions. She explains her ability to fly by stating, "When lift plus thrust is greater than load plus drag, anything can fly." In one episode, she tries to gain weight so she could stay grounded, but the attempt fails. Additionally, in the first-season episode "Young Man with a Cornette," she specifically tells a young boy who intended to use her cornette to fly that there were many factors other than her weight (which was distributed differently from that of the boy) that made her flying possible. She was unable to take off only when heavy rains or storms caused her starched cornette to lose its shape, when she had to wear something that would keep her grounded at all times, or, on one occasion in the episode titled "The Flying Dodo", when an inner ear infection caused her to lose her balance. For a series often accused of being outlandish (often by its title rather than its true content), The Flying Nun treated Sister Bertrille's gift of flight more realistically than other fantasy comedies of the era. Usually on fantasy series of the sixties, there were frantic and elaborate attempts to hide and keep secret the special powers, a constant dilemma on Bewitched, I Dream of Jeannie and My Favorite Martian. In most cases, The Flying Nun series dealt with the premise more rationally. Quite often, Sister Bertrille and the nuns freely admitted her ability to fly, asking for discretion in hopes that it would not draw attention to the needs and efforts of the convent. Secrecy was only necessary (and occasionally humorously so) for any characters who would not understand, or might make the situation exploitative, widely public, subject to ridicule, or otherwise disruptive, One especially memorable episode (without a laugh track) featured just two actors, Sally Field and actor/director Henry Jaglom, trapped in a cave, in an often bitter exchange. Upon learning she could fly so she could rescue them, he began to consider, not in an absurdly miraculous but believable way, to reconsider his shattered perspective on life. Characters Sally Field as Sister Bertrille, real name Elsie Ethrington, a novice nun who only weighs 90 pounds, allowing her to fly while wearing her cornette and when the wind is right. This was Field's second situation-comedy role, following Gidget. Madeleine Sherwood as Reverend Mother Placido, the somber but gentle woman who runs the convent. Marge Redmond as Sister Jacqueline, a wise nun with a sense of humor and Sister Bertrille's friend. Her voice is also heard as the narrator, who provides a friendly, tongue-in-cheek narration throughout each episode. Shelley Morrison as Sister Sixto, a Puerto Rican nun who always misinterprets English slang. In the third season, after someone corrected her, she replied with a rejoinder with logic for the phrase. Linda Dangcil as Sister Ana, another young novice. Vito Scotti as Captain Gaspar Fomento, the local police officer and the only regular character in the series who never knew about Sister Bertrille's ability to fly. Alejandro Rey as Carlos Ramirez, a local casino owner and playboy. Ramirez is an orphan raised by the nuns, and though his is a "sinful" life by comparison to their ideals, he still maintains his gratitude, helping them whenever he can. This constantly leads him to get swept, usually against his will, into Sister Bertrille's zany schemes, which she concocts with alarming frequency. Rey also appeared in a dual role in two episodes as Carlos's mild-mannered, inventive but naive twin cousin Luis Ramirez. Elinor Donahue as Jennifer Ethrington, Sister Bertille's sister, a dedicated, if overscheduled, pediatrician. Jennifer politely declined Carlos' proposal of marriage and eventually married a doctor. Rich Little as Brother Paul, a brilliant but disaster-prone monk. Don Diamond as Dr. Tapia, San Tanco's local physician (season one) and Chief Galindo, Captain Fomento's long-suffering superior. Michael Pataki as Sgt. Salazar, sidekick to Captain Fomento (season two); Roberto, Carlo's good-natured assistant (season three); and Pedro (season one). Production After the cancellation of ABC's Gidget, in which Sally Field starred in the title role, producers sought a way to keep Field on the air. As a result, The Flying Nun was developed. Field found the concept of the show silly and refused the role at first, only to resettle on it after her stepfather, Jock Mahoney, warned her that she might not work again in show business if she did not accept the role. Screen Gems dismissed its second choice, Ronne Troup, who had already begun filming the pilot. Field recalled hanging from a crane and being humiliated by a parade of episodic television directors, one of whom actually grabbed her shoulders and moved her into position as if she were a prop. She credits co-star Madeleine Sherwood for encouraging her to enroll in acting classes. Field has commented that she has great affection for her young Gidget persona and was proud of her work on that show, but she has also admitted that she did not have as pleasant an experience working on The Flying Nun, especially due to constant comedy routines and negative press that ridiculed the premise, which she took to mean herself. In the Season One DVD interview, Field states that it was Harry Ackerman's decision to give the series the instantly mockable but easily marketable title, "The Flying Nun" rather than give it book's title, "The Fifteenth Pelican." which would have been better. In essence the title invited ridicule without seeing the program itself. The entertainment industry did little to help Field's morale either, to the point of having her "fly in" to an Emmy Awards broadcast. Nevertheless, Field also expressed tremendous affection and admiration for her Flying Nun co-stars, including Marge Redmond ("She was so down to earth") and Alejandro Rey, whom she said was not only kind and considerate to her but taught her by example to speak up for herself, indicating that The Flying Nun ultimately was a tough but crucial training ground for the career that was to unfold before her. Prior to the production of The Flying Nun, producers were concerned with how the series would be received by Catholics. In an effort to prevent religious criticism, the National Catholic Office for Radio and Television (NCORT) served as a series adviser, with on-screen credit. (The NCORT, like its motion-picture counterpart, the National Catholic Office for Motion Pictures, was ultimately absorbed into the United States Catholic Conference, and both were later merged into the Office for Film and Broadcasting of the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, or USCCB.) The San Juan convent courtyard exterior was the rear area of a house façade at the Warner Brothers Ranch's suburban street/backlot in Burbank, California, along Hollywood Way north of West Oak Street. The pilot episode and the series opening and closing credits were filmed on location in Puerto Rico. Serra Retreat Center, Malibu, has photos in one of their conference rooms stating the exterior was shot there. On September 25, 1970, the Malibu Canyon Wildfire destroyed the original buildings. The series gradually changed comedic gears in its second season with a bit more slapstick and broad humor, usually focusing on bungling police Captain Gaspar Fomento, played by Vito Scotti. Beginning in the show's third (and final) season, changes were made to revert the series to the warmer tone of the first season. Throughout the entire run, most stories concerned helping others in need, community service, literacy, education and the diversity of people and their faiths. This series was one of the few American '60s sitcoms set in a low-income ethnic community. By the third season, the series had found its way, and the flying premise was so unnecessary that quite often the scripts would have to contrive reasons for at least one "flight" per episode. Had Ackerman not insisted on the gimmick title of "The Flying Nun," instead of "The Fifteenth Pelican," "San Tanco," or simply "Sister Bertrille," the overall content of the series might have been better perceived and recognized in its day. During its third season, at the beginning of the filming schedule, Field was noticeably expecting her first child. As had been done many times in the past in movies and television, the producers used props and scenery to block specific views of Field and using long shots of her stunt double for the flying sequences. Following the deaths of Shelley Morrison in 2019 and Marge Redmond in 2020, Sally Field is the only surviving cast member of the series. Music Like The Donna Reed Show and The Monkees TV series, Screen Gems made potential hit music an aspect of The Flying Nun. Under the supervision of Lester Sill, many of the foremost composers, lyricists and arrangers contributed to The Flying Nun, including Carole Bayer Sager, Howard Greenfield, Jack Keller, Ernie Freeman and Dominic Frontiere. Sally Field, Star of The Flying Nun, an LP recording featuring music from the series' soundtrack plus additional songs, sung by Sally Field and the Bob Mitchell Choir (who sang in Going My Way, Peter Pan, The Bishop's Wife and many other films and recordings), was released by Colgems in 1967. One of the songs from the album, "Felicidad (The Happiness Word)" was released as single and was heard in the pilot episode. In addition to the album, two additional singles were released by Colgems Records: the soundtrack of Sally Field, Marge Redmond and Madeleine Sherwood of Leslie Bricusse and Anthony Newley's "Gonna Build a Mountain" from the second season episode "Sister Socko in San Tanco" and Sally Field singing "Golden Days," a song not heard on the series. In 1968, Abbe Lane guest starred in the second season episode "The Organ Transplant" and sang the Burt Bacharach and Hal David hit, "The Look of Love" from the feature film Casino Royale, released in 1967 by Columbia Pictures, parent company of Screen Gems. The soundtrack of that film was also on Colgems Records. Broadcast history During its first two seasons, The Flying Nun aired on Thursday nights at 8:00pm EST, where the series competed in the ratings with Daniel Boone on NBC and Cimarron Strip on CBS. The show was an instant hit, with high ratings and was declared the "hit of the season;" however, the ratings dropped as the season progressed. During its second year, the series was scheduled against Daniel Boone and Hawaii Five-O. During its final season, the series was moved to Wednesday nights at 7:30pm EST, scheduled opposite The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour. All of the competing shows ranked higher in the ratings than The Flying Nun, which eventually led to its cancellation. During its three-year run, the series was a part of a three-show comedy block on ABC that also consisted of Bewitched and That Girl. Despite its early popularity, the show's ratings never broke the Nielsen top thirty and the final episode aired on April 3, 1970. However, its 83 episodes have consistently attracted new audiences since its initial run. Syndication Beginning in the summer of 2011, the show was transmitted on weekends on Antenna TV. The complete first season also became available on iTunes. Beginning in 2018, it began broadcasting on FETV. It currently airs on Saturday and Sunday mornings from 2-4am ET (3 hours earlier PT). The entire series, including the third season which had not been released on DVD, is available on Tubi via livestream, Awards Despite the show being an easy target for critics, Marge Redmond was nominated for an Emmy Award in the category of Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for her role as Sister Jacqueline during the 1967–68 season. She lost to Marion Lorne, who won posthumously for her role as "Aunt Clara" on Bewitched. Novels, Comics and Toys A series of novels, all based on characters and dialog of the series, were written by William Johnston and published by Ace Books in the 1960s. Dell Comics published 4 issues of a comic book based on The Flying Nun from February to November 1968. View-Master adapted the episode "Love Me, Love My Dog" into a three-reel 3-D packet with a storybook. Milton Bradley released a board game and several puzzles and coloring books were published by Saalfield. Home media Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first season of The Flying Nun on March 21, 2006, on DVD in Region 1. This was followed by the release of the show's second season on DVD on August 15, 2006. On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library, including The Flying Nun. They re-released the first and second seasons in a 2-season combo pack DVD on October 7, 2014. References Further reading External links 1967 American television series debuts 1970 American television series endings 1960s American sitcoms 1970s American sitcoms American Broadcasting Company original programming English-language television shows American fantasy television series Fantasy comedy television series Fictional Christian nuns Religious comedy television series Television shows based on American novels Television series by Sony Pictures Television Television shows set in Puerto Rico Television series about nuns Television series by Screen Gems
699501	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Collins%20%28British%20Army%20officer%29	Tim Collins (British Army officer)	Colonel Timothy Thomas Cyril Collins (born 30 April 1960) is a retired Northern Irish military officer in the British Army. He is best known for his role in the Iraq War in 2003, and his inspirational eve-of-battle speech, a copy of which apparently hung in the White House's Oval Office. He is currently Chairman (and co-founder) of intelligence-based security services company Pinpoint Corporate Services. Early life Collins was born and raised in Belfast, Northern Ireland, where he grew up during The Troubles. He was educated at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution before attending the Queen's University of Belfast, where he gained a degree in economics. Military career After graduating from university, Collins was accepted into the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, from where he was commissioned into the Royal Signals as a second lieutenant on a short service commission on 2 October 1981. He was promoted to lieutenant with seniority from 7 April 1982. He transferred to the Royal Irish Rangers on 18 October 1982. He switched to a full commission on 22 October 1984, and was promoted captain on 7 October 1985. He was promoted major on 30 September 1992, and lieutenant-colonel on 30 June 1999. Collins was appointed commanding officer of the 1st Battalion, Royal Irish Regiment in 2001. For a tour of duty in Northern Ireland between October 2001 and March 2002, he was awarded the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service on 29 October 2002. It was in the capacity of 1 R Irish's commanding officer that he rose to prominence while serving in Iraq. On 31 October 2003 he was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire, for his service in Iraq and was invested on 7 April 2004. Collins was promoted to colonel and moved to the General Staff on 30 June 2003. He set up the Peace Support College in Sarajevo before becoming DACOS Training at HQ Land Command until his retirement. Eve-of-battle speech As Lieutenant Colonel (Commanding Officer) of the 1st Battalion, Royal Irish Regiment of the British Army, Collins gave a rousing eve-of-battle speech to his troops in Kuwait on Wednesday 19 March 2003. The speech was extemporised, and was recorded in shorthand by a single journalist, Sarah Oliver. No recording or film of the speech exists, Collins told the BBC. Speech excerpt In popular culture The "Mark of Cain" line from the speech inspired the title of the 2007 Film4 Productions drama The Mark of Cain. In the film a commanding officer makes a speech based on Collins' to his men. The last episode of the 2008 television series 10 Days to War features a version of the speech performed by Kenneth Branagh as Collins. Accusations of human rights violations in Iraq After serving in the Iraq War he was accused by members of the American military of mistreatment of Iraqi civilians and prisoners of war. He sued the Sunday Mirror newspapers at the High Court in Belfast, for reporting the accusations and won substantial undisclosed libel damages from them. His solicitor, Ernie Telford of McCartan Turkington Breen stated, "They have caused immense distress to my client, his wife and children." Post-military career He officially left the British Army on 5 August 2004. Media appearances Since leaving the Army, Collins' views on the Iraq conflict and other military issues have been widely sought. In 2007, Collins was host of a three-part documentary called "Ships That Changed the World" for BBC Northern Ireland. In December 2008 – during an interview on the BBC's Today programme, Collins said that, when he left in 2004, the British Army was already undermanned for existing commitments. In February 2011 Tim Collins appeared on the BBC news programme Panorama in a special entitled 'Forgotten Heroes'. In the documentary, Collins meets veterans struggling to cope with civilian life and sleeps rough on the streets of Brighton with another former soldier. Politics Collins has been approached by both the Conservative Party and the Ulster Unionist Party to run for Parliament, though has not made any commitment to either party. During the 2005 Ulster Unionist leadership election he was cited by a number of prominent Ulster Unionists as an outside figure who would make a good leader, but Collins declined as he felt he had "no experience of politics." Collins is a signatory of the founding statement of principles of the Henry Jackson Society, which advocates a pro-active approach to the spread of liberal democracy through the world. He has recently been critical of the Iraq war: "the UK and US pour blood and treasure into overseas campaigns which seem to have no ending and no goal ... Clearly I was naive". In December 2011, it was revealed that Collins was approached to stand as an elected police commissioner for the Conservatives in Kent and originally was standing, however he later dropped out of the race. In August 2014, Collins was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue. Business career Collins is the Chairman of specialist security company, Pinpoint Corporate Services. Works References External links 1960 births Living people Royal Corps of Signals officers Special Air Service officers Royal Irish Rangers officers Royal Irish Regiment (1992) officers Military personnel from Belfast Officers of the Order of the British Empire Recipients of the Commendation for Valuable Service Alumni of Queen's University Belfast British Army personnel of the Iraq War People educated at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution Conservative Party (UK) politicians British military personnel of The Troubles (Northern Ireland)
705783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20ribbon	Black ribbon	A black ribbon is a symbol of remembrance or mourning. Sign of mourning Similar to a black armband, the black ribbon is a public display of grief. Individuals or organizations display the ribbon in commemoration of victims after specific incidents. Some examples have included: In Spain, the ribbon is a sign of mourning for those killed in the terrorist attack - a van driving through a pedestrian street (August 17, 2017) In Malaysia, the ribbon is for those killed in the fly Boeing KLM/Malaysia Airlines (July 18, 2014) In the United States, this ribbon is a sign of mourning for those killed in the 9/11 terrorist attacks. In New Zealand, a black ribbon was worn by family members after the deaths of 29 trapped miners in the Pike River Mine disaster on November 26, 2010, used as a symbol of mourning and grief after 185 people tragically lost their lives on February 22, 2011 in the February 2011 Christchurch earthquake and the deaths of 2 people after the 2016 Kaikoura earthquake on 14 November 2016. In Poland, a black ribbon was worn mourning the Polish president Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and 94 other people who died aboard the plane in the Smolensk air disaster on April 10, 2010. Black ribbons were worn and placed on doors after the May 1992 Westray Mine Disaster in Pictou County, Nova Scotia, Canada. The ribbon was worn in the United Kingdom after the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. The black ribbon again made an appearance shortly after category 3 Hurricane Katrina landed along the Gulf Coast of the United States in August 2005. The black ribbon was a symbol of popular grief in Spain after the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks. It was worn on clothing and also pinned on the Spanish flag. Google displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect and sympathy for victims of 9/11, the 7 July 2005 London bombing, victims of Hurricane Katrina, victims of flight MH17, victims of the Charlie Hebdo shooting, for the death of Lee Kuan Yew, for victims of the November 2015 Paris attacks, for the victims of the mass shooting in Orlando in June 2016, for the victims of the charter flight crash in Colombia in November 2016, for the victims of the February 14th Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting. They also displayed the black ribbon in recognition of the Manchester Arena bombing. The black ribbon was also displayed in recognition of the terrorist attacks at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand on March 15, 2019, as well as the El Paso, Texas and Dayton, Ohio shootings, both on the same day of August 4, 2019. After the April 2007 Virginia Tech shooting at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia. After the earthquake on August 15, 2007 in Peru, black ribbons were the icons of all Peruvian television channels for 3 days. After the death of Heath Ledger in January 2008, Warner Brothers placed a black ribbon on their marketing website for The Dark Knight in his memory. The black ribbon was used in remembrance to "Dimebag" Darrell Abbott of Pantera fame. It was modified to include a silhouette of Dimebag and his name and years of birth and death and used as a patch and sticker for the first annual Ride For Dime in honor of his music and life after being fatally shot on stage with his band Damageplan. The black ribbon has been also used by the journalists in the Philippines to condemn the killings of journalists on the Maguindanao massacre. In Northern Ireland, Bloody Sunday 1972 – to remember the murders and attempted murders of civilians at the peak of The Troubles. Police officers often wear black ribbons in mourning of fallen officers. July 20, 2012: The 12 people killed, out of the 71 shot, at the midnight premiere of The Dark Knight Rises in Aurora, Colorado. December 14, 2012: The Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting; 28 killed (20 children and 7 school personnel, including the perpetrator, Adam Lanza, who later committed suicide) at an elementary school in Newtown, Connecticut. In the United States to remember construction workers who died after being hit by motorists. Turks use the black ribbon to mourn for the casualties of Turkish soldiers in the Kurdish–Turkish conflict. The 2013 London Marathon runners were given a black ribbon to wear to mark the Boston Marathon bombing. Giant-Shimano cycling team wore a black ribbon, and Belkin Pro Cycling Team wore a black armband on 18-July in the 2014 Tour de France and Google displayed a black ribbon on the homepage after flight MH17's crash. In recognition of the 43 Ayotzinapa students involved in the Iguala kidnappings on September 26, 2014. January 7, 2015, for both attacks on the offices of Charlie Hebdo in Paris when 12 journalists and two police officers were killed, and in the greater Paris where a municipal police officer was shot. January 9, 2015, for the attack on a shop in the 12th arrondissement of Paris where four hostages were killed. January 19–20, 1990, Soviet Army invaded Baku, Azerbaijan. According to official estimates, 137 Azerbaijani civilians were killed. Black January in Azerbaijan January 25–30, 2015, used by the Philippine National Police to mourn the SAF 44 who were killed in Mamasapano. February 25–26, 1992, by Armenian armed forces and Soviet/Russian 366th Rifle Regiment in town Khojaly was the killing 161 ethnic Azerbaijani civilians. Khojaly Massacre March 23–29, 2015, used by Singapore, to mark the passing of former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew July 29, 2015, Google displayed a black ribbon on the homepage of Google India in memory of Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam. In August 2015, most of the Burmese civil doctors started the black ribbon campaign to say "No" for militarily overwhelming in health administration. August 22, 2015, Black ribbon worn by some military personnel, including cadet organisations throughout the United Kingdom in remembrance of the 2015 Shoreham Airshow crash October 2, 2015, Google displayed a Black Ribbon with the alt text "Our hearts are with the families and community of Roseburg, Oregon". There was a college shooting there, on the previous day. (External news article) November 13–17, 2015, Google displayed a Black Ribbon on the home page of all Google sites after the November 2015 Paris attacks in Paris, France. November 14, 2015, Apple Inc. displayed a Black Ribbon on home page of their France site after the November 2015 Paris attacks November 2015, At the Colectiv Club in Romania, a fire killed 55 people and about 150 people being hospitalized with bad injuries. December 3, 2015, Google displayed a Black Ribbon with the alt text "Our hearts are with the families and community of San Bernardino". On the previous day, December 2, a mass shooting occurred in San Bernardino, California at the Inland Regional Center during a holiday event, where a couple opened fire on party-goers, killing 14 and wounding 22. The perpetrators, Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik, fled in an SUV, but were later killed during a shootout with police that also left two officers wounded. March 23–25, 2016, Google displayed a Black Ribbon on the home page of all Google sites after the Brussels bombings. June 11, 2016, YouTube displayed a Black Ribbon next to the YouTube logo after American Singer Christina Grimmie was shot and killed after one of her concerts. This black ribbon would later be used for the LGBT nightclub shooting the next day. June 12, 2016, Google displayed a Black Ribbon with the alt text "Our hearts are with the victims, their families, and the community of Orlando". They displayed this after a mass shooting that occurred at Pulse an LGBT nightclub in Orlando, Florida. It was the deadliest mass shooting on American soil with 49 dead, before being overtaken by the 2017 Las Vegas shooting with 58 dead. It was deemed a hate crime. July 3, 2016, Google displayed a black ribbon with the alt text "In remembrance of the Karrada bombing victims". They displayed this after 2016 Baghdad bombing that occurred at an Al Lith upmarket in Karrada, Baghdad, Iraq. It occurred two days before Eid al-Fitr. It was deemed as a hate crime and terrorist act linked to ISIS. December 20, 2016, Google and YouTube displayed a black ribbon with the alt text: "Our thoughts are with the victims in Berlin and their families." They displayed this after the truck attack that occurred at Breitscheidplatz in Berlin, Germany. January 30, 2017, Google Canada displayed a black ribbon with the alt text "Our hearts are with the people of Quebec City." In French "Nos coeurs sont avec les personnes touchées à Québec." This was displayed after the mass shooting at a mosque in Quebec City that left six people dead and eight injured. April 7, 2017, Google Sweden displayed a black ribbon with the alt text "Our thoughts are with Stockholm, the victims and their loved ones" in Swedish "Våra tankar är med Stockholm, offren och deras närstående". The ribbon was displayed after the truck attack that occurred in Drottninggatan, which left five people dead and seven injured. YouTube also displayed a black ribbon next to the YouTube logo. April 9, 2017, Google Arabic displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect and sympathy for victims of 2017 Palm Sunday church bombings in Tanta and Alexandria, Egypt. May 23, 2017, Google UK homepage displayed a black ribbon with the alt text "Our thoughts are with the victims of the Manchester attack", and YouTube displayed it next to the home button, in reference to the Manchester Arena bombing in Manchester, United Kingdom, in which 22 victims lost their life and a further 120 were injured while attending an Ariana Grande concert. June 18, 2017, Google Portugal displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect and sympathy for the victims of the 2017 Portugal wildfires. September 11, 2017, Google displayed a black ribbon with the alt text "Remembering September 11th" in reference to the September 11 attacks on the WTC in 2001. October 2, 2017, Google displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect and acknowledgement for the victims of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting in Las Vegas, Nevada, the deadliest mass shooting in United States history in which 58 people died. The highlighted text read alt text "Our hearts are with the victims, their families, and the community of Las Vegas." November 25, 2017, Google displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect for the victims of the 2017 Sinai mosque attack. February 15, 2018, Google displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect for the victims, families, and the community of Parkland, Florida after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting that happened a day earlier resulting in 17 dead with the alt text "Our hearts are with the victims, their families, and the community of Parkland." April 23, 2018, Google displayed a black ribbon in support of the victims, families, and city of Toronto after 10 people were run over by a van along the sidewalk. Several others were injured. October 29, 2018, Google displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect for the victims, families, and the community of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania after the shooting at the Tree of Life - Or L'Simcha Congregation that happened a day earlier with the alt text "Our hearts are with the victims, their families, and the community of Pittsburgh." November 8, 2018, Google displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect for the victims of the Thousand Oaks shooting in Thousand Oaks, California with the alt text "Our hearts are with the victims, their families, and the community of Thousand Oaks, CA." February 14, 2019: The black ribbon has been used as a mark of solidarity for the soldiers martyred in the terrorist attacks at Pulwama, India. March 15, 2019: Google displayed a black ribbon as a mark of respect for the 51 victims of terrorist attacks at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand described as "One of New Zealand's darkest days" by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern. April 23, 2019: Google Sri Lanka homepage displayed a black ribbon as a sign of sympathy, respect and mourning for the 253 people or victims killed in suicide bombings or terrorist attacks on multiple or several churches and hotels around Sri Lanka on Easter Sunday, 2019 (April 21, 2019). August 4, 2019: Google displayed of black ribbon as a sign of sympathy for those killed at the mass shootings at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas and a bar in Dayton, Ohio. September 1, 2019: Before the start of the Formula One Johnnie Walker Belgian Grand Prix, all 20 F1 drivers wore black ribbons in memory of late Formula 2 BWT Arden driver Anthoine Hubert, who died during the F2 Belgian round feature race. His friend, Ferrari's Charles Leclerc, dedicated his win to Hubert. September 11, 2019: Google displayed a black ribbon pinned on the US flag with the alt text "Remembering September 11th" in reference to the September 11 attacks on the WTC in 2001. December 9, 2019: Google displayed a black ribbon as a sign of sympathy and respect for those who died in Samoa, particularly young children, due to the measles outbreak, as the death toll slightly increases each day. 70+ fatalities confirmed. March 2020: A black ribbon was placed on the flag of Spain representing lives lost resulting from the Covid-19 pandemic. April 18, 2020: Google displayed a black ribbon on their home page in response to the deaths arising from the spree killing in Nova Scotia, Canada. May 31, 2020: Google displayed a black ribbon on their home page with the alt text "We stand in support of racial equality, and all those who search for it." This was in response to the murder of George Floyd who died while being detained by police in Minnesota. October 16, 2020: Google displayed a black ribbon on their home page in reference to the Murder of Samuel Paty, a French teacher who was beheaded by an Islamic terrorist for showing Muhammed cartoons in his History class. However Google didn't endorse it and there is no alt text at all, and no clickable search neither (usually every Doodle has a search button) and image name is just black ribbon. This is why anyone can interpret the black ribbon on its own, Month for preventing Tobacco linked diseases, month of mourning (All Saints' Day), etc. November 3, 2020: Google Austria displayed a black ribbon for the victims of a (maybe terroristic) shooting attack in Vienna. April 9, 2021: A black ribbon was displayed on the Google home page honoring the death of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. May 30, 2021: A black ribbon was displayed on the Google home page in Canada, mourning the 215 dead children discovered under a residential school in Kamloops, British Columbia. September 11, 2021: A black ribbon was displayed on the flag of America in the Google home page for the 20th anniversary of the September 11 Attacks. Other meanings Melanoma awareness, to bring awareness to melanoma and worn by people who know someone or are themselves affected by melanoma. Sometimes shown as black with white polka dots. In Argentina, a black ribbon, sometimes with the national flag's colours in both ends, is used to raise awareness about the victims of subversive terrorism. By the Anarchist Black Ribbon Campaign, a free speech campaign started in 1996 inspired by the Blue Ribbon Online Free Speech Campaign. During the 6th International Israeli Apartheid Week (IAW) the black ribbon was worn worldwide to show support and promote awareness of the Palestinian struggle. In India, 2011 to show support to Anna Hazare who was fasting to fight against corruption by government. In India, 2019 to show grief for 40 soldiers died in Pulwama attack by Pakistan on 14 February 2019 Narcolepsy awareness, to bring awareness to narcolepsy worn by anybody who supports Narcolepsy awareness. Worn by people who have suffered from any intentions of self harming on November 30 of every year. The purpose of the Black Ribbon in New Zealand campaign (November 25) is to remove discrimination from violence prevention awareness, and establish equal representation for all regardless of sex/gender, marital status, religious belief, ethical belief, colour, race, ethnic or national origins, disability, age, political opinion, employment status, family status, and sexual orientation. Australia is using the Black Ribbon as awareness for domestic abuse against men and fathers and their children. It can also be used to support all other forms of abuse whereas the white ribbon mainly relates to domestic abuse against women. This has to come to be because there is no support system in place for and men or fathers with/without their children to be safe. This organisation also hopes to help fathers with custody hearings towards where their children will end up, because a lot of the time women will win custody. In fiction In the Discworld novels by Terry Pratchett, the black ribbon is instead worn by vampires to prove, in the vein of the real-world blue ribbon badge, that they have sworn never to drink blood again. Variations See also Black Ribbon Day Half-mast References External links The TortureProtest.org Black Ribbon Campaign Awareness ribbon Ribbon, black Grief
712968	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Warriors	New Warriors	The New Warriors is a fictional superhero team appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. They traditionally consisted of teenage and young adult heroes, and were often seen to serve as a junior counterpart to The Avengers in much the same way that the New Mutants/X-Force did with the X-Men. They first appeared in The Mighty Thor #411 (December 1989) as a cameo appearance but made their full debut in The Mighty Thor #412. Over the years the New Warriors, in their various incarnations, have been featured in five different volumes. The original New Warriors was created by editor Tom DeFalco who brought together existing Marvel comic book characters Firestar, Marvel Boy, Namorita, Nova and Speedball and added in the newly created Night Thrasher to form a team of young super heroes known as "The New Warriors". Through the 75 issue comic series the team fought a number of adversaries, including the second Sphinx, the Folding Circle and even the Fantastic Four. Over time the team was joined by Silhouette, Rage, Hindsight Lad, Bandit, Timeslip, Dagger, Darkhawk, Powerpax, Turbo and the Scarlet Spider. The second volume of New Warriors was published in 1999–2000 and ran for 11 issues before being cancelled. This team consisted of Namorita, Nova, Speedball and Turbo, joined by new members Bolt and Aegis. The third volume of the New Warriors was a six-issue mini series that sees the super hero team cast as the stars of their own reality TV show, Night Thrasher, Nova and Speedball were joined by Microbe and Debrii. The New Warriors are at the center of a televised fight against a number of super villains in Stamford, Connecticut where Nitro explodes, killing 612 people including several members of the New Warriors. The incident was one of the sparks that led to Marvel's Civil War crossover in 2006 and 2007. The fourth New Warriors series saw Night Thrasher gather a group of former mutants and replacing their lost super powers with technology. The comic book was published from 2007 to 2009 and lasted for 20 issues in total. During the story it is revealed that Night Thrasher is the original Night Thrasher's brother, formerly known as Bandit, who wants to travel back in time and change the events at Stamford that killed his brother. When they try to travel back in time the team ends up in a dystopic future where the original Night Thrasher is a ruthless dictator. When the New Warriors returned to their own time they disbanded. The fifth New Warriors series was launched as part of the All-New Marvel NOW! initiative in 2014. The book lasted for 12 issues before being cancelled. The story saw original New Warriors members Justice (formerly Marvel Boy), Speedball, and Silhouette return to team up with the new Nova, Scarlet Spider, Hummingbird, Sun Girl, Haechi and Water Snake. General publication history The New Warriors first appeared in issues 411 and 412 of the Marvel Comics title The Mighty Thor. The team was compiled by writer/editor Tom DeFalco, consisting of the young superheroes Firestar, Marvel Boy, Namorita, Nova and Speedball, all of whom were once featured in solo series or were supporting characters in more established series. To this mix DeFalco added Night Thrasher, an original character to serve as the team's founder and leader. The New Warriors were not sidekicks, as some prior teen superhero teams had been. The New Warriors were featured in an eponymous series from 1990 until 1996, written by Fabian Nicieza with art by Mark Bagley. Nicieza wrote the series for the first 53 issues. The series lasted for 75 issues and four annuals, spinning off a number of titles, including mini-series featuring Night Thrasher and Marvel Boy (by then renamed Justice) and ongoing series with Nova and Night Thrasher. A short-lived revival was launched in 1999, lasting for ten issues, and a mini-series followed in 2005. In the mini-series, the New Warriors agreed to star in a reality television show to fund their team. A fourth series was launched in June 2007, spinning off of events in the Civil War crossover. A new ongoing series started in February 2014, where a new team of New Warriors was brought together by the threat of the High Evolutionary who intended to eliminate the super-powered population of Earth. The New Warriors (vol. 1) Fictional team history Dwayne Taylor, the vigilante known as Night Thrasher meticulously researches a group of young heroes to help him wage a war on crime. They are Vance Astrovik aka Marvel Boy, Angelica Jones aka Firestar and Richard Rider, who at that time believed he had been depowered after quitting the Nova Corps. During their first battle with Terrax, a former herald of Galactus, they are joined by Robbie Baldwin aka Speedball and Namorita. They defeat Terrax, but the Avengers unintentionally end up taking the credit. The team decides to stay together and Speedball dubs them the New Warriors after a news report he had seen on the battle. The newly created team gets involved in a fight between Thor and Juggernaut, helping Thor to send the Juggernaut to another dimension. In the team's second issue Night Thrasher's past comes back to haunt him as the brother and sister team of Midnight's Fire and Silhouette is introduced. Next, the corporation Genetech hires the Mad Thinker to gather information on the New Warriors in order to create their own superhumans, resulting in their battle with Genetech's team of superhumans, Psionex. The Warriors travel to stop a superhuman named Star Thief that is destroying space launches, with Firestar, Marvel Boy and Namorita ending up on the Moon with the Inhumans. The Team minus Night Thrasher travels to Brazil to rescue Speedball's mother from an environmental terrorist group and battle the Force of Nature. Night Thrasher stays behind to patch things up with Silhouette and confronts the Punisher. Upon the Warriors return to New York, their headquarters (the Ambrose building) is trashed in a battle with the Hellions for the claim of Firestar. "Forever Yesterday" Their next adventure involves the transforming of the world into an alternate one at the whim of Meryet Karim, the second Sphinx as seen in the Forever Yesterday storyline. This alternate world involved Egypt becoming a super-power and the formation of the United States of Assyria where that reality's Avengers served as Meryet's government task force. This is undone by the New Warriors Nova, Marvel Man (Marvel Boy's alternate counterpart), Firestar, and Dwayne Taylor (who is not Night Thrasher in this reality). Folding Circle The New Warriors, together with a few Psionex members, the Fantastic Four, and the Silver Surfer, fight a revitalized Terrax sometime after. Around this time, Silhouette joins, and the New Warriors meet Avenger Rage and solo hero Darkhawk. The Left Hand has also begun collecting random superpowered individuals for a team he names the Folding Circle, one member being Silhouette's brother Midnight's Fire. The Warriors also fought the Fantastic Four when Marvel Boy, who was under the Puppet Master's control, kidnapped the Puppet Master's daughter Alicia Masters. The Puppet Master knew something was wrong with her. It was later revealed that a Skrull, Lyja had been impersonating Alicia. Night Thrasher discovers his company, the Taylor Foundation, is involved in illegal dealings and sets out to find the truth. In the process, he discovers that his legal guardian, Andrew Chord, has been betraying him for an unidentified period of time. The team confronts the mutant immortal Gideon concerning his involvement and he handily defeats and tortures them before giving them the information they seek. Shortly thereafter, the team comes to a moral crossroads in a mission involving cocaine traffickers, and Thrasher leaves the team. Night Thrasher then comes into contact with the Folding Circle. Returning home after the confrontation with Gideon, Marvel Boy accidentally kills his father when his father attacks him (as he has done in the past). Marvel Boy is arrested and found guilty of negligent homicide, while Firestar reveals her love for him. With previously unrevealed abilities, Tai (Thrasher's surrogate mother) confronts and seemingly kills Silhouette. Silhouette survives and assembles the remaining New Warriors. They learn from Chord of a mystical plot to take control of the world in Cambodia, and they recruit Rage and Darkhawk to help them. The Folding Circle also travels to Cambodia. The New Warriors (with later help of the Folding Circle) fight Tai, who reveals her plans for world domination. Tai is defeated and sacrificed in a mystical well along with the Left Hand. In the end, Thrasher rejoins the Warriors. After the adventure Rage is kicked out of the Avengers and Speedball invites him to join the New Warriors. Meanwhile, just having been convicted of his father's murder, Marvel Boy is being escorted to the Vault via a Guardsman-guarded prison van. Namorita, Nova, and Firestar try to free him from the van, but he refuses, determined to serve his sentence. Firestar and Marvel Boy share one last moment and declare their love for one another. Namorita as leader Night Thrasher leaves the team to put the Taylor Foundation in order, and Namorita assumes leadership. The team meet Turbo (Michiko "Mickey" Musashi), and get involved in the civil war in the country Trans-Sabal. Although they eventually retreat, the actions of the Warriors (most notably Namorita) have not helped the country. Meanwhile, Silhouette has gone missing and Speedball's parents split up. Speedball moves to New York with his mother to be closer to the New Warriors. The team faces the new villain Darkling and meet Cloak and Dagger and a second Turbo (Michael Jeffries). Marvel Boy adapts to prison life and becomes good friends with the guards, most notably the man who would become Hybrid. Marvel Boy helps find a compromise between the inmates and the Vault staff, quelling an inmate uprising. Meanwhile, Carlton LaFroyge (Hindsight Lad), Speedball's new neighbor, blackmails him into giving him Warriors membership after Carlton discovers Speedball's secret identity. Some time afterward, Namorita has a one-night stand with Kimeiko Ashu, a former adversary of Night Thrasher (unknown to her at that time). Ashu steals Namorita's address book, discovers the secret identities of the Warriors and kidnaps their families. Rage's grandmother, the last member of his family, accidentally dies. In retaliation, Rage kills Ashu. Night Thrasher justifies Rage's actions in court and the judge rules in Rage's favor and he is released into Chord's custody. Namorita leaves the team, feeling guilty. Nova is attacked by Garthan Saal, a Nova centurion, and after a conflict between the Warriors, Saal, Firelord, Air-Walker, and a power-mad Nova, Xandar is restored. Nova is promoted to the rank of Centurion Prime and allowed to return to Earth to continue his activities as a superhero. Meanwhile, Namorita faces trouble in Atlantis, and is captured. Her body is undergoing a cellular change, as a result of her being a clone, into a blue-skinned Atlantean. After a conversation with Namor, she renames herself Kymaera and decides to rejoin the New Warriors. Later, Marvel Boy is released on parole, but after anti-mutant attacks on his mother, decides not to rejoin the New Warriors, instead joining Shinobi Shaw and the Upstarts (as planned by him and Thrasher) and renaming himself Justice. "Child's Play" Soon after, the "Child's Play" arc begins, with the Upstarts going on what is called the Younghunt, a mission to capture all of the surviving New Mutants (who are by then called X-Force) and Hellions. This competition brings the Upstarts into conflict with the Warriors (Firestar is a former Hellion) and X-Force. The Upstarts capture most of their targets, but Paige Guthrie convinces the Gamesmaster to play another game: instead of killing mutants, the Upstarts should try to find and train young mutants like her. The Gamesmaster is intrigued and cancels the competition. "Time And Time Again" Shortly thereafter, the original Sphinx returns, stealing a portion of the power held by Meryet Karim. New Warriors had earlier encountered her in New Warriors #10–13. Anath-Na Mut plans his revenge against the Warriors, transporting away its eight active members (Firestar, Justice, Kymaera, Night Thrasher, Nova, Rage, Silhouette and Speedball) to different places in the time-stream. In response, Hindsight Lad and Bandit gather a new team of Warriors (Dagger, Darkhawk, Powerpax and Turbo) to go and rescue the others with the aid of Meryet. They succeed and the two teams of Warriors combat the Sphinx together, who surrenders after learning of his own true nature and finally accepts Meryet's ages-old offer of love. They merge into one composite being and depart into the time-stream to begin their life together anew. In New Warriors #51 the team is restructured as the Mad Thinker again advises the team, especially on the difficulties of growing up as individuals as a team. The main team is made up of the six original founders (Firestar, Justice, Kymaera, Night Thrasher, Nova, and Speedball). Rage. Hindsight Lad, Dagger and Alex Power become reserve members. Bandit and Silhouette leave the team. Later, they face the Psionex team again and travel to the country of Zaire, where the team is captured by the Soldiers of Misfortune. At the end of the battle Kymeara is brainwashed and teleports away along with the villains. Night Thrasher and Rage leave the team after a falling out over their absence on the team's previous mission, and the team also fights an enraged Namor, who eventually decides to help the team in their search for Kymeara. The Warriors help out with a UN peace conference, assisted by Sabra. Nova loses his powers and Turbo and Alex Power become full members while Hindsight Lad becomes simply Hindsight. Night Thrasher and Rage decide to train Psionex. Next, the team involves themselves into "Maximum Clonage", fighting and capturing Helix. The Scarlet Spider joins the team afterwards. The team faces Psionex again, now led by former Warrior Night Thrasher, and also deal with a young girl, Rina Patel, who has seen a vision of the future in which Speedball dies. Speedball has had trouble controlling his powers. They are almost able to retrieve Kymaera from the Soldiers of Misfortune, but fail. The team next deal with an impostor Scarlet Spider after the real Scarlet Spider replaces Spider-Man. "Future Shock" Eventually, the team comes into contact with the Guardians of the Galaxy, who are searching for Speedball, calling him a time anomaly, before they disappear again. The original Sphinx returns, citing the same reasons, and kills Speedball. Another player, Advent, comes into play, killing all of the Warriors but Timeslip. Advent is a time-traveler, trying to alter time so that the future will be molded to his own wish. His son, Darrion Grobe seeks to stop him, and creates a duplicate of Speedball's body from when he was trapped in the kinetic dimension during "Time And Time Again", so that he can travel to the first alteration point, leaving the actual Speedball in the kinetic dimension, meaning that Darrion Grobe replaced Speedball from New Warriors (vol. 1) #50 and onwards. Instead of dying, the New Warriors are transported to the year 2092, where they have seven minutes to save themselves before reality is unmade and stop Advent. Meanwhile, the Sphinx takes care of Advent in 1996, thereby stopping Advent in 2092 as well. The New Warriors are led into the kinetic dimension by a hologram of Darrion Grobe, and with the help of Timeslip and the real Speedball, are able to return to their proper time. Volume's end Later, a rogue faction of HYDRA reveals that it has been living in the team's basement even before the team moved in, but they are stopped by the combined actions of the Warriors and the Avengers. Helix and Turbo (Michiko) both decide to leave, but Turbo is confronted by a man called Dan Jones, who has come to reclaim the Torpedo suit the Turbos wear. Dan Jones is in fact the last Dire Wraith Volx, an enemy the Warriors fought against before and who killed the other Turbo (Mike). Volx claims the suit and kidnaps Friday (the Kymellian spaceship which is not only an ally of Power Pack, but also of the Warriors). With the help of the Thinker, Night Thrasher and Rage rescue Namorita from the Soldiers of Misfortune, while the Warriors join forces with Garthan Saal to stop Volx, almost leading to the death of Friday. During the adventure, Firestar asks Justice to marry her, to which he happily agrees. Night Thrasher, Rage, and Namorita join their former teammates, thanks to the Thinker. Garthan Saal sacrifices himself against Volx, transferring his powers to Nova. Eventually, the reunited New Warriors defeat Volx, at the cost of Timeslip's powers. Timeslip sabotages the power neutralizer Volx meant to use to rid every superhuman on Earth of their powers. Turbo decides to use the suit to continue on in Mike's honor, and offers Hindsight the chance to share it with her as Mike did. Alex Power decides to leave the team, believing that Power Pack could've defeated Volx without nearly destroying Friday. Night Thrasher, Namorita, and Rage rejoin the Warriors as old grudges are mended and the team comes full circle. During a mission involving a Badoon invasion sometime later, Ultra Girl and Slapstick help out the Warriors and are made members. The New Warriors (vol. 2) Publication history A short-lived relaunch began in 1999 and ran for 11 issues. It was written by Jay Faerber and pencilled by a variety of artists, including Steve Scott, Karl Kerschl and Jamal Igle. Faerber and Igle would go on to collaborate on several other projects. Original members Namorita, Nova, and Speedball were joined by returning member Turbo and new members Bolt and Aegis. The last was an all-new character, reminiscent of Night Thrasher. A promotional issue #0 was given away with Wizard Magazine. Fictional team history Speedball tries to assemble a new team after they disbanded (between the first and second volume), but initially fails. Namorita and Nova arrive to cheer him up when they are called in to fight Blastaar, and they are quickly aided by Bolt, Firestar, Justice, Turbo, and new hero Aegis. Although Justice and Firestar decline to rejoin the team, the other heroes agree to reform the New Warriors. Shortly thereafter, they fight the Eugenix group, who try to kill Namorita for being a clone. They next involve themselves in a gang war, at the behest of Aegis. This leads to their headquarters being destroyed and the team being ambushed by Heavy Mettle. This group of villains had been hired by Joe Silvermane, the former Blackwing. They move into a new headquarters, a firehouse supplied by a firefighter named Dalton Beck (who is actually the villain Firestrike) as a ploy by Silvermane so that he can attain Turbo's suit. They also team up with Generation X to stop the new villain Biohazard. After an adventure in the subway, Turbo decides to trust Dalton with her secret identity, and Firestrike hesitates, but eventually decides to not kill Turbo. She uncovers his identity as Firestrike accidentally, but he surrenders and assists the Warriors in apprehending Silvermane. However, the two lovers are forced to split up as Beck enters the Federal Witness Protection Program. In Seattle, Night Thrasher and Iron Fist fight The Hand, which is able to kidnap Iron Fist. Night Thrasher calls in the Warriors to help him. They are able to find Iron Fist and their opponent Junzo Muto, but the ritual of stealing Iron Fist's powers has already been completed. Junzo initially defeats them thanks to their lack of teamwork, but finds his match in Night Thrasher. Fatigue strikes however, and the Warriors are forced to retreat. They next face the rogue sentient Iron Man armor and are promptly defeated, before it sacrifices its existence to save Tony Stark from dying. In the last issue of the series (New Warriors vol. 2, #10) the team (minus Nova and Speedball) travels to Olympus, brought there by Hercules, and meets Zeus. Aegis is accused of stealing his magical breastplate by Hercules, but it was in fact a gift from Athena. During the following battle with Hercules, Aegis proves his worth and he is accepted by both Hercules and Zeus. Bolt also decides to reveal that he is sick with the Legacy Virus to the team. In the last pages, Night Thrasher, seeing the good the Warriors having been doing lately, decides to return to the team. He is happily accepted. The New Warriors (vol. 3) Publication history A six issue mini-series of the title was released starting in June 2005, written by Zeb Wells and illustrated by Skottie Young. It features the team as the stars of a reality TV show. The line-up includes previous members Namorita, Night Thrasher, Nova and Speedball, along with one new character, Microbe. A second new character, Debrii, joins in issue 4. A trade paperback collection of all six issues was released in January 2006. Fictional team history Civil War The New Warriors, including Microbe, Namorita, Night Thrasher and Speedball (Nova had gone into space to play a part in Marvel's Annihilation storyline), take part in a televised fight with a group of supervillains. During the fight, one of the supervillains, Nitro, explodes, killing 612 people, including most of the New Warriors. This serves as the start of the Civil War story arc. Throughout the story arc, five former New Warriors (Dagger, Debrii, Justice, Silhouette, and Ultra Girl) join Captain America's Secret Avengers, an underground coalition of anti-registration superheroes. A listing of the Warriors on DestroyAllWarriors.com, a fictional anti-Warriors website created by Hindsight, indicates that all of the Warriors involved in the Stamford incident have been killed. Cameraman John Fernandez is listed as well. The explosion throws Speedball hundreds of miles into Upstate New York. Although he survived the blast, he was depowered due to a kinetic overload. Two unfortunate men who found his body after the blast are accidentally killed when his body releases its stored kinetic energy. Speedball seems to be depowered, and is imprisoned, facing criminal charges for the Stamford disaster. However, he regains his powers, which are now activated whenever he experiences pain. Feeling guilty for his role in the deaths of so many people, Speedball takes on the new identity of Penance and joins the government-funded Thunderbolts. Firestar decides to retire from the superhero business altogether, although she later appears as a member of Young Allies Former New Warrior Aegis appears in X-Factor #9, escaping from S.H.I.E.L.D.'s Superhuman Restraint Unit with the help of Jamie Madrox. He later dies after jumping out a window expecting his armor to protect him. Justice, Silhouette, Debrii, Rage, Timeslip, Zero-G and Aegis all appear on the cover of Avengers: The Initiative #1 as a part of the 142 registered superheroes. Justice has a prominent role in this series as trainer to the recruits. Turbo is a member of the Loners and a student at the Avengers Academy. Darkhawk has his amulet ripped off at Murderworld and Bolt dies at the hands of his former mentor Agent Zero. New Warriors (vol. 4) Publication history In vol. 4, #2 of New Warriors, Night Thrasher tries to talk the depowered Sofia Mategna into joining the team. She refuses him and the rest of the team is seen in the shadows watching the exchange. In the next issue the team is revealed, though not all of their identities. The team is shown to be: Blackwing (Barnell Bohusk) – Bohusk is the depowered mutant known as Beak. Blackwing wears a suit based on the Vulture's that gives him flight, super strength and the ability to fire energy blasts. Decibel (Jonothon "Jono" Evan Starsmore) – Starsmore is the depowered mutant known as Chamber. Decibel uses the Klaw's device which gives him sonic abilities including flight, the ability to create sound constructs and the ability to fire energy blasts. Longstrike (Christine Cord) – Cord is the depowered mutant known as Tattoo and the sister of Phaser. Longstrike wears a version of Stilt-Man's armor that allows her to extend her limbs and grants her super strength. Night Thrasher (Donyell Taylor) – Taylor is the only member of the team to be a former New Warrior. He appeared in vol. 2 as Bandit. Night Thrasher is a skilled martial artist as well as bio electric mutant. Phaser (Christian Cord) – Cord is the depowered mutant known as Radian and the brother of Longstrike. Phaser wears armor based on the Beetle's that allows him flight and the ability to fire energy blasts. Ripcord (Miranda Leevald) – Leevald is the depowered mutant known as Stacy X. She is also equipped with web shooters, frog springs, and a Slyde suit. Skybolt (Vincent Stewart) – Stewart is the depowered mutant known as Redneck. Skybolt wears a version of Turbo's armor that gives him flight and houses various weapons. Tempest (Angel Salvadore) – Salvadore is the depowered mutant known as Angel. Tempest uses technology that gives her flight as well as fire and ice powers. Wondra (Jubilation Lee) – Lee is the depowered mutant known as Jubilee. Wondra wears the Wizard's technology allowing her to manipulate gravity that grants her flight, super strength and a personal force field Grace and Kaz are also introduced in the third issue. Grace is a teenager who has a natural talent with technology. Kaz builds the weapons that Night Thrasher designs. On their first mission the team goes up against a new Zodiac. Longstrike is killed when she tries to take on this incarnation's version of Cancer. In issue #6, the team reveals each of their identities to the rest of the team. This is the first time Ripcord is clearly identified as Stacy X. Night Thrasher does not reveal his identity to the team, but it is revealed to the readers at the end of the issue. Night Thrasher announces that he is breaking up the team. Sofia comes to their headquarters and joins the team after making an impassioned speech about why they should stay together. She becomes Renascence. Renascence uses six metallic tentacles that can fire energy blasts. She also uses technology that creates a force field around her. Several new characters are introduced during the series' run. They include a team of supervillains named Alphaclan. In issue #10, a third teenager named Aja is introduced as part of the support staff. He is another technological expert, specializing in computers. Later in the series the team is apprehending another new supervillain team, the Dread Dealers, when they are attacked by the New Warriors Task Force, led in part by Detective Bev Sykes. During the battle, Ripcord and Skybolt are apparently killed (Stacy X shows up later with her powers in Vengeance #1). The team finds out that Night Thrasher has been manipulating them all while finding artifacts necessary to make a time machine. His plan is to go back in time to stop the Stamford accident and keep his brother from dying. Instead, the team ends up in a future in which the country is run by Iron Man (who in this reality is a resurrected Dwayne Taylor) and Night Thrasher is Tony Stark. Taylor kills the defenseless Stark simply because he is an "enemy of the state". Donyell ends up having to kill the brother he traveled through time to save. Once the team is back in their own time, they agree to disband. Counter Force Team In the pages of Avengers: The Initiative #6 (January 2008), the team's drill instructor Gauntlet is left battered with 'NW' (the New Warriors tag) sprayed on him. It is revealed that former New Warrior Slapstick attacked Gauntlet out of revenge for the man's comments about his dead friends while drilling the Initiative recruits. Unfortunately, Rage is suspected of the crime. In Avengers: The Initiative #10 (May 2008) Justice forms a team including former New Warriors Debrii, Rage, Slapstick and Ultra Girl. In Avengers: The Initiative #12, Justice's team of New Warriors joins forces with the MVP clone and the surviving Scarlet Spiders as a Counter Force of underground registered heroes intent on monitoring the actions of the Fifty State Initiative. Ultra Girl decides to leave Counter Force to stay with the Initiative, telling Vance that she still believes in the Initiative. The team later partners with Night Thrasher's new team of Warriors to uncover the truth about the Stamford Incident and the original Night Thrasher's death. Following the disbandment of the last team of Warriors, Counter Force has reclaimed the New Warriors name and they have added the new Night Thrasher to their ranks. With Norman Osborn taking control of the Initiative, the New Warriors return to Camp Hammond to reveal the truth of MVP's death, but they find themselves forced to defend the Initiative from the reactivated Thor clone (now called Ragnarok). During the battle, the Warriors suffer another casualty when Ragnarok kills one of the Scarlet Spiders. The new New Warriors now call themselves the Avengers Resistance and are fugitives, being accused of releasing the clone of Thor. They work alongside Gauntlet and Tigra. The Avengers Resistance later help the Initiative team called Heavy Hitters to secede from the program. Later, Night Thrasher is captured and Debrii resigns from the group. After the events of "Siege", the Avengers Resistance becomes obsolete. Justice and Tigra become staff members of Avengers Academy, while Gauntlet returns to the Army. New Warriors (vol. 5) Publication history New Warriors was launched in February 2014 as part of All-New Marvel NOW! with Chris Yost as the writer and Marcus To as the main artist. In this new team, Justice and Speedball are returning Warriors, while Nova (Sam Alexander), Scarlet Spider (Kaine), Hummingbird (Aracely Penalba), Sun Girl (Selah Burke), an Inhuman named Haechi (Mark Sim), and an Atlantean Water Snake (Faira Sar Namora) are among the new members. Later issues added two New Men (Jack Waffles and Mr. Whiskers) as supporting cast and Silhouette as a member. New Warriors Volume 5 ended with issue 12. Fictional team history Having taken the road again after renouncing their teacher jobs at Avengers Academy, Speedball and Justice find themselves in the town of New Salem, Colorado, where they get into a little fight with the Salem's Seven, but quickly patch things up after it is clear it was nothing more than a misunderstanding; their leader, Vertigo, explains later to Justice that the place is a haven for all people "born of magic" with Salem's Seven acting as the town's resident protectors. While the conversation deviates to Justice's and Speedball's intention of reforming the New Warriors and the difficulties that that will probably bring due the team's persisting bad reputation for their involvement in the Civil War events, they notice the teleportation arrival into the town of a trio of enigmatic figures clad in advanced armor. One of these beings declares that "the blood here is tainted" and all must be burned down. In the ensuing fight, these three strange individuals tell Justice of how they once tried to help mutantkind but were instead betrayed by the X-Men. Eventually, Speedball and the rest of the Salem's Seven are drawn into the combat, but that is still not enough to halt the mysterious assailants who declare that Robbie is also "corrupted" – "altered by an other-dimensional energy". The strangers knock out Brutacus, one of the town protectors, to later take a gene sample of him "as requested by their lord". Taking advantage of their enemies' distraction, Justice manages to land a telekinetic blow on the face of the trio's leader and crack his armor, revealing him to be a hairy humanoid. As Vance tries to parley with them, the enigmatic attackers simply continue their proclamations against the town's inhabitants and mutants, arguing there is no point trying to talk as "judgement is coming", to later teleport out of town. Armed with the scant facts they learned of their aggressors, Justice uses his telekinetic powers to propel himself and Speedball to Avengers Tower at a vertiginous velocity. They are met by an empty place with the exception of Edwin Jarvis, the tower's resident butler, who informs them that the Avengers are busy elsewhere and conducts them to the Avengers's database. There they discover a video file made by Cyclops that reveals the identity of the town attackers: the Evolutionaries, a group of pre-homo sapiens that had been transformed in the ancient past by Phastos of the Eternals, who gave them advanced intelligence, armor and power, and assigned them the mission to protect the most advanced human subspecies from the others; at that time, homo sapiens. But left to their own devices, the Evolutionaries had decided that the most advanced subspecies in the present were the mutants and that the best way to protect them was to annihilate the rest of humanity, a situation that the X-Men stopped. While pondering why the Evolutionaries had changed objectives once again, Justice and Speedball hear an alarm and the computer informs them of an emergency taking place on New York's subway system. With none else to attend to it, Justice asks Robbie if he can act as an Avenger for a day, to which Speedball responds that he won't: he will act as a [New] Warrior. They head out and arrive just in time to rescue Mark Sim and Sun Girl, two inexperienced heroes who had tried to stop a second group of Evolutionaries from killing the mutant Morlocks that live in New York's sewer near the subway. As the enemy flees with the arrival of Speedball and Justice, a new problem arises when police arrives to the scene and the officers start to panic at Mark Sim because his appearance coincides with ill-reported accounts of witnesses (and due the general public distress at the new Inhumans popping up from the general population in the aftermath of Thanos's recent invasion of Earth). As a shooting starts, the four heroes escape from there through the air with Justice shielding them from the bullets. As the four recover on the roof of a nearby building, Mark succumbs to his emotions, the incident with the police being the last's straw on a series of awful days since he gained his powers (and the horn on his head). The other three try to reassure him and calm his uncertainty at what the future holds for him. But an argument is bred between Justice and Sun Girl on differing opinions about it, which Robbie tries to broker or stop. To prove her point and to demonstrate Mark's energy absorption abilities, Sun Girl shoots the distressed young man, to the shock of Justice and Speedball. After the situation defuses, they discuss what to do with the Evolutionaries: Justice wants to leave this matter on the hands of the Avengers when they return, but Sun Girl convinces them to take care of it themselves. However, Justice wants to first find Nova, their New Warriors reservist member. Meanwhile, in the sunny beaches of Mazatlan, Mexico, Aracely and Kaine make a stop to look for food supplies after she depleted them with her constant snacking. Seeing that Nova doesn't answer his phone, they head back to the Salem's Seven and through their help and that of New Salem's magical inhabitants, they locate the boy. As it turns out, he along with Hummingbird, Scarlet Spider and Faira Sar Namora of Atlantis, were kidnapped separately by the Evolutionaries and the High Evolutionary, and were held as prisoners in Mount Wundagore. Rushing, they arrive as the Evolutionaries are about to execute Nova, following his and the other prisoners' attempt to break out. Justice tries to reason with the High Evolutionary, but as this one gives a cryptic refusal and Nova reveals his plan of eliminating "mostly everyone", they opt to skip the diplomacy. A chaotic fight ensues, with the prisoners, Sun Girl, Mark and the New Warriors forming an impromptu team that manages to defeat the small army of Evolutionaries through their diverse and very different powers and abilities. However, with his allies defeated, the High Evolutionary accelerates his plan and decides to activate the machine he was working on. Nova tries to stop him, but he is knocked unconscious by an energy blast. The others pursue the High Evolutionary and try to reanimate Nova, who manages to mumble to the team the machine's purpose – killing "people with powers". The machine begins its process, bathing the entire mountain in a pinkish light: everyone on the team is then brought down to the ground as an excruciating sensation of pain torments their bodies and minds. Everyone but Sun Girl, who is a normal non-altered human without special genes, alien ancestry or magic. Noticing this, the High Evolutionary approaches her politely and explains that he didn't intended for the situation to occur in that manner; before the outbreak and the fight, he was trying to use Nova's helmet to allow his machine to work more efficiently and quickly, saving its victims of any lengthy pain as they die. Also, that he took no pleasure on any of these events and, as he had stated before, he would have wanted to act differently but had no time to do so; he had been informed that the Celestials – a group of insanely powerful, impossibly technologically advanced, almost unstoppable aliens who had manipulated life across the universe since billions of years ago for their own mysterious purposes – would come to "judge" Earth very soon. Should the Celestials find the inhabitants of a planet wanting, they would annihilate them and, allegedly, this time they expected Earth to contain only one dominant species: humanity, with no offshoots or deviations of any kind. Thus the reason the High Evolutionary created the machine to kill any mutant, inhuman, hybrid or person of any kind that could displease the Celestials. New Warriors (vol. 6) Marvel Comics announced that on April 15, 2020, a new version of the team shall appear, this time with new characters forming the New Warriors: Screentime, Snowflake, Safespace, B-Negative and Trailblazer. The direction of the new characters – particularly the use of pejorative internet slang in names as well as the perceived political agenda of the writing – was met with considerable backlash from online audiences. As of February 2022 no New Warriors comics have been released and the title has been removed from ComiXology with both Marvel and its creators refusing to comment on the future of the comic or if the series has quietly been canceled. Membership Speedball, Night Thrasher, Namorita, Kid Nova, and Marvel Boy, as the founding members. Enemies Cardinal - A mercenary whose armored suit grants him flight and super-strength. Folding Circle - A group of mutates who can tap into the Universal Wellspring. Left Hand - The leader of the Folding Circle who encompasses dark energy in his left hand. Bloodstrike - A member of the Folding Circle with super-strength. Midnight's Fire - A martial artist member of the Folding Circle with enhanced senses, strength, speed, and agility. Smiling Tiger - A member of the Folding Circle with razor-sharp claws. Force of Nature - An eco-terrorist group. Aqueduct - A water-manipulating villain. Firebrand - A villain who uses fire-based technology. Silk Fever - A pyrokinetic villain. Skybreaker - An aerokinetic Inhuman. Terraformer - A creation of Plantman. Heavy Mettle - A supervillain team established by Joseph Manfredi. Firestrike - The leader of Heavy Mettle whose suit enables him to perform fire attacks. Barracuda - A supervillain whose armor grants her super-strength enables her to survive underwater. Blackwing - A female supervillain whose armor enables her to fly. Riot - A supervillain whose armor enables him to produce super-strong sound-waves enough to knock a human down. Stronghold - A supervillain whose armor grants him super-strength. Warbow - An archery supervillain who uses special arrows for his bow. Nitro - An explosive supervillain. Psionex - A group of artificially-created supervillains created by Harmon Furmintz of Genetech. Asylum - An unnamed mental patient who was imbued with Darkforce energies that converted her body into a psionic mist which caused hallucinations in anyone who touched it. Coronary - A medical student who became a bio-telepath, capable of inducing different bodily states on other people - vomiting, unconsciousness, etc. For some reason, his genetic alterations also gave his body a crystalline composition. Impulse - A violent former gang member who was granted enhanced reflexes and speed. He wielded poisoned barbs on his gauntlets. Mathemanic - A genius mathematician who received the ability to transmit mathematic figures telepathically, which can have various disabling effects. Pretty Persuasions - An exotic dancer who received the ability to amplify the erotic urges of other people, and can manifest a psionic energy whip. Ragnarok - A cyborg clone of Thor. Sea Urchin - An armored mercenary and salvager. Skrull - A race of shapeshifting aliens. Sphinx - An ancient Egyptian magician. Star Thief - A supervillain who can fly and has energy projection abilities. Other versions New Warriors (MC2) In the alternate time line known as MC2, Spider-Girl reforms the New Warriors and fights with them. However, when Spider-Girl makes a truce with supervillains Funny Face and Angel Face, the team shuns her. The new roster includes the Buzz, Darkdevil, Golden Goblin, Raptor and the twin crime fighters sharing the identity of Ladyhawk. The team receives support from Normie Osborn, including unlisted cell phones. Wolfpack (House of M) Within the House of M reality created by the Scarlet Witch, Luke Cage, leader of the Human Resistant Movement, makes treaties among the rival gangs. Among them is one called the Wolfpack, and the majority of its members have been New Warriors in the 616 reality. The gang's roster includes Darkhawk, Lightspeed, Rage, Speedball, Turbo and Zero-G. Collected editions The series have been collected into a number of trade paperbacks: New Warriors (vol. 1): Beginnings (collects The New Warriors (vol. 1) #1–4 and Thor #411–412), September 1992, New Warriors Classic: Volume 1 (collects The New Warriors (vol. 1) #1–6 and Thor #411–412), 208 pages, August 2009, New Warriors Classic: Volume 2 (collects The New Warriors (vol. 1) #7–10, Annual #1; New Mutants Annual (vol.1) #7, Uncanny X-Men Annual #15 and X-Factor Annual (vol.1) #6), 256 pages, May 2009, New Warriors Classic: Volume 3 (collects The New Warriors (vol. 1) #11–19 and Avengers (vol.1) #341–342), October 2011 Spider-Man and New Warriors: Hero Killers (collects New Warriors Annual #2, Amazing Spider-Man Annual #26, Web of Spider-Man Annual #8, The Spectacular Spider-Man Annual #12) New Warriors: Darkness and Light (collects New Warriors (Vol. 1) #27–36, New Warriors Annual #3, Night Thrasher: Four Control #1–4, material from Marvel Holiday Special 1992), 2018, () X-Force: Child's Play (New Warriors #45–46), August 2012 Spider-Man: The Complete Clone Saga Epic Book 4 (New Warriors #61), 2010, Spider-Man: The Complete Clone Saga Epic Book 5 (New Warriors #62–64), 2011, Spider-Man: The Complete Ben Reilly Epic Book 1 (New Warriors #65–66), 2011, Spider-Man: Clone Saga Omnibus Vol. 2 (New Warriors #61–66), 2017, Spider-Man: The Complete Ben Reilly Epic Book 2 (New Warriors #67), 2011 Spider-Man: Ben Reilly Omnibus Vol. 1 (New Warriors #67), 2019, () New Warriors Omnibus Vol. 1 (collects New Warriors (vol. 1) #1–26, New Warriors Annual #1–2, Avengers #341–342, material from Thor #411–412, New Mutants Annual #7, Uncanny X-Men Annual #15, X-Factor Annual #6, Amazing Spider-Man Annual #26, Spectacular Spider-Man Annual #12, Web of Spider-Man Annual #8) New Warriors: Reality Check (collects The New Warriors (vol. 3) #1–6), 144 pages, March 2006, New Warriors (vol. 4): Defiant (collects New Warriors (vol. 4) #1–6), 144 pages, January 2008, Thrashed (collects New Warriors (vol. 4) #7–13), 168 pages, September 2008), Secret Invasion (collects New Warriors (vol. 4) #14–20), 176 pages, March 2009, New Warriors (vol. 5): The Kids Are All Fight (collects New Warriors (vol. 5) #1–6), 136 pages, August 2014, Always and Forever (collects New Warriors (vol. 5) #7–12), 136 pages, January 2015), In other media Television The New Warriors made a cameo appearance in the Fantastic Four animated series episodes "To Battle the Living Planet" and "Doomsday", consisting of Darkhawk, Justice, and Speedball. A New Warriors-esque group led by Spider-Man and consisting of Power Man, Nova, Iron Fist, and White Tiger appear in the Ultimate Spider-Man animated series' first two seasons as part of S.H.I.E.L.D.'s training program for teenage superheroes before the New Warriors proper appear in the third season, Web Warriors. During this season, Agent Venom, the Iron Spider, Ka-Zar, Zabu, Cloak and Dagger, Squirrel Girl, and Triton form the team. The Rhino is also a member until is brainwashed and forced to serve Doctor Octopus until the series finale. In the fourth season, Ultimate Spider-Man vs. the Sinister 6, the Scarlet Spider, Kid Arachnid, the Sandman, Madame Web, Harry Osborn / Patrioteer, Frances Beck as the second Mysterio, the Vulture, Steel Spider, and Man-Wolf are added to the team. A live-action half-hour sitcom series starring a team based on an amalgamation of the New Warriors and the Great Lakes Avengers and named after the former was in development by Marvel Television and ABC Studios as part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The team was going to consist of Squirrel Girl, Mister Immortal, Night Thrasher, Speedball, Microbe, and Debrii. Reportedly, Squirrel Girl's sidekick Tippy Toe was also going to appear in the series. In July 2017, the New Warriors cast was officially announced to be Milana Vayntrub as Doreen Green / Squirrel Girl, Derek Theler as Craig Hollis / Mister Immortal, Jeremy Tardy as Dwayne Taylor / Night Thrasher, Calum Worthy as Robbie Baldwin / Speedball, Matthew Moy as Zach Smith / Microbe, Kate Comer as Deborah Fields / Debrii, and Keith David as Ernest Vigman; a character who would have become the series' version of MODOK. The show originally received a direct-to-series order with 10 episodes to debut on Freeform in 2018, co-produced by ABC Signature. However, on November 1, 2017, it was announced that the series would no longer air on Freeform and was being shopped to other networks, with some sources saying the series could find a home on Disney's then-upcoming subscription streaming service, Disney+. On September 2019, following the restructuring of both Marvel Television and its parent company Disney, the series was officially considered dead. Music The debut single from transgender recording artist and songwriter Olivia Ryan, "New Warriors", was partially inspired by and indirectly references several members of the titular group. The single and corresponding music video were both released in January 2021. References External links New Warriors New Warriors at the Marvel Universe New Warriors at the Marvel Database Project Characters created by Ron Frenz Characters created by Tom DeFalco
715224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooke%20English	Brooke English	Brooke Allison English (formerly Cudahy, Chandler, and Martin) is a fictional character on the television soap opera All My Children. Originated by Elissa Leeds in 1976, she was portrayed by Julia Barr from June 1976 to June 1981 and from November 1982 to December 20, 2006. Harriet Hall played the role from June 1981 through March 1982. Barr made a special appearance as Brooke on January 5, 2010, as part of the series' 40th anniversary, and returned on February 23, 2010, for a two-month stint until April 23, 2010. She later returned for the show's final week on ABC on September 16, 2011. She returned as Brooke on the Prospect Park's continuation of All My Children. Barr earned eight Daytime Emmy Award nominations for the role, and won twice in 1990 and 1998 for Best Supporting Actress. Storylines In 1976, Brooke English arrived on the doorstep of Phoebe Tyler (Ruth Warrick), her aunt, as a wild teenager who was struggling to find her true love. She moved into the Tyler Mansion and started dating Dan Kennicott (Daren Kelly). She also continued to see her old boyfriend, the dangerous Benny Sago (Vasili Bogazianos). She pitted the two men against each other, and they fought for her affections. She was out of control, so much so that Phoebe nearly shipped her home. Benny had tried to blackmail Phoebe into letting Brooke stay. Brooke soon stopped caring about Dan and Benny and fell for Tom Cudahy (Richard Shoberg). He was also being pursued by Erica Kane (Susan Lucci), and the two women's longstanding rivalry was born. Erica managed to win Tom's heart and he married her. Brooke returned to her relationship with Dan, where she was the mistress, as he was seeing Devon Shepherd. Phoebe, faking paralysis, caught Dan and Brooke in a compromising situation, and threatened to throw out Brooke again. This was offset when Brooke found out about Phoebe's fake paralysis and blackmailed her into keeping her in the Tyler Mansion. Dan eventually broke up with Devon and wanted to try a relationship with Brooke again. Brooke, however, soon started sleeping with Erica's half brother Mark Dalton (Mark LaMura). Mark made it clear that the relationship was only about sex. Dan discovered the relationship and left town. Brooke, still trying to find the right man, began an affair with (and manager of singer Kelly Cole) Eddie Dorrance (Warren Burton). He ended up raping her. When he was killed, Brooke learned that was pregnant with his child. She chose to terminate the pregnancy. Brooke and Tom began to have an affair, as Tom had separated from Erica. When Erica returned from California as an unsuccessful actress, she convinced Tom to give their marriage another try. Her lies finally caused Tom to divorce her and propose to Brooke. The two married. Brooke had slightly grown out of her teenage rebellious phase, and took a job as a reporter. She made the discovery that her mother, Peg English, was the leader of an international drug cartel known as The Cobra. It was yet to be revealed that Brooke was adopted. her father and Phoebe's brother died and Peg was sent to prison. Before she could reveal who Brooke's real mother was, she was killed. This compounded onto the problem of Tom's drinking. He and Erica, Brooke's archrival, had an affair the night before Erica was to marry Adam Chandler (David Canary). This is while Brooke was pregnant with her and Tom's child. Brooke was helped through the pregnancy by Mark, and gave birth to a daughter, Laura Cudahy. Brooke had become a rising TV anchorwoman, but ran into problems with this. She exposed a municipal scandal and refused to reveal her source, and was sent to prison. When she got out of prison, there was an assassination attempt on her and Mark's lives at a party. Erica's fiancé, Mike Roy (Nikolas Surovy), took the bullet instead of Brooke & Mark. After a while, Brooke's busy schedule led to her break up with Mark. She briefly dated Giles St. Clair, a stuntman. But his lifestyle was too wild and interfered with her role as Laura's mother. She also learned that her biological mother was a homeless woman named Jane Dorbin. Brooke tracked her down and the two built a relationship. Brooke met one of Erica's exes, the wealthy Adam Chandler (David Canary). The two fell in love. Brooke married Adam quickly. Their happiness was very short-lived when Brooke's beloved daughter, Laura, was killed by a drunk driver. It is an event that stayed with Brooke for the rest of her life, as she continued to mourn the loss of her pride and joy. When Brooke discovered that she could not bear any more children, Adam began to get anxious to have an heir to the Chandler fortune. He hired Dixie Cooney (Cady McClain), the niece of Palmer Cortlandt (James Mitchell), his bitter business rival, to be a nanny. He began to have an affair with her. She soon gave birth to his son, JR Chandler. The affair cost him his marriage to Brooke. They divorced, and Brooke began to work closely with Dixie's true love, Tad Martin (Michael E. Knight). Tad and Dixie married after Dixie's brief marriage with Adam ended, but the marriage between Tad and Dixie also soon ended. When Tad and Dixie separated, he and Brooke had a brief affair. Tad was soon "killed" on a blown up bridge, fighting with Billy Clyde Tuggle. Soon after, Brooke discovered, much to her surprise, that she was pregnant! She told everyone that her pregnancy was because of artificial insemination to protect Dixie, after Tad had reconciled with her before he "died". She then told the citizens of Pine Valley that she was pregnant with his best friend and former husband, Tom Cudahy's child. Tom and Brooke led everyone to believe this which discouraged any thoughts that the baby might be Tad's because Brooke did not want to cause any more pain to Dixie. While Brooke was pregnant, she began to rely on Jackson Montgomery (Walt Willey), another one of Erica's old flames. The two grew close in friendship. Brooke nearly lost her baby when she and Jack were hit by Arlene Vaughan (Phyllis Lyons), who was driving drunk at the time. Despite having to be cut out of her car, Brooke gave birth to a healthy baby boy, James Edward Martin, whom she called Jamie. Her miracle child has become Brooke's pride and joy, following the death of Laura. Erica began to figure out a way to win Jack back. She prodded Brooke until Brooke saw that Jack still cared deeply for Erica. Brooke also went public with the fact that Jamie was Tad's son. Brooke continued to raise Jamie. She began to see Edmund Grey (John Callahan), whose hot and cold behaviour left her angry and his obsession with discovering his lineage and birthright strained the ties between them. Brooke experienced a jolt when Tad returned to Pine Valley in 1993. Tad wanted to become a good father to Jamie, and married Brooke. Once again, Tad's love with Dixie would not be denied and they started to have another affair. Tad lied to Brooke about his whereabouts. Edmund knew the truth, and wanting to win back Brooke, he told her about Tad's affair in hopes of breaking up Brooke's marriage. Brooke vowed to stay with Tad. She became pregnant again, but tragedy would strike when it was discovered the pregnancy was ectopic. The termination of the pregnancy was necessary to save Brooke's life. Shortly after, Brooke realized that Tad would never love her the same way he loved Dixie, so she ended their marriage. Brooke continued to have a cordial friendship with Tad, as Tad became Jamie's father. Brooke began to focus on her career and raising her son. Brooke was chosen as Pine Valley's Woman of the Year. At the ceremony, Laura Kirk (Lauren E. Roman), a homeless teen, publicly accused Brooke of not doing enough to help the cause of the homeless. Brooke vowed to do more. She began to work closely with Laura, and they developed a bond. Adam wanted Brooke back, but she was still reeling from their previous marriage, which ended when he had an affair with Dixie. She stayed away from him and guarded herself. Adam and Liza Colby put together a scheme for Brooke to return to Adam and for Tad to return to Liza. Brooke realized that she didn't love Adam enough to put up with him. Brooke met and fell for Pierce Riley (Greg Wrangler) in 1996. He lived in the woods with Laura and Janet Green (Robin Mattson), an ex-con. When Pierce and Brooke began to date, Janet attempted to steal Brooke's identity as she also had feelings for Pierce. Her scheme didn't work. Brooke also brought Laura to her home and adopted her as her second daughter. However, Brooke wanted to devote more time to Jamie and Laura, so she broke up with Pierce. He left for New Mexico, but returned a few months later. Things began heating up between him and Brooke, and they became engaged. But Pierce was a troubled man who was suffering from disturbing flashbacks that included gunshots and a woman from Pierce's past. He painfully confessed to Brooke that he may have shot the woman in the flashbacks. She urged him to seek help and gave her support while he underwent psychological therapy. Undergoing hypnosis, Pierce remembered that he fell in love with the woman in his flashbacks, Christina, in Central America. They had a daughter named Amelia. He also remembered being forced to shoot either Christina or Amelia by a soldier. The soldier pulled the trigger of the gun in Pierce's hands, shooting Christina. Pierce suffered a breakdown due to the memory, and Brooke vowed to look for Amelia. No one knew that Christina was still alive. She survived the gunshot wounds and spent two decades in a Central American jail. When Brooke began looking for Amelia, the captors released Christina, who headed to Pine Valley under the name "Diana Martinez" to tell her story to the world-renowned reporter Brooke English. She didn't know that Brooke was in love with Pierce. When the truth was exposed, Pierce had to choose between Brooke and Christina. Pierce soon left Pine Valley with Christina, devastating Brooke. Brooke devoted her time to her work. She was nominated for an award in New York. On the way home to Pine Valley, her plane crashed. Everyone aboard was killed except for Brooke, Edmund, his daughter Maddie Grey and another man. Brooke tried to save the life of Edmund's wife, Maria Santos Grey, but Maria made Brooke save Maddie's life instead. The plane went over the cliff and into the water. Maria's body was never found and was presumed dead, much to Edmund's sadness. While searching for the truth behind the plane crash, she met a man that would help her through the ordeal, as he was the fourth survivor, Jim Thomasen. Jim had trailed Brooke from New York, because he knew that she was a wealthy woman and had just adopted Laura. Laura and Jim had a past in New York. Jim took pornographic pictures of Laura when she was younger. Laura had posed for the pictures for money to help take care of her sick mother, Terry Kirk. Laura discovered that the photos remained on the Internet. Brooke teamed with Jim to find out about why the plane crashed. Jim was with her every step of the way, and they learned that the plane's crash was attributed to faulty turbine blades and that Adam Chandler was behind it. Soon after, Laura was kidnapped by a drug addict named Ricky, who had posed in the pictures with Laura. He, unknown to Brooke, was hired by Jim. Brooke would find the pictures thanks to a tip-off and receive a ransom note demanding that the police were not to be notified about Laura's disappearance. She obeyed and told Jim she would drop the money herself. Jim "saved" Laura, became a hero in Brooke's eyes. Though she told Brooke that she knew Ricky, the former didn't tell her mother that Jim had been the photographer after declaring a truce with him to keep it a secret between themselves. Wanting Brooke for herself, Jim told Laura that she should move to Boston where no one would know her. Laura would leave Pine Valley after the New Year's in 1998. Brooke was soon notified that there was new evidence in the plane crash. It was a luggage fragment that contained explosives. Despite Jim's warning to leave it alone, Brooke wouldn't let it rest. While in Jim's apartment, she went through his closet trying to find something and stumbled across the same style luggage found in the wreckage. She confronted him, and he explained it with lies. Brooke hired Mateo Santos to do undercover work and find out as much as he could about Jim. The truth about Jim shocked Brooke. She arranged a meeting with him at the Chandler Gallery. She showed him the photos of Laura that he had taken. Jim promised that if she called the police, he would take the same type of photos of Jamie. This drove Brooke over the edge and she took out a gun, shooting Jim several times in the back. Scared about the murder charges and convinced that she wouldn't win the trial, Brooke went on the run with Jamie. Finally, Tad convinced her to return to Pine Valley and stand trial. Thanks to Tad's secret maneuvering, Brooke was able to get an acquittal of murder. However, the event still haunted Brooke. Laura would soon leave Pine Valley to study in China. Brooke began to date Dimitri Marick, again another former love of Erica. Erica succeeded in quickly ending the relationship. After that Brooke began to refocus on her career and raising Jamie. In early 2000, Brooke began working herself to the bone at the community centre. Reverend Eliot Freeman soon found that this was for the guilt she felt about Laura's death years before. It came to the surface when Arlene Vaughan was drunk and crashed her car into a telephone pole that broke through the community centre's wall. Eliot comforted and consulted Brooke about the pain that she was still holding for her daughter's death. However, Brooke was unaware that Eliot had a secret he was keeping from her, his real identity. Before "finding God," Eliot went by another name, Josh Waleski. He was the man who had killed her daughter. Eliot was eventually forced into telling Brooke that he was the man who had taken her daughter from him. Brooke erupted in a fury and lashed out at Eliot for having lied to her for months. More importantly, Brooke was left to question herself for allowing herself to fall in love with the man who had killed her daughter. Eliot decided to leave town to help Brooke heal. Before Eliot left for good, Brooke finally found a way to forgive Eliot. The next year, Brooke's adopted daughter Laura suffered an Ecstasy overdose. It aggravated a pre-existing heart condition. The only surgeon that could perform the risky operation was Dr. David Hayward, who was in prison. Brooke was helped by of all people, Erica, in order to free David. Laura survived the surgery but still needed a heart transplant. That spring, Brooke begged Leo du Pres to pretend to be interested in the dying Laura in order to give Laura motivation to fight for her life. At first, Leo refused. But he soon grew closer with Laura. He seemed to really care for Laura and wanted to see her fully recover. Laura's condition would soon worsen, and Brooke paid a married couple to donate the heart of their dead nephew. On June 18, 2001, Leo proposed to Laura, and she accepted. They married two days later in her hospital room with Brooke, with friends and hospital staff in attendance. Laura's health continued to worsen and the only way to save her life was for a heart transplant. Laura eventually received a heart transplant from Gillian Andrassy, who died after she was shot. In early 2002, Brooke convinced an unwinding Laura to seek out professional help. Soon, Brooke began to suspect that Maria Santos Grey was still alive. She had seen a painting of Wildwind, the estate in Pine Valley that belonged to the Grey family, drawn by a Maureen Gorman. Brooke was convinced that Maureen Gorman was an alive Maria. She and Tad traveled to Nevada to find Maureen. When Brooke saw Maureen and realized it was indeed the long thought dead Maria, she fainted. Later that night, Tad went to find Maria, but saw a different girl and assumed that was who Brooke saw. He tried to convince Brooke that she just "thought" she saw Maria. Brooke and Edmund finally married. At their wedding, Maddie saw Maria and followed her. She burst into the chapel moments later, announcing that she had been with her mother. This was just after the marriage ceremony was complete and Brooke and Edmund were officially married. Brooke finally admitted that she knew Maria was really alive, causing Edmund to find Maria. Their marriage was annulled, but Brooke continued to help Edmund reunite with Maria. Following this, Brooke began an affair with Adam Chandler. Brooke told Adam that she would only continue the affair if it remained a secret. But soon Brooke realized that others knew about it, and she quickly ended the relationship. Brooke began to rebuild her friendship with Edmund, after all of her deception. But she also began to worry about Jamie. Unknown to anyone, Jamie had slept with newcomer Babe Carey, the night before it was announced that Babe had married Jamie's former stepbrother JR (Adam Jr.) in San Diego weeks before. Both had been drunk, but Babe still took Jamie's virginity. Babe soon became pregnant, and Brooke worried that Jamie might be the father. When it was revealed that the father of Babe's daughter, Bess, was indeed JR and not Jamie, Brooke was relieved. However, it was then figured out that Bess was really Miranda Montgomery, the newborn daughter of Bianca. Brooke's world was rocked when Edmund was killed in the Wildwind barn one night. Brooke had to tell Maria that she was the executor of Edmund's estate, and had more control over Maria's children and the Wildwind estate than Maria. The two women remained at odds, until they found a way to co-exist for the sake of Maria's children. When her Aunt Phoebe died, Brooke was inconsolable. She soon found out that Phoebe had left everything to Jamie provided he dumped Babe. Jamie had a tough time letting go of Babe but eventually did. Jamie would later start a relationship with the recently returned Amanda Dillon, but after Amanda's unstable mother Janet wreaked havoc on Pine Valley, Brooke welcomed a devastated Amanda into her home as if she were her daughter. Eventually, Jamie and Amanda stopped seeing each other. Over the last couple of months in Pine Valley, Brooke remained in the background, focusing on raising Jamie and Amanda. She also became a stepping stone in the renewed relationship of Erica and Jack. While the two were separated, Erica invited her first husband Jeff Martin to Thanksgiving dinner, while Jack invited her bitter rival, Brooke. Brooke quickly realized that Jack didn't love her like Erica. Quietly, Brooke left Pine Valley at the tail end of 2006. However, Brooke reappeared in the All My Children 40th anniversary special four years later and on February 23, 2010, she returned until departing again exactly two months later. In that short period of time, Brooke and her ex-husband Adam Chandler went off into the sunset together in a particularly romantic happy ending. In 2006, Barr was taken off contract and was asked to remain with the show on a recurring basis, but she declined the offer. The producers then decided not to recast the role after her departure. For many years prior, Brooke had floundered in the background. Her last major story was her interrupted marriage to Edmund Grey which occurred in 2002. Despite 30 years of service to All My Children, at that time neither Barr nor Brooke received any formal farewell; the character simply vanished, and was then mentioned only infrequently. When she left, Barr said, "I am so proud to have been a part of a show that was once a television icon." Barr eventually returned in 2010, first with the All My Children 40th anniversary special in January, and then for a two-month stint from February to April during which time Brooke takes over as editor-in-chief of Tempo, is involved in a terrible car accident, and falls in love, all of which culminate with Brooke and her former husband Adam Chandler, reuniting and officially leaving town together. Adam and Brooke returned to Pine Valley for the final episodes of the series in September 2011. They initially return to help a very troubled JR. Still a couple, Brooke is there with Adam when he discovers Stuart is alive and purchases the Chandler Mansion as a present for Adam with the inheritance money from her Aunt Phoebe after it is sold away from the family. The final scenes of the show take place in the Chandler mansion on September 23, 2011 during which Adam proposes to Brooke and she accepts. Brooke is the first character to be seen in the reboot of the show. Adam re-proposes to Brooke, claiming she is the only woman he has ever truly loved, and she then accepts his proposal. She and Adam are the guardians of Adam's grandson, AJ Chandler as his dad, JR has been in a coma for five years. She has an assistant, Celia Fitzgerald, who volunteers with her at the Miranda Center. Brooke also agrees to take over as Head of Chandler Enterprises, because Adam is travelling so much and spends much of her time helping Adam to rebuild the company that JR ruined before he was shot. References External links Brooke English profile - SoapCentral.com All My Children characters Fictional reporters Television characters introduced in 1976 Female characters in television
724325	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Bougainville	History of Bougainville	Bougainville, an autonomous region of Papua New Guinea (PNG), has been inhabited by humans for at least 29,000 years, according to artefacts found in Kilu Cave on Buka Island. The region is named after Bougainville Island, the largest island of the Solomon Islands archipelago, but also contains a number of smaller islands. The first arrivals in Bougainville were ethnically Australo-Melanesian, related to Papuans and Aboriginal Australians. Around 3,000 years ago, Austronesians associated with the Lapita culture also settled on the islands, bringing agriculture and pottery. Present-day Bougainvilleans are descended from a mixture of the two populations, and both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages are spoken to this day. In 1616, Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire became the first Europeans to sight the islands. The main island was named after French admiral Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who reached it in 1768. The German Empire placed Bougainville under a protectorate in 1886, while the remainder of the Solomon Islands became part of the British Empire in 1893. The present-day boundaries between Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands were established by the Tripartite Convention of 1899. The incorporation of Bougainville into German New Guinea initially had little economic impact, although the associated Catholic missions succeeded in converting a majority of the islanders to Christianity. The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN&MEF) occupied German New Guinea in 1914, following the outbreak of World War I. After the war's end, Bougainville and the other occupied territories were named as a League of Nations mandate, which Australia administered as the Territory of New Guinea. During World War II, the Japanese invaded and occupied Bougainville in order to support their operations elsewhere in the Pacific. The subsequent Allied campaign to reclaim the islands resulted in heavy casualties and the eventual restoration of Australian control in 1945. In 1949, following administrative reforms by the Australian government, Bougainville was incorporated into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. The Panguna mine was established in 1969 and soon become a source of conflict. The Bougainville independence movement established the Republic of the North Solomons in 1975, but by the following year the newly independent PNG government had re-established control. Tensions continued, and the subsequent Bougainville Civil War (1988–1998) resulted in the deaths of thousands of people, as the Bougainville Revolutionary Army sought to secure independence and was resisted by the Papua New Guinea Defence Force. A peace agreement was reached in 2001, by which it was agreed that an autonomous region would be established and an independence referendum would be held; the latter was held in 2019. Prehistory The earliest known site of human occupation in Bougainville is Kilu Cave, located on Buka Island. The bottom-most archaeological deposits in the cave were radiocarbon-dated to between 28,700 and 20,100 years ago. During the Last Glacial Maximum, until approximately 10,000 years ago, present-day Bougainville Island was part of a single landmass known as "Greater Bougainville", which spanned from the northern tip of Buka Island to the Nggela Islands north of Guadalcanal. The "obvious immediate origin for its first colonists" of Bougainville is the Bismarck Archipelago to the north, where sites have been identified dating back 35,000 to 40,000 years. The first settlers of Bougainville were Melanesians, likely related to present-day Papuans and Aboriginal Australians. Approximately 3,000 years ago, a wave of Austronesian peoples arrived in Bougainville, bringing with them the Lapita culture. The Austronesians brought with them a fully agricultural lifestyle, also introducing distinctive pottery and domesticated pigs, dogs and chickens to Bougainville. The advent of the Lapita culture resulted in "a pattern of apparent extinctions of birds and endemic mammals". Both Austronesian and non-Austronesian languages (historically called "East Papuan") continue to be spoken on Bougainville today. There has been substantial genetic and cultural mixing between the Austronesian and non-Austronesian populations, "such that language is no longer correlated with either genetics or culture in any direct or simplistic way". Douglas Oliver in his 1991 book discussed one of the unique aspects of the people of Bougainville: [A] trait shared by the present-day descendants of both northerners and southerners is their skin-colour, which is very black. Indeed, it is darker than that of any population of present-day Pacific islanders, including the present-day indigenes of New Ireland, the larger homeland of the first Bougainvilleans. The presence of Bougainville as a 'black spot' in an island world of brownskins (later called redskins) raises a question that cannot now be answered. Were the genes producing that darker pigmentation carried by the first Bougainvilleans when they arrived? Or did they evolve by natural or 'social' selection, during the millennia in which the descendants of those pioneers remained isolated, reproductively, from neighbouring islanders? Nothing now known about Bougainville’s physical environment can support an argument for the natural selection of its peoples' distinctively black pigmentation; therefore a case might be made for social selection, namely an aesthetic (and hence reproductive) preference for black skin. Early European contact Dutch explorers Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire were the first Europeans to sight present-day Bougainville, skirting Takuu Atoll and Nissan Island in 1616. In 1643, another Dutch expedition led by Abel Tasman was the first to make contact with the islanders and describe their appearance. There was no further European contact until 1767, when British naval officer Philip Carteret visited and named the Carteret Islands. Carteret was also the first European to see Buka Island. The following year, Frenchman Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed along the east coast of Bougainville Island, which bears his name. He also gave Buka Island its name, after a word that was repeatedly called out to him from canoes originating from the island. German protectorate On 10 April 1886, two years after the establishment of German New Guinea, the United Kingdom and Germany agreed to divide the Solomon Islands archipelago into spheres of influence. As a result of this agreement, the islands of Buka, Bougainville, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, Ontong Java, the Shortland Islands, and part of the Florida Islands were placed under a German protectorate (Schutzgebiet), which was formally established on 28 October 1886 by the commander of . On 13 December, Kaiser Wilhelm I granted the New Guinea Company a charter to govern the protectorate in accordance with the existing arrangements for German New Guinea. The remainder of the archipelago became the British Solomon Islands Protectorate, which was not formally established until 1893. The present-day boundary between Bougainville and the country of Solomon Islands was established following the Tripartite Convention of 1899, which saw some of the northern islands ceded to the UK in exchange for German control over Western Samoa. The Shortlands, Choiseul, Santa Isabel, and Ontong Java were included in the cession. The Northern Solomons were initially grouped with the Bismarck Archipelago for German administrative purposes. The first official visit from the German administration did not occur until November 1888. The acting administrator Reinhold Kraetke arrived accompanied by an imperial judge, a company manager, a visiting German journalist, a missionary, and a local merchant Richard Parkinson who had been recruiting labourers from the area for several years. A native police force was quickly established. The first punitive expedition undertaken by the German administration occurred in April 1899, in response to the killing of two European seamen in Tinputz Bay the previous year. The landed 20 members of the native police force armed with bows and arrows, who killed seven people, burned a village, and took its valuables. It was not until 1905 that a government station was opened in Bougainville. The station, situated in Kieta, was placed directly under the Governor of German New Guinea. The German protectorate over the islands initially had little economic impact. A handful of copra plantations were established, but proved unproductive, and the area was seen primarily as a source of labour for existing plantations in other parts of New Guinea. As of 1905, "there was apparently not a single permanent trading post manned by a non-native". The first fully commercial plantation was established at Aropa in 1908 by the Bismarck Archipelago Company. In 1910, the New Britain Corporation established a plantation at Toiemonapu. There was subsequently a rush of commercial activity, with ten enterprises established in 1911. By April 1913, land acquisitions of over had been approved by the administration, mostly by Australian companies. About of roads had been built by this time, and construction on a hospital for natives had begun. The total tax revenue for 1913 was almost 28,000 marks, about half of which was collected in Kieta. As of 1 January 1914, there were 74 Europeans in the area, one-third of whom were connected with the Marist mission and 17 of whom were British subjects (including Australians). There were also 20 "foreign natives", mostly Chinese and Malay. World War I and Australian administration Following the outbreak of World War I, the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN&MEF) occupied Bougainville in December 1914, as part of the broader Australian occupation of German New Guinea. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles established the former German territory as a League of Nations mandate, the responsibility for which was awarded to Australia. The Australian military administration had adopted a "business as usual" approach and secured the support of the existing German business community. It was replaced by a civil administration in 1920, which expropriated the property of German nationals without compensation and deported them. The Australian administration continued the German approach of "pacification", intervening in local conflicts. This allowed labour recruiters to enter new regions and secure more workers for the plantations. In 1915, more than 60 native police officers were deployed to Soraken to protect against raids from mountain tribes, who were known to engage in cannibalism. An expedition was launched against Bowu, an "influential cannibal chief". His village at Kaumumu was attacked and Bowu's severed head was displayed to the local people. However, "it is doubtful if the display of severed heads had the intended effect since these acts had taken place outside the customary ceremonial context". In 1921, the population of Bougainville was recorded at 46,832. The Australian district officer was based at Kieta and controlled a native police force of 40 constables and five officers. The civil administration "pursued pacification less ferociously than its military predecessor" and recruited Bougainvilleans as interpreters. The administration established larger "line villages" in place of the smaller hamlets, in order to simplify collection and "condition the able-bodied men to the barracks discipline on the plantations". German ethnographer Richard Thurnwald returned to Buin in 1933 following an earlier visit in 1908. He noted a number of changes over the 25-year period, including a large increase in literacy, the introduction of a cash economy (comprising both coins and shell money), the erosion of chiefly authority, a decrease in headhunting, and the introduction of feast-giving as a surrogate for war. The Australians had adopted many aspects of the previous German Administration. There was little difference between the two colonisers except for the expropriation policy and the line village consolidation program. The Germans had done the pioneering work in the colony and the Australians made this the foundation for colonial management. The 1920s saw the introduction of Protestantism to Bougainville, in the form of missionaries from the Methodist Church of New Zealand (1921) and the Seventh-day Adventist Church (1924). Tensions arose between the existing Catholic missionaries and the new arrivals, culminating in sectarian disturbances in Kieta in 1929. Father Albert Binois wrote to his superiors that the Protestants were "friends of the devil". The late 1920s and 1930s also produced an influx of anthropologists and ethnographers to Bougainville, among them Australians Ernest and Sarah Chinnery, Catholic priest Patrick O'Reilly, Briton Beatrice Blackwood, and American Douglas L. Oliver. Second World War In 1942, Bougainville was occupied by Japanese forces, who used it as a base to attack Guadalcanal and other Allied territory. In November 1943, the 3rd Marine Division landed on the west coast of Bougainville. Shortly afterwards the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay was fought between cruisers and destroyers of the U.S. Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy. The Americans routed the Japanese and took control of the seas in this area. A concerted Allied land offensive between November 1943 and April 1944 was needed to occupy and hold the part of the island along the western shore in an area called "Torokina". The Americans set about establishing a wide defensive perimeter, draining swamps, and building multiple airfields for defence. Their next goal was to attack the Japanese on New Britain Island. The Marines were replaced by US Army troops. The Japanese infiltrated the mountains and jungles of Bougainville, and launched a counteroffensive against the Americans in 1944. The critical focus of their attack was at a place called "Hellsapoppin Ridge" by the Americans. In repulsing this attack, the American soldiers and airmen broke the back of the Japanese Army on Bougainville. The survivors retreated to their bases on northern and southern Bougainville, and the Americans left them to "wither on the vine" for the remainder of the war. During the 1943–45 period, more than 17,500 Japanese soldiers were either killed in combat, died of disease, or died of malnutrition. In April 1943 Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of the Combined Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy, was killed on Bougainville Island when his transport aircraft was shot down by American fighter aircraft during Operation Vengeance. In 1945, the Australian Army took over occupation from the Americans. Australia resumed control of Bougainville and Papua New Guinea, which became a United Nations trusteeship. The remaining Japanese on Bougainville refused to surrender, but held out until the surrender of the Japanese Empire on 2 September 1945. They were commanded by the Emperor to surrender to the Allied Australians, Americans, and New Zealanders, and they were repatriated to Japan. Beginnings of the independence movement Bougainville is rich in copper, and possibly gold. The mining of copper has been the subject of considerable social tensions over the last fifty years. Local people made two attempts at secession in protest of the mining exploitation. In 1964, Australian business began the first attempt to explore the island's resources: CRA Exploration, a subsidiary of Australian company Rio Tinto Zinc, began drilling in the Panguna area. The Panguna mine opened in 1969 under their subsidiary, Bougainville Copper Ltd. The first independence movement emerged in the late 1960s, at a time when other colonial governments were being dismantled in Asian and African nations. The local indigenous people began to air their grievances against the Australian colonial government over the handling of the Panguna mine and protested the inadequate sharing of revenues being generated from mining on their land. Australian External Territories Minister Charles Barnes was accused of telling the Bougainvillean people they would "get nothing". The local people sued for compensation and the case went to the High Court of Australia. It found that the compensation was inadequate under ordinary federal Australian law. But, as an external territory, Papua New Guinea was not guaranteed the same standards that applied to mainland Australia. In 1972, Australia granted Bougainville some degree of autonomy, but this did not end the secessionist movement. Relations between Bougainville and the government of Papua New Guinea deteriorated after the murders of two senior Bougainvillean public servants in December 1972. This was rumored to be retaliation for a road accident in the highlands of Papua New Guinea. Islanders were outraged by the murders, and the events helped to consolidate the independence movement. As a result, the Bougainville Special Political Committee (BSPC) was set up to negotiate with the Papuan government on the future of Bougainville within PNG. By 1974, the BSPC had reached a compromise with a Special Committee of the Papuan Parliament, which would have given the island greater autonomy. The Special Committee did not agree to providing a defined share of the profits from the Panguna mine to the people of Bougainville. The conservative Papuan government declined to follow key sections of the committee's report, and in May 1975, negotiations between the two parties collapsed completely. Republic of North Solomons On 28 May 1975, the Interim Provincial Government in Bougainville agreed to secede from Papua New Guinea. This caused a three-way impasse between the Government of PNG, the legislature in PNG, and the authorities in Bougainville. The PNG government attempted to resolve the situation through June and July, but failed. The Interim Provincial Government announced that they would declare independence on 1 September, ahead of Papua New Guinea's own planned independence day of 16 September. On 1 September, they issued the 'Unilateral Declaration of Independence of the Republic of North Solomons'. They sought international recognition through the United Nations, but were unsuccessful. They also failed in an attempt to unite with the Solomon Islands. In early 1976, the Bougainvillean government realised that they would have to accept Papua New Guinean sovereignty. Later that year, both the governments signed the 'Bougainville Agreement', which gave the island autonomy within Papua New Guinea. The PNG government promised full independence in five years, but did not fulfill this promise. For the remainder of the 1970s, and into the early 1980s, relations between the two remained tense, but relatively peaceful. In 1981 disputes re-emerged over the status of the mine, which was the basis of the conflict that became violent in 1988. Secessionist conflict Operations of the mine at Panguna and sharing of its revenues had been perhaps the major sticking point between Bougainville and PNG government. The mine was the largest non-aid revenue stream of the Government of Papua New Guinea from 1975, when it became independent, to the mine's closure in 1989. The national government received a 20% share of profit from the mine and authorised 0.5–1.25% share to the Bougainvilleans. Revenues from the mine products was vitally important to the economy of Papua New Guinea, but the people of Bougainville were seeing little benefit from it. In addition, they began to recognise that they were bearing the total effects of the mine's environmental consequences for the island. They claimed that the Jaba River had been poisoned, causing birth defects among local people, as well as the extinction of the flying fox on the island and adverse effects on fish and other species. Critics said that Bougainville Copper had created an apartheid, segregated system, with one set of facilities for white workers, and one set for the locals. Insurgency By late 1988, cousins and local leaders, Francis Ona and Pepetua Serero, decided to take up arms against the Papuan government. Ona had worked for Bougainville Copper, and had witnessed the effects the mine was having on the environment. In 1987, Ona and Serero had called a meeting of landowners around Panguna, forming the Panguna Landowners' Association. Serero was selected as 'Chairlady' and Ona as General Secretary. They demanded billions in compensation from CRA for lost revenues and damages, a total of half the mine's profits since it began in 1969. A report on the SBS Dateline program, broadcast on 26 June 2011, states that Sir Michael Somare, at the time Papua New Guinea's Opposition Leader, had signed an affidavit in 2001 specifying that the PNG government was acting under instruction from mining giant Rio Tinto. SBS reported on 27 June 2011 that Bougainville Copper Limited and Rio Tinto denied this assertion, and rejected ideas that they had started the war. Uprising In November 1988 Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) returned to attacked the mine, holding up its magazine, stealing explosives, and committing numerous acts of arson and sabotage. They cut the power supply to the entire mine by blowing up power pylons. These BRA forces were commanded by Sam Kauona, a man who had trained in Australia and defected from the Papuan defence forces to become Ona's right-hand man. Kauona became the spokesperson for the BRA. He continued to conduct hit-and-run raids on mine property and PNG government installations. Following targeted attacks on mine employees, the company closed the mine on 15 May 1989. Serero died from asthma soon afterward and Ona led the uprising with help from Kauona. Evacuation of all remaining employees of Bougainville Copper Limited followed after the mine's closure, with all personnel withdrawn by 24 March 1990. The Papuan police, and the army under Jerry Singirok made several arrests, but Ona proved to be elusive. They failed to catch him. (Singirok was later an important player in the Sandline affair.) Attempts to resolve the standoff continued, and Bougainville Copper continued to deny responsibility for the grievances brought by Ona and his supporters. The company suggested that the flying foxes had suffered high fatalities due to a virus brought in from East New Britain, and said that mine operations had not affected the health of the river. The PNG government and Bougainville Copper initially made attempts to resolve some of the outstanding issues, and offered an expensive compromise deal, which was rejected outright by Ona and Kauona. The Premier of Bougainville, Joseph Kabui, and Father John Momis, the Member for Bougainville in the national parliament and a former leader of the 1975 secession effort, supported Ona and Kauona. They demanded that the company recognise them as legitimate leaders. Both of these men later became involved directly in the independence movement. They were beaten by riot police during a 1989 protest. Allegations of human rights abuses by the PNG army began to arise. These embarrassed the PNG government, which arrested more than 20 men in the army after an investigation. The BRA conducted violence against the provincial government, including the assassination of John Bika, Kabui's Commerce and Liquor Licensing Minister. He had supported the compromise agreement between the Bougainvilleans and the Government. As a response to the continuing violence, the national government called a state of emergency; it placed the island under the administration of the Police Commissioner, who was based in Port Moresby. The allegations of human rights abuses continued, and a survey in late 1989 indicated that at least 1600 homes had been destroyed. The conflict showed no signs of ending, and in January 1990, Bougainville Copper announced the mothballing of the Panguna mine. In 1990, Prime Minister Rabbie Namaliu of Papua New Guinea agreed to pull Papuan troops out, and for international observers to witness the disarmament of the BRA. The agreement was signed by Sam Kauona for the BRA. The police feared attacks by the locals and fled; leaving the island to the control of the BRA. In Port Moresby, there was an attempted military coup against the government following the decision to withdraw; it was defeated. Civil war In May 1990, Papua New Guinea imposed a blockade on Bougainville. Francis Ona responded by unilaterally declaring independence. He set up the Bougainville Interim Government (BIG), but it had little power, and the island began to descend into disarray. The command structure set up by the BRA seldom had any real control over the various groups throughout the island that claimed to be part of the BRA. A number of (criminal) gangs that were affiliated with the BRA, equipped largely with weapons salvaged from the fighting in World War II, terrorised villages, engaging in murder, rape and pillage. Bougainville split into several factions, and a civil war began. Much of the division in this fighting was largely along clan lines; the BIG/BRA was dominated by the Nasioi clan, causing other islanders to view it with suspicion. On the island of Buka north of Bougainville, a local militia formed and drove out the BRA with the help of Papuan troops, during a bloody offensive in September 1990. Multiple agreements were signed but were not honoured by any parties. The BRA leadership of Ona and Kauona fell out with some of the political leaders, such as Kabui. Several other village militias, which together became known as the resistance and were armed by the PNG defence forces, forced the BRA out of their areas. Papua New Guinea's policy towards Bougainville hardened after the defeat of the incumbent government at the 1992 elections. New Prime Minister Paias Wingti took a considerably more hardline stance. He angered residents of the Solomon Islands after a bloody raid on one island that was alleged to be supporting the Bougainvilleans. In alliance with the resistance, the Papuan army succeeded in retaking Arawa, the provincial capital, in January 1993. Papuan Foreign Minister Sir Julius Chan attempted to recruit a peacekeeping force from the nations of the Pacific, but Wingti quashed the idea. He subsequently ordered the army to retake the Panguna mine, and was initially successful. However, his government was short-lived. In August 1994 he was replaced as Prime Minister by Chan. Chan announced his intention to find a peaceful solution to the conflict. He met with Kauona in the Solomon Islands and arranged for a peace conference to be held in Arawa that October, with security provided by an Australia-led South Pacific Peacekeeping Force. However, the BIG leaders boycotted the conference, claiming that their safety could not be guaranteed. In their absence, Chan's government entered into negotiations with a group of chiefs from the Nasioi clan, headed by Theodore Miriung, a former lawyer for the Panguna Landowners Association. This resulted in the establishment of a Bougainville Transitional Government in April 1995, with its capital in Buka. Miriung was named Prime Minister of the new government, but he frequently clashed with Chan by criticising abuses committed by Papuan soldiers. By 1996, Chan was beginning to get frustrated at the lack of progress. In January, following a round of negotiations in Cairns, Australia, between the BRA, BTG and the PNG government, a PNG defence force patrol boat fired upon Kabui and the other delegates when they returned to Bougainville. The next month, the home of the BIG's representative in the Solomon Islands, Martin Mirori, was firebombed. Chan decided to abandon attempts at peace, and on 21 March 1996, he gave the go-ahead for an invasion of Bougainville, under new commander of the PNG defence forces, Jerry Singirok. Media coverage of civil war Cass (1992) argued that The Australian newspaper, in its coverage of the Bougainville conflict, lacked depth and focused on the crisis from Australia's own interests and a conviction that the former territory could not really look after itself. Other researchers pointed out that even though journalists got into Bougainville during the crisis, the coverage was uneven (Cronau, 1994; Denoon & Spriggs, 1992). Dorney argues that, with few exceptions, the Australian media pays scant attention to Australia's former colony unless there is high drama, such as during the Sandline crisis in March 1997, or a disaster relief effort, such as when the Australian Defence Force played a high-profile role during the drought induced famine of 1997–98 (1998, p15). He adds that the rest of the time it is the bizarre and tragic, especially violent crime involving expatriates, that fill the limited agenda. According to Patience (2005), PNG has a public relations problem in terms of its image abroad. Sandline and ceasefire After five resolutions in the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, a report by the Special Rapporteur on Summary Executions and Disappearances and a resolution from the Security Council as well as mounting pressure from Amnesty International, ICRC and other human rights groups, the governments of Australia and New Zealand ceased providing military support, forcing Chan to begin to look elsewhere. Thus began the Sandline affair, where the government of Papua New Guinea attempted to hire mercenaries from Sandline International, a London-based private military company, composed primarily of former British and South African special forces soldiers, which had been involved in the civil wars in Angola and Sierra Leone. With negotiations with Sandline ongoing and incomplete, Chan ordered the military to invade anyway. In July the PNG defence forces attempted to seize Aropa airport, the island's principal airfield. However, the attack was a disaster, suffering from poor logistical planning and determined resistance by BRA fighters. In September, BRA militants attacked a PNG army camp at Kangu Beach with the help of members of a local militia group, killing twelve PNGDF soldiers and taking five hostage. The following month, Theodore Miriung was assassinated. Although Chan's government attempted to blame the BRA, a subsequent independent investigation implicated members of the PNG defence force and the resistance militias. Discipline and morale was rapidly deteriorating within the ranks of the PNG military, which had been unable to make any substantial progress in penetrating the mountainous interior of the island and reopening the Panguna mine. Chan decided that his best chance to recapture the Panguna mine was with the Sandline mercenaries. However, this too turned out to be a disaster. News of his intention to hire mercenaries was leaked to the Australian press, and international condemnation followed. Furthermore, when Jerry Singirok heard of the news, he ordered the detaining of all the mercenaries on arrival. In the resulting saga, Prime Minister Chan was forced to resign, and Papua New Guinea came very close to a military coup. Indeed, the officers in charge had the parliament surrounded, but steadfastly refused to go any further. In the end, however, they got their way, with Chan's resignation and the removal of the mercenaries from Papua New Guinean territory. Sandline sparked a lowpoint in the Bougainvillean war. Since 1997, a ceasefire has largely held on the island. Breaking with Ona, Kauona and Kabui entered into peace talks with the government of Bill Skate in Christchurch, New Zealand, which culminated in the signing of the Lincoln Agreement in January 1998. Under the terms of the agreement, PNG began to withdraw its soldiers from the island and a multinational Peace Monitoring Group was deployed. Legislation to establish a Bougainville Reconciliation Government failed to win approval in the PNG Parliament. A Bougainville provincial government of the same status as the other eighteen provinces of Papua New Guinea, with John Momis as Governor, was established in January 1999. However, this government was suspended after facing opposition from both the BIG/BRA and BTG. Arrangements were made for the creation of a modified government, to be established in two phases-the first being the Bougainville Constituent Assembly and the second being the elections for the Bougainville People's Congress. Elections were held in May, and Kabui was named president. However, the legality of this was contested by Momis, with the support of a number of tribal chiefs and Resistance leaders. In November, a new body, the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government, was established, headed by Momis. Rapprochment between Kauona and Momis led to an agreement in which the two bodies would act in consultation. An organised reconciliation process began at the tribal level in the early 2000. Francis Ona refused to play any part in the peace process, and, with a small minority of fighters, continued to occupy the area around Panguna mine . Throughout the decade, Ona continued to resist overtures to participate in the new government, declaring himself 'king' of Bougainville before dying of malaria in 2005. In March 2005, Dr Shaista Shameem of the United Nations working group on mercenaries asked Fiji and Papua New Guinea for permission to send a team to investigate the presence of former Fijian soldiers in Bougainville. (UNPO) As part of the current peace settlement, a referendum on independence was to be held sometime in the 2010s, with an apparent small minority of fighters left in the centre of the island, and enough instability to ensure that the mine remained closed. The Australian government has estimated that between 15,000 and 20,000 people have died in the Bougainville Conflict. More conservative estimates put the number of combat deaths as 1,000 to 2,000. Operation Bel Isi The Peace Monitoring Group (PMG) on Bougainville in Papua New Guinea was brought about by the civil unrest on the island in the 1990s. The PNG government requested the Australian and New Zealand governments to provide a monitoring group to oversee the ceasefire on the island. This group was made up of both civilian and defence personnel from Australia, New Zealand, Fiji and Vanuatu. Support remained strong throughout the PMG's deployment. The PMG was established on the island on 1 May 1998 and took over from the New Zealand Truce Monitoring Group which then departed. The PMG comprised approx. 100 personnel, was unarmed and wore bright yellow shirts and hats. It had no specific legal power although it did have a mandate under the Lincoln Agreement. It remained definitively neutral at all times. In the early stages of its deployment, it acted primarily as a ceasefire monitoring group and spread information about developments in the peace process. Following the Bougainville Peace Agreement, the PMG focused primarily on facilitating the weapons disposal program, in co-operation with the small UN Observer Mission on Bougainville (UNOMB). There was also some logistical support given to the constitutional consultation and drafting process from 2003. Support was provided to the group via use of the Loloho wharf on the eastern side of the island by naval vessels from Australia and New Zealand as well as the Kieta airfield by weekly C130 Hercules flights from Townsville. Four UH-1 'Huey' helicopters were supplied by Australian 171st Aviation Squadron, which were painted bright red for visibility and utilised to ferry personnel to inland villages inaccessible by foot or vehicle. With more than 8,000 safe flying hours in the skies of Bougainville to their credit, the choppers made their way back to Australia aboard . Later, air mobility was outsourced to the commercial Hevilift company, which provided two Bell 212 helicopters. HQ PMG was based in Arawa and comprised approx. 50 personnel providing coordination for all the operations in Bougainville. The majority of personnel lived in local houses in the Arawa township. The Logistical Support Team (LST) at the Loloho wharf comprised approx. 70 personnel and provided such services as catering, dental, medical, IT support, vehicle transport and communications to the outlying team sites. LST members lived in the "Opera House" which was an old storage silo for copper, used when the mine was open. The remaining staff of PMG were located all over Bougainville in team sites monitoring the peace and liaising with local communities. The following locations had team sites in 2000 – Arawa, Sirakatau, Buin, Tonu, Wakunai and Buka. The Bougainville Peace Agreement decreed that all personnel should be withdrawn from the island by December 2002. However, the group was extended by the applicable governments and withdrew completely by 23 August 2003. The total cost of Australia's development and military assistance to Bougainville from the financial year 1997–98 until FY 2002–03 was $243.2 million. Over 3500 Australian defence personnel and 300 Australian civilians served in the Peace Monitoring Group during Operation Bel Isi. For more info about Operation Bel Isi – follow this link Op Bel Isi Website References Bibliography {{cite book\|first=Peter\|last=Elder\|editor-first1=Anthony\|editor-last1=Regan\|editor-first2=Helga-Maria\|editor-last2=Griffin\|chapter=Between the ''Waitmans Wars: 1914–42\|year=2005\|title=Bougainville Before the Conflict\|publisher=Stranger Journalism\|isbn=9781740761383}} Further information Wayne Coles-Janess VOD of Bougainville - "Our Island, Our Fight" 1998 available Globally on iTunes. This a link to iTunes UK. Available in most Countries. Wayne Coles-Janess. "Inside Bougainville" 1994 ABC ABC Foreign Correspondent Inside Bougainville. ABC Foreign Correspondent- World in Focus – Lead Story (1997) Exclusive interview with Francis Ona. Interviewed by Wayne Coles-Janess. ABC Foreign Correspondent- Lead Story – Bougainville (1997) by Wayne Coles-Janess. Regan, Anthony J. 2010, Light intervention: Lessons from Bougainville. United States Institutes of Peace. See also the review of this book by Victoria Stead, Anthropological Forum, vol 22(3):320–322, 2012. Regan, Anthony and Helga Griffin. 2005, Bougainville Before the Conflict. Canberra, Pandanus Books. Robert Young Pelton. "The Hunter, the Hammer, and Heaven: Journeys to Three Worlds Gone Mad". 2002. Guilford, CT: The Lyons Press. . The Coconut Revolution (2000) directed by Dom Rotheroe includes a report and interview with Francis Ona and the B.R.A. Bougainville – Our Island Our Fight (1998) by the multi-award-winning director Wayne Coles-Janess. The first footage of the war from behind the blockade. The critically acclaimed and internationally award-winning documentary is shown around the world. Roderic Alley, "Ethnosecession in Papua New Guinea: The Bougainville Case," in Rajat Ganguly and Ian MacDuff, ed.s, Ethnic Conflict and Secessionism in South Asia and Southeast Asia: Causes, Dynamics, Solutions'''. 2003. New Delhi, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. , . The Bougainville conflict: A classic outcome of the resource-curse effect?, Michael Cornish Chronology of Bougainville Civil War, By Michael J. Field, AFP, 30 January 1998 History of Papua New Guinea
737958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20eponyms%20%28A%E2%80%93K%29	List of eponyms (A–K)	An eponym is a person (real or fictitious) from whom something is said to take its name. The word is back-formed from "eponymous", from the Greek "eponymos" meaning "giving name". Here is a list of eponyms: A Shinzō Abe, Japanese Prime Minister – Abenomics Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician – Abelian group, Abel's theorem, Abel–Ruffini theorem Acantha, Greek mythological character – the plant genus Acanthus Achaemenes, Persian king – Achaemenid dynasty Achilles, Greek mythological character – Achilles' heel, Achilles tendon Ada Lovelace, first person to describe computer programming (for the Babbage engine) – Ada programming language Adam, Biblical character – Adam's apple, adamite Alvin Adams, American businessman – Adams Express Adamson, Swedish comics character – Adamson Award Thomas Addison, British physician – Addison's disease, Addisonian crisis, Addison–Schilder syndrome Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, British queen – the city of Adelaide in Australia, Queen Adelaide, Cambridgeshire, Adelaide Archipelago, Adelaide Island Adhemar, Belgian comics character – Bronzen Adhemar Adonis, Greek mythological character – adonis (a good looking, handsome young boy), adonism, Adonis, adonis (species of skink) Aeolus, Greek mythological character – Aeolian harp Adam Afzelius, Swedish botanist – Afzelius's disease, afzelia Agag, biblical king – Agagites Agatha of Sicily, Italian Christian martyr – St. Agatha's Tower Agrippina the Younger, Roman empress – Cologne, Germany (formerly Colonia Agrippina) Ahasuerus, Biblical character – the term "ahasverus" is used to describe a "restless person" in certain languages, Ahasverus Alfred V. Aho, Canadian computer scientist – the first letter of the name AWK, a computer pattern/action language, is taken from Aho Ajax, Greek mythological character – Ajax Amsterdam Akademos, Greek mythological character – academy Akela, British literary character – Akela, another term for 'scoutsleader' Rabbi Akiva, Judean rabbi – Bnei Akiva Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, Latinized as "Algoritmi", Persian mathematician – algorithm. Semyon Alapin, Lithuanian chess player – Alapin's Opening Albert, Prince Consort, British prince – Prince Albert piercing, a form of male genital piercing; Alberta (Canada), Albert Bridge, London, Albert Bridge, Glasgow, Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool, Royal Albert Dock, London, Royal Albert Hall, Albert Memorial, Lake Albert, Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Albert Medal Adolf Albin, Romanian chess player – Albin Countergambit Alcaeus, Greek poet – Alcaic stanza Alexander Alekhine, Russian chess player – Alekhine's Defence Alexander of Aphrodisias, Greek philosopher – Alexandrism, Alexander's band Alexander the Great, Greek-Macedonian conqueror – Alexandria, İskenderun, Kandahar, alexandrine Matthew Algie, Scottish businessman – "Matthew Algie" (company) Alice, British literary character – Alice in Wonderland syndrome Thomas Allinson, British physician – Allinson bread Herb Alpert and Jerry Moss, American musicians – A&M Records Arthur Cecil Alport, South African physician – Alport syndrome Walter C. Alvarez, American physician − Alvarez' syndrome; Alvarez-waves; Walter C. Alvarez Memorial Award Alois Alzheimer, German neurologist – Alzheimer's disease Amanullah Khan, Afghan king – The Dutch term "ammehoela" (which means "yeah, right!" or "what do I care?") Amaryllis, Roman literary character from Virgil's pastoral Eclogues – amaryllis Amazon, Greek mythological tribe – Amazon River Bruce Ames, American biochemist – Ames test Jakob Ammann, Swiss-American religious leader – Amish Amor (Latin name for Cupid), Greek mythological character – The French word "amour" and the Italian word "amore" (which both mean "love") André-Marie Ampère, French scientist – ampere – unit of electric current, Ampère's law, amp Amun, Egyptian god – ammonia Roald Amundsen, Norwegian explorer – Amundsen Sea; Amundsen crater, a crater on the Moon; Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station Ignacio "Nacho" Anaya – inventor of nachos José de Anchieta, Spanish priest – Anchieta Island, Anchieta, Espírito Santo, Anchieta, Santa Catarina, Rodovia Anchieta Andromeda, Greek mythological character – Andromeda constellation, Andromeda Galaxy, Andromeda polifolia Anders Jonas Ångström, Swedish physicist – angstrom, unit of distance Adolf Anderssen, German chess player – Anderssen's Opening Saint Andrew, Christian apostle – Order of Saint Andrew, Saint Andrew's Cross, St Andrews, Scotland, San Andreas Fault, and numerous other localities, churches and cathedrals. Anne of Denmark, Scottish queen – Queen Anne's Men Anne, Queen of Great Britain, British queen – Queen Anne style architecture, Queen Anne style furniture, Statute of Anne, Queen Anne's Bounty Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor – Antonine Wall Virginia Apgar, American physician and anesthesiologist – Apgar score Aphrodite, Greek mythological character – aphrodisiac Apollinaris of Ravenna – Apollinaris (water) Apollo, Greek mythological character – Apollonian and Dionysian, Apollo archetype Apollonius of Perga, Greek mathematician and astronomer – Apollonian circles, Apollonian gasket, Apollonian network, Apollonius' theorem, Problem of Apollonius Saint Thomas Aquinas, Italian philosopher – Thomism, many educational institutions Yasser Arafat, Palestinian politician and activist – Arafat scarf (nickname for a Palestinian keffiyeh) Aram, son of Shem, biblical character – Aram (region) Rafael Moreno Aranzadi, nicknamed Pichichi, Spanish association football player – Pichichi Trophy Archimedes, Greek mathematician – Archimedes' screw, Archimedes' principle, Archimedean point, Claw of Archimedes, Archimedean solid Argus Panoptes, Greek mythological character – argus-eyed, great argus (pheasant species), scatophagus argus (fish species) Ariadne, Greek mythological character – Ariadne's thread (logic) Aristoteles, Greek mathematician and philosopher – Aristotelianism, Aristotelian ethics, Aristotelian physics, Aristotelian Society, Aristotelian theology, Aristotelia, Aristotle Mountains, Aristotle's wheel paradox, Aristotle's theory of universals, Pseudo-Aristotle Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian – Arminianism Louis Armstrong, American jazz musician, who was nicknamed Satchmo – Satchmo's syndrome William George Armstrong, British inventor and business man – Armstrong breech-loading gun Arthur, British-Welsh mythological king – Arthurian fantasy, Arthurian heraldry, Arthurian legend José Gervasio Artigas, Uruguayan revolutionary leader – Artiguism Asclepius, Greek mythological character – rod of Asclepius, therapeutae of Asclepius Ashur, biblical character – Assyria Hans Asperger, Austrian psychologist – Asperger syndrome Atalanta, Greek mythological character – Atalanta butterfly Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkish president – Kemalism (also known as Atatürkism) Athena, Greek goddess – The Greek city Athens, atheneum, Athens, Athene (bird) Robert Atkins, American nutriotinist – Atkins diet Atlas, Greek mythological character – atlas, Atlas, atlas, Atlas, Atlas, Atlas, Atlas bear, Atlas beetle, Atlas cedar, Atlas pied flycatcher, Atlas moth, Atlas turtle Atthis, Greek mythological character – Atthis, Attica Shlomo Zalman Auerbach, Israeli rabbi and theologist – Ramat Shlomo Aurélio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira, Brazilian lexicographer – Aurélio's Brazilian Portuguese Dictionary, nicknamed the "Big Aurélio" in Portuguese. Augeas, Greek mythological king – Augean stable Augustus Caesar, Roman emperor – the month of August; the city of Zaragoza (originally Caesaraugustus); the city of Caesarea in Israel; numerous other cities once named Caesarea; Augustan age R. Stanton Avery, American inventor and businessman – Avery Dennison Corporation Amedeo Avogadro, Italian chemist – Avogadro constant, Avogadro's law Nnamdi Azikiwe, Nigerian president – Zikism B Bebot, Mother of Kenneth John – Bebot Báb, Persian religious leader – Bábism Charles Babbage, British mathematician and inventor – Babbage engine, Babbage Isaac Babbitt, American inventor – Babbitt metal Joseph Babinski, French neurologist – Babinski's sign, Anton–Babinski syndrome, Babinski–Fröhlich syndrome, Babinski–Froment syndrome, Babinski–Nageotte syndrome, Babinski–Vaquez syndrome, Babinski–Weil test, Babinski–Jarkowski rule. Lauren Bacall, American actress – Bogart–Bacall syndrome Facundo Bacardi, Spanish-Cuban business man – Bacardi, Bacardi cocktail, Bacardi Breezer Bacchus, Greek-Roman mythological character – Bacchic, Bacchic art, Bacchanalia Edward Bach, British physician – Bach flower remedies Johann Sebastian Bach, German composer – BACH motif John Backus, American computer scientist – Backus–Naur form Karl Baedeker, German business man – Baedeker Leo Baekeland, Belgian inventor – Bakelite William Baffin, British explorer – Baffin Bay, Baffin Island Bahá'u'lláh, Persian religious leader – Baháʼí Faith Bahram V Gur, Persian king – bahramdipity Donald Bailey, British engineer and inventor – Bailey bridge Francis Baily, British astronomer – Baily's beads René Baire, French mathematician – Baire category theorem, Baire function, Baire measure, Baire set, Baire space, Baire space, Property of Baire John Randal Baker (1900–1984), English zoologist and anthropologist – Microscopic staining merthods: for lipids, Baker's acid-haematein, and for mucins his mucicarmine Italo Balbo, Italian aviator and politician – Balbo, Seventh Street Balbo Drive (street in Chicago) Ed Balducci, Italian-American illusionist – Balducci levitation J. G. Ballard, British author – Ballardian, Ballardesque János Balogh, Hungarian-Romanian chess master – Balogh Defense Balthazar, Biblical character – 12-litre wine bottle (see Wine bottle#Sizes) Honoré de Balzac, French author – Balzac Prize Bambi, Austrian literary character – Bambi effect, Bambi effect, Bambi Award Heinrich Band, German inventor and music instrument builder– Bandoneón Bernhard Bang, Danish physician – Bang's disease Peter Bang and Svend Olufsen, Danish businesspeople – Bang and Olufsen Joseph Banks, British botanician – Banks Peninsula, genus Banksia Baphomet, demon character – Sigil of Baphomet Barbara, daughter of American business woman Ruth Handler – Barbie doll Joseph Barbera and William Hanna, American animators – Hanna-Barbera Willem Barentsz, Dutch explorer – Barents Sea, Barentsz bridge, Barents Region Francis Baring, British businessman – Barings Bank Heinrich Barkhausen, German physicist – Barkhausen effect, Barkhausen stability criterion, Barkhausen–Kurz tube Thomas Wilson Barnes, British chess master – Barnes Defence, Barnes Opening P. T. Barnum, American circus entertainer – Barnum effect Murray Barr, Canadian physician – Barr body Yvonne Barr and Sir Anthony Epstein, British physicians – Epstein–Barr virus Jean Alexandre Barré, French neurologist – Guillain–Barré syndrome, Barré test Caspar Bartholin the Younger, Danish physician – Bartholin's gland Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer – Bartok pizzicato Basarab I of Wallachia – Bessarabia Earl W. Bascom, American-Canadian rodeo inventor – Bascom's rigging John U. Bascom, American surgeon – Bascom cleft lift procedure Karl Adolph von Basedow, German physician – Graves–Basedow disease John Baskerville, British typographer – Baskerville George Bass, British explorer – Bass Strait Tomáš Baťa, Czech businessman – Bata Shoes; Bata Shoe Museum, Tomas Bata University in Zlín, Batawa; Batanagar, India; Batapur, Punjab, Pakistan Henry Walter Bates, British biologist – Batesian mimicry Émile Baudot, French engineer – Baudot alphabet, Baudot code Antoine Baumé, French engineer – Baumé scale Bavo of Ghent, Southern-Dutch/Walloon Roman Catholic saint – Bamberg, Germany Donald E. Baxter and Delia B. Baxter – Baxter International Bryce Bayer, American scientist – Bayer filter Friedrich Bayer, German business man – Bayer AG Herbert Bayer, Austrian-American graphic designer and architect – Bayer Universal, Architype Bayer William Bayliss, British physician – Bayliss effect The Beatles, British rock group – Beatlesque, Beatle boot, Beatle haircut, Beatlemania Francis Beaufort, French captain – Beaufort scale Louis de Béchamel, a courtier of Louis XIV – Béchamel sauce Alison Bechdel, American cartoonist – Bechdel test Carl Bechstein, German businessman – C. Bechstein Warren A. Bechtel, American businessman – Bechtel Heinrich Beck, German businessman – Beck's beer, Beck's Futures art prize John Bruce Beckwith, American physician – Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome Henri Becquerel, French physicist – becquerel John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford, British politician – Bedfordite Michel Bégon, French politician – begonia Hulusi Behçet, Turkish dermatologist – Behçet's disease Adrian Bejan, Romanian-American mathematician – Bejan number Léon Bekaert, Belgian businessman – Bekaert Jacob Bekenstein, Israelian-American theoretical physicist – Bekenstein bound Édouard Belin, French-Swiss inventor – Belinograph Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish inventor – bel – unit of relative power level; Bell Labs, Bell System, BellSouth, Bellcore (now Telcordia Technologies), Regional Bell Operating Company, Bell Canada – companies. Francis Bellamy, American religious leader – Bellamy salute. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, Estonian-German explorer – Bellingshausen Sea Nikos Beloyannis, Greek resistance leader – Beloiannisz (village in Hungary) Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Litvak lexicographer – Ben Yehuda Street, Ben Yehuda Street (Tel Aviv) Benedick, British theatrical character – benedick Benedict of Nursia, Italian priest – Benedictine Edvard Beneš, Czech president – Beneš decrees Luciano Benetton, Italian business man – Benetton Group, Benetton Formula Benjamin, Biblical character – a Benjamin (in some languages the youngest son of a family is referred to by this name) Pal Benko, Hungarian chess player – Benko Gambit, Benko's Opening Arnold Bennett, British novelist – Omelette Arnold Bennett, dish developed at the Savoy Hotel, London Linn Boyd Benton, American typographer – Benton Pantograph Karl Benz, German businessman – Benz & Cie. (later Daimler-Benz) Hiram Berdan, American inventor – Berdan Sharps rifle, Berdan centerfire primer Hans Berenberg and Paul Berenberg, German businessman – Berenberg Bank Vitus Bering, Danish explorer – Bering Strait, Commander Islands Busby Berkeley, American choreographer – "Busby Berkeley choreography", "Busby Berkeley number" (an elaborate sing and dance number with many people involved, usually in a geometrical arrangement) David Berkowitz also known as "Son of Sam", American criminal – Son of Sam law Emile Berliner, German-American inventor and businessman – Berliner Gramophone Maximilian Berlitz, German-American businessman – Berlitz Language Schools Juan de Bermúdez, Spanish explorer – Bermuda Daniel Bernoulli, Dutch mathematician – Bernoulli's principle Sergei Natanovich Bernstein, Russian mathematician – Bernstein polynomial, Bernstein algebra, Bernstein's inequality, Bernstein inequalities in probability theory, Bernstein polynomial, Bernstein's problem, Bernstein's theorem, Bernstein's theorem on monotone functions, Bernstein–von Mises theorem Yogi Berra, American baseball player – Yogi Bear, Yogiisms Claude Louis Berthollet, French chemist – Berthollide Alphonse Bertillon, French police officer – Bertillon method/system. Henry Bessemer, British inventor – Bessemer converter, Bessemer steel Aneurin Bevan, British politician – Bevanism Pierre Bézier, French engineer and mathematician – Bézier curve, Bézier surface Marcel Bich, French-Italian businessman – Bic Bieda, a Saxon landowner ("Bieda's ford" + shire) – Bedfordshire Max Bielschowsky (1869–1940), German neuropathologist – Bielschowsky's silver stain for nerve fibres Big Brother, British literary character – "Big Brother society" (a society where government surveillance is omnipresent), Big Brother Awards Alfred Binet, French mathematician – Stanford-Binet IQ test Meyer Herman Bing and Frederik Vilhelm Grøndahl, Danish business people – Bing & Grøndahl Bintje Jansma, Dutch pupil – Bintje Forrest Bird, American inventor – Bird Innovator Henry Bird, British chess player – Bird's Opening Clarence Birdseye, American businessman – Captain Birdseye Jane Birkin, British pop singer and actress – Birkin bag. László Bíró, Hungarian inventor – Biro, (ballpoint pen) Otto von Bismarck, German chancellor – Bismarck Archipelago and Bismarck Sea near New Guinea; German battleship Bismarck as well as two ships of the Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine); Bismarck, North Dakota, Bismarck herring Fischer Black and Myron Scholes, American economists – Black–Scholes formula, Black–Scholes equation S. Duncan Black and Alonzo G. Decker, American business men – Black & Decker Tony Blair, British Prime Minister – Blairism, Blatcherism Louis Auguste Blanqui, French politician and activist – Blanquism Louis Blériot, French aviator – Recherches Aéronautiques Louis Blériot. Charles K. Bliss, Ukrainian-Austrian engineer – Blissymbols. André Bloch, French mathematician, Bloch space, Bloch's theorem (complex variables) Felix Bloch, Swiss-American physician – Bloch wall, Bloch sphere, Bloch's theorem Charles Blondin, French acrobat – Blondin (quarry equipment) Amelia Bloomer, American activist – bloomers Benjamin Blumenfeld, Belarussian chess player – Blumenfeld Gambit Boann, Irish mythological character – The River Boyne Johann Elert Bode and Johann Daniel Titius, German astronomers – Titius–Bode law David Bodian (1910–1992), – American medical scientist – Bodian's protargol stain Giambattista Bodoni, Italian typographer – Bodoni William Boeing, American aviator – Boeing Commercial Airplanes Herman Boerhaave, Dutch physician – Boerhaave syndrome Humphrey Bogart, American actor – Bogart–Bacall syndrome Efim Bogoljubov, Russian-German chess player – Bogo-Indian Defence Bogomil, Bulgarian religious leader – Bogomilism Niels Bohr, Danish physicist – Bohr magneton, Bohr radius, bohrium Lecoq de Boisbaudran, French chemist – gallium, chemical element. Although named after Gallia (Latin for France), Lecoq de Boisbaudran, the discoverer of the metal, subtly attached an association with his name. Lecoq (rooster) in Latin is gallus. Bart Jan Bok, Dutch astronomer – Bok globules Simón Bolívar, Bolivian general and president – Bolivia, Bolívar Department, Colombia, various cities and tows named Bolívar en Venezuela and Colombia, Venezuelan bolívar, Bolívar, Bolivarism Jean Bolland, Belgian priest – Bollandists Lucas Bols, Dutch businessman – Bols (brand) Ludwig Boltzmann, German mathematician – Boltzmann constant, Stefan–Boltzmann constant, Stefan–Boltzmann law Napoleon Bonaparte, French general and emperor – Bonapartism, Napoleonic Code, Napoleon Empire, Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon complex, Napoleon Opening, Napoleon's theorem, Napoleon's problem, Napoleon snake eel, Napoleon fish, Napoleon, Napoleon points, Napoleonka George Alan Bond, American-Australian business man – Bonds George Boole, British mathematician – Boolean algebra Gail Borden, American business man – "Borden Condensed Milk", Borden County, Texas Jules Bordet, Belgian physicist – Bordetella Amadeo Bordiga, Italian politician – Bordigism Armand Borel, French mathematician – Borel–Weil–Bott theorem, Borel conjecture, Borel fixed-point theorem, Borel's theorem Émile Borel, French mathematician – Borel algebra, Borel's lemma, Borel's law of large numbers, Borel measure, Borel–Kolmogorov paradox, Borel–Cantelli lemma, Borel–Carathéodory theorem, Heine–Borel theorem, Borel summation, Borel distribution Alexander Borodin, Russian composer and chemist – Borodin reaction Karel Havlíček Borovský, Czech novelist – Havlíčkův Brod Giuseppe Borsalino, Italian businessman – Borsalino Bernard Bosanquet, British cricketer – bosie, the Australian term for the cricket technique googly Hieronymus Bosch, Dutch painter – Boschian Robert Bosch, German business man and inventor – Robert Bosch GmbH Amar Bose, American business man and inventor – Bose Corporation, Bose speaker packages Satyendra Nath Bose, Indian physicist – bosons, Bose–Einstein statistics, Bose–Einstein condensate Jean-Marc Bosman, Belgian association football player – Bosman ruling Elbert Dysart Botts, American engineer and inventor – Botts' dots, a street and highway lane separator Louis Antoine de Bougainville, French navigator – the bougainvillea plant, which he discovered. Georges Boulanger, French politician – Boulangism Matthew Boulton and James Watt, British inventors and business people – Boulton and Watt Habib Bourguiba, Tunesian president – Bourguibism Thierry Boutsen, Belgian car racer – Boutsen Aviation Sir Frank Bowden, 1st Baronet, British businessman – Bowden cable. Thomas Bowdler, British publisher – to bowdlerize Jim Bowie, American inventor – Bowie knife Sir William Bowman, British anatomist – Bowman's capsule Charles Boycott, Irish politician – boycott Robert Boyle, Irish chemist – Boyle's law Rudolph Boysen, American horticulturist – boysenberry Tycho Brahe, Danish astronomer – Tychonic system, Tycho Brahe days Tom Bradley, American politician – Bradley effect. Brahma, Hindu deity – Brahmanism Brahmagupta, Indian mathematician and astronomer – Brahmagupta's formula, Brahmagupta's identity, Brahmagupta's trapezium, Brahmagupta's problem, Brahmagupta's polynomial Johannes Brahms, German composer – Brahms guitar Louis Braille, French inventor – braille writing Matthew Bramley, British butcher – Bramley apple Karl Ferdinand Braun, German physicist – "Braun tube" (in some languages the cathode ray tube is referred to as such) Karl Ferdinand Braun Prize Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza, Italian explorer – Brazzaville, De Brazza's monkey Abraham-Louis Breguet, Swiss watch maker – Breguet (brand) Louis Charles Breguet, French aviator – Breguet Aviation, Breguet 14, Breguet's range equation Jacques Brel, Belgian singer – Brelian crescendo Hans-Joachim Bremermann, German-American mathematician and biophysicist – Bremermann's limit Jack Elton Bresenham, American computer scientist – Bresenham's line algorithm Ebenezer Cobham Brewer, British lexicographer – Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable Leonid Brezhnev, Russian head of state – Brezhnev Doctrine Richard Bright, British physician – Bright's disease Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, French gastronomer – Brillat-Savarin cheese, Gâteau Savarin Thomas Brisbane, British politician – Brisbane and Brisbane River Paul Broca, French neurologist – Broca's aphasia, Broca's area Henry James Brooke, British crystallographer – Brookite Mel Brooks, American film director and actor – Brooksfilms Gordon Brown, British Prime Minister – Brownism Robert Brown, Scottish botanist – Brownian motion John Browning, American inventor – Browning firearms, including the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle and Browning Hi-Power Archibald Bruce, American mineralogist – Brucite. Catherine Wolfe Bruce, American humanitarian activist – Bruce Medal. David Bruce, Australian-Scottish pathologist and microbiologist – Brucella, brucellosis. James Bruce, Scottish explorer – brucine. R. H. Bruck, American mathematician – Bruck–Ryser–Chowla theorem Anton Bruckner, Austrian composer – Bruckner rhythm Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Flemish painter – Bruegelian (a jolly eat- and drink festivity which resembles scenes from his paintings.), Bruegel, Brueghel's syndrome, "Bruegel Ancienne" (a Belgian beer brand) Johannes Brugman, Dutch priest – "praten als Brugman" ("to talk like Brugman", indicating a powerful speech) Marcus Junius Brutus, Italian politician – brutal, brutality, brute Prince Brychan, British king – Brecknockshire Bucca, Saxon landowner ("Bucca's home" + shire) – Buckinghamshire Bucephalus, horse of Alexander the Great – Bucephala (city), Bucephala (bird) Buddha, Nepalese religious leader – Buddhism Semyon Budyonny, Russian general – Budyonny horse Ettore Bugatti, Italian businessman – Bugatti Muhammadu Buhari, Nigerian president – Buharism David Dunbar Buick, American businessman – Buick Dagwood Bumstead, American comics character – Dagwood sandwich Archie Bunker, American TV character – the Bunker vote (political term describing the affiliations of mainly white, lower class voters who share conservative, bigoted viewpoints with Bunker) Robert Bunsen, German inventor – Bunsen burner Viktor Bunyakovsky, Russian mathematician – Bunyakovsky conjecture Johan Burgers Dutch businessman — Royal Burgers' Zoo Jean Buridan, French philosopher – Buridan's ass William Burke, Irish criminal – to burke (to execute someone by suffocation) Robert Burns, Scottish poet – Burns stanza Ambrose Burnside, American general – sideburns Wilhelm Busch, German comics artist and illustrator – Wilhelm Busch Prize George W. Bush, American president – Bush Doctrine, Bushism Lord Byron, British poet – Byronic; Byronism C John Cadbury, British businessman – Cadbury Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, French explorer – Cadillac Julius Caesar, Roman consul and general – the month of July, Caesar cipher, the titles Czar, Tsar, and Kaiser, the Bloody Caesar cocktail. An urban legend also erroneously credits Julius Caesar as having given his name to the caesarean section; the two are likely unrelated, however. Cain, Biblical character – Cain's mark Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Spanish physician – Cajal's cell Calimero, Italian cartoon character – Calimero complex (used to denote people who are staunchly convinced that their position as an underdog is due to their smaller size, either literally or symbolically, which covers up for their own shortcomings). In some languages, like Italian and Israeli Hebrew the word "calimero" is also used to refer to biker helmets. John Calvin, Swiss theologian – Calvinism. Calypso, Greek mythological character – calypso (plant), calypso music, calypso (camera). Pierre Cambronne, French general – The French word "cambronniser" and the expression "le mot de Cambronne" ("The word of Cambronne"), which both refer to the vulgar expression "merde"!" ("shit!") he uttered during the Battle of Waterloo Gaspare Campari, Italian businessman – Campari Joseph A. Campbell, American businessman – Campbell Soup Company Canaan (son of Ham), biblical character – Canaan Myrtelle Canavan, American physician – Canavan's disease Candaules, Lydian king – candaulism Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910), Italian chemist – Cannizzaro reaction Georg Cantor, German mathematician – Cantor algebra, Cantor cube, Cantor function, Cantor space, Cantor's back-and-forth method, Cantor–Bernstein theorem, Heine–Cantor theorem Joseph Capgras, French psychologist – Capgras delusion Frank Capra, American film director – Capraesque Caran d'Ache, French cartoonist – Caran d'Ache Gerolamo Cardano, Italian mathematician and physician – cardan joint, Cardan grille, Cardano's Rings Caesar Cardini, Italian-American restaurateur – Caesar salad Jonathan Carey, American autistic child – Jonathan's Law Carl Carl, Polish-born actor and theatre director – Carltheater Infante Carlos, Count of Molina, Spanish king – Carlism Carlota Joaquina of Spain, Portuguese queen – Carlotism, Teatro Nacional de São Carlos Horatio Caro, British chess player – Caro–Kann Defence Vittore Carpaccio, Italian painter – carpaccio Philip Carteret, British explorer – Carteret Islands Sam Carr, neighbour of American serial killer David Berkowitz also known as "Son of Sam" – Son of Sam law Enrico Caruso, Italian opera tenor – Caruso Sauce Giacomo Casanova, Italian adventurer and diarist – casanova (a womanizer) Hendrik Casimir, Dutch physicist – Casimir effect Cassandra, Greek mythological character – Cassandra Laurent Cassegrain, French inventor – Cassegrain reflecting telescope Giovanni Domenico Cassini, Italian astronomer and mathematician – Cassini Division, Cassini oval, Cassini's laws, Cassini and Catalan identities Paul de Casteljau, French physicist and mathematician – De Casteljau's algorithm Fidel Castro, Cuban president – Castroism Catherine of Alexandria, Christian martyr – Catherine wheel. Catherine I of Russia, Russian empress – Yekaterinburg, Catherine Palace, Catherine Park Augustin-Louis Cauchy, French mathematician – List of things named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy Eduard Čech, Czech mathematician – Čech cohomology, Čech complex, Čech homology, Stone–Čech compactification Hugh Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood, British politician – Hughligans Celadon, French literary character – celadon Anders Celsius, Swedish physicist and astronomer – degree Celsius (unit of temperature) Celsius (Moon crater) Cerberus, Greek mythological character – Cerberus (protein), Cerberus (snake) Ceredig, British Celtic chieftain – Cardigan Clyde Cessna, American aviator and businessman – Cessna Aircraft. Mr. Chadband, British literary character – Chadband Carlos Chagas, Brazilian physician – Chagas disease Jacques-François de Chambray, French governor – Fort Chambray Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-American astronomer and physicist – Chandrasekhar limit, Chandra X-ray Observatory Coco Chanel, French fashion designer – Chanel, Chanel No. 5 Chaos, Greek mythological character – chaos. Charlie Chaplin, British comedian, film actor and director – Chaplinesque, Chaplin moustache. Jean-Antoine Chaptal, French chemist – chaptalization Jean-Martin Charcot, French neurologist – Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease; Maladie de Charcot, the French name for motor neurone disease Charles I of England, English king – North Carolina and South Carolina Charles III of Monaco, Monegasque king – Monte Carlo Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor – places called Carlsbad, Karlstein Castle, Karlovy Vary, Charles University, Charles Bridge Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor – château Karlova Koruna Jacques Charles and Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicists – Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac (frequently called simply Charles' Law) Carl Charlier, Swedish astronomer and physicist – Charlier polynomials Bobby Charlton, British association football player – the "Bobby Charlton" comb over hairstyle. Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, British queen – Queen Charlotte Islands, Queen Charlotte City, Queen Charlotte Sound, Fort Charlotte, Charlottesville, Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia Michel Chasles, French mathematician – Chasles' theorem François-René de Chateaubriand, French writer – Chateaubriand steak Nicolas Chauvin, French soldier – chauvinism Hugo Chávez, Venezuelan president – Chavismo Anton Chekhov, Russian playwright – Chekhov's gun Vitaly Chekhover, Russian chess player – Sicilian Defence, Chekhover Variation Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov, Russian physicist – Cherenkov effect Louis Chevrolet, French businessman – Chevrolet Chewbacca, film character – Chewbacca defense Chimaera, Greek mythological character – Chimaera The term "chimaera" has come to describe any mythical or fictional animal with parts taken from various animals, or to describe anything composed of very disparate parts, or perceived as wildly imaginative, implausible, or dazzling. Thomas Chippendale, British furniture designer – Chippendale furniture. Ernst Chladni, German physicist – Chladni patterns Jesus Christ, Biblical prophet – Christianity, Christmas, Christ complex (also known as Messianic complex), Christchurch, Jesuit Jesus' nickname "The Saviour" also inspired the name of El Salvador. Agatha Christie, British novelist – Agatha Christie indult James Christie, British auctioner – Christie's Saint Christopher, Christian martyr – Saint Kitts and Nevis. Walter Chrysler, American businessman – Chrysler, DaimlerChrysler, Chrysler Building Alfred Chuang, Chinese-American computer scientist – The third letter of the company name BEA Systems, is taken from his first name. Alonzo Church, American mathematician – Church–Turing thesis, Church–Turing–Deutsch principle Charles Churchill, American-British businessman – Churchill Machine Tool Company Winston Churchill, British Prime Minister – Churchill tank, Churchill cigars, Churchill (cocktail) Cincinnatus, Roman politician – Cincinnati (indirectly) Cinderella, European fairy tale character – Cinderella, Cinderella complex, Cinderella effect André Citroën, French businessman – Citroën Senator Claghorn, character on the Fred Allen radio show – Foghorn Leghorn Claude of France, French queen – reine claude Claudius, Roman emperor – the city of Kayseri, formerly Caesarea Mazaca, in Turkey. Moses Cleaveland, American politician – Cleveland Gaëtan Gatian de Clérambault, French psychologist – Kandinsky–Clérambault syndrome Ruth Cleveland, daughter of American president Grover Cleveland – Baby Ruth candy bars. Bill Clinton, American president – Clintonomics, Clintonism, Clintonian Henri Coandă, Romanian inventor – Coandă effect John Robert Cobb, American physician – Cobb angle Richard Cobden, British politician – Cobdenism Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, British politician and soldier – Cobhamite John Cockerill, British businessman – Cockerill-Sambre William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody, American frontiersman and entertainer – Cody, Wyoming Jean-Baptiste Colbert, French politician – Colbertism, Colbert coat, sauce Colbert William T. Coleman III, American businessman – the first letter of the company name BEA Systems, is taken from his first name. Edgard Colle, Belgian chess player – Colle System Samuel Colt, American gun inventor – Colt revolver. Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer – Egg of Columbus; many places and territories, see Columbus, Colombia, Colombo, British Columbia in Canada Arthur Compton, American physicist – Compton scattering Nicolas de Condorcet, French mathematician and philosopher – Condorcet method Confucius, Chinese philosopher – Confucianism Constantine I, Roman Emperor – Constantinople Nicolas-Jacques Conté, French inventor – Conté crayon James Cook, British explorer – Cook Islands; Cooktown, Queensland; James Cook University (Townsville); Cook (suburb of Canberra; co-named for Sir Joseph Cook); Cooks River; Cook (Federal electorate); James Cook University Hospital (Marton, Middlesbrough, England); Aoraki / Mount Cook; Cook Strait D. B. Cooper, American criminal – Cooper vane Kenneth C. Cooper, American physician – Cooper test Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer – Copernican heliocentrism, Copernican Revolution, Copernican principle, copernicium Godfrey Copley, British art collector – Copley Medal Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis, French mathematician – Coriolis effect Pierre Corneille, French playwright – Cornelian dilemma Nicolas Cotoner, Maltese prince – Cottonera Lines Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, French physicist – coulomb, Coulomb's law Thomas Cowling, British mathematician and astronomer – Cowling model William Cowper, British anatomist – Cowper's gland Michael Cowpland, British businessman – Corel (the first two letters were lifted from his first name), Mitel with Terry Matthews (Mitel stands MIke and TErry's Lawnmowers) Richard Cox, British horticulturist – Cox's Orange Pippin Bettino Craxi, Italian Prime Minister – Craxism Seymour Cray, American computerengineer and inventor – Cray Research Elliott Cresson, American businessman – Elliott Cresson Medal Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt and Alfons Maria Jakob, German physicians – Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Burrill Bernard Crohn, American physician – Crohn's disease Jim Crow, American theatrical character – Jim Crow law Robinson Crusoe, British literary character – Robinsonade, Robinson Crusoe economy Johan Cruyff, Dutch association football player – Cruijffiaans Cunedda, Welsh king – Gwynedd Cupid, Greek-Roman mythological character – Cupid's bow Marie and Pierre Curie, French physicists – Curie, curium Pierre Curie, French physicist – Curie point Haskell Curry, American mathematician – currying, Curry's paradox, Curry–Howard correspondence Mary Curzon, Baroness Curzon of Kedleston, British noblewomen – Lady Curzon Soup Cush (Bible), biblical character – Kingdom of Kush Harvey Cushing, American physician – Cushing's syndrome Saint Cuthbert, Celtic priest ("church of Cuthbert") – Kirkcudbright Saint Cyril, Greek missionary – Cyrillic alphabet D Dactyl, Greek mythological character – dactyly, syndactyly, polydactyly. Daedalus, Greek mythological character – Daedala Louis Daguerre, French photographer and inventor – Daguerreotype Anders Dahl, Swedish botanist – Dahlia Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz, German businesspeople – DaimlerBenz (later DaimlerChrysler) Dalek, British TV character – Popular nickname for the Bridgewater Place, Dalekmania Salvador Dalí, Spanish painter – Dalí moustache, Dalíesque John Dalton, British physicist and chemist – dalton, non-SI unit of atomic mass, Daltonism Tadd Dameron, American jazz musician – Tadd Dameron turnaround Pedro Damiano, Portuguese chess player – Damiano Defence Damocles, Greek mythological character – Sword of Damocles Glenn Danzig – Danzig (band) Daphne, Greek mythological character – Daphne, daphnia Henry Darcy, French engineer – darcy, Darcy's law Charles Darwin, British biologist – Darwinism, Neural Darwinism, Social Darwinism, Darwinian Happiness, Darwin's theory of evolution, Darwinian selection, Non-darwinian evolution, Darwinian medicine, Darwin, Northern Territory, Darwin Mounds, Charles Darwin University, Darwin College, Cambridge, Charles Darwin National Park, Darwin Awards, Darwin's finches, Darwin Island, another Darwin Island, Charles Darwin Research Station, Darwin Bay, Lecocarpus darwinii (a tree species), Charles Darwin Foundation, Darwin's Arch Adi Dassler, German businessman – adidas David, biblical character – Star of David, City of David, David's harp Jean-Baptist David, Belgian activist – Davidsfonds Arthur Davidson and William Harley, American businesspeople – Harley–Davidson John Davis, British explorer – Davis quadrant Humphry Davy, British chemist and inventor – Davy lamp Richard Dawkins, British scientist and activist – Dawkinsia, Richard Dawkins Award Gene Day, Canadian comics artist – Howard E. Day Prize Deborah, biblical character – Deborah number (dimensionless number in rheology) Paul de Casteljau, French mathematician – de Casteljau's algorithm Daniel De Leon, American trade union leader – De Leonism John DeLorean, American car inventor – DeLorean. Michael Dell, American businessman – founder of Dell, the computer company John and Peter Delmonico, Swiss-American restaurant holders – Delmonico steak Demosthenes, Greek orator – Demosthenic Deng Xiaoping, Chinese head of state – Deng Xiaoping Theory Arnaud Denjoy, French mathematician – Denjoy integral Thomas Derrick (c. 1600), British hangman – Derrick (lifting device) René Descartes, French philosopher – Cartesian coordinate system, Cartesianism David Deutsch, Israeli-British physicist – Church–Turing–Deutsch principle Melvil Dewey, American librarian – Dewey Decimal System Thomas Dewey, American politician – Dewey, one of "Huey, Dewey and Louie", animated cartoon characters Porfirio Díaz, Mexican dictator – Porfiriato Charles Dickens, British novelist – Dickensian Saint Didacus, Spanish priest – San Diego Bo Diddley, American blues/rock and roll singer and guitarist – Bo Diddley beat Rudolf Diesel, German inventor – diesel engine Milovan Đilas, Yugoslav politician Đilasism Diogenes, Greek philosopher – Diogenes syndrome Dionysus, Greek mythological character – Dionysia Paul Dirac, French mathematician – Dirac fermion, Dirac spinor, Dirac equation, Dirac delta function, Dirac sea, Dirac Prize, Fermi–Dirac statistics Johann Dirichlet, German mathematician – Dirichlet function, Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions Walt Disney, American animator and film producer – The Walt Disney Company, Disneyland, Disneyfication, Disneyism Edward Divers, British chemist – Divers's solution François Divisia, French economist – divisia index Jeremiah Dixon and Charles Mason, British astronomers – Mason–Dixon Line Albert Döderlein, German physician – Döderlein's bacilli John Francis Dodge and Horace Dodge, American businesspeople – Dodge Dogberry, British theatrical character – dogberryism (synonym for malapropism) Karl Gottfried Paul Döhle, German pathologist – Döhle bodies Doily, British draper – doily Ray Dolby, American inventor – Dolby Stereo, Dolby Surround and Dolby Pro Logic Domhnall mac Raghnaill, Hebridean magnate – Clann Domhnaill Don Juan, Spanish theatrical character – don juan (womanizer), Don Juanism Don Quixote, Spanish literary character – Don Quixote character, Don Quixote complex, Quixotism Donatello, Italian painter – Donatello, one of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comic characters Christian Doppler, Austrian physicist – Doppler radar, Doppler effect Donald Wills Douglas, Sr., American aviator – Douglas Aircraft Company Charles Dow and Edward Jones, American businesspeople – Dow Jones & Company Herbert Dow, Canadian-American businessman – Dow Chemical Company John Langdon Down, English physician – Down syndrome Jimmy "Popeye" Doyle, American literary character – Popeyes Louisiana Kitchen and not the comic and cartoon character Popeye the Sailor. Draco, Greek lawmaker – Draconian laws (very severe or cruel laws.) Henry Draper, American astronomer – Draper, lunar impact crater John William Draper, English-American physician, chemist and photographer – Draper point Willem Drees, Dutch Prime Minister – "van drees trekken" (Dutch term for receiving an old age pension financed by the government.) Fritz E. Dreifuss, American physician – Emery–Dreifuss muscular dystrophy Dubgall mac Somairle, King of the Isles – Clann Dubgaill Donald Duck, American cartoon character – Donald Duck voice, Donaldism Dulcinea, Spanish literary character – a dulcinea (synonym for mistress, sweetheart or an unrequited/platonic love.) Dumbo, American cartoon character – Dumbo ears (derogatory term for big ears) Robin Dunbar, British anthropologist – Dunbar's number John Duns Scotus, Scottish theologist – Dunce cap Guillaume Dupuytren, French physician – Dupuytren's contracture, Dupuytren's fracture August Dvorak, American psychologist – Dvorak keyboard layout E Jay Earley, American computer scientist – Earley parser Echo, Greek mythological character – echo Thomas Edison, American inventor – Edison and Swan Electric Light Company, Edison effect, Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe, Ltd., Edison Hotel (Sunbury, Pennsylvania), Edison Illuminating Company, Edison Machine Works, Edison Manufacturing Company, Edison Ore-Milling Company, Edison Portland Cement Company, Edison Records, Edison screw, Edison Storage Battery Company, Edison Studios, Edison, Georgia, Edison, New Jersey, Edisonade, Edisonian approach, Edison–Lalande cell, Hotel Edison, Thomas A. Edison, Inc., Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (younger brother of King George IV and King William IV), commander of British forces in Halifax – Prince Edward Island Edward VII, British king – Edwardian Gustave Eiffel, French architect – Eiffel Tower Egeria, Roman mythological character – Egeria (female advisor), Egeria (genus) Albert Einstein, German mathematician and physicist – Einstein refrigerator, einsteinium, Bose–Einstein statistics, Bose–Einstein condensates, Einstein tensor David Eisenhower, American presidential relative – Camp David Dwight D. Eisenhower, American general and president – Eisenhower Doctrine, Eisenhower jacket Will Eisner, American comics artist – Eisner Award Biblical Elam, biblical character – Elam Electra, Greek mythological character – Electra complex Elizabeth I of England, English queen, nicknamed the "Virgin Queen" and "Wingina", a Native American regional king – Virginia, West Virginia, Elizabethan sonnet, Elizabethan era, Elizabethan theatre, Elizabethan architecture, Elizabethan government Saint Elmo, Christian martyr – St. Elmo's fire Arpad Elo, Hungarian chess player – Elo rating system Loránd Eötvös, Hungarian physicist – eotvos, Lorándite, Eötvös effect, Eötvös number, Eötvös rule Epicurus, Greek philosopher – epicureanism, Epikoros Michael Anthony Epstein and Yvonne Barr, British physicians – Epstein–Barr virus Eratosthenes, Greek mathematician – Sieve of Eratosthenes Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Turkish president – Erdoğanism Lars Magnus Ericsson, Swedish businessman – Ericsson Ériu, Irish mythological character – Éire Agner Krarup Erlang, Danish mathematician – Erlang, Erlang distribution, Erlang (programming language) Emil Erlenmeyer, German chemist – Erlenmeyer flask Eros, Greek mytholotical character – eroticism, erotomania, erotophobia Euclid, Greek mathematician – Euclidean geometry, Euclidean algorithm, Euclidean vector Euhemerus, Greek writer – euhemerism Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician – Euler's formula, Eulerian path, Euler equations; see also: List of topics named after Leonhard Euler Europa, Greek mythological character – Europe Bartolomeo Eustachi, Italian biologist – Eustachian tube Eutyches, Greek religious leader – eutychian William Davies Evans, Welsh-British chess player – Evans Gambit George Everest, Welsh explorer – Mount Everest Ewale a Mbedi, Cameroonian king – Duala people, Douala (from a variant of his name, Dwala) Edward Eyre, British explorer – Lake Eyre, Eyre Peninsula, Eyre Highway, Eyre Creek, Mount Eyre, Eyre Mountains (New Zealand) Abraham ibn Ezra, Jewish biblical commentator and philosopher – Abenezra (crater) F Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, Roman general – Fabian, Fabian Society, Fabianism, Fabian strategy Johannes Fabry, German physician – Fabry disease Carl Fabergé, Russian artist – Fabergé egg Fagin, British literary character – fagin (criminal who trains young thieves) Gabriel Fahrenheit, German physicist – the Fahrenheit scale Ernst Falkbeer, Austrian chess player – Falkbeer Countergambit Gabriele Falloppio, Italian physician – Fallopian tube Falstaff, British theatrical character – Fallstaffian (being fat, jolly and debauched) Guido Fanconi, Swiss physician – Fanconi syndrome, Fanconi anemia, Fanconi syndrome Michael Faraday, British physicist – farad, faraday – cgs unit of current Faraday constant, Faraday effect, Faraday's law of induction, Faraday's law of electrolysis Nigel Farage, British politician – Faragism Fatima, daughter of the prophet Muhammad – Fatimid Fauna, Roman mythological character – fauna Faust, German folklore character – Faustian, Faustian deal (a situation in which an ambitious person surrenders moral integrity to achieve power and success for a delimited term) Guy Fawkes, British criminal – guy Februus, Etruskian-Roman mythological character – February Federico Fellini, Italian film director – Fellinesque, Fellinian Pierre de Fermat, French mathematician – Fermat's Last Theorem, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's principle, Fermat's factorization method Enrico Fermi, Italian physicist – fermions, Fermi energy, Fermilab, Fermi paradox, fermium – chemical element, Fermi–Dirac statistics fermi (obsolete name for femtometre) Enzo Ferrari, Italian businessman – Ferrari George Washington Gale Ferris Jr., American inventor – Ferris wheel Richard Feynman, American physicist – Feynman diagram Fiacre, Irish missionary – Fiacre Fib of the Picts, one of the seven sons of Cruthin – Fife Leonardo Fibonacci, Italian mathematician – Fibonacci Numbers Figaro, French theatrical character – figaro (a hairdresser and/or a cunning servant), figaro chain, Figaro Bill Finger, American comics writer – Bill Finger Award Bobby Fischer, American chess player – Fischer Defense Horace Fletcher, American diet guru – Fletcher technique, Fletcherizing (masticate repeatedly before swallowing nutrition) Matthew Flinders, British explorer – Flinders Bay, Flinders Chase National Park, Flinders Island, Flinders Park, South Australia, Flinders Ranges, Flinders River, Flinders Street railway station, Flinders University, Flinders, Victoria (Australia), Flinders bar, Flindersia Flora, Roman mythological character – flora, flower Pietro Paolo Floriani, Italian architect – Floriana, Floriana Lines Vladimir Fock, Russian physicist – Fock space, Fock state, Hartree-Fock method Marie Angélique de Scorailles, Duchess of Fontanges, French courtesan – fontange (a type of haircut) B.C. Forbes, Scottish-American journalist – Forbes magazine Henry Ford, American businessman – Ford Motor Company Matthias N. Forney, American inventor – Forney locomotive William Forsyth, Scottish botanist – Forsythia Charles Fort, American writer – Forteana, Fortean Society, Fortean Times Pim Fortuyn, Dutch politician – Fortuynism Dick Fosbury, American athlete – Fosbury flop Charles Fourier, French philosopher – Fourierism Charles James Fox, British politician – Foxite William Fox, American film producer – 20th Century Fox Francis of Assisi, French religious founder – San Francisco. Francisco Franco, Spanish general and president – Francoism Frankenstein's Monster, British literary character – Frankenstein (a monstrous creation that ruins its creator), Frankensteinian, frankenfood, Frankenstrat Benjamin Franklin, American inventor – Franklin stove, franklin, Ben Franklin effect. Franz Joseph I of Austria, Austrian-Hungarian emperor – Franz Josef Land Célestin Freinet, French pedagogue – Freinet education, Freinet classification Augustin Fresnel, French engineer, physicist and inventor – Fresnel lens. Sigmund Freud, Austrian psychologist – Freudian, Freudian slip, Freudian psychology, Freudo-Marxism, Neo-Freudianism Robert Fripp, English musician – Frippertronics Friedrich Fröbel, German pedagogue – Froebel gifts, Fröbel school Fu Manchu, British literary character – Fu Manchu moustache Guido Fubini, Italian mathematician – Fubini's theorem Leonhart Fuchs, German botanist – Fuchsia Alberto Fujimori, Peruvian president – Fujimorism Tetsuya "Ted" Fujita, Japanese meteorologist – Fujita scale J. William Fulbright, American politician – Fulbright scholarship Buckminster Fuller, American inventor – Fullerene G Gabriel, Biblical character – Gabriel's Horn. Johan Gadolin, Finnish chemist and geologist – gadolinite, the mineral after which the chemical element gadolinium has been named. Matilda Joslyn Gage, American activist – Matilda effect Thomas Gage, British botanist – greengage Gaget, French businessman – Gaget, Gauthier & Cie, gadget Hugh Gaitskell, British politician – Gaitskellism Uziel Gal, Israeli inventor – the Uzi submachine gun Galen, Greek physician – galenical. Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer – galileo or gal, unit of acceleration. Israel Galili, Israeli politician – the Galil assault rifle Rory Gallagher, Irish pop musician – Gallagher shirt. George Gallup, American businessman – Gallup poll Luigi Galvani, Italian physician – galvanization James Gamble and William Procter – Procter & Gamble Sarah Gamp, British literary character – gamp Mahatma Gandhi, Indian activist – Gandhism, Gandhian socialism, Gandhian economics, Gandhi cap Henry Laurence Gantt, American engineer – Gantt chart John Garand, Canadian-American inventor – M1 Garand rifle Alexander Garden, Scottish botanist – after whom the gardenia was named. Gargantua, French literary character – "gargantuan" (colossal, gigantic), Gargantua (solitaire) Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italian politician – Garibaldi biscuits, Italian aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi, Garibaldi shirt, Garibaldi (fish) Gideon Gartner, American businessman – Gartner Hermann Treschow Gartner, Danish surgeon and anatomist – Gartner's duct Marcus Garvey, Jamaican activist – Garveyism Martin Garzez, Maltese knight – Garzes Tower Richard J. Gatling, American inventor – Gatling gun Charles de Gaulle, French general and president – Charles de Gaulle Airport, Gaullism Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician – gauss – unit of magnetic induction, Gauss' law; see also: List of topics named after Carl Friedrich Gauss Enola Gay Tibbets, mother of Paul Tibbets, American pilot – Enola Gay Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Jacques Charles, French physicists and chemists – Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac Lou Gehrig, American baseball player – Lou Gehrig's disease Hans Geiger, German inventor – Geiger counter, Geiger–Müller tube Genius, Greek mythological character – genius, genie Gentius, Illyrian king – gentian George I, English king – Georgia (U.S. state) George V, British king – King George Street, King George Street, King George V Dock George VI, British king – George Cross, George Medal Henry George, American political economist – Georgism Saint George, Christian saint – Order of Saint George, Order of Saint Michael and Saint George, Saint George's Cross, Georgia, Saint George's, Grenada, and numerous other localities, churches and cathedrals Sophie Germain, French mathematician – Sophie Germain prime Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourgian-American publisher, inventor and writer – Hugo Award . Elbridge Gerry, American politician – gerrymandering Domingo Ghirardelli, American businessman – Ghirardelli Chocolate Company Gianduja, Italian theatrical character – Gianduja chocolate spread. Josiah Willard Gibbs, American chemist, mathematician and physicist – Gibbs free energy, Gibbs phenomenon Gideon, Biblical character – a "gideon". The Gigantes, Greek mythological characters – giant, gigantic Leonardo Gigli, Italian obstetrician – Gigli saw Saint Gilbert, English saint – Gilbertine Augustin Nicolas Gilbert, French physician – Gilbert's syndrome Thomas Gilbert, British sea captain – Kiribati. William S. Gilbert, British playwright – Gilbertian. Lillian Gilbreth, American Motion Studies expert – Therblig unit of movement (surname backwards more or less) King Camp Gillette, American inventor and businessman – Gillette Terry Gilliam, American animator and film director – Gilliamesque. Charles William Gilpin, American businessman – Gilpin Airlines William Gladstone, British Prime Minister – Gladstone bag, Gladstonian liberalism John Glas, Scottish religious leader – Glasite Johann Rudolf Glauber, German-Dutch chemist – Glauber's salt Gaston Glock, Austrian businessman and inventor – Glock and the Glock pistol Jehan Gobelin, French tapestry weaver – gobelin Kurt Gödel, Austrian-American mathematician – Gödel's incompleteness theorem, Gödel's ontological proof Godred Crovan, King of Dublin and the Isles – Crovan dynasty Mike Godwin, American writer – Godwin's law Godzilla, Japanese film monster – Godzilla roar (a soundbite which originated in the movies, but has become a recognizable stock sound effect on its own) Lamme Goedzak, Belgian literary character – "lamme goedzak" (Dutch expression to describe a "good, loveable, but naïve person, prone to being taken advantage of." The term is also used for obese, jolly people who enjoying eating and drinking.) Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Polish physicist – Goeppert-Mayer (GM) unit for the cross section of two-photon absorption Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German poet, playwright, writer and scientist – Goethian, Goethite Marcel J.E. Golay, Swiss mathematician – Binary Golay code, Savitzky-Golay filter Rube Goldberg, American comics artist and cartoonist – Reuben Award, Rube Goldberg machine. Goldilocks, British fairy tale character – Goldilocks principle. Samuel Goldwyn, American film producer – Goldwyn Picture Corporation, later merged into Metro–Goldwyn–Mayer Inc. (or MGM), Goldwynism Goliath, Biblical character – "goliath", Goliath frog, Goliath birdeater, Goliath shrew Golliwog, American literary character – golliwog, golliwog doll. Franciscus Gomarus, Dutch theologist – gomarism. Luis de Góngora y Argote, Spanish poet – Gongorism Goofy, American cartoon character – Goofy holler Gordias, Greek mythological king – Gordian knot Alexander Gordon, Scottish nobleman – Gordon setter Wilbert Gore, American businessman – Gore-Tex The Gorgons, Greek mythological characters – gorgonopsia, gorgonacea, gorgoneion Johannes Goropius Becanus, Dutch philosopher and physician – goropism Klement Gottwald, Czechoslovak politician – Zlín, a city in Moravia, the Czech Republic, was renamed Gottwaldov during 1949–1990. Regnier de Graaf, Dutch physician – Graafian follicle Thomas Gradgrind, British literary character – gradgrind Ernst Gräfenberg, German physician – Gräfenberg spot (G-spot) Sylvester Graham, American inventor – Graham crackers, Graham flour, Graham bread Thomas Graham, Scottish chemist – Graham's Law James Granger, British writer – grangerise Marcel Grateau, French hairdresser – Marcelling, a Marcel haircut. Robert James Graves, Irish surgeon – Graves–Basedow disease Louis Harold Gray, British physicist – gray, unit of absorbed dose of radiation Gregory I, Italian pope – Gregorian music Gregory XIII, Italian pope – Gregorian calendar Richard Grenville-Temple, 2nd Earl Temple, British politician – Grenvillite Thomas Gresham, English merchant – Gresham's Law Victor Grignard (1871–1935), French chemist – Grignard reagent and Grignard reaction Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, German folklorists, storytellers and linguist – Grimm's law, Grimmification Henri Grob, Swiss chess player – Grob's Attack Homer Groening, father of Matt Groening, creator of The Simpsons – Homer Simpson, character in The Simpsons animated TV series Ernst Grünfeld, Austrian chess player – Grünfeld Defence Vicente Guerrero, Mexican general – Guerrero Ché Guevara, Argentine revolutionary leader – Guevarism Guido of Arezzo, Italian musicologist – Guidonian hand, GUIDO music notation. Georges Guillain, French physician – Guillain–Barré syndrome Dr. Joseph Ignace Guillotin, French inventor – guillotine Henry C. Gunning, Canadian geologist – gunningite Robert John Lechmere Guppy, British biologist – guppy or guppie Louis Guttman, American psychologist and mathematician – Guttman scale H Fritz Haber, German chemist – Haber process Hadrian, Roman emperor – Hadrian's Wall and Hadrian's Wall Path Amber Hagerman, American kidnapping and murder victim – AMBER Alert Otto Hahn, German physicist – hahnium, chemical element. This element name is not accepted by IUPAC (See element naming controversy) Edwin Hall, American physicist – Hall effect Monty Hall, Canadian TV presenter – Monty Hall problem Edmond Halley, British astronomer – Halley's Comet Hugh Halligan, American police officer – Halligan bar Haman, Biblical figure – Hamantash Alexander Hamilton, American politician – Hamiltonianism Laurens Hammond, American inventor – Hammond organ Hamo, a 6th-century Saxon settler and landowner – Hampshire John Hancock, American politician– Since he signed the American Declaration of Independence his name became an eponym for "signature" in the U.S.A. Elliot Handler and Harold "Matt" Matson, American businesspeople – Mattel William Hanna and Joseph Barbera, American animators – Hanna-Barbera Gerhard Armauer Hansen, Norwegian physician – Hansen's disease Joseph Aloysius Hansom, British inventor – Hansom cab William Harley and Arthur Davidson, American businesspeople – Harley-Davidson Fletcher Harper, American publisher – Harper's Weekly Rodney Harrington, British literary and TV character – Harrington jacket David Harris (protester) – David's Album Charles Henry Harrod, British businessman – Harrods Alexis Hartmann, American paediatrician – Hartmann's solution Douglas Hartree, British mathematician – Hartree energy, Hartree equation, Hartree–Fock method Gerry Harvey and Ian Norman, Australian businesspeople – Harvey Norman Hashimoto Hakaru, Japanese physician – Hashimoto's thyroiditis Hassan-i-Sabah Persian religious leader – Hashshashin, assassin from hassansin (this etymology is disputed) Victor Hasselblad, Swedish photographer – Hasselblad, medium format photographic camera system Hawaii-loa, Polynesian chief who first led settlers to Hawaii – Hawaii Stephen Hawking, British astronomer and mathematician – Hawking radiation Paul Hawkins, British mathematician – Hawk-Eye tracking system used in cricket and other sports. Sadie Hawkins, American comics character – Sadie Hawkins dance, Sadie Hawkins Day Howard Hawks, American film director – Hawksian woman. Frank Hawthorne, Canadian mineralogist – Frankhawthorneite Haxtur, Spanish comics character – Haxtur Award Friedrich Hayek, Austrian economist – Hayekian economics Leonard Hayflick, American anatomist – Hayflick limit Will H. Hays, American film censor – Hays Code Oliver Heaviside, British physicist, and Arthur Edwin Kennelly, American physicist– Kennelly–Heaviside layer Henry Heimlich, American physician – Heimlich Maneuver Gerard Adriaan Heineken, Dutch beer brewer – Heineken Jimi Hendrix, American rock singer and guitarist – Hendrix riff John Henry, American folkloric character – John Henryism Joseph Henry, American physicist – henry, unit of inductance William Henry, British chemist – Henry's law James Curtis Hepburn, American translator – Hepburn romanization Herblock, American newspaper cartoonist – Herblock Prize Hercules, Greek mythological character – Herculean task Hergé, Belgian comics artist – "Hergéan" (comics in Hergé's graphic style, usually meaning the ligne claire) Milton S. Hershey, American businessman – Hershey Company Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, German physicist – hertz, unit of frequency Ejnar Hertzsprung, Danish astronomer, and Henry Norris Russell, American astronomer – Hertzsprung–Russell diagram Theodor Herzl, Austro-Hungarian journalist and writer – Mount Herzl William Hewlett and David Packard, American businessmen – Hewlett-Packard Edward C. Heyde, American physician – Heyde's syndrome Miguel Hidalgo, Mexican priest and military leader – Hidalgo (state), Ciudad Hidalgo (Michoacán), Ciudad Hidalgo (Chiapas), Hidalgo (Texas). David Hilbert, German mathematician and physicist – Hilbert's program Paul von Hindenburg, German general and politician – Hindenburg airship Eugen von Hippel, German physician, and Arvid Lindau, Swedish physician – Von Hippel–Lindau disease Hippocrates, Greek physician – Hippocratic Oath Harald Hirschsprung, Danish physician – Hirschsprung's disease Alfred Hitchcock, British film director – Hitchcockian suspense, Hitchcock cameos (often used to refer to any cameo by a creator in his own work) Adolf Hitler, Austrian-German dictator – Hitlerite, Hitler salute, Hitler moustache, Hitlerjugend, Hitlerism Thomas Hobbes, 17th century philosopher – Hobbes from "Calvin and Hobbes" comic strip Thomas Hobson, British stable manager and carrier– Hobson's choice Thomas Hodgkin, British physician – Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma William Hogarth, British painter, illustrator and cartoonist – Hogarthian Sherlock Holmes, British literary character – a "sherlock" (anyone who solves a mystery or a difficult problem. Sometimes also used in a sarcastic context, when something obvious has been pointed out.), Sherlockian game, a Sherlock Holmes hat (nickname for a deerstalker) Soichiro Honda, Japanese businessman – Honda Mark Honeywell, American businessman – Honeywell Robin Hood, English folk hero – Robin Hood effect, Robin Hood Foundation, Robin Hood Flour, Robin Hood Hills, Robin Hood hat, Robin Hood index, Robin Hood Gardens, Robin Hood plan, Robin Hood tax, Robin Hood test, Robin Hood character (someone who steals money to give it to the poor or a criminal who becomes a folk hero), Robin of the Batman series Robert Hooke, British physicist – Hooke's law William Henry Hoover, American business man – The Hoover Company; in British English, the verb "hoover" means "to vacuum a floor" while the noun is the vacuum cleaner. The word "hoover" has also come to mean anything that is sucked up at a great rate ("They hoovered their way through the banquet") August Horch, German businessman – Horch and Audi carmakers (audi is Latin for I listen; horch has the same meaning in old German) Leslie Hore-Belisha, British politician – Belisha beacon James Horlick and William Horlick, British-American business people – Horlicks Shemp Howard, American actor and comedian – Fake Shemp William Howe, American architect and engineer – Howe truss bridges Enver Hoxha, Albanian president – Hoxhaism Hroc, an ancient landowner ("Hroc's fortress" + shire) – Roxburghshire Edwin Hubble, American astronomer – Hubble Space Telescope Henry Hudson, British explorer – Hudson Bay, Hudson River, Hudson Strait Howard Hughes, American aviator and businessman – Hughes Aircraft company, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Hughes Airwest airlines, Hughes Glomar Explorer ship Howard R. Hughes Sr., American businessman – Hughes Tool Company, Baker Hughes company Alexander von Humboldt, German explorer – Humboldt Bay, Humboldt Current, Humboldt Falls, Humboldt Glacier, Humboldt lily, Humboldt Peak, Humboldt penguin, Humboldt Range, Humboldt River, Humboldt Sink, Humboldt squid, Pico Humboldt, Humboldt University of Berlin, Humboldt State University, Humboldtian science, Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk Gustáv Husák, Czechoslovakian president – Husakism, Husák's Children John Huss (), Czech priest – Hussites, Czechoslovak Hussite Church Hypnos, Greek mythological character – hypnosis. I Icarus, Greek mythological character – Icarus paradox Ignatz Mouse – American comics character – Ignatz Award Max Immelmann, German aviator – Immelmann turn, Immelmann loop Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, French-American businessman – DuPont Iris, Greek mythological character – Iris (anatomy) Italus, Roman/Greek mythological character – Italy. Iustitia, Roman mythological character – justice. J Andrew Jackson, American president – Jacksonian democracy Jacob (also known as Israel), Biblical character – Israel, Jacob's ladder (electricity), Jacob's ladder (knife), Jacob's ladder (manifold), Jacob's ladder (nautical), Jacob's Ladder (ropes course), Jacob's ladder (toy), Jacob's Ladder (piercing) Joseph Marie Jacquard, French inventor – Jacquard loom Candido Jacuzzi, Italian inventor – jacuzzi Gustav Jäger, German naturalist – Jaeger Maharajah Jai Singh, Indian maharajah – Jaipur Alfons Maria Jakob and Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt, German physicians – Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease Saint James, Christian martyr – Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Chile, Jacobin, in several languages (like French, German and Dutch) the word scallop is referred to as a "mussel/clam/shell/cockle of St. James". Thomas James, British-Welsh explorer – James Bay James, Duke of York, English king – New York City, New York State Calamity Jane, nickname of Martha Jane Canary, American frontierswoman and professional scout – Calamity James Cornelius Jansen, Flemish-Dutch theologian – Jansenism Karl Jansky, American astronomer – jansky, unit of flux density. Janus, Roman mythological character – January Robert Jarvik, American inventor – Jarvik artificial heart Javan, biblical character – Ionians Thomas Jefferson, American president – Jeffersonian, relating to Thomas Jefferson; more specifically, Jeffersonian architecture, Jeffersonian democracy; also, Jefferson Bible Jehovah , Biblical Deity – Jehovah's Witnesses Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, British literary character – a "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" personality is used to describe a split personality Jeremiah, Biblical prophet – jeremiad Jeroboam, Israelian king – Jeroboam wine bottle Jessica Lunsford, American rape and murder victim – Jessica's Law Jiggs, American comics character – Jiggs dinner John of Austria, Austrian field marshal – Johannite John the Baptist, Biblical character – Order of Saint John, San Ġwann Tommy John, American baseball player – Tommy John surgery Jonah, Biblical character – Turkish yunus baligi (Jonas fish) for dolphins; Jonah, a sailor who brings bad luck The Joneses, American comics characters from Arthur R. "Pop" Momand's comic strip Keeping up with the Joneses – The idiom keeping up with the Joneses. Barry Jones, Australian activist and politician – Barry Jones Bay, Yalkaparidon jonesi. Edward Jones and Charles Dow, American businesspeople – Dow Jones & Company Joseph II, Austrian-Hungarian emperor – Josephinism Brian David Josephson, Welsh physicist – Josephson junction, Josephson effect James Prescott Joule, British physicist – joule Judah, Biblical character (Hebrew: יהודה, Yehuda) – Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv F.C., Kingdom of Judah Judas Iscariot, Biblical character – Judas Julian the Hospitaller, Christian martyr – St. Julian's, St. Julian's Tower, various locations named "San Julián" Julius of Caerleon, Christian martyr – St Julians, Newport Juno, Roman mythological character – June Jupiter, Roman mythological character – jovial, jovian, Jovian system Justinian I, Byzantine king – Codex Justinianeus K János Kádár, Hungarian president – Kadarism Franz Kafka, Czech-German author – Kafkaesque Meir Kahane, American-Israeli activist – Kahanism Mikhail Kalashnikov, Russian gun inventor – the Avtomat Kalashnikova series of weapons, including the AK-47, the Kalashnikov Handheld Machine Gun or Ruchnoi Pulemet Kalashnikova obraztsa 1974 g (RPK-74) Ingvar Kamprad, Swedish businessman – the first two letters of IKEA Victor Kandinsky, Russian physician – Kandinsky–Clérambault syndrome Gaetano Kanizsa, Italian psychologist – Kanizsa triangle Megan Kanka, American rape and murder victim – Megan's Law Moritz Kaposi, Hungarian dermatologist – Kaposi's sarcoma D. R. Kaprekar, Indian mathematician – Kaprekar constant, Kaprekar number Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer – Kapteyn's Star Anna Karenina, Russian literary character – Anna Karenina principle Theodore von Kármán, Hungarian mathematician – Kármán line, von Kármán constant, von Kármán ogive, Kármán vortex street Tadao Kashio, Japanese businessman – Casio Yevgeny Kaspersky, Russian computer scientist and businessman – Kaspersky Lab, Kaspersky Anti-Virus Túpac Katari, Bolivian resistance leader – Katarismo Shozo Kawasaki, Japanese businessman – Kawasaki Heavy Industries Tomisaku Kawasaki, Japanese physician – Kawasaki disease Grace Kelly, American actress – Kelly bag Lord Kelvin, Irish-British phycist – kelvin (unit of thermodynamic temperature) John F. Kennedy, American president – John F. Kennedy International Airport, John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Kennedy Center Honors, John F. Kennedy University, Kennedy Doctrine Arthur E. Kennelly, American physicist, and Oliver Heaviside, British physicist – Kennelly–Heaviside layer Johannes Kepler, German astronomer – Kepler's laws of planetary motion, Kepler conjecture Paul Keres, Estonian chess player – Keres Defence Brian Kernighan, Canadian computer scientist – the third letter of the name AWK, a computer pattern/action language, is taken from his last name. John Kerr, Scottish physicist – Kerr effect John Maynard Keynes, British economist – Keynesian economics Nikita Khrushchev, Russian head of state – Khrushchevism, Khrushchev dough, Khrushchyovka Wilhelm Killing, German mathematician – Killing vector field Petrus Jacobus Kipp, Dutch chemist – Kipp apparatus Jack Kirby, American comics artist – Kirby dots Gustav Kirchhoff, German physicist – Kirchhoff's Laws Néstor Kirchner, Argentine president – Kirchnerism Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener, British general – Kitchener bun Lawrence Klein, American curator – Klein Award Sebastian Kneipp, German priest – Kneipp cure. Diedrich Knickerbocker, American literary character – knickerbockers Donald Knuth, American computer scientist – Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm Ed Koch, American politician – Ed Koch Queensboro Bridge Helge von Koch, Swedish mathematician – Koch snowflake. Robert Koch, German physician – Koch's postulates Ludwig Ritter von Köchel, Austrian musicologist – Köchel catalogue, K-numbers. Zoltán Kodály, Hungarian composer – Kodály method Simon bar Kokhba, Jewish resistance leader – Bar Kokhba game (Hungarian game) Alexander Konstantinopolsky, Ukrainian-Russian chess player – Konstantinopolsky Opening Abraham Isaac Kook, Russian rabbi – Mossad Harav Kook Wladimir Köppen, Russian-German meteorologist – Köppen climate classification Sergei Korsakoff, Russian psychologist – Korsakoff's syndrome Aharon Kotler, Belarussian rabbi – Ramat Aharon Alfried Krupp, German businessman – Krupp, now ThyssenKrupp Gerard Kuiper, Dutch astronomer – Kuiper belt August Kundt, German physicist – Kundt's tube Harvey Kurtzman, American comics artist – Harvey Award Kyi, Kyivan legendary founder – Kyiv See also Lists of etymologies List of eponymous adjectives in English List of eponymous laws List of places named after people List of toponyms Sources Eponyms
753103	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20Police%20Department	Chicago Police Department	The Chicago Police Department (CPD) is the law enforcement agency of the U.S. city of Chicago, Illinois, under the jurisdiction of the City Council. It is the second-largest municipal police department in the United States, behind the New York City Police Department. It has approximately 12,000 officers and over 1,925 other employees. Tracing its roots back to the year of 1835, the Chicago Police Department is one of the oldest modern police forces in the world. The Chicago Police Department has a history of police brutality, particularly targeting the African-American community in Chicago. In 2017, the United States Department of Justice strongly criticized the department for poor training, lack of oversight and routine use of excessive force. Department structure Office of the Superintendent The Superintendent of Police leads the Chicago Police Department. David O. Brown, former Chief of the Dallas Police Department, is the current Superintendent of the Chicago Police Department. In 1960, the municipal government created a five-member police board charged with nominating a superintendent to be the chief authority over police officers, drafting and adopting rules and regulations governing the police system, submitting budget requests to the city council, and hearing and deciding disciplinary cases involving police officers. Criminologist O.W. Wilson was brought on as Superintendent of Police, and served until 1967 when he retired. This position, in its current iteration, has existed as the head of the Chicago Police Department since 1960. Salary Starting salary for Chicago police officers in 2016 is $48,078, which is increased to $72,510 after 18 months. Promotions to specialized or command positions also increase an officer's base pay. Salaries were supplemented with a $2,920 annual duty availability and an $1,800 annual uniform allowance. Demographics In 2017, the composition of the department's sworn personnel by gender was 77% male and 23% female. The highest ranked women in Chicago police history was Barbara West, who was appointed the third highest rank cop (the Deputy Superintendent) in 2020. In 2017, the racial composition of the department's sworn personnel was: 50% non-Hispanic White 25% Hispanic (of any race) 21% African American 3% Asian American/Pacific Islander 1% other Union The Chicago Police Department became unionized at the end of 1980. Chicago police officers are represented by the Fraternal Order of Police. In 2020, Officer John Catanzara was elected as the head of the union. Cataranza has one of the worst disciplinary records in the department. Previously in 2017, Cataranza stated of Muslims: "Savages they all deserve a bullet." Later he defended the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol by Trump supporters, stating that: "They’re individuals ... They get to do what they want." Oversight Chicago Police Board The Chicago Police Board is a nine-member agency charged with nominating candidates for the position of Superintendent to the Mayor, adopting rules and regulations for the department, and deciding disciplinary cases when the Superintendent files to discharge or suspend (for more than 30 days) a police officer. The Board is also charged with resolving disciplinary cases when there is a dispute between the Chief Administrator of the Civilian Office of Police Accountability and the Superintendent. The board is made up of nine civilian members who are appointed by the Mayor and confirmed by the City Council. Civilian Office of Police Accountability The Civilian Office of Police Accountability (COPA) is an independent city agency which has the authority to investigate allegations of police officer misconduct and police shootings. It can make recommendations about disciplinary action and department policy, but cannot take such action itself. COPA was created in 2016, replacing the former Independent Police Review Authority. History According to historian Sam Mitrani, the Chicago Police Department professionalized and grew in size during the 19th century in order to quell labor unrest. City policymakers cooperated with business elites in terms of structuring the police department. The Chicago Police Department remained beset by vast corruption well into the 20th century. 19th century In 1825, prior to the creation of Cook County, in what would later become, the village of Chicago, was in Putnam County. Archibald Clybourn was appointed to be Constable of the area between the DuPage River and Lake Michigan. Clybourn went on to become an important citizen of the city, and the diagonal Clybourn Avenue is named after him. When the town of Chicago was incorporated to become a city in 1837, provisions were made to elect an officer called the High Constable. He in turn would appoint a Common Constable from each of the six city wards. In 1855, the newly elected city council passed ordinances to formally establish the Chicago Police Department. Chicago was divided into three police precincts, each served by a station house. Station No. 1 was located in a building on State Street between Lake and Randolph streets. Station No. 2 was on West Randolph Street near Des Plaines Street. Station No. 3 was on Michigan Street (since then renamed Hubbard Street) near Clark Street. Political connections were important to joining the force; formal requirements were few, until 1895. After 1856, the department hired many foreign-born recruits, especially unskilled, but English-speaking, Irish immigrants. In 1860, the detective forces were established to investigate and solve crimes. In 1861, the Illinois General Assembly passed a law creating a police board to become an executive department of Chicago autonomous of the mayor. The mayor was effectively stripped of his power to control the Chicago Police Department. Authority was given to three police commissioners. The commissioners created the office of superintendent to be the chief of police. The title is again in use today. The first African American officer was appointed in 1872, but black police were assigned to duty in plain clothes only, mainly in largely black neighborhoods. In 1875, the Illinois General Assembly found that the police commissioners were unable to control rampant corruption within the Chicago Police Department. The legislature passed a new law returning power over the police to the mayor. The mayor was allowed to appoint a single police commissioner with the advice and consent of the city council. In 1896, a parade of Chicago police officers was the subject of the first film ever to be shot in Chicago. Women entered the force in 1885, as matrons, caring for female prisoners. Marie Owens is believed to have been the first female police officer in the U.S., joining the Chicago Police Department in 1891, retiring in 1923. Holding the rank of Sergeant, Owens enforced child labor and welfare laws. Despite centralized policies and practices, the captains who ran the precincts or districts were relatively independent of headquarters, owing their jobs to neighborhood politicians. Decentralization meant that police could respond to local concerns, but graft often determined which concerns got the most attention. In 1895, Chicago adopted civil service procedures, and written tests became the basis for hiring and promotion. Standards for recruits rose, though policing remained political. 20th century In 1906, the Department's Mounted Patrol was created to provide crowd control, and in 1908, the force was granted its first three motor cars, expanding in 1910 to motorbikes and boats. Female officers were formally appointed beginning on August 13, 1913, starting with ten officers. In 1918, Grace Wilson, possibly the first black female police officer in United States history, joined the force. In 1913, Alice Clement became the first female police detective for the Chicago Police Department. In 1917, the Chicago Police Reserves were formed, organized on a regimental basis. They were used to assist or replace regular officers in high-crowd events, such as Memorial Day, and during the 1918 flu pandemic, worked for two weeks to enforce stringent health regulations. The Saint Valentine's Day Massacre led to the creation of the United States' first crime laboratory at Northwestern University, purchased by the Department in 1938. Orlando W. Wilson, the first civilian superintendent, was appointed by the mayor in 1960. A former dean of criminology, Wilson introduced major reforms to the Department, including a new and innovative communications center, the reduction of police stations, a fairer promotion process, and an emphasis on motorized patrol over foot patrol. Vehicles were painted blue and white and given blue lightbars, introducing the familiar Sillitoe tartan headbands, and the official motto, 'We Serve And Protect'. In 1963, the Cadet Program was also introduced. The 1968 Democratic National Convention in Grant Park led to major criticism of the Chicago Police's crowd control methods, with the Walker Report criticizing both the Department and the National Guard for use of excessive force, and called the events a police riot. The Department's Mounted Patrol was disbanded in 1948. The Department's Mounted Patrol was re-established in 1974, renamed simply as the Mounted Unit. In April 1977, the CPD adopted a flag. In August 1983, the Chicago Police Department's first African American superintendent, Fred Rice Jr., was appointed by Chicago's first African American mayor, Harold Washington, followed by the first Hispanic superintendent, Matt L. Rodriguez, appointed by Mayor Richard M. Daley in 1992. 21st century The new Chicago Police Department Headquarters was opened on June 3, 2000, replacing an extremely aged and outdated building located at 1121 South State Street. In 2018, the Chicago PD began a “narcotics arrest diversion program” to help individuals without violent crime records who are habitual narcotic users. Working with Chicago-based Thresholds, an addiction recovery agency, the police give those suffering from substance abuse disorder one final chance: If they enter the program, charges against them are dropped. In 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the largest union for the CPD compared vaccine requirements for police to the Holocaust. The union head encouraged CPD officers not to get vaccinated. 2017 Department of Justice report and agreement for enforcement Following the McDonald shooting, Illinois attorney general Lisa Madigan requested that the Department of Justice (DOJ) conduct a civil rights investigation of the department. The agency released a report in January 2017, announcing an agreement with the city to work on improvements under court supervision. The report strongly criticized the police for a culture of excessive violence, especially against minority suspects and the community, and said that there was insufficient and poor training and a lack of true oversight. The lack of training was one of the main targets of the DOJ report. The DOJ criticized the department for "check the box" training that relied heavily on PowerPoint presentations and included poorly executed training exercises in the field. The DOJ also observed recruits falling asleep during training. In the aftermath of the investigation, Chicago mayor Rahm Emmanuel approved the construction of a new training facility for the police and fire departments. The new building cost an estimated $95 million. Controversies The Chicago Police Department has a history of scandals, police misconduct, corruption, police brutality, and other controversies. Since 2019, the CPD has been subject to a consent decree requiring the department to enact reforms in discipline, supervision, training and recruiting of its police officers. This was in the wake of a 2017 Department of Justice report which found that the CPD had a history of civil rights violations by officers, including a "pattern and practice" of police brutality and abuse. Summerdale scandals The Chicago Police Department did not face large-scale reorganization efforts until 1960 under Mayor Richard J. Daley. That year, eight officers from the Summerdale police district on Chicago's North Side were accused of operating a large-scale burglary ring. The Summerdale case dominated the local press, and became the biggest police-related scandal in the city's history at the time. Mayor Daley appointed a committee to make recommendations for improvements to the police department. The action resulted in the creation of a five-member board charged with nominating a superintendent to be the chief authority over police officers, enacting rules and regulations governing the police system, submitting budget requests to the city council, and overseeing disciplinary cases involving officers. Criminologist O.W. Wilson was brought on as Superintendent of Police, and served until 1967 when he retired. 1968 Democratic National Convention Both Daley and the Chicago Police Department faced a great deal of criticism for the department's actions during the 1968 Democratic National Convention, which was held in Chicago from August 26 to 29, 1968. The convention was the site of a series of protests, mainly over the war in Vietnam. Despite the poor behavior of some protesters, there was widespread criticism that the Chicago Police and National Guard used excessive force. Time published an article stating: Subsequently, the Walker Report to the U.S. National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence called the police response a "police riot", assigning blame for the mayhem in the streets to the Chicago Police. The Black Panther raid On December 4, 1969, Black Panther Party leaders Fred Hampton and Mark Clark were shot and killed by officers working for the Cook County state's attorney. Though the police claimed they had been attacked by heavily armed Panthers, a subsequent investigation showed that most bullets fired came from police weapons. Relatives of the two dead men eventually won a multimillion-dollar judgment against the city. For many African Americans, the incident symbolized prejudice and lack of restraint among the largely white police. The incident led to growing black voter disaffection with the Democratic machine. Ryan Harris murder On July 28, 1998, an 11-year-old girl, Ryan Harris, was found raped and murdered in a vacant lot in the city's Englewood neighborhood. The homicide caught the nation's attention when, 12 days after Ryan's body was found, authorities, with the blessing of police command, charged a 7-year-old boy and 8-year-old boy with the murder, making them the youngest murder suspects in the nation at the time. Semen found at the scene and subsequent DNA tests totally cleared the boys of the crime and pointed to convicted sex offender Floyd Durr. The boys each filed lawsuits against the city, which were eventually settled for millions of dollars. Durr pleaded guilty to the rape of Harris, but never admitted to her murder. Russ/Haggerty shootings In the summer of 1999, two unarmed black motorists, Robert Russ and LaTanya Haggerty, were both fatally shot in separate incidents involving the Chicago Police. In the first incident, Russ, an honor student and star football player for Northwestern University, was shot inside of his car. This followed a high-speed chase and what the police claim was a struggle with the officer who shot him. In the second, Haggarty, a computer analyst, was shot by a female officer. Charges of racism against the CPD persisted. Both shootings resulted in lawsuits and Haggerty's family reached an $18 million settlement with the city. In Malcolm Gladwell's book on the cognitive function of snap judgments, Blink, well-known criminologist and police administrator James Fyfe said that Chicago police instructions in cases such as Russ's were "very detailed". He said that the record shows that the officers involved all broke procedure and let the situation become unnecessarily deadly for the suspect. For instance, after claiming to see Russ drive erratically, the officers engaged in a driving pursuit. The pursuit, labeled "high-speed", did not exceed 70 miles per hour, but Fyfe contends that the adrenaline rush of the chase, coupled with the officers' reliance in their numbers, led to their ignoring impulses to maintain rational thinking in a potentially non-deadly situation. They speeded up a process that both allowed and required taking things more slowly and methodically. Russ's car spun out on the Ryan Expressway, at which point several officers quickly approached his vehicle. According to Gladwell, the false safety of numbers gave the three officers "the bravado to rush the car". Fyfe adds, "The lawyers [for the police] were saying that this was a fast-breaking situation. But it was only fast-breaking because the cops let it become one. He was stopped. He wasn't going anywhere." Fyfe describes appropriate police procedure and contrasts the events that contributed to Russ's death thus, Gladwell also notes that the Russ and Haggerty killings occurred on the same night. Joseph Miedzianowski In April 2001, Joseph Miedzianowski was convicted of racketeering and drug conspiracy during much of his 22-year career with the department. In January 2003 he was sentenced to life without the possibility of parole. His partner John Galligan and 24 other drug dealers were also arrested as part of the same investigation. William Hanhardt In October 2001, Deputy Superintendent William Hanhardt pled guilty to running a nationwide jewel-theft ring that over twenty years may have stolen five million dollars' worth of diamonds and other gems. He had served with the department for 33 years and was sentenced to twelve years in federal custody. Eddie C. Hicks In December 2001, Sergeant Eddie C. Hicks was indicted for operating a gang with other CPD officers. The group would raid drug houses, taking the contraband for resale. Hicks skipped a court appearance on June 9, 2003, and was placed on the FBI's most-wanted list. Hicks was arrested in Detroit on September 12, 2017, nearly 15 years after he fled on the eve of trial on federal drug conspiracy charges. Hicks, 68, has been the subject of an international manhunt since 2003, according to the FBI. He appeared in federal court in Detroit on Tuesday and was ordered held until he can be brought to Chicago to face the charges. Jon Burge torture allegations Since the early 1980s, official investigations have responded to numerous allegations against former Commander Jon Burge, who has been accused of abusing more than two-hundred mostly African-American men from 1972 to 1991 in order to coerce confessions to crimes. Alleged victims claimed that Burge and his crew of detectives had them beaten, suffocated, burned, and treated with electric shock. In 1993, Burge was fired from the department, and is currently collecting his police pension. In summer 2006, special prosecutors completing a four-year investigation concluded that they had enough evidence to prove crimes against Burge and others, but "regrettably" could not bring charges because the statute of limitations had passed. In January 2008, the City Council approved a $19.8 million settlement with four men who claimed abuse by Burge and his men. In October 2008, Patrick J. Fitzgerald, United States Attorney for the Northern District of Illinois, had Burge arrested on charges of obstruction of justice and perjury in relation to a civil suit regarding the torture allegations against him. Burge was eventually convicted on all counts on June 28, 2010, and was sentenced to four and one-half years in federal prison on January 21, 2011. On May 6, 2015, Chicago City Council approved "reparations" of $5.5 million to victims of the torture, after spending $100 million in previous legal settlements. In addition, an apology was offered, and a promise to teach school children about these historical events. According to a 2020 study, torture was used against 125 black suspects (many of whom were found to be innocent) over the years 1972-1991. In 2009, the Illinois state government created the Illinois Torture Inquiry and Relief Commission to investigate torture by police. Nurse arrests On November 19, 2002, Rachelle Jackson, a registered nurse, was on her way to work when she witnessed a vehicle accident involving a patrol car, in which Officer Kelly Brogan was dazed and her partner was unconscious. Fearing an explosion, Jackson removed both officers from the vehicle, and voluntarily went to the police station under the assumption of giving a statement after being informed that Brogan's service weapon was stolen. Instead, she was interrogated for two days with little food or sleep and no access to a bathroom. She was coerced into signing a statement that she had battered Brogan and taken her gun. She was jailed for 10 months before the charges were dismissed. Jackson was awarded $7.9 million by a jury in her lawsuit against Brogan and the city. In 2009, the amount was reduced to $1.9 million. More than half the original verdict was awarded for "intentional infliction of emotional distress." Skullcap Crew Skullcap Crew is a nickname given to a group of five Chicago Police officers in a gang tactical unit who have been the subject of abuse complaints by citizens. They have also won praise within the Chicago Police Department. They have been involved in more than 20 federal lawsuits. Bar attack In 2007, security camera footage surfaced of an intoxicated off-duty police officer, Anthony Abbate, punching and kicking a female bartender, Karolina Obrycka. This occurred at Jesse's Shortstop Inn on February 19, 2007, after Obrycka refused to serve him any more alcohol. Abbate was later arrested, charged with felony battery, and stripped of police powers after TV news stations aired the footage. The Chicago Police soon terminated Abbate from the force, but questions remained over the city's handling of the case. Abbate was allowed to enter his courtroom hearing through a side door, in order to shield himself from the press. This generated controversy, and allegations surfaced that the police ticketed the vehicles of news organizations and threatened reporters with arrest. Superintendent Cline announced that he would demote the Captain who gave the orders, and launched investigations into the actions of the other officers involved. On April 27, 2007, 14 additional charges against Abbate were announced. These included official misconduct, conspiracy, intimidation, and speaking with a witness. Abbate pleaded not guilty to all 15 charges during a brief hearing on May 16, 2007. Referring to Abbate, Superintendent Phil Cline stated, "He's tarnished our image worse than anybody else in the history of the department." The video of the attack has been viewed worldwide on 24-hour news channels and has garnered more than 100,000 views on YouTube. In the wake of this scandal and a similar scandal related to another videotaped police beating at a bar, Cline announced his retirement on April 2, 2007. While both men have denied it, some believe that Cline retired under pressure from Mayor Richard M. Daley. Daley has since announced a plan to create an independent police review authority to replace the current Office of Professional Standards (OPS), which is under the jurisdiction of the police department. On April 30, 2007, attorneys representing Obrycka filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois against the city of Chicago and Abbate and several other individuals. On November 13, 2012, a federal jury found that a "widespread code of silence" within the Chicago Police Department had allowed Abbate to feel that he could attack Obrycka without fear of reprisal. They also found that Abbate participated in a conspiracy to cover up the attack. The jury awarded Obrycka $850,000 in damages. Abbate was convicted of aggravated battery, a felony, on June 2, 2009. Cook County Circuit Judge John J. Fleming rejected Abbate's claims that he had acted in self-defense. However, since Obrycka testified that Abbate had not identified himself as an officer during the attack Abbate was acquitted of official misconduct charges. Abbate faced up to five years in prison for the attack. On June 23, 2009, Abbate was sentenced to two years probation, including a curfew between 8 pm and 6 am, mandatory attendance at anger management classes, and 130 hours of community service. On December 15, 2009, Abbate was officially fired from the Chicago Police Department after a mandatory review by the Chicago Civilian Police Board. The firing was a formality, as the Chicago Police Department does not allow convicted felons to serve on the force. Jerome Finnigan Chicago Police Officers Jerome Finnigan, Keith Herrera, Carl Suchocki, and Thomas Sherry were indicted in September 2007 for robbery, kidnapping, home invasion, and other charges. They were alleged to have robbed drug dealers and ordinary citizens of money, drugs, and guns. The officers were all part of Special Operations Sections (SOS). The officers had allegedly victimized citizens for years; however, allegations of their misconduct were not investigated until 2004. According to the State's Attorney, the officers repeatedly missed court dates and allowed alleged drug dealers to go free. Several lawsuits alleging misconduct on behalf of Finnigan and his team have been filed in federal court. Since the original indictments, Jerome Finnigan has also been charged with attempting to have several fellow officers killed. Since the scandal involving Finnigan, SOS has been disbanded. On February 11, 2009, charges against Chicago Police Department officers Tom Sherry and Carl Suchocki were dropped. A Cook County judge dismissed all criminal charges accusing them of robbery and home invasion after some evidence was proven to be false, and witnesses in the case against Sherry and Suchocki were unable to place the officers at the scene of the crime. Charges against Herrera and Finnigan, however, are still pending. As of September 25, 2009, seven former SOS officers have pleaded guilty to charges relating to the scandal. The investigation is ongoing as police officers continue to come forward and cooperate with the state and federal investigation. Shooting of Flint Farmer On June 7, 2011, Flint Farmer was fatally shot three times in the back by Chicago police officer Gildardo Sierra. Sierra and a partner had responded to a domestic disturbance call allegedly involving Farmer. When confronted by the police, Farmer fled. Sierra shot at Farmer multiple times, hitting him in the leg and abdomen. Publicly available police video shows Sierra circle the prone Farmer as three bright flashes emit from approximately waist level. The coroner who performed the autopsy on Farmer reported that Farmer could have survived the shots to the leg and abdomen, but any of the three shots through the back would have been fatal. Officer Sierra had been involved in two other shootings in 2011. Although the Chicago police department ruled the shooting justified, by October 23, 2011, Sierra had been stripped of his police powers and the FBI had opened an investigation into the incident. Eventually, no charges were brought against the officers. The city settled the civil case with Farmer's family for $4.1 million but did not admit fault. Richard Zuley Richard Zuley was a police detective who retired from the Chicago Police Department in 2007. After his retirement, multiple inquiries into overturned convictions that had relied on confessions he coerced triggered the Conviction Integrity Unit of the Cook County State's Attorney's Office to plan to subpoena Zuley's entire complaint history. Zuley faces multiple lawsuits from individuals who claim he framed them, or beat confessions from them. Lathierial Boyd was exonerated and freed in 2013 after serving 23 years in prison, based on evidence from Zuley and suppression of exculpatory evidence. He filed a federal civil rights lawsuit, as well as suing the city, saying that Zuley framed him for a murder and attempted murder outside a nightclub in 1990. Anthony Garrett, who received a 100-year sentence for killing a seven-year-old boy, alleged Zuley beat his confession out of him. On February 18, 2015, Spencer Ackerman, reporting in The Guardian, covered Zuley's alleged involvement in the torture and forced confessions of several homicide cases in Chicago. He said several inmates claimed abuse by Zuley. In addition, he revealed additional details of Zuley's participation as a US Navy Reserve lieutenant from late 2002 to 2004 in the interrogation and torture of Guantanamo captive Mohamedou Ould Slahi. Slahi was among several men classified by the US as high-value detainees, for whom the Secretary of Defense authorized enhanced interrogation techniques, since characterized as torture. Jason Meisner, writing in the Chicago Tribune, reported that The Guardian characterized Zuley's use of torture as "brutal and ineffective". Memos Zuley wrote, quoted in the Senate Intelligence Committee's report on the CIA's use of torture, described him using "stress positions"—the shackling of interrogation subjects in painful postures for extended periods of time. Zuley currently faces lawsuits in Chicago for using these techniques against American civilians. Homan Square The Guardian reported in February 2015 that the Chicago Police Department "operates an off-the-books interrogation compound, rendering Americans unable to be found by family or attorneys while locked inside what lawyers say is the domestic equivalent of a CIA black site." The Guardian added that the facility, the Homan Square Police Warehouse at 1011 S. Homan Ave in Chicago (), "has long been the scene of secretive work by special police units." The Guardian said that interviews with local attorneys and one protester "describe operations that deny access to basic constitutional rights ... The secretive warehouse ... trains its focus on Americans, most often poor, black and brown ... Witnesses, suspects or other Chicagoans who end up inside do not appear to have a public, searchable record entered into a database indicating where they are, as happens when someone is booked at a precinct. Lawyers and relatives insist there is no way of finding their whereabouts. Those lawyers who have attempted to gain access to Homan Square are most often turned away, even as their clients remain in custody inside." After The Guardian published the story, the Chicago Police provided a statement saying, without specifics, that there is nothing improper taking place at what it called the "sensitive" location, home to undercover units. The statement said "CPD [Chicago Police Department] abides by all laws, rules and guidelines pertaining to any interviews of suspects or witnesses, at Homan Square or any other CPD facility. If lawyers have a client detained at Homan Square, just like any other facility, they are allowed to speak to and visit them." The Guardian said several attorneys and one Homan Square arrestee have denied this. The CPD statement continued by saying "There are always records of anyone who is arrested by CPD, and this is not any different at Homan Square." The Guardian said the Chicago Police statement did not address how long after an arrest or detention those records are generated or their availability to the public, and that a department spokesperson did not respond to a detailed request for clarification. In October 2015, The Guardian reported a number of statistics they were able to uncover about the operation of the Homan Square site. They said that between August 2004 and June 2015, more than 7,000 people had been detained there (more than 6,000 of whom were black, a rate more than twice that of the city's population). Only 68 of those were given access to an attorney, there were no known instances in which the public was notified about a detention while the person was being held there, and those held there were not given access to telephones. Despite police directives to rapidly complete the booking process for detainees, there was no booking facility at the site and no such records had been generated there, and some detainees had been kept there for days. The statistics included only people who were eventually charged with a crime, as the police did not release information about those held there without being charged, saying it would be too difficult to provide that information. David Gaeger, an attorney who had represented clients taken to the facility, said "Try finding a phone number for Homan to see if anyone's there. You can't, ever. If you're laboring under the assumption that your client's at Homan, there really isn't much you can do as a lawyer. You're shut out. It's guarded like a military installation." and "That place was and is scary. There's nothing about it that resembles a police station." Laquan McDonald On October 20, 2014, 17-year-old Laquan McDonald was fatally shot by Officer Jason Van Dyke. The killing sparked protests and calls for the mayor to resign. A video was released which revealed McDonald walking down a street, carrying a knife. McDonald was walking parallel to the two police cars when he was shot 16 times. A criminal complaint filed in Cook County Circuit Court revealed that Van Dyke was the only officer to shoot, and the complaint also said that McDonald was on PCP at the time of his death. Protestors were frustrated that the video took 13 months to be released. A freelance journalist sued to have the footage released as it was a public record, and a judge found in the reporter's favor and the video became public in November 2015. Van Dyke was charged with six counts of first-degree murder and one count of official misconduct. He remained on desk duty after the shooting. Van Dyke had a history of complaints in his career but was cleared in a majority of the cases. He pleaded not guilty on December 29, 2015, to the charges against him. After his arraignment, his attorney, Daniel Herbert, said that he would be looking for evidence to clear his client's name. On October 5, 2018, Van Dyke was found guilty of second-degree murder and 16 counts of aggravated battery with a firearm, but was found not guilty of official misconduct. On January 18, 2019, Van Dyke was sentenced to 6.75 years in prison for the second-degree murder conviction alone. Raiding wrong addresses Due to errors or acting on bad or faulty tips without double-checking information, Chicago police have raided many wrong addresses with no-knock warrants. This has adversely affected goodwill towards officers in the community and cost the city a lot of money in legal settlements. While new search warrant policies have been implemented by the CPD, including mandatory pre-checks and additional supervisors, one victim said she still believes the police department has a long way to go, and is "traumatizing Black Chicagoans in the process". Fallen officers Since 1853, the Chicago Police Department has lost 552 officers in the line of duty. By custom, the department retires the stars of fallen officers and mounts them in a display case at Police Headquarters. Appearances in popular culture The 1957–1960 television series M Squad centered on a squad of Chicago Police detectives. The episode "The Jumper" featured an officer taking bribes. It was reportedly this depiction that prompted then-Mayor Richard J. Daley to thereafter discourage motion picture and television location filming in the city for the rest of his administration and its aftermath. John Landis' successful 1980 musical comedy motion picture The Blues Brothers (see more below) marked the reversal of that policy by Mayor Jane Byrne. Two notable exceptions to Daley's ban were made for films released in 1975. In Brannigan, John Wayne portrays Chicago Police Lieutenant Jim Brannigan. Cooley High (set in 1964) was filmed entirely in Chicago and features a car chase through Navy Pier's warehouse buildings (since demolished), in which the pursuing Chicago police are repeatedly outmaneuvered by the joyriding teens. The Chicago Police Department and Illinois State Police are featured in the climactic car chase in 1980's The Blues Brothers in which a Chicago Police dispatcher matter-of-factly advises responding officers that "The use of unnecessary violence in the apprehension of the Blues Brothers has been approved." Reportedly in response to their portrayal in The Blues Brothers, the Chicago Police Department banned the use of the "Chicago Police" name and insignia in films until the early 2000s, resulting in several films and television shows replacing "Chicago Police" with "Metro Police" and other faux names, even if the films received technical assistance from the department, such as The Fugitive and The Negotiator. The television series Hill Street Blues (1981–1987) never explicitly stated the name of the city in which it was set, although many exterior views (lacking the principal actors) were filmed in Chicago and used for establishing and transition shots. Robert De Niro portrays a former Chicago police officer turned bounty hunter in the 1988 film Midnight Run. Numerous references are made to the CPD as well as corruption within the department. There are also a number of scenes directly involving the CPD. The Chicago Police Department played a major role in 1993's The Fugitive, showing them in a semi-brutal fashion after Kimble is incorrectly believed to have killed an on-duty police officer. The use of actual Chicago Police Department vehicles and uniforms is extensive and can be seen throughout the film. In the 1998 film The Negotiator, the Chicago Police played a major role within the film. The real Chicago Police Department provided technical support for the movie's SWAT teams. The actors' shoulder sleeve insignia were similar to the Chicago Police Department's octagonal patches, albeit with "Chicago" replaced with "Metropolitan." Chicago police officers are routinely depicted on the television series ER. The Chicago police are portrayed in the 2011 Fox Network series The Chicago Code. Unlike most depictions of Chicago police, the actors' uniforms and insignia appear to be identical to their real-world counterparts, with the series being filmed on-location in the city. In The Lincoln Lawyer, Mickey Haller tells Detective Lankford that Frank Levin had been ex-Chicago PD to encourage him to investigate Levin's murder. The Terra Nova character Jim Shannon said he was a detective with the department's narcotics squad. The Chicago P.D. TV series is set inside the Chicago Police department. They appear in Square Enix's title Hitman: Absolution where they hunt the player. The Chicago Police Department is featured in Ubisoft's action-thriller video-game, Watch Dogs. In the Netflix series, Sense8, character Will Gorski is suspended from the Chicago Police Department. CBS's The Good Wife takes place in Chicago, and its characters frequently interact with officers of the Chicago Police Department. In the Season 6 finale of the show, protagonist Alicia Florrick's client is detained at Homan Square, and she eventually has his admission while detained at the facility dismissed by a judge. Mike & Molly, television comedy series (2010 to 2016), was based on an over weight couple, the lead character was a Chicago Police Officer. Melissa McCarthy and Billy Gardell star. Notable former officers Leonard Baldy, flying helicopter officer/traffic reporter for WGN Edward Allen Bernero, television writer and producer (Third Watch, Criminal Minds) Jon Burge, commander/detective, Area 2 (1970s–1993); accused of torturing suspects to coerce confessions Alderman Edward M. Burke (patrolman 1965–1968), longest-serving member of the Chicago City Council 1969 to present; past chairman of the Finance Committee; past chairman of the city council Police and Fire Committee Don Cornelius, creator, producer, and former host of Soul Train Willie Cochran (patrolman/sergeant 1975–2003), former alderman, Chicago City Council 2007–2019 Dennis Farina, actor Terrance W. Gainer, former Sergeant at Arms for the United States Senate Jack Muller, author of I, Pig and Motorcycle Cop Sergio Oliva, professional bodybuilder—Mr Olympia Allan Pinkerton, first detective in department history; founder of both the Pinkerton Detective Agency and the Union Intelligence Service (predecessor of the United States Secret Service) Charles H. Ramsey, Police Commissioner, Philadelphia P.D.; former Chief of Police, Washington, D.C. Renault Robinson, co-founder of the CPD's Afro-American Patrolman's League. Steve Wilkos, talk show host and former head of The Jerry Springer Show security team Richard Zuley, Chicago detective and later Guantánamo interrogator; accused of torture Tactics, softwares and equipment Community policing The Chicago Police Department does community policing through the Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy program. It was established in 1992 and implemented in 1993 by then-Chicago Police Superintendent Matt L. Rodriguez. The program entails increasing police presence in individual communities with a force of neighborhood-based beat officers. Beat Community Meetings are held regularly for community members and police officials to discuss potential problems and strategies. Under CAPS, 9-10 beat officers are assigned to each of Chicago's 279 police beats. The officers patrol the same beat for over a year, allowing them to get to know community members, residents, and business owners and to become familiar with community attitudes and trends. The system also allows for those same community members to get to know their respective officers and learn to be comfortable in approaching them for help when needed. Strategic Subject List (SSL) Strategic Subject List (SSL) is an implementation of a computer algorithm developed by the Illinois Institute of Technology. SSL calculates the propensity of individuals committing or being targeted by gun violence. The fourth iteration now in use, has become a helpful indicator of murders, according to Eddie Johnson, recent former Superintendent of Police. The system looks at an individual's past criminal activities and specifically excludes biasing variables like race, gender, ethnicity and location according to Illinois Institute of Technology professor Miles Wernick. The algorithm assigns scores to individuals based on criminal records as well as any known gang affiliations and other variables. As of 2016, the CPD created a list 1,400 of "strategic subjects" that has proven to be accurate and helpful to the department. In 2016, over 70 percent of the people shot have been on the list, and 80 percent of the shooters. According to the CPD, 117 of the 140 people arrested during a citywide gang raid performed in 2016 were on the list. The list is used by social workers and community leaders. Equipment Chicago police officers are required to buy their own duty equipment (except Taser x2 and Motorola radio Motorola phone). All field officers must also be qualified to carry a Taser. Some officers choose to carry a backup weapon as well, which must meet certain specifications and requires annual qualification. The prescribed semiautomatic pistol must meet the following requirements: Be manufactured by Beretta, SIG, Glock, Ruger, Smith & Wesson, or Springfield Armory. Be chambered in 9mm, .40 S&W, or .45 ACP. Be double-action only, hammer or striker-fired. Officers who were hired on or before 1 December 1991 may keep their older double-action/single-action pistols, as well as their 4" barrel Smith & Wesson, Ruger or Colt revolvers in .38 Special or .357 Magnum. Recruits hired on or after 28 August 2015 must choose from Springfield Armory, Smith & Wesson, or Glock striker-fired 9mm pistols. Officers hired before 19 May 2008 may continue to use the Double Action Only (DAO) Beretta, Ruger, SIG Sauer, and S&W pistols for duty use. It was reported in June 2018 that the agency would allow the authorization of the SIG Sauer P320 as another service pistol to be chosen by officers to carry. Shortly after the P320 appeared on the authorized firearms list. Patrol vehicles contain long gun racks. Remington 870 12-gauge shotguns are available in the event that additional firepower is needed. Officers must complete five days of training to carry an AR-15 type rifle and have the option to purchase their own or use a department-provided one. Ranks See also Chicago Police Accountability Task Force Citizen Law Enforcement Analysis and Reporting Crime in Chicago Cook County Sheriff's Office List of law enforcement agencies in Illinois References Further reading Basu, Tanya. "Behind 'the Disappeared' of Chicago's Homan Square", The Atlantic, February 2015. Bingham, Dennis, and Schultz, Russell A. A Proud Tradition: A Pictorial History of the Chicago Police Department. Chicago, IL: Chicago Police Department, 2005. Burke, Edward M., and O'Gorman, Thomas J. End of Watch: Chicago Police Killed in the Line of Duty, 1853–2006. Chicago, IL: Chicago's Books Press, 2006. Conroy, John, Unspeakable Acts, Ordinary People: The Dynamics of Torture, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000. . Covers the Burge case. Flinn, John Joseph. History of the Chicago Police from the Settlement of the Community to the Present Time. Chicago: Police Book Fund, 1887. Mitrani, Samuel. The Rise of the Chicago Police Department: Class and Conflict, 1850–1894, Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2014. External links Homan Square series of reports by The Guardian on controversial Chicago Police Department facility 92 deaths, 2,623 bullets: Tracking every Chicago police shooting over 6 years Chicago Tribune, 2016 1835 establishments in Illinois Crime in Chicago Extrajudicial prisons of the United States Imprisonment and detention in the United States Articles containing video clips ga:Cearnóg Homan
772678	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barriemore%20Barlow	Barriemore Barlow	Barrie "Barriemore" Barlow (born 10 September 1949, Birmingham) is an English musician, best known as the drummer and percussionist for the rock band Jethro Tull, from May 1971 to June 1980. Christened Barrie, the 'Barriemore' was an affectation to suit the eccentric image of Jethro Tull (much as Jeffrey Hammond had become "Jeffrey Hammond-Hammond"). Early career Barlow first met Ian Anderson and John Evans (credited as John Evan on Jethro Tull albums) in Blackpool, where the two were members of a beat group, The Blades. By then, Barlow had become an apprentice plastic injection mould tool fitter, but walked out in the middle of a maths exam to answer a call by Anderson and Evans to go to Nottingham that night for a suddenly-announced gig. Barlow did not go back to finish the exam. His first public appearance was not as a musician, but as a TV extra in the series Coronation Street in which he briefly appeared alongside Anderson's then girlfriend, actress Yvonne Nickelson. Having left The John Evan Band, as The Blades were by then known, Barlow joined another local group "The All Jump Kangaroo Band" featuring and run by Andy Trueman, who became the production manager for Jethro Tull in 1995. With Jethro Tull Barlow joined Jethro Tull in 1971, after the departure of Clive Bunker. Barlow played on the EP "Life's a Long Song", before embarking on a concert tour with the band. By this time, the original members of The Blades were now back together, with the addition of Martin Barre, and a relatively long-running edition of the Jethro Tull lineup was to follow (late 1971–1975). Barlow's second gig with Tull involved an unfortunate episode in Denver, Colorado, when the local police tear-gassed the audience from helicopters, both outside and inside the Red Rocks Amphitheatre. Believing that they would be arrested, the band made a run for it after the show in an unmarked station wagon where, hidden under a blanket on the floor in the back, Barlow was heard to ask Anderson, "Will it be like this every night?" Anderson replied, "As a general rule, only on Tuesdays and Thursdays." Upset by the death of bassist John Glascock, with whom he had become very close, Barlow left Jethro Tull in 1980 after completing the final leg of the Stormwatch tour. As a session musician Since leaving Jethro Tull, Barlow went on to do various session projects, including work with Robert Plant, John Miles, and Jimmy Page, and was one of the few drummers that Plant and Page considered as a remote possibility to replace John Bonham in Led Zeppelin after his death, though the band decided to break up instead. He also started his own band for a spell called Storm. He played on the Yngwie Malmsteen album Rising Force. He played on the Kerry Livgren album, Seeds of Change. Barlow has a recording studio, The Doghouse, on his property in Shiplake, Oxfordshire, England. He is currently managing a band from Henley on Thames called The Repertoires, and has also been linked with other local bands which echo his own folk-influenced musical history, such as Reading's Smokey Bastard. Barlow played percussion on "Artrocker," the opening track of the 2006 album Get Your Mood On by London indie punk band, Dustin's Bar Mitzvah. On 28 May 2008 Barlow guested with Jethro Tull at Royal Festival Hall in London, performing "Heavy Horses", "Thick as a Brick" and a concert-closing "Locomotive Breath" where he drummed alongside Tull's then-current drummer Doane Perry. Drumming technique Barlow is known as a very technical and creative drummer. He was called "the greatest rock drummer England ever produced" by John Bonham. In a comment on his drumming for the Jethro Tull albums he said; "I've always admired people who invent—and on a percussion level, I admire inventors of rhythm. I tried to strive for that in Tull, but now I go to great lengths to advise the drummers in the bands I'm managing not to play anything like I used to play in Tull, because it was so busy and over-the-top." Barlow has cited Joe Morello, Buddy Rich, Ringo Starr and Michael Giles as being among his primary influences. Discography With Jethro Tull "Life's a Long Song" (1971 EP) Thick as a Brick (1972) Living in the Past (compilation including above EP) A Passion Play (1973) War Child (1974) Minstrel in the Gallery (1975) Too Old to Rock 'n' Roll: Too Young to Die! (1976) Songs from the Wood (1977) Heavy Horses (1978) Bursting Out (1978) Stormwatch (1979) With Kerry Livgren Seeds of Change (1980) With Robert Plant The Principle of Moments (1983) With Yngwie Malmsteen Rising Force (1984) With John Miles Transition (1985) With Jimmy Page Outrider (1988) References External links Biography on official Jethro Tull website Biography on Collecting Jethro Tull website English rock drummers 1949 births Living people Jethro Tull (band) members Musicians from Birmingham, West Midlands Progressive rock drummers Yngwie J. Malmsteen's Rising Force members
774433	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jose	Jose	Jose is the English transliteration of the Hebrew and Aramaic name Yose, which is etymologically linked to Yosef or Joseph. The name was popular during the Mishnaic and Talmudic periods. Jose ben Abin Jose ben Akabya Jose the Galilean Jose ben Halafta Jose ben Jochanan Jose ben Joezer of Zeredah Jose ben Saul Given name Male Jose (actor), Indian actor Jose C. Abriol (1918–2003), Filipino priest Jose Advincula (born 1952), Filipino Catholic Archbishop Jose Agerre (1889–1962), Spanish writer Jose Vasquez Aguilar (1900–1980), Filipino educator Jose Rene Almendras (born 1960), Filipino businessman Jose T. Almonte (born 1931), Filipino military personnel Jose Roberto Antonio (born 1977), Filipino developer Jose Aquino II (born 1956), Filipino politician Jose Argumedo (born 1988), Mexican professional boxer Jose Aristimuño, American political strategist Jose Miguel Arroyo (born 1945), Philippine lawyer Jose D. Aspiras (1924–1999), Filipino politician Jose Baez (lawyer) (born 1970), American lawyer Jose Balagtas, Filipino film director Jose Migel Barandiaran (1889–1991), Spanish anthropologist Jose Barraquer (1916–1998), Spanish physician Jose Acacio de Barros, Brazilian physicist Jose Baxter (born 1992), English footballer Jose Hirais Acosta Beltran (born 1966), Roman Catholic bishop Jose Boedo, American physicist Jose Bolanos, American comedian Jose Botello (born 1976), American soccer player Jose Briones (born 1916), Filipino lawyer Jose Gabriel del Rosario Brochero (1840–1914), Argentine priest Jose Moreno Brooks (born 1985), American actor Jose Canseco (born 1964), Cuban-American baseball outfielder Jose Calida (born 1950), Filipino lawyer Jose Calugas (1907–1998), Filipino member of the Philippine Scouts Jose de Sousa Campos (1797–1858), Brazilian politician Jose Yao Campos (1922–2016), Filipino businessman Jose Pablo Cantillo (born 1979), American actor Jose F. Caro (born 1948), American physician Jose Ceballos, American director Jose Mari Chan (born 1945), Filipino singer-songwriter Jose Chavez y Chavez (1851–1924), Mexican-American outlaw Jose Compean (born 1976), American police agent Jose M. Covarrubias (c. 1809–1870), American politician Jose de Creeft (1884–1982), American-Spanish artist Jose B. Cruz Jr. (born 1932), Filipino professor Jose V. Cruz (1926–1998), Filipino diplomat Jose Cuevas (soccer) (born 1989), American soccer player Jose L. Cuisia Jr. (born 1944), Philippine ambassador Jose Dalisay Jr. (born 1954), Filipino writer Jose Davis (born 1978), American football player Jose DeCamps, Dominican professional dancer Jose Delgado (politician), Filipino lawyer Jose Ramon Gonzalez Delgado (born 1953), Cuban artist Jose Augusto Dias (born 1959), Brazilian sailor Jose Rafael Diaz (born 1984), Dominican baseball player Jose W. Diokno (1922–1987), Filipino legislator, lawyer, accountant, professor, writer, and nationalist Jose G. Dorea, American professor Jose Philip D'Souza, Indian politician Jose Duran (designer), Dominican fashion designer Jose Duato (born 1958), Spanish professor Jose L. Espinoza (born 1969), Mexican jockey Jose Esteves (born 1947), Filipino mayor Jose B. Fernandez Jr. (1923–1994), Filipino governor Jose W. Fernandez (born 1955), Cuban secretary Jose Emilio Fuentes Fonseca (born 1974), Cuban artist Jose Dolores Fuentes, American meteorologist Jose B. Gonzalez (born 1967), Latino poet Jose Acosta Hernandez (born 1966), American artist Jose Holguin-Veras, Dominican professor Jose L. Holguin (1921–1994), American colonel Jose Isasi (born 1944), Cuban businessman Jose Itzigsohn (born 1960), Argentine professor Jose de Jesus, Philippine secretary Jose Cha Cha Jimenez (born 1948), American founder Jose Kattukkaran (born 1950), Indian politician Jose Kurushinkal, Indian cricket umpire Jose Kusugak (1950–2011), Inuk politician Jose F. Lacaba, Filipino poet Jose Lambert (born 1941), Belgian professor Jose Landa-Rodriguez, Mexican alleged leader Jose Lava (1912–2000), Filipino political leader Jose David Lapuz, Filipino politician Jose P. Laurel (1891–1959), Filipino politician Jose Romeo Lazo (born 1949), Filipino clergyman Jose Leyson (born 1900), Filipino lawyer Jose Lezcano (born 1985), American jockey Jose L. Linares (born 1953), Cuban judge Jose Llana (born 1976), American-Filipino singer Jose V. Lopez, American-Filipino researcher Jose Apolinario Lozada Jr. (1950–2018), Filipino diplomat Jose da Luz (born 1904), Hong Kong lawn bowler Jose de Luzuriaga (1843–1921), Filipino judge Jose Manalo (born 1966), Filipino actor Jose K. Mani (born 1965), Indian politician Jose Concepcion Maristela Sr. (1916–1979), Philippine military Jose E. Martinez (born 1941), American lawyer Jose Medina (born 1953), American politician Jose Melo (born 1932), Filipino lawyer Jose C. Mendoza (born 1947), Filipino justice Jose Menendez (1968–1989), Lyle Menendez's father Jose Molina (writer) (born 1971), Spanish screenwriter Jose Mugrabi (born 1939), Israeli businessman Jose Munoz (infielder) (born 1967), American baseball player Jose Nandhikkara (born 1964), Indian author Jose Nazareno (born 1997), Ecuadorian footballer Jose Nolledo (born 1934), Filipino lawyer Jose Corona Nuñez (1906–2002), Mexican author Jose Nuñez (DJ), American musical artist Jose L. de Ocampo (1906–1995), Filipino architect Jose Rolando Olvera Jr. (born 1963), American judge Jose Javier Mejia Palacio (born 1964), Spanish painter Jose Villa Panganiban (1903–1972), Filipino lexicographer Jose Parica (born 1949), Filipino pool player Jose Pellissery (1950–2004), Indian film actor Jose Peralta (1971–2018), American politician Jose Perez (American football) (born 1985), American football player Jose P. Perez (1946–2021), Filipino judge Jose Chacko Periappuram (born 1958), Indian surgeon Jose Pimentel (born 1984), Dominican citizen Jose Moya del Pino (1891–1969), Spanish-American painter Jose Portilla (born 1972), American football player Jose Porunnedom (born 1956), Syro-Malabar Catholic bishop Jose Prakash (1925–2012), Indian actor Jose Principe, American engineer Jose Ramos (boxing manager) (born 1965), Puerto Rican salesman Jose Javier Reyes (born 1954), Filipino writer Jose Reyes, Jr. (born 1950), Filipino Associate Justice Jose Rivera (politician) (born 1936), Spanish politician Jose Rizal (1861–1896), Filipino writer and patriot Jose Rodela (born 1937), American veteran Jose Policarpo Rodriguez (1829–1914), Mexican surveyor Jose Rodriguez (intelligence officer) (born 1948), American intelligence officer Jose V. Rodriguez (born 1906), Filipino medical doctor Jose Rojas (racquetball) (born 1990), American racquetball player Jose V. Romero Jr. (born 1934), Filipino diplomat Jose Roy (1904–1986), Filipino lawyer Jose Russo, Argentine professor Jose de Mazarredo y Salazar (1745–1812), Spanish naval commander Jose Sambu, Portuguese footballer Jose Tomas Sanchez (1920–2012), Filipino cardinal Jose de Segovia (journalist) (born 1964), Spanish teacher Jose Maria Sison (born 1939), Filipino writer Jose Slaughter (born 1960), American basketball player Jose Solis (1940–2013), Filipino politician Jose Solon, Filipino politician Jose Solorio, American politician Jose Chemo Soto (born 1970), American political figure Jose Cesar de Souza (born 1962), Brazilian marathon runner Jose Tafoya (1834–1913), Mexican trader Jose Tamez, American television producer Jose I. Tejada (born 1958), Filipino politician Jose de Teresa (born 1850), Mexican businessman Jose Thenee (born 1953), Austrian ironworker Jose Thettayil (born 1950), Indian politician Jose Thomas (born 1963), Indian film director Jose Tillan (born 1966), Cuban musician Jose Victor Toledo (1931–1980), American judge Jose L. Torero, Peruvian mechanical engineer Jose Tosado (born 1953), American politician Jose Valdes (born 1957), Latin classical pianist Jose F. Valdez (1925–1945), American soldier Jose Valdez (American football) (born 1986), American football offensive lineman Jose Valdivia Jr. (born 1974), American jockey Jose Antonio Vargas (born 1981), Filipino journalist Jose Vasquez (soccer) (born 1969), American soccer player Jose Vazquez-Cofresi (born 1975), American composer Jose Vega (fighter) (born 1985), American mixed martial artist Jose R. Velasco (1916–2007), Filipino plant physiologist Jose de Venecia Jr. (born 1936), Philippine elected official Jose Marie Viceral (born 1976), Filipino comedian, television presenter, and actor, better known by his stage name Vice Ganda Jose Vidanes, American sport shooter Jose Ramon Villarin (born 1960), Filipino priest Jose Villarreal (soccer) (born 1993), American football forward Jose Chacón Medina Salazar y Villaseñor (born 1668), Spanish official Jose Vitug (born 1934), Filipino lawyer Jose Waldberg, German spy Jose White (born 1973), American football player Jose Gutierez Xtravaganza, American dancer Jose Yglesias (1919–1995), American novelist Jose Yu (born 1938), Hong Kong businessman Jose Zepeda (born 1989), American boxer Jose Zubiri III (born 1963), Filipino politician Jose Maria Zubiri Jr. (born 1940), Filipino businessman Jose Sanchez Garcia (born 2005), Stephanies Boyfriend/husband Female Jose Collins (1887–1958), English actress Jose Petrick (born 1924), Australian historian See also Hurricane Jose, the name of two Atlantic storms: Hurricane Jose (1999) Hurricane Jose (2017) Masculine given names
781183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Edward%20Fraser	Ian Edward Fraser	Ian Edward Fraser (18 December 1920 – 1 September 2008) was an English diving pioneer and recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. Fraser was born in Ealing in Middlesex and went to school in High Wycombe. After initially working on merchant ships and serving in the Royal Naval Reserve, he joined the Royal Navy at the start of the Second World War. After being awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for actions while serving on submarines, he was placed in command of a midget submarine during an attack in Singapore codenamed Operation Struggle. For his bravery in successfully navigating the mined waters, and successfully placing mines on a Japanese cruiser, Fraser was awarded the Victoria Cross. After retiring from the Royal Navy, Fraser set up a commercial diving organisation after realising the ease of use of new frogman-type diving equipment. After serving in several honorary positions in Wirral, Fraser retired from the Royal Naval Reserve as a lieutenant-commander in 1965. He died on 1 September 2008, in Wirral, Merseyside. Early life Fraser was born in Ealing in 1920. He was the elder son of Sydney Fraser, a marine engineer. He attended the Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe, and the school ship . He worked on merchant ships from 1938 to 1939. Second World War Fraser joined the Royal Naval Reserve in 1939, initially with the rank of midshipman, serving on several destroyers. In 1943, he joined the submarine . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in 1943 for "bravery and skill in successful submarine patrols." In 1944, at age 24, he became a lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve, and volunteered to serve on the 'X' craft midget submarine depot ship from 7 November 1944 to July 1945. Ian Fraser was played by actor Martin Delaney in a TV show entitled, Victoria Cross Heroes. The show was narrated in part by Charles, Prince of Wales. It tells the story of Fraser's attempt to sink the Takao on a secret mission aboard a midget submarine. On 31 July 1945 in the Straits of Johor between Singapore and Malaya, Lieutenant Fraser, in command of an improved X-boat, HMS XE-3, attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Takao, after making a long and hazardous journey through mined waters. Fraser slid the submarine under the Takao, which lay over a depression in the sea bed, and his diver Acting Leading Seaman James Joseph Magennis went out to fix the limpet mines to the bottom of the ship. The two side-charges then had to be released from XE-3, but the starboard charge stuck and Magennis climbed out again and after a nerve-wracking seven minutes released the charge. XE-3 then made for home. Magennis was also awarded a Victoria Cross, and Fraser became a lieutenant-commander. Sub-Lieutenant William James Lanyon Smith, RNZNVR, who was at the controls of XE-3 during the attack, received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO); Engine Room Artificer Third Class Charles Alfred Reed, who was at the wheel, received the Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (CGM). HMS XE-1 was supposed to be attacking another Japanese vessel as part of the same operation, but actually ended up also placing its explosives under the same target. XE-1'''s C/O, Lieutenant John Elliott Smart RNVR, and Sub-Lieutenant Harold Edwin Harper, RNVR received the DSC; and ERA Fourth Class Henry James Fishleigh and Leading Seaman Walter Henry Arthur Pomeroy received the Distinguished Service Medal. ERA Fourth Class Albert Nairn, Acting Leading Stoker Jack Gordan Robinson, and Able Seaman Ernest Raymond Dee were Mentioned in Despatches for their part in bringing the two midget submarines from harbour to the point where the crews that took part in the attack took over. The citation was published in a supplement to the London Gazette of 9 November 1945 (dated 13 November 1945) and read: His VC is on display in the Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum, London. Later life 1946: Fraser was awarded the American decoration of Legion of Merit, Degree of Officer. 1947: Fraser left the Royal Navy, but he remained in the Royal Naval Reserve. He set up a commercial diving firm. 1953: He was promoted to lieutenant-commander. 1957: Fraser's autobiography Frogman VC'' was published. 1957: He became a Justice of the Peace in Wallasey. 16 August 1963: He was awarded a clasp to his Decoration for Officers of the Royal Naval Reserve. 18 December 1965: He left the Royal Naval Reserve. 1980: He became a Younger Brother of Trinity House. 1993: He was made an honorary freeman of the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral. 1 September 2008: Fraser died aged 87 at Arrowe Park Hospital, after a three-week illness. He was survived by his wife Melba, and 5 of his 6 children, and 13 grandchildren, and 7 great-grandchildren. He was cremated at Landican cemetery, Birkenhead. Scuba diving Realising that frogman-type diving (i.e. what is now called scuba diving) could do many sorts of underwater work that the old-type heavy standard diving gear was unsuitable for, he and some associates got hold of war-surplus frogman's kit and set up a popular public show displaying frogman techniques in a big aquarium tank in Belle Vue Zoo in Manchester in England. One of his early calls to underwater work was from the police to recover the body of a little girl who had drowned in a pond in Denton, Greater Manchester. Using the show's takings, and with his younger brother Brian Fraser, he set up a commercial diving organisation called Universal Divers Ltd, of which he was managing director from 1947 to 1965 and, since 1983 (as former chairman). In January 1961 Universal Divers Ltd was involved in underwater survey on damage caused to the Severn Railway Bridge by collision by two barges. See also British commando frogmen. References Specific General British VCs of World War 2 (John Laffin, 1997) Monuments to Courage (David Harvey, 1999) The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997) Scotland's Forgotten Valour (Graham Ross, 1995) External links Daily Telegraph obituary The Times obituary Magennis and Ian Fraser Imperial War Museum Interview British World War II recipients of the Victoria Cross 1920 births 2008 deaths People from Ealing People educated at the Royal Grammar School, High Wycombe English underwater divers Royal Navy officers of World War II Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II Royal Navy submarine commanders Officers of the Legion of Merit Frogman operations Royal Navy recipients of the Victoria Cross Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom) People educated aboard HMS Conway Professional divers
801766	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerhead%20%28comics%29	Hammerhead (comics)	Hammerhead is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is usually depicted as an adversary of the superhero Spider-Man. He is a temperamental mobster who often dresses and acts in the 1920s style, and a prominent member of the Maggia, a fictional organized crime syndicate. Following an accident, he had most of his skull replaced with an inflexible steel alloy by Jonas Harrow, giving his head a flattened shape and near-indestructibility, hence his nickname. The Hammerhead crime family, of which he is the second and current head of, is named after the character. Hammerhead has made appearances in several forms of media outside of comics, including animated series and video games. IGN ranked him as Spider-Man's 20th greatest enemy. Publication history Hammerhead made his first appearance in The Amazing Spider-Man #113, and was created by writer Gerry Conway and artist John Romita Sr. Conway recalled that Hammerhead "was most directly influenced by the Big Man and the Crime-Master, who were among the first villains in Amazing Spider-Man. One of the more interesting things Stan [Lee], Jack Kirby, and, of course, Steve Ditko did was combining the two different kinds of milieus: superhero and Dick Tracy, with the unusual criminal characters who had some kind of physical deformity... Plus, Hammerhead—I liked [the] name, and John Romita came up with an interesting look". Fictional character biography Hammerhead's family immigrated from the Soviet Union to Italy when he was a child with help from a man known only as the General. His father ran a garage in Toirrano, where he insisted the young man speak only in Russian, beating him severely with a mallet when he would not. Although not much is known about his life before he became a criminal and supervillain, he is known to be married and has a sister named Antonia. All the while, Hammerhead dreamed of becoming a gangster. He is eventually recruited into one of the "families" of the criminal organization known as the Maggia when a member oversees Hammerhead "making his bones" by murdering a childhood bully and his girlfriend in a theater showing The Godfather Part II. Originally a small-time hitman, Hammerhead quickly rises through the ranks of the Maggia, while pretending to be ethnically Italian so he can be "made", or fully initiated member. In his final test, Hammerhead is brought to his father's garage (with the Maggia apparently unaware of their relationship). Hammerhead proceeds to kill his father, while saying Russian that he blames his father's abuse for making him a villain. One day, Hammerhead was found beaten, disfigured, and delirious with pain in an alley in New York City's Bowery by Jonas Harrow, a surgeon who had lost his medical license due to his illegal experiments. Seeing the opportunity both to save this man's life and to redeem his reputation, Harrow operated on the gunman for three days, replacing much of his shattered skull with a strong steel alloy. During the surgery, the unconscious thug fixated on the only memory he retained: an image of a poster for a movie called "The Al Capone Mob", which was hanging in the alley where he lay beaten and bloodied before Harrow found him. When he recovered, the memory of the poster and its images of 1930s-era gangsters prompted Hammerhead to start a gang of his own in the style of Capone and other mobsters of the 1920s. He even dressed as if he were living in that decade. A gang war broke out between Hammerhead's mob and Doctor Octopus's criminal organization. Hammerhead was forced to flee the country due to Spider-Man's interference. He later had a rematch with Doctor Octopus next to an atomic breeder reactor on a remote Canadian island which caused a chain reaction, blasting Hammerhead "out of phase" with this dimension. Some time later, he appeared as an immaterial ghost-like being to haunt Doctor Octopus. Doctor Octopus then unwittingly used a particle accelerator to restore Hammerhead to his corporeal form. Hammerhead kidnapped Spider-Man's Aunt May, who was then rescued by Spider-Man as Doctor Octopus caused Hammerhead's helicopter to plummet into the Hudson River. Hammerhead then proposed that all Maggia families unite under his leadership. Wearing a strength-enhancing exoskeleton, he battled the Human Torch, who then fused the exoskeleton's power pack. Hammerhead was nearly assassinated by the Kingpin's minion the Arranger during a gang war. Despite surviving the assassination, Hammerhead was ultimately forced out of a major role in New York City organized crime by the Kingpin. Hammerhead then allied himself with the Chameleon in the latter's bid to become the new crime lord of New York City. The two served as partners in a splinter group of the Maggia. Hammerhead hired Tombstone as a bodyguard and hitman. He hired the Hobgoblin to kill Joe Robertson, who posed a threat to Tombstone; the assassination attempt failed. Hammerhead was kidnapped and beaten by Tombstone, who had gained superhuman powers and resented Hammerhead for not sending him to kill Joe Robertson. Hammerhead later attended a Las Vegas crime conference to divide the resources left by the Kingpin's downfall at the time. Around this time, he participates in a multi-sided gang-war focused on the Kingpin's attempt to re-take New York City for his own. Hammerhead is a major player in underworld activities in the Marvel Universe and is highly sought after for elimination by the Punisher. He becomes one of several gang warlords struggling to control the criminal underworld in the major cities of the Eastern United States. During one of the first meetings of such warlords, Hammerhead was almost killed by the Strucker twins. This meeting was being manipulated by Baron Strucker, the head of HYDRA. When Don Fortunato made a bid for control of the New York underworld, Hammerhead opposed him and was almost killed as a result. When every other crime lord surrendered to Fortunato and his HYDRA allies, Hammerhead went rogue, launching a raid on Fortunato's home and successfully fighting off a HYDRA attack on his own headquarters. He did have assistance from Spider-Man and Morbius the Living Vampire, however. For a time, the hero known as S.H.O.C. also assists Hammerhead. Later, he was hired by Norman Osborn to be a part of the Sinister Twelve. During the events of the "Civil War", Hammerhead used the vacuum left by the incarceration of the Kingpin to gain a greater foothold in the ranks of organized crime, attempting to organize an army of costumed villains (consisting of the Ani-Men V, the Answer I, the Aura, Bloodshed, the Clown, the Cyclone III, the Discus, Electro, the Great Gambonnos, the Kangaroo II, Man Mountain Marko, the Mauler, Mindblast, Override, the Ringmaster, Stiletto, the Spot, the Squid, Slyde, the Trapster, and the Will O' the Wisp) to enforce his new criminal empire. When Slyde balked at the idea, Hammerhead had Underworld kill him to serve as a warning to anyone who did not join up with him. The Kingpin manipulated various hero factions, most notably S.H.I.E.L.D. and Iron Man, into breaking up Hammerhead's first convening of his army. During the conflict, Hammerhead was shot numerous times by Underworld, who was revealed to be working for the Kingpin. Underworld later confronted Hammerhead while he lay in prison and shot him at point-blank range with adamantium bullets. The bullets, while not penetrating his skull, did cause severe trauma to his brain, resulting him in needing surgery, but the hospital he was brought to was unable to treat him. In mid-surgery however, men working for the Kingpin's rival Mister Negative came in, killed the hospital staff, and took Hammerhead away. Mister Negative then has his surgeon Doctor Trauma revive Hammerhead and offers to transplant his brain into a new robotic adamantium skeleton, which Hammerhead agrees to. The operation is a complete success, and Hammerhead is restored to full mobility without any ill effects. He swears loyalty to Mister Negative in exchange for his restored life and proceeds to shape a gang of lowlife thugs into an effective army for his benefactor. He then proceeds to battle Spider-Man, besting him with no effort for the first time in years. Later, he has a rematch with Spider-Man, with Spider-Man dislocating Hammerhead's hip bone. Mister Negative sends Hammerhead to help Spider-Man (who Mister Negative corrupted) take down the Hood, who launches an attack on Negative's headquarters. He blackmails H.A.M.M.E.R. director Norman Osborn into forcing the Hood to pull out of Chinatown. Hammerhead later begins to doubt his loyalty to Mister Negative when Silvermane, a deceased former Maggia don and an old enemy of the Kingpin, appears to return. Unknown to Hammerhead, "Silvermane" is actually an android controlled by Mysterio to plant seeds of rebellion. Nevertheless, he flees a shootout with the Maggia when the Silvermane robot calls him a traitor. It is shown that Mister Negative had a computer chip put in Hammerhead's head to deliver an electroshock when necessary, which he promptly uses to punish him and remind him who is in charge. During the Origin of the Species storyline, Hammerhead and Mister Negative are among the supervillains invited by Doctor Octopus to join his supervillain team, promising them that they will receive a reward in exchange for securing some specific items for him. Alongside his nephew and minions, Hammerhead formed an alliance with the Black Cat, where he sided with her gang. Hammerhead is among the crime lords competing with Mister Negative in obtaining the Tablet of Life and Destiny in order to win the favor of Mayor Wilson Fisk. Powers and abilities Hammerhead has no superhuman abilities, yet his skull is now surgically reinforced with vibranium (or secondary adamantium), making his head flat on top; with this, he can charge and break through objects such as brick walls without causing any pain or damage to himself. This metal can absorb physical impacts that would otherwise fracture human bone. Hammerhead is in peak physical condition comparable to that of an Olympic-level athlete. He is a formidable hand-to-hand combatant whose most dangerous tactic is charging head first like a bull toward an opponent. Hammerhead once utilized a strength-enhancing exoskeleton designed by the Tinkerer. After an assassin's adamantium bullet penetrated a part of his head not protected by his adamantium skull, Hammerhead is surgically rebuilt by Mister Negative. Breakout surgeries replace the upper half of his skeleton with an adamantium endo-skeleton (the skeleton is shown to have a network of hydraulic servomechanisms). The upper portion of his body is now superhumanly strong as a result of the additional hidden cybernetic musculature, making him able to effortlessly beat a superpowered foe such as Spider-Man. Mister Negative does not use on Hammerhead the same Lord Dark Wind bonding process, used on the similarly empowered Wolverine and Lady Deathstrike for coating their bones in adamantium: instead he replaces Hammerhead's bones with replicas fashioned in the invulnerable metal. It is still unknown how his artificial skeleton can carry on biological functions. The intervention of Mr. Negative also radically changed Hammerhead's personality. Hammerhead now recalls his life as a Russian immigrant prior to the accident in which he adopted the 1920s gangster persona. Consequently, Hammerhead no longer speaks like a 1920s movie gangster, but instead behaves as a typical modern Russian mobster and hitman, as this was apparently his original personality prior to his head injury. Hammerhead is highly skilled in the organization, concealment and management of criminal enterprises. He is an effective hitman, a skilled marksman (his preferred weapon was the Thompson submachine gun), and an excellent street fighter. In his original incarnation, Hammerhead was able to hold his own against Spider-Man despite being an ordinary human by using his superhumanly durable skull as a blunt instrument. After his recent augmentation, he is now capable of grappling with and physically overpowering Spider-Man to the extent that he could eventually crush his foe. Other versions House of M In the House of M reality, Hammerhead is one of the gang leaders defeated by Luke Cage in his rise to power in Sapien Town. Marvel Zombies In the Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness miniseries, Hammerhead briefly appears, along with the Owl and the Kingpin, at a meeting to discuss how to survive the zombie outbreak. This version of Hammerhead is ultimately killed by the Punisher. Ultimate Marvel The Ultimate Marvel version of Hammerhead first appears in Ultimate X-Men #13-14 as a mobster who has killed the parents of a little girl. The girl stumbles upon local street performer/magician Gambit, taking the girl in and decides to protect her from the mob. The girl is kidnapped and Gambit goes on a rampage to find her, blindly running into an ambush Hammerhead set up. Gambit gets out of the ambush and chases Hammerhead down. In the end, Gambit charges Hammerhead's inorganic skull full of bio-kinetic energy and causes his head to explode. It is also known his first name is Joseph. In Ultimate Spider-Man, Hammerhead was revealed to have survived Gambit's attack, though how is not explained ("It sucked. I came back."). He kills Silvermane in the beginning of the Warriors story arc and becomes the Enforcers' new leader. He burns down one of the Kingpin's warehouses. After an intense battle with Spider-Man, the Black Cat, the Moon Knight, Iron Fist and Shang-Chi, he was put in a coma when Elektra brutally stabbed him in the chest with her sai and flung him out of a window. Marvel MAX An alternate version of Hammerhead appears as one of the antagonists in the Cage miniseries by Brian Azzarello and Richard Corben. This version of the character is a deformed gangster named Sonny "The Hammer" Caputo, who is embroiled in a gang war with Tombstone. Age of Ultron During the "Age of Ultron" storyline, a reality where Ultron nearly annihilated the human race has Hammerhead and the Owl capturing the Superior Spider-Man and hoping to trade him to Ultron. Hawkeye came to the Superior Spider-Man's rescue as the Ultron Sentinels attack. Earth-001 During the Spider-Verse storyline, the Earth-001 version of Hammerhead appears as a member of Verna's Hounds. In other media Television Hammerhead appears in the 1980s Spider-Man animated series episode "Wrath of the Sub-Mariner", voiced by William Boyett. Hammerhead appears in Spider-Man: The Animated Series, voiced by Nicky Blair. The metal used in this version's head is adamantium and he initially serves Silvermane before being fired by him and hired by the Kingpin, whom Hammerhead serves loyally for the rest of the series. Hammerhead appears in The Spectacular Spider-Man animated series, voiced by John DiMaggio. This version is more cool-headed and intelligent than past incarnations and wields brass knuckles along with his usual strength. Additionally, he originally worked for Silvermane and was in a romantic relationship with his daughter, Sable Manfredi, before they broke up and Hammerhead became an enforcer the crime boss Tombstone. Throughout the series, Hammerhead acts on Tombstone's behalf by manufacturing supervillains to distract Spider-Man from Tombstone's operations. However, Tombstone eventually becomes fed up with Hammerhead's failures and begins conducting business without him. While contacting Norman Osborn to create another supervillain, Hammerhead becomes inspired to betray his boss, unknowingly contributing to Osborn's plan to take Tombstone out of play. Secretly calling for a Valentine's Day meeting between Tombstone, Silvermane, and Doctor Octopus, Hammerhead attempts to manipulate the assembled crime bosses into destroying each other. However, Spider-Man foils his plan by getting all of the bosses arrested, leading Tombstone to fire Hammerhead. A Marvel Noir-inspired version of Hammerhead appears in the Ultimate Spider-Man vs. the Sinister Six animated series episode "Return to the Spider-Verse" [Pt. 3], voiced by Jon Polito. This version is a crime boss, rival of Joe Fixit, and employed Martin Li as a henchman until he becomes Mister Negative. Hammerhead appears in the animated series Marvel's Spider-Man, voiced by Jim Cummings. This version is a crime boss who previously employed Flint Marko and Randy Macklin and has a spoiled son named Tull (voiced by Laura Bailey.) Debuting in the episode "Sandman", he inadvertently causes Marko's transformation into the titular character after burying him in toxic waste and sand after Marko failed him one too many times. This also mutated Flint's daughter, Keemia Marko, whom Hammerhead took in as his new henchwoman after finding a way to stabilize her condition. After Sandman and Spider-Man join forces to rescue Keemia, the web-slinger defeats Hammerhead and his henchmen and leaves them for the police. Following this, Hammerhead makes minor reappearances in the episodes "Spider-Man on Ice", "How I Thwipped My Summer Vacation", "My Own Worst Enemy", and "Spider-Man Unmasked" [Pt. 2]. Video games Hammerhead appeared in the 1995 Spider-Man animated series tie-in game. Hammerhead appears as a boss in the PlayStation exclusive Spider-Man 2: Enter Electro, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. This version aids Electro with his schemes. Hammerhead appears as a boss in Spider-Man: Mysterio's Menace. A Marvel Noir-inspired version of Hammerhead appears as a boss in Spider-Man: Shattered Dimensions, voiced again by John DiMaggio. While he does not appear in the original Marvel Noir comics, the developers felt "he would be a perfect fit for the Noir universe". Born Joseph Lorenzini, this version was born with a deformed head and a flat, thick skull. He initially worked as a circus freak under the nickname "The Human Bulldozer" before being recruited by Norman Osborn as a loan shark and enforcer. Hammerhead is sent to New Jersey to retrieve a fragment of the Tablet of Order and Chaos. However, after his men are defeated by Spider-Man Noir, Hammerhead uses the fragment to merge himself with his twin Tommy guns, intending to overthrow Osborn as the head of New York's criminal underworld. In the end, Spider-Man Noir defeats him and claims the fragment. Hammerhead appears as a boss in the Facebook game Marvel: Avengers Alliance. Hammerhead appears as a boss in the mobile version of The Amazing Spider-Man 2 film tie-in game, voiced by Dave Boat. This version is a gang leader at war with the Russian Mob, led by Kraven the Hunter. Hammerhead appears as a playable character and boss in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2. This version is a gang boss in Manhattan Noir. A variation of Hammerhead infected with a Venom symbiote appears as a playable character in the mobile game Spider-Man Unlimited. Hammerhead appears in The City That Never Sleeps DLC for Marvel's Spider-Man, voiced by Keith Silverstein. Similarly to his comics counterpart, this version, aka Joseph Martello, is a powerful and notorious crime boss within the Maggia and has a metal plate in his skull that was implanted after a failed assassination attempt. Following the power vacuum created by the Kingpin and Mister Negative's arrests in the main game, the Maggia become embroiled in a gang war for control over New York's criminal underworld. While attempting to seize power for his crime family and eliminate the other Maggia leaders, Hammerhead transforms himself into a cyborg, only to be defeated by Spider-Man and Silver Sable. Theater Hammerhead makes a minor appearance in Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark. References External links Hammerhead at Marvel.com Characters created by Gerry Conway Characters created by John Romita Sr. Comics characters introduced in 1972 Fictional crime bosses Fictional cyborgs Fictional henchmen Fictional immigrants to the United States Fictional gangsters Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics supervillains Spider-Man characters
826616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten%20Great%20Campaigns	Ten Great Campaigns	The Ten Great Campaigns () were a series of military campaigns launched by the Qing Empire of China in the mid–late 18th century during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–96). They included three to enlarge the area of Qing control in Inner Asia: two against the Dzungars (1755–57) and the "pacification" of Xinjiang (1758–59). The other seven campaigns were more in the nature of police actions on frontiers already established: two wars to suppress the Gyalrong of Jinchuan, Sichuan, another to suppress the Taiwanese Aboriginals (1787–88), and four expeditions abroad against the Burmese (1765–69), the Vietnamese (1788–89), and the Gurkhas on the border between Tibet and Nepal (1790–92), with the last counting as two. Campaigns Three campaigns against the Dzungars and the pacification of Xinjiang (1755–59) First campaign Of the ten campaigns, the final destruction of the Dzungars (or Zunghars) was the most significant. The 1755 Pacification of Dzungaria and the later suppression of the Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas secured the northern and western boundaries of Xinjiang, eliminated rivalry for control over the Dalai Lama in Tibet, and thereby eliminated any rival influence in Mongolia. It also led to the pacification of the Islamicised, Turkic-speaking southern half of Xinjiang immediately thereafter. Second campaign In 1752, Dawachi and the Khoit-Oirat prince Amursana competed for the title of Khan of the Dzungars. Dawachi defeated Amursana various times and gave him no chance to recover. Amursana was thus forced to flee with his small army to the Qing imperial court. The Qianlong Emperor pledged to support Amursana since Amursana accepted Qing authority; among those who supported Amursana and the Chinese were the Khoja brothers and . In 1755, Qianlong sent the Manchu general , who was aided by Amursana, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān, to lead a campaign against the Dzungars. After several skirmishes and small scale battles along the Ili River, the Qing army led by Zhaohui approached Ili (Gulja) and forced Dawachi to surrender. Qianlong appointed Amursana as the Khan of Khoit and one of four equal khans – much to the displeasure of Amursana, who wanted to be the Khan of the Dzungars. In the summer of 1756, Amursana started a Dzungar revolt against the Chinese with the help of Prince Chingünjav. The Qing Empire reacted at the start of 1757 and sent General Zhaohui with support from Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān. Among several battles, the most important ones were illustrated in Qianlong's paintings. The Dzungar leader Ayushi defected to the Qing side and attacked the Dzungar camp at Gadan-Ola (Battle of Gadan-Ola). Campaign in Altishahr (Third campaign) General Zhaohui defeated the Dzungars in two battles: the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu (1758) and the Battle of Khurungui (1758). In the first battle, Zhaohui attacked Amursana's camp at night; Amursana was able to fight on until Zhaohui received enough reinforcements to drive him away. Between the time of Oroi-Jalatu and Khurungui, the Chinese under Prince Cabdan-jab defeated Amursana at the Battle of Khorgos (known in the Qianlong engravings as the "Victory of Khorgos"). At Mount Khurungui, Zhaohui defeated Amursana in a night attack on his camp after crossing a river and drove him back. To commemorate Zhaohui's two victories, Qianlong had the Puning Temple of Chengde constructed, home to the world's tallest wooden sculpture of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara and hence its alternate name, the 'Big Buddha Temple'. Afterwards, of Turfan submitted to the Qing Empire. After all of these battles, Amursana fled to Russia (where he died) while Chingünjav fled north to Darkhad but was captured at Wang Tolgoi and executed in Beijing. After the second campaign against the Dzungars in 1758, two Altishahr nobles, the Khoja brothers and , started a revolt against the Qing Empire. Apart from the remaining Dzungars, they were also joined by the Kyrgyz peoples and the Oases Turkic peoples (Uyghurs) in Altishahr (the Tarim Basin). After capturing several towns in Altishahr, there were still two rebel fortresses at Yarkand and Kashgar at the end of 1758. Uyghur Muslims from Turfan and Hami, including Emin Khoja and Khoja Si Bek, remained loyal to the Qing Empire and helped the Qing regime fight the Altishahri Uyghurs under Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān. Zhaohui unsuccessfully besieged Yarkand and fought an indecisive battle outside the city; this engagement is historically known as the Battle of Tonguzluq. Zhaohui instead took other towns east of Yarkand but was forced to retreat; the Dzungar and Uyghur rebels laid siege to him at the Siege of Black River (Kara Usu). In 1759, Zhaohui asked for reinforcements and 600 troops were sent, under the overall command of generals Fude and Machang, with the 200 cavalry led by Namjil; other high-ranking officers included Arigun, Doubin, Duanjibu, Fulu, Yan Xiangshi, Janggimboo, Yisamu, Agui and Shuhede. On 3 February 1759, over 5,000 enemy cavalry led by Burhān al-Dīn ambushed the 600 relief troops at the Battle of Qurman. The Uyghur and Dzungar cavalry were stopped by the Qing zamburak artillery camels, musketry and archers; Namjil and Machang led a cavalry charge on one of the flanks. Namjil was killed while Machang was unseated from horseback and was forced to fight on foot with his bow. After a hard-fought battle, the Qing forces emerged victorious and attacked the Dzungar camp, causing the Dzungars besieging the Black River to withdraw. After the victory at Qurman, the Qing army overran the remaining rebel towns. Mingrui led a detachment of cavalry and defeated Dzungar cavalry at the Battle of Qos-Qulaq. The Uyghurs retreated from Qos-Qulaq but were defeated by Zhaohui and Fude at the Battle of Arcul (Altishahr) on September1, 1759. The rebels were defeated again at the Battle of Yesil Kol Nor. After these defeats, Burhān al-Dīn and Khwāja-i Jahān fled with their small army of supporters to Badakhshan. Sultan Shah of Badakhshan promised to protect them but he contacted the Qing Empire and promised to turn them over. When the fleeing rebels came to the Sultan's capital, he attacked them and captured them. When the Qing army reached Sultan Shah's capital, he handed over the captured rebels to them and submitted to the Qing Empire. In later years Durrani Afghanistan and the Khanate of Bukhara invaded Badakhshan and killed Sultan Shah for betraying Khojas to the Qing, while the latter did not respond. Suppression of the Jinchuan hill peoples (1747–49, 1771–76) First campaign The suppression of Jinchuan was the costliest and most difficult, and also the most destructive of the Ten Great Campaigns. Jinchuan (lit. "Golden Stream") was located northwest of Chengdu in western Sichuan. Its residents were the Gyalrong tribes, related to the Tibetans of Amdo. The first campaign in 1747–1749 was a simple affair; with little use of force the Qing army induced the native chieftains to accept a peace plan, and departed. Second campaign Interethnic conflict brought Qing intervention back after 20 years. The result was the Qing forces being forced to fight a protracted war of attrition costing the Imperial Treasury several times the amounts expended on the earlier conquests of the Dzungars and Xinjiang. The resisting tribes retreated to their stone towers and forts in steep mountains and could only be dislodged by cannon fire. The Qing generals were ruthless in annihilating the local Gyalrong Tibetans, then reorganised the region in a military prefecture and repopulated it with more cooperative inhabitants. When victorious troops returned to Beijing, a celebratory hymn was sung in their honour. A Manchu version of the hymn was recorded by the French Jesuit Jean Joseph Marie Amiot and sent to Paris. Campaigns in Burma (1765–69) The Qianlong Emperor launched four invasions of Burma between 1765 and 1769. The war claimed the lives of over 70,000 Qing soldiers and four commanders, and is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing dynasty had ever waged", and one that "assured Burmese independence and probably the independence of other states in Southeast Asia". The successful Burmese defence laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between Myanmar and China. First and second invasion At first, Qianlong envisaged an easy war, and sent in only the Green Standard troops stationed in Yunnan. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in the Burmese invasion of the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765 and 1766 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military maneuvers nationwide in both countries. Third invasion The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite Manchu Bannermen nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital, Ava. However, the Bannermen of northern China could not cope with unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases, and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close-call, King Hsinbyushin redeployed most of the Burmese armies from Siam to the Chinese border. The successful Burmese defence laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between Myanmar and China. The Qing Qianglong Emperor ordered Manchu general Eledeng'e (also spelled E'erdeng'e (額爾登額) or possibly 額爾景額) to be sliced to death after his commander Mingrui was defeated at the Battle of Maymyo in the Sino-Burmese war in 1768 because Eledeng'i was not able to help flank Mingrui when he did not arrive at a rendezvous. Fourth invasion The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769. Aftermath The Qing forces maintained a heavy military presence in the border areas of Yunnan for about a decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. The Burmese were also preoccupied with another impending invasion by the Qing Empire, and kept a series of garrisons along the border. After twenty years, Burma and the Qing Empire resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790. To the Burmese, the resumption was on equal terms. However, the Qianlong Emperor unilaterally interpreted the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory. Ironically, the main beneficiaries of this war were the Siamese. After having lost their capital Ayutthaya to the Burmese in 1767, they regrouped in the absence of large Burmese armies, and reclaimed their territories over the next two years. Taiwan rebellion (1786–88) In 1786, the Qing-appointed Governor of Taiwan, , discovered and suppressed the anti-Qing Tiandihui (Heaven and Earth Society). The Tiandihui members gathered Ming loyalists, and their leader proclaimed himself king. Many important people took part in this revolt and the insurgents quickly rose to 50,000 people. In less than a year, the rebels occupied almost all of southern Taiwan. Hearing that the rebels had occupied most of Taiwan, Qing troops were sent to suppress them in a hurry. The east insurgents defeated the poorly organised troops and had to resist falling to the enemy. Finally, the Qing imperial court sent Fuk'anggan while , Counsellor of the Police, deployed nearly 3,000 people to fight the insurgents. These new troops were well equipped, disciplined and had combat experience which proved enough to rout the insurgents. The Ming loyalists had lost the war and their leaders and remaining rebels hid among the locals. Lin Shuangwen, and other Tiandihui leaders had started a rebellion. The Qing general Fuk'anggan quelled the rebellion with a force of 20,000 soldiers and executed Lin Shuangwen. Two campaigns against the Gurkhas (1788–93) The campaigns against the Gurkhas displayed the Qing imperial court's continuing sensitivity to conditions in Tibet. First campaign The late 1760s saw the creation of a strong centralized state in Nepal. The Gurkha rulers of Nepal decided to invade southern Tibet in 1788. The two Manchu resident agents (ambans) in Lhasa made no attempt at defence or resistance. Instead, they took the child Panchen Lama to safety when the Nepalese troops came through and plundered the rich monastery at Shigatse on their way to Lhasa. Upon hearing of the first Nepalese incursions, the Qianlong Emperor ordered troops from Sichuan to proceed to Lhasa and restore order. By the time they reached southern Tibet, the Gurkhas had already withdrawn. This counted as the first of two wars with the Gurkhas. Second campaign In 1791, the Gurkhas returned in force. Qianlong urgently dispatched an army of 10,000. It was made up of around 6,000 Manchu and Mongol forces supplemented by tribal soldiers under the general Fuk'anggan, with as his deputy. They entered Tibet from Xining in the north, shortening the march but making it in the dead of winter 1791–92, crossing high mountain passes in deep snow and cold. They reached central Tibet in the summer of 1792 and within two or three months could report that they had won a decisive series of encounters that pushed the Gurkha armies. The Nepalese outplayed with stretching tactics since the Chinese Army were 3-4 times larger. Nepalese began into pull back making Chinese uncomfortably outstretched and at Nuwakot, Chinese received strong counterattack with Khukuri. Since, Nepal was expanding in the West and Fuk'anggan was keen to protect his army, both signed a peace treaty at Betrawati. The peace treaty was more favourable on Qing terms as the terms forced Nepal to pay tribute to the Qing Empire every five years. Campaign in Đại Việt (1788–89) Since the 17th century Vietnam was divided into two parts: the southern part was Đàng Trong or Cochinchina, ruled by the Nguyễn lords and the northern part was Đàng Ngoài or Tonkin, ruled by the Trịnh lords under the puppet Lê emperors. In 1771 the Tây Sơn rebellion broke out in southern Vietnam, led by the brothers Nguyễn Nhạc, Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ, who removed the local Nguyễn lord from power. After the capture of Phú Xuân (modern Huế), Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, a traitor of Trịnh's general, encouraged Nguyễn Huệ to overthrow the Trịnh lord. Huệ took his advice, marched north and captured Thăng Long (modern Hanoi). In 1788, Lê Chiêu Thống was installed the new Lê emperor by Huệ. Huệ then retreated to Phú Xuân. Meanwhile, Lê Chiêu Thống never abandoned his attempt to regain the throne. Lê Quýnh, Empress Dowager Mẫn and the eldest son of Lê Chiêu Thống, fled to Longzhou, Guangxi, to seek support from Qing China. A large Qing army invaded Vietnam to restore Lê Chiêu Thống to the throne. However, the Chinese army was defeated by the Tây Sơn army and after subsequent reconciliation, Qianlong recognized Nguyễn Huệ (aka Quang Trung) as the ruler of Vietnam. What motivated the Qing imperial government to interfere in Vietnam's domestic affairs has always been disputed. Chinese scholars claimed that the Qianlong Emperor simply wanted to restore the Lê emperor to the throne in order to end instability in Vietnam while not seeking any territorial gains. Vietnamese scholars on the other hand have argued, that Qianlong intended to make Vietnam a vassal. China would station troops in Vietnam and install Lê Chiêu Thống as its puppet king. In perspective In his later years, the Qianlong Emperor referred to himself with the grandiose style name of "Old Man of the Ten Completed [Great Campaigns]" (十全老人). He also wrote an essay enumerating the victories in 1792, Record of Ten Completions (十全记). However, the campaigns were a major financial drain on the Qing Empire, costing more than 151 million silver taels. Nearly 1.5 million piculs (1 picul = 100 catties) of cargo were transported for the campaign in Taiwan. The outcomes of the campaigns were also modest. Although the tribes at Jinchuan numbered less than 30,000 households, they took five years to pacify. Instead of restoring Lê Chiêu Thống to the throne in Vietnam as the campaign had intended, the Qianlong Emperor ended up making peace with the new Tây Sơn dynasty and arranged for marriages between the imperial families of Qing and Tay Son. See also Qing dynasty in Inner Asia Notes References Further reading Antonucci, Davor. "In the Service of the Emperor: Félix da Rocha SJ (1731-1781) and Qianlong's "Ten Great Campaigns". Orientis Aura: Macau Perspectives in Religious Studies 3 (2020): 61-79. online Fairbank, John King.China: A New History (1992) pp 152–53. Mote, F.W. Imperial China 900–1800 (1999), pp 936–939 Perdue, Peter C. "Empire and nation in comparative perspective: Frontier administration in eighteenth-century China." Journal of Early Modern History 5.4 (2001): 282–304. Waley-Cohen, Joanna. "Commemorating War in Eighteenth-Century China." Modern Asian Studies 30.4 (1996): 869-899. online Waley-Cohen, Joanna. "Religion, war, and empire-building in eighteenth-century China." International History Review 20.2 (1998): 336-352. online Qianlong Emperor Rebellions in the Qing dynasty Wars involving the Qing dynasty Wars involving Vietnam 18th century in China 18th century in Burma 18th century in Vietnam 18th century in Nepal 18th-century conflicts Eight Banners
833523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules%20Dassin	Jules Dassin	Julius "Jules" Dassin (December 18, 1911 – March 31, 2008) was an American film and theatre director, producer, writer and actor. A subject of the Hollywood blacklist in the McCarthy era, he subsequently moved to France, and later Greece, where he continued his career. He was a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences and the Screen Directors' Guild. Dassin received a Best Director Award at the Cannes Film Festival for his film Du rififi chez les hommes. He was later nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director and Best Writing, Story and Screenplay - Written Directly for the Screen for his film Never on Sunday, and was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical for his Broadway production of Illya Darling. Biography Early life Julius Dassin was born on December 18, 1911, to Bertha Dassin (née Vogel) and Samuel Dassin, a barber, in Middletown, Connecticut. His parents were both Jewish immigrants from Odessa, Russian empire (now Ukraine). Julius had seven siblings, including four brothers, Louis C., Benjamin, Irving and Edward; and three sisters. In 1915, when Julius was three years old, the Dassin family moved to Harlem, New York. He attended public grammar school where he received his first acting role in a school play. Julius was given a small part but when came time to speak his only line, he fainted due to stage fright. He also learned to play the piano at a young age. During his youth he attended Camp Kinderland, a left-wing Yiddish youth camp. Julius attended Morris High School in the Bronx. He started acting professionally in 1926, at the age of fourteen, with the Yiddish Art Theatre in New York City. On October 13, 1929, newspaper columnist Mark Hellinger printed a story given to him by Dassin in the New York Daily News; nearly twenty years later, the two would work together in Hollywood. On July 11, 1933, Julius' older brother Louis was arrested in Meriden, Connecticut when he confessed to the theft of $12,000 from the Puritan Bank and Trust Company, where he worked as a teller and treasurer. On September 10, 1933, when he was 21 years old, Julius married Beatrice Launer, a concert violinist and a graduate of the Juilliard School of Music. Beginning in 1934, Julius spent three years studying dramatic technique in Europe. He spent time in Italy, France, Spain, Germany, Russia, England, Czechoslovakia, Portugal, Switzerland and Greece, working odd jobs to sustain himself. New York theatre and radio career After returning from Europe in 1936, Dassin joined the Children's Theatre, a division of the Federal Theatre Project during the Great Depression. It was during this time that he joined the Communist Party USA. The troupe put on children's plays at the Adelphi Theatre in New York City. During this time, he played the role of Zar in The Emperor's New Clothes in September 1936, and the role of Oakleaf in Revolt of the Beavers, which ran from May 20, 1937, to June 19, 1937. The later play was criticized as strongly communist. He later joined up with the Artef Players, a Yiddish Proletarian Theater company in 1937, serving as an actor, set designer, set builder, stage director and even ticket salesman. Beginning on October 5, 1937, he appeared in Moyshe Kulbak's play The Outlaw, which had been adapted by Chaver Paver at The Artef Theatre He also appeared in Artef Players' Recruits and 200,000. On November 5, 1938, Dassin's wife Beatrice gave birth to their first child, son Joseph. In October 1939, he acted in Chaver Paver's Clinton Street, which was staged at the Mercury Theatre, after Orson Welles' troupe had left for Hollywood and the Radio-Keith-Orpheum circuit. Since the pay was poor with Artef Players, Dassin formed a theatre troupe to tour the Borscht Circuit in the Catskills as summer stock. Dassin acted in a movie scripted and directed by Jack Skurnick, which was shown to a small group at a space that Skurnick rented in New York but was never exhibited beyond that. He then wrote sketches for radio, at times directing his own radio plays, and became a stage director and producer. In April 1939, Dassin adapted Nicolai Gogol's story The Overcoat for the CBS variety program The Kate Smith Hour, which starred Burgess Meredith and was broadcast live on April 20, 1939. In early 1940, Dassin staged and directed the play Medicine Show for producer Martin Gabel, starring Isabel Bonner, Philip Bourneuf and Norman Lloyd. Although it was well received by critics, Medicine Show only ran for 35 performances at the New Yorker Theatre, from April 12, 1940, to May 11, 1940. Working in Hollywood RKO Radio Pictures (1940) In June 1940, Dassin was signed to a term contract with Hollywood film studio RKO Radio Pictures as a director. He was immediately assigned as an assistant director to learn the motion picture business, working under Garson Kanin on They Knew What They Wanted (1940) and Alfred Hitchcock on Mr. and Mrs. Smith (1941), both starring Carole Lombard and both under the supervision of producer Harry E. Edington. During the filming of Mr. and Mrs. Smith, Dassin's wife Beatrice gave birth to their second child, daughter Richelle. By January 1941, after six months without a proper directorial job, Dassin was released from his RKO Radio Pictures contract. Dassin returned to radio work in Hollywood, presenting his previously adapted Gogol story The Overcoat for a repeat performance on The Kate Smith Hour, this time starring Henry Hull, which was broadcast live on January 3, 1941. He was also one of the several actors who formed the Actors' Laboratory Theatre. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and loan-out to Eagle-Lion Films (1941-1946) Wanting to prove that he could direct motion pictures, Dassin approached Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in the spring of 1941 offering his services for free. He told the studio that he would direct any film for free; the studio instead offered to pay him to direct a short film. Dassin made his directorial debut with a short film of Edgar Allan Poe's The Tell-Tale Heart. Filmed in June 1941 and released on October 25, 1941, the success of the picture led to his hasty promotion as a feature film director and the signing of an exclusive five-year contract in early November 1941. Dassin was promoted from the short story department to the feature film department by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer at the same time as Fred Zinnemann and Fred Wilcox. His feature film debut at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer was the low-budget spy thriller Nazi Agent (originally announced under the titles Salute to Courage, House of Spies and Out of the Past), under the supervision of producer Irving Asher and starring Conrad Veidt, in the dual roles of twin brothers, and Ann Ayars. Released in early 1942, the film received immediate critical acclaim and was a box office success, with Dassin being compared to Orson Welles and Alfred Hitchcock. Dassin followed with the romantic comedy The Affairs of Martha (originally announced under the title Once Upon a Thursday), starring Marsha Hunt and Richard Carlson, and under the supervision of producer Irving Starr. The film was made in early 1942 on a limited budget. When released in mid-1942, the film was a moderate success and again Dassin was highlighted in the reviews. In mid-February 1942, it was reported that Dassin would direct a film titled Men at Sea from a Marine Corps story by Alma Rivkin (possibly a typo for Allen Rivkin) starring Philip Dorn. The film was presumably abandoned. In April 1942, it was reported that Dassin would be one of eight directors, along with Fred Zinenmann, Fred Wilcox, Charles Lederer, Edward Cahn, Joseph M. Newman and David Miller, to film a sequence for a planned patriotic anthology film at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer titled Now We Are 21. The film was to be produced by B. F. Zeidman and scripted by Peter Ruric from a story by Jerry Schwartz. Actors such as Gene Kelly, Ray McDonald, Virginia O'Brien, James Warren, Tatricia Dane, Johnny Davis and Barry Wilson were to appear in the film, but it was never made. Joan Crawford, one of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer's biggest stars at the time, watched a private screening of Nazi Agent, after which she rushed to Louis B. Mayer's office insisting that Dassin direct her upcoming World War II drama vehicle, Reunion in France (originally announced simply as Reunion). The picture was being produced by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and was to co-star Philip Dorn and John Wayne. Crawford also requested that Ann Ayars, who co-starred in Nazi Agent, be given the second female lead in her film. Dassin was notified of this new assignment on May 19, 1942, and the press reported that he had been promoted to become an "A movie" director. On the first day of shooting, Dassin yelled "cut" while Crawford was performing, which deeply upset the actress and led her to rush into Mayer's office. Dassin was called into Mayer's office and told that his career as a film director was over. To his surprise, Crawford invited the young director to have dinner at her house later that night and the two became dear friends; the next day, Dassin resumed his directorial duty on the film. The film opened to theatres in December 1942 but received mixed opinions from critics who found its pace too slow. After completing Reunion in France, it was reported that Dassin received a leave of absence from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to act in a stage production of William Shakespeare's Richard III on Broadway. The play was to be directed by and starring John Carradine, though it is unknown if this production came through. Dassin was also employed by Frank Tuttle as one of the lecturers for Hollywood School for Writers' new film directing class, along with Fred Zinnemann, Irving Pichel and László Benedek. In mid-November 1942, he was assigned to direct another romantic comedy, Young Ideas (originally announced as Faculty Row), under the supervision of producer Robert Sisk. The film was shot from mid-December 1942 to early 1943 and starred Susan Peters, Herbert Marshall and Mary Astor. The film was released in the summer of 1943 and received favorable reviews as a light comedy. In March 1943, Dassin joined the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In September 1943, after several months without a project, Dassin took over the directorial duties on a comedy film adaptation of Oscar Wilde's The Canterville Ghost. Original director Norman Z. McLeod had departed after five weeks of shooting, following a clash with producer Arthur Field and the cast, which included Charles Laughton, Robert Young and Margaret O'Brien. The film finished shooting in December 1943 and was released in the summer of 1944. Between the filming of scenes, Laughton often asked Dassin to play Russian classical songs on the piano, of which both were fond. The Canterville Ghost was very well received by critics and won a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation in 1945. In January 1944, producer Edwin H. Knopf selected Dassin to direct the suspense drama Secrets in the Dark (originally announced as Strangers in the Dark and The Outward Room). The motion picture was based on Millen Brand's novel The Outward Room and from the existing play version The World We Make, which had been adapted by Sidney Kingsley. The plot was that of a middle-class girl who escapes from an insane asylum and develops a love affair with a blue collar steel worker, and in turn overcomes her phobias. The property was developed as a starring vehicle for Susan Peters, newly promoted Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer starlet. Gene Kelly was first cast as the male lead in January 1944, though he was replaced by Robert Young in February 1944. Other cast members included Fortunio Bononova, Katharine Balfour, Felix Bressart, Alexander Granach, Peggy Maley, Marta Linden, Morris Ankrum, Sharon McManus and Betty Lawler. Secrets in the Dark was to start shooting on February 20, 1944, with cinematographer Robert Planck, but was pushed back to early March 1944 due to production delays. On April 1, 1944, Peters was admitted into Santa Monica Hospital for abdominal pain and underwent major surgery. Her recovery took several months, postponing the films' production indefinitely. Reports varied as to how much footage was shot; some reported as little as ten day of filming, while others stated that the film was nearly completed. By the time that Peters had recovered in the summer of 1944, Dassin was on a voluntary leave from the studio, so Peters was instead assigned to Keep Your Powder Dry (originally announced as Women in Uniform) for director Edward Buzzell. When Dassin finally returned to work for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in mid-1945, Peters had undergone another series of surgeries (due to an accidental shotgun discharge on January 1, 1945), which put her in a wheelchair. Peter's character in Secrets in the Dark was to be rewritten as a paraplegic, but the film was instead permanently shelved. When Secrets in the Dark was first postponed in early April 1944, Dassin started acting in night plays at the Actors' Laboratory Theatre as part of the War Charities benefits. The first play in which he acted was Night Lodging, followed by The Lower Depths. In May 1944, Dassin teamed up with Arthur Lubin to set up the Soldier Shows Stock Company, a project to put on plays featuring wounded war veterans at Torney General Hospital in Palm Springs, California. In June 1944, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer announced that Dassin had been assigned to direct the company's 20th Anniversary film, Some of the Best. The five-reel picture was to include excerpts from prior Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films, spanning 1924–1943, along with wrap-around pieces starring Lewis Stone. Dassin, however, became weary of his directorial duties at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and asked Louis B. Mayer to be released from his exclusive contract. Mayer sternly refused, even after Dassin offered to sign a promissory document that he would never work for another Hollywood studio. In a later interview conducted in December 1946, Dassin revealed that he was ashamed of some of the directorial duties he was forced to accept while at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Dassin had hoped to return to work on the New York stage but instead took a thirteen-month voluntary hiatus from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, filling his time by reading books on the beach and working on local plays. On July 30, 1944, Dassin's wife Beatrice gave birth to their third child, daughter Julie. In November 1944, actor Ralph Bellamy approached Dassin to direct The Democrats, a play he was producing on Broadway. The Democrats was written by Melvin Levy and was so co-star Frances Dee. Although the production received good publicity throughout the month of November 1944, it would appear that it never came to fruition, perhaps because Dassin was unable to receive a leave of absence from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In December 1944, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer assigned Dassin to direct the crime-mystery film Dangerous Partners (originally announced as Paper Chase) for producer Arthur Field. Dassin took over the directorial duties from Fred Zinnemann (who was then suspended from Metro-Goldywn-Mayer for refusing to finish the picture), and had anticipated casting Susan Peters in the lead. But when Peters suffered a gun shot wound accident on January 1, 1945, Dassin pulled out of the project. Director Edward Cahn was ultimately hired for the job and recast the female lead role with Signe Hasso, successfully completing the picture. Returning to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in May 1945, after thirteen months away from cameras, Dassin was immediately assigned to direct the romantic comedy film A Letter for Evie for producer William H. Wright. The picture began shooting in early June 1945 and included Marsha Hunt, Hume Cronyn, John Carroll, Norman Lloyd and Pamela Britton. A Letter for Evie briefly changed title to All the Things You Are in late 1945, but its original title was restored in time for release in November 1945. It was announced that once Dassin completed the shooting of A Letter for Evie, he would fly to Europe to direct a series of plays sponsored by the Actors' Laboratory Theatre. The plays were to star soldiers as part of war-time moral-building entertainment. Again, he was denied a leave of absence from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and in early August 1945 was assigned to direct the romantic comedy thriller (with strong film noir tones), Two Smart People (originally announced as Time for Two) for producer Ralph Wheelwright. The picture began filming in September 1945 and starred Lucille Ball, John Hodiak and Lloyd Nolan, and was released in late 1946. Following Two Smart People, Dassin would spend more than a year without successfully shooting another film. In March 1946, Dassin and Joseph Losey co-directed Viola Brothers Shore's stage play Birthday for the Actors' Laboratory Theatre. The production, which unfolds a narrative of a girl's 18th birthday, was staged at the Phoenix Theater starring actress Karen Morley. The cast also included Howard Duff, Jocelyn Brando and Don Hanmer. In August 1946, it was reported that Dassin had been signed to direct the film noir Repeat Performance for Eagle-Lion Films, through a loan-out arrangement with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The picture was to be made under the supervision of writer-producer Marion Parsonnet and set to star Franchot Tone, Sylvia Sidney, Constance Dowling and Tom Conway. Unfortunately, disagreements about the budget and script caused the whole production to fall apart and the entire cast and crew resigned. The picture was eventually made with a completely new team a year later. Dassin was finally released from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer once his exclusive five-year contract expired in November 1946. Mark Hellinger Productions and Universal-International Pictures (1946-1948) As soon as the news hit that Dassin was free from contractual obligations with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, writer-turned-producer Mark Hellinger scooped up the director, signing him to a non-exclusive three-picture freelance contract with his film production company, Mark Hellinger Productions. The contract gave Dassin the freedom to choose his own three projects to direct at Mark Hellinger Productions, without an expiry date. The producer had an existing financing and distribution deal with Universal-International Pictures, where Dassin was set to direct one of Hollywood's biggest new stars, Burt Lancaster, in a violent prison film noir, Brute Force. With new freedom, and support from executive producer Hellinger and associate producer Jules Buck, Dassin announced that he would shoot the picture using realism and a documentary-style. He also employed a total of thirteen actors with whom he had worked at the Actors' Laboratory Theatre, including Hume Cronyn, Howard Duff, Roman Bohnen, Whit Bissell, Art Smith, Jeff Corey, Sam Levene, Charles McGraw, Will Lee, Ray Teal, Crane Whitley, Kenneth Patterson and James O'Rear. The cast also included noted Hollywood actors Charles Bickford, Yvonne De Carlo, Ann Blyth, Ella Raines and Anita Colby. Brute Force was shot from March to April 1947 on the Universal-International Pictures lot, with reshoots taking place in early May 1947 to appease objections from the Motion Picture Association of America, shortly before a preview audience. The film, which featured a score composed and conducted by Miklós Rózsa, was released to theatres in July 1947 through Universal-International Pictures; that same month, Cosmopolitan magazine awarded Dassin with the Movie Citations of the Month Award for Best Director. Less than a year after its release, Dassin revealed that he did not like the film. In early May 1947, Dassin was announced as the director of Hellinger's next production, The Naked City (originally announced as Homicide) Dassin planned to push the realism and documentary-style filming technique of the police story flic further by shooting it entirely on location in New York City. The production received full cooperation from New York City's Homicide Squad during its two and a half months of location shooting, from June to August 1947. 107 different locations were shot in New York City, and in order to distract the crowd and keep them looking natural, Dassin hired a juggler to draw their attention away from the cameras. Dassin, Hellinger and associate producer Buck worked with several of the same cast and crew members from Brute Force on The Naked City, including actors Howard Duff, Ralph Brooks and Chuck Hamilton, assistant director Fred Frank, cinematographer William H. Daniels, art director John F. DeCuir, set decorator Russell A. Gausman and composer Miklós Rózsa. The film also starred Barry Fitzgerald, Don Taylor and Dorothy Hart. After overseeing the editing of the film in Hollywood during September and October 1947, Dassin flew back to New York City in early November 1947 to work on the pre-production of the stage play Strange Bedfellows. Unbeknownst to Dassin, Hellinger and Buck wound up re-cutting the film in his absence; the director only finding out at the film's premiere on March 3, 1948, when he saw a highly edited version of his film projected on the screen. Furthermore, Hellinger died suddenly on December 21, 1947, months before the film was premiered and released to theatres by Universal-International Pictures. Although Dassin was unhappy about the final cut of The Naked City, the film was a huge success (one of the top movies of 1948), and it was nominated for and won several accolades, including Academy Awards for Best Film Editing and Best Cinematography, Black-and-White, an Academy Award nomination for Best Writing, Motion Picture Story; a British Academy of Film and Television Arts nomination for Best Film from any Source; and Writers Guild of America Award nominations for Best Written American Drama and The Robert Meltzer Award. In 2007, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States National Film Preservation Board and was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress' National Film Registry. Dassin's third and final film under his Mark Hellinger Productions contract was up in limbo following Hellinger's death. The film production unit had undergone considerable changes in the months prior to Hellinger's passing, including the addition of Humphrey Bogart as vice-president, and the signing of a six-picture financing and distribution deal with David O. Selznick's Selznick Releasing Organization. Mark Hellinger Productions owned the filming rights to several Ernest Hemingway stories, Forest Rosaire's novel East of Midnight, Arthur Cohn's screenplay Disbarred, Gordon Macker's screenplay Race Track, Philip G. Epstein's screenplay Mistakes Will Happen, and Jerry D. Lewis' screenplay Twinkle, Twinkle; in addition to three films in development: Knock on Any Door, Criss Cross and Act of Violence. Any of these properties may have been picked for Dassin to direct in 1948. The company also held contracts with actors Bogart, Burt Lancaster, Don Taylor and Howard Duff, and with cinematographer William Daniels. Bogart, Selznick and secretary-treasurer A. Morgan Marie announced their plan to continue Mark Hellinger Productions in January 1948, by co-heading the company and honoring the late producers' namesake with the previously planned films in development. However, difficulty lay in finding a new executive producer to head the production; Jerry Wald was first approached but was unable to free himself from his Warner Bros. contract. Robert Lord was then offered the post and freed himself from his Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract to accept the new position. Unfortunately, Hellinger's widow, former actress Gladys Glad Hellinger, decided to liquidate the company and all of its assets in early February 1948. The story properties and actor, director and cinematographer contracts were sold to other studios via the William Morris Agency. This lead Bogart, Lord and Marie to form their own film production company, Santana Productions, and secure a financing and distribution deal with Columbia Pictures with some of the properties they managed to purchase. It is unknown which, or if a studio bought out Dassin's remaining one-picture deal, though news reports hinted towards Universal-International Pictures or Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In late December 1947, before Bogart, Selznick and Marie had decided upon continuing the Mark Hellinger Productions firm, Dassin took the opportunity of his non-exclusive contract to partner with stage actor and producer Luther Adler in an independent film venture. Adler had recently purchased Jack Iams' novel Prophet by Experience in September 1947 and hired Ben Hecht to adapt it and write the screenplay. The story dealt with a hermit who is taken out of seclusion by a magazine writer, and who has a unique set of experiences in the outside world. Adler, who was solely to act as producer in his new film production company, approached Dassin to direct the picture and negotiations were underway for a financing and distribution deal with Columbia Pictures. For reasons unknown, the film was never made. While still in New York City, Dassin was hired by producers John Houseman and William R. Katzell to direct Allan Scott's play Joy to the World; a comedy about a ruthless Hollywood producer. The play began rehearsals on January 26, 1948, and opened on Broadway at the Plymouth Theatre on March 18, 1948. It would run for 124 performances, until July 3, 1948. The cast included Alfred Drake, Marsha Hunt, Morris Carnovsky, Mary Welch, Lois Hall, Peggy Maley, Myron McCormick, Clay Clement, Bert Freed, Kurt Kasznar and Theodore Newton. 20th Century-Fox Film and the blacklist years (1948-1953) In February 1948, Dassin was approached by theatre producer Mike Todd, who was planning to venture into the film producing business. Todd planned to produce a series of low-budget, $500,000 films and had secured a financing and distribution deal with 20th Century-Fox Film. The first picture in Todd's new deal was Busman's Holiday, an original story based on newspaper accounts of a Bronx bus driver who took off for Florida with his family using his company's bus. Todd cast Joan Blondell as one of the leads and planned to film the entire picture using real locations, from New York City to Florida. Motivated by the success and filming style of The Naked City, Todd immediately approached Dassin to direct the film. The picture was never made, but Todd later produced the similarly scenic picture Around the World in 80 Days. On April 3, 1948, Dassin returned to Hollywood to meet with executives from three different studios: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 20th Century-Fox Film and Columbia Pictures; each of which had offered the director a contract. Dassin connected best with Darryl F. Zanuck and opted to sign with 20th Century-Fox Film. In addition to Busman's Holiday, Dassin was tied to two film projects with actress Paulette Goddard at 20th Century-Fox Film during the spring of 1948. The first was to be a film adaptation of Jean-Paul Sartre's latest novel and recently opened Broadway hit The Respectful Prostitute, for which Goddard and actor Burgess Meredith had negotiated the screen rights, hoping to play the leads. Dassin, who had promised to direct, was the only director Goddard wanted. By June 1948, Dassin was tied to direct Anna Lucasta at Columbia Pictures, a play written by Philip Yordan's about a young bartender whose family uses to steal money from a potential husband. Goddard was set to play the lead in the film and reportedly insisted that Dassin be hired to direct. During negotiations with 20th Century-Fox Film, Zanuck considered loaning Linda Darnell to Columbia Pictures as part of a package deal, but things fell through. Director Irving Rapper ultimately directed the film at Columbia Pictures. During the summer of 1948, Dassin directed Magdalena on Broadway, a play produced by Edwin Lester which ran for 88 performances from September 20, 1948, to December 4, 1948. By the time that Magdalena closed, Dassin was already back in Hollywood, having signed a contract with producer Darryl F. Zanuck at 20th Century-Fox Film. His inaugural project for the studio was Thieves' Highway (originally announced as Thieves' Market and Hard Bargain), starring Richard Conte, Lee J. Cobb and Valentina Cortese. The film won the Photoplay Award for Best Picture of the Month in November 1949. Contrary to what Time magazine reported in an often quoted 1958 article, Dassin was not blacklisted because of a sole denunciation from a witness at a congressional hearing. His name had been mentioned a number of times, at various congressional hearings of the United States House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities, and with different witnesses, as early as 1947; he was also linked to several Communist-front organizations. On October 22, 1947, while Dassin was still working on The Naked City, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer chief supervisor and executive producer James Kevin McGuinness gave a testimony to the United States House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities. He described an event which occurred at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1941, shortly after Dassin had joined the studio, when a Communist attempt was made to halt the production of Tennessee Johnson, a biographical picture about the life of former United States President Andrew Johnson. McGuinness explained that after the original producer of the picture, J. Walter Reuben, died, he took over the production as part of his executive function. He was then presented with a petition signed by Dassin, Ring Lardner Jr., Donald Ogden Stewart, Hy S. Kraft and Richard Collins, and which was addressed to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer executive vice-president Al Lichtman, demanding that the picture be aborted. All five signees were known Communists in Hollywood. The news hit the media quickly. In 1948 and 1949, Dassin's name was connected with at least three Communist-front organizations. First, he was an executive board member of the Actors' Laboratory Theatre, which the Committee did not find Communist in itself but rather its board of directors was made up almost exclusively of known Communists Party members or Communist sympathizers, including Dassin. Second, he had been a member of the Artists' Front to Win the War gathering on October 16, 1942, which the Committee on Un-American Activities cited as subversive. And third, he was a sponsor of the National Council of the Arts, Sciences and Professions' Scientific and Cultural Conference for World Peace, held from March 25–27, 1949, and which the Committee on Un-American Activities also cited as subversive. In the late spring of 1949, Zanuck called Dassin into his office to warn him that he was on the verge of being blacklisted, but that he still had enough time to make one more movie for 20th Century-Fox Film. Zanuck gave Dassin a copy of Gerald Kersh's novel Night and the City and rushed him to England to make the film unhindered by the Committee on Un-American Activities hearings. Night and the City, later released in mid-1950, was filmed entirely on location in London between July and October 1949 and starred Richard Widmark, Gene Tierney, Googie Withers, Hugh Marlowe and Mike Mazurki. Dassin was unofficially blacklisted by Hollywood during the production and was not allowed back on the studio property to edit the film nor oversee the musical scoring. Nevertheless, Zanuck and producer Julian Blaustein hired Dassin as director for 20th Century-Fox Film's Half Angel, a Technicolor comedy starring Loretta Young scheduled to begin shooting in mid-June 1950. Dassin was however replaced by Richard Sale after pressure from Hollywood politics. On April 25, 1951, film director Edward Dmytryk, one of the "Hollywood Ten" that had been blacklisted in 1947 after reusing to testify, gave a wilful and revised testimony to the United States House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities. In his revised testimony, Dmyrtyk revealed that the Screen Directors' Guild included seven known Communists; this was one of the first times that the Committee on Un-American Activities heard of film directors as Communists, as it had previously concentrated on screenwriters in the Screen Writers' Guild. Dassin was named as one of the seven directors, along with Frank Tuttle, Herbert Biberman, John Berry, Bernard Vorhaus and Dmytryk himself, who were present at a Communist meeting at Berry's house, which met for the purpose of electing themselves on the board of directors of the Screen Directors' Guild. Dmytryk explained that at the time, the Communist Party wanted to get as many people as they could on the board of directors of the Screen Directors' Guild, the Screen Writers' Guild and the Screen Actors' Guild, so that they could eventually control the policy of those guilds, particularly in relation to an eventual coalition for the backing of the various unions. On May 24, 1951, film director Frank Tuttle gave a testimony to the United States House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities. Tuttle testified that during the 1930s and 1940s, a group of seven Communists existed within the Screen Directors' Guild. Dassin was again named as one of the seven Communist directors, along with Herbert Bieberman, Edward Dmytryk, Bernard Vorhaus, John Berry, Michael Gordon and Tuttle himself. Tuttle explained that the purpose of the Communist members in the Screen Directors' Guild was to elect its members to the board of directors, but that only he, Dmytryk and Bieberman had succeeded in being appointed to executive positions, with the help of votes from the seven Communist members. Dassin's name was further mentioned, though to less incriminating means, during the Committee on Un-American Activities hearings with actor José Ferrer on May 25, 1951, and film director Michael Gordon on September 17, 1951. Dassin was from this point on, officially listed as an identified past or present member of the Communist Party. In 1952, after Dassin had been out of work for two years, actress Bette Davis hired him to direct her in the Broadway revue Two's Company. The show ran for 90 performances, closing on March 8, 1953, due to Davis' poor health, and Dassin returned to Europe in order to avoid the issuance of a subpoena to testify before the United States House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities. Working in Europe France In March 1953, Dassin was hired by French producer Jacques Bar to direct the comedy-crime film The Most Wanted Man, starring Fernandel and Zsa Zsa Gabor in a spoof of American gangster films. Dassin maintains that two days before the film was to begin shooting, Bar relented to pressure from a noted Hollywood politician not to work with him, receiving threats that the film, and any future Bar productions, would not be granted American distribution. In a hearing before the United States House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities on July 12, 1956, Allied Artists Pictures Corporation manager of branch operations Roy M. Brewer stated that a worrisome Gabor phoned him from France after hearing rumors that Dassin had been identified as a Communist. The next day, he received a telegram from American Federation of Labor's European representative Irving Brown, also questioning Dassin's political views. Brewer further stated that at no point did he recommend the dismissal of Dassin as a director, and that he merely reported the facts to the inquirers, which was that Dassin had been identified as a Communist. The Most Wanted Man was ultimately directed by Henri Verneuil (a frequent collaborator of Fernandel), who went on to become a noted neo-noir director. Dassin later stated that had further difficulty finding work in Europe as American film distribution companies forbade the exhibition of any film, regardless of its origin, associated with artists blacklisted in Hollywood. He later admitted that he worked as an uncredited writer on a number of scripts that were sent back to Hollywood through Zanuck. Dassin did not work as a film director again until Rififi in 1955 (a French production), his most influential film and an early work in the "heist film" genre. He won the Best Director award for the film at the 1955 Cannes Film Festival. It inspired later heist films, such as Ocean's Eleven (1960). Another film it inspired was Dassin's own heist film Topkapi (1964), filmed in France and Istanbul, Turkey with his future second wife, Melina Mercouri and Oscar winner Peter Ustinov. Most of Dassin's films in the decades following the blacklist are European productions. His later career in Europe and the affiliation with Greece through his second wife, combined with the Frenchified pronunciation of his surname in Europe (as "Da-SAn" instead of the common American "DASS-ine") led to a common misconception that he was a native European director. Melina Mercouri At the Cannes Film Festival in May 1955 he met Melina Mercouri, Greek actress and wife of Panos Harokopos. At about the same time, he discovered the literary works of Nikos Kazantzakis; these two elements created a bond with Greece. Dassin next made He Who Must Die (1957) based on Kazantzakis' Christ Recrucified and in which Mercouri appeared. She went on to star in his Never on Sunday (1960) for which she won best actress at the Cannes Film Festival. She then starred in his next three films – Phaedra (1962), Topkapi (1964) and 10:30 P.M. Summer (1966). He divorced his first wife, Beatrice Launer, in 1962 and married Mercouri in 1966. She later starred in his Promise at Dawn (1970)—during the filming of which, Dassin broke both his legs—and later A Dream of Passion (1978). Affiliation with Greece Dassin was considered a major Philhellene to the point of Greek officials describing him as a "first generation Greek". Along with Mercouri, he opposed the Greek military junta. The couple had to leave Greece after the colonels' coup in 1967. In 1970 they were accused of having financed an attempt to overthrow the dictatorship, but the charges were quickly dropped. Dassin and Mercouri lived in New York City during the 1970s; then, when the military dictatorship in Greece fell in 1974, they returned to Greece and lived out their lives there. In 1974 he and Mercouri made The Rehearsal about the junta. While Mercouri became involved with politics and won a parliamentary seat, Dassin stayed with movie-making in Europe. In 1982 he was a member of the jury at the 34th Berlin International Film Festival. Personal life Marriages Dassin married twice. Before his marriage to Mercouri, he married Beatrice Launer in 1933; she was a New York–born, Jewish–American concert violinist (aka Beatrice Launer-Dassin; 1913–1994), a graduate of the Juilliard School of Music. They divorced in 1962. Their children were Joseph Ira Dassin, better known as Joe Dassin (1938–80), a popular French singer in the 1970s; songwriter Richelle "Rickie" Dassin (born 1940); and actress–singer Julie Dassin (born 1944; also known as Julie D.). Death Dassin died from complications of influenza at the age of 96; he was survived by his two daughters and his grandchildren. Upon his death, the Greek prime minister Costas Karamanlis released a statement: "Greece mourns the loss of a rare human being, a significant artist and true friend. His passion, his relentless creative energy, his fighting spirit and his nobility will remain unforgettable." A major supporter of the return of the Parthenon Marbles to Athens, for which he established the Melina Mercouri Institution in her memory after her death in 1994, he died a few months before the opening ceremony of the New Acropolis Museum. Preservation The Academy Film Archive has preserved Jules Dassin's film Night and the City, including the British and pre-release versions. In 2000, Rialto pictures restored and released Rififi theatrically. It was subsequently released on home video through The Criterion Collection and Arrow Films. Filmography References External links Family photos (French) Jules Dassin at The New York Times Movies New York Times obituary Obituary on the World Socialist Web Site 1911 births 2008 deaths 20th-century American Jews 20th-century American male actors 20th-century American screenwriters American expatriates in France American expatriates in Greece American film directors American male film actors American male screenwriters American male stage actors American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent American radio writers American theatre directors Broadway theatre directors Burials at the First Cemetery of Athens Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners Deaths from influenza English-language film directors Film directors from Connecticut Film producers from Connecticut French-language film directors German-language film directors Hollywood blacklist Infectious disease deaths in Greece Jewish American male actors Jules Dassin Male actors from Connecticut Members of the Communist Party USA Naturalized citizens of Greece People from Middletown, Connecticut
838292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer%20Prize%20for%20National%20Reporting	Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting	This Pulitzer Prize has been awarded since 1942 for a distinguished example of reporting on national affairs in the United States. In its first six years (1942–1947), it was called the Pulitzer Prize for Telegraphic Reporting – National. List of winners for Pulitzer Prize for Telegraphic Reporting – National 1942: Louis Stark of The New York Times for his distinguished reporting of important labor stories during the year. 1943: No award given 1944: Dewey L. Fleming of The Baltimore Sun For his distinguished reporting during the year 1943. 1945: James Reston of The New York Times for his news dispatches and interpretive articles on the Dumbarton Oaks security conference. 1946: Edward A. Harris of St. Louis Post-Dispatch for his articles on the Tidewater Oil situation which contributed to the nationwide opposition to the appointment and confirmation of Edwin W. Pauley as Undersecretary of the Navy. 1947: Edward T. Folliard of The Washington Post for his series of articles published during 1946 on the Columbians, Inc. List of winners for Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting 1948: Bert Andrews, New York Herald Tribune, "for his articles on 'A State Department Security Case' published in I947." 1948: Nat S. Finney, Minneapolis Tribune, "for his stories on the plan of the Truman administration to impose secrecy about the ordinary affairs of federal civilian agencies in peacetime." 1949: C. P. Trussell, New York Times, "for consistent excellence covering the national scene from Washington." 1950: Edwin O. Guthman, The Seattle Times, "for his series on the clearing of Communist charges of Professor Melvin Rader, who had been accused of attending a secret Communist school." 1951: no award made 1952: Anthony Leviero, New York Times, "for his exclusive article of April 21, 1951, disclosing the record of conversations between President Truman and General of the Army Douglas MacArthur at Wake Island in their conference of October 1950." 1953: Don Whitehead, Associated Press, "for his article called 'The Great Deception', dealing with the intricate arrangements by which the safety of President-elect Eisenhower was guarded en route from Morningside Heights in New York to Korea." 1954: Richard Wilson, the Des Moines Register, "for his exclusive publication of the FBI Report to the White House in the Harry Dexter White case before it was laid before the Senate by J. Edgar Hoover." 1955: Anthony Lewis of Washington Daily News, "for publishing a series of articles which were adjudged directly responsible for clearing Abraham Chasanow, an employee of the U.S. Navy Department, and bringing about his restoration to duty with an acknowledgment by the Navy Department that it had committed a grave injustice in dismissing him as a security risk. Mr. Lewis received the full support of his newspaper in championing an American citizen, without adequate funds or resources for his defense, against an unjust act by a government department." 1956: Charles L. Bartlett, Chattanooga Times, for his original disclosures that led to the resignation of Harold E. Talbott as Secretary of the Air Force. 1957: James Reston, The New York Times, "for his distinguished national correspondence, including both news dispatches and interpretive reporting, an outstanding example of which was his five-part analysis of the effect of President Eisenhower's illness on the functioning of the Executive Branch of the Federal Government." 1958: Clark Mollenhoff, Des Moines Register and Tribune, "for his persistent inquiry into labor racketeering, which included investigatory reporting of wide significance." 1958: Relman Morin, Associated Press, "for his dramatic and incisive eyewitness report of mob violence on September 23, 1957, during the integration crisis at the Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas." 1959: Howard Van Smith, Miami News, "for a series of articles that focused public notice on deplorable conditions in a Florida migrant labor camp, resulted in the provision of generous assistance for the 4,000 stranded workers in the camp, and thereby called attention to the national problem presented by 1,500,000 migratory laborers." 1960: Vance Trimble, Scripps-Howard Newspaper Alliance, "for a series of articles exposing the extent of nepotism in the Congress of the United States." 1961: Edward R. Cony, Wall Street Journal, "for his analysis of a timber transaction which drew the attention of the public to the problems of business ethics." 1962: Nathan G. Caldwell and Gene S. Graham, Nashville Tennessean, "for their exclusive disclosure and six years of detailed reporting, under great difficulties, of the undercover cooperation between management interests in the coal industry and the United Mine Workers." 1963: Anthony Lewis, New York Times, "for his distinguished reporting of the proceedings of the United States Supreme Court during the year, with particular emphasis on the coverage of the decision in the reapportionment case and its consequences in many of the States of the Union." 1964: Merriman Smith, United Press International, "for his outstanding coverage of the assassination of President John F. Kennedy." 1965: Louis M. Kohlmeier Jr., Wall Street Journal, "for his enterprise in reporting the growth of the fortune of President Lyndon B. Johnson and his family." 1966: Haynes Johnson, Washington Evening Star, "for his distinguished coverage of the civil rights conflict centered about Selma, Ala., and particularly his reporting of its aftermath." 1967: Stanley Penn and Monroe Karmin, The Wall Street Journal, "for their investigative reporting of the connection between American crime and gambling in the Bahamas." 1968: Nathan K. (Nick) Kotz, Des Moines Register and Tribune, "for his reporting of unsanitary conditions in many meat packing plants, which helped insure the passage of the Federal Wholesome Meat Act of 1967." 1968: Howard James, Christian Science Monitor, "for his series of articles, 'Crisis in the Courts.'" 1969: Robert Cahn, Christian Science Monitor, "for his inquiry into the future of our national parks and the methods that may help to preserve them." 1970: William J. Eaton, Chicago Daily News, "for disclosures about the background of Judge Clement F. Haynesworth Jr., in connection with his nomination for the United States Supreme Court." 1971: Lucinda Franks and Thomas Powers, United Press International, "for their documentary on the life and death of 28-year-old revolutionary Diana Oughton: 'The Making of a Terrorist.'" 1972: Jack Anderson, syndicated columnist, "for his reporting of American policy decision-making during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971." 1973: Robert Boyd and Clark Hoyt, Knight Newspapers, "for their disclosure of Senator Thomas Eagleton's history of psychiatric therapy, resulting in his withdrawal as the Democratic Vice Presidential nominee in 1972." 1974: Jack White, Providence Journal and Evening Bulletin, "for his initiative in exclusively disclosing President Nixon's Federal income tax payments in 1970 and 1971." 1974: James R. Polk, Washington Star-News," for his disclosure of alleged irregularities in the financing of the campaign to re-elect President Nixon in 1972." 1975: Donald L. Barlett and James B. Steele, The Philadelphia Inquirer, "for their series 'Auditing the Internal Revenue Service,' which exposed the unequal application of Federal tax laws." 1976: James V. Risser, Des Moines Register, "for disclosing large-scale corruption in the American grain exporting trade." 1977: Walter Mears, Associated Press, "for his coverage of the 1976 Presidential campaign." 1978: Gaylord D. Shaw, Los Angeles Times, "for a series on unsafe structural conditions at the nation's major dams." 1979: James V. Risser, Des Moines Register, "for a series on farming damage to the environment." 1980: Bette Swenson Orsini and Charles Stafford, St. Petersburg Times, "for their investigation of the Church of Scientology." 1981: John M. Crewdson, The New York Times, "for his coverage of illegal aliens and immigration." 1982: Rick Atkinson, The Kansas City Times, "for the uniform excellence of his reporting and writing on stories of national import." 1983: Boston Globe, "for its balanced and informative special report on the nuclear arms race." 1984: John Noble Wilford, The New York Times, "for reporting on a wide variety of scientific topics of national import." 1985: Thomas J. Knudson, Des Moines Register, "for his series of articles that examined the dangers of farming as an occupation." 1986: Craig Flournoy and George Rodrigue of The Dallas Morning News, "or their investigation into subsidized housing in East Texas, which uncovered patterns of racial discrimination and segregation in public housing across the United States and led to significant reforms." 1986: Arthur Howe, The Philadelphia Inquirer, "for his enterprising and indefatigable reporting on massive deficiencies in Internal Revenue Service (IRS) processing of tax returns-reporting that eventually inspired major changes in IRS procedures and prompted the agency to make a public apology to U.S. taxpayers." 1987: Staff of The Miami Herald, "for its exclusive reporting and persistent coverage of the U.S.-Iran-Contra connection." 1987: Staff of The New York Times, "for coverage of the aftermath of the Challenger explosion, which included stories that identified serious flaws in the shuttle's design and in the administration of America's space program." 1988: Tim Weiner, The Philadelphia Inquirer, "for his series of reports on a secret Pentagon budget used by the government to sponsor defense research and an arms buildup." 1989: Donald L. Barlett and James B. Steele, The Philadelphia Inquirer, "for their 15-month investigation of "rifle shot" provisions in the Tax Reform Act of 1986, a series that aroused such widespread public indignation that Congress subsequently rejected proposals giving special tax breaks to many politically connected individuals and businesses." 1990: Ross Anderson, Bill Dietrich, Mary Ann Gwinn and Eric Nalder, The Seattle Times, "for coverage of the Exxon Valdez oil spill and its aftermath." 1991: Marjie Lundstrom and Rochelle Sharpe, Gannett News Service, "for reporting that disclosed hundreds of child abuse-related deaths go undetected each year as a result of errors by medical examiners." 1992: Jeff Taylor and Mike McGraw, The Kansas City Star, "for their critical examination of the U.S. Department of Agriculture." 1993: David Maraniss, The Washington Post, "for his revealing articles on the life and political record of candidate Bill Clinton." 1994: Eileen Welsome, Albuquerque Tribune, "for stories that related the experiences of American civilians who had been used unknowingly in government plutonium experiments nearly 50 years ago." 1995: Tony Horwitz, The Wall Street Journal, "for stories about working conditions in low-wage America." 1996: Alix M. Freedman of The Wall Street Journal, "for her coverage of the tobacco industry, including a report that exposed how ammonia additives heighten nicotine potency." 1997: Staff of The Wall Street Journal, "for its coverage of the struggle against AIDS in all of its aspects, the human, the scientific and the business, in light of promising treatments for the disease." 1998: Russell Carollo and Jeff Nesmith, Dayton Daily News, "for their reporting that disclosed dangerous flaws and mismanagement in the military health care system and prompted reforms." 1999: Staff of The New York Times, and notably Jeff Gerth, "for a series of articles that disclosed the corporate sale of American technology to China, with U.S. government approval despite national security risks, prompting investigations and significant changes in policy." 2000: Staff of The Wall Street Journal, "for its revealing stories that question U.S. defense spending and military deployment in the post–Cold War era and offer alternatives for the future." 2001: The New York Times staff, "for its compelling and memorable series exploring racial experiences and attitudes across contemporary America." 2002: The Washington Post staff, "for its comprehensive coverage of America's War on Terrorism, which regularly brought forth new information together with skilled analysis of unfolding developments." 2003: Alan Miller and Kevin Sack, Los Angeles Times, "for their revelatory and moving examination of a military aircraft, nicknamed 'The Widow Maker,' that was linked to the deaths of 45 pilots." (This was also nominated in the Investigative Reporting category.) 2004: Staff of Los Angeles Times, Nancy Cleeland, Evelyn Iritani, Abigail Goldman, Tyler Marshall, Rick Wartzman and John Corrigan, "for its engrossing examination of the tactics that have made Wal-Mart the largest company in the world with cascading effects across American towns and developing countries." 2005: Walt Bogdanich of New York Times, "for his heavily documented stories about the corporate cover-up of responsibility for fatal accidents at railway crossings." 2006: James Risen and Eric Lichtblau of the New York Times, "for their carefully sourced stories on secret domestic eavesdropping that stirred a national debate on the boundary line between fighting terrorism and protecting civil liberty." 2006: Staffs of The San Diego Union-Tribune and Copley News Service, "with notable work by Marcus Stern and Jerry Kammer, for their disclosure of bribe-taking that sent former Rep. Randy Cunningham to prison in disgrace." 2007: Charlie Savage of The Boston Globe, "for his revelations that President George W. Bush often used "signing statements" to assert his controversial right to bypass provisions of new laws." 2008: Jo Becker and Barton Gellman of The Washington Post, "for their lucid exploration of Vice President Dick Cheney and his powerful yet sometimes disguised influence on national policy." 2009: St. Petersburg Times Staff, "for “PolitiFact,” its fact-checking initiative during the 2008 presidential campaign that used probing reporters and the power of the World Wide Web to examine more than 750 political claims, separating rhetoric from truth to enlighten voters." 2010: Matt Richtel and members of The New York Times staff, "for incisive work, in print and online, on the hazardous use of cell phones, computers and other devices while operating cars and trucks, stimulating widespread efforts to curb distracted driving." 2011: Jesse Eisinger and Jake Bernstein of ProPublica, "for their exposure of questionable practices on Wall Street that contributed to the nation's economic meltdown, using digital tools to help explain the complex subject to lay readers." 2012: David Wood of The Huffington Post, "for his riveting exploration of the physical and emotional challenges facing American soldiers severely wounded in Iraq and Afghanistan during a decade of war". 2013: Lisa Song, Elizabeth McGowan and David Hasemyer of InsideClimate News, "for their rigorous reports on flawed regulation of the nation’s oil pipelines, focusing on potential ecological dangers posed by diluted bitumen (or "dilbit"), a controversial form of oil." 2014: David Philipps of The Gazette, Colorado Springs, "for expanding the examination of how wounded combat veterans are mistreated, focusing on loss of benefits for life after discharge by the Army for minor offenses, stories augmented with digital tools and stirring congressional action." 2015: Carol D. Leonnig of The Washington Post, "for her smart, persistent coverage of the Secret Service, its security lapses and the ways in which the agency neglected its vital task: the protection of the President of the United States." 2016: The Washington Post staff, "for its revelatory initiative in creating and using a national database to illustrate how often and why the police shoot to kill and who the victims are most likely to be." Kimbriell Kelly and Wesley Lowery were lead authors on the "Fatal Force" project. 2017: David Fahrenthold of The Washington Post, "for persistent reporting that created a model for transparent journalism in political campaign coverage while casting doubt on Donald Trump’s assertions of generosity toward charities." 2018: Staffs of The New York Times and The Washington Post, "for deeply sourced, relentlessly reported coverage in the public interest that dramatically furthered the nation’s understanding of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election and its connections to the Trump campaign, the President-elect’s transition team and his eventual administration." 2019: Staff of The Wall Street Journal, "for uncovering President Trump’s secret payoffs to two women during his campaign who claimed to have had affairs with him, and the web of supporters who facilitated the transactions, triggering criminal inquiries and calls for impeachment." 2020: Dominic Gates, Steve Miletich, Mike Baker and Lewis Kamb of The Seattle Times "for groundbreaking stories that exposed design flaws in the Boeing 737 MAX that led to two deadly crashes and revealed failures in government oversight." T. Christian Miller, Megan Rose and Robert Faurtechi of ProPublica "for their investigation into America's 7th Fleet after a series of deadly naval accidents in the Pacific." References Telegraphic Reporting (National) – Winners and Finalists National Reporting Winners and Finalists National Reporting
849318	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard%20Beach%2C%20Queens	Howard Beach, Queens	Howard Beach is a neighborhood in the southwestern portion of the New York City borough of Queens. It is bordered to the north by the Belt Parkway and Conduit Avenue in Ozone Park, to the south by Jamaica Bay in Broad Channel, to the east by 102nd–104th Streets in South Ozone Park, and to the west by 75th Street in East New York, Brooklyn. The area consists mostly of low-rise single-family houses. Howard Beach is located in Queens Community District 10 and its ZIP Code is 11414. It is patrolled by the New York City Police Department's 106th Precinct. Politically, Howard Beach is represented by the New York City Council's 32nd District. History Early development Howard Beach was established in 1897 by William J. Howard, a Brooklyn glove manufacturer who operated a 150-acre (0.61 km²) goat farm on meadow land near Aqueduct Racetrack as a source of skin for kid gloves. In 1897, he bought more land and filled it in and the following year, built 18 cottages and opened a hotel near the water, which he operated until it was destroyed by fire in October 1907. He gradually bought more land and formed the Howard Estates Development Company in 1909. He dredged and filled the land until he was able to accumulate 500 acres (2 km²) by 1914. He laid out several streets, water mains and gas mains, and built 35 houses that were priced in the $2,500–$5,000 range. The Long Island Rail Road established a station named Ramblersville in 1905 and a Post Office by the same name opened soon thereafter. A casino, beach, and fishing pier were added in 1915 and the name of the neighborhood was changed to Howard Beach on April 6, 1916. Development continued and ownership was expanded to a group of investors who sold lots for about $690 each starting in 1922. Development, however, was limited to the areas east of Cross Bay Boulevard near the LIRR station now known as Bernard Coleman Memorial Square (then Lilly Place). The rest of Howard Beach consisted of empty marsh land except for the area to the south of Coleman Square, centered around Russell St. and 102nd St., which consisted of many small fishing bungalows that dotted alongside Hawtree Creek and Jamaica Bay. This area of Howard Beach would retain the name "Ramblersville." Despite its close proximity to the Howard Beach station at Coleman Square, the LIRR would establish a station a quarter of a mile south down the line at Hamilton Beach in 1919. After World War II, Queens and Long Island went through a major suburban building boom leading to the marsh land west of Cross Bay Boulevard to be filled in. This led to the development of many Cape-Cod and High-Ranch style houses on 50 and 60 x 100 lots. This area was developed as "Rockwood Park" to the north and "Spring Park" to the south, together comprising what would be known as "New Howard Beach", while the area east of the boulevard became known as "Old Howard Beach." In the early 1950s farm land north of Rockwood Park was developed with the building of many red-bricked two-story garden style cooperative apartments along with some six-story co-op and condo apartment buildings. A number of private two-family houses were also built in this neighborhood, which was named Lindenwood. The various neighborhoods continued to be developed through the 1960s and 1970s as Cross Bay Boulevard became the area's main shopping district. During the 1990s and 2000s, there was further high-scale development as many of the area's old houses were torn down and replaced with upscale million-dollar mini-mansions. Post-1980s Hate crimes In 1986 and 2005, two highly publicized hate crimes took place in Howard Beach. On December 20, 1986, one African-American man was killed and another was beaten in Howard Beach. The racially charged incident heightened racial tensions in New York City. The dead man was 23-year-old Michael Griffith, a Trinidadian native living in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn. He was killed December 20, 1986 when he was accidentally hit by a car after having been chased onto a highway by a mob of white youths who had beaten him and his friends for being in their neighborhood. On June 29, 2005, local white men in Howard Beach attacked three African-American men with baseball bats. One victim was injured seriously enough to be hospitalized, and the police arrested two of the perpetrators in the case. Nicholas Minucci claimed that the victims had attempted to rob him. On June 10, 2006, Minucci, 20, who had uttered a racial epithet during the baseball bat attack, was found guilty of robbery and the racially motivated assault of Glenn Moore. On July 17, 2006, Minucci was sentenced to 15 years in prison. Hurricane Sandy As Hurricane Sandy approached New York on October 28, 2012, city officials ordered the evacuation of residents of Zone A (low-lying, susceptible to storm surge) neighborhoods, which included Howard Beach's Hamilton Beach area. Most of the rest of Howard Beach lay in Zone B, whose residents were urged to voluntarily evacuate. Many residents decided to stay and ride out the storm, citing the relatively minor damage caused by the previous year's Hurricane Irene. Sandy made landfall on October 29, dragging inland a ten-foot-high storm surge from Jamaica Bay that flooded all of Old and New Howard Beach, plus the neighborhoods of Broad Channel and the Rockaways, along with some sections of Lindenwood and neighboring Ozone Park. The storm knocked out power to Howard Beach for three weeks. The flooding damaged most houses in the neighborhood, all of the stores along Cross Bay Boulevard, the Howard Beach–JFK Airport subway station, and the IND Rockaway Line trestle that carries trains over Jamaica Bay into Broad Channel and the Rockaways. After Sandy, the Federal Emergency Management Agency and the New York City Office of Emergency Management provisionally re-classified Howard Beach, along with the Brooklyn neighborhoods of Gerritsen Beach and Red Hook, as Zone A neighborhoods. On April 5, 2013, the Howard Beach post office reopened after extensive repairs. Geography Like many New York City neighborhoods, Howard Beach is composed of several smaller neighborhoods – Howard Beach, Old Howard Beach, Hamilton Beach, Ramblersville, Spring Park, Rockwood Park, Lindenwood, and Howard Park (Old Howard Beach, Ramblersville, Howard Park, and Hamilton Beach are sometimes all grouped together as "Old Howard Beach", instead of being referred to by their proper names). Howard Beach proper is a small peninsula bordered by the Belt Parkway and Conduit Avenue on the north, Jamaica Bay on the south, Hawtree Creek on the east, separating it from Hamilton Beach, and Shellbank Basin on the west, that separates it from Cross Bay Boulevard. Cross Bay Boulevard is the main commercial strip of Howard Beach; to the north it turns into Woodhaven Boulevard after Ozone Park. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, the Boulevard was made up almost exclusively of locally owned shops and restaurants. Starting in the 1990s, chain stores and restaurants began moving in, and now many well-known franchises have sites on the boulevard. Entertainment venues on Cross Bay Boulevard, such as the Kiddie-Park and Cross-Bay Lanes, were popular until their collapse in the 1970s and 1980s. The Joseph P. Addabbo Memorial Bridge (named for a deceased member of the United States House of Representatives who once represented the district that includes Howard Beach) carries the boulevard over Jamaica Bay, connecting mainland Queens to Broad Channel. Bernard Coleman Memorial Square (colloquially known as Coleman Square) is a small plaza near the Howard Beach – JFK Airport station. A memorial was erected here to servicemen from Howard Beach who died in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War. Hamilton Beach Hamilton Beach is a middle class neighborhood in the New York City borough of Queens. Its boundaries are the 102nd Street Creek to the north, the IND Rockaway Line () tracks and JFK Airport to the east, Hawtree Creek to the west, and Jamaica Bay to the south. Hamilton Beach is one of the few communities in New York City that has its own volunteer fire department. Hamilton Beach is frequently referred to as West Hamilton Beach. East Hamilton Beach was on the east side of the Long Island Rail Road tracks, but the area was taken by the City for expansion of Idlewild Airport (now JFK Airport) in the 1940s. Hamilton Beach bears no relation to the Hamilton Beach Company other than the name. The company is named after a Mr. Hamilton and a Mr. Beach. Until the mid-1950s there was a Hamilton Beach station on the Long Island Rail Road's Rockaway Beach Branch. The station closed on June 27, 1955 in connection with the LIRR's sale of much of the branch's right of way to the New York City Transit Authority. Hamilton Beach is a small community that has one long strip (104th Street) with ten dead-end blocks connected to it. It is surrounded mostly by water. There is one way into Hamilton Beach by car and two ways in by foot. It is accessible by a boardwalk that stretches from the A train station at Coleman Square to 104th Street, or by the Hawtree Basin pedestrian bridge, which is between two of the ten blocks. This bridge connects Hamilton and Old Howard Beach. Hamilton has a small park at the southern end, which includes a 200-foot baseball field, a handball court, a small jungle gym area and beach. Gateways Hamilton Beach Park, just south of 165th Avenue, is the last stop for the Q11 bus. When unincorporated, Hamilton Beach was once an area with dirt roads, cottage or shack-type houses (bungalows), and no sewer system. Since the early 21st century, Hamilton Beach has been "building up", and new houses are under construction on almost every block. Lindenwood Lindenwood is a section of Howard Beach, developed in the 1950s and 1960s on landfill property. Lindenwood is considered to be part of New Howard Beach (the newer side, as opposed to Old Howard Beach). It is primarily made up of six-story, orange- or red-brick apartment buildings, constructed in the early to mid-1960s; smaller co-op "garden-apartments" (four-unit red-brick buildings) constructed in the 1950s, which can be seen from the Belt Parkway; and two-family homes (some attached) built in the 1960s. The "hi-rise" apartment buildings are co-op (red bricks) or condominiums (orange brick). Heritage House East and West (84-39 and 84-29 153rd Avenue) were among the first condominium apartment buildings in New York State. Additional townhouses near the Brooklyn border were built in the 1970s, 1990s, and 2000s. The hi-rises used to be considered very family friendly. But since then, many of the apartment building playgrounds have been converted into sitting areas and no longer allow even dogs. Lindenwood's residents tend to be of mostly ethnic Jewish and Italians, along with some ethnic Hispanics. In the middle of the neighborhood is P.S. 232, an elementary school built in the early 1960s (and now known as the Walter Ward School, named after the neighborhood's late longtime City councilman) and the Lindenwood Shopping Center, which consists of a supermarket and about 20 stores. In the early 1970s, a second supermarket called the Village was located behind the shopping center. After failing, the building became a mall, flea market, bingo hall and private school before finally becoming a walk-in medical center. There is also a second small strip mall on Linden Boulevard, adjacent to the Lindenwood Diner. When the Jewish population was more numerous, they had a synagogue named Temple Judea in Lindenwood, located on 153rd Ave and 80th Street. The building was converted into apartments when the temple merged with what was then the Howard Beach Jewish Center in Rockwood Park. The neighborhood used to have two pool clubs, one on 88th Street and 151st Ave. These buildings were converted to walk-up apartments in the early 1970s. Another, across from 232, was redeveloped in 1980 into townhouses, adjacent to a branch of Queens County Savings Bank (formerly Columbia Savings Bank). There used to be a tennis "bubble" on 153rd Ave and 79th Street, that had been developed around 1980. Old Howard Beach Old Howard Beach is a section of Howard Beach that lies between Shellbank Basin and Hawtree Creek to the east of Cross Bay Boulevard. Coleman Square, Wetzel Triangle and Frank M. Charles Park are located in Old Howard Beach. The area is locally referred to as "Old Howard Beach" since it was the original place in which founder William Howard built his famous hotel, and later the area's first houses in the 1920s. The current housing in Old Howard Beach consists of several different types of houses. Those located near the former Howard Beach General Hospital (built in 1962) are mainly 1950s and 1960s detached two-family homes, while the areas near Coleman Square, Frank M. Charles Park, and Shellbank Basin contain primarily single-family homes. The Q11 bus serves the neighborhood. Ramblersville Ramblersville is a section of greater Howard Beach, being a small neighborhood of about a dozen blocks between Hawtree Creek and JFK Airport. It is nearly surrounded by waterways leading into nearby Jamaica Bay. It is bordered by on the north by 160th Avenue, on the west by Hawtree Creek, across which is Old Howard Beach; on the east by the New York City Subway's Rockaway Line (, beyond which is Bergen Basin and the airport; and on the south by the 102nd Street Creek. Crossing the creek, 102nd Street reaches Hamilton Beach at Russell Street. The size of the neighborhood is about on each side, and it notably lacks the rectangular street grid of the surrounding neighborhoods. Ramblersville, which once considered itself independent of New York City when the city was first unified, is purportedly the oldest neighborhood in what later became known as Howard Beach. A 1905 article from The Washington Post said that all the houses were built on stilts and the population was one-thousand in the summer and a dozen in the winter. In 1962, the neighborhood's private water mains were replaced by the city; the neighborhood had 130 families at the time. In 2001, The New York Times reported that the neighborhood "resembles a cozy fishing village with its pebbled streets and wooden bungalows built on pilings... [T]all grass... surrounds many of its marshy fields." Fishing was a large industry in the tiny neighborhood. Ramblersville still has streets named Broadway, Church, and Bridge. Just north of Ramblersville is 159th Drive, also known as Remsen Place, named after Jeromus Remsen, a Revolutionary War officer. This area, near the current subway station, was known as "Remsen's Landing" at the time. Before the Howard Beach development was named in 1916, the entire area was commonly known as "Ramblersville", including Hamilton Beach to the south on Jamaica Bay, and Old Howard Beach to the west. The Howard Beach – JFK Airport subway stop was originally the "Ramblersville Station" on the Long Island Rail Road. Ramblersville is the smallest neighborhood in New York City in terms of real estate per square foot. Rockwood Park Rockwood Park is a section of Howard Beach that mainly consists of single family homes and is considered to be a more upper class section of Howard Beach. It is part of what is commonly referred to as "New Howard" by many residents. The area is situated between 78th and 92nd Streets (these are north-south streets) and 156th and 165th Avenues (the east-west streets). The Q41 and Q21 serve Rockwood Park. To the west of 78th Street, the last street in the neighborhood, lies Spring Creek Park in which lies the border between Brooklyn and Queens. The area remained primarily undeveloped during the first half of the 1900s. After the Second World War marsh land west of Cross Bay Boulevard was filled in, which led to the building of many Cape Cod-style houses in the area, followed later on in the 1960s and 1970s by high ranch-style houses. Becoming known as a more upscale section of Howard Beach led the area to become the home of many known mob figures, most notably Gambino crime family boss John Gotti who lived on 85th Street. Starting in the late 1980s and through the 2000s, Rockwood Park began to go through another building boom. Many of the area's old Cape Cod-style houses were demolished and replaced with upscale million dollar mini-mansions. Another famous resident was folk singer Woody Guthrie, who lived at 159-13 85th Street with his family after moving from Coney Island. Demographics Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Howard Beach was 26,148, a change of -1,973 (-7.5%) from the 28,121 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 76.8% (20,069) White, 1.6% (413) African American, 0.1% (28) Native American, 3.5% (923) Asian, 0% (5) Pacific Islander, 0.2% (62) from other races, and 1% (249) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.8% (4,399) of the population. The entirety of Community Board 10, which comprises Howard Beach, southern Ozone Park, and South Ozone Park, had 125,603 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 81.7 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are youth and middle-aged adults: 22% are between the ages of between 0–17, 28% between 25–44, and 28% between 45–64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 9% and 13% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community Board 10 was $73,891. In 2018, an estimated 19% of Howard Beach and South Ozone Park residents lived in poverty, compared to 19% in all of Queens and 20% in all of New York City. One in ten residents (10%) were unemployed, compared to 8% in Queens and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 56% in Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, higher than the boroughwide and citywide rates of 53% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Howard Beach and South Ozone Park are considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city and not gentrifying. Politics Howard Beach is part of the 15th State Senate district, represented by Joseph Addabbo Jr., and the 23rd State Assembly district, represented by Stacey Pheffer Amato. It is part of District 32 in the New York City Council, represented by Joann Ariola. Following redistricting in 2012, the neighborhood is split between the 5th and 8th congressional districts. The 5th District covers the parts of Howard Beach east of 104th Street and the 8th District covers the rest of the neighborhood west of 104th Street. These districts are represented by Gregory Meeks and Hakeem Jeffries respectively, . Police and crime Howard Beach, southern Ozone Park, and South Ozone Park are patrolled by the 106th Precinct of the NYPD, located at 103-53 101st Street. The 106th Precinct ranked 26th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. The rate of car thefts is high because of the area's proximity to the Belt Parkway, a major travel corridor. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 32 per 100,000 people, Howard Beach and South Ozone Park's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 381 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole. The 106th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 81.3% between 1990 and 2018. In 2018, there were 6 murders, 16 rapes, 183 robberies, 246 felony assaults, 133 burglaries, 502 grand larcenies, and 97 grand larcenies auto recorded in the precinct. Fire safety Howard Beach contains a New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire station, Engine Co. 331/Ladder Co. 173, at 158-99 Cross Bay Boulevard. Hamilton Beach is served by the West Hamilton Beach Volunteer Fire Department, which has Engine 2 (Brush Unit), Engine 6, Ambulance 947 & 947-1, and two Chiefs vehicles, as well as a water pump. Health , preterm births are more common in Howard Beach and South Ozone Park than in other places citywide, though births to teenage mothers are less common. In Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, there were 97 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 14.2 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Howard Beach and South Ozone Park have a low population of residents who are uninsured. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 8%, lower than the citywide rate of 12%. The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Howard Beach and South Ozone Park is , less than the city average. Twelve percent of Howard Beach and South Ozone Park residents are smokers, which is lower than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, 27% of residents are obese, 19% are diabetic, and 34% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 22%, 8%, and 23% respectively. In addition, 21% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%. Eighty-three percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is less than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 77% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," about equal to the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, there are 8 bodegas. The nearest major hospitals are Brookdale University Hospital and Medical Center in Brooklyn and Jamaica Hospital in Jamaica. Post offices and ZIP Code Howard Beach is covered by the ZIP Code 11414. The United States Postal Service operates two post offices nearby: the Station A post office at 160-50 Cross Bay Boulevard and the Station B post office at 102-12 159th Avenue. Education Howard Beach and South Ozone Park generally have a lower rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . While 28% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 23% have less than a high school education and 49% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 39% of Queens residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Howard Beach and South Ozone Park students excelling in math rose from 33% in 2000 to 61% in 2011, and reading achievement rose from 37% to 48% during the same time period. Howard Beach and South Ozone Park's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is less than the rest of New York City. In Howard Beach and South Ozone Park, 18% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, lower than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 82% of high school students in Howard Beach and South Ozone Park graduate on time, more than the citywide average of 75%. Schools PS 146 The Howard Beach School PS 207 The Rockwood Park School PS 232 The Walter Ward School St. Helens Catholic School K–8 (Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn) Before the public elementary schools changed to K-8 schools, residents of Howard Beach that attended PS 207, PS 232 or PS 146 then went to Junior High School 202 (Robert H. Goddard Junior High School) for grades 7-8. It is located on the northwest corner of Conduit Boulevard and Lafayette Place, and a footbridge crosses over Conduit Boulevard, allowing students from southern Howard Beach to attend the school. Some 9th graders also attended JHS 202. For grades 9–12, residents could attend their zoned school which is John Adams High School in nearby Ozone Park. Others attended specialty high schools such as Beach Channel High School in Rockaway Park, or Catholic high schools such as Christ the King, St. Francis Prep, Stella Maris or Archbishop Molloy. In July 2020, Our Lady of Grace Catholic School made the announcement that it would no longer be operating, as the Diocese took over the property and decided to close the educational component due to financial strain as an indirect result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Library The Queens Public Library operates the Howard Beach branch at 92-06 156th Avenue. Transportation The New York City Subway's Howard Beach–JFK Airport station, on the IND Rockaway Line () was formerly a Long Island Rail Road station on the Rockaway Beach Branch. Frequent fires on the trestle to Broad Channel forced the LIRR to file Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the 1950s, which allowed New York City Transit to purchase the line in 1956. The station provides a connection between the and Howard Beach JFK AirTrain route. Prior to the AirTrain JFK's opening, the Port Authority provided a free shuttle bus to the terminals at JFK Airport. Local bus service in the neighborhood is provided on the . All of these routes are operated by MTA Bus Company. There are also the express buses. Notable people Notable current and former residents of Howard Beach include: Vito Antuofermo (born 1953), former boxer and actor Marco Battaglia (born 1973), former American football tight end in the National Football League DJ Skribble (born 1968), DJ, producer, remixer, radio personality and TV actor Vitas Gerulaitis (1954-1994), professional tennis player Keith Gottfried (born 1966), former General Counsel and Chief Legal Officer of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and senior member of the administration of President George W. Bush, spent much of his childhood as a resident of Howard Beach. John Gotti (1940-2002), Gambino crime family head was a resident of 85th Street in Howard Beach Victoria Gotti (born 1962), John's daughter, who starred in Growing Up Gotti Woody Guthrie (1912-1967), folk music legend (son Arlo Guthrie's music is frequently copyrighted to "Howard Beach Music, Inc.") Rick Hearst (born 1965), soap-opera actor James Maritato (born 1972), professional wrestler George Martin (born 1953), defensive end who played in the NFL for the New York Giants Joseph Massino (born 1943), Bonanno crime family boss and known as the "Last Godfather" Joey Ramone (1951-2001) and his brother Mickey Leigh (born 1954) lived in Howard Beach as children. Faith Hintze (born 1988), top 10 contestant on American Idol Season 10. Karina Vetrano (1986-2016), Howard Beach resident who was murdered in Spring Creek Park. In popular culture A 1989 TV movie was made based on the 1986 racial incident entitled Howard Beach: Making a Case for Murder. In the 1989 Spike Lee movie Do the Right Thing, in a riot scene near the end of the film, a chant rises up: "Howard Beach! Howard Beach! Howard Beach!" This immediately follows a scene wherein a young black man is killed by police using excessive force to break up a fight. On The Chris Rock Show, comedian Chris Rock proposed renaming Cross Bay Boulevard after Tupac Shakur, asking the predominantly white residents of the neighborhood to sign a petition. See also The Hole, New York References Populated places established in 1897 1897 establishments in New York City Italian-American culture in New York City Little Italys in the United States Neighborhoods in Queens, New York Populated coastal places in New York (state)
850121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Bastien%20S%C3%A9bastiani%20de%20La%20Porta	Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta	Horace François Bastien Sébastiani de La Porta (; 11 November 1771 – 20 July 1851) was a French general, diplomat, and politician, who served as Naval Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Minister of State under the July Monarchy. Having joined the French Revolutionary Army in his youth, Sébastiani rose through its ranks before becoming a supporter of Napoleon Bonaparte. Sébastiani was the French Consulate's emissary to The Levant, notably drafting plans to reconquer Ottoman Egypt, and later served as the Empire's Ambassador to The Porte. In the latter capacity, he attempted to increase French influence and signaled pro-Russian activities in the Danubian Principalities, thus provoking the War of 1806–1812. In 1807, Sébastiani organized the defense of Constantinople during the Dardanelles Operation. Recalled due to British pressure after the deposition of Selim III, he served in the Peninsular War and resided in the Alhambra, took part in the unsuccessful invasion of Russia, and defended the Champagne region in front of the Sixth Coalition. Sébastiani recognized the Bourbon Restoration, but rallied with Napoleon during the Hundred Days, being elected to the Chamber for the first time in 1815. Briefly exiled after the return of King Louis XVIII, he was again admitted as a Deputy in 1819, sitting with the Left faction, supporting liberal politics, and coming into conflict with the Jean-Baptiste de Villèle Cabinet. After the July Revolution, he endorsed Louis-Philippe. Sébastiani's time as Foreign Minister saw France's involvement in the Belgian Revolution, its refusal to sanction the November Uprising, the controversial solution to a commercial dispute with the United States, and the French occupation of Ancona. In later years, he progressed in French Government service as an ambassador. The 1847 murder of his daughter, Françoise, Duchess de Praslin indirectly helped spark the 1848 Revolution. Early life Born in La Porta, Corsica, Sébastiani was the son of a tailor and well-to-do craftsman, the nephew of Louis Sébastiani de La Porta, a Roman Catholic priest who was later Bishop of Ajaccio, and probably a distant relative of the Bonapartes. Horace Sébastiani had a brother, Tiburce, who rose to the rank of Maréchal de Camp. Initially destined for a religious career, he left his native island during the French Revolution, and entered the army in 1792. Briefly dispatched as a secretary to Conte Raffaele Cadorna in Casablanca, Sébastiani participated in the Revolutionary Wars, including campaigns in Corsica, 1793, the Alps, 1794–1797, and at the Battle of Marengo, 1800. Having served as an officer in the 9th Dragoon Regiment, he was promoted to Colonel in 1799. Sébastiani joined Lucien Bonaparte's entourage, and endorsed Napoleon's political actions, taking an active part in the 18 Brumaire coup (9 November 1799). In 1802, the Consulate sent him on his first diplomatic assignments in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Egypt, and other parts of The Levant. Among his first actions were the settlement of a conflict between Sweden and the Barbary State of Tripoli, as well as obtaining the latter's agreement to recognize the Italian Republic. Mission to Egypt and 1805 Campaign Sébastiani negotiated with the British military commanders in the aftermath of the French invasion of Egypt (1798), asking them to abide by the newly signed Treaty of Amiens and withdraw from Alexandria; following this he met with Ottoman officials in Cairo, unsuccessfully offering to mediate between them and rebellious beys (see Muhammad Ali's seizure of power). In late 1802, he traveled to Akka, and negotiated a trade agreement with the local pasha. During this period, Sébastiani theorized that, despite Egyptian Campaign's failure, the French could yet again establish their control over the region. He publicized this view in a report, published by Le Moniteur Universel on 30 January 1803, posing a threat for both British and Russian interests; this probably contributed to deescalating relations between the latter two over the prolonged British presence in Malta, with Henry Addington's Cabinet indicating that British troops would remain as long as France held designs to invade Egypt. Returning to France, he was put in charge of the littoral from the mouth of the Vilaine (in Morbihan) to Brest, before, in 1804, being despatched on a short mission to the Holy Roman Emperor in Vienna. Promoted Brigadier-General in 1803, he commanded Grande Armée troops during the Battle of Ulm. After leading a successful attack on Günzburg, Sébastiani followed the Austrians into Moravia (1805), having been promoted Général de division after the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, where he was wounded. Embassy to Selim III Appointed French Ambassador to The Porte on 12 April 1806, and gaining his post on 10 August, he attempted to convince Sultan Selim III to exclude the Royal Navy from access through the Dardanelles. According to a biographical essay published by the Revue des Deux Mondes in 1833, Sébastiani faced almost universal hostility from the anti-French diplomatic corps—whose opinions were influenced by the Russian Count Andrei Yakovlevich Budberg and the British Ambassador Charles Arbuthnot. The same article claimed: "France had for its allies only the envoys of Spain and Holland". Among Horace Sébastiani's moves to enlist Ottoman support for Napoleon was the establishment of a printing press in Constantinople, which published works of French literature translated into Turkish and Arabic. Sébastiani persuaded the Ottomans to take a stand against Russia after bringing attention to the anti-Ottoman conspiracy in Wallachia, formed around Prince Constantine Ypsilantis, as well as to the suspicious policies of Moldavia's Prince Alexander Mourousis. According to the aristocratic Wallachian memoirist and politician Ion Ghica, Selim "followed the advice of General Sébastiani, who tried to bring him to Napoleon's side", and saw a connection between Ypsilantis and the Serbian Uprising: "He felt that [Ypsilantis] sided with the Russians and had an understanding with Pazvantoğlu of Vidin and with Czerny-George the Serbian, both of whom had rebelled against The Porte." The conflict itself started when Russia considered Ypsilantis' deposition to go against the letter of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca and the Treaty of Jassy. While the Russian Count and Ambassador Arbuthnot prepared to leave Constantinople, The Porte convened to have the two Princes reinstated. Despite this, Russian troops under General Ivan Michelson and Count Mikhail Miloradovich entered the two Danubian Principalities (see Russo-Turkish War (1806–12)). Prince Ypsilantis had previously escaped to the Russian camp, and was briefly considered by his allies as ruler over both principalities (just before Russian occupation took over); the French Consul to Moldavia, Charles-Frédéric Reinhard, reportedly not informed of Sébastiani's contacts with Selim, was arrested by the Russian troops. As a major consequence of this chain of events, France pulled the strings of Ottoman foreign policy. During the parallel Anglo-Turkish War in 1807, Sébastiani helped the Ottomans in the successful defense of Constantinople against the British squadron of Admiral Duckworth. The British bombardment, coming at a time when the Muslim population was celebrating Eid al-Adha, was met with panic, and Sébastiani's group of French military officers was soon the only organized force present on the European side. In his messages to Selim, Sir John Duckworth asked for the French ambassador to be removed, for the Ottoman fleet and the Dardanelles military facilities to be handed over, and for Russia to be granted rule over Wallachia and Moldavia. The Sultan sent envoys requesting Sébastiani to leave Ottoman territory, but the French Ambassador explained that he would not do so until being ordered by Selim himself. As the matter was being debated, Janissary forces on the Anatolian shore organized themselves, and, once increased in strength, began responding to the attack. Selim subsequently asked Sébastiani and his men (including Louis Gustave le Doulcet and , as well as the embassy's secretary ), to oversee Constantinople's defense and the line of fire nearby Topkapı Palace, organizing maneuvers which caused Duckworth to withdraw. In 1806, Sébastiani married Jeanne-Françoise-Antoinette (Fanny) , only daughter of François-Henri de Franquetot, marquis de Coigny). She died in childbirth while in Constantinople, just a few days before the Sultan was deposed (14 April 1807), and left Sébastiani a large fortune. Upon hearing news of her death, Sultan Selim transmitted condolences through his Grand Dragoman. Embassy to Mustafa IV The successful rebellion led by Kabakçı Mustafa and the Janissary troops put an end to French diplomatic success. Sébastiani negotiated with Kabakçı, while the British sought support from various factions inside Constantinople — the Grand Dragoman, , eventually informed the French Ambassador on the parallel British projects. This resulted in Soutzos' beheading — that which, in Ion Ghica's version of events, caused the Soutzos family to abandon their commitment to France and begin supporting Russia. According to the Revue des Deux Mondes biography, Sébastiani had betrayed Aleko Soutzos' confidence by revealing as many details of Anglo-Ottoman negotiations as to render it clear that the Dragoman had been acting as his spy, and by failing to respect the promise of French protection. Under the new monarch, Mustafa IV, he attempted to impose a pro-French pasha as governor of Baghdad, and later provoked a scandal by asking for the Imperial Executioner, the Bostanji-bashi, to be demoted—this came after three Ragusan subjects, having been found guilty of theft, were subjected to the falaka torture, despite the facts that the recent annexation of Ragusa by France offered them a degree of immunity. As a result of his pressures, Sébastiani obtained rule over the province of Baghdad for his favorite, and, in return, allowed the Bostanji-bashi to remain in office. He asked to be recalled in April 1807, being replaced by Chargé d'affaires Faÿ de La Tour Maubourg. This departure was also prompted by renewed British requests. Shortly before his leaving, Sultan Mustafa awarded Sébastiani the Order of the Crescent 1st Class, which has been interpreted as a measure to alleviate the impact of British successes. According to other accounts, Mustafa himself had become deeply dissatisfied with Sébastiani's interventions and policies. Upon his return to France, Sébastiani received the Grand Aigle de la Légion d'honneur. The Revue des Deux Mondes speculated that, based on the Corsican heritage he shared with Sébastiani: "the Emperor would often keep his eyes closed in respect to his Generals' mistakes.As for [Sébastiani's] diplomatic skills, Napoleon was so affected that he sent him to the arms as soon as he returned from the Orient, and did not assign him to any negotiations until his fall [of 1814]." Peninsular War and 1813 Campaign Sébastiani became a Count of the Empire, and commanded IV Corps in the Peninsular War, notably at the Battle of Ciudad-Real, the Battle of Talavera, and the Battle of Almonacid. In 1810, he took Linares, Jaén, Granada and Málaga. Troops under his command included a group of Polish émigré soldiers, among them Albert Grzymała, who served on his staff and was later noted for his friendship with Frédéric Chopin. Starting from that date, Sébastiani gained a reputation for lacking leadership skills: popularly nicknamed "General Surprise" as a result of having been caught out by enemy troops a significant number of times, he was argued by Jean-Baptiste de Marbot to have been noted for nothing other than mediocrity. According to the 1833 Revue des Deux Mondes, he had also become known for his lassitude, to the point where Napoleon himself grew irate. The same source recounted that, after Talavera de la Reina and especially after Almonacid, the general raised suspicion that he wasted men and resources, systematically failed to report all his casualties, and seriously exaggerated the scale of his victories. It was contended that the Emperor eventually withdrew Sébastiani's command of IV Corps after concluding that this assessment was correct. Some sources claim that Sébastiani was created "1st Duke of Murcia" by Napoleon; according to the Revue, although nominated for the title by the new King of Spain, Joseph Bonaparte, Sébastiani was denied appointment by Napoleon (a gesture alleged to have itself been based on the General's conduct at Almonacid). Nonetheless, it was reported that Sébastiani made use of the title for the rest of his participation in the Spanish expedition. The Revue claimed that the ducal title "of Murcia" was adopted by the General himself, after he reaped a minor victory in Lorca and reportedly advanced a project to gain the region back from guerrilla forces (the plan was to be discarded by Sébastiani's commander, Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult). Sébastiani is reported to have plundered a number of Roman Catholic convents during the Peninsular expedition. Having stationed his troops in the Alhambra, where he himself resided in noted luxury, Sébastiani partly destroyed the palace's fortifications after retreating. It is argued that he was also responsible for the partial devastation of the palace's interior. The American author Washington Irving, who visited Spain in the following period, recounted that: "With that enlightened taste which has ever distinguished the French nation in their conquests, this monument of Moorish elegance and grandeur was rescued from the absolute ruin and desolation that were overwhelming it. The roofs were repaired, the saloons and galleries protected from the weather, the gardens cultivated, the watercourses restored, the fountains once more made to throw up their sparkling showers; and Spain may thank her invaders for having preserved to her the most beautiful and interesting of her historical monuments." Serving during Napoleon's invasion of Russia, under Marshal Joachim Murat, and in the Campaign of 1812–1813, he commanded a cavalry division, becoming noted in the battles of Borodino (being the first French commander to enter Moscow, but was later forced to retreat with heavy losses), Bautzen, Lützen, Leipzig (where he was wounded), and Hanau. After attempting to hold Cologne, he took part in the defense of French territory, holding a command position in Champagne and organizing troops in Châlons-en-Champagne. In March, he assisted in the retaking of Reims, where he faced the Imperial Russian Army troops under the command of Emmanuel de Saint-Priest. Hundred Days and Second Restoration Changing sides to support Talleyrand on 10 April 1814, Sébastiani was appointed to the Bourbon Restoration Government and was, on 2 June, awarded the Order of Saint Louis by King Louis XVIII. Nevertheless, upon news that Napoleon was returning from Elba, he abandoned his command and left for Paris, where, together with the Count de Lavalette, he organized National Guard detachments to assist the Emperor. Napoleon also sent him over to attract support from the liberal politician Benjamin Constant; soon after, Constant became involved in drafting the more permissive Acte Additionel, which amended the Constitution of the Year XII. During the Hundred Days, he was assigned the reviewing of legislation passed by Louis XVIII, and organized the National Guard in Picardy. Sébastiani was elected to the Chamber for the department of Aisne. After the Battle of Waterloo, he voted in favor of Napoleon's abdication, and, eventually, was among those assigned with negotiating a peace with the Seventh Coalition (as part of a delegation also comprising Benjamin Constant de Rebecque, the marquis de La Fayette, marquis d'Argenson and comte de Pontécoulant). During talks, he showed himself opposed to a second Bourbon return. Sébastiani spent a year in England before being allowed to return (having retired from active service and receiving half pay). Starting in 1819, after being promoted by the Duke Decazes, he was a prominent member of the Chamber of Deputies, initially representing Corsica, rallying with the Left. According to the Revue'''s comments, his political choice was unusual, reportedly astonishing both members of the Left and the moderate Decazes, a Royalist. Inside the Chamber, he joined forces with Maximilien Sebastien Foy, notably pushing projects to recognize the merits of Grande Armée veterans; a speech he held on the latter occasion, which gave praise to the French tricolor, caused an uproar among conservative deputies. During the 1824 French legislative election, his attempt to campaign in Corsica was frustrated by the local authorities representing the Royalist Government of Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, and he subsequently won 1 out of 48 votes. Instead, after General Foy's death in late 1825, he was elected as replacement in his constituency, the Aisne town of Vervins, receiving 120 votes out of 200. July Revolution and Belgian question After the July Revolution, he held the posts of Naval Minister under the nominal leadership of François Guizot (autumn 1830), and Foreign Affairs under Jacques Laffitte and Casimir Pierre Perier. During the Revolution, he parted with the Left, and made declarations in support of Charles X—including one which proclaimed that the only national flag was the white one for the Bourbons. Allegedly establishing links with the radical Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera society in the early days of the July Monarchy, he subsequently rallied with the centrist politics of the Orléanist camp. With Laffitte, Benjamin Constant, Jean-Guillaume Hyde de Neuville, Adolphe Thiers, and others, he played a prominent part in calling Louis-Philippe to the French throne. After that, the Sébastianis became the most influential faction in Corsica, replacing the Legitimist Pozzo di Borgo family — one of the latter, Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo, was a high-ranking Russian diplomat who negotiated with Horace Sébastiani on several occasions. In the wake of the Belgian Revolution, when candidatures were considered for the Belgian throne, Sébastiani had the task of undermining support for Auguste of Leuchtenberg and drawing allegiances for the Duke of Nemours. After Nemours refused the Belgian crown, he transferred French support to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the British-backed candidate, in exchange for Leopold's agreeing to marry Louise-Marie of France. This policy was viewed as a capitulation by the Legitimists, and most notably by Jean Maximilien Lamarque, who, while deploring the separation of the French and the French-speaking Walloons, accused Sébastiani of having obtained the destruction of fortifications in Belgium not as a concession from other states, but rather because "the allied powers want to set aside the means of entering France without running into obstacles". When the London Conference compelled Dutch forces to evacuate Belgian territory, Sébastiani indicated that the French troops under General Gérard were to remain in the area until "all reasons why the French Army has maneuvered would be dealt with resolutely, and no danger would threaten us". Nevertheless, Gérard retreated before the Conference came to an end. When Chamber called on the minister to answer about the discrepancy, he declared himself "astonished" by news of the retreat, attributing it to British pressures, and indicated that "we have entered Belgium in good will; good will is what led us to withdraw". November Uprising: early negotiations In late 1830, after the November Uprising broke out in Congress Poland, Sébastiani, despite the revolutionaries' expectations, chose to avoid his country's involvement. As Russian troops carried out a violent intervention against the rebellion, a deputy in the Sejm lamented that Poland was perishing without having even seen a French courier; the minister responded to similar accusations at home by stating that France was determined not to raise the anger of Emperor Nicholas. Nevertheless, some time after the Uprising erupted, Sébastiani received Polish envoys with sympathy, and had felt secure that "a friendly arrangement with Russia" could be achieved. To this end, he sent a mission to Saint Petersburg, which attempted to mediate an understanding between the Polish revolutionaries and Russia; in order to undermine communications between France and Poland, the government of Viktor Kochubey took the decision of recognizing the July Monarchy, which it had refused to do until then. In January 1831, after pressures from the Marquis de La Fayette, the Duke of Mortemart was dispatched to Russia in order to seek a new agreement—his mission was made ineffectual by the revolutionaries' decision to dethrone Nicholas from his position as King of Poland, which in turn led to a standoff between all sides involved. In parallel, Sébastiani allegedly approved the designs of Armand Charles Guilleminot, the Ambassador to The Porte, who attempted to undermine the Holy Alliance by stressing that Russian actions in Poland and the Balkans could rally opposition from Austria, the Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom. Guilleminot ultimately presented the Ottomans with an offer to back an independent Poland—as a consequence, Foreign Minister Sébastiani was formally asked by Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo to recall the ambassador, and he ultimately agreed to do so. Historian Barthélemy Hauréau indicated that the moderate path pursued by Sébastiani had been largely responsible for convincing Jan Zygmunt Skrzynecki to postpone military operations, to the point where it was later contended that the minister was plotting with Russian authorities. He referred to Sébastiani's position as "a miserable role", and to his correspondence with the Poles as "perfidious epistles". November Uprising: aftermath When Poland was ultimately pacified, Sébastiani uttered the famous words: "Order reigns in Warsaw." The statement itself was not rendered verbatim by the Moniteur, allegedly due to their potential for causing scandal. As Sébastiani's words began circulating freely, public opinion considered them evidence of callousness, and, in December, they were used by J. J. Grandville as title for a cartoon showing the effects of repression in Congress Poland. Another of Grandville's drawings, depicting the authorities' violent response to public manifestations of support for Polish revolutionaries, was titled Public Order Reigns Also in Paris (sold together, the two works caused the artist to be censored and his house to be raided by policemen). It was also contended that the statement had been made by Sébastiani with the specific goal of persuading Russia that France did not condemn the intervention — reportedly, Emperor Nicholas normalized relations with France and received its ambassador, the Duke of Trévise, only after hearing news of Sébastiani's speech. Later, he justified himself in front of the Chamber by arguing that intervention in Poland was doomed to failure, noting that a French landing on Poland's Baltic shore was made impossible by both distance and the minor scale of facilities in Polangen. When interpellated in the Chamber, he also contended that France had managed to obtain consensus that Russia was to maintain a degree of Polish autonomy, as these had been stipulated by the 1814–1814 Congress of Vienna. Reflecting upon public sentiment at a time when Radicalism had become a European phenomenon, he was also quoted saying: "There are those who want to drag us into a war of opinions, to dump us into an apparent alliance of peoples versus governments; we ask them with what right do they pretend to attribute themselves or assign us the mission of revolutionizing all the peoples. We know their goal and their secret thought. These people work to bring disruptions on the inside through disruptions on the outside. What they want, we avoid; what they fear, we seek. In the absence of set rules of conduct, their exhortations, their fears and their joys would suffice for shedding light on our path and making us perceive the abysses where they would like to throw us." During a Chamber session in September 1831, the liberal Marquis de La Fayette publicly accused the Laffitte cabinet in general and Sébastiani in particular of having secretly encouraged the Poles while persuading them to delay their attack on Russian troops (allegedly promising that France would give them official backing following that moment, and later forfeiting the pledge). La Fayette also stressed that it was possible for France to sanction Polish independence, especially since the Holy Alliance appeared to have been divided on the issue. According to Karl Marx, when Sébastiani defended his ministry and stressed that he had not made Poland any promises, the Marquis confronted him with a letter signed by Karol Kniaziewicz, dated September 1830, which contained references to Sébastiani's guarantees and his call to postpone the offensive. The Revue des Deux Mondes recounted that the diplomat Talleyrand and Sébastiani both maintained an independent line in politics—their secretive notes reportedly contributed to the fall of the Laffitte government. Périer Cabinet Over the following year, he and Prime Minister Périer were called upon by the Marquis de La Fayette to express disapproval for reactionary politics in the Austrian Empire, and to allow Italian Carbonari refugees such as Cristina Trivulzio di Belgiojoso to remain on French territory. La Fayette noted that Sébastiani had undertaken: "efforts to revoke and prevent the sequestration [of property] that was inflicted [by Austria] on the Italian men and women who are traveling in France." In February 1832, Sébastiani took initiative in ordering a French occupation of Ancona. The Revue argued that this was the most significant gesture of his career, and credited him with having planned it as an indirect but effective strike at Austrian economic interests, when implying that France would march into Rome and Trieste in the event of a war with Austria. Among his last actions in office as Foreign Minister were negotiations with the United States over losses suffered by American citizens during the Napoleon's Continental Blockade, when several ships bearing the American flag were arrested in European ports, on suspicion that they were in fact serving British commercial interests (see Embargo Act of 1807). Raising much controversy, he set the sum France agreed to pay at 25 million francs, 10 million more than what committees of the Conseil d'État and Chamber had decided, although still significantly less than what had been asked by American plaintiffs. It was during the same period that Sébastiani remarried, to Aglaé-Angélique-Gabrielle de Gramont, one of Héraclius, duc de Gramont's daughters and the widow of the Russian General Count Alexander Davidoff. He retired from office after suffering a stroke which left him partly paralyzed, and traveled in the Italian Peninsula. He was later Minister of State for a short period of time. Later years In 1833, Sébastiani was ambassador to the Two Sicilies, and in 1835–1840, to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. He was recalled and replaced by François Guizot after refusing, against his government wishes, to support the cause of Muhammad Ali's design to extend his rule out of the Egyptian realm by conquering Ottoman lands in Syria (see London Straits Convention). Adolphe Thiers later pointed out that he agreed with Sébastiani's view, which he defined as: "The apprehension [...] over seeing France engaging in the Oriental question, to find herself the only one of that opinion, and from that moment on to be reduced to the alternative of either ceding or risk a universal war over an object that was not worth it [...]." During the ministerial crisis provoked by the fall of the Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult cabinet, before Thiers' nomination, Sébastiani was considered for the office of Premier; his failure to gain the position was attributed to rejection from all political camps, based on the view that he was overtly subservient to King Louis-Philippe. He was made Marshal of France in 1840, replacing the deceased Nicolas Joseph Maison, and represented Ajaccio in the Chamber for several terms. He became a Peer of France in 1842. The Revue des Deux Mondes' François Buloz announced, in April 1835, that Vicomte Tiburce Sébastiani was involved in heated disputes with other public figures, over repeated allegations that his brother had harmed French interests in the American creditors' affair. In this and other cases of the period, the same controversy almost erupted into duels. Having largely retired from public life, he had his last years clouded by the 1847 death of his sole daughter from his first marriage, Fanny, duchess of Choiseul-Praslin. Brigitte-Marie Le Brigand, "Choiseul-Praslin: les pièces à conviction", in Historia, Nr.704, retrieved 5 May 2007 Fanny had married Charles, duc de Praslin, in 1825. In what was one of the most famous murders of the 19th century, the duchess had been stabbed repeatedly and with noted violence. For long before her death, Fanny had accused Charles de Choiseul-Praslin of having cheated on her and of having separated her from her children. Her killing was thought to be a consequence of the Duke's plan to run away with their children's governess. Arrested and waiting to be tried by the Court of Peers, Choiseul-Praslin was released on parole, only to commit suicide on 24 August 1847; shortly before his death, he denied all charges. This event played a part in bringing about the 1848 Revolution, after public opinion began speculating that aristocrats had allowed one of their own to take his own life rather than face trial, or even that Choiseul-Praslin had been allowed to escape. As a parallel result, the 1848 events brought an end to the Sébastianis' influence in Corsica, especially after Tiburce Sébastiani chose to retire to his domain in Olmeta-di-Tuda. Four years later, Sébastiani died suddenly while having breakfast. His funeral service was held at Les Invalides and attended by President Charles-Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte among other officials of the Second Republic. Legacy Horace Sébastiani's name is inscribed on the western side of the Arc de Triomphe. An avenue in Bastia was named in his honor (Avenue Maréchal Sébastiani). In 1938, Rachel Field published her All This and Heaven Too, a novel which centers on the killing of Sébastiani's daughter. The 1940 drama film of the same starred Barbara O'Neil as Fanny, Charles Boyer as De Choiseul-Praslin, and Bette Davis as Henriette Deluzy-Desportes, the governess. Sébastiani is portrayed by Montagu Love. Sébastiani is also one of the protagonists in Prince Michael of Greece's novel Sultana - La Nuit du Sérail, which depicts fictionalized events of Selim III's rule. In 1989, the story was later turned into an American-Swiss film co-production: titled The Favorite (or La Nuit du Sérail''), it starred Laurent Le Doyen as Sébastiani. Honours Knight Grand cross in the Legion of Honour. Grand Cordon in the Order of Leopold. Knight Grand cross in the Imperial Order of the Crescent. Knight Grand cross in the Illustrious Royal Order of Saint Ferdinand and Merit Knight Grand cross in the Order of the Redeemer Knight of the Order of the Oak Crown See also List of Ambassadors of France to the United Kingdom Inmaculada Concepción (Murillo, 1670) References External links D'un Empire à l'autre at the Prefecture of Corsica site 1771 births 1851 deaths People from Haute-Corse Counts of the First French Empire French Roman Catholics Corsican politicians Ministers of Marine and the Colonies French Foreign Ministers Members of the Chamber of Representatives (France) Members of the Chamber of Deputies of the Bourbon Restoration Members of the 1st Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy Members of the 2nd Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy Members of the 3rd Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy Members of the 4th Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy Members of the 5th Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy Members of the 6th Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy Members of the 7th Chamber of Deputies of the July Monarchy Ambassadors of France to the Ottoman Empire 19th-century French diplomats Politicians with physical disabilities Royalty and nobility with disabilities Marshals of France French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars Generals of the First French Empire People of the Belgian Revolution November Uprising French people of the Revolutions of 1848 Knights of Malta Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Knights of the Order of the Crescent Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
853925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy%20Kraft	Randy Kraft	Randy Steven Kraft (born March 19, 1945) is an American serial killer and rapist known as the Scorecard Killer, the Southern California Strangler, and the Freeway Killer, who committed the rape, torture, and murder of a minimum of sixteen young men between 1972 and 1983, the majority of whom he killed in California. Kraft is also believed to have committed the rape and murder of up to fifty-one other boys and young men. He was convicted in May 1989 and is currently incarcerated on death row at San Quentin State Prison in Marin County, California. Kraft became known as the "Scorecard Killer" because upon his arrest, investigators discovered a coded list with 61 entries on a scorecard containing cryptic references to his victims; he is also sometimes referred to as the "Freeway Killer", because many of his victims' bodies were discovered beside or near freeways. Kraft shares the latter epithet with two separate and unrelated serial killers, William Bonin and Patrick Kearney. Early life Childhood Randy Steven Kraft was born in Long Beach, California, on March 19, 1945, the fourth child and only son of Opal Lee (née Beal) and Harold Herbert Kraft. Kraft's parents had moved to California from Wyoming at the outbreak of World War II; his father was a production worker and his mother was a sewing machine operator. The Kraft family lived modestly, and Kraft's mother undertook a succession of jobs to supplement her husband's salary. Nonetheless, Opal Kraft always found time for her children; in contrast, Kraft's father seldom attended any social gatherings with them, and was later described as being "distanced" from his family. As a child, Randy was doted on by his three older sisters and mother, although he was known to be accident-prone. In 1948, the Kraft family moved from Long Beach to Midway City in neighboring Orange County. Their home was a small, wood-frame Women's Army Corps dormitory on Beach Boulevard that Kraft's father renovated into a three-bedroom house. The family became active in the Westminster First Presbyterian Church, with Kraft's mother rising to the position of chairman of the deacons committee. In Midway City, Kraft attended Midway City Elementary school, where his mother was a member of the PTA. As a student, his intelligence was noted by classmates and teachers. By 1957, Kraft was judged intelligent enough to attend accelerated classes at 17th Street Junior High School. Adolescence and graduation By adolescence, Kraft had taken a keen interest in politics, becoming a staunch Republican and aspiring to become a U.S. senator. Shortly after his enrollment at Westminster High School, he and two close friends founded a Westminster World Affairs Club. At Westminster High, Kraft was again regarded as a pleasant, bright student who regularly achieved A grades. He was also known to occasionally date girls, although some classmates and teachers later stated that they suspected Kraft was homosexual. Kraft later stated he had known from his high school days that he was homosexual, although he initially kept his sexual orientation a secret. On June 13, 1963, he graduated tenth in his class of 390 students. That fall, he enrolled at Claremont Men's College in Claremont, California, where he pursued a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. Claremont Men's College Shortly after his enrollment at Claremont, Kraft enrolled in the Reserve Officers Training Corps and regularly attended demonstrations in support of the Vietnam War and—in 1964—campaign rallies for Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater. He later declared these actions were merely a simulation of his parents' political views and not his own, describing his second year at Claremont as being when he abandoned the "last gasp" of his conservative ideology. The same year, Kraft entered his first known homosexual relationship. In 1964, Kraft began working as a bartender at a local Garden Grove cocktail lounge that catered to gay clientele; he was also known to regularly travel to Laguna Beach and Huntington Beach to have casual sex with hustlers. In an apparent tentative effort to reveal his sexual orientation to his parents, Kraft took a succession of male "friends" to meet his family during his years at Claremont. Initially, Kraft's parents and sisters were oblivious to his homosexuality. In 1966, Kraft was arrested and charged with lewd conduct after propositioning an undercover policeman in Huntington Beach; as he had no previous criminal record, no charges were filed. The following year, he developed a radical shift in his political beliefs, becoming an ardent supporter of liberal views and eventually registered as a Democrat in 1967. Kraft quickly became a Democratic Party organizer, campaigning tirelessly for the election of Robert F. Kennedy and receiving a personal letter from the senator thanking him for his efforts. By his senior year, Kraft had become a lackadaisical student: drinking, taking drugs, and regularly attending all-night gambling and poker sessions with other students. The lack of commitment to his studies in his final year resulted in Kraft's failing to graduate from Claremont in June 1967 and being forced to repeat his econometrics class, which postponed his graduation by eight months. In February 1968, Kraft graduated from Claremont Men's College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. U.S. Air Force Four months after graduating from college, Kraft joined the United States Air Force. He was sent to basic training in Texas before being stationed at Edwards Air Force Base in southern California, where he supervised the painting of test planes. During his service in the Air Force, Kraft rose to the rank of Airman First Class and supervisor-manager. The same year that Kraft became an Airman First Class, he disclosed to his family that he was homosexual. In a letter he wrote to a friend, Kraft described his father as having flown "into a rage" whereas he described his mother as being more understanding, if somewhat disapproving. Kraft's family ultimately accepted his homosexuality, and he remained in close contact with his parents and siblings, although his siblings noted he began to "distance himself" from his family after he had disclosed his sexuality to them. On July 26, 1969, Kraft received a general discharge from the Air Force after announcing his sexual orientation to his superiors. The discharge was officially listed as being on "medical" grounds. In response, Kraft sought legal advice from an attorney in an attempt to challenge the grounds regarding his discharge. The Air Force, however, refused to change the status of his discharge. Following his discharge, Kraft moved back into his parents' home and obtained work as a bartender. First known sexual assault In March 1970, Kraft encountered a 13-year-old Westminster youth named Joseph Gerald Fancher at Huntington Beach. Fancher explained to Kraft that he had run away from home that day. In response, Kraft invited the youth to his apartment, promising that Fancher could live with him and offering him sex with a woman he claimed to know. Fancher agreed and accompanied Kraft to his Belmont Shore apartment, where he was drugged, beaten, and repeatedly sexually assaulted. Hours later, Fancher escaped from the apartment after Kraft left to go to work. A member of the public, alarmed by Fancher's drugged and disheveled condition, called an ambulance. Fancher's stomach needed to be pumped due to the drugs he had ingested. At the hospital, Fancher informed police that Kraft had given him drugs and beaten him. He did not disclose to either his parents or the police that he had been sexually assaulted due to shame and fearing no one would believe him. A search of Kraft's apartment was conducted with the cooperation of his roommate. However, as Fancher had confessed to police he had taken the pills offered to him voluntarily and the officers had conducted the search without a warrant, no charges were filed. Enrollment at Long Beach State University In 1971, Kraft found new employment as a forklift driver in Huntington Beach. In an effort to further his career prospects following his military discharge two years earlier, he enrolled at Long Beach State University, majoring in education. There, Kraft became acquainted with Jeff Graves, a fellow teaching student from Minnesota four years younger than Kraft, with whom he began a relationship. Murders Between 1971 and 1983, Kraft is believed to have killed a total of 67 victims. All of his suspected victims were males between the ages of 13 and 35, the majority of whom were in their late teens to mid-twenties. Kraft was charged with—and convicted of—sixteen of these homicides, all of which had occurred between 1972 and 1983. Many of his victims were members of the United States Marines Corps, and most of their bodies were found to have high levels of both alcohol and tranquilizers, indicating they had been unconscious when they were abused and killed. Kraft's victims were typically lured into his vehicle with an offer of a lift or alcohol. Once in Kraft's vehicle, the victims would be plied with alcohol and/or other drugs. They were then bound, tortured, and sexually abused before they were killed, usually by either strangulation, asphyxiation, or bludgeoning, although some victims had also ingested lethal doses of pharmaceuticals and at least one victim was stabbed to death. The victims would then be discarded, usually—though not exclusively—alongside or close to various freeways in southern California. Photographic evidence found at Kraft's home indicates several of his victims were driven to his house before their murder. Many of the victims were burned with a car cigarette lighter, usually around the genitals, chest, and face, and several were found with extensive blunt force trauma to the face and head. In several instances, foreign objects were found inserted into the victims' rectums while other victims had suffered emasculation, or mutilation and dismemberment. The majority of Kraft's murders were committed in California, although some victims had been killed in Oregon, with two further known victims murdered in Michigan in December 1982. First suspected murder victim On October 5, 1971, police found the nude body of a 30-year-old Long Beach resident named Wayne Joseph Dukette discarded close to the Ortega Highway. Dukette, a bartender at a gay bar named "The Stable" in nearby Sunset Beach, had last been seen alive on September 20. Putrefaction had destroyed any signs of foul play on the body, and the cause of death was listed as acute alcohol poisoning due to a high blood alcohol level. The first entry in Kraft's personal journal (referred to as his "scorecard") reads "Stable", leading investigators to believe Dukette was Kraft's first murder victim. Subsequent murders Fifteen months after the murder of Dukette, Kraft killed a 20-year-old Marine named Edward Daniel Moore. Moore was last seen leaving the barracks at Camp Pendleton on December 24, 1972. His body was found beside the 405 Freeway in Seal Beach during the early hours of December 26. Abrasions on Moore's body indicated he had been pushed from a moving vehicle. An autopsy revealed he had been bound at the wrists and ankles, then beaten with a blunt instrument about the face before being garrotted. His body also exhibited numerous bite marks, and a sock had been forced into his rectum. Six weeks after the murder of Moore, on February 6, 1973, the body of an unidentified male, estimated to be between 17 and 25 years old, was found alongside the Terminal Island Freeway in Wilmington. This victim had been strangled with a ligature and also had a sock inserted in his rectum. Two months later, on April 14, the body of 17-year-old Kevin Clark Bailey was found beside a road in Huntington Beach. Bailey had been emasculated and sodomized prior to his murder. By July 28, a further two victims had been murdered: an unidentified youth whose dismembered body was found in Wilmington on April 22, and a 20-year-old named Ronnie Gene Wiebe, whose strangled body was discarded beside an on-ramp of the 405 Freeway on July 30, two days after he had disappeared. Welt marks on Wiebe's wrists and ankles suggested he had been bound and suspended from a device before his murder. Kraft is known to have killed at least once more in 1973. The victim was a 23-year-old bisexual art student named Vincent Cruz Mestas, whose body was found in the San Bernardino Mountains on December 29. As with several previous victims, one of the victim's socks had been forced into his rectum. Mestas's hands had been severed from his body and were never found. By November 1974, five more victims had been found beside or close to major roadways in southern California, three of whom had been conclusively linked to the same killer. Two of these victims—20-year-old Malcolm Eugene Little and 19-year-old James Dale Reeves—had each been found beside a freeway with foreign objects inserted into their bodies, whereas the body of the third victim, 18-year-old Marine Roger Edward Dickerson, bore evidence of bite marks much like several earlier victims. 1975 On January 3, 1975, Kraft abducted and murdered a 17-year-old high school student named John Leras. The youth was last seen boarding a bus in Long Beach; his strangled body was found the following day, discarded at Sunset Beach with a foreign object protruding from his anus. Drag marks along the beach close to where his body was found suggested that two individuals had carried Leras's body into the water. Two weeks after this murder, on January 17, the body of a 21-year-old named Craig Jonaitis was found discarded in the parking lot of the Golden Sails Hotel near the Pacific Coast Highway and Loynes Drive in Long Beach. Jonaitis had been strangled to death with a length of string, possibly a shoelace. Investigation By January 1975, a total of fourteen victims—whose bodies had been found discarded across four separate counties over the previous three years—had been linked to the same killer. All the victims had been Caucasian males with similar physical characteristics. On January 24, homicide investigators from several jurisdictions in southern California convened in Orange County to discuss their progress in the hunt for the unknown killer. An FBI profile of the killer was read to investigators, describing the individual as a methodical, organized lust killer of above-average intelligence who exhibited an indifference to the "interests and welfare of society". Some investigators believed the murders to be the work of more than one individual, one or more of whom had a military background, as two victims had paper tissue residue in their nostrils, a procedure known to be used in the military to prevent bodies from purging after death. The insertion of socks inside the victims' rectums was also theorized to have been intended to prevent purging as the body was driven to the disposal location. At this stage, investigators had no solid suspects. Murder of Keith Crotwell On the evening of March 29, 1975, Kraft lured two youths, Keith Crotwell and Kent May, from a Long Beach parking lot into his Ford Mustang. The youths were given beer and Valium as Kraft drove in an apparently random, aimless manner around Belmont Shore and Seal Beach. May later recalled feeling catatonic as a result of the Valium and alcohol he had ingested before he passed out. In the parking lot where Crotwell and May had last been seen, two friends of the youths observed a distinctive black-and-white Mustang pull in and stop before the driver leaned across, opened the passenger door, and pushed the unconscious (but otherwise unharmed) May out onto the pavement. The driver then sped away from the scene. As he did so, the friends noted Crotwell slumped against the unknown driver's shoulder. On May 8, Crotwell's skull was found on a jetty close to the Long Beach Marina; the remainder of his body was found six months later. After hearing the news, the two friends of Crotwell and May—who suspected that the murderer was a patron of a Belmont Shore gay bar—searched their neighborhood for the distinctive Mustang. They found the car less than a mile (1.6 km) from their home, wrote down the license plate number, and gave the information to police. The vehicle was registered to Randy Kraft. Interrogation and release Long Beach police questioned Kraft about Crotwell's abduction and murder on May 19, 1975. Initially, he denied having ever met either Crotwell or May, and the police, skeptical of Kraft's denial, summoned him to the police station for further questioning. There, Kraft admitted that on or around March 29, he had encountered two youths in the Long Beach parking lot in question and had persuaded them to drink alcohol and consume Valium with him as he drove. He claimed to have returned May to the parking lot and then to have driven with Crotwell to a side road close to the El Toro offramp, where his car subsequently became embedded upon an embankment. He claimed to have walked alone to a gas station to call a tow truck while Crotwell remained with the car. Upon returning to his vehicle, Kraft claimed, Crotwell had disappeared. Although Kraft's roommate confirmed that Kraft had phoned him on the date of Crotwell's disappearance, claiming that his vehicle was stuck on an embankment, detectives remained unconvinced by Kraft's version of events. The following week, two detectives attempted to file homicide charges against Kraft. However, the Los Angeles District Attorney's Office declined, citing the coroner's conclusion from his autopsy of the remains thus far found (consisting only of Crotwell's skull) that the youth had died of accidental drowning. Perhaps because he had been questioned as a suspect in Crotwell's murder and because of additional turmoil in his personal life in the summer of 1975, Kraft is not known to have killed again until December 31, when he abducted 22-year-old Mark Hall in San Juan Capistrano. In this instance, later described by prosecutors as "the worst" of all of Kraft's known murders, Hall was driven to a remote canyon, where he was bound to a tree. The autopsy report listed the cause of death as asphyxiation caused by leaves and earth found lodged deep in Hall's trachea. The autopsy also revealed Hall had been sodomized and emasculated, with his severed genitals then inserted into his rectum. Additionally, his chest, scrotum, nose, and cheeks had been burned with an automobile cigarette lighter, which was also used to destroy his eyes. The autopsy report also listed numerous incisions on Hall's legs which had been inflicted with a broken bottle. Forensic experts were able to determine that Hall had been alive throughout much of the ordeal. Relationship with Jeff Seelig By 1976, Kraft had ended his relationship with Graves. Shortly thereafter, he began a relationship with a 19-year-old apprentice baker named Jeff Seelig, and the couple moved to Laguna Hills. Although neither man was inclined towards monogamy, the couple considered their relationship permanent. Seelig later told investigators that he and Kraft regularly picked up and propositioned hitchhikers who, if willing, would accompany them to their apartment for a threesome. However, Seelig was adamant that Kraft had never been violent towards him and that he had never seen him display violent tendencies. Kraft's relationship with Seelig is believed to be a contributory factor in the sudden lull in murders he is known to have committed. He is not known to have killed again until December 10, 1976. The body of the victim, 19-year-old Paul Joseph Fuchs, has never been found. Nonetheless, Fuchs' name is clearly listed upon Kraft's scorecard. Resurfacing of the Freeway Killer Following the December 1976 murder of Fuchs, Kraft is not known to have killed again for sixteen months. On January 3, 1978, homicide investigators again convened to discuss progress in relation to the manhunt for the still-unidentified killer. By this time, investigators knew there was more than one murderer at large: the previous July, police had arrested Patrick Kearney, who subsequently confessed to the murders of 28 boys and young men, many of whom he had dissected and discarded in trash bags beside freeways in southern California. Although Kraft had dismembered some of his victims, he never killed his victims by shooting them in the temple as Kearney had. Additionally, Kearney had never tortured any of his victims: his modus operandi differed significantly from Kraft's, and investigators were certain that an unrelated killer was still at large. On April 16, 1978, Kraft abducted an 18-year-old Marine named Scott Michael Hughes. Hughes was plied with Valium before Kraft slit open his scrotum and removed one of his testicles, then strangled him to death with a ligature before discarding his fully clothed body—missing only his shoelaces—beside a freeway on-ramp in Anaheim. Two months later, on June 11, the body of 23-year-old Roland Gerald Young was found near a San Diego freeway. Young had been emasculated before being stabbed to death. Abrasions to his body indicated that he had been pushed from a vehicle traveling at high speed. Eight days later, the body of a 20-year-old Marine named Richard Allen Keith was found discarded beside a road in Moulton Parkway. He had last been seen alive by his girlfriend in the city of Carson. Welts on Keith's wrists indicated that he had been bound before he was strangled with a ligature. Froth in his throat indicated that he was also drowning as a result of flurazepam and alcohol he had consumed at the time he was strangled. Keith is believed to be referred to on Kraft's scorecard as "Marine Carson". Three weeks after the murder of Keith, on July 6, Kraft killed a 23-year-old hitchhiker named Keith Arthur Klingbeil. Klingbeil had ingested large doses of paracetamol and alcohol before he was strangled with his own shoelace and his body discarded beside the Interstate 5 freeway. Although Klingbeil was still alive when discovered, he would die shortly after his admission to Mission Community Hospital. A subsequent autopsy revealed that, prior to Klingbeil's strangulation, his left nipple had been seared with an automobile cigarette lighter. Two months later, on September 29, the body of 20-year-old Richard Anthony Crosby was found discarded 200 yards north of Highway 71 in San Bernardino. Crosby had disappeared the previous day as he hitchhiked home from a theater in Torrance. He had been suffocated, and his left nipple had been mutilated with an automobile cigarette lighter. The last known victim murdered by Kraft in 1978 was a 21-year-old Long Beach truck driver named Michael Joseph Inderbieten, whose castrated body was found along an on-ramp to the I-605 on November 18, 1978. In addition to having been castrated, Inderbieten had been violated with a foreign object and had suffered burns similar to those inflicted on victim Mark Hall two years previously. The cause of death was listed as suffocation. Later murders Kraft is not known to have killed again until June 16, 1979, when he abducted a 20-year-old Marine named Donnie Harold Crisel, whose body was thrown from a moving vehicle onto the 405 Freeway. The cause of death was listed as acute alcohol poisoning, although rope and burn marks indicated Crisel had been bound and tortured prior to his body being discarded. Two months later, on August 29, the dismembered remains of a 21-year-old English tourist named Keith Anthony Jackson were found discarded in two trash bags and a cardboard box behind a Union 76 gas station in Long Beach. A sock was found inserted in his rectum. Only Jackson's head, torso and left leg were ever found. Jackson had been deceased for several days prior to the discovery of his body. The entry on Kraft's scorecard simply reading either "England" or "76" is believed to refer to him. Two weeks later, on September 14, the body of 19-year-old Gregory Wallace Jolley was found in Lake Arrowhead. Jolley had been emasculated and his head and legs had been severed after death. His personal possessions were later found in Kraft's home. On November 24, 1979, a 15-year-old Santa Ana youth named Jeffrey Sayre is believed to have been abducted and murdered by Kraft. Sayre was last seen at a bus stop in Westminster while returning home from a date with his girlfriend. The entry "Westminster Date" on Kraft's scorecard is believed to refer to Sayre. On February 18, 1980, the decapitated body of a 19-year-old Marine named Mark Alan Marsh was found near the Templin Highway. Marsh was last seen hitchhiking towards Buena Park. His hands had been severed from his body after death. Portland murders In the summer of 1980, Kraft traveled to the neighboring state of Oregon on an extended business trip. During this trip, he lived in a town close to Portland. Before returning to California in August, he is believed to have murdered two more victims—both of whom were listed on his scorecard with cryptic references including the word "Portland". The first victim, a 17-year-old Denver youth named Michael Sean O'Fallon, was killed on July 17. O'Fallon had been on a solo hitchhiking trip across the U.S. and Canada prior to his enrollment at college at the time of his murder. He had consumed both alcohol and Valium before he was strangled to death. O'Fallon's nude, hogtied body was discarded ten miles south of Salem. O'Fallon was listed on Kraft's scorecard as "Portland Denver", and his camera—inscribed with his mother's initials—was later found in Kraft's garage. The following day, Kraft is believed to have killed a man estimated to be aged between 35 and 45 years old whose body was found beside a freeway in the city of Woodburn. This victim—listed as "Portland Elk" on Kraft's scorecard—had ingested a toxic level of Valium and Tylenol before he was strangled to death with a ligature. On September 3, 1980, one month after Kraft's return to California from Oregon, the bound body of a 19-year-old Marine named Robert Loggins was found discarded in a trash bag close to the El Toro Marine air base. Loggins had last been seen alive by two fellow Marines close to the Pacific Coast Highway on August 23. Photographs—and the negatives—subsequently found in Kraft's possession show Loggins in Kraft's living room slumped fully clothed on his sofa, apparently intoxicated, and in various nude, pornographic postures. All these pictures depict Loggins with his eyes closed; it is unknown whether the victim was alive or dead at the time they were taken. On April 10, 1981, the body of a 17-year-old youth named Michael Cluck was found beside the Interstate 5 freeway close to Goshen, Oregon. Cluck had been abducted while hitchhiking from Kent, Washington, to Bakersfield, California, the day prior to his body being discovered. The youth had been killed by 31 blunt-force blows to the head, which destroyed the back of his skull. Cluck had also been sodomized and savagely beaten, kicked, and scoured. Cluck is believed to have been recorded on Kraft's scorecard as "Portland Blood", due to the extensive blood and debris found at the murder scene. At the time of the murder, Kraft had once again been sent on assignment to Oregon by his employers. In addition, on the day Cluck's body was discovered, Kraft visited a Lane County hospital to receive treatment for a bruised foot. Four months after Cluck's murder, on August 20, 1981, the partially clothed body of 17-year-old male prostitute Christopher Allen Williams was found in the San Bernardino Mountains. Williams had ingested both phenobarbital and benzodiazepine, and was found with tissue paper lodged deep in his nostrils, causing him to choke to death on his own mucus. Echo Park murders By early 1982, the relationship between Kraft and Seelig had become marred by frequent fights and episodes of temporary separation. In an effort to resolve their personal differences, the couple began attending weekly counseling sessions in Huntington Beach. These sessions began on June 22, 1982. Following complaints from residents of Echo Park regarding a foul odor emanating from the direction of the Hollywood Freeway on July 29, 1982, a Cal Trans employee found the decaying body of a 14-year-old Pittsburg youth named Raymond Davis discarded alongside the Rampart Boulevard offramp. Rudimentary efforts had been made to conceal Davis's body beneath leaves and soil. He had last been seen alive in Echo Park on June 17, searching for his missing dog. The youth's wrists had been knotted behind his back in much the same manner as had victim Michael O'Fallon two years previously, and he had been strangled to death with his own shoelace. The entry on Kraft's scorecard reading "Dog" is believed to refer to Davis. Just forty feet from Davis' body, the same Cal Trans crew also found the body of 16-year-old Robert Avila. Avila had been missing since July 21, and his body was also markedly decomposed. He had been strangled to death with a length of stereo speaker wire. Kraft is not known to have killed again until November 1, 1982, when he abducted and murdered a 24-year-old Modesto man named Arne Mikeal Laine. Laine was last seen hitchhiking towards Orange County in search of work. His body was not found until January 1984, discarded on a hillside close to the town of Ramona. Four weeks after Laine's murder, the semi-nude body of 26-year-old Brian Whitcher was dumped from a moving vehicle alongside the Interstate 5 freeway, close to the city of Wilsonville, Oregon. Whitcher had ingested high levels of both alcohol and Valium, but he died of asphyxiation. On December 3, 1982, a 29-year-old carpenter named Anthony Jose Silveira disappeared while hitchhiking towards Medford. His body was found two weeks later, strangled, sodomized, and evidently violated with foreign objects prior to his murder. At the time of the murders of both Whitcher and Silveira, Kraft was again known to have been in Oregon on a business trip, which concluded the day of Silveira's death. On December 4, Kraft drove from Portland to Seattle to visit friends. During this brief visit, he was observed wearing a military jacket inscribed with the name "Silveira". On December 5, Kraft flew from Seattle to Grand Rapids, Michigan—again on business. Grand Rapids and return to Portland Two days after his arrival in Grand Rapids, Kraft encountered cousins Dennis Alt and Christopher Schoenborn at a seminar in the Amway Grand Plaza Hotel. Kraft was seen talking with the pair in the hotel's reception area shortly before midnight. Their bodies were discovered on December 9 in an open field close to the hotel. Both victims had been plied with alcohol and Valium prior to their sodomy and murder, and the bodies had been arranged in sexually suggestive positions. Alt, aged 24, had died of asphyxiation, whereas Schoenborn, aged 20, had been strangled to death with his own belt. In addition, a ballpoint pen had been inserted into Schoenborn's urethra prior to his murder. Both victims were recorded upon Kraft's scorecard in a single entry reading "GR2". A set of keys belonging to Schoenborn, plus Silveira's military jacket, were left by Kraft in the hotel. On December 8, Kraft traveled from Michigan to Portland. Within twenty-four hours of his return to Oregon, he had killed a 19-year-old hitchhiker named Lance Taggs. Taggs had last been seen hitchhiking from the city of Tigard to the home of a relative in Los Angeles on December 8. His body was discovered the following day, discarded alongside a rural road in Clackamas County, close to where the body of Whitcher had been found just two weeks earlier. As with Alt and Schoenborn, Taggs had consumed alcohol and Valium prior to his murder, although Taggs had died of suffocation caused by a sock thrust into his trachea. Connection of Oregon murders to manhunt Noting the passage of time between periods of activity when bodies of young males had been found discarded near mass transportation with alcohol and/or pharmaceuticals in their blood stream in Oregon, investigators there theorized that their killer resided in another state and struck in Oregon only when there on business. Following the murders of Silveira, Whitcher, and Taggs, Oregon investigators relayed details of the murders to police in other states, describing the modus operandi of the killer they were seeking and requesting feedback from any police force who had unsolved murders of young males on their files with similar characteristics. A response from southern California counties was swift: the pattern of killings was identical to victims linked to the unknown killer in California. The six Oregon murders committed by Kraft were thus linked to the murders he had committed in California. 1983 Kraft did not kill again until January 27, 1983, when he abducted a 21-year-old hitchhiker named Eric Church. The victim was last seen alive hitchhiking from Orange County to Sacramento the day prior to his murder. His body was found discarded alongside I-605. An autopsy concluded Church had consumed high levels of alcohol and Valium and that he had been sodomized. Rope marks on Church's wrists indicated he had struggled against his restraints before he died of a combination of ligature strangulation and numerous blows to the side of his skull inflicted by a blunt instrument. On February 12, Kraft killed two Buena Park men: 18-year-old Geoffrey Nelson and 20-year-old Rodger DeVaul. The two young men were last seen outside the house of a friend named Bryce Wilson shortly after midnight, when they told Wilson that they intended to purchase something to eat. Nelson's nude body was found alongside an offramp close to the Garden Grove Freeway several hours after he and DeVaul were last seen. He had been emasculated, strangled, and thrown from a moving vehicle. DeVaul's body was found the following day, discarded down a mountainside close to Mount Baldy in San Bernardino County. He had been bound, sodomized, and strangled with a cord. As had been the case with Nelson, DeVaul had ingested both alcohol and propranolol prior to his murder. In addition, the stomachs of both victims contained potato skins and grapes, which had been eaten shortly before their murders. Final murder and arrest At 1:10 a.m. on May 14, 1983, two California Highway Patrol officers observed a Toyota Celica driving erratically on Interstate 5 in the Orange County community of Mission Viejo. Observing the vehicle perform an illegal lane change, the officers—suspecting the motorist was driving under the influence—signaled for the vehicle to stop. The driver slowed the vehicle to a halt and exited the car, discarding the contents of a beer bottle onto the pavement as he did so. Officer Michael Sterling met the individual, who identified himself as Randy Kraft, at the front of his patrol car and observed that his jeans were unbuttoned. Sterling had Kraft perform a field sobriety test, which he failed. He then arrested Kraft for driving while intoxicated. Sterling's partner, Sgt. Michael Howard, approached the Celica and observed a young man slumped with his eyes closed in the vehicle's passenger seat, partially covered by a jacket. Several empty Moosehead beer bottles and an open prescription bottle of Lorazepam tablets were strewn around his feet. Howard attempted to wake the man. Receiving no response, Howard attempted to rouse the man by shaking his arm, only to note the individual had a low body temperature. Upon checking for a pulse, Howard noted the man was dead, with a ligature mark visible around his neck. Lifting the jacket from the victim's lap, Howard noted the victim's jeans had been opened to expose his genitalia. In addition, the victim's hands had been bound with a shoelace and his wrists bore evidence of welt marks. Later identified as Terry Lee Gambrel, a 25-year-old Marine stationed at El Toro air base, the victim had been strangled to death. Evidence retrieval Kraft was initially charged with driving under the influence of alcohol, and was held in custody as detectives conducted a thorough search of his vehicle. Upon the rear seat of the car, investigators found a belt, the width of which matched the bruising around Gambrel's neck. Other incriminating evidence included alcohol, tranquilizers, various prescription drugs, and stimulants. The passenger seat and carpet of the vehicle was heavily bloodstained; however, Gambrel had no open wounds. The upholstery was removed for forensic analysis, the results of which confirmed the blood was human. Beneath the carpet, investigators discovered an envelope containing more than 50 photographs of young men in pornographic poses. Many of the subjects in the pictures appeared to be either asleep or dead. Inside the trunk, investigators found a ring binder containing a hand-written list of 61 coded notations. A search of Kraft's home revealed further incriminating evidence, including clothes and personal possessions of numerous young men who had been murdered over the previous decade. Fibers taken from a rug matched those found on victim Scott Hughes. In addition, the couch in Kraft's living room was identified as being the one in the photographs found in Kraft's car. A roll of film discovered also contained shots of victims Eric Church and Rodger DeVaul sitting in Kraft's car. In one of these images, a ligature mark is clearly visible on DeVaul's neck. Scorecard The coded list of 61 neatly printed terms and phrases found in the trunk of Kraft's car is believed to refer to each of Kraft's victims. Many entries appear innocuous, but each is believed to refer to a specific murder victim or double murder. Several entries clearly reference victims' names (for example, the entry reading "EDM" refers to the initials of victim Edward Daniel Moore, whereas "Vince M" refers to victim Vincent Mestas). In other instances, entries indicate torture or mutilation inflicted upon victims' bodies and/or places they were last seen. The entry "Marine Head BP", for example, is believed to refer to victim Mark Marsh; a Marine found decapitated having been last seen hitchhiking towards Buena Park. Other entries simply refer to body dump locations; the entry "Golden Sails", for example, refers to the fact the body of Craig Jonaitis was found in the parking lot of the Golden Sails Hotel. The list also contains entries indicating a minimum of four double murders: "GR2" (victims Dennis Alt and Christopher Schoenborn, last seen in Grand Rapids); "2 in 1 Beach" (victims Geoffrey Nelson and Rodger DeVaul); "2 in 1 Hitch" and "2 in 1 MV to PL" (neither entry of which has been linked to any double murder or disappearance). Investigators contend that two victims of whose murders Kraft was convicted (Church and Gambrel) are not listed on Kraft's scorecard. However, since the list is in code, the possibility exists that Church in particular is actually included on the scorecard as an entry which investigators cannot recognize as referring to him. Gambrel may also be included on the list, although as Kraft was arrested while he attempted to dispose of the body, he may not have recorded an entry referring to Gambrel on his scorecard. These possibilities indicate the scorecard lists a minimum of 65 and possibly a total of 67 victims. Formal charges On May 16, 1983, Kraft was formally charged with the murder of Gambrel. By September 8, investigators had interviewed over 700 witnesses and had gathered more than 250 physical exhibits which pointed towards Kraft's guilt in a further fifteen homicides committed between December 1972 and February 1983. He was formally charged with these fifteen murders—in addition to two counts of sodomy and one of emasculation—on this date. Edward Moore (20) December 24, 1972 Kevin Bailey (17) April 9, 1973 Ronnie Wiebe (20) July 28, 1973 Keith Crotwell (18) March 29, 1975 Mark Hall (22) January 1, 1976 Scott Hughes (18) April 16, 1978 Roland Young (23) June 11, 1978 Richard Keith (20) June 19, 1978 Keith Klingbeil (23) July 6, 1978 Michael Inderbieten (21) November 18, 1978 Donald Crisel (20) June 16, 1979 Robert Loggins (19) August 23, 1980 Eric Church (21) January 27, 1983 Rodger DeVaul (20) February 12, 1983 Geoffrey Nelson (18) February 12, 1983 Terry Lee Gambrel (25) May 14, 1983 Trial Kraft's trial began on September 26, 1988. He was tried in Orange County before Judge Donald A. McCartin. At the trial, almost 160 witnesses were called to testify on behalf of the prosecution and over 1,000 exhibits were introduced as evidence. These exhibits included physical evidence such as bloodstains, hair and fiber evidence found at Kraft's Long Beach residence and in his car; fingerprints found upon glass shards recovered from the Hall murder scene; negatives and photographs of victims found hidden inside Kraft's vehicle, which depicted the men either dead, drugged, or asleep; the belt used to strangle Gambrel; and the prescription drugs and buck knife found in his vehicle. Other evidence introduced included work and travel records and gasoline receipts which placed Kraft in particular locations where victims had been abducted and/or discarded, and the numerous personal possessions of various murder victims found in Kraft's possession following his arrest. Kraft's defense was primarily one of alibis and alternate suspects: his attorneys dismissed much of the evidence produced as being circumstantial and attempted to portray Kraft as an articulate, hardworking, and upstanding member of the community. They did not dispute that the 16 men were murder victims, yet argued that they were "victims of someone, but not Randy Kraft." The defense also pointed out that several of the 16 victims had initially been believed by investigators to have been killed by one of two other serial killers, Patrick Kearney and William Bonin, and argued there was "no concrete evidence" that Kraft had killed any of the victims. The trial lasted a total of thirteen months and would prove to be the most expensive trial in Orange County history. On April 29, 1989, each side opened their closing arguments, which lasted a total of three days: the prosecution again listing all the physical and circumstantial evidence pointing to Kraft's guilt; the defense arguing as to the circumstantial case put forward by the prosecution that all the murders were linked and accusing the prosecution of "glossing over" the truth. Following the closing arguments, the jury deliberated for a total of eleven days before reaching their verdict. On May 12, 1989, Kraft was found guilty of sixteen counts of murder, one count of sodomy, and one count of emasculation. Penalty phase On June 5, 1989, the same jury reconvened to hear further testimony from the prosecution and defense as to the penalty for Kraft. This phase of Kraft's trial would last until August, and it was at this point that the prosecution introduced evidence of several additional homicides committed in both Oregon and Michigan which they were certain Kraft had also committed and for which he had not been tried in Orange County. The defense dismissed the prosecution's assertions as being "highly speculative" and introduced testimony relating to a PET scan conducted on Kraft which, they asserted, revealed abnormalities in the frontal lobes of his brain, therefore reducing his ability to control both his emotions and impulse. The prosecution rebuffed this testimony by stating to the jury: "There is nothing wrong with Mr. Kraft's mind other than that he likes killing for sexual satisfaction", adding that the fact that his family and friends had found it difficult to believe he had committed any murders simply showed "what a good salesman he is." Conviction and incarceration On August 11, 1989, the jury rendered a verdict of death. Three months later, on November 29, Judge McCartin formally sentenced Kraft to death. The sentence was upheld by the California Supreme Court on August 9, 2000. , Kraft remains on death row at San Quentin State Prison. He continues to deny responsibility for any of the homicides for which he was either convicted or is suspected of committing. Missing accomplice Both circumstantial and DNA evidence relating to some of Kraft's murders have caused many to strongly suspect that not all of the murders attributed to Kraft were committed by one person. The prosecution believed these inconsistencies could only be explained by the presence of an accomplice. It is contended that Kraft would have had difficulty moving around 200-pound (90 kg) corpses. Dumping them from moving vehicles while alone would also be difficult to do unnoticed. Abrasions and debris found at some of the crime scenes, where bodies had been discarded upon or alongside freeways, indicated that they had been discarded from vehicles traveling at more than 50 miles per hour, and for one individual to perform this act without compromising his driving would be very difficult. Moreover, footprints in the sand close to where the body of John Leras was found at Sunset Beach in 1975 unequivocally indicate two people had carried the youth's body to where it was discarded. In the case of Eric Church, semen samples found on his body were inconsistent with Kraft's blood type, and, while the photographs of the victims found in Kraft's car had to have been processed somewhere, no photo developer ever reported Kraft's morbid images to the police. (Kraft himself had no darkroom expertise or darkroom equipment.) During Kraft's trial, members of the prosecution admitted privately that they did not charge him with several murders that they were certain he had committed because of facts relating to the cases which indicated more than one perpetrator. Although DNA evidence found upon the body of Church was incompatible with Kraft, investigators had found photographs depicting Church in Kraft's car and his distinctive Norelco electric razor was also found in Kraft's house. Jeff Graves The prosecution believed Kraft's former lover, Jeff Graves, may have assisted Kraft in several murders. Graves, who had lived with Kraft between 1971 and 1976 (when sixteen known murders attributed to Kraft occurred) had been questioned in relation to the Crotwell abduction and murder in 1975, when he verified part of Kraft's statement to police. When questioned further about the incident following Kraft's arrest in 1983, Graves had informed investigators: "I'm really not going to pay for it, you know." Graves died of AIDS on July 27, 1987. At the time of his death, police had been preparing to question him further. Bob Jackson In January 2000, journalist Dennis McDougal, the author of a 1991 book about Kraft entitled Angel of Darkness, published an article which recounted interviews with a small-time criminal named Bob Jackson, who reportedly confessed to murdering two hitchhikers with Kraft: one in Wyoming in 1975 and another in Colorado in 1976. Authorities in both Colorado and Wyoming were unable to corroborate these claims. Jackson also claimed to McDougal that Kraft's scorecard included only his "more memorable" murders; in Jackson's opinion, Kraft's total body count stood closer to 100. McDougal reported these allegations to the police and provided tape recordings of the interviews. Detectives interrogated Jackson and eventually persuaded him to enter a mental institution; no murder charges were filed against him due to an absence of direct incriminating evidence. Kraft sued McDougal and the publisher of Angel of Darkness in 1993, seeking $62 million in damages. The suit contended that the book smeared his "good name", unjustly portrayed him as a "sick, twisted man", and destroyed his prospects for future employment by ruining his chances of overturning his conviction on appeal. The lawsuit was dismissed by the California Supreme Court in June 1994. Potential unverified scorecard victims By 1988, investigators had linked forty-three of the sixty-one entries upon Kraft's scorecard to identified and nameless young men murdered in the twelve years previous to Kraft's arrest. The fact victims Eric Church and Terry Gambrel are not believed to have been entered in this journal means twenty-two of Kraft's estimated sixty-seven victims remained unrecovered and/or unidentified. Three further victims simply listed at trial as being entries "unconnected to any unsolved murder"—"Navy White", "Iowa" and "Hari Kari"—have since been identified and/or linked to murder victims discovered in 1974 and 1975. A further victim unidentified at trial yet linked to Kraft as an entry simply reading "76" due to the location of his body behind a Union 76 gas station has since been identified as Keith Jackson; a tourist from Manchester, England, meaning he may have been the entry in Kraft's journal logged as "England" as opposed to "76". These developments leave seventeen entries referring to nineteen unknown further victims upon Kraft's scorecard. This is due in part to the killings having occurred in several states, with bodies being discarded in varying locations, and several entries being cryptic. The entry upon Kraft's scorecard reading "Navy White" is believed by investigators to refer to a 17-year-old named James Sean Cox, an apprentice medic stationed at Mather Air Force Base who was last seen on September 29, 1974, hitchhiking near Interstate 5 and whose body was found several weeks later in Rancho Santa Fe. At the time of his disappearance, Cox was dressed in his white navy uniform. In addition to the color of his uniform, Cox was a blond youth. A further entry on Kraft's scorecard, simply reading "Iowa", is believed to refer to an 18-year-old Marine named Oral Alfred Stuart, Jr., who had been born in Iowa; his body was found discarded close to a Long Beach condominium on November 10, 1974. The man had died as a result of blunt force trauma; his body remained unidentified until March 2012. Investigators note a similarity of modus operandi in the murder and body disposal of Stuart to that of other victims Kraft is known to have killed. One unknown entry upon the scorecard simply reads "Hari Kari". This entry may refer to the stabbing murder of 30-year-old David Michael Sandt, who was found sexually assaulted and stabbed to death close to a vacant house in Long Beach on January 13, 1975. The multiple stab wounds inflicted were to Sandt's stomach, and his body was found in a kneeling position with his arms extended in front of him in a position reminiscent of the Japanese ritual suicide practice known as Hara-kiri. Other "Freeway Killers" Patrick Kearney, a suspect in a series of killings of young men known as the "Trash Bag Murders", surrendered to Riverside Police in July 1977. He subsequently confessed to the murders of 28 boys and young men; many of whom he had also discarded along freeways in southern California. Although Kraft is also known to have dismembered some of his victims, Kearney invariably killed his victims by shooting them in the temple. In addition, Kearney discarded the majority of his victims' bodies in trash bags. Although primarily known as the Trash Bag Murderer, Kearney is also known as the Freeway Killer. In 1980, William Bonin and four known accomplices were arrested for a series of killings known as the "Freeway Murders", which displayed a markedly similar disposal method to those committed by Kraft. Bonin is also known to have tortured his victims, although he never plied his victims with alcohol or drugs. In addition, although he is known to have stabbed some victims' genitalia with a knife and to have stabbed one victim to death, Bonin never mutilated their bodies and almost all of his victims were strangled to death with their own T-shirts. Moreover, the majority of Bonin's victims were younger than those of Kraft, with the age range of his victims being 12 to 19 years. See also Capital punishment in California List of serial killers by number of victims List of serial killers in the United States Notes References Bibliography . . . . . . Cited works and further reading External links Details of each case noted upon Randy Kraft's 'scorecard' : suspected intended victim's 1980 encounter with Randy Kraft 1945 births 1971 murders in the United States 20th-century LGBT people American LGBT military personnel American male criminals American military personnel discharged for homosexuality American people convicted of murder American people convicted of sodomy American prisoners sentenced to death American rapists American serial killers California Democrats California Republicans California State University, Long Beach alumni Claremont McKenna College alumni Criminals from Los Angeles Gay military personnel LGBT people from California Living people Male serial killers Military personnel from California People convicted of murder by California People from Long Beach, California People from Midway City, California Prisoners sentenced to death by California San Quentin State Prison inmates United States Air Force airmen Violence against men in North America
854457	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question%20Time%20%28TV%20programme%29	Question Time (TV programme)	Question Time is a topical debate programme, typically broadcast on BBC One at 10:45 pm on Thursdays. It is usually repeated on BBC Two (with sign language) and on BBC Parliament, later in the week. If there is a Leaders special, it would be simulcasted on BBC News. Question Time is also available on BBC iPlayer. Fiona Bruce currently chairs the show having succeeded David Dimbleby as presenter in January 2019. Mentorn has produced the programme since 1998. Origins Question Time was first broadcast on Tuesday 25 September 1979, based on the BBC Radio 4 programme Any Questions?. The first panel consisted of Labour MP Michael Foot, author Edna O'Brien, Conservative politician Teddy Taylor, and the Archbishop of Liverpool Derek Worlock. Format Question Time panels are typically composed of five public figures, "nearly always [including] a representative from the UK government and the official opposition." The panel also features "representatives from other political parties across the series, taking as [the] guide the level of electoral support at national level which each party enjoys." High-profile journalists and authors, television and radio broadcasters, and comedians, join the panel, as do business leaders from well-known companies, and leading or expert academics, lawyers, police officers, and clerics. With the exception of Margaret Thatcher who never appeared in any capacity, every other British Prime Minister that has held office since the programme began in 1979 has appeared as a regular panelist at some point. Additionally, former Prime Ministers Edward Heath and James Callaghan, also participated in panels, with Callaghan's single appearance coming in a special edition marking the resignation of Margaret Thatcher on 22 November 1990. Additionally, every leader of the Conservative party after Margaret Thatcher, Labour after Harold Wilson and the Liberal/Liberal Democrat parties after Clement Davies, have appeared as panelists. Audience members are selected by the 'audience producer' based on age, gender, occupation, ethnicity, disability status, voting intention, voting history, and party membership. The audience members are "requested to come up with two questions, to be considered for the programme." The panel hears the questions for the first time, when the audience members ask them. Applicants are contacted on the Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday before the programme. Although, due to a "high volume of requests", the team are unable to call everyone. Question Time is usually recorded "as-live", and in a single-take, shortly before transmission. The programme is only edited on "very rare" occasions for legal or taste reasons, or because it over-runs. For example, The Observer newspaper reported in 1986 that "The BBC's lawyers ordered nine seconds of Question Time to be deleted by the old-fashioned method of simply cutting off the sound". Presenters Sir Robin Day Veteran broadcaster Sir Robin Day was the programme's first chair, presenting it for nearly 10 years until June 1989. Question Time soon gained popularity under Day's lead, with his quick wit and interrogation skills. His famous catchphrase when he had introduced the panel was: "There they are, and here we go." The programme was mainly filmed at the Greenwood Theatre in London on the south side of London Bridge. Day's last appearance as presenter was broadcast from Paris on 12 July 1989. He was allowed to choose his own guests. Peter Sissons After Day retired, Peter Sissons took over and continued until 1993. The BBC decided to widen the programme's appeal by moving it around the country. The programme also changed its London location from the Greenwood Theatre to the Barbican Centre. Sissons' tenure as Question Time chair included three different editors. There were several problems during filming, including a bomb scare during a live recording, which resulted in the programme being taken off the air, and the death of an audience member who collapsed while recording. The programme continued to enjoy good ratings during this period, notably on the day of Margaret Thatcher's resignation on 22 November 1990, which featured two different panels over two editions. David Dimbleby David Dimbleby succeeded Sissons as Question Time presenter in 1994, after the BBC held two pilot show auditions between Dimbleby and Jeremy Paxman, with two different audiences and two different panels. For a brief period under Dimbleby in the mid-1990s, there were a number of variations to the format, including the audience using voting keypads to take a poll of the audience at the end of the programme and Dimbleby getting out of his seat at intervals to question the audience. Dimbleby presented Question Time for 25 years, the programme's longest-serving presenter, until his final programme, aged 80, on 13 December 2018. Fiona Bruce In December 2018, the BBC announced that Fiona Bruce would succeed Dimbleby as moderator. Bruce—along with Samira Ahmed, Victoria Derbyshire, Emily Maitlis, Nick Robinson, and Kirsty Wark—attended October 2018 auditions at London's James Allen's Girls' School. She presented her first Question Time in January 2019. Guest presenters Question Time has seen various presenters deputise for the main chair. Sir Ludovic Kennedy, Sue Lawley (the first woman to chair the programme), Bernard Levin (who is the only person to have been both programme chair and a panelist), and Donald MacCormick, all moderated in Day's place. In November 2009, John Humphrys presented in lieu of Dimbleby, who had been "injured by a bullock at his farm" causing him "briefly to be knocked out." In June 2017, Nick Robinson presented a "Leaders Special" edition of Question Time. The programme was moved for news coverage of the London Bridge attack. Dimbleby was preparing for the General Election coverage. Editors The original 'producer' of Question Time when it began in 1979 was Barbara Maxwell. In 1983, Maxwell was promoted to 'Executive Producer' with Liz Elton becoming the show's producer/editor. At the same time, Ann Morley became the show's regular Director; putting the key production roles entirely in female control. Later in 1983, the role of Executive Producer was renamed 'Editor'. In 1986, Antonia Charlton and Anne Carragher replace Morley and Elton as the show's regular director and producer. After 11 years at the helm, Maxwell stepped down from the show in 1990, with her replacement James Hogan editing his first edition on September 20, 1990 Alexandra Henderson took over as editor on September 12, 1991 Christopher Capron became Series Editor in September 1994 Charlie Courtauld was editor from 1998 to 2000, leaving to join the Independent on Sunday as its comment editor. Nick Pisani was appointed in 2000, resigning abruptly in May 2005 after news was leaked that he had been offered a job as David Cameron's head of TV presentation. Ed Havard was made acting editor in May 2005 after Pisani left. During his time in charge the BBC offered a seat on the panel to Nick Griffin in 2009. He left when the programme's production base moved to Glasgow. Gill Penlington, the ITV News political producer, was made interim editor in May 2008, when the BBC gave Ed Havard a year-long sabbatical. Interactivity SMS contributions Viewers of the show can submit comments to the show via SMS; until October 2012 a selection of those comments was posted on Ceefax. Comments were edited and put to air by a team of four journalists based at Television Centre in London. The system displayed one message at a time, and usually showed several tens of messages throughout each hour-long episode. The system's popularity sprang from its mix of serious and light-hearted comments. On average, around 3,500 texts are received during each hour-long programme, although 12,000 texts were once recorded in one frantic programme in 2004. Quantity of texts is generally related to the composition of the panel. Twitter On 24 September 2009, the show launched its Twitter presence and the show's presenter has regularly announced its presence on Twitter since late 2009. Using the Twitter ID "@bbcquestiontime" it tweeted using the #bbcqt hashtag. By early 2010, this had become one of the UK's most active "Twitter backchannels" to a TV show. @bbcquestiontime claimed 10,000 tweets had been sent around the show on 7 October 2010. The show had over 40,000 followers on Twitter by October 2010 and this exceeded 50,000 on the evening of 3 February 2011. On 9 June 2011, Question Time became one of the most-tweeted about shows of the week in the UK, with 5,000 tweets during the programme, with tweeting continuing through to the next day. In addition to the more sober analysis of the discussion, Question Time also has a parallel Twitter backchannel based on the spoof account Dimblebot - purportedly a robot version of Dimbleby - where the entire premise of the programme is claimed to be a demonstration of Dimbleby's ability to defeat the panel. It became clear during the riot special that David Dimbleby knows of the existence of Dimblebot and the associated Dimbledance. The @bbcquestiontime account now has over 500,000 followers. In March 2020, Sayeeda Warsi, Baroness Warsi and MP Debbie Abrahams sent an open letter to the programme's runners, after Question Time uploaded anti-immigrants Twitter comments from a far-right supporter who allegedly also ran for the National Front and showed support for the English Defence League. Baroness Warsi and Abrahams wrote in their letter: “We understand the producers of the show seek out ‘controversial members of the audience – including those of far-right campaign groups – in an attempt to curry large ratings... By providing a platform for views that are racist or sexist, the institution is normalising them and contributing to the coarsening of public debate and the growing toxicity of our politics.” List of episodes As of 2019, there have been over 1000 episodes broadcast. Locations While chaired by Sir Robin Day, Question Time was predominantly filmed in London. It was during Peter Sissons' tenure as presenter that Question Time started "moving around the country each week, taking the panel to audiences in different towns and cities." On occasion, Question Time has broadcast from outside the UK. Locations have included: Brussels, Johannesburg, Miami, Moscow, New York, Paris, Shanghai, Sydney, and Washington. In December 2018, Dimbleby hosted the final edition of his 25-year tenure in the Question Time chair. For this edition, the programme returned "to where it all started in 1979": Question Time was broadcast from the Greenwood Theatre, now part of King's College London Medical School. Venues Question Time has filmed in notable buildings, including: the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, and Westminster Hall. It has also broadcast from: Heathrow Airport, Wormwood Scrubs Prison, and the cathedrals of Liverpool and St Paul's, Winchester and Worcester. Furthermore, Question Time has been held in prestigious universities, including: Queen Mary University of London, and the universities of Birmingham and Nottingham, Sheffield and York. Other venues have included: Aberystwyth University Nottingham's Albert Hall Basingstoke's Anvil Centre Aylesbury Waterside Theatre the Barbican Centre Aberdeen's Beach Ballroom Bishop Auckland Town Hall Bishop's Stortford College Dundee's Caird Hall the CBSO Centre Chester Town Hall London's City Hall Southend's Cliffs Pavilion Coventry University Bexhill's De La Warr Pavilion Dewsbury Town Hall Glasgow's Easterhouse Edinburgh Corn Exchange Epsom College Glasgow Royal Concert Hall Wrexham's Glyndŵr University Guildford High School James Allen's Girls' School Kettering Conference Centre Kingswood Secondary Academy Leeds Beckett University Leeds Town Hall the Lincoln Drill Hall LSO St Luke's Birmingham's MAC the Marshall Arena Middlesbrough Town Hall MidKent College Northampton High School North Oxfordshire Academy the Queen Elizabeth II Centre Rochdale Town Hall the Sage Halifax's Square Chapel Stamford School Norwich's St Andrew's Hall Newbury's St Bartholomew's School St Dunstan's College Milford Haven's Torch Theatre the University of Brighton the University of Chichester the University of Plymouth the University of West London Stirling's Wallace High School Walsall Town Hall Weymouth College Gravesend's Woodville Halls Theatre 2021-2022 locations Future locations and panellists sometimes change. Updates to locations are listed on the Question Time website. 2021: 16 September: Croydon 23 September: Cambridge 30 September: Birmingham 7 October: Aldershot 14 October: Nottingham 21 October: Glasgow 28 October: Stockport 4 November: Eastleigh 11 November: Hartlepool 18 November: Beckenham 25 November: Cardiff 2 December: Weston-super-Mare 9 December: Hendon 16 December: Stoke-on-Trent 2022: 13 January: Shrewsbury 20 January: St Andrews 27 January: Morecambe 3 February: Tottenham 10 February: Newport 17 February: Leeds 24 February: Harrow 3 March: Norwich 10 March: Walsall 17 March: Kettering 24 March: to be announced 31 March: to be announced 7 April: Canterbury Production The show is recorded at different venues throughout the UK. Although, as part of plans to relocate BBC production around the UK, the main office of the programme will move to BBC Scotland in Glasgow, it is funded from the allocated BBC Scotland Licence fee allocation and is officially a "BBC Scotland" production", as shown in the programme ending credits. However, the itinerant nature of the programme will continue. Famous editions In early 1981, David Steel declared his support in principle for "a marriage" between the Liberal Party and any party which might be formed by the Gang of Four; David Owen, who was also on the programme, said he could see advantages in an "electoral alliance" between them. This prefigured the period 1983–1987 when Owen and Steel were Leaders of the SDP-Liberal Alliance and tension grew over whether their deal was a prelude to a merger of the parties or merely a temporary electoral pact. During the 1983 election campaign, Conservative Foreign Secretary Francis Pym was asked by an A-level student named Andy Davis about the implications of the Conservatives winning the election with a landslide victory. He began by casting doubt on the likelihood of this happening and then observed "I think landslides on the whole don't produce successful governments". Margaret Thatcher later wrote that the remark "struck a wrong note": "people drew the inference that he did not want us to win a large majority". After the election (won by the Conservatives on a landslide) she sacked him as Foreign Secretary, partly because of his gaffe. In a 1984 edition, Alan Clark, a junior government Minister at the time, was openly critical of a government decision to buy a foreign-made missile system, prompting guest host Sue Lawley to ask the audience, "Is there anyone here who wishes to defend the government on this, because its Minister doesn't?" A 1994 edition was notable for a confrontation between Jeffrey Archer and the historian David Starkey over the age of homosexual consent. After arguing that 18 should be the age of consent, Archer was attacked by Starkey who told him: "Englishmen like you enjoy sitting on the fence so much because you enjoy the sensation." Archer replied “I enjoyed the very clever way you got a laugh … I was not sitting on the fence and I was not compromising ... you don’t have the right to doubt my beliefs and think just because you are an expert in this subject I don’t have the right to say what I feel or get a cheap laugh out of it. I stand by 18 and I mean it.” The programme broadcast on 13 September 2001, which was devoted to the political implications of the 11 September 2001 attacks, featured many contributions from members of the audience who were anti-American, expressing the view that "the United States had it coming". The BBC received more than 2,000 complaints and later apologised to viewers for causing offence, stating that the edition should not have been broadcast live, but rather should have been recorded and edited. In 2002, the editor of Private Eye, Ian Hislop, made an open attack on Jeffrey Archer, who had been imprisoned for perjury, when his wife Mary Archer was a fellow panellist. She was noticeably angry that the issue had been raised and criticised Hislop after the recording had finished. In March 2007, an Iraq Special was broadcast, featuring Tony Benn, Benazir Bhutto, Des Browne, Liam Fox, Charles Kennedy and, via video link from Washington D.C., John R. Bolton. The episode is particularly memorable for the clashes between Benn and Bolton. On 11 October 2007, former editor of The Sun newspaper Kelvin MacKenzie appeared on the programme in Cheltenham and launched an attack on Scotland. During a debate about tax, MacKenzie claimed that "Scotland believes not in entrepreneurialism like London and the south east... Scots enjoy spending it (money) but they don't enjoy creating it, which is the opposite to down south." The comments came as part of an attack on Prime Minister Gordon Brown who MacKenzie said could not be trusted to manage the British economy because he was "a Scot" and a "socialist", and insisting that this was relevant to the debate. Fellow panellist Chuka Umunna from the think tank Compass called his comments "absolutely disgraceful", and booing and jeering were heard from the Cheltenham studio audience. The BBC received 350 complaints and MacKenzie's comments drew widespread criticism in both Scotland and England. On 3 July 2008, it was reported that the BBC Trust's editorial complaints unit had cleared the programme of any wrongdoing. Question Time then proceeded to broadcast the following question from Nick Hartley as part of the programme on the same evening: "After the media coverage of [Andy] Murray's rise and fall, are we now to infer that the English resent the Scots more than the Scots resent the English?" MacKenzie reappeared on the programme in Cardiff on 17 May 2012. After he was elected to the European Parliament, Nick Griffin the leader of the British National Party was invited onto Question Time for the first time, to appear on 22 October 2009. The decision led to controversy and political debate. Hundreds of people protested outside BBC Television Centre as the edition was filmed; six people were arrested after 25 protesters forced their way into the main reception. The edition attracted eight million viewers, and also drew a large number of complaints as a result of its content. Griffin himself said that he would make a formal complaint to the BBC for the way he believed he was treated by the show's other guests and the audience, who he described as a "lynch mob." An edition aired on 19 May 2011 was recorded at Wormwood Scrubs Prison in London. The episode was the first to feature prisoners as part of the audience, while panellists included Justice Secretary Ken Clarke who attempted to defend controversial remarks he had made earlier in the week about rape sentencing. A special edition of the programme was aired on 11 August 2011 following the outbreak of rioting which had occurred during the previous weekend and earlier that week. Question Time had been off air for its annual summer break at the time and the edition was a scheduled at short notice due to the English riots. An appearance by George Galloway on the edition of 5 February 2015 recorded in Finchley gained much negative comment before the broadcast. Inviting Galloway, a politician who has been outspoken about Israel, onto the programme was thought to be provocative and insensitive because Finchley has a large Jewish minority. Galloway, who was heckled during a discussion about antisemitism, thought he had been defamed by a question posed to him, which insinuated that he should share some of the blame for a rise in antisemitic incidents during 2014. On 23 November 2017, the programme was shortened because an audience member became ill and could not be safely moved. On 19 March 2020, the programme was broadcast for the first time without an audience in Weston-super-mare due to the Coronavirus outbreak. On 26 March 2020, the programme moved to a semi-permanent home at the IMG Studios at Stockley Park in London as a measure to prevent unnecessary travel during the Coronavirus outbreak, the show followed a different format with no audience, the number of panellists reduced to four and the removal of the desk table, with the panellists and host now sitting on chairs in a semi-circle, 2m apart from one another in order to observe social distancing rules. At the same time, the programme moved to a new, temporary timeslot of 8pm, so that it could be broadcast live and allow viewers to submit their own questions to be answered on the programme. Audience figures The highest audience figures to date were recorded when Nick Griffin of the BNP appeared in an episode on 22 October 2009; the audience reaching 8.3 million viewers. On 14 May 2009, Question Time discussed the MPs' expenses row, with audience members heckling guest panellists Menzies Campbell and Margaret Beckett, the Labour MP, who was booed by the audience for insisting that her expenses were her privilege. The TV audience reached 3.8 million. 3.4 million people watched in 2003 at the start of the war on Iraq. Similar programmes A Welsh-language version, Pawb a'i Farn, has been broadcast on S4C since 1993. In 1994, BBC Scotland launched their own local debate show called Words with Wark which was broadcast on BBC One Scotland usually on the first Thursday of every month and this was presented by Kirsty Wark. The programme was axed in 1998. Until 2010, BBC One Northern Ireland replaced Question Time with the more local debate show Let's Talk at least once a month hosted by Mark Carruthers, but this show has been axed and brought under the Spotlight brand. It is now shown once a month on Tuesday night with Noel Thompson. BBC One NI have their own political show called The View: this is broadcast live from 10.35pm to 11.20pm, presented by Mark Carruthers, and is followed by Question Time. If Question Time is made in Northern Ireland. BBC World produces an Indian version of the programme for such viewers. The Irish broadcaster RTÉ produced a similar show, Questions and Answers, which ran from 1986 to 2009, and was replaced by The Frontline, which is of a similar format. In March 2010, Dermot O'Leary hosted a spinoff edition of the show, which was broadcast on BBC Three. It was called First Time Voters' Question Time, and the show was aimed at first time voters. This version of the programme was later commissioned on a permanent, monthly basis on BBC Three, to now be hosted by Richard Bacon, and re-titled Young Voters' Question Time. He was replaced by Jake Humphrey then by Rick Edwards with Tina Daheley, and the show was renamed Free Speech which goes out every month. In 2007, the BBC commissioned The Big Questions, a new programme with a similar format to Question Time, which focuses on ethical and religious issues. It is broadcast on BBC One on Sunday mornings between 10am and 11am. Both programmes are produced by Mentorn Media. In 2008, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation launched a similar, Australian version of the programme, called Q&A. Airing live weekly, it has become a critical success, achieving extremely positive ratings for the ABC in Australia, with a wide audience from a range of demographics not all of which are normally noted for their interest in the Australian political scene. In 2011, Azerbaijan launched its own version of the programme. Open Talk is a weekly debate ANS TV television programme in Azerbaijan, based on Question Time. The show features political leaders as well as other public figures. Open Talk is presented by Sevinj Osmanqizi. Schools edition Several schools editions have been broadcast: 20 June 2005, with a panel of Tony Benn, Justine Greening, Lembit Opik, June Sarpong and Otis Ferry. 6 July 2006, with a twenty-year-old student joining David Miliband, Richard Madelely, Lord Coe and Julia Goldsworthy. 5 July 2007, an 18-year-old student joined a panel of Ed Miliband, Sayeeda Warsi, Davina McCall and Douglas Murray. 9 July 2009, one of the panellists was an eighteen-year-old student. Other panellists were Andy Burnham, Jeremy Hunt, Sarah Teather and Shami Chakrabarti. References Other sources Bailey, Ric (26 January 2005) "NewsWatch: Question Time for Question Time" BBC News Retrieved 9 July 2005. "The Best of Question Time" BBC News Retrieved 9 July 2005. Guyon, Janet (29 November 2001) "Fortune: The New Future—The American Way" Mutual of America Retrieved 9 July 2005. Shawcross, William (17 September 2001) "Stop This Racism" The Guardian Retrieved 9 July 2005. External links Question Time Extra Question Time Extra Time BBC iPlayer Twitter Instagram Question Time set-up and breakdown time lapse 1979 British television series debuts 1970s British political television series 1980s British political television series 1990s British political television series 2000s British political television series 2010s British political television series 2020s British political television series BBC News BBC television news shows BBC Television shows Debate television series English-language television shows Question Time (TV programme) Tinopolis
859797	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman%20Cyril%20Jackson	Norman Cyril Jackson	Norman Cyril Jackson VC (8 April 1919 – 26 March 1994) was a sergeant in the Royal Air Force (RAF) who earned the Victoria Cross during a Second World War bombing raid on Schweinfurt, Germany in April 1944. Early life Born in Ealing, Middlesex, Jackson was adopted as a one-week-old baby by Mr. and Mrs. Edwin Gunter. The Gunters also adopted Geoffrey Oliver Hartley, who in 1951 was awarded the George Medal as a Federation of Malaya police lieutenant for protecting his party, which included three children, from bandits. Upon this occasion, Mrs. Gunter said, "We adopted two of the finest sons any parents could wish for." Jackson qualified as a fitter and turner. Although he was married and in a reserved occupation at the outbreak of the Second World War, he enlisted in the RAF. Military career He joined the RAF Volunteer Reserve in 1939 and originally served as a Classified Fitter IIE (engines). In January 1941, he was assigned to a Sunderland flying boat squadron based in Freetown, Sierra Leone. He applied for retraining as a flight engineer and returned to England in September 1942. On 28 July 1943, he joined No. 106 Squadron which operated Avro Lancaster bombers. Jackson completed his tour of 30 missions on 24 April 1944, but, as he had flown one sortie with a different crew, he chose to fly once more so that he and his original aircrew could finish their tour together. Jackson's 31st mission was a raid on the German ball bearing factories at Schweinfurt on the night of 26–27 April. Having bombed the target, Jackson's Lancaster (serial ME669) was attacked by a German night fighter and a fuel tank in the starboard wing caught fire. Jackson, already wounded from shell splinters, strapped on a parachute and equipped himself with a fire extinguisher before climbing out of the aircraft and onto the wing, whilst the aeroplane was flying at , in order to put out the fire. He gripped the air intake on the leading edge of the wing with one hand, and fought the fire with the other. The flames seared his hands, face, and clothes. The fighter returned and hit the bomber with a burst of gunfire that sent two bullets into his legs. The burst also swept him off the wing. He fell , but his smouldering and holed parachute worked well enough to save his life. He suffered further injuries upon landing, including a broken ankle, but managed to crawl to a nearby German village the next morning, where he was paraded through the street. He spent 10 months recovering in hospital before being transferred to the Stalag IX-C prisoner-of-war camp. He made two escape attempts, the second of which was successful as he made contact with a unit of the US Third Army. Jackson's exploit became known when the surviving crewmen of his bomber were released from German captivity at the end of the war. He was promoted to warrant officer and his Victoria Cross (VC) award was gazetted on 26 October 1945. When he went to Buckingham Palace to receive his VC from King George VI, he was accompanied by Leonard Cheshire who was also due to receive his on that day. Group Captain Cheshire insisted that, despite the difference in rank, they should approach the King together. Jackson remembers that Cheshire said to the King, "This chap stuck his neck out more than I did – he should get his VC first! Of course the King had to keep to protocol but I will never forget what Cheshire said." Victoria Cross citation Extract from Fourth Supplement, The London Gazette No 37324 of Friday 26 October 1945: Postwar and personal life After the war, he worked as a travelling salesman of Haig whisky. He and his wife Alma had seven children. Jackson died on 26 March 1994 at Hampton Hill, in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, and is buried in Twickenham Cemetery. Legacy In April 2004, Jackson's VC medal was sold at auction to Lord Ashcroft for £235,250 (GBP) against a pre-auction estimate of £130,000. His family were upset because the medal went to a private bidder rather than the RAF museum at Hendon. They had planned to give their father's medals to the museum, but found they could not do so under the terms of their mother's will and the museum was outbid. His VC is now on display in the Lord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum, London. Norman Jackson's son appeared in the episode on his father's crew in Lord Ashcroft's documentary series Heroes of the Skies (broadcast on Channel Five on 4 October 2012), as well as the Discovery Channel's Air Aces (premiering October 2013). See also James Allen Ward, a bomber pilot who was awarded the Victoria Cross for climbing out of his flying bomber to put out a wing fire Notes References Sources British VCs of World War 2 (John Laffin, 1997) Monuments To Courage (David Harvey, 1999) The Register of the Victoria Cross (This England, 1997) Bravest of the Brave (John Glanfield, 2005) External links Burial location of Norman Jackson "Middlesex" News item "Norman Jackson's Victoria Cross sold at auction" Norman Jackson British World War II recipients of the Victoria Cross Royal Air Force recipients of the Victoria Cross Royal Air Force airmen People from Ealing Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II 1919 births 1994 deaths British World War II prisoners of war World War II prisoners of war held by Germany Escapees from German detention Military personnel from London English escapees
860860	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping%20in%20sport	Doping in sport	In competitive sports, doping is the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors. The term doping is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and therefore prohibited, by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbate the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating. The origins of doping in sports go back to the very creation of sport itself. From ancient usage of substances in chariot racing to more recent controversies in baseball and cycling, popular views among athletes have varied widely from country to country over the years. The general trend among authorities and sporting organizations over the past several decades has been to strictly regulate the use of drugs in sport. The reasons for the ban are mainly the health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality of opportunity for athletes, and the exemplary effect of drug-free sport for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the "spirit of sport". History The use of drugs in sports goes back centuries, about all the way back to the very invention of the concept of sports. In ancient times, when the fittest of a nation were selected as athletes or combatants, they were fed diets and given treatments considered beneficial to help increase muscle. For instance, Scandinavian mythology says Berserkers could drink a mixture called "butotens", to greatly increase their physical power at the risk of insanity. One theory is that the mixture was prepared from the Amanita muscaria mushroom, though this has been disputed. The ancient Olympics in Greece have been alleged to have had forms of doping. In ancient Rome, where chariot racing had become a huge part of their culture, athletes drank herbal infusions to strengthen them before chariot races. More recently, a participant in an endurance walking race in Britain, Abraham Wood, said in 1807 that he had used laudanum (which contains opiates) to keep him awake for 24 hours while competing against Robert Barclay Allardyce. By April 1877, walking races had stretched to and the following year, also at the Agricultural Hall in Islington, London, to . The Illustrated London News chided: It may be an advantage to know that a man can travel 520 miles in 138 hours, and manage to live through a week with an infinitesimal amount of rest, though we fail to perceive that anyone could possibly be placed in a position where his ability in this respect would be of any use to him [and] what is to be gained by a constant repetition of the fact. The event proved popular, however, with 20,000 spectators attending each day. Encouraged, the promoters developed the idea and soon held similar races for cyclists. "...and much more likely to endure their miseries publicly; a tired walker, after all, merely sits down – a tired cyclist falls off and possibly brings others crashing down as well. That's much more fun". The fascination with six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and the same appeal brought in the crowds in America as well. And the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes could be and the greater was the incentive of riders to stay awake—or be kept awake—to ride the greatest distance. Their exhaustion was countered by soigneurs (the French word for "healers"), helpers akin to seconds in boxing. Among the treatments they supplied was nitroglycerine, a drug used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders suffered hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue the New York race, saying: "I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand." Public reaction turned against such trials, whether individual races or in teams of two. One report said: An athletic contest in which the participants 'go queer' in their heads, and strain their powers until their faces become hideous with the tortures that rack them, is not sport, it is brutality. It appears from the reports of this singular performance that some of the bicycle riders have actually become temporarily insane during the contest... Days and weeks of recuperation will be needed to put the racers in condition, and it is likely that some of them will never recover from the strain. The father of anabolic steroids in the United States was John Ziegler (1917–1983), a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of testosterone as a performance-enhancing drug. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of methandrostenolone, which appeared on the market in 1960 under the brand name Dianabol. During the Olympics that year, the Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed and died while competing in the 100-kilometer (62-mile) race. An autopsy later revealed the presence of amphetamines and a drug called nicotinyl tartrate in his system. The American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: "Trainers of the old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures."<ref>Novich, ibid. Cited De Mondenard, Dr Jean-Pierre: Dopage, l'imposture des performances, Chiron, France, 2000</ref> John Hoberman, a professor at the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion." Prevalence Over 30% of athletes participating in 2011 World Championships in Athletics admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to a study commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught. The entire Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, as the Russian State had sponsored and essentially sanctioned their doping program. Goldman's dilemma Goldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite athletes by physician, osteopath and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take a drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia. Substances The most common prohibited substances for doping in sport are: Anabolic steroids (most common), which increase muscle mass and physical strength. Stimulants (second most common), which increase excitement and decrease the sensation of fatigue. Examples of well known stimulants include caffeine, cocaine, amphetamine, modafinil, and ephedrine. Caffeine, although a stimulant, has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004. Anabolic steroids Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased low-density lipoprotein and decreased high-density lipoprotein), acne, high blood pressure, and liver damage. Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs. AAS use in sports began in October 1954 when John Ziegler, a doctor who treated American athletes, went to Vienna with the American weightlifting team. There he met a Russian physician who, over "a few drinks", repeatedly asked "What are you giving your boys?" When Ziegler returned the question, the Russian said that his own athletes were being given testosterone. Returning to America, Ziegler tried low doses of testosterone on himself, on the American trainer Bob Hoffman and on two lifters, Jim Park and Yaz Kuzahara. All gained more weight and strength than any training programme would produce but there were side-effects. Ziegler sought a drug without after-effects and hit upon the anabolic steroid methandrostenolone, first made in the US in 1958 by Ciba and marketed as Dianabol (colloquially known as "d-bol"). The results were so impressive that lifters began taking more, and steroids spread to other sports. Paul Lowe, a former running back with the San Diego Chargers American football team, told a California legislative committee on drug abuse in 1970: "We had to take them [steroids] at lunchtime. He [an official] would put them on a little saucer and prescribed them for us to take them and if not he would suggest there might be a fine." Olympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 per cent. The gold medalist pentathlete Mary Peters said: "A medical research team in the United States attempted to set up extensive research into the effects of steroids on weightlifters and throwers, only to discover that there were so few who weren't taking them that they couldn't establish any worthwhile comparisons." Brand name Dianabol is no longer produced but the drug methandrostenolone itself is still made in many countries and other, similar drugs are made elsewhere. The use of anabolic steroids is now banned by all major sporting bodies, including the ATP, WTA, ITF, International Olympic Committee, FIFA, UEFA, all major professional golf tours, the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, the European Athletic Association, WWE, the NFL, and the UCI. However, drug testing can be wildly inconsistent and, in some instances, has gone unenforced. A number of studies measuring anabolic steroid use in high school athletes found that out of all 12th grade students, 6.6 percent of them had used anabolic steroids at some point in their high school careers or were approached and counseled to use them. Of those students who acknowledged doping with anabolic–androgenic steroids, well over half participated in school-sponsored athletics, including football, wrestling, track and field, and baseball. A second study showed 6.3 percent of high school student Football players admitted to current or former AAS use. At the collegiate level, surveys show that AAS use among athletes range from 5 percent to 20 percent and continues to rise. The study found that skin changes were an early marker of steroid use in young athletes, and underscored the important role that dermatologists could play in the early detection and intervention in these athletes. 1988 Seoul Olympics A famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics. He subsequently failed the drug test when stanozolol was found in his urine. He later admitted to using the steroid as well as Dianabol, testosterone, Furazabol, and human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance. Carl Lewis was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder. Johnson was not the only participant whose success was questioned: Lewis had tested positive at the Olympic Trials for pseudoephedrine, ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test. The acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. Linford Christie of Great Britain was found to have metabolites of pseudoephedrine in his urine after a 200m heat at the same Olympics, but was later cleared of any wrongdoing. Of the top five competitors in the race, only former world record holder and eventual bronze medalist Calvin Smith of the US never failed a drug test during his career. Smith later said: "I should have been the gold medalist." The CBC radio documentary, Rewind, "Ben Johnson: A Hero Disgraced" broadcast on 19 September 2013, for the 25th anniversary of the race, stated 20 athletes tested positive for drugs but were cleared by the IOC at this 1988 Seoul Olympics. An IOC official stated that endocrine profiles done at those games indicated that 80 percent of the track and field athletes tested showed evidence of long-term steroid use, although not all were banned. Stimulants Stimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement and decreasing the sensation of fatigue. In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids. Benzedrine is a trade name for amphetamine. The Council of Europe says it first appeared in sport at the Berlin Olympics in 1936. It was produced in 1887 and the derivative, Benzedrine, was isolated in the U.S. in 1934 by Gordon Alles. Its perceived effects gave it the street name "speed". British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the Second World War and the RAF got through so many that "Methedrine won the Battle of Britain" according to one report. The problem was that amphetamine leads to a lack of judgement and a willingness to take risks, which in sport could lead to better performances but in fighters and bombers led to more crash landings than the RAF could tolerate. The drug was withdrawn but large stocks remained on the black market. Amphetamine was also used legally as an aid to slimming and also as a thymoleptic before being phased out by the appearance of newer agents in the 1950s. Everton, one of the top clubs in the English football league, were champions of the 1962–63 season, and it was done, according to a national newspaper investigation, with the help of Benzedrine. Word spread after Everton's win that the drug had been involved. The newspaper investigated, cited where the reporter believed it had come from, and quoted the goalkeeper, Albert Dunlop, as saying: I cannot remember how they first came to be offered to us. But they were distributed in the dressing rooms. We didn't have to take them but most of the players did. The tablets were mostly white but once or twice they were yellow. They were used through the 1961–62 season and the championship season which followed it. Drug-taking had previously been virtually unnamed in the club. But once it had started we could have as many tablets as we liked. On match days they were handed out to most players as a matter of course. Soon some of the players could not do without the drugs. The club agreed that drugs had been used but that they "could not possibly have had any harmful effect." Dunlop, however, said he had become an addict. In November 1942, the Italian cyclist Fausto Coppi took "seven packets of amphetamine" to beat the world hour record on the track. In 1960, the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at the Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug, Ronicol, which dilates the blood vessels. The chairman of the Dutch cycling federation, Piet van Dijk, said of Rome that "dope – whole cartloads – [were] used in such royal quantities." The 1950s British cycling professional Jock Andrews would joke: "You need never go off-course chasing the peloton in a big race – just follow the trail of empty syringes and dope wrappers." The Dutch cycling team manager Kees Pellenaars told of a rider in his care: I took him along to a training camp in Spain. The boy changed then into a sort of lion. He raced around as though he was powered by rockets. I went to talk to him. He was really happy he was riding well and he told me to look out for him. I asked if he wasn't perhaps "using something" and he jumped straight up, climbed on a chair and from deep inside a cupboard he pulled out a plastic bag full of pills. I felt my heart skip a beat. I had never seen so many fireworks together. With a soigneur we counted the pills: there were 5,000 of them, excluding hormone preparations and sleeping pills. I took them away, to his own relief. I let him keep the hormones and the sleeping pills. Later he seemed to have taken too many at once and he slept for a couple of days on end. We couldn't wake him up. We took him to hospital and they pumped out his stomach. They tied him to his bed to prevent anything going wrong again. But one way or another he had some stimulant and fancied taking a walk. A nurse came across him in the corridor, walking along with the bed strapped to his back. Currently modafinil is being used throughout the sporting world, with many high-profile cases attracting press coverage as prominent United States athletes have failed tests for this substance. Some athletes who were found to have used modafinil protested as the drug was not on the prohibited list at the time of their offence, however, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains it is a substance related to those already banned, so the decisions stand. Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances on 3 August 2004, ten days before the start of the 2004 Summer Olympics. One approach of athletes to get around regulations on stimulants is to use new designer stimulants, which have not previously been officially prohibited, but have similar chemical structures or biological effects. Designer stimulants that attracted media attention in 2010 included mephedrone, ephedrone, and fluoroamphetamines, which have chemical structures and effects similar to ephedrine and amphetamine. Strychnine These "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion" were not unknown outside cycling. Thomas Hicks, an American born in England on 7 January 1875, won the Olympic marathon in 1904. He crossed the line behind a fellow American Fred Lorz, who had been transported for 11 miles of the course by his trainer, leading to his disqualification. However, Hicks's trainer Charles Lucas, pulled out a syringe and came to his aid as his runner began to struggle. I therefore decided to inject him with a milligram of sulphate of strychnine and to make him drink a large glass brimming with brandy. He set off again as best he could [but] he needed another injection four miles from the end to give him a semblance of speed and to get him to the finish. The use of strychnine, at the time, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, according to sports historians Alain Lunzenfichter and historian of sports doping, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who said: It has to be appreciated that at the time the menace of doping for the health of athletes or of the purity of competition had yet to enter the morals because, after this marathon, the official race report said: The marathon has shown from a medical point of view how drugs can be very useful to athletes in long-distance races. Hicks was, in the phrase of the time, "between life and death" but recovered, collected his gold medal a few days later, and lived until 1952. Nonetheless, he never again took part in athletics. Countries East Germany (the GDR) In 1977 one of East Germany's best sprinters, Renate Neufeld, fled to the West with the Bulgarian she later married. A year later she said that she had been told to take drugs supplied by coaches while training to represent East Germany at the 1980 Summer Olympics. At 17, I joined the East Berlin Sports Institute. My speciality was the 80m hurdles. We swore that we would never speak to anyone about our training methods, including our parents. The training was very hard. We were all watched. We signed a register each time we left for dormitory and we had to say where we were going and what time we would return. One day, my trainer, Günter Clam, advised me to take pills to improve my performance: I was running 200m in 24 seconds. My trainer told me the pills were vitamins, but I soon had cramp in my legs, my voice became gruff and sometimes I couldn't talk any more. Then I started to grow a moustache and my periods stopped. I then refused to take these pills. One morning in October 1977, the secret police took me at 7am and questioned me about my refusal to take pills prescribed by the trainer. I then decided to flee, with my fiancé.Costelle D, Berlioux M, Histoires des Jeux Olympiques, Larousse, France, 1980 She brought with her to the West grey tablets and green powder she said had been given to her, to members of her club, and to other athletes. The West German doping analyst Manfred Donike reportedly identified them as anabolic steroids. She said she stayed quiet for a year for the sake of her family. But when her father then lost his job and her sister was expelled from her handball club, she decided to tell her story. East Germany closed itself to the sporting world in May 1965. In 1977 the shot-putter Ilona Slupianek, who weighed 93 kg, failed a test for anabolic steroids at the European Cup meeting in Helsinki and thereafter athletes were tested before they left the country. At the same time, the Kreischa testing laboratory near Dresden passed into government control; it reputedly made around 12,000 tests a year on East German athletes but without any being penalised. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) suspended Slupianek for 12 months, a penalty that ended two days before the European championships in Prague. In the reverse of what the IAAF hoped, sending her home to East Germany meant she was free to train unchecked with anabolic steroids, if she wanted to, and then compete for another gold medal, which she won. After that, almost nothing emerged from the East German sports schools and laboratories. A rare exception was the visit by the sports-writer and former athlete, Doug Gilbert of the Edmonton Sun, who said: Dr (Heinz) Wuschech knows more about anabolic steroids than any doctor I have ever met, and yet he cannot discuss them openly any more than Geoff Capes or Mac Wilkins can openly discuss them in the current climate of amateur sports regulation. What I did learn in East Germany was that they feel there is little danger from anabolica, as they call it, when the athletes are kept on strictly monitored programmes. Although the extremely dangerous side-effects are admitted, they are statistically no more likely to occur than side-effects from the birth control pill. If, that is, programmes are constantly medically monitored as to dosage. Other reports came from the occasional athlete who fled to the West – 15 of them between 1976 and 1979. One, the ski-jumper Hans-Georg Aschenbach, said: "Long-distance skiers start having injections to their knees from the age 14 because of their intensive training." He said: "For every Olympic champion, there are at least 350 invalids. There are gymnasts among the girls who have to wear corsets from the age of 18 because their spine and their ligaments have become so worn... There are young people so worn out by the intensive training that they come out of it mentally blank [lessivés – washed out], which is even more painful than a deformed spine." After the 1990 German reunification, on 26 August 1993 the records were opened and evidence found that the Stasi, the state secret police, supervised systematic doping of East German athletes from 1971 until reunification in 1990. Doping existed in other countries, says the expert Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, both communist and capitalist, but the difference with East Germany was that it was a state policy. The Sportvereinigung Dynamo (English:Dynamo Sports Club) was especially singled out as a center for doping in the former East Germany. Many former club officials and some athletes found themselves charged after the dissolution of the country. Victims of doping, trying to gain justice and compensation, set up a special page on the internet to list people involved in doping in the GDR. State-endorsed doping began with the Cold War of 1947–1991, when every Eastern Bloc gold represented an ideological victory. From 1974, Manfred Ewald, the head of East Germany's sports federation, imposed blanket doping. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, the country of 17 million collected nine gold medals. Four years later the total was 20 and in 1976 it doubled again to 40. Ewald was quoted as having told coaches, "They're still so young and don't have to know everything." In July 2000 Ewald received a 22-month suspended sentence, to the outrage of his victims. Often, doping took place without the knowledge of the athletes, some of them as young as ten years of age. It is estimated that around 10,000 former athletes bear the physical and mental scars of years of drug abuse; one of them, Rica Reinisch, a triple Olympic champion and world record-setter at the 1980 Summer Olympics, has since suffered numerous miscarriages and recurring ovarian cysts. Two former Dynamo Berlin club doctors, Dieter Binus, chief of the national women's team from 1976 to 1980, and Bernd Pansold, in charge of the sports medicine center in East Berlin, were committed for trial for allegedly supplying 19 teenagers with illegal substances. Binus was sentenced in August, Pansold in December 1998 – both were found guilty of administering hormones to underage female athletes from 1975 to 1984. Virtually no East German athlete ever failed an official drugs test, though Stasi files show that many did produce failed tests at Kreischa, the Saxon laboratory (German:Zentrales Dopingkontroll-Labor des Sportmedizinischen Dienstes) that was at the time approved by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), now called the Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry (IDAS). In 2005, 15 years after the end of East Germany, the manufacturer of the drugs, Jenapharm, still found itself involved in numerous lawsuits from doping victims, being sued by almost 200 former athletes. Former Sport Club Dynamo athletes who publicly admitted to doping, accusing their coaches: Daniela Hunger Andrea Pollack Former Sport Club Dynamo athletes disqualified for doping: Ilona Slupianek (Ilona Slupianek failed a test along with three Finnish athletes at the 1977 European Cup, becoming the only East German athlete ever to be convicted of doping) Based on the admission by Pollack, the United States Olympic Committee asked for the redistribution of gold medals won in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Despite court rulings in Germany that substantiate claims of systematic doping by some East German swimmers, the IOC executive board announced that it has no intention of revising the Olympic record books. In rejecting the American petition on behalf of its women's medley relay team in Montreal and a similar petition from the British Olympic Association on behalf of Sharron Davies, the IOC made it clear that it wanted to discourage any such appeals in the future. Soviet Union According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the IOC to undermine doping tests and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts". On the topic of the 1980 Summer Olympics, a 1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists' Games." A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics as a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m. Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergey Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping program prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics. West Germany The 800-page "Doping in Germany from 1950 to today" study details how the West German government helped fund a wide-scale doping programme. West Germany encouraged and covered up a culture of doping across many sports for decades. Clemens Prokop, head of Germany's athletics federation, told Reuters Television in an interview, "It is a bit of a problem that there is a short version that has been published and that names have not been named." Immediately after the 1954 FIFA World Cup Final, rumors emerged that the West German team had taken performance-enhancing substances. Several members of the team fell ill with jaundice, presumably from a contaminated needle. Members of the team later claimed they had been injected with glucose, and the team physician Franz Loogen said in 2004 that the players had only been given Vitamin C before the game. A Leipzig University study in 2010 posited that the West German players had been injected with the banned substance methamphetamine. According to the German Olympic Sports Association (DOSB), doping was common in the West German athletes of the 1980s. West German heptathlete Birgit Dressel died at age 26 due to sudden multiple organ failure, triggered at least in part by long-term steroid abuse. In the newly emerging doping discussion in 2013 after submission of the final report of the anti-doping commission, the former German sprinter Manfred Ommer accused the Freiburg physician Armin Klümper: "Klümper was the largest doper on this planet." China China conducted a state-sanctioned doping programme on athletes in the 1980s and 1990s. The majority of revelations of Chinese doping have focused on swimmers and track and field athletes, such as Ma Junren's Ma Family Army (). More recently, three Chinese weightlifters were stripped of their gold Olympic medals for doping at the 2008 Summer Olympics. In a July 2012 interview published by the Sydney Morning Herald newspaper, Chen Zhangho, the lead doctor for the Chinese Olympic team at the Los Angeles, Seoul and Barcelona Olympics told of how he had tested hormones, blood doping and steroids on about fifty elite athletes. Chen also accused the United States, the Soviet Union and France of using performance-enhancing drugs at the same time as China. In 2012 and 2017 Xue Yinxian revealed systematic doping of Chinese athletes in Olympic Games (and in other international sport events). He has claimed that more than 10,000 athletes in China were doped in the systematic Chinese government doping program and that they received performance-enhancing drugs in the 1980s and 1990s. He stated that the entirety of international medals (both in the Olympics and other international competitions) won by Chinese athletes in the 1980s and 1990s must be taken back. This is contrary to previous statements by the Chinese government, which had denied involvement in systematic doping, claiming that athletes doped individually. The International Olympic Committee and the World Anti-Doping Agency have investigated these allegations. Russia Systematic doping in Russian sports has resulted in 47 Olympic and tens of world championships medals being stripped from Russian competitors—the most of any country, more than four times the number of the runner-up, and more than 30% of the global total. Russia also has the most competitors that have been caught doping at the Olympic Games, with more than 200. Russian doping is distinct from doping in other countries because in Russia the state supplied steroids and other drugs to sportspeople. Due to widespread doping violations, including an attempt to sabotage ongoing investigations by the manipulation of computer data, on 9 December 2019 the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) banned Russia from all international sport for four years. As at the 2018 Winter Olympics, WADA will allow individual cleared Russian athletes to compete neutrally under a title to be determined (which may not include the name "Russia", unlike the use of "Olympic Athletes from Russia" in 2018). Russia later filed an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) against the WADA decision. The Court of Arbitration for Sport, on review of Russia's appeal of its case from WADA, ruled on 17 December 2020 to reduce the penalty that WADA had imposed. Instead of banning Russia from sporting events, the ruling allowed Russia to participate at the Olympics and other international events, but for a period of two years the team cannot use the Russian name, flag, or anthem and must present themselves as "Neutral Athlete" or "Neutral Team". The ruling does allow for team uniforms to display "Russia" on the uniform as well as the use of the Russian flag's colors within the uniform's design, although the name should be up to equal predominance as the "Neutral Athlete/Team" designation. Russia can appeal the decision. On 19 February 2021, it was announced that Russia would compete under the acronym "ROC", after the name of the Russian Olympic Committee. On aftermatch, the IOC announced that the Russian national flag would be substituted by the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee. It would also be allowed to use team uniforms bearing the words "Russian Olympic Committee", or the acronym "ROC" would be added. On 15 April 2021, the uniforms for the Russian Olympic Committee athletes were unveiled, featuring the colours of the Russian flag. On 22 April 2021, the replacement for Russia's anthem was approved by the IOC, after an earlier choice of the patriotic Russian war song "Katyusha" was rejected. A fragment of Pyotr Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 is used. United States In 2003, Wade Exum, the United States Olympic Committee's director of drug-control administration from 1991 to 2000, gave copies of documents to Sports Illustrated that revealed that some 100 American athletes failed drug tests from 1988 to 2000, arguing that they should have been prevented from competing in the Olympics but were nevertheless cleared to compete; those athletes included Carl Lewis, Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard. Before showing the documents to Sports Illustrated, Exum tried to use them in a lawsuit against USOC, accusing the organization of racial discrimination and wrongful termination against him and cover-up over the failed tests. the Denver federal Court summarily dismissed his case for lack of evidence. The USOC labelled his case "baseless" as he himself was the one in charge of screening the anti-doping test program of the organization and clarifying that the athletes were cleared according to the rules. Carl Lewis broke his silence on allegations that he was the beneficiary of a drugs cover-up, admitting he had failed tests for banned substances, but claiming he was just one of "hundreds" of American athletes who were allowed to escape bans, concealed by the USOC. Lewis has acknowledged that he failed three tests during the 1988 US Olympic trials, which under international rules at the time should have prevented him from competing in the 1988 Summer Olympics. Former athletes and officials came out against the USOC cover-up. "For so many years I lived it. I knew this was going on, but there's absolutely nothing you can do as an athlete. You have to believe governing bodies are doing what they are supposed to do. And it is obvious they did not," said former American sprinter and 1984 Olympic champion, Evelyn Ashford. Exum's documents revealed that Carl Lewis had tested positive three times at the 1988 Olympics trials for minimum amounts of pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine, which were banned stimulants. Bronchodilators are also found in cold medication. Due to the rules, his case could have led to disqualification from the Seoul Olympics and suspension from competition for six months. The levels of the combined stimulants registered in the separate tests were 2 ppm, 4 ppm and 6 ppm. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight-loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test. The acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances.Wallechinsky and Loucky, The Complete Book of the Olympics (2012 edition), page 61. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. The federation also reviewed in 1988 the relevant documents with the athletes' names undisclosed and stated that "the medical committee felt satisfied, however, on the basis of the information received that the cases had been properly concluded by the USOC as 'negative cases' in accordance with the rules and regulations in place at the time and no further action was taken". Olympics United States has had eight Olympic medals stripped for doping violations. In all cases, the US government or the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) had nothing to do with it, and sanctioned athletes acted on their own. In the case of swimmer Rick DeMont, the USOC recognized his gold-medal performance in the 1972 Summer Olympics in 2001, but only the IOC has the power to restore his medal, and it has refused to do so. DeMont originally won the gold medal in 4:00.26. Following the race, the IOC stripped him of his gold medal after his post-race urinalysis tested positive for traces of the banned substance ephedrine contained in his prescription asthma medication, Marax. The positive test following the 400-meter freestyle final also deprived him of a chance at multiple medals, as he was not permitted to swim in any other events at the 1972 Olympics, including the 1,500-meter freestyle for which he was the then-current world record-holder. Before the Olympics, DeMont had properly declared his asthma medications on his medical disclosure forms, but the USOC had not cleared them with the IOC's medical committee. Association football There have been few incidents of doping in football, mainly due to FIFA's belief that education and prevention with constant in and out-of-competition controls play a key role in making high-profile competitions free of performance-enhancing drugs. The FIFA administration work alongside team physicians to fight for dope free competitions, having them sign a joint declaration that states they agree with having routine blood testing to check for blood doping before any FIFA World Cup. In 2014, the biological passport was introduced in the 2014 FIFA World Cup; blood and urine samples from all players before the competition and from two players per team and per match are analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses. Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) In December 2013, the UFC began a campaign to drug test their entire roster randomly all year-round. Random testing, however, became problematic for the promotion as it began to affect revenue, as fighters who had tested positive would need to be taken out of fights, which adversely affected fight cards, and therefore pay-per-view sales. If the UFC were not able to find a replacement fighter fights would have to be cancelled. According to Steven Marrocco of MMAjunkie.com, about 31% of UFC fighters subjected to random testing since the program first started have failed due to using performance-enhancing drugs. That is approximately five failed tests for every sixteen random screenings. From July 2015, the UFC has advocated to all commissions that every fighter be tested in competition for every card. Lorenzo Feritta, who at the time was one of the presidents of the UFC, said, "We want 100 percent of the fighters tested the night they compete". Also, in addition to the drug testing protocols in place for competitors on fight night, the UFC conducts additional testing for main event fighters or any fighters that are due to compete in championship matches. This includes enhanced, random 'out of competition' testing for performance-enhancing drugs, with both urine and blood samples being taken. The UFC also announced that all potential UFC signees would be subject to mandatory pre-contract screening for performance-enhancing drugs prior to being offered a contract with the promotion. Endurance sports The use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport has become an increasing problem across a wide range of sports. It is defined as any substance or drug that, when taken, gives an athlete an unfair advantage relative to a "clean" athlete. The banning of these drugs promotes a level playing field and equality among athletes. The use of 'the suit' in swimming, which gives athletes an advantage in the way of hydrodynamics, has been banned from international competition due to the unfair advantage it delivered. The drugs taken by athletes differ widely based on the performance needs of the sport. Erythropoietin (EPO) is largely taken by endurance athletes who seek a higher level of red blood cells, which leads to more oxygenated blood, and a higher VO2 max. An athlete's VO2 max is highly correlated with success within endurance sports such as swimming, long-distance running, cycling, rowing, and cross-country skiing. EPO has recently become prevalent amongst endurance athletes due to its potency and low degree of detectability when compared to other methods of doping such as blood transfusion. While EPO is believed to have been widely used by athletes in the 1990s, there was not a way to directly test for the drug until 2002 as there was no specific screening process to test athletes . Athletes at the Olympic Games are tested for EPO through blood and urine tests. Stringent guidelines and regulations can lessen the danger of doping that has existed within some endurance sports. Cycling The Convicts of the Road In 1924, a journalist Albert Londres followed the Tour de France for the French newspaper Le Petit Parisien. At Coutances he heard that the previous year's winner, Henri Pélissier, his brother Francis and a third rider, Maurice Ville, had resigned from the competition after an argument with the organiser Henri Desgrange. Pélissier explained the problem—whether or not he had the right to take off a jersey—and went on to talk of drugs, reported in Londres' race diary, in which he invented the phrase Les Forçats de la Route (The Convicts of the Road): "You have no idea what the Tour de France is," Henri said. "It's a Calvary. Worse than that, because the road to the Cross has only 14 stations and ours has 15. We suffer from the start to the end. You want to know how we keep going? Here..." He pulled a phial from his bag. "That's cocaine, for our eyes. This is chloroform, for our gums." "This," Ville said, emptying his shoulder bag "is liniment to put warmth back into our knees." "And pills. Do you want to see pills? Have a look, here are the pills." Each pulled out three boxes. "The truth is," Francis said, "that we keep going on dynamite." Henri spoke of being as white as shrouds once the dirt of the day had been washed off, then of their bodies being drained by diarrhea, before continuing: "At night, in our rooms, we can't sleep. We twitch and dance and jig about as though we were doing St Vitus's Dance..." "There's less flesh on our bodies than on a skeleton," Francis said. Francis Pélissier said much later: "Londres was a famous reporter but he didn't know about cycling. We kidded him a bit with our cocaine and our pills. Even so, the Tour de France in 1924 was no picnic."Woodland, Les: Yellow Jersey Guide to the Tour de France, Yellow Jersey, London, 2007 The acceptance of drug-taking in the Tour de France was so complete by 1930, when the race changed to national teams that were to be paid for by the organisers, that the rule book distributed to riders by the organiser, Henri Desgrange, reminded them that drugs were not among items with which they would be provided. The use of Pot Belge by road cyclists in continental Europe exemplifies a cross-over between recreational and performance-enhancing abuse of drugs by sportsman. Festina affair In 1998, the entire Festina team were excluded from the Tour de France following the discovery of a team car containing large amounts of various performance-enhancing drugs. The team director later admitted that some of the cyclists were routinely given banned substances. Six other teams pulled out in protest including Dutch team TVM who left the tour still being questioned by the police. The Festina scandal overshadowed cyclist Marco Pantani's tour win, but he himself later failed a test. The infamous "Pot Belge" or "Belgian mix" has a decades-long history in pro cycling, among both riders and support staff. David Millar, the 2003 World-Time Trial Champion, admitted using EPO, and was stripped of his title and suspended for two years. Roberto Heras was stripped of his victory in the 2005 Vuelta a España and suspended for two years after testing positive for EPO. Floyd Landis Floyd Landis was the initial winner of the 2006 Tour de France. But a urine sample taken from Landis immediately after his Stage 17 win has twice tested positive for banned synthetic testosterone as well as a ratio of testosterone to epitestosterone nearly three times the limit allowed by World Anti-Doping Agency rules. The International Cycling Union stripped him of his 2006 Tour de France title. Second place finisher Óscar Pereiro was officially declared the winner. Lance Armstrong case Lance Armstrong was world number one in 1996. In the same year he recovered from severe testicular cancer and continued to break records and win his seventh Tour de France in 2005. After beating cancer and breaking records he was accused of doping. Teammates of Lance had been caught taking EPO (Erythropoietin), which made the accusations against Armstrong stronger. On 22 October 2012 Lance Armstrong was officially stripped of his Tour de France titles since 1 August 1998. As a response to the decisions of the USADA and UCI, Armstrong resigned from the Lance Armstrong Foundation. He later admitted to doping in an interview with Oprah Winfrey. Other endurance sports In triathlon, 2004 Hawaii Ironman winner Nina Kraft, was disqualified for a positive test to EPO. She remains the only Hawaii Ironman winner to be disqualified for doping offences. Sports lawyer Michelle Gallen has said that the pursuit of doping athletes has turned into a modern-day witch-hunt. Non-endurance sports In sports where physical strength is favored, athletes have used anabolic steroids, known for their ability to increase physical strength and muscle mass. The drugs mimic the effect of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in the body. They were developed after Eastern Bloc countries demonstrated success in weightlifting during the 1940s. At the time they were using testosterone, which carried with it negative side effects, and anabolic steroids were developed as a solution. The drugs have been used across a wide range of sports from football and basketball to weightlifting and track and field. While not as life-threatening as the drugs used in endurance sports, anabolic steroids have negative side effects, including: Side effects in men Acne Impaired liver function Impotency Breast formation (Gynecomastia) Increase in oestrogen Suppression of spermatogenesis: As endogenous testosterone is the major regulator of the HPG axis, the exogenous testosterone and androgen anabolic steroids exert a suppressive effect of LH and FSH, leading to a decrease in intratesticular and secreted testosterone, decrease in spermatogenesis and sperm production. Lack of libido and erectile dysfunction: especially occurs in those men abusing aromatisable androgen anabolic steroids, resulting in high oestrogen levels. Although physiological levels of oestrogens are necessary for normal sexual function, the high doses and the imbalance between testosterone and estradiol appear to be the cause of sexual dysfunction. Increased sex drive Male pattern baldness Risk of heart failure Side effects in women Hair loss Male pattern baldness Hypertrophy of the clitoris Increased sex drive Irregularities of the menstrual cycle Development of masculine facial traits Increased coarseness of the skin Premature closure of the epiphysis Deepening of the voice In countries where the use of these drugs is controlled, there is often a black market trade of smuggled or counterfeit drugs. The quality of these drugs may be poor and can cause health risks. In countries where anabolic steroids are strictly regulated, some have called for regulatory relief. Anabolic steroids are available over-the-counter in some countries such as Thailand and Mexico. Sports that are members of the IOC also enforce drug regulations; for example bridge. Reaction from sports organizations Many sports organizations have banned the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have very strict rules and penalties for people who are caught using them. The International Amateur Athletic Federation, now World Athletics, was the first international governing body of sport to take the situation seriously. In 1928 they banned participants from doping, but with little in the way of testing available they had to rely on the word of the athlete that they were clean. It was not until 1966 that FIFA and Union Cycliste Internationale (cycling) joined the IAAF in the fight against drugs, followed by the International Olympic Committee the following year. Progression in pharmacology has always outstripped the ability of sports federations to implement rigorous testing procedures but since the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999, it has become more effective to catch athletes who use drugs. The first tests for athletes were at the 1966 European Championships and two years later the IOC implemented their first drug tests at both the Summer and Winter Olympics. Anabolic steroids became prevalent during the 1970s and after a method of detection was found they were added to the IOC's prohibited substances list in 1975, after which the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal were the first Olympic games which tested for them. Over the years, different sporting bodies have evolved differently in the struggle against doping. Some, such as athletics and cycling, are becoming increasingly vigilant against doping. However, there has been criticism that sports such as football (soccer) and baseball are doing nothing about the issue, and letting athletes implicated in doping away unpunished. Some commentators maintain that, as outright prevention of doping is an impossibility, all doping should be legalised. However, most disagree with this, pointing out the claimed harmful long-term effects of many doping agents. Opponents claim that with doping legal, all competitive athletes would be compelled to use drugs, and the net effect would be a level playing field but with widespread health consequences. A common rebuttal to this argument asserts that anti-doping efforts have been largely ineffective due to both testing limitations and lack of enforcement, and so sanctioned steroid use would not be markedly different from the situation already in existence. Another point of view is that doping could be legalized to some extent using a drug whitelist and medical counseling, such that medical safety is ensured, with all usage published. Under such a system, it is likely that athletes would attempt to cheat by exceeding official limits to try to gain an advantage; this could be considered conjecture as drug amounts do not always correlate linearly with performance gains. The influence of popular culture Social pressures Social pressure is one of the factors that leads to doping in sport. The media and society work together to construct a view of what masculinity and femininity should look like. Adolescent athletes are constantly influenced by what they see on the media, and some go to extreme measures to achieve the ideal image since society channels Judith Butler's definition of gender as a performative act. Examples of social pressures were given in a study done on an online bodybuilding community where bodybuilders doped because they felt like it was a rite of passage to be accepted into the community, and to feel validated. Both men and women are being materialized in the context of doping in sport; in an interview involving 140 men, it was concluded that "bodily practices are essential for masculine identity," and it was determined that the media highly publicizes female athletes who were strong, and thin. This leads to the issue of the consumption of performance enhancement drugs to achieve muscular or thin figures, and the assumption that the opponents are also taking performance-enhancing drugs, deeming it as an acceptable behavior to conform to. In addition, society's embracement of the "winning is everything" spirit leads many athletes to participate in doping, hoping that they will not be caught. Physical pressures Elite athletes have financial competitive motivations that cause them to dope and these motivations differ from that of recreational athletes. The common theme among these motivations is the pressure to physically perform. In a study of 101 individuals, 86% responded that their use of performance enhancement drugs were influenced by the potential athletic success, 74% by the economic aspect, and 30% by self-confidence and social recognition related reasons. In another study of 40 people, it was concluded that athletes used performance enhancement drugs for healing purposes so that they were an able competitor for the economic rewards involved with elite sports. Physical pressures often overlap with social pressures to have a certain body build. This is the case with muscle dysmorphia, where an athlete wants a more muscular physique for functionality and self- image purposes. The most popular motive for athletes to take supplements is to prevent any nutrient deficiencies and to strengthen the immune system. These factors all focus on improving the body for performance. Psychological motivations Psychology is another factor to take into consideration in doping in sport. It becomes a behavioral issue when the athlete acknowledges the health risks associated with doping, yet participates in it anyway. This has to do with the psychological thinking that the drug will make one feel invincible. The individuals are very egotistic in their way of thinking and their motivation is dependent on the performance enhancement drug since they believe that it delivers the results. On a study on health psychology, Quirk points out three different psychological aspects that lead one to dope: social cognition, stress and strain, and addiction. The social and physical pressures can alter an athlete's way of thinking, leading them to believe that they must take performance enhancement drugs since everyone else is doing it, known as “the doping dilemma.” Anti-doping organizations and legislation In 1999, initiated by the International Olympic Committee to fight against doping in sport, the World Anti-Doping Agency had been founded. After the doping scandal in cycling in the summer 1998 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to establish the WADA to promote, coordinate and monitor the fight of against doping in sport. The headquarters for WADA is in Montreal, Canada. The WADA is the supreme international authority and is allowed to do doping tests and can determine which substances are illegal. In February 2011, the United States Olympic Committee and the Ad Council launched an anti-steroid campaign called Play Asterisk Free aimed at teens. The campaign first launched in 2008 under the name "Don't Be An Asterisk!". In October 2012, the USADA released evidence to corroborate their doping claim against cyclist Lance Armstrong. According to USADA CEO Travis T. Tygart, the evidence against Armstrong includes, "...scientific data and laboratory test results that further prove the use, possession and distribution of performance enhancing drugs". On 1 November 1989, US Senator Joseph Biden introduced S. 1829, The Steroid Trafficking Act of 1989. The purpose of the act was simple: It would "amend the Controlled Substances Act to further restrict the use of steroids. By designating anabolic steroids as a Schedule II controlled substance, the bill would crack down on illegal steroid use". (Senate Judiciary Committee, 2002, p. 282). Test methods Urine test Under established doping control protocols, the athlete will be asked to provide a urine sample, which will be divided into two, each portion to be preserved within sealed containers bearing the same unique identifying number and designation respectively as A- and B-samples. An athlete whose A-sample has tested positive for a prohibited substance is requested an analysis of his or her B-sample after a confirmation test on sample A that delivered the same results. If the B-sample test results match the A-sample results, then the athlete is considered to have a positive test, otherwise, the test results are negative. This confirmation process ensures the safety of the individual. Blood test see also: blood doping The blood test detects illegal performance enhancement drugs through the measurement of indicators that change with the use of recombinant human erythropoietin: Hematocrit Reticulocytes Level of Iron Gas chromatography-combustion-IRMS The gas chromatography-combustion-IRMS is a way to detect any variations in the isotopic composition of an organic compound from the standard. This test is used to detect whether or not synthetic testosterone was consumed, leading to an increased abnormal testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) level. Assumptions: 98.9% of the carbon atoms in nature are 12C the remaining 1.1% are 13C The lower the13C to12C ratio, the more likely that synthetic testosterone was used. Athlete biological passport The athlete biological passport is a program that tracks the location of an athlete to combat doping in sports. This means that the athlete can be monitored and drug tested wherever they are and this data can be compared to the history of their doping test results. There is an ongoing discussion about how this measure can be seen as a violation of an individual's privacy. Re-testing of samples According to Article 6.5 in the World Anti-Doping Code samples may be re-tested later. Samples from high-profile events, such as the Olympic Games, are now re-tested up to eight years later to take advantage of new techniques for detecting banned substances. Cheating the tests Athletes seeking to avoid testing positive use various methods. The most common methods include: Urine replacement, which involves replacing dirty urine with clean urine from someone who is not taking banned substances. Urine replacement can be done by catheterization or with a prosthetic penis such as The Original Whizzinator. Diuretics, used to cleanse the system before having to provide a sample (which have also been placed in lists of banned substances themselves to circumvent this practice). Blood transfusions, which increase the blood's oxygen carrying capacity, in turn increasing endurance without the presence of drugs that could trigger a positive test result. To avoid being tested during training periods, athletes can make themselves unavailable. To mitigate this, athletes have to report their location at any time. If intended doping tests could not be done because the athlete could not be found, three times during a year, it's considered a doping violation, same as refusing a test. There is a web site and a phone app, called ADAMS, in which athletes are expected to report their location.ADAMS Mobile App Validity Donald Berry, writing in the journal Nature, has called attention to potential problems with the validity of ways in which many of the standardised tests are performed;[subscription required] in his article, as described in an accompanying editorial, Berry The editorial closes, saying "Nature believes that accepting 'legal limits' of specific metabolites without such rigorous verification goes against the foundational standards of modern science, and results in an arbitrary test for which the rate of false positives and false negatives can never be known." Defense G. Pascal Zachary argues in a Wired essay that legalizing performance-enhancing substances, as well as genetic enhancements once they became available, would satisfy society's need for übermenschen and reverse the decline in public interest in sports. Sports scholar Verner Moller argues that society is hypocritical when it holds athletes to moral standards, but do not conform to those morals themselves. Fox Sports writer Jen Floyd Engel stated in an article, "We live in a pharmacological society. We live in a society of short cuts, of fake this and enhanced that, and somehow we keep trying to sell the line that sports has become this evil empire of cheating. The reality is athletes are merely doing what so many of us do and celebrate and watch every single day of our lives." Sociologist Ellis Cashmore argues that what is considered doping is too arbitrary: transfusing blood cells is not allowed, but other methods of boosting blood cell count, such as hypobaric chambers, are allowed. Other scholars have advanced similar arguments. Legal Anti-doping policies instituted by individual sporting governing bodies may conflict with local laws. A notable case includes the National Football League (NFL)'s inability to suspend players found with banned substances, after it was ruled by a federal court that local labor laws superseded the NFL's anti-doping regime. The challenge was supported by the National Football League Players Association. Athletes caught doping may be subject to penalties from their local, as well from the individual sporting, governing body. The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country. Fighters found using performance-enhancing drugs in mixed martial arts competitions (e.g. the UFC) could face civil and/or criminal charges once Bill S-209 passes. Under certain circumstances, when athletes need to take a prohibited substance to treat a medical condition, a therapeutic use exemption may be granted. See also Cheating in sports McLaren Report Mitchell Report Doping at the Olympic Games Cheating at the Paralympic Games Doping in Russia Doping in China Doping in the United States Doping in East Germany BALCO scandal Caffeine use for sport Cannabis and sports Concussions in sport Doping in pigeon racing Equine drug testing Gene doping Mechanical doping Stem cell doping Technology doping References Further reading Mottram, David (2005); Drugs in Sport, Routledge. . Murray, Thomas H. (2008); "Sports Enhancement", in From Birth to Death and Bench to Clinic: The Hastings Center Bioethics Briefing Book for Journalists, Policymakers, and Campaigns. Waddington and Smith (2008); An Introduction to Drugs in Sport'', Routledge. . External links Anti-Doping Sciences Institute Banned Substances Control Group World Anti-Doping Agency Anti-Doping at the International Association of Athletics Federations Bioethics Drug testing
861494	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Muhajiroun	Al-Muhajiroun	Al-Muhajiroun (, "The Emigrants") is a proscribed militant Salafi jihadist network based in Saudi Arabia. The founder of the group was Omar Bakri Muhammad, a Syrian who previously belonged to Hizb ut-Tahrir; he was not permitted to re-enter Britain after 2005. According to The Times, the organisation has been linked to international terrorism, homophobia, and antisemitism. The group became notorious for its September 2002 conference "The Magnificent 19", praising the September 11, 2001 attacks. The network mutates periodically so as to evade the law; it operates under many different aliases. The group in its original incarnation operated openly in the United Kingdom from 14 January 1986 until the British Government announced an intention ban in August 2005. The group preemptively "disbanded" itself in 2005 to avoid this, two aliases used by the group were proscribed by the British Home Secretary under the Terrorism Act 2006; Al Ghurabaa and The Saviour Sect. Further proscriptions followed with the Terrorism Act 2000 where Islam4UK was proscribed as an Al-Muhajiroun alias and Muslims Against Crusades followed in 2011. More recent aliases have included Need4Khilafah and the Shariah Project, proscribed in 2014, just before prominent members, including Anjem Choudary were sent to prison (they have subsequently been released). The organisation and its activities have been condemned by larger British Muslim groups such as the Muslim Council of Britain and similar groups which represent the majority of Islam in the United Kingdom. In the United Kingdom, Al-Muhajiroun is the most notorious of the domestic Salafi-jihadist groups and its public spokesman Anjem Choudary has significant name recognition; it is considered more radical than its initial parent organisation the Hizb ut-Tahrir, whose British-based branch does not advocate violence against the United Kingdom and thus has not been proscribed. Individual members of Al-Muhajiroun have been implicated in a number of terrorist attacks, including the murder of Lee Rigby (Michael Adebolajo and Michael Adebowale), the 2017 London Bridge attack (Khuram Butt), and the 2019 London Bridge stabbing (Usman Khan). Some members, such as Zacarias Moussaoui, have been implicated in controversies surrounding Al-Qaeda. It has also operated a Lahore safe house for visiting radicals. Another member, Siddhartha Dhar, became an executioner for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). Names Since they were forced to disband in 2004–2005, Al-Muhajiroun network has adopted a variety of different names to try and work around British law; each time their aliases have been subsequently proscribed under the various Terrorism Acts. Typically, the sitting Home Secretary at the time names the specific organisation as proscribed; for example in 2010, Labour Home Secretary Alan Johnston named Islam4UK in relation to the Wootton Bassett affair. The organisation has used the following names; Al Ghurabaa (2004–2006), The Saved Sect (2005–2006), Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah (2005–2009), Islam4UK (2009–2010), Muslims Against Crusades (2010–2011) and since then Need4Khilafah, the Shariah Project and the Islamic Dawah Association. History Origins in Hizb ut-Tahrir: 1983–1996 The network originated in the Middle East, as a result of the life and works of Omar Bakri Muhammad. Born in Aleppo, Syria to a wealthy Sunni family, during his youth the state was taken over by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region; an organisation which promoted Arab socialism and Arab nationalism, rather than an Islamic outlook for the country. Although nominally secular, many of the ruling Ba'athists were drawn from the Alawite (Shia) minority; including Hafez al-Assad, who became President of Syria in 1971; despite Syria being a majority Sunni country. Some of the religiously inclined Syrian Sunnis, including Omar Bakri, joined the Muslim Brotherhood of Syria (up to 40,000 Muslim Brothers died in the 1982 Hama massacre, though Omar Bakri himself did not take part in the rising). Omar Bakri lived for sometime in Beirut, Lebanon and then Cairo, Egypt. He continued to join a number of Islamist organisations while studying, including joining the Hizb ut-Tahrir while in Beirut (the founder of the organisation, Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, had died in Lebanon in 1977). Omar Bakri moved to Saudi Arabia to study at the Umm al-Qura University in Mecca and the Islamic University of Madinah. In the Kingdom, Hizb ut-Tahrir was a banned organisation. According to Omar Bakri's account of events, the nearest branch based in Kuwait would not allow him to create a branch in Saudi Arabia and suspended him from the organisation, despite the fact that, by 1983, he had gathered some 38 followers who endorsed creating a Saudi Arabia-based branch. Subsequently, at Jeddah, he created his own group called Al-Muhajiroun on 3 March 1983, "the 59th anniversary of the destruction of the Ottoman Caliphate." Sadek Hamid, a scholar of Islamic politics, has claimed that this was just a front for Hizb ut-Tahrir. While living in Saudi Arabia he worked for Eastern Electric owned by Shamsan and Abdul-Aziz as-Suhaybi in Riyadh, and then Bakri moved to its Jeddah branch. Al-Mahajiroun was banned in Saudi Arabia in January 1986 and Omar Bakhri was subsequently arrested in Jeddah, but fled to the United Kingdom while released on bail. After spending some time in the United States to study, he returned to Britain where he became head of Hizb ut-Tahrir Britain. Al-Muhajiroun in Britain: 1996–2004 Bakri's involvement in Hizb ut-Tahrir ended on 16 January 1996 when he was dismissed by the group's global leadership; following this he reinstated Al-Muhajiroun in early 1996. In the eyes of the Middle Eastern leadership of Hizb ut-Tahrir, Omar Bakri had become a liability to their organisation due to various extravagant statements he had made; justifying the assassination of Prime Minister John Major, stating that Queen Elizabeth II would convert to Islam and telling Bosniaks to reject American food aid during the Yugoslav Wars and to "eat Serbs" instead. Omar Bakri Muhammad and his group was the subject of a Channel 4 documentary entitled the Tottenham Ayatollah in 1997, in which Jon Ronson, an investigative journalist of Jewish-background followed Omar Bakri and Al-Muhajiroun around for a year. A young Anjem Choudary also featured as the group's Deputy. The documentary mentions mainstream Muslim groups (who felt that their activities were leading to a demonisation of all Muslims), Conservative MP Rupert Allason, the Board of Deputies of British Jews and even Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt criticising the group. The sitting Foreign Secretary in the Conservative Party government; Malcolm Rifkind; responded to international concerns by saying as Al-Muhajiroun had not broken any specific laws they could not be prosecuted. Omar Bakri openly discussed living on Jobseeker's Allowance and the group publicly protested in favour of the Sharia, against homosexuality and other aspects in contemporary British society that it considered to be immoral. The group claimed that they were collecting donations for groups in conflict with the State of Israel, such as Hamas, Hezbollah and Egyptian Islamic Jihad, but none of these groups have ever confirmed connections or if any money came to them. Yotam Feldner of the Middle East Media Research Institute, a pro-Israeli group, cites reports from Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram Weekly in November 1998, whereby Omar Bakri is alleged to have presented himself as a spokesman for Osama bin Laden's "International Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders." During the 1990s, a number of radical Islamists who were wanted by the authorities in a number of Middle Eastern countries sought refuge in the United Kingdom, particularly London, leading some such as the French intelligence services to ridicule the situation as "Londonistan". Particularly close to Al-Muhajiroun was the Egyptian Abu Hamza al-Masri, who was the imam of Finsbury Park Mosque from 1997 until 2003 (since that time the mosque has been reopened under new authorities who are not affiliated to these tendencies). Abu Hamza had previously been an adviser to the Algerian Armed Islamic Group and had his own group called "Supporters of Shariah" which held joint protests with Al-Muhajiroun. Abu Qatada; who was associated with the Jordanian group Jaysh Mohammad and would later write sympathetically about the activities of Osama bin Laden; spoke at a Al-Muhajiroun meeting in November 1999 to raise funds for mujahideen fighters in Chechnya (as part of the Second Chechen War). Contacts were also maintained between Omar Bakri's group and other London exiles who spoke at Al-Muhajiroun gatherings; Yassir al-Sirri of Vanguards of Conquest and Mohammad al-Massari of Hizb ut-Tahrir. In the first two years of its new existence, the group did not advocate violence against the United Kingdom; Omar Bakri claimed in London-newspaper Asharq Al-Awsat, this was because he had a "covenant of peace" with the British government when they granted him asylum (though while still part of Hizb ut-Tahrir, Omar Bakri had earlier made comments in 1991 about a potential assassination of Prime Minister John Major, during the Gulf War). In the early days of New Labour, Home Secretary Jack Straw even appointed Al-Muhajiroun activist Makbool Javaid (brother-in-law of future Mayor of London, Sadiq Khan) to a newly formed Race Relations Forum. This situation changed in September 1998, as seven members of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, including Hani al-Sibai, Sayyed Ajami and Sayyed Ahmed Abdel-Maqssuod, were arrested by the Metropolitan Police's Special Branch as part of Operation Challenge for alleged violations of the Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989. This was in the aftermath of the 1998 United States embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania, a joint operation by Egyptian Islamic Jihad and Al-Qaeda (the two would merge in 2001), killing 224 people. The "Londonistan" situation, as it was known, had long being criticised by some of the leading Arab world governments such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Algeria and others, who regarded the groups as a threat to their national security also. After the arrests, Omar Bakri described Britain in Al-Ahram Weekly as "the spearhead of blasphemy that seeks to overthrow Muslims and the Islamic caliphate" and claimed that the seven men had been "lulled and betrayed into believing they could seek sanctuary in Britain from their corrupt regimes", claiming that Britain was motivated by a desire for "future economic favours" from the likes of Saudi Arabia. Six months after the arrests, Al-Muhajiroun and others staged a demonstration in front of 10 Downing Street to protest the continued incarceration of the seven men and they, including al-Sibai were eventually released. Tony Blair, who was the Labour Party's Prime Minister at the time of the arrests, two decades later in 2017 accused al-Sibai of having radicalised members of the so-called "Beatles" group of ISIS militants, including "Jihadi John" (Mohammed Emwazi) and El Shafee Elsheikh. In 1998, the so-called "Aden Ten" (including eight British citizens) were arrested, while plotting attacks in Yemen. Omar Bakri boasted of connections, but the men were more directly inspired by Abu Hamza and his idea of Yemen as a starting point for an "Islamic Revolution." Two years later in 2000, the first British-born suicide bomber Mohammed Bilal Ahmed of Birmingham, blew himself up at an Indian Army barracks in Jammu and Kashmir, killing nine people. Omar Bakri described Ahmed as a student of his. Domestically, on university campuses, Britain's National Union of Students banned Al-Muhajiroun in March 2001 after complaints were made about literature promoted by the group (particularly pertaining to Jews) and the advertisement of militant camps; Manchester University and the University of Birmingham were flashpoints for this. On an international level, closer attention was placed on Islamist groups following the September 11, 2001 attacks carried out by Al-Qaeda against the United States and the subsequent invasion of Afghanistan which followed to overthrow the Taliban-government which was hosting Al-Qaeda (the United Kingdom under Blair's leadership joined as part of the ISAF). In the immediate aftermath of the start of the War in Afghanistan, Al-Muhajiroun spokesman Abdul Rahman Saleem (born Rahman Yahyaei) made statements proclaiming that terrorist attacks against government targets in Britain and even killing the Prime Minister would be legitimate acts. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, Al-Muhajiroun mostly focused on what they claimed was the injustice of the subsequent invasion of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and often held meetings where the flag of the Taliban; a white flag with the shahada in black; was displayed. According to a report Hope not Hate, a self-described anti-fascist group closely linked to the British Labour Party, Omar Bakri bragged of connections between Al-Muhajiroun and the so-called "Tipton Three" (Ruhal Ahmed, Asif Iqbal and Shafiq Rasul), who were arrested in Afghanistan fighting for the Taliban and held by the United States at Guantanamo Bay detention camp. Richard Reid the so-called "Shoe Bomber" during the failed 2001 shoe bomb attempt was radicalised at the AM-linked Finsbury Park Mosque. Aftab Manzoor, Afzal Munir and Mohamed Omar who died in Afghanistan fighting for the Taliban and the Pakistan-based Harkat-ul-Mujahideen had AM-connections. Indeed, Al-Muhajiroun maintained a safehouse in Lahore for visiting radicals fighting for the Taliban. The most explicit connection between AM and the 9/11 attacks itself was Zacarias Moussaoui who was radicalised by the group in Brixton during the 1990s; Moussaoui pled guilty to conspiring to carry out the attacks, but was in prison in Minnesota at the time that they were carried out (he was subsequently incarcerated at ADX Florence). On 11 September 2002, Abu Hamza along with Al-Muhajiroun held a conference which came to be known as the "Magnificent 19" meeting (a term referring to the hijackers). Promoted as the launching of the "Islamic Council of Britain" (a name chosen deliberately to cause public confusion with the mainstream Muslim Council of Britain), supposedly to advocate for sharia law, the conference at Finsbury Park Mosque was entitled "September the 11th 2001: A Towering Day in History" and posters, showing an image of planes crashing into the World Trade Center were put up in Stepney, Blackburn and Birmingham. Omar Bakri said that attendees "look at September 11 like a battle, as a great achievement by the mujahideen against the evil superpower. I never praised September 11 after it happened but now I can see why they did it" and described Osama bin Laden and Al-Qaeda as "sincere [and] devoted people who stood firm against the invasion of a Muslim country." Anjem Choudary, Omar Bakri's deputy and a spokesman for Al-Muhajiroun also attended. "Disbandment", early aliases: 2004–2009 In early 2002, the Metropolitan Police made a number of arrests in regards to the Wood Green ricin plot, an alleged Islamist bioterrorism plot using the poison ricin (derived from seeds of the castor oil plant) by immigrants of Algerian-origin against the London Underground. Later the same month, during a raid on a flat in Crumpsall, north Manchester, DC Stephen Oake was murdered with a kitchen knife by Kamel Bourgass, an illegal immigrant from Algeria. Bourgass also stabbed three other members of Greater Manchester Police. He was wanted in connection to the Wood Green ricin plot, but was not immediately recognised. Bourgass had attended meetings of Al-Muhajiroun leading up to the incident and in the aftermath, six days later Finsbury Park Mosque was raided. The nature of the plot itself was controversial, no purified ricin was found, though notes and castor oil seeds were and most of the people arrested were eventually released. The only person ultimately convicted in court in 2005 in relation to the ricin plot was Bourgass, this was largely due to having notes in his possession on how to make ricin, cyanide and botulinum. Nevertheless, Colin Powell in his February 2003 presentation to the United Nations, arguing for commissioning the Iraq War based on alleged connections between Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda, made reference to a "UK Poison Cell" as part of an international network. Two brothers from Manchester, Adeel Shahid and Sajeel Shahid opened a branch of Al-Muhajiroun in Pakistan and ran a "safehouse" in Lahore for Islamists from the West (including the United Kingdom) to back the Taliban and Al-Qaeda against ISAF forces in neighbouring Afghanistan. One of the more notable individuals whom Omar Bakri and Sajeel Shahid enabled to travel to Pakistan was Mohammed Junaid Babar, who intended to go to Peshawar, but ended up in Lahore. While in Pakistan, Mohammed Junaid Babar came into contact with Mohammad Sidique Khan who would later plan the 7 July 2005 London bombings. These activities of the organisation in Pakistan were controversial to the government there, due to Islamists hostility to sitting President of Pakistan, Pervez Musharraf. A speaker at one of the same meetings as Sajeel Shahid was former Major-General Zahirul Islam Abbasi, who had previously been involved in a coup against the government of Pakistan. Back in Britain, things came to a head for Al-Muhajiroun in March 2004, with the launching of Operation Crevice by the Metropolitan Police. A number of the men arrested and later convicted (Omar Khyam, Salahuddin Amin, Jawad Akbar, Anthony Garcia and Waheed Mahmood) had associations with Al-Muhajiroun; 1300 pounds of ammonium nitrate fertiliser was also recovered and the men, mostly of Pakistani-origin, were accused of planning bombing attacks on shopping centres, night clubs and gas works in Britain. Mohammed Junaid Babar testified as a witness against his former associates. Al Muhajiroun disbanded on 13 October 2004 to avoid proscription. However, it was believed that The Saviour Sect was to all intents and purposes Al Muhajiroun operating under a new name. Shortly after the 7 July 2005 London bombings Tony Blair announced the group would be banned as part of a series of measures against condoning or glorifying terrorism. Just days after the 7 July 2005 London bombings the Oxford-based Malaysian jurist, Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti, issued his landmark fatwa against suicide bombing and targeting innocent civilians, titled Defending the Transgressed, by Censuring the Reckless against the Killing of Civilians, which was written in response to this controversial "Magnificent 19" statement made by Al-Muhajiroun. Home Secretary Charles Clarke banned Omar Bakri Muhammad from the United Kingdom on 12 August 2005 on the grounds that his presence was "not conducive to the public good." Two other offshoot organisations, The Saviour Sect and Al Ghurabaa had previously been banned for the 'glorification' of terrorism under the Terrorism Act 2006. Islam4UK and Wootton Bassett: 2009–2010 The group was then relaunched in 2009 under the alias "Islam4UK", described itself as having "been established by sincere Muslims as a platform to propagate the supreme Islamic ideology within the United Kingdom as a divine alternative to man-made law" to "convince the British public about the superiority of Islam, thereby changing public opinion in favour of Islam in order to transfer the authority and power to the Muslims in order to implement the Sharia (in Britain)". It was led by Anjem Choudary. A demonstration it made against returning British soldiers in Luton gained media attention and led to the formation of the English Defence League (EDL). On 16 October 2009, members of the organisation protested against the visit to Britain by Dutch MP Geert Wilders. They carried banners with slogans such as "Shariah is the solution, freedom go to hell" and "Geert Wilders deserves Islamic punishment". In January 2010 the group gained widespread media attention by announcing plans to hold a protest march through Wootton Bassett; an English town where unofficial public mourning takes place for corteges of armed forces personnel killed on active service, as they make their way from RAF Lyneham to Oxford. Reports that the group planned to carry empty coffins to "represent the thousands of Muslims who have died" were denied by the group, although the empty coffins had been proposed by Choudary himself. Choudary said that the event would be peaceful, and that it was not timed to coincide with any mourning processions. The announcement was condemned by British Prime Minister Gordon Brown, who said that plans for the march were "disgusting" and that "to offend the families of dead or wounded troops would be completely inappropriate". The Home Secretary, Alan Johnson, indicated he would agree to any request from the Wiltshire Police or local government to ban the march under Section 13 of the Public Order Act 1986. Choudary said he chose Wootton Bassett to attract maximum attention and, he asserted, 500 members of Islam4UK would carry 'symbolic coffins' in memory of the Muslim civilians 'murdered by merciless' coalition forces. The Muslim Council of Britain stated that it "condemns the call by...Islam4UK for their proposed march in Wootton Bassett", and continues, "Like other Britons, Muslims are not opposed to Britain’s Armed Forces." The Wiltshire Islamic Cultural Centre stated "We, along with all other Muslim community groups in Wiltshire and the surrounding area, including Bath Islamic Society and Swindon Thamesdown Islamic Association, unreservedly condemn this march," adding, "Therefore we are putting the record straight and letting the media and general public know that the vast majority of Muslims have nothing to do with this group", and asking that Wiltshire Police ban the march. They stated that they, along with Call to Islam Centre and Masjid Al-Ghurabah, would counter-demonstrate against "Islam4UK/Al-Muhajiroon". On 10 January 2010 Islam4UK said it was cancelling its planned march in Wootton Bassett; however, the police had not actually received a request for permission for the march. Islam4UK was listed as an alias of Al Ghurabaa and The Saved Sect, already proscribed under the Terrorism Act 2004, by an order on 14 January 2010. In announcing the proscription, the then British Home Secretary Alan Johnson said: "It is already proscribed under two other names – Al Ghurabaa and The Saved Sect". In the January 2010 order and a November 2011 order, the names Al Muhajiroun, Call to Submission, Islamic Path, London School of Sharia and Muslims Against Crusades were also listed as aliases. In June 2014, Need4Khilafah, the Shariah Project and the Islamic Dawah Association were added to the list. Note that the order is not needed to establish an alias as identical to another name of a proscribed organization, it is enough that the two are to all intents and purposes the same, and that the individual prosecuted has performed a proscribed act. Islam4UK issued a statement saying, "Today's ban is another nail in the coffin of capitalism and another sign of the revival of Islam and Muslims." They restated their goal: "Therefore, we will one day liberate our land from occupation and implement the Shariah not just in Muslim countries but also right here in Great Britain. This is something that we believe in, live by and hope that in our lifetime we will witness". In a further statement, issued on the same day via their website, they stated that "Islam4UK has been contacted by authorities to (force) shut down its operations, we stress this domain name will no longer be used by us, but the struggle for Khilafah (aka "the Caliphate") will continue regardless of what the disbelievers plot against the Muslims. It is the duty of all Muslims to rise up and call for the Khilafah wherever they may be". The ban has led some ("the left", according to Sunny Hundal writing in The Guardian) to criticise it as a "blow to free expression", which will "serve to undermine the government’s effort to prevent violent extremism". Deborah Orr has commented in The Guardian that the ban "erodes democratic rights with the intention of defending them". Muslims Against Crusades: 2010–2011 The network re-emerged as Muslims Against Crusades (abbreviated MAC), notionally under Abu Assadullah in 2010, featuring members of Islam4UK after their banning such as boxer Anthony Small and Anjem Choudary. Muslims Against Crusades maintained that Muslims are not "obliged to obey the law of the land in whatever country they reside". In 2011 the group proposed that Muslims should set up independent emirates in select cities in the UK, operating under sharia (Islamic law) entirely outside British law. The group suggested the towns of Bradford, Dewsbury, and Tower Hamlets in the East End of London as the possible first test beds for these entities. The group has often clashed with the English Defence League. Home Secretary Theresa May banned the group from midnight on 11 November 2011, making membership or support of the group a criminal offence. The group was denounced by the Muslim Council of Britain, who described MAC as "a tiny, and utterly deplorable, extremist group". Many former MAC activists are currently active in Islamist groups known as 'Millatu Ibrahim' and the 'Tawheed Movement.' MAC engaged in a number of incidents including protests outside the Royal Albert Hall and in Kensington on 11 November 2010, when two large plastic poppies were burned during the Remembrance Day silence. A 2010 Remembrance Day ceremony in London was disrupted by members of the organization, who were protesting against British Army actions in Afghanistan and Iraq. They burnt large poppies and chanted "British soldiers burn in hell" during the two-minute silence. Two of the men were arrested and charged for threatening behavior. One was convicted and fined £50. The same group planned to hold another protest in 2011 named Hell for Heroes, declaring that soldiers fighting in Iraq and Afghanistan deserve to go to hell. The group was banned by the Home Secretary the day before the planned protest. Throughout 2010 and 2011 there were various protests against the imprisonment of Muslims, with calls for their release; and calls for a withdrawal of non-Muslim forces from Muslim countries. There was a protest against pastor Terry Jones when he burnt a Quran (the holy book of Islam) in Florida, US on 20 March 2011. They applied to the police to stage a demonstration in London to disrupt the royal wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton on 29 April 2011, but this was not allowed. They later cancelled their protest due to a "possible danger to life" On 2 May 2011 Osama Bin Laden, who had led the Islamist al-Qaeda organization responsible for violent attacks on the United States on 11 September 2001, was killed in Pakistan by US forces. On 7 May hundreds of UK Muslims and MAC members held a rally and Salat al-Janazah (funeral prayer) for him outside the US embassy in London. When protesters tried to storm the embassy there were clashes with police. Anjem Choudary, who organised the protest, warned of an attack similar to the 7 July 2005 London bombings in response to Bin Laden's death. On 30 July around 50 members of MAC and Waltham Forest Muslims marched for two hours from Leyton tube station to Walthamstow town square calling for democracy to be replaced by sharia law and chanted slogans such as 'democracy—hypocrisy', 'Sharia for UK' and 'Secularism go to hell'. In August, members of Muslims Against Crusades held a demonstration denouncing the Shia denomination and "anti-Islamic" Shia regimes of Syria and Iran. To mark the tenth anniversary of 11 September attacks, around 100 men linked to the group protested outside the US embassy in London, burning US flags and chanting through megaphones. The protest could be heard by mourners in 11 September Memorial Garden nearby, where a minute's silence was being observed to mark the first aeroplane hitting the World Trade Centre in New York City. On 10 November 2011 British Home Secretary Theresa May banned the group after it planned to repeat the poppy-burning demonstration; membership of Muslims Against Crusades became illegal at midnight. On 2 December 2011 twenty people were arrested on suspicion of being members of a banned group, and two for obstruction and violent disorder at a demonstration outside the US embassy in London; the police did not confirm a report that the protesters were members of MAC. The group was ridiculed on the television program Have I Got News For You, with Ian Hislop saying "aren't they a couple hundred years late, these Muslims Against Crusades?" Need4Khilafah and recent: 2011–present In June 2014, the UK government banned three more groups it suspected of being aliases for the extremist organisation al-Muhajiroun: Need4Khilafah the Shariah Project the Islamic Dawah Association Ideology Al-Muhajiroun's proclaimed aims are to establish public awareness about Islam, to influence public opinion in favour of the sharia, to convince members of society that Islam is inherently political and a viable ideological alternative, to unite Muslims on a global scale in the threats facing the Ummah and to resume the Islamic way of life by re-establishing the Islamic Caliphate. Members have carried out numerous murders and terrorist attacks. Their general worldview; with a heavy focus on a pan-Islamist-orientated worldwide caliphate is derived directly from its parent organisation Hizb al-Tahrir (founded by Taqiuddin al-Nabhani) as espoused by Omar Bakri Muhammad. The organisation is commonly described as Islamist and is sometimes classified as Salafist, however, some Salafists (who follow the line of Rabee al-Madkhali and other Salafists mainstream in the Arab Gulf states), consider Al-Muhajiroun and other modern "jihadist" groups which focus on politically motivated terrorism (particularly indiscriminate attacks against civilians) as modern day Kharajites, whose ideological line derives ultimately from the Muslim Brotherhood and Sayyid Qutb (supposedly influenced by non-Islamic "Leninist" ideas, these individuals, in their view "appropriated" the Salafi name for means of credibility within Islamic circles), rather than Ibn Taymiyyah. Terrorism Statements Aside from declaring the 9/11 hijackers "the Magnificent 19", controversial statements made by al-Muhajiroun include one warning the British government that it was "sitting on a box of dynamite and have only themselves to blame if after attacking the Islamic movements and the Islamic scholars, it all blows up in their face". In 2004 BBC Newsnight quoted one Al-Muhajiroun leader, Abu Ibrahim, as saying, When they speak about 11 September, when the two planes magnificently run through those buildings, OK and people turn around and say, 'hang on a second, that is barbaric. Why did you have to do that?' You know why? Because of ignorance. ... For us it's retaliation. Islam is not the starter of wars. If you start the war we won't turn the other cheek. ... According to you it can't be right. According to Islam it's right. When you talk about innocent civilians, do you not kill innocent civilians in Iraq? Attacks On 29 April 2003, Asif Hanif and Omar Sharif, who attended some of Al-Muhajiroun's circles, carried out a bombing of a café in Tel Aviv, Israel, that killed three people and injured 60 others. In 2006, another individual connected with Al-Muhajiroun allegedly detonated a bomb in India, killing himself and destroying an army barracks. In 2007, five young Muslims with Al-Muhajiroun connections – Omar Khyam, Waheed Mahmood, Anthony Garcia, Jawad Akbar and Saladhuddin Amin – were convicted of a multiple bombing plot to use fertiliser bombs "which police say could have killed hundreds of British people. The men were caught after police and MI5 launched a massive surveillance operation." The surveillance culminated in a raid called Operation Crevice. The targets included "the Bluewater shopping centre in Kent, the Ministry of Sound nightclub in London and Britain's domestic gas network." According to Professor Anthony Glees, director of the Brunel Centre for Intelligence and Security Studies:The fertiliser bomb trial has given us the smoking-gun evidence that groups like al-Muhajiroun have had an important part in radicalising young British Muslims, and that this can create terrorists. On 22 May 2013, the murder of Lee Rigby was carried out by two members of Al-Muhajiroun, Michael Adebolajo and Michael Adebowale. From about 2003, Adebolajo was corrupted by Bakri and then by Choudary, after Bakri left the country in August 2005. One former associate said Adebolajo that "locked himself in this room with this bloke for a few hours and when he came out he was a Muslim convert. He was spouting all kinds of stuff and said he had changed his name." Adebolajo insisted to be called during the Rigby trial "Mujahid". At least one of the perpetrators of the 2017 London Bridge attack, Khuram Butt, was a member. The 2019 London Bridge stabbing, carried out on 29 November by Usman Khan, a convicted terrorist, resulted in the death of two civilians and the wounding of three others. Khan was shot dead by police; he was a supporter of Al-Muhajiroun. 2019 weapons depot In 2019, a storage of weapons linked to al-Muhajiroun was found in Coventry. It included a sniper rifle and tracer rounds. See also UK Islamist demonstration outside Danish Embassy References Bibliography al-Ashanti, AbdulHaq and as-Salafi, Abu Ameenah AbdurRahman. (2009) A Critical Study of the Multiple Identities and Disguises of 'al-Muhajiroun': Exposing the Antics of the Cult Followers of Omar Bakri Muhammad Fustuq. London: Jamiah Media, 2009 Catherine Zara Raymond (May 2010), "Al Muhajiroun and Islam4UK: The group behind the ban", Developments in Radicalisation and Political Violence Papers, The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence, King's College London Further reading R. Watson – BBC – Newsnight article and BBC – Newsnight documentary 27 June 2017 BBC – 'Police raid Islamic group' BBC Newsnight's Richard Watson interviews Al-Muhajiroun recruits The Times (London) – 'Preacher of hate' is banned from Britain 10 March 2004, Mahan Abedin of Jamestown.org interviews Omar Bakri Mohammed at his London home Telegraph – Al Muhajiroun under scrutiny Telegraph – Militants of Al-Muhajiroun seek world Islamic state BBC HARDtalk interview, 5 May 2003, Anjem Choudary refuses to condemn suicide attacks. Washington Times – British Muslims called to take up jihad Militant groups in the UK The Guardian, 19 June 2002 Transplanted Jihadi UK Islamic Group, Banned from Campus, Claims Misrepresentation Gateway to Terror by Hope not Hate External links Official Islam4UK website, archived at webcitation.org Official MAC website (archived) Islamic organisations based in the United Kingdom Jihadist groups Islamic terrorism in the United Kingdom Organisations designated as terrorist by the United Kingdom 1983 establishments in Saudi Arabia 1996 establishments in the United Kingdom
870045	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayaan%20Hirsi%20Ali	Ayaan Hirsi Ali	Ayaan Hirsi Ali (; ; Somali: Ayaan Xirsi Cali: Ayān Ḥirsī 'Alī; born Ayaan Hirsi Magan, 13 November 1969) is a Somali-born Dutch-American activist, feminist, author, scholar and former politician. She received international attention as a critic of Islam and advocate for the rights and self-determination of Muslim women, actively opposing forced marriage, honor killing, child marriage and female genital mutilation. She has founded an organisation for the defense of women's rights, the AHA Foundation. Ayaan Hirsi Ali works for the Hoover Institution and the American Enterprise Institute. In 2003, Hirsi Ali was elected a member of the House of Representatives, the lower house of the States General of the Netherlands, representing the centre-right People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD). A political crisis related to the validity of her Dutch citizenship—namely the accusation that she had lied on her application for political asylum—led to her resignation from parliament, and indirectly to the fall of the second Balkenende cabinet in 2006. Hirsi Ali is a former Muslim who rejected the faith and became an atheist and has been a vocal critic of Islam. In 2004, she collaborated on a short film with Theo van Gogh, titled Submission, which depicted oppression of women under fundamentalist Islamic law, and was critical of the Islamic canon itself. The film led to controversy and death threats. Van Gogh was then murdered several days after the film's release by Mohammed Bouyeri, a Moroccan-Dutch Islamic terrorist. Hirsi Ali maintains that "Islam is part religion, and part a political-military doctrine, the part that is a political doctrine contains a world view, a system of laws and a moral code that is totally incompatible with our constitution, our laws, and our way of life." In her book Heretic (2015) she calls for a reformation of Islam by defeating the Islamists and supporting reformist Muslims. In 2005, Hirsi Ali was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. She has also received several awards, including a free speech award from the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten, the Swedish Liberal Party's Democracy Prize, and the Moral Courage Award for commitment to conflict resolution, ethics, and world citizenship. Critics accuse Ali of having built her political career on Islamophobia, and question her scholarly credentials "to speak authoritatively about Islam and the Arab world". Her works have been accused of using neo-Orientalist portrayals and of being an enactment of the colonial "civilizing mission" discourse. Hirsi Ali migrated to the United States and became a U.S. citizen in 2013. Early life and education Ayaan was born in 1969 in Mogadishu, Somalia. Her father, Hirsi Magan Isse, was a prominent member of the Somali Salvation Democratic Front and a leading figure in the Somali Revolution. Shortly after she was born, her father was imprisoned due to his opposition to the Siad Barre government. Hirsi Ali's father had studied abroad and was opposed to female genital mutilation, but while he was imprisoned, Hirsi Ali's grandmother had a man perform the procedure on her, when Hirsi Ali was five years old. According to Hirsi Ali, she was fortunate that her grandmother could not find a woman to do the procedure, as the mutilation was "much milder" when performed by men. After her father escaped from prison, he and the family left Somalia in 1977, going to Saudi Arabia and then to Ethiopia, before settling in Nairobi, Kenya by 1980. There he established a comfortable upper-class life for them. Hirsi Ali attended the English-language Muslim Girls' Secondary School. By the time she reached her teens, Saudi Arabia was funding religious education in numerous countries and its religious views were becoming influential among many Muslims. A charismatic religious teacher, trained under this aegis, joined Hirsi Ali's school. She inspired the teenaged Ayaan, as well as some fellow students, to adopt the more rigorous Saudi Arabian interpretations of Islam, as opposed to the more relaxed versions then current in Somalia and Kenya. Hirsi Ali said later that she had long been impressed by the Qur'an and had lived "by the Book, for the Book" throughout her childhood. She sympathised with the views of the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood, and wore a hijab with her school uniform. This was unusual at the time but has become more common among some young Muslim women. At the time, she agreed with the fatwa proclaimed against British Indian writer Salman Rushdie in reaction to the portrayal of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in his novel The Satanic Verses. After completing secondary school, Hirsi Ali attended a secretarial course at Valley Secretarial College in Nairobi for one year. As she was growing up, she also read English-language adventure stories, such as the Nancy Drew series, with modern heroine archetypes who pushed the limits of society. Also, remembering her grandmother refusing soldiers entry into her house, Hirsi Ali associated with Somalia "the picture of strong women: the one who smuggles in the food, and the one who stands there with a knife against the army and says, 'You cannot come into the house.' And I became like that. And my parents and my grandmother don't appreciate that now—because of what I've said about the Qur'an. I have become them, just in a different way." Early life in the Netherlands Hirsi Ali arrived in the Netherlands in 1992. That year she had travelled from Kenya to visit her family in Düsseldorf and Bonn, Germany and gone to the Netherlands to escape an arranged marriage. Once there, she requested political asylum and obtained a residence permit. She used her paternal grandfather's early surname on her application and has since been known in the West as Ayaan Hirsi Ali. She received a residence permit within three or four weeks of arriving in the Netherlands. At first she held various short-term jobs, ranging from cleaning to sorting post. She worked as a translator at a Rotterdam refugee center which, according to a friend interviewed in 2006 by The Observer newspaper, marked her deeply. As an avid reader, in the Netherlands she found new books and ways of thought that both stretched her imagination and frightened her. Sigmund Freud's work introduced her to an alternative moral system that was not based on religion. During this time she took courses in Dutch and a one-year introductory course in social work at the Hogeschool De Horst in Driebergen. She has said that she was impressed with how well Dutch society seemed to function. To better understand its development, she studied at the Leiden University (Leiden, Netherlands), where she obtained an MSc degree in political science in 2000. Between 1995 and 2001, Hirsi Ali also worked as an independent Somali-Dutch interpreter and translator, frequently working with Somali women in asylum centers, hostels for abused women, and at the Dutch immigration and naturalization service (IND, Immigratie- en Naturalisatiedienst). While working for the IND, she became critical of the way it handled asylum seekers. As a result of her education and experiences, Hirsi Ali speaks six languages: English, Somali, Arabic, Swahili, Amharic, and Dutch. Political career After gaining her degree, Hirsi Ali became a Fellow at the Wiardi Beckman Stichting (WBS), a think tank of the center-left Labour Party (PvdA). Leiden University Professor Ruud Koole was steward of the party. Hirsi Ali's writing at the WBS was inspired by the work of the neoconservative Orientalist Bernard Lewis. She became disenchanted with Islam, and was shocked by the September 11 attacks in the United States in 2001, for which al-Qaeda eventually claimed responsibility. After listening to videotapes of Osama bin Laden citing "words of justification" in the Qur'an for the attacks, she wrote, "I picked up the Qur'an and the hadith and started looking through them, to check. I hated to do it, because I knew that I would find Bin Laden's quotations in there." During this time of transition, she came to regard the Qur'an as relative—it was a historical record and "just another book." Reading Atheïstisch manifest ("Atheist Manifesto") of Leiden University philosopher Herman Philipse helped to convince her to give up religion. She renounced Islam and acknowledged her disbelief in God in 2002. She began to formulate her critique of Islam and Islamic culture, published many articles on these topics, and became a frequent speaker on television news programs and in public debate forums. She discussed her ideas at length in a book titled De zoontjesfabriek (The Son Factory) (2002). In this period, she first began to receive death threats. Cisca Dresselhuys, editor of the feminist magazine Opzij, introduced Hirsi Ali to Gerrit Zalm, the parliamentary leader of the centre-right People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD), and party member Neelie Kroes, then European Commissioner for Competition. At their urging, Hirsi Ali agreed to switch to their party of the VVD and stood for election to Parliament. Between November 2002 and January 2003, she lived abroad while on the payroll as an assistant of the VVD. In 2003, aged 33, Hirsi Ali successfully fought a parliamentary election. She said that the Dutch welfare state had overlooked abuse of Muslim women and girls in the Netherlands and their social needs, contributing to their isolation and oppression. During her tenure in Parliament, Hirsi Ali continued her criticisms of Islam and many of her statements provoked controversy. In an interview in the Dutch newspaper Trouw, she said that by Western standards, Muhammad as represented in the Qu'ran would be considered a pedophile. A religious discrimination complaint was filed against her on 24 April 2003 by Muslims who objected to her statements. The Prosecutor's office decided not to initiate a case, because her critique did "not put forth any conclusions in respect to Muslims and their worth as a group is not denied". Film with Theo van Gogh Working with writer and director Theo van Gogh, Hirsi Ali wrote the script and provided the voice-over for Submission (2004), a short film that criticised the treatment of women in Islamic society. Juxtaposed with passages from the Qur'an were scenes of actresses portraying Muslim women suffering abuse. An apparently nude actress dressed in a semi-transparent burqa was shown with texts from the Qur'an written on her skin. These texts are among those often interpreted as justifying the subjugation of Muslim women. The film's release sparked outrage among many Dutch Muslims. Mohammed Bouyeri, a 26-year-old Dutch Moroccan Islamist and member of the Muslim terrorist organisation Hofstad Group, assassinated van Gogh in an Amsterdam street on 2 November 2004. Bouyeri shot van Gogh with a handgun eight times, first from a distance and then at short range as the director lay wounded on the ground. He was already dead when Bouyeri cut his throat with a large knife and tried to decapitate him. Bouyeri left a letter pinned to Van Gogh's body with a small knife; it was primarily a death threat to Hirsi Ali. The Dutch secret service immediately raised the level of security they provided to Hirsi Ali. Bouyeri was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. In 2004 a rap song about Hirsi Ali titled "Hirsi Ali Dis" was produced and distributed on the internet by a group called "The Hague Connection". The lyrics included violent threats against her life. The rappers were prosecuted under Article 121 of the Dutch criminal code because they hindered Hirsi Ali's execution of her work as a politician. In 2005 they were sentenced to community service and a suspended prison sentence. Hirsi Ali went into hiding, aided by government security services, who moved her among several locations in the Netherlands. They moved her to the United States for several months. On 18 January 2005, she returned to parliament. On 18 February 2005, she revealed where she and her colleague Geert Wilders were living. She demanded a normal, secured house, which she was granted one week later. In January 2006 Hirsi Ali was recognised as "European of the Year" by Reader's Digest, an American magazine. In her speech, she urged action to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons. She also said that Mahmoud Ahmadinejad should be taken at his word in wanting to organise a conference to investigate objective evidence of the Holocaust, noting that the subject is not taught in the Middle East. She said, "Before I came to Europe, I'd never heard of the Holocaust. That is the case with millions of people in the Middle East. Such a conference should be able to convince many people away from their denial of the genocide against the Jews." She also said that what some have described as "Western values" of freedom and justice were universal. But she thought that Europe has done far better than most areas of the world in providing justice, as it has guaranteed the freedom of thought and debate required for critical self-examination. She said communities cannot reform unless "scrupulous investigation of every former and current doctrine is possible." Hirsi Ali was nominated as a candidate for the Nobel Peace Prize the same month by Norwegian parliamentarian Christian Tybring-Gjedde. In March 2006 she co-signed a letter titled "MANIFESTO: Together facing the new totalitarianism". Among the eleven other signatories was Salman Rushdie; as a teenager, Hirsi Ali had supported the fatwa against him. The letter was published in response to protests in the Islamic world surrounding the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in Denmark, and it supported freedom of press and freedom of expression. On 27 April 2006 a Dutch judge ruled that Hirsi Ali had to abandon her current secure house at a secret address in the Netherlands. Her neighbors had complained that she created an unacceptable security risk, but the police had testified that this neighborhood was one of the safest places in the country, as they had many personnel assigned to it for Hirsi Ali's protection. In an interview in early 2007, Hirsi Ali noted that the Dutch state had spent about €3.5 million on her protection; threats against her produced fear, but she believed it important to speak her mind. While regretting van Gogh's death, she said she was proud of their work together. A private trust, the Foundation for Freedom of Expression, was established in 2007 in the Netherlands to help fund protection of Ayaan Hirsi Ali and other Muslim dissidents. Dutch citizenship controversy In May 2006 the TV programme Zembla reported that Hirsi Ali had given false information about her name, her age, and her country of residence when originally applying for asylum. In her asylum application, she had claimed to be fleeing a forced marriage, but the Zembla coverage featured interviews with her family, who denied that claim. The program alleged that, contrary to Hirsi Ali's claims of having fled a Somali war zone, the MP had been living comfortably in upper middle-class conditions safely in Kenya with her family for at least 12 years before she sought refugee status in the Netherlands in 1992. In her version of events, she had fled civil war in Somalia, was forced into an arranged marriage with a man whom she had never met, and was not present at her own wedding. Upon escaping she was forced into hiding in the Netherlands, for her ex-husband and father's brothers would have been by Somali custom, required to perform an honor killing. The accounts of various witnesses varied greatly from hers. According to them, she left Somalia prior to any mass violence, and led a comfortable, upper-middle class life in neighboring Kenya, where she attended a Muslim Girls' school and received a full western-style education with focus on the Humanities and Science, her brother attended a Christian school, she lied to the Dutch immigration service about coming from Somalia in order not to be sent back to Kenya, and they allege she met her husband a few days before her wedding. After several meetings with him, they allege she agreed to the marriage, even though her mother said Ayaan should finish her education so she could afford to leave him if the marriage should prove unsuccessful. They also allege that Hirsi Ali was present at the wedding, something her brother later denied, and according to several witnesses appeared to be enjoying herself. Hirsi Ali denies all of this. On her way to Canada, she says she travelled to the Netherlands by train during a stopover in Germany, and applied for political asylum. During her stay in the Netherlands she regularly received letters from her father. The documentary also quoted several native Somalis as saying there is no tradition of honor killing in Somalia. Hirsi Ali had already admitted to friends and VVD party collegues that she had lied about her full name, date of birth, and the manner in which she had come to the Netherlands in her asylum application, but persisted in saying it was true that she was trying to flee a forced marriage. In her first book, The Son Factory (2002), she had already provided her real name and date of birth, and she had also stated these in a September 2002 interview published in the political magazine HP/De Tijd. and in an interview in the VARA gids (2002). Hirsi Ali asserted in her 2006 autobiography (2007 in English) Infidel that she had already made full disclosure of the discrepancy to VVD officials back when she was invited to run for parliament in 2002. On the issue of her name, she applied under her grandfather's surname in her asylum application ('Ali' instead of what had till then been 'Magan'), to which she was entitled nonetheless; she later said it was to escape detection and retaliation by her clan for the foiled marriage. In the later parliamentary investigation of Hirsi Ali's immigration, the Dutch law governing names was reviewed. An applicant may legally use a surname derived from any generation as far back as the grandparent. Therefore, Hirsi Ali's application, though against her clan custom of names, was legal under Dutch law. The question of her age was of minor concern. Media speculation arose in 2006 that she could lose her Dutch citizenship because of these issues, rendering her ineligible for parliament. At first, Minister Rita Verdonk said she would not look into the matter. She later decided to investigate Hirsi Ali's naturalisation process. The investigation found that Hirsi Ali had not legitimately received Dutch citizenship, because she had lied about her name and date of birth. However, later inquiries established that she was entitled to use the name Ali because it was her grandfather's name. Verdonk moved to annul Hirsi Ali's citizenship, an action later overridden at the urging of Parliament. On 15 May 2006, after the broadcast of the Zembla documentary, news stories appeared saying that Hirsi Ali was likely to move to the United States that September. She was reported to be planning to write a book titled Shortcut to Enlightenment and to work for the American Enterprise Institute. On 16 May Hirsi Ali resigned from Parliament after admitting that she had lied on her asylum application. In a press conference she said that the facts had been publicly known since 2002, when they had been reported in the media and in one of her publications. She also restated her claim of seeking asylum to prevent a forced marriage, stating: "How often do people who are seeking refuge provide different names? The penalty of stripping me of my Dutch citizenship is disproportional." Her stated reason for resigning immediately was the increasing media attention. Owing to the fact that a Dutch court had ruled in April 2006 that she had to leave her house by August 2006, she decided to relocate to the United States in September 2006. After a long and emotional debate in the Dutch Parliament, all major parties supported a motion requesting the Minister to explore the possibility of special circumstances in Hirsi Ali's case. Although Verdonk remained convinced that the applicable law did not leave her room to consider such circumstances, she decided to accept the motion. During the debate, she said that Hirsi Ali still had Dutch citizenship during the period of reexamination. Apparently the "decision" she had announced had represented the current position of the Dutch government. Hirsi Ali at that point had six weeks to react to the report before any final decision about her citizenship was taken. Verdonk was strongly criticised for her actions in such a sensitive case. In addition to her Dutch passport, Hirsi Ali retained a Dutch residency permit based on being a political refugee. According to the minister, this permit could not be taken away from her since it had been granted more than 12 years before. Reacting to news of Hirsi Ali's planned relocation to the US, former VVD leader Hans Wiegel stated that her departure "would not be a loss to the VVD and not be a loss to the House of Representatives". He said that Hirsi Ali was a brave woman, but that her opinions were polarizing. Former parliamentary leader of the VVD, Jozias van Aartsen, said that it is "painful for Dutch society and politics that she is leaving the House of Representatives". Another VVD MP, Bibi de Vries, said that if something were to happen to Hirsi Ali, some people in her party would have "blood on their hands". United States Deputy Secretary of State Robert Zoellick said in May 2006, "we recognise that she is a very courageous and impressive woman and she is welcome in the US." On 23 May 2006, Ayaan Hirsi made available to The New York Times some letters she believed would provide insight into her 1992 asylum application. In one letter her sister Haweya warned her that the entire extended family was searching for her (after she had fled to the Netherlands), and in another letter her father denounced her. Christopher DeMuth, president of the American Enterprise Institute (AEI), said that the asylum controversy would not affect the appointment. He stated that he was still looking forward to "welcoming her to AEI, and to America." On 27 June 2006, the Dutch government announced that Hirsi Ali would keep her Dutch citizenship. On the same day a letter was disclosed in which Hirsi Ali expressed regret for misinforming Minister Verdonk. Hirsi Ali was allowed to retain her name. Dutch immigration rules allowed asylum seekers to use grandparents' names. Her grandfather had used the last name Ali until his thirties and then switched to Magan, which was her father's and family's surname. This grandfather's birth year of 1845 had complicated the investigation. (Hirsi Ali's father Hirsi Magan Isse was the youngest of his many children and born when her grandfather was close to 90). Later the same day Hirsi Ali, through her lawyer and in television interviews, stated that she had signed the resignation letter, drafted by the Justice Department, under duress. She felt it was forced in order for her to keep her passport, but she had not wanted to complicate her pending visa application for the US. she still carried her Dutch passport. In a special parliamentary session on 28 June 2006, questions were raised about these issues. The ensuing political upheaval on 29 June ultimately led to the fall of the Second Balkenende cabinet. Life in the U.S. In 2006 Hirsi Ali took a position at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, D.C.; as the Dutch government continued to provide security for her, this required an increase in their effort and costs. Her high public profile and outspokenness continued to attract controversy. On 17 April 2007, the local Muslim community in Johnstown, Pennsylvania protested Hirsi Ali's planned lecture at the local campus of the University of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh imam Fouad El Bayly was reported as saying that the activist deserved the death sentence but should be tried and judged in an Islamic country. On 25 September 2007, Hirsi Ali received her United States Permanent Resident Card (green card). In October 2007 she returned to the Netherlands, continuing her work for AEI from a secret address in the Netherlands. The Dutch minister of Justice Hirsch Ballin had informed her of his ruling that, as of 1 October 2007, the Dutch government would no longer pay for her security abroad. That year she declined an offer to live in Denmark, saying she intended to return to the United States. She was a Fellow with the Future of Diplomacy Project at the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at The Harvard Kennedy School from 2016 to 2019. Al-Qaeda hit list In 2010 Anwar al-Awlaki published a hit list in his Inspire magazine, including Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Geert Wilders and Salman Rushdie along with cartoonists Lars Vilks and three Jyllands-Posten staff members: Kurt Westergaard, Carsten Juste, and Flemming Rose. The list was later expanded to include Stéphane "Charb" Charbonnier, who was murdered in a terror attack on Charlie Hebdo in Paris, along with 11 other people. After the attack, Al-Qaeda called for more killings. Brandeis University In early 2014 Brandeis University in Massachusetts announced that Ali would be given an honorary degree at the graduation commencement ceremony. In early April, the university rescinded its offer following a review of her statements that was carried out in response to protests by the Council on American–Islamic Relations (CAIR) and lobbying by Joseph E. B. Lumbard, Head of the Islamic Studies Department, other faculty members and several student groups that accused Hirsi Ali of "hate speech". University president Frederick M. Lawrence said that "certain of her past statements" were inconsistent with the university's "core values" because they were "Islamophobic". Others expressed opinions both for and against this decision. The university said she was welcome to come to the campus for a dialogue in the future. The university's withdrawal of its invitation generated controversy and condemnation among some. But, The Economist noted at the time that Hirsi Ali's "Wholesale condemnations of existing religions just aren't done in American politics." It said that "The explicit consensus in America is ecumenical and strongly pro-religious". The university was distinguishing between an open intellectual exchange, which could occur if Hirsi Ali came to campus for a dialogue, and appearing to celebrate her with an honorary degree. A Brandeis spokesperson said that Ali had not been invited to speak at commencement but simply to be among honorary awardees. She claimed to have been invited to speak and expressed shock at Brandeis' action. Hirsi Ali said CAIR's letter misrepresented her and her work, but that it has long been available on the Internet. She said that the "spirit of free expression" has been betrayed and stifled. David Bernstein, a law professor at George Mason University, criticised the Brandeis decision as an attack on academic values of freedom of inquiry and intellectual independence. Lawrence J. Haas, the former communications director and press secretary for Vice President Al Gore, published an open letter saying that Brandeis' president had "succumbed to political correctness and interest group pressure in deciding that Islam is beyond the pale of legitimate inquiry ... that such a decision is particularly appalling for a university president, for a campus is precisely the place to encourage free discussion even on controversial matters." Designation by Southern Poverty Law Center In October 2016, the Southern Poverty Law Center accused Ayaan, and the Muslim activist Maajid Nawaz, of being "anti-Muslim extremists", which caused protests in several prominent newspapers. The Lantos Foundation for Human Rights & Justice wrote a public letter to the SPLC asking them to retract the listings. In April 2018, the SPLC retracted the "Anti-Muslim Extremist" List in its entirety after Nawaz threatened legal action over his inclusion on the list. In June 2018 the SPLC settled with Nawaz, paying him US$3.375 million and issuing an apology. Australia tour In April 2017 she cancelled a planned tour of Australia. This followed the Facebook release of a video by six Australian Muslim women who accused her of being a "star of the global Islamophobia industry" and of profiting from "an industry that exists to dehumanize Muslim women" but did not call for her to cancel her trip. Ali responded that the women in question were "carrying water" for the causes of radical Islamists and stated that "Islamophobia" is a manufactured word. She said that the cancellation was due to organisational problems. Social and political views Hirsi Ali joined the VVD political party in 2002; it combines "classically liberal" views on the economy, foreign policy, crime and immigration with a liberal social stance on abortion and homosexuality. She says that she admires Frits Bolkestein, a former Euro-commissioner and ideological leader of the party. Hirsi Ali is the founder and president of the AHA Foundation, a non-profit humanitarian organisation to protect women and girls in the U.S. against political Islam and harmful tribal customs that violate U.S. law and international conventions. Through the AHA Foundation, Hirsi Ali campaigns against the denial of education for girls, female genital mutilation, forced marriage, honour violence and killings, and suppression of information about the crimes through the misuse and misinterpretation of rights to freedom of religion and free speech in the U.S. and the West. Islam and Muslims Hirsi Ali is critical of the treatment of women in Islamic societies and the punishments demanded by conservative Islamic scholars for homosexuality, blasphemy and adultery. She publicly identified as Muslim until 28 May 2002, when she acknowledged in her diary that she knew she was not. She also explained in an interview that she began a serious reassessment of her religious beliefs after the 9/11 attacks and when she was drinking wine in an Italian restaurant, stating "I asked myself: Why should I burn in hell just because I'm drinking this? But what prompted me even more was the fact that the killers of 9/11 all believed in the same God I believed in." In a 2007 interview in the London Evening Standard, Hirsi Ali characterised Islam as "the new fascism": Just like Nazism started with Hitler's vision, the Islamic vision is a caliphate—a society ruled by Sharia law—in which women who have sex before marriage are stoned to death, homosexuals are beaten, and apostates like me are killed. Sharia law is as inimical to liberal democracy as Nazism ... Violence is inherent in Islam—it's a destructive, nihilistic cult of death. It legitimates murder. In a 2007 article in Reason, Hirsi Ali said that Islam, the religion, must be defeated and that "we are at war with Islam. And there's no middle ground in wars." She said, "Islam, period. Once it's defeated, it can mutate into something peaceful. It's very difficult to even talk about peace now. They're not interested in peace ... There comes a moment when you crush your enemy. ... and if you don't do that, then you have to live with the consequence of being crushed." Adding: "the Christian powers have accepted the separation of the worldly and the divine. We don't interfere with their religion, and they don't interfere with the state. That hasn't happened in Islam." She reiterated her position that the problem isn't just a few "rotten apples" in the Islamic community but "I'm saying it's the entire basket." She stated that the majority of Muslims aren't "moderates" and they must radically alter their religion. Max Rodenbeck, writing in The New York Review of Books, noted that Ali now narrowly criticizes what she calls "Medina Muslims", meaning the fundamentalists who envision a regime based on sharia, and who ignore the more inclusive passages of Muhammad's Meccan period, a small minority of Muslims, who are, nevertheless, quite influential among young Muslims, according to Hirsi Ali: "These men, I find them to be far more influential in inspiring and mobilising young men to see the religion of Islam the way they see it, than the way either Imam Faisal says he sees it, or Maajid Nawaz says he sees it." Ayaan Hirsi Ali stated that, in her opinion, "The Christian extremists here, in the United States, who take the Bible and use it to kill people and hurt people, they are the fringe, but unfortunately, what we are seeing in Muslim countries is that the people who feel they should be governed under the Sharia Law, are not a fringe. ... Islam can become a religion of peace, if politics is divorced from religion", and she stated that: "The individual that wants to kill me because I am an apostate of Islam, is inspired to do that from the scripture of Islam, the example of the prophet Mohammed, the clergy that preached to him, and the reward that he will get in the hereafter." Although Hirsi Ali has previously described Islam as beyond reform, she has stated that the Arab spring and growing visibility of women's rights activists within Muslim societies has demonstrated to her that a liberal reformation of Islam is possible and outlines how this could be achieved in her book Heretic by supporting reformist Muslims. She described Islamic societies as lagging "in enlightened thinking, tolerance and knowledge of other cultures" and that their history cannot cite a single person who "made a discovery in science or technology, or changed the world through artistic achievement". In a 2010 interview with The Guardian, she compared the responses of Christians and Muslims to criticism of their respective religions. While Christians would often simply ignore criticism, Muslims would instead take offence, display a victim mentality and take criticism as insults. She insists that many contemporary Muslims have not yet transitioned to modernity, and that many Muslim immigrants are culturally unsuited to life in the West and are therefore a burden. Ali calls upon atheists, Christians, Europeans, and Americans to unite against Muslim extremism in the West. She urges the former to educate Muslims and the latter, especially Western Churches, to convert "as many Muslims as possible to Christianity, introducing them to a God who rejects Holy War and who has sent his son to die for all sinners out of love for mankind". Hirsi Ali stated that: "Islam needs a reformation. Muslim leaders who are serious about achieving true and enduring peace, need to revise the Koran and the Hadith, so there is a consistency between what the peaceloving Muslims want and what their religion says." Hirsi Ali speaking in April 2015, on an Australian Broadcasting Corporation radio program said, It's wrong for Western leaders like [former Prime Minister of Australia] Tony Abbott to say the actions of the Islamic State aren't about religion. I want to say to him 'please don't say such things in public because it's just not true.' You're letting down all the individuals who are reformers within Islam who are asking the right questions that will ultimately bring about change. In an interview following the November 2015 Paris attacks, Hirsi Ali responded to Barack Obama's statement that the West should not declare a war on Islam by agreeing that while Western civilization is not at war with the Muslim world as a whole, Islamic extremists and terrorists who are abetted by conservative Islamic nations such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar and invoke Islamic theology are waging a war on Western society and that American and European governments need to understand Islamic fundamentalism is an ongoing threat to Westernized society which predates 9/11. Speaking shortly after the 2015 San Bernardino shooting, Hirsi Ali commented on the nature of radicalization within communities of Islamic believers, stating, "If we talk about the process of what we now call radicalization, that you see a process where individuals are putting on a religious identity. It's all about being a Muslim, you shed the rest of it or you downplay the rest of it and you try to make everyone else as pious as yourself. And this would be, looking back at San Bernardino, the telltale signs. These changes that the family, the friends, the close circle of relatives should have observed." When discussing Muslims who become radicalized by Islamic state on the internet, Hirsi Ali argued that many of these people already adhered to fundamentalist Islamic ideas or came from families and communities that followed a literal practice of Islam before ISIS declared a caliphate, and that ISIS now gave them a focus to execute their beliefs. She commented that what the media has come to refer to as radical Islam or extremist individuals are in fact Muslims who become more pious in their beliefs and take both the Quran and examples set by the Prophet Muhammad literally. She concluded that "people who have that mentality and that mindset are not a minority and they are not a fringe minority. Because of the large number of people who believe in this within Muslim communities and families who believe in this, definitely not all, but it is so large that these individuals who want to take action, who want to take it beyond believing and beyond practicing but actually want to kill people, they have a large enough group to hide in." In a 2016 presentation for the American conservative platform Prager University, Hirsi Ali asserted that a reform of Islam was vital. She elaborated that while the majority of Muslims are peaceful, Islam as a belief-system in its current form cannot be considered a religion of peace as justification for violence against homosexuals, apostates and those deemed guilty blasphemy are still clearly stated within Islamic scripture and that Western leaders need to stop downplaying the link between Islam and Islamic terrorism. She also added that Western progressives have often dismissed reformist and dissident Muslims as "not representative" and accused any criticism of Islam as racist. She argued that instead, Western liberals should assist and ally themselves with Muslim reformists who put themselves at risk to push for change by drawing a parallel to when Russian dissidents who internally challenged the ideology of the Soviet Union during the Cold War were celebrated and assisted by people in the West. In 2017, Hirsi Ali spoke of how Dawah is often a precursor to Islamism. In an article for The Sun she stated "in theory, dawa is a simple call to Islam. As Islamists practice the concept, however, it is a subversive, indoctrinating precursor to jihad. A process of methodical brainwashing that rejects assimilation and places Muslims in opposition to Western civic ideals. It is facilitated by funding from the Middle East, local charities and is carried out in mosques, Islamic centres, Muslim schools and even in people's living rooms. Its goal is to erode and ultimately destroy the political institutions of a free society and replace them with Sharia law." In September 2020, Hirsi Ali compared "Wokeism" and the Black Lives Matter movement to ISIS, saying both reflected the "intolerant doctrines of a religious cult". Muhammad Hirsi Ali criticises the central Islamic prophet on morality and personality traits (criticisms based on biographical details or depictions by Islamic texts and early followers of Muhammad). In January 2003 she told the Dutch paper Trouw, "Muhammad is, seen by our Western standards, a pervert and a tyrant", as he married, at the age of 53, Aisha, who was six years old and nine at the time the marriage was consummated. She later said: "Perhaps I should have said 'a pedophile'". Muslims filed a religious discrimination suit against her that year. The civil court in the Hague acquitted Hirsi Ali of any charges, but said that she "could have made a better choice of words". Genital mutilation Hirsi Ali is a prominent opponent of female genital mutilation (FGM), which she has criticized in many of her writings. When in the Dutch parliament, she proposed obligatory annual medical checks for all uncircumcised girls living in the Netherlands who came from countries where FGM is practised. She proposed that if a physician found that a Dutch girl had been mutilated, a report to the police would be required—with protection of the child prevailing over privacy. In 2004 she also criticized male circumcision, particularly as practiced by Jews and Muslims, which she regarded as being another variant of mutilation practiced without the consent of the individual. Feminism Hirsi Ali has criticized Western feminists for avoiding the issue of the subjugation of women in the Muslim world and singled out Germaine Greer for arguing that FGM needs to be considered a "cultural identity" that Western women don't understand. During the Brandeis University controversy, Hirsi Ali noted that "an authority on 'Queer/Feminist Narrative Theory' ... [sided] with the openly homophobic Islamists" in speaking against her. Rich Lowry wrote in Politico that while Hirsi Ali had many traits which should have made her a "feminist hero" such as being a refugee from an abusive patriarchy, being an African immigrant who made her way to a Western country and an advocate for women's rights, this does not happen because she is "a dissident of the wrong religion". Feminists instead criticise Hirsi Ali for "strengthening racism" instead of "weakening sexism". Freedom of speech In a 2006 lecture in Berlin, she defended the right to offend, following the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy in Denmark. She condemned the journalists of those papers and TV channels that did not show their readers the cartoons as being "mediocre of mind". She also praised publishers all over Europe for showing the cartoons and not being afraid of what she called the "hard-line Islamist movement". In 2017, Hirsi Ali described the word Islamophobia as a "manufactured term" and argued "we can't stop the injustices if we say everything is Islamophobic and hide behind a politically correct screen." Political opponents In 2006 Hirsi Ali as MP supported the move by the Dutch courts to abrogate the party subsidy to a conservative Protestant Christian political party, the Political Reformed Party (SGP), which did not grant full membership rights to women and withholds passive voting rights from female members. She said that any political party discriminating against women or homosexuals should be deprived of funding. Opposition to denominational or faith schools In the Netherlands about half of all education has historically been provided by sponsored religious schools, most of them Catholic or Protestant. As Muslims began to ask for support for schools, the state provided it and by 2005, there were 41 Islamic schools in the nation. This was based on the idea in the 1960s that Muslims could become one of the "pillars" of Dutch society, as were Protestants, Catholics and secular residents. Hirsi Ali has opposed state funding of any religious schools, including Islamic ones. In a 2007 interview with London-based Evening Standard, Hirsi Ali urged the British government to close all Muslim faith schools in the country and instead integrate Muslim pupils into mainstream society, arguing "Britain is sleepwalking into a society that could be ruled by Sharia law within decades unless Islamic schools are shut down and young Muslims are instead made to integrate and accept Western liberal values." In 2017, Hirsi Ali reasserted her belief that Islamic faith schools should be closed if they are found to be indoctrinating their students into political Islam and that such faith schools often exist in migrant dominated communities where students will have a lesser chance of integrating into mainstream society and that such cultural and educational "cocooning" breeds a lack of understanding or hostility towards the host culture. In 2020, Hirsi Ali stated that children in predominantly Muslim schools are less likely to be taught about the Holocaust and argued that schools should not cave into demands from Muslim parents that children should not be taught to remember the Holocaust in history lessons. Development aid The Netherlands has always been one of the most prominent countries that support aiding developing countries. As the spokesperson of the VVD in the parliament on this matter, Hirsi Ali said that the current aid policy had not achieved an increase in prosperity, peace and stability in developing countries: "The VVD believes that Dutch international aid has failed until now, as measured by [the Dutch aid effects on] poverty reduction, famine reduction, life expectancy and the promotion of peace." Immigration Public statements In 2003 Hirsi Ali worked together with fellow VVD MP Geert Wilders for several months. They questioned the government about immigration policy. In reaction to the UN Development Programme Arab Human Development Report, Hirsi Ali asked questions of Minister of Foreign Affairs Jaap de Hoop Scheffer and the Minister without Portfolio for Development Cooperation Agnes van Ardenne. Together with Wilders, she asked the government to pay attention to the consequences for Dutch policy concerning the limitation of immigration from the Arab world to Europe, and in particular the Netherlands. Although she publicly supported the policy of VVD minister Rita Verdonk to limit immigration, privately she was not supportive, as she explained in a June 2006 interview for Opzij. This interview was given after she resigned from Parliament, and shortly after she had moved to the United States. In parliament, Hirsi Ali had supported the way Verdonk handled the Pasić case, although privately she felt that Pasić should have been allowed to stay. On the night before the debate, she phoned Verdonk to tell her that she had lied when she applied for asylum in the Netherlands, just as Pasić had. She said that Verdonk responded that if she had been minister at that time, she would have had Hirsi Ali deported. In 2015 when Donald Trump suggested a complete ban on all Muslims entering the United States as part of his presidential campaign, Hirsi Ali responded by saying that such a pledge gave "false hope" to voters by questioning the reality of how such policy would be implemented and in practice it would offer a short-term solution to a long term ideological issue. However, she also praised Trump's campaign messages for highlighting the problems posed by Islamic fundamentalism and said the outgoing Obama administration had "conspicuously avoided any discussion of Islamic theology, even avoiding use of the term radical Islam altogether." In response to the Trump administration's Executive Order 13769 which imposed a travel ban on and temporarily restricted immigration and visa applications from several Muslim majority countries, Hirsi Ali described the ban as both "clumsy" but also "too narrow" for excluding nations such as Pakistan and Saudi Arabia who have been implicated in terrorism. However, she also stated agreement with Trump's assertion that some immigrants from Muslim nations are less likely to adapt to a Westernized lifestyle or are harder to screen as potential security risks, citing Ahmad Khan Rahami and Tashfeen Malik as examples of Muslims who entered the U.S. on immigration visas before committing acts of terrorism. She also maintained that as an immigrant herself, she was not opposed to Muslim immigrants coming to America seeking a better life but expressed concern over the attitudes that younger generations of Muslim-Americans bring with them and that society had a limited capacity to change those values. She has also defended the right for Western nations to screen all prospective Muslim immigrants to assess their beliefs and deport or deny residency to those who display sympathetic views to fundamentalism and violence. In 2020, Ayaan echoed statements made by French President Emmanuel Macron that Muslim immigrant communities, composed of both newly arrived migrants and second generation immigrants, had formed "separatist societies" in some European nations, and that there are "pockets of Europe" where Muslims have limited access to education or jobs and extremist Muslims "come in and take advantage of them." She also argued that many of the problems Europe faces in the twenty first century with terrorism and parallel societies was born out of "racism of low expectations" in the past, in which European governments did not expect immigrants from Middle Eastern or African backgrounds to become Europeanized or have the capability to contribute positively, but instead out of misguided compassion, multicultural sentiments and political correctness, encouraged immigrants to keep their native cultures or caved into demands from religiously conservative immigrant communities who rejected European culture. Writings Hirsi Ali discussed her view on immigration in Europe, in an op-ed article published in the Los Angeles Times in 2006. Noting that immigrants are over-represented "in all the wrong statistics", she wrote that the European Union's immigration policy contributed to the illegal trade in women and arms, and the exploitation of poor migrants by "cruel employers". She drew attention to the numerous illegal immigrants already in the European Union. She believed that current immigration policy would lead to ethnic and religious division, nation states will lose their monopoly of force, Islamic law (sharia) will be introduced at the level of neighborhoods and cities, and exploitation of women and children will become "commonplace". To avoid this situation, she proposes three general principles for a new policy: Admission of immigrants on the basis of their contribution to the economy. The current system "is designed to attract the highest number of people with truly heartbreaking stories". Diplomatic, economic and military interventions in countries that cause large migrant flows. Introduction of assimilation programs that acknowledge that "the basic tenets of Islam are a major obstacle to integration". Regarding unemployment, social marginalization and poverty among certain immigrant communities, Hirsi Ali places the burden of responsibility squarely on Islam and migrant culture. In 2010, she opposed the idea of preventing immigrants from traditional Muslim societies from immigrating, claiming that allowing them to immigrate made the U.S. a "highly moral country". The subject is also discussed in her 2017 Hoover Institution Press publication "The Challenge of Dawa, Political Islam as Ideology and Movement and How to Counter It". In 2017, Hirsi Ali identified what she regarded as four categories of Muslim immigrants and asylum seekers in the West she has encountered in her personal and professional life: Adapters, who over time embrace core values of Western democracies, adapt to public life and use freedoms found in the West to educate and economically better themselves. Menaces, mostly poorly assimilated young men who routinely commit crimes and acts of violence. Coasters, men and women with little formal education who live off welfare and use lax immigration rules to invite extended family to do the same. Fanatics, who abuse freedoms given to them in Western nations that gave them sanctuary to impose an uncompromising practice of Islam. However, she also maintained that each category is not rigid and menaces can become fanatics by becoming exposed to Islamism in prison while the children of immigrant adapters can turn into fanatics through rejecting liberalism and embracing stricter and fundamentalist branches of Islam. She has also written in support of refusing residency and citizenship to those who cannot become adapters. Assimilation "When I speak of assimilation", Ali clarifies, "I mean assimilation into civilization. Aboriginals, Afghanis, Somalis, Arabs, Native Americans—all these non-Western groups have to make that transition to modernity". Sadiya Abubakar Isa criticized these comments in an article for the Indonesian Journal of Islam and Muslim Societies, accusing her of Orientalism. Israel and the Palestinians Hirsi Ali has expressed support for Israel: As for Israel's problems, Hirsi Ali says, "From my superficial impression, the country also has a problem with fundamentalists. The ultra-Orthodox will cause a demographic problem because these fanatics have more children than the secular and the regular Orthodox." On Palestinians: On the way Israel is perceived in the Netherlands: The crisis of Dutch socialism can be sized up in its attitudes toward both Islam and Israel. It holds Israel to exceptionally high moral standards. The Israelis, however, will always do well, because they themselves set high standards for their actions. The standards for judging the Palestinians, however, are very low. Most outsiders remain silent on all the problems in their territories. That helps the Palestinians become even more corrupt than they already are. Those who live in the territories are not allowed to say anything about this because they risk being murdered by their own people. Hirsi Ali has also said Western governments should stop "demonizing" the state of Israel and instead look to the country as an example of how to implement efficient border security and counter-terrorism measures. Personal life Hirsi Ali married British historian Niall Ferguson on 10 September 2011. They have two sons. Reception Hirsi Ali has attracted praise and criticism from English-speaking commentators. Literary critic and journalist Christopher Hitchens regarded her as "the most important public intellectual probably ever to come out of Africa." Patt Morrison of the Los Angeles Times called Hirsi Ali a freedom fighter for feminism who has "put her life on the line to defend women against radical Islam." Tunku Varadarajan wrote in 2017 that, with "multiple fatwas on her head, Hirsi Ali has a greater chance of meeting a violent end than anyone I've met, Salman Rushdie included." According to Andrew Anthony of The Guardian, Ayaan Hirsi Ali is admired by secularists and "loathed not just by Islamic fundamentalists but by many western liberals, who find her rejection of Islam almost as objectionable as her embrace of western liberalism." The Caged Virgin In his 2006 review of this collection of seventeen essays and articles on Islam by Hirsi Ali, journalist Christopher Hitchens noted her three themes: "first, her own gradual emancipation from tribalism and superstition; second, her work as a parliamentarian to call attention to the crimes being committed every day by Islamist thugs in mainland Europe; and third, the dismal silence, or worse, from many feminists and multiculturalists about this state of affairs." He described the activist as a "charismatic figure in Dutch politics" and criticised the Dutch government for how it protected her from Islamic threats after her collaboration with Theo van Gogh on the short film Submission and the assassination of the director. Mahmood noted that the title of the work is "highly reminiscent of the nineteenth-century literary genre centered on Orientalist fantasies of the harem". Infidel: My Life (2007 in English) The Guardian summarised Infidel: "[Hirsi Ali]'s is a story of exile from her clan through war, famine, arranged marriage, religious apostasy and the shocking murder on the streets of Amsterdam of her collaborator, Theo van Gogh. Told with lyricism, wit, huge sorrow and a great heart, this is one of the most amazing adventure narratives of the age of mass migration." William Grimes wrote in The New York Times: "The circuitous, violence-filled path that led Ms. Hirsi Ali from Somalia to the Netherlands is the subject of "Infidel," her brave, inspiring and beautifully written memoir. Narrated in clear, vigorous prose, it traces the author's geographical journey from Mogadishu to Saudi Arabia, Ethiopia and Kenya, and her desperate flight to the Netherlands to escape an arranged marriage." In his critique of the book, Christopher Hitchens noted that two leading leftist intellectual commentators, Timothy Garton Ash and Ian Buruma, described Hirsi Ali as an "Enlightenment fundamentalist[s]". Hitchens noted further that, far from being a "fundamentalist", Hirsi escaped from a "society where women are subordinate, censorship is pervasive, and violence is officially preached against unbelievers." Nomad: From Islam to America The Guardian observed that Nomad describes "a clan system shattering on the shores of modernity". The books expands Hirsi Ali's previous early life descriptions focusing on "the remarkable figure of her grandmother, who gave birth to daughters alone in the desert and cut her own umbilical cord, raged at herself for producing too many girls, rebelled against her husband, arranged for the circumcision of her granddaughters and instilled in them an unforgiving, woman-hating religion." "Hirsi Ali observes that her own nomadic journey has been taken across borders that have been mental as much as geographical. In Nomad she calls her ancestral voices into direct confrontation with her demands for reform of Islamic theology. The result is electrifying." Hirsi Ali called Nomad her most provocative book for urging moderate Muslims to become Christians. She later backed off this view. After witnessing the Arab Spring, Hirsi Ali also took back her argument in Nomad that Islam is beyond reform. Heretic: Why Islam Needs a Reformation Now In the book Hirsi Ali quoted statistics such that 75% of Pakistanis favour the death penalty for apostasy and argue that Sharia law is gaining ground in many Muslim-majority nations. Hirsi Ali quotes verses in the Qur'an encouraging followers to use violence and make the argument that as long as the Qur'an is perceived to be the literal divine words, violent extremists have a justification for their acts. Andrew Anthony for The Guardian in 2015 wrote that even her fiercest critics would have problems denying what Hirsi Ali writes about current issues in Islam and since those issues are unpalatable an added difficulty was a cultural practice at the time to "not offend anyone". Anthony concluded that regardless of what critics may think of her solution, Hirsi Ali should be commended for her "unblinking determination to address the problem". Susan Dominus of The New York Times wrote: "In "Heretic," Hirsi Ali forgoes autobiography for the most part in favor of an extended argument. But she has trouble making anyone else's religious history—even that of Muhammad himself, whose life story she recounts—as dramatic as she has made her own. And she loses the reader's trust with overblown rhetoric. ... She tries to warn Americans about their naïveté in the face of encroaching Islamic influences, maintaining that officials and journalists, out of cultural sensitivity, sometimes play down the honor killings that occur in the West." The Economist wrote: "Unfortunately, very few Muslims will accept Ms Hirsi Ali's full-blown argument, which insists that Islam must change in at least five important ways. A moderate Muslim might be open to discussion of four of her suggestions if the question were framed sensitively. Muslims, she says, must stop prioritizing the afterlife over this life; they must 'shackle sharia' and respect secular law; they must abandon the idea of telling others, including non-Muslims, how to behave, dress or drink; and they must abandon holy war. However, her biggest proposal is a show-stopper: she wants her old co-religionists to 'ensure that Muhammad and the Koran are open to interpretation and criticism.'" Clifford May of The Washington Times wrote: "The West is enmeshed in 'an ideological conflict' that cannot be won 'until the concept of jihad has itself been decommissioned.'" May goes on to suggest that if "American and Western leaders continue to refuse to comprehend who is fighting us and why, the consequences will be dire." In May 2015, Mehdi Hasan wrote an article in The Guardian arguing that Islam doesn't need a reformation and that she will never win any fans over from Muslims, regardless of whether they're liberal or conservative. Hasan wrote: "She's been popping up in TV studios and on op-ed pages to urge Muslims, both liberal and conservative, to abandon some of their core religious beliefs while uniting behind a Muslim Luther. Whether or not mainstream Muslims will respond positively to a call for reform from a woman who has described the Islamic faith as a 'destructive, nihilistic cult of death' that should be 'crushed' and also suggesting that Benjamin Netanyahu be given the Nobel Peace Prize, is another matter." Hasan also invoked the death toll of the Christian sectarian conflicts of Thirty Years' War and the French Wars of Religion to argue that an Islamic reformation would lead to conflicts of a similar scale. Hasan also wrote that Islamic reformation should not be promoted by non-Muslims or ex-Muslims. Criticism Ali's public commentary and stances, particularly her criticisms of Islam, have elicited denunciations from a number of commentators and academics. Ibrahim Hooper, a spokesman for the Council on American-Islamic Relations, condemned her as "one of the worst of the worst of the Islam haters in America, not only in America but worldwide." Saba Mahmood wrote that Hirsi Ali "had no public profile until she decided to capitalize on the anti-Muslim sentiment that swept Europe following the events of 9/11". Adam Yaghi has questioned her appeal in American society where her "serial autobiographies are treated as honest and reliable testimonies in spite of the troubling inaccuracies, exaggerated descriptions, blunt neo-Orientalist portrayals, and sweeping generalizations". Stephen Sheehi wrote that in spite of her lack of scholarly credentials and academic qualifications "to speak authoritatively about Islam and the Arab world", Hirsi Ali has been accepted in the West as a scholar, feminist activist, and reformer primarily on the grounds of her "insider claims about Islam". Other critics have called Ali an "inauthentic ethnic voice" at the service of "imperialist feminism". Kiran Grewal asserted that Ali is "a classic enactment of the colonial 'civilizing mission' discourse", while Salon's Nathan Leal called Hirsi Ali's story as the "modern-day version of [a] hoary captivity narrative" of the type popular during the Barbary Wars. Grewal described Ali's works as using "the language of 'lived experience' to justify an intolerant and exclusionary message" and alleged that her "extremely provocative and often offensive statements regarding Islam and Muslim immigrants in the West" had alienated some feminists and academics. Yaghi commented that "Ali attributes everything bad to a monolithic Islam, one that transcends geographic and national boundaries ... willfully ignoring her own distinctions between different interpretations of Islam, versions she personally encountered before leaving to the West". Pearl Abraham has made a similar observation: "[I]n her writings, lectures, and interviews", Ali "reaches for the simple solution and quick answer. Always and everywhere, she insists on depicting Islam and Muslims as the enemy, her tribal culture as backward". Hirsi Ali is also criticized for persistently singling out Islam and Muslims, but never manifestations of religious revivalism present with other religions. According to Rula Jebreal, a Palestinian journalist and foreign policy analyst, Ali's criticism applies mostly to "Wahhabism", the strain of Islam most familiar to Hirsi Ali, and not to Islam as a whole. Jebreal added that Ali's "outbursts" originated from her own pain, "physical scars inflicted on her body during childhood", which were justified by a radical version of the religion into which she was born. Jebreal wrote: "To endorse Hirsi Ali so unabashedly is to insult and mock a billion Muslims. It's time to listen to what is being said by the Muslim voices of peace and tolerance. Ayaan Hirsi Ali is not one of them." Publications Hirsi Ali has continued discussion of these issues in her two autobiographies, published in Dutch in 2006 and in English in 2010. In her first work, she said that in 1992 her father arranged to marry her to a distant cousin. She says that she objected to this both on general grounds (she has said she dreaded being forced to submit to a stranger, sexually and socially), and specifically to this man, whom she described as a "bigot" and an "idiot" in her book. She told her family that she planned to join her husband, who was living in Canada, after obtaining a visa while in Germany. But in her autobiography, she said she spent her time in Germany trying to devise an escape from her unwanted marriage. She decided to visit a relative in the Netherlands, and to seek help after arrival and claim asylum. Her first autobiography, Infidel (2006), was published in English in 2007. In a review, American Enterprise Institute fellow Joshua Muravchik described the book as "simply a great work of literature", and compared her to novelist Joseph Conrad. In her second autobiography, Nomad (2010, in English), Hirsi Ali wrote that in early 2006, Rita Verdonk had personally approached her to ask for her public support in Verdonk's campaign to run for party leader of the VVD. Hirsi Ali wrote that she had personally supported Verdonk's opponent, Mark Rutte, as the better choice. She says that after telling Verdonk of her position, the minister became vindictive. Hirsi Ali wrote that, after the 2006 report of the Zembla TV program, Verdonk campaigned against Ali in retaliation for her earlier lack of support. Her latest book was released in February 2021 and is titled Prey: Immigration, Islam, and the Erosion of Women's Rights. Ali is a contributor at The Daily Beast. She also hosts her own Podcast since 2021 where she interviews other intellectuals. Books De zoontjesfabriek. Over vrouwen, islam en integratie, translated as The Son Factory: About Women, Islam and Integration. A collection of essays and lectures from before 2002. It also contains an extended interview originally published in Opzij, a feminist magazine. The book focuses on the position of Muslims in the Netherlands. De Maagdenkooi (2004), translated in 2006 as The Caged Virgin: A Muslim Woman's Cry for Reason a.k.a. The Caged Virgin: An Emancipation Proclamation for Women and Islam. A collection of essays and lectures from 2003 to 2004, combined with her personal experiences as a translator working for the NMS. The book focuses on the position of women in Islam. Infidel. An autobiography originally published in Dutch as Mijn Vrijheid in September 2006 by Augustus, Amsterdam and Antwerp, 447 pages, ; and in English in February 2007. It was edited by Richard Miniter. Nomad: From Islam to America: A Personal Journey Through the Clash of Civilizations. Her second autobiography, published by Free Press in 2010. Heretic: Why Islam Needs a Reformation Now, published by Harper (March 2015). Hirsi Ali makes a case that a religious reformation is the only way to end the terrorism, sectarian warfare, and repression of women and minorities that each year claim thousands of lives throughout the Muslim world. Prey: Immigration, Islam, and the Erosion of Women's Rights, published by Harper (July 2021). Here, Ali discusses the migration from Muslim countries to Europe which peaked during the European migrant crisis and outlines how this coincided with rising levels of sexual violence towards women in the receiving countries. In the book she also discusses how governments, law enforcement and feminists appear eager to suppress attention from the issue of illegal immigration. Awards 2004, she was awarded the Prize of Liberty by the Flemish classical liberal think tank Nova Civitas. 2004, she was chosen "Person of the Year" by the Dutch news magazine Elsevier. 2004, she was awarded the Freedom Prize of Denmark's Liberal Party, the country's largest party, "for her work to further freedom of speech and the rights of women". In the year following the assassination of her collaborator, Theo van Gogh, Hirsi Ali received five awards related to her activism. 2005, she was awarded the Harriet Freezerring Emancipation Prize by Cisca Dresselhuys, editor of the feminist magazine Opzij. 2005, she was awarded the annual European Bellwether Prize by the Norwegian think tank Human Rights Service. According to HRS, Hirsi Ali is "beyond a doubt, the leading European politician in the field of integration. (She is) a master at the art of mediating the most difficult issues with insurmountable courage, wisdom, reflectiveness, and clarity". 2005, she was awarded the annual Democracy Prize of the Swedish Liberal People's Party "for her courageous work for democracy, human rights and women's rights." 2005, she was ranked by American Time magazine amongst the 100 Most Influential Persons of the World, in the category of "Leaders & Revolutionaries". 2005, she was awarded the Tolerance Prize of Madrid. She was voted European of the Year for 2006 by the European editors of Reader's Digest magazine. 2006, she was given the civilian prize Glas der Vernunft in Kassel, Germany. The organisation rewarded her with this prize for her courage in criticising Islam (1 October 2006). Other laureates have included Leah Rabin, the wife of former Israeli prime-minister Yitzhak Rabin, and Hans-Dietrich Genscher, former Foreign Minister of the Federal Republic of Germany. 2006, she received the Moral Courage Award from the American Jewish Committee. 2007, she was given the annual Goldwater Award for 2007 from the Goldwater Institute in Phoenix, Arizona. 2008, she was awarded the Simone de Beauvoir Prize, an international human rights prize for women's freedom, which she shared with Taslima Nasreen. 2008, she was given the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award for nonfiction for her autobiography Infidel (2007 in English). The Anisfield-Wolf awards recognise "recent books that have made important contributions to our understanding of racism and appreciation of the rich diversity of human culture." 2008, she was awarded the Richard Dawkins Prize (2008) by the Atheist Alliance International. 2010, she was awarded the Emperor Has No Clothes Award by the Freedom From Religion Foundation. 2012, she was awarded the Axel Springer Honorary Prize, "for her courageous commitment – her approach to freedom and her courage to express a nonconformist opinion." 2015, she was awarded the Lantos Human Rights Prize for fearless leaders, reformers and rebels who have been willing to defy social and cultural norms to speak out against human rights abuses. Other laureates were Rebiya Kadeer and Irshad Manji. 2016, she was awarded the Philip Merrill Award for Outstanding Contributions to Liberal Arts Education 2017, she was awarded the Oxi Day Courage Award by the Washington Oxi Day Foundation See also Yasmine Mohammed Maryam Namazie Mona Walter Notes References Further reading Scroggins, Deborah. Wanted Women. Faith, Lies, and the War on Terror: The Lives of Ayaan Hirsi Ali and Aafia Siddiqui, HarperCollins, 2012 External links 1969 births Living people 20th-century atheists 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American women writers 21st-century atheists Activists against female genital mutilation American atheism activists American critics of Islam American Enterprise Institute American feminist writers American former Muslims American people of Somali descent American political writers American screenwriters American women's rights activists Atheist feminists American atheist writers Former Muslim critics of Islam Critics of multiculturalism Dutch emigrants to the United States Dutch former Muslims Dutch women in politics Dutch-language writers Free speech activists Leiden University alumni Members of the House of Representatives (Netherlands) Dutch critics of Islam People from Mogadishu People's Party for Freedom and Democracy politicians People with acquired American citizenship Somalian atheists Somalian emigrants to the Netherlands Somalian feminists Dutch classical liberals Somalian former Muslims Somalian non-fiction writers Somalian refugees Somalian women's rights activists Somalian women writers Victims of human rights abuses Women's rights support from the irreligious Former Muslims turned agnostics or atheists 20th-century Somalian women writers 20th-century Somalian writers 21st-century Somalian women writers 21st-century Somalian writers American women non-fiction writers Hoover Institution people African-American atheists
880676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan%20Idema	Jonathan Idema	Jonathan Keith "Jack" Idema (May 30, 1956January 21, 2012) was a former U.S. Army reserve special operations non-commissioned officer. In September 2004 he was found guilty of running a private prison in Afghanistan and torturing Afghan citizens. At the time, Idema had been portraying himself as a U.S. government-sponsored special forces operative on a mission to apprehend terrorists. However, the U.S. government has repeatedly denied most of such claims. Idema served three years of a ten-year sentence. He was released early by Afghanistan's then-president Hamid Karzai in April 2007, departing Afghanistan in early June. Idema died of AIDS in Mexico in late January 2012. Early life Idema was raised in Poughkeepsie, New York, graduating from high school there in 1974. In February 1975 he enlisted in the U.S. Army. His father H. John Idema, a former Marine and World War II veteran, believed that his son was a "dedicated American". H. John Idema died in November 2008. Military service There is a discrepancy between what Idema says his military experience was as a member of the U.S. Army Special Forces and what is stated in his official military record. Idema has repeatedly stated on television, radio, and in writing that he acquired 12 years of Special Forces service, 22 years of combat training, and 18 years of covert operations experience. Idema's military career was short and contained several reports of poor performance, with no record that he acquired any combat experience. Two years after enlisting in the Army in 1975, he qualified for the Special Forces. According to his military record obtained in the course of his 1994 fraud trial, after serving one term of service, Idema was not allowed to reenlist, likely due to poor performance. He had received numerous negative remarks from superior officers in addition to participating in three non-judicial punishment proceedings. Idema was cited for "failure to obey orders, being derelict in the performance of his duty, and being disrespectful to a superior commanding officer." One superior officer, Capt. John D. Carlson stated that Idema "is without a doubt the most unmotivated, unprofessional, immature enlisted man I have ever known." However, he was given an honorable discharge and allowed to join the United States Army Reserve 11th Special Forces Group working to provide logistical support. In a November 1, 1980 letter of reprimand, Major Paul R. Decker wrote that Idema "consistently displayed an attitude of noncooperation with persons outside his immediate working environment, disregard for authority and gross immaturity characterized by irrationality and a tendency toward violence." In January 1981, Idema was relieved of his Army Reserve duties; his last position was the assistant sergeant of operations and intelligence. After leaving the Army Reserves, he became a member of the Individual Ready Reserve until he left the military completely in 1984. Business interests Several years after he left the Army, Idema became involved in the paintball business, opening a paintball supply and equipment company in Fayetteville, North Carolina, named Idema Combat Systems. He later segued that business into a paramilitary clothier and supply company operating under the same name. Sometime in the early 1980s Idema founded Counterr Group (also known as US Counter-Terrorist Group), a business entity which, according to its website, specializes in expert training for counter-terrorism, assault tactics and other security-related services. Counterr Group's legal status and ownership is questionable; according to a Soldier of Fortune article published in 2004, Idema is mentioned as the owner. The company website lists a PO Box address in North Carolina, but there is no record of the company's registration in that state. However, a company called "Counter Group, Inc." was incorporated in 1997 by William L. London, a lawyer who has represented Idema in several lawsuits. (The status for this company is listed as "suspended" as of 2004.) Counterr Group Academy was operational for at least ten years, from the late 1970s to the late 1980s. It was based at a small airstrip south of Route 199 in Red Hook, New York. There were several permanent staff, as well as visiting staff, all under the direction of Keith Idema. At least ten formal courses of training were offered. These included basic firearm safety, offered to the general public, as well as pistol, rifle and shotgun programs in both assault and combat roles, offered only to active military servicemen and police. Rappelling, both with and without a firearm component, was offered at the on-ground rappelling tower. The facilities included both interior and exterior "Hogan's Alley" style environments, equipped with reactive targets. Courses consisted of both classroom study and field exercises. All advanced training was in a live-fire environment. Combat and assault courses lasted for three days. Trainees, up to 20 per course, lived and slept on the premises. Nighttime courses were conducted with starlight scopes. The only company in North Carolina registered to Jonathan Idema is Idema Combat Systems, which, according to state records, was incorporated in January 1991 and dissolved in July 1994. Moreover, the websites for Counter Group are registered to Thomas R. Bumback, a business associate of Idema's who is believed to be the company's current director. There is a record of Counterr Group being formed in Poughkeepsie, New York in 1983, but the company is listed as "inactive." Idema also owned a company called Special Operations Exposition and Trade Show Inc., which hosted organized conventions for military equipment suppliers. There are two other known companies, Isabeau Dakota, Inc. and Star America Aviation Company, Ltd., that have connections to Idema. The latter claims to be an aviation support company founded in July 2008 with operations based out of Dubai. Both companies are registered to William "Skip" London in North Carolina, but Isabeau Dakota is listed as a shell company; its last annual report, filed in 2002, identifies "H. John Idema" (Idema's father) of Poughkeepsie, New York as president and sole officer, and it lists no significant assets or business activity. The website for Star America Aviation is also registered to Bumback and the websites for Counterr Group and Star America Aviation are very similar, including the use of imagery depicting Idema, while he was in Afghanistan and prior to his arrest. Idema's former Afghan charity "Northern Alliance Assistance" at 450 Robeson Street, Fayetteville, NC 28302 is now listed as a dog kennel. Fraud conviction In addition to his occasional entrepreneurial pursuits, Idema had a substantial criminal record. Over the years, Idema was charged with impersonating an officer, conspiracy, passing bad checks, assault, possession of stolen property, and discharging a firearm into a dwelling. In January 1994, Idema was arrested and charged with 58 counts of wire fraud defrauding 59 companies of about $260,000. He was convicted of the charges, sentenced to six years in prison (paroled after having served three years) and was subsequently ordered to pay restitution. Lawsuits Idema was involved in multiple lawsuits, including suits against journalists, an aid worker, a colonel, his father, and the United States government. A prominent lawsuit was against Steven Spielberg and Dreamworks Studios, in which Idema contended that he was the basis of a character in the 1997 Dreamworks film "The Peacemaker". The claim was dismissed, and Mr. Idema was ordered to pay $267,079 in legal fees. On August 15, 2001, a jury awarded Idema $781,818 for property damage and $1 million for punitive damages. The award came after a jury decided that a property manager improperly sold some of his belongings while Idema was serving his fraud sentence. Two property managers were hired by Idema to take care of a building that housed equipment for two of his businesses, Special Operations Exposition and Trade Show Inc., and Idema Combat Systems. According to the lawsuit, equipment was missing, damaged or destroyed, and holes were punched in the walls of the building. Idema sued both property managers and their wives on April 10, 2000, but everyone except for one property manager was later dropped from the suit. Idema never collected the $1.8M because the property manager that was found liable declared bankruptcy and Idema settled for $650K that he obtained through law suits filed against insurance carriers. Idema's father was the insured. In June 2005, an investigator sued Idema alleging that he wasn't paid when Idema won the $1.8M lawsuit. The investigator claimed that Idema orally agreed to pay 15% of any amount collected, he also claimed that Idema failed to pay court reporters, expert witnesses, and others who helped him with his case. Lithuania and nuclear weapons smuggling In 1993 Idema was contracted to train police forces in the former Soviet republic of Lithuania. After his return, he contacted officials from both the Pentagon and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), claiming to have uncovered a conspiracy by the Russian Mafia to smuggle nuclear material out of Lithuania. According to Idema, FBI agents demanded he provide the names of his contacts. He refused, claiming that the FBI was infiltrated by KGB agents and that his sources would have been killed. It was around this time that Idema was being investigated for wire fraud and eventually convicted in 1994. The FBI began their investigation into Idema's activities as early as May 1991, before he even approached the Bureau about Lithuania. Afghanistan Entry and credentials Illegal entry into Afghanistan was one of the charges leveled against Idema and two other Americans accompanying him, former soldier Brent Bennett and television journalist Edward Caraballo. That charge was eventually dropped. Idema first traveled to Afghanistan in November 2001 to conduct what he said was "humanitarian relief" work, when he was actually working for National Geographic TV with Gary Scurka. It was at this time that he involved himself in the research Robin Moore was conducting for his book The Hunt for Bin Laden. According to Scurka, a reporter for CBS News, Idema contacted him a few weeks after the September 11 terror attacks and announced he was going to Afghanistan to do humanitarian-aid work, saying he was to work with Knightsbridge International and the Partners International Foundation, two aid groups run by former military personnel. This led to Scurka and Idema presenting a film documentary project for National Geographic. Idema, Scurka, and Greg Long traveled to Tashkent, Uzbekistan, where they were arrested for visa problems and held in a cell overnight. The three were freed after their captors received a letter from the US embassy in Uzbekistan, written by an officer in the US Defense Attache's Office, describing Idema and Scurka as "contracting officers from the Defense Department who arrived in Uzbekistan for an official trip." The letter, which was verified as authentic by the director of the Department of State's press office, was dated November 2, 2001, and asked Uzbekistan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs for help in issuing visas to Idema, Gary Scurka, and Greg Long. Greg Long was a member of Partners International Foundation. Idema then joined Partners International Foundation at the same time Scurka received a National Geographic assignment to produce a documentary on humanitarian aid work in Afghanistan. A memo signed by the president of National Geographic TV says Scurka would be going to Afghanistan with Knightsbridge International, and the leader of Knightsbridge, Edward Artis, would be working with Idema. Artis was sued by Idema. Author Robert Young Pelton believes that Idema then used those letters and what appeared to be a falsified or modified military ID. Idema claimed he had a visa similar to those carried by US Special Forces to convince the Afghan commanders and other people of his official status. After Idema entered Afghanistan, both humanitarian organizations quickly became wary of Idema's intentions. In December 2001, Edward Artis, director of Knightsbridge, wrote to the U.S. Army Special Operations Command warning them of Idema's activities, stating: Idema later filed suit against Artis and Knightsbridge, but the case was dismissed and a monetary judgement was in turn placed against him. Activities Idema led a group he called "Task Force Saber 7", consisting of two other Americans and several Afghans. The group may have been operating in Afghanistan with independent financial backing or with funds from two lawsuit settlements Idema had won a few years earlier, one of which was for $1.8 million. He frequently interacted with reporters, often going to great lengths in his interviews to stress connections with the CIA and Special Forces. Some supporters suggest that he was a former member of an unspecified covert operations unit, reactivated and positioned in Afghanistan to hunt for Osama Bin Laden as part of Alec Station. A relationship to the Northern Alliance was denied by their official representative in the United States. Some critics of Idema claim that his attempts to create a high profile with the media make it unlikely that Idema was officially connected with any branch of the military; covert operatives go to great lengths to avoid public appearances and media, and are barred from unauthorized contact. The fact that Caraballo, who was not a soldier, was with Idema in Afghanistan to document his activities strained credibility that Idema was operating covertly. Idema was known to have a volatile temper that seemed to be particularly directed against news correspondents assigned to Kabul. On several occasions, Idema threatened journalists with bodily harm or death, and in one particular instance, at a dinner in December 2001, he threatened to kill a reporter from Stars and Stripes because the reporter had disclosed Idema's fraud conviction. It has been recorded that Idema did frequently contact the Defense Department through the front office of General William G. Boykin in the Pentagon, and that his information was duly acknowledged. However, all of those contacts were outside the US Military operating channels, and were all one-sided calls from Afghanistan via his (Idema's) personal satellite phone. Boykin's office repeatedly asked Idema to stop making these unsolicited phone calls, because they were disruptive and time-consuming, and Boykin could not be of assistance. Idema continued calling Boykin's office to establish some sort of self-serving relationship until his arrest. While the US government was aware of Idema's activities in Afghanistan, they stated there was unequivocally no relationship between them. The United States Central Command stated that Coalition forces received one detainee from Idema on May 3, 2004. Idema claimed that the individual was associated with the Taliban. Once in US custody, however, the detainee was determined not to be who Idema claimed, and was released in the first week of July. The United States was not the only government that had contact with Idema in Afghanistan. On three occasions, Idema tricked the Canadian-led NATO mission into providing explosives experts and bomb-sniffing dogs. According to a spokesman for the ISAF, Idema called for and received technical support after his vigilante team raided compounds on the 20th, 22nd, and 24th of June 2004. ISAF personnel believed they were "providing legitimate support to a legitimate security agency." Idema also received assistance from Yunus Qanooni, former minister, senior Afghan government security advisor, and influential member of the Northern Alliance. In one video tape presented at Idema's trial, Yunus Qanooni thanked Idema for uncovering an assassination plot against him. In the same tape, Qanooni volunteered his personal security troops to help Idema with arrests. Another tape appeared to show Qanooni's forces assisting Idema in a house raid. On July 4, 2004, the United States Central Command released a media advisory that read: In perhaps the most terse assessment of Idema's alleged involvement in Operation Enduring Freedom, Billy Waugh, senior CIA covert operative and decorated former Green Beret who was a member of the Agency-run "Jawbreaker" team, said: Arrest, trial and sentencing Idema and his associates Brent Bennett and Edward Caraballo were arrested on July 5, 2004 by Afghan police during a raid in which they found eight Afghan men (some hanging from their feet) bound and hooded in detention. The arrest of Idema occurred only about three months after 60 Minutes II broke the story about the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal. Idema claimed to have had private contact with Lieutenant General Boykin and several other senior Pentagon officials, and at his trial introduced taped conversations with staff of General Boykin's office, although not directly with Boykin himself. In the conversations, the staff members said that they would pass Idema's information along to proper authorities. However, the judge stated that the videos were "inconclusive" and that he lacked concrete, documentary evidence. American Embassy officials stated that as far as they knew, neither Mr. Idema nor anyone in his group was working for a government agency, and the military issued statements saying Idema was impersonating government or military officials and did not represent either. He further tried to prove his official status when he claimed to be working for the US Counter Terrorism Group, the same group that some sources say he founded. He claimed his group had prevented assassination attempts on Education Minister Yunus Qanooni and Defense Minister Marshal Mohammad Qasim Fahim. He also claimed the FBI interrogated several militants captured by his group and that after his arrest, the FBI removed from his premises hundreds of videos, photos and documents. Some of the pieces were later returned to Idema and his defense team. One of the videotapes shows Afghanistan's former education minister Yunus Qanooni thanking Idema for the arrest of two people, and offering his full cooperation in future raids. The Defense Department's only official contact with Idema was accepting one prisoner who was held for a month by the US military, but added that officials declined his offer to work with the government in capturing terror suspects in Afghanistan. In early 2004, Idema was in contact with Heather Anderson, the Pentagon's Acting Director of Security. Anderson was under the supervision of the chief official responsible for intelligence matters in Donald Rumsfeld's office. Idema told the Afghan court that Anderson commended his work, but Anderson said she later turned down Idema's request to work in Afghanistan for the Pentagon. Idema continued to contact Anderson's office in hopes of establishing a relationship. Idema, Caraballo and Bennett were charged with entering the country illegally, running a private prison, and torture. John Tiffany served as Idema's attorney. During the trial, Idema charged that he, Caraballo, and Bennett were being beaten while in Afghan custody; however, US authorities stated the men were being treated humanely. On 15 September 2004, a three-judge Afghan panel headed by Judge Abdul Baset Bakhtyari sentenced both Idema and Bennett to a ten-year prison term, while Caraballo received eight years. Idema and Bennett's sentences were later cut to five and three respectively. Caraballo claimed he was filming Idema and Bennett for a documentary on counterterrorism. Four Afghans working with Idema were sentenced to between one and five years imprisonment. Caraballo was later pardoned by President Hamid Karzai and later returned to the United States. Bennett was freed early for good behavior on September 30, 2006. Caraballo's lawyer said that the day before Caraballo left Afghanistan, Caraballo and Bennett lived in a filthy 6x8 ft. cell with four suspected Al-Qaeda terrorists; the American prisoners were moved to a different prison for better protection. In a more recent assessment, the cell in which the prisoners lived was described as "posh". Amnesty and refusal to leave prison On April 10, 2007, the Associated Press reported that Idema would soon be released from prison and then sent back to the United States, and that the Afghan government had granted him amnesty. However, under the amnesty that commuted his sentence he was effectively released on April 4. Idema refused to leave the prison, first demanding that his passport, personal effects, and documents that he says proves his official connection with the US government be returned to him. According to him, he was owed compensation for $500,000 worth of equipment, mostly computers, weapons and cameras, that was confiscated by the Afghan government when he was arrested. Having obtained through the offices of the U.S. Embassy in Kabul a new passport as well as money to apply for a visa to India, Idema insisted that his belongings be returned and that a pet dog previously owned by Bennett be allowed to travel with him. Idema also filed another lawsuit against the US government, reaffirming allegations initially made in 2005 that he and his associates had been illegally imprisoned, except that this time, Idema was claiming that he was tortured. According to US District Judge Emmet G. Sullivan, "Petitioners allege that United States officials ordered their arrest, ordered their torture, stole exculpatory evidence during their trial and appeal, exerted undue influence over Afghan judges, and either directly or indirectly ordered judges who found petitioners innocent not to release petitioners from prison." This was a shift from the earlier strategy on the part of Idema to exonerate himself on the basis that he was acting on a Pentagon-approved mission. Instead the focus was on the trial itself, specifically whether or not due process was observed, with the added claim of being a torture victim. In both instances Idema accused the U.S. government of deliberately withholding information. Judge Sullivan subsequently ordered the FBI and the US Department of State to answer the allegations. Attorneys from the US Justice Department have requested the case be dismissed on the grounds that Idema's sentence had been commuted. Idema's lawyer said the government coordinated Idema's amnesty to avoid having to respond to allegations of misconduct. Idema's allegations of withheld evidence were originally made during his Afghan trial in 2004. When the men were arrested in early July, the tapes were confiscated by the FBI. Caraballo's lawyer, Michael Skibbie, claims that he was only allowed to access a portion of the tapes weeks after he requested access. Several of the tapes were used; however, Skibbie said several important tapes were damaged, missing or partly erased after the FBI took custody of them. Some of the footage Skibbie obtained was shown in court. The court tapes showed Idema being greeted at an airport by high level Afghan officials, Idema being thanked by Yunus Qanuni, Qanooni's troops working with Idema, captured suspects confessing during interrogation, and ISAF forces helping Idema. As he was playing out his legal options, Idema said that another reason he hadn't left was because he feared for his life, ostensibly at the hands of the Afghan government. "I could drive through the Policharki gates right now. Then what happens? I get arrested. [The intelligence service] will arrest me for not having an Afghan visa and they'll torture me and kill me. If I'm lucky, I'm only going to be tortured," he said. On June 2, 2007, Idema left the prison and was immediately flown out of the country. Personal life After leaving Afghanistan, Idema moved to Mexico to become a proprietor of Blue Lagoon Boat Tours out of Bacalar, on the Yucatan Peninsula, under the name of "Black Jack". He was charged by his former girlfriend Penny Alesi of infecting her with HIV when he knew he had the disease. His arrest warrant and publicity surrounding the wife beating charges were picked up in a number of local Mexican newspapers and the US media, including Wired Danger Room, Virginian Pilot and as well as blogs. He claimed to have had nine wives, according to Alesi, although only one of them may have been legal, and at his death, he was listed as having no immediate survivors. According to his father's obituary notice, Idema is said to be a "Green Beret with an organization involved in the War on Terror." Relationship with the media Idema had some success convincing members of the media that he was a terrorism expert. This allowed him to secure interviews and in some instances get his "terrorism videos" broadcast on television. After indicating to journalists that he had the videos in his possession, he would usually agree to provide them in exchange for money. Since Idema's questionable history has come to light, the news media has been criticized for its willingness to distribute any content or information coming from him. Questionable behavior At the center of the controversy is Idema's claim that while in Afghanistan he was acting on behalf of the U.S. government and that he was an advisor to the Northern Alliance. At other times, Idema told people he was in Afghanistan doing humanitarian work or that he was a "security consultant" for journalists. He also actively sought media attention for himself and his activities, to the point of offering interviews in return for payment, even though he himself said he was operating covertly. Many believe Idema to be a con artist or impostor, based on his refusal or inability to demonstrate verifiable proof for his claims, on legal records that contradict his assertions about his background, as well as on a prior conviction for mail fraud and a history of criminal activity. Some have suggested that he may also be delusional in having concocted a fantasy-type personality for himself as a highly trained covert operative combating international terrorism, despite a brief and mostly non-notable military record (which states that Idema was in the Special Forces strictly in a support capacity). This opinion was echoed by Major Scott Nelson, the U.S. military spokesperson in Kabul at the time of Idema's arrest in 2004. The judge in Idema's 1994 fraud trial also questioned Idema's psychological state and ordered him to undergo evaluation prior to his sentencing. The report said that while he was not "mentally ill", Idema had a "personality disorder which would affect his interaction with persons exhibiting similar traits, such as supervisors, attorneys, doctors, judges and other persons in positions of power or authority." In the early 1990s, Idema said he had uncovered a plot by the Russian mafia to smuggle nuclear weapons out of Russia. Before that he said he participated in covert operations in Latin America. Furthermore, he said that as a soldier he parachuted out of airplanes accompanied by his dog Sarge, who was also trained as a bomb-sniffer. (Idema reportedly saved Sarge's genetic material with the hopes of later cloning the pet.) Idema was not without supporters, usually found among blogs sympathetic to his situation. The contributors to these blogs believe that he is being unjustly punished for actions condoned, if not officially sanctioned, by the U.S. military. However, there has been little support for Idema's claims in general media outlets. Indeed, many members of the media who encountered Idema while they were on assignment in Afghanistan regard him as a fraud. Lithuania In 1995, while Idema was awaiting sentencing for fraud charges, he agreed to provide information to CBS News about the nuclear materials smuggling plot he allegedly uncovered. Gary Scurka produced a 60 Minutes piece entitled "The Worst Nightmare", based in part on Idema's account. According to Scurka, the network declined to credit Idema during the broadcast because of the fraud conviction, even though he was a major source for the story. A CBS spokesperson claimed that the story took 6 months to fully investigate, by which time it was very different from the one Idema gave. Both the 60 Minutes story and a companion piece published in US News and World Report received the prestigious "Renner Award for Outstanding Crime Reporting". The lack of credit given to Idema prompted Scurka and Caraballo to begin making a documentary film with the working title, Any Lesser Man: The Keith Idema Story. According to promotional materials, the documentary was to be "the real story of one lone Green Beret's private war against KGB Nuclear Smuggling, Soviet spies, Arab terrorists, and the FBI." It was never completed. Marecek murder trial Idema and Scurka again worked together as consultants for the 48 Hours story about Colonel George Marecek, a highly decorated Special Forces soldier accused and later convicted of murdering his wife. The two were fired from the project because they were determined to be taking an advocacy role for the defense. They opened a "Free Marecek" office in the town where the trial was taking place. In December 2000, 48 Hours ran the story on Marecek which included material from Idema, and Scurka's research. Idema also took a leading part in the formation of Point Blank News (PBN) to support Marecek. September 11 attacks On the day following the attacks, Idema gave an interview as a "counterterrorism adviser" to KTTV, the Fox network affiliate in Los Angeles. During his broadcast news appearance, he said that the hijackers might have seized three Canadian jetliners, in addition to four American planes. Afghanistan Al Qaeda hoax training footage Idema sold tapes to many publishers that he claimed showed an Al Qaeda training camp in action. The tapes showed men in camouflaged tunics and ski masks storming buildings, practicing drive-by shootings, and attacking golf courses. CBS bought the right to broadcast the tapes before any other network. They were used in a 60 Minutes II episode called, "Heart of Darkness" in mid January 2002. CBS presented Idema and the tapes he supplied as reliable. Idema made more money from the same tapes when he sold them to The Boston Globe, MSNBC, ABC, NBC, the BBC, and others rights to rebroadcast the Al Qaeda training camp footage with still pictures. The authenticity of the several hours of tape is disputed because the supposed tactics shown are not ones Al Qaeda operatives utilize. Moreover, men who were shown in the footage occasionally communicated in English and laughed, providing credence to the notion that the tapes were fake and entirely staged. Some major outlets, including NBC Nightly News and CNN declined to broadcast the tapes because of the credibility issue. Idema in September 2008 Al Qaeda video Al Qaeda itself appears to have used some of Idema's footage in their September 2008 video release. In a segment released by ABC, Idema appears "to threaten to kill an Afghan citizen during an interrogation." Al Qaeda claims to have "captured" the footage from Idema, but its provenance remains unclear. State-sponsored terrorism Idema sought to show that he had inside knowledge of Al Qaeda's collaboration with state governments, although his statements would not be considered particularly insightful, correct or original. For instance, he has made suggestions that there was collaboration among North Korea, several Middle-Eastern countries and Al Qaeda, and that was ample evidence linking "Iraq, Iran, and Saudi Arabia to Al Qaeda and to the attacks on September 11," and that in Afghanistan, the link between Iraq and Al Qaeda was "common knowledge." He also has said that Iraq under Saddam Hussein was a supporter of Al Qaeda and other terrorist organizations "with money, with equipment, with technology, with weapons of mass destruction." He also claimed to have firsthand knowledge of nuclear weapons being smuggled from Russia to Iraq, Iran, and North Korea. Idema in September 2009 Al Qaeda video An Al Qaeda video released in September 2009 appears to contain video clips of Idema torturing an Afghan by dunking his head in a bucket of water. This footage was used to make the case that the US is involved in torture in Afghanistan. Media coverage Task Force Dagger: The Hunt for bin Laden (), by The Green Berets author Robin Moore, had sections devoted to Idema, referred to in the book as a special forces operative named "Jack" (he was also featured on the book's cover). Unknown to Moore, Idema had added a number of fictional episodes to the book that he would later use to support his claims. In the manuscript Idema also included appeals for donations to charities listed under his and his wife's address – charities that have since come under investigation. He managed to do this by altering the final manuscript without Moore's consent before it was sent to the publisher. Random House quietly dropped the book from print after publishing what had become a work of fiction that even its author had disavowed. Moore has since regretted Idema's involvement and insisted that the publisher refused to include his corrections. Robert Young Pelton, in his book about private security contractors, Licensed to Kill: Hired Guns in the War on Terror (), devotes a chapter to Idema's exploits in Afghanistan, including his controversial involvement in Moore's book Task Force Dagger: The Hunt for bin Laden. Peter Bergen's article published in Rolling Stone, "Jack Idema: Shadow Warrior," examines Idema's military career. Eric Campbell's book on reporting in war zones, Absurdistan (), has a few chapters on Idema. Newsweek had a short section on Idema called "An Afghan Mystery" by John Barry and Owen Matthews in the July 26, 2004 edition. In February 2009, in an article entitled "Laptop may hold key to high-level scam", the Post-Tribune of Northwest Indiana wrote of a police report that Idema had attempted to obtain a laptop used by jailed military imposter Joseph A. Cafasso, also a former Fox News consultant, from the 63-year-old woman with woman Cafasso had recently been living. The woman was frightened of Idema and so turned the laptop over to police. Death Idema died of AIDS on January 21, 2012, in Mexico. FBI Investigation Documents released under FOIA show that the Department of Justice and FBI had been operating an active investigation of Idema as-from 2005. See also David Passaro Niels Holck References External links Obituary from the Economist BBC News profile of Idema Jonathan Idema: Our Man in Kabul?, from crimelibrary.com. Transcript of an episode of "Mediawatch" from the Australian Broadcasting Corporation about the al Qaeda tape controversy. Includes links to email documents from Idema to 60 Minutes, images of Idema allegedly interrogating Afghanis, and a copy of his military record. US Bounty Hunter Trial, General material about his actions and information about the Al Qaeda training videos he found. Describes the arrest and trial. 1956 births 2012 deaths People from North Carolina Bounty hunters Osama bin Laden Counter-terrorism Torture in Afghanistan Members of the United States Army Special Forces American vigilantes Recipients of Afghan presidential pardons American people imprisoned abroad Prisoners and detainees of Afghanistan AIDS-related deaths in Mexico
891724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Llewellyn%20Bradshaw	Robert Llewellyn Bradshaw	Robert Llewellyn Bradshaw (16 September 1916 – 23 May 1978) was the first Premier of Saint Kitts and Nevis, and previously served as Chief Minister, legislator, and labour activist. Early life Bradshaw was born in the Saint Paul Capisterre Village in Saint Kitts to Mary Jane Francis, a domestic servant, and William Bradshaw, a blacksmith. He was raised by his grandmother after his father moved to the United States when Bradshaw was nine months old. He attended St. Paul's Primary School and completed seventh grade, the highest level of primary education available in Saint Kitts at the time. At 16, Bradshaw became a machine apprentice at the St. Kitts Sugar Factory, where he began to take interest in the labour movement. In 1940, he left the sugar factory following a strike for higher wages and joined the St. Kitts and Nevis Trades and Labour Union as a clerk. Bradshaw succeeded Joseph Matthew Sebastian as president of the union in 1944. In 1963 he married, Mildred Sahaley, a Kittitian-Lebanese. They had one daughter, Isis Carla Bradshaw, together. His first daughter, Etsu, is from an earlier relationship. Political career Bradshaw supported the cause of the sugar workers and was one of the political stalwarts of the country. In 1945 he became president of the recently created St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla Labour Party. He entered politics in 1946 and won a seat in the Legislative Council in the elections that year, later becoming a member of the Executive Council. In 1956 he was Minister of Trade and Production for St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla. During the short-lived West Indies Federation (from 1958 to 1962), Bradshaw was elected to the Federal House of Representatives and held the post of minister of finance for the Federation. After the break-up of the Federation, Bradshaw returned to St. Kitts from Trinidad. In 1966 he became Chief Minister, and in 1967 the first Premier of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla, then an associated state of the United Kingdom. Under his leadership, all sugar lands, as well as the central sugar factory, were bought by the government. Opposition to Bradshaw's rule began to build. Opposition was especially great in Nevis, where it was felt that the island was being neglected and unfairly deprived of revenue, investment and services by its larger neighbour. Bradshaw mainly ignored Nevis' complaints, but Nevisian disenchantment with the Labour Party proved a key factor in the party's eventual fall from power. Opposition in Anguilla was even stronger, with the Anguillans evicting St. Kitts police from their island and holding referendums in 1967 and 1969, both times voting overwhelmingly to secede from St. Kitts-Nevis and remain a separate British territory. In 1977 Bradshaw travelled to London for talks on independence with the British government. Death Bradshaw died on 23 May 1978 of prostate cancer at his home in Basseterre. He was succeeded by his former deputy, Paul Southwell. He is buried in Springfield cemetery in Basseterre. Legacy In 1996, Bradshaw was posthumously awarded the title of First National Hero by the National Assembly of Saint Kitts and Nevis and is honoured annually on National Heroes Day, which is observed on his birthday. On the inaugural National Heroes Day in 1998, the Golden Rock Airport in Saint Kitts was renamed the Robert L. Bradshaw International Airport in his honor. In 2007, the Robert Llewellyn Bradshaw Memorial Park was dedicated at his birthplace in St. Paul's. On 17 September 2010, the Robert Llewellyn Bradshaw building was dedicated on the Windsor University School of Medicine campus in Cayon. References Further reading Alexander, R. J. and Eldon Parker (2004). A History of Organized Labor in the English-Speaking West Indies. Westport, CT: Praeger. Brown, Margaret and W. R. Louis (2001). The Oxford History of the British Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Burks, Edward (1967). "New Caribbean State Beset by Poverty and Revolt." New York Times. June 29. Hurwitz, Samuel (1966). "The Federation of the West Indies: A Study in Nationalism." Journal of British Studies 6. Knight, F. W. and Colin Palmer (1986). The Modern Caribbean. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. (1978). "Robert Bradshaw Dies: Premier in Caribbean." The Washington Post. May 25. Thorndike, Tony (1989). "The Future of the British Caribbean Dependencies." Journal of Interamerican Affairs and World Studies 31. 1916 births 1978 deaths Prime Ministers of Saint Kitts and Nevis Finance ministers of Saint Kitts and Nevis Labour ministers of Saint Kitts and Nevis Trade ministers of Saint Kitts and Nevis Recipients of the Order of the National Hero (Saint Kitts and Nevis) Saint Kitts and Nevis trade unionists Saint Kitts and Nevis Labour Party politicians Deaths from cancer in Saint Kitts and Nevis Deaths from prostate cancer British Leeward Islands people of World War II People from Saint Paul Capisterre Parish National Heroes of Saint Kitts and Nevis Members of the Federal Parliament of the West Indies Federation
903996	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20New%20Zealand%20history	Timeline of New Zealand history	This is a timeline of the history of New Zealand that includes only events deemed to be of principal importance – for less important events click the year heading or refer to List of years in New Zealand. Prehistory (to 1000 CE) 85 mya: Around this time New Zealand splits from the supercontinent Gondwana. 5 mya: New Zealand's climate cools as Australia drifts north. Animals that have adapted to warm temperate and subtropical conditions become extinct. 26,500 BP: The Taupō volcano erupts extremely violently, covering much of the country with volcanic ash and causing the Waikato River to avulse from the Hauraki Plains to its current path through the Waikato to the Tasman Sea. 18,000 BP: New Zealand's North and South islands are connected by a land bridge during the last ice age. Glaciers spread from the Southern Alps carving valleys and making fiords in the South Island. The land bridge is submerged around 9,700 BCE. 181 CE: Lake Taupō erupts violently. Pre-colonial time (1000 to 1839) 1000 to 1600 c1280: Earliest archaeological sites provide evidence that initial settlement of New Zealand occurred around 1280 CE. ~1300: Most likely period of ongoing early settlement of New Zealand by Polynesian people (the Archaic Moa-Hunter Culture). 1400~1500: Development of the Classic Māori Material Culture including expansion of Māori settlement from coastal to inland areas, increase in horticulture and development of pā (hillforts) ~1400~1450: Most likely extinction of the moa. 1576: Speculation exists that around this time Spanish explorer Juan Fernández visited New Zealand although this is not generally accepted by most reputable authorities. 1300–1600: Rangitoto Island near Auckland is formed by a series of eruptions. 17th century 1601 onwards Expansion and migration of Māori groups and formation of classic iwi. (many still existing today) 1642 13 December: Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sights the South Island. He called it Staten Landt but the Dutch East India Company cartographer Joan Blaeu subsequently changed it to Nieuw Zeeland. 18 December: Abel Tasman's expedition sails around Farewell Spit and into Golden Bay. Dutch sailors sight local Māori. 19 December: Four of Tasman's crew are killed at Wharewharangi (Murderers) Bay by a Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri war party. Tasman's ships are approached by 11 waka as he leaves and his ships fire on them, hitting a Māori standing in one of the waka. Tasman's ships depart without landing. The Dutch chart the west of the North Island. 18th century 1701–1730 Ngāi Tahu migrate from Wellington to the South Island, as far south as Banks Peninsula. 1769 8 October: English explorer James Cook makes his first visit to New Zealand on board the Endeavour, and sails into Poverty Bay Cook maps the majority of the New Zealand coastline. French trader Jean de Surville explores parts of the New Zealand coast. 25 December : The first Christian service in New Zealand waters when Mass is celebrated on Christmas Day in Doubtless Bay by Father Paul-Antoine Léonard de Villefeix of the de Surville expedition. 1772 April: Expedition of French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne visits Northland, and anchors at Spirits Bay. 12 June: Marion du Fresne is killed at Tacoury's Cove, Bay of Islands by local Māori. 1773 April: Cook's second expedition arrives in Queen Charlotte Sound 18 December: A skirmish at Grass Cove in Queen Charlotte Sound results in the deaths of two Māori and nine members of Cook's expedition. 1777 Cook returns to New Zealand aboard the Resolution, accompanied by the Discovery captained by Charles Clerke. 1788 New South Wales founded, which, according to Governor Phillip's Commission, includes the islands of New Zealand. 1790 An epidemic of rewha-rewha (possibly influenza) kills 60% of the Māori population in the southern North Island. 1791 29 November: Chatham Islands sighted by HMS Chatham commanded by William Broughton. 1792 Group of sealers from the Britannia landed in Dusky Sound. 1793 Dusky Sound sealers picked up. A Spanish expedition led by Italian explorer Alessandro Malaspina charts Doubtful Sound La Recherche and L'Espérance, captained by Bruni d'Entrecasteaux and Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec sight New Zealand and the Kermadec Islands. Early 19th century; 1801–1839 1806 First Pākehā (European) women arrive in New Zealand. 1807 or 1808 Ngapuhi fight Ngāti Whātua, Te-Uri-o-Hau and Te Roroa iwi at the battle of Moremonui on the west coast of Northland, the first battle in which Maori used muskets. 1809 Ngati Uru attack and burn the ship Boyd, killing all but four of its crew and passengers. Whalers wrongly blame Te Puna chief Te Pahi and in a revenge attack kill 60 of his followers. 1814 22 December: British missionary Samuel Marsden, of the (Anglican) Church Missionary Society, arrives at Rangihoua at Oihi Bay in the Bay of Islands to establish the country's first mission station. Sheep, cattle, horses and poultry are introduced. Christmas Day: Rev Samuel Marsden holds the first Christian service on land, at Rangihoua. 1815 February: Thomas Holloway King is the first Pākehā child born in New Zealand, at Rangihoua. 1819 Raids on Taranaki and Te Whanganui-a-tara regions by Ngapuhi and Ngati Toa people led by chiefs Patuone, Nene, Moetara, Tuwhare, and Te Rauparaha. 17 August: the country's second mission station is established, at Kerikeri, when Rev Marsden, John Butler, Francis Hall and William Hall mark out the site which was previously visited by Marsden in 1815. 25 September: Rev Marsden plants 100 vines, the first grapes grown in New Zealand. 4 November: Chiefs Hongi Hika and Rewa sell 13,000 acres (5260 hectares) at Kerikeri to the Church Missionary Society for 48 felling axes. 1820 3 May: At Kerikeri, Reverend John Butler uses a plough for the first time in the country. Hongi Hika visits England, meets King George IV and secures supply of muskets. 1821 Continuation of musket wars by Hongi Hika and Te Morenga on southern iwi throughout the decade. 1822 Ngati Toa begin migration south to Cook Strait region, led by Te Rauparaha. 1823 Jurisdiction of New South Wales courts is extended to British citizens in New Zealand. First Wesleyan Missionary Society mission established, at Whangaroa. First Church of England marriage, between Phillip Tapsell and Maria Ringa, conducted by Thomas Kendall in the Bay of Islands. 1824 Te Heke Niho-puta migration of Taranaki iwi to the Kapiti Coast. 1825 The battle of Te Ika-a-ranganui between Ngapuhi and hapu against Ngatiwhatua, resident occupiers of the land fought upon. 1827 Te Rauparaha's invasion of the South Island from Kapiti begins. 1831 Whaling stations established at Tory Channel and Preservation Inlet. 1832 19 April: stonemason William Parrott begins work on the missionaries' Stone Store at Kerikeri. James Busby appointed British Resident. 1833 May: James Busby arrives at the Bay of Islands. 1834 March: United Tribes of New Zealand flag adopted by some 25 northern chiefs at Busby's suggestion. 1835 22 April: Wesleyan missionaries extend south beyond their main base at Hokianga to the Waikato Coast, among them James and Mary Wallis. October: Declaration of Independence of New Zealand by the "Confederation of United Tribes" signed by 34 northern chiefs (and later by another 18). 19 November: The brig Lord Raglan carrying 500 Māori from Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga armed with guns, clubs and axes, arrives on the Chatham Islands. It is followed by another ship with 400 more Māori on 5 December. Those Moriori that are not killed are enslaved. 1837 Captain William Hobson sent by New South Wales Governor to report on New Zealand. He suggested a treaty with the Māori and imposition of British Law. New Zealand Association formed in London, becoming the New Zealand Colonisation Society in 1838 and the New Zealand Company in 1839, under the inspiration of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. 1838 Bishop Pompallier founds Roman Catholic Mission at Hokianga. 1839 William Hobson instructed to establish British rule in New Zealand, as a dependency of New South Wales. Colonel William Wakefield of the New Zealand Company arrives on the Tory to purchase land for a settlement. Colony and self-government (1840 to 1946) 1840s 1840 22 January: New Zealand Company settlers arrive aboard the Aurora at Te Whanganui a Tara which becomes Port Nicholson, site of Wellington. 29 January: William Hobson arrives in the Bay of Islands and reads out the proclamation of sovereignty. 6 February: Hone Heke is the first to sign the Treaty of Waitangi at Bay of Islands. 21 May: Hobson proclaims British sovereignty over New Zealand. The North Island by treaty and the South Island by discovery. May: First capital established at Okiato, which was renamed Russell. St Peter's School, the first Catholic school in New Zealand, opened in Kororareka. 18 August: French colony established in Akaroa. Hobson becomes first governor and sets up executive and legislative councils. Rawiri Taiwhanga in Bay of Islands is running the first dairy farm in New Zealand, near Kaikohe. 1841 European settlements established at New Plymouth and Wanganui. February: Capital shifted from Russell (Okiato) to Auckland. 3 May: New Zealand proclaimed a colony independent of New South Wales. 27 September 1841: Foundation of a Catholic school for boys, Auckland's first school of any sort. 1842 Main body of settlers arrive at Nelson. 10 September: Governor Hobson dies in Auckland. 1843 Twenty-two European settlers and four Māori killed in the Wairau Affray at Tuamarina, near the Wairau River, in Marlborough, marking the start of the New Zealand Wars. Robert FitzRoy succeeds Hobson as governor. 1844 Hone Heke begins the Flagstaff War. New Zealand Company suspends its colonising operations due to financial difficulties. 1845 George Grey becomes governor. 1846 Flagstaff War with the capture of Ruapekapeka. First Constitution Act passed. Charles Heaphy, William Fox, and Thomas Brunner begin exploring the West Coast. First steam vessel, HMS Driver, arrives in New Zealand waters. 1848 Settlement of Dunedin founded by Scottish Otago Association. New Ulster Province and New Munster Province set up under 1846 Act. Coal discovered at Brunner on the West Coast. Earthquake centred in Marlborough damages most Wellington buildings. 1850s 1850 Canterbury settlement founded. 1852 Second New Zealand Constitution Act passed creating General Assembly and six provinces with representative government. 1853 Idea of a Māori King canvassed by Tāmihana Te Rauparaha and Hēnare Mātene Te Whiwhi. About 100 Māori – mostly chiefs – enrolled to vote in the forthcoming election. 4 July–1 October: 1853 New Zealand general election 1854 First session of the General Assembly opens in Auckland. 1855 Governor Thomas Gore Browne, appointed in 1854, arrives. A severe magnitude 8.1 earthquake strikes Wairarapa. Noted for having the largest movement of a strike-slip earthquake in history, at 17 meters. Adhesive postage stamps on sale. 28 October–28 December: 1855 New Zealand general election. 1856 Henry Sewell forms first ministry under responsible government and becomes first Premier. Edward Stafford forms first stable ministry. 1857 Foundation of Auckland's first Catholic boys' secondary school, St Peter's School. 1858 New Provinces Act passed. Te Wherowhero installed as first Māori King, taking name Pōtatau I. 1859 First session of Hawke's Bay and Marlborough provincial councils. Gold discovered in Buller River. New Zealand Insurance Company established. 1860s 1860 Waitara dispute develops into First Taranaki War. The Māori King Pōtatau Te Wherowhero dies and is succeeded by his son Tāwhiao. 12 December – 28 March: 1860–1861 New Zealand general election. 1861 George Grey becomes governor for the second time. May, Gabriel Read discovers gold in Gabriel's Gully near Lawrence. Central Otago Gold Rush begins. First session of Southland provincial council. Bank of New Zealand incorporated at Auckland. 1862 The country's first electric telegraph line opens, between Christchurch and Lyttelton. First gold shipment from Dunedin to London. 1863 War resumes in Taranaki and begins in Waikato when General Cameron crosses the Mangatawhiri stream. New Zealand Settlements Act passed to effect land-confiscation. First steam railway in New Zealand, the Ferrymead Railway opened. 7 February: sinks in Manukau Harbour, killing 189 people. 23 February: 7.5 earthquake causes moderate damage across central New Zealand. 1864 War in the Waikato ends with battle of Orakau. Gold discovered in Marlborough and Westland. Arthur, George, and Edward Dobson are the first Pākehā to cross what becomes known as Arthur's Pass. 1865 Capital and seat of government transferred from Auckland to Wellington New Zealand Exhibition held in Dunedin Native Land Court established. Government launches the first of what would become 3,000,000 acres of land-confiscations from Māori in Waikato, Taranaki, Bay of Plenty, and Hawke's Bay. Māori resistance continues. Auckland streets lit by gas for first time. 1866 First (unreliable) Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid. Christchurch to Hokitika road opens. Cobb and Co. coaches run from Canterbury to the West Coast. The Presbytery of Otago separates into three presbyteries and becomes the Synod of Otago and Southland. January–February: Trevor Chute leads raids against Maro in Taranaki 12 February–6 April: 1866 New Zealand general election. 1867 Thames goldfield opens; soon the town has more people than Auckland. Four Māori electorates established in Parliament. All Māori men over 21 obtained suffrage (allowed to stand for parliament and vote). Lyttelton railway tunnel completed. Armed constabulary established. 1868 Māori resistance continues through campaigns of Te Kooti Arikirangi and Titokowaru. New Zealand's first sheep breed, the Corriedale, is developed. 1869 Thomas Burns founds New Zealand's first university, the University of Otago, in Dunedin. Visit of Prince Alfred – the first Royal Tour. 1870s 1870 The last imperial forces leave New Zealand. Julius Vogel's public works and immigration policy begins, along with national railway construction programme; over 1,000 miles constructed by 1879. University of New Zealand created by the New Zealand University Act, establishing a federal university based on the University of London, which lasts until 1961. First rugby match. Auckland to San Francisco mail service begins. 1871 Deer freed in Otago. 14 January–23 February: 1871 New Zealand general election. 1872 Te Kooti retreats to the King Country and Māori armed resistance ceases. Telegraph communication links Auckland, Wellington and southern provinces. 1873 New Zealand Shipping Company established. 1874 First New Zealand steam engine built at Invercargill. 1875 20 December – 29 January: 1875–1876 New Zealand general election. 1876 Abolition of the provinces and establishment of local government by counties and boroughs. New Zealand-Australia telegraph cable established. 1877 Education Act passed, establishing national system of primary education, "free, secular, and compulsory". 1878 Completion of Main South Line railway linking Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. 1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Manhood suffrage is extended to non-Māori when the vote is given to every male aged 21 and over. Kaitangata mine explosion, 34 people die. Annual property tax introduced. Kangaroo lays the first reliable telegraph cable across Cook Strait. 28 August–15 September: 1879 New Zealand general election all men enfranchised. 1880s 1881 Parihaka community forcibly broken up by troops. Te Whiti, Tohu Kākahi and followers arrested and imprisoned. Wreck of SS Tararua, 131 people die. Auckland and Christchurch telephone exchanges open. The Māori King Movement under Tāwhiao makes peace with the Auckland settler government. 9 December: 1881 New Zealand general election. 1882 First shipment of frozen meat leaves Port Chalmers for England on the Dunedin. "State" visit of King Tawhiao to Auckland – civic reception, banquet & fireworks display. 1883 Te Kooti pardoned, Te Whiti and other prisoners released. Direct steamer link established between New Zealand and Britain. 1884 King Tawhiao visits England with petition to the Queen, appealing to the Treaty of Waitangi, and is refused access. First overseas tour by a New Zealand rugby team, to New South Wales. Construction of King Country section of North Island main trunk railway begins. 22 June: 1884 New Zealand general election. 1 August International Industrial Exhibition opened in Wellington. 9 September total Eclipse of the Sun observed at Wellington. November Russian Invasion Scare. 1885 Mary C. Leavitt, World Missionary for the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, toured New Zealand setting up local branches; appointed Anne Ward of Wellington as the first national president to continue recruiting and organizing departments to advocate for women's political and socio-economic rights. 1886 23–24 February – First national convention of Women's Christian Temperance Union New Zealand held in Wellington, launching the organizational strategies for a campaign for women's right to vote in national elections. 29 March -10 April – Visit of German warships to Auckland – SMS Gneisenau & SMS Olga. 11–21 May – Visit of Japanese warship Tsubka to Wellington. 23 May – 2 June surprise visit of Russian naval Vestnik to Wellington. 10 June Mount Tarawera erupts and the Pink and White Terraces are destroyed, 153 people die. Oil is discovered in Taranaki. 1887 New Zealand's first national park, Tongariro National Park, is presented to the nation by Te Heuheu Tukino IV. First inland parcel post service. 26 September: 1887 New Zealand general election. 1888 12 August: Reefton becomes first town in the Southern Hemisphere to have a public supply of electricity after the commissioning of the Reefton Power Station. 1889 Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. First New Zealand-built locomotive completed at Addington Workshops. 1890s 1890 A maritime strike in Australia spreads to New Zealand, involving 8000 unionists. "Sweating" Commission reports on employment conditions. 5 December: 1890 New Zealand general election, the first election on a one-man-one-vote basis 1891 John McKenzie introduces the first of a series of measures to promote closer land settlement. John Ballance becomes Premier of Liberal Government. 1892 First Kotahitanga Māori Parliament meets. 1893 27 April: John Ballance dies John Ballance succeeded as premier by Richard Seddon. 19 September: All women given the right to vote, New Zealand becomes the first country to grant universal suffrage and plural voting abolished. Liquor licensing poll introduced. Elizabeth Yates, Onehunga, becomes the first woman mayor in British Empire. Banknotes become legal tender. 28 November: 1893 New Zealand general election. 1894 Compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes and reform of employment laws. Advances to Settlers Act. Clark, Fyfe and Graham become the first people to climb Mt Cook. Wreck of SS Wairarapa. 1896 National Council of Women is founded. The Brunner Mine disaster kills 67. Census measures national population as 743,214. 13 October: First public screening of a motion picture in New Zealand 4 December: 1896 New Zealand general election. 1897 First of series of colonial and later imperial conferences held in London. Āpirana Ngata and others form the Te Aute College Students' Association. 1898 Old Age Pensions Act. First cars imported to New Zealand. 1899 New Zealand army contingent is sent to the South African war. First celebration of Labour Day. 6 December: 1899 New Zealand general election. 1900s 1900 Māori Councils Act passed. Public Health Act passed setting up Department of Public Health in 1901. 1901 Cook and other Pacific Islands annexed. Penny postage first used. Union of the Synod of Otago and Southland with the Northern Presbyterian Church to form the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand. Royal Tour – Visit of the Duke & Duchess of York and Cornwall. 1902 Pacific telegraph cable begins operating between New Zealand, Australia and Fiji. Wreck of trans-tasman steamer SS Elingamite. 25 November: 1902 New Zealand general election. 1903 31 March: Richard Pearse achieves semi-controlled flight near Timaru. 15 August: The New Zealand All Blacks play their first Rugby Test Match against Australia's Wallabies at the Sydney Cricket Ground in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. New Zealand win, 22–3. 1904 1905 New Zealand rugby team tours England and becomes known as the All Blacks. Old Age Pension increases to £26 per year; however, eligibility tightened. 6 December: 1905 New Zealand general election. 1906 10 June: Richard Seddon dies and is succeeded by Joseph Ward as premier. 1907 July: Resolution passed to constitute New Zealand as a Dominion. Fire destroys Parliament buildings. Tohunga Suppression Act passed 26 September: Dominion of New Zealand declared. 1908 Auckland to Wellington main trunk railway line opens. First New Zealanders compete at the Olympics as part of Australasian team. Harry Kerr is the first New Zealander to win an Olympic medal (a bronze in the Men's 3500 metre walk). Blackball coal miner strike lasts 11 weeks. Ernest Rutherford is awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. New Zealand's population reaches one million. 17 November, 24 November and 1 December: 1908 New Zealand general election. 1909 "Red" Federation of Labour formed. SS Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, 75 people die. Compulsory military training introduced. Stamp–vending machine invented and manufactured in New Zealand. 1910s 1910 Halley's Comet sighted in New Zealand. 1911 7 December, 14 December: 1911 New Zealand general election. 1912 William Massey wins vote in the House and becomes prime minister; Reform Government formed. Waihi miners' strike. Malcolm Champion becomes first New Zealander to win an Olympic gold medal. 1913 Waterfront strikes in Auckland and Wellington. 1914 World War I begins and German Samoa is occupied. New Zealand Expeditionary Force is despatched to Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, 43 people die. 15 August: Troops depart for Samoa. 29 August: New Zealand troops land unopposed in Apia. October: 8427 troops leave New Zealand for Europe. 10 December: 1914 New Zealand general election. 1915 New Zealand forces take part in Gallipoli campaign. Reform and Liberal parties form National War Cabinet. Britain announces its intention to purchase all New Zealand meat exports during war. 25 April: First landings at Gaba Tepe and Cape Helles on the Gallipoli Peninsula. 27 April: Counterattack launched by Turkish forces under the command of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. 20 December: Final withdraw of all troops from Anzac Cove. 1916 New Zealand troops transfer from Western Front. Conscription introduced. Labour Party formed. Lake Coleridge electricity supply scheme opened. 10 June: Passing of the Military Services Bill introduces conscription. July: Battle of Romani defaults Turkish force advancing towards the Suez Canal. 1917 Battle of Passchendaele, 3,700 New Zealanders killed. Six o'clock public house closing introduced. Lord Liverpool becomes first governor-general. 1918 New Zealand Division in the Battle of the Somme. End of World War I. Influenza pandemic in which an estimated 8,500 die. Creation of power boards for electricity distribution. Prohibition petition with 242,001 signatures presented to Parliament. 1919 Women eligible for election to Parliament. Massey signs Treaty of Versailles. First official airmail flight from Auckland to Dargaville. 17 December: 1919 New Zealand general election. 1920s 1920 Anzac Day established. New Zealand gets League of Nations mandate to govern Western Samoa. First aeroplane flight across Cook Strait. New Zealand sends first team to Olympic Games (previously they have competed as part of Australasian team). Darcy Hadfield wins first Olympic medal for New Zealand. 1921 New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy established. 1922 New Zealand Meat Producers Board constituted under Act of Parliament and placed in control of meat exports. 7 December: 1922 New Zealand general election. 1923 New Zealand Dairy Board constituted under Act of Parliament and placed in control of Dairy exports Otira tunnel opens; Midland Line between Christchurch and Greymouth completed Ross Dependency proclaimed. 1924 All Black 'Invincibles' tour of Britain and France. 1925 4 November: General election won by the Reform party under Gordon Coates. 1926 National public broadcasting begins under auspices of Radio Broadcasting Co. Ltd. 1927 1928 New Zealand Summer Time introduced. Charles Kingsford Smith completes first flight across Tasman Sea. 14 December: General election won by new United Party. Ted Morgan wins first Olympic gold medal for New Zealand. 1929 Economic depression worsens. Severe earthquake in the Murchison – Karamea district results in 17 deaths. First health stamps issued. 1930s 1930 Unemployment Board set up to provide relief work. 1931 3 February: A magnitude 7.8 earthquake in Hawke's Bay kills 256 people. Substantial percentage reductions in public service wages and salaries, to help rebuild Hawke's Bay. Airmail postage stamps introduced. 2 December: General election won by newly formed Coalition Government under George Forbes. 1932 Compulsory arbitration of industrial disputes abolished. Unemployed riots in Auckland, Dunedin and Christchurch. Reductions in old-age and other pensions. Distinctive New Zealand coins first issued, see New Zealand pound. 1933 9 September: Elizabeth McCombs becomes first woman MP. 1934 Reserve Bank and Mortgage Corporation established. First trans-Tasman airmail. 1935 Air services begin across Cook Strait. 24 November: New Zealand Post Office jams 1ZB radio broadcast by Colin Scrimgeour (Uncle Scrim). 27 November: General election: First Labour Government elected under Michael Joseph Savage. 1936 Reserve Bank taken over by state. State housing programme launched. Guaranteed prices for dairy products introduced. National Party formed from former Coalition MPs. Inter-island trunk air services introduced. Jack Lovelock wins Olympic gold and sets world record for 1500m. Jean Batten's record flight from England. Working week reduced from 44 to 40 hours. 1937 April: Federation of Labour unifies trade union movement. RNZAF set up as separate branch of armed forces. March: Free Milk in schools introduced. 1938 Social Security Act establishes revised pensions structure and the basis of a national health service. Import and exchange controls are introduced. 15 October: General election, Labour re-elected. 1939 Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force formed. Bulk purchases of farm products by Great Britain. 3 September: War declared on Germany 12 September: Enlistment in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force begins. 4 October: Government announces the formation of a Māori Battalion for 2NZEF 23 November: Bernard Freyberg is appointed commander of 2NZEF 13 December: takes part in The Battle of the River Plate. 1940 to 1946 1940 5 January: First Echelon of the 2NZEF leaves New Zealand for the Middle East. 12 February: The main body of the First Echelon of the 2NZEF, arrives at Maadi Camp in Egypt. 27 March: Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage dies 1 April: Peter Fraser becomes prime minister. 1 April: Formation of No. 75 (NZ) Squadron of the RAF 11 June: New Zealand declares war on Italy. 19 June: RMS Niagara hits a mine off Bream Head, Northland 2 August: Home Guard established. 20 August: German raider Orion sinks the steamer Turakina off Cape Egmont. October: Stanley Graham kills 7 in shooting spree near Hokitika 25 November: Steamer Holmwood sunk by German raiders off the Chatham Islands. 27 November: Rangitane sunk by German raiders 480 km from East Cape 8 December: New Zealand steamer Komata sunk by German raiders off Nauru Sidney Holland becomes Leader of Opposition. Conscription for military service. German mines laid across Hauraki Gulf. 1941 20 May – 1 June: New Zealand forces suffer heavy losses in the Battle of Crete. 8 December: New Zealand declares war on Japan following the attack on Pearl Harbor. Māori War Effort Organisation set up. Pharmaceutical and general practitioner medical benefits introduced. 1942 Economic stabilisation. Fears of a Japanese Invasion prompts precautions such as air raid drills. Membership of the Home Guard became compulsory for men aged between 35 and 50. The threat is eased after the Battle of the Coral Sea. New Zealand troops in First and Second Battles of El Alamein. Food rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work. 12 June: First 5 ships of American troops from the 37th US Army Division land in Auckland. 14 June: First American Marines from the 1st Corps Division land in Wellington. 1943 New Zealand troops take part in invasion of Italy. February: Mutiny by Japanese prisoners of war at Featherston prisoner of war camp results in 48 Japanese dead, 61 wounded, plus one dead and 11 injured guards. 3 April: Battle of Manners Street between American and New Zealand servicemen 20 June: Several Marines drown during landing exercises at Paekakariki 28 August: Eleanor Roosevelt arrives in New Zealand for visit. 3 September: Eleanor Roosevelt flies out from Auckland. 25 September: General election, Labour re-elected. October: Butter rationing begins. 1944 Australia-New Zealand Agreement provides for co-operation in the South Pacific. NZ Troops suffer heavy losses during The Italian Campaign March: Meat rationing begins, 1945 New Zealand signs United Nations charter. Māori Social and Economic Advancement Act passed. National Airways Corporation founded. 15 December: Main North Line railway completed between Christchurch and Picton. 1946 Family benefit of £1 per week becomes universal. Bank of New Zealand nationalised. 24 November: 1946 New Zealand general election. 20 August: Railway disaster in Manawatu Gorge Full independence (1947 to 1983) 1947 to 1949 1947 Statute of Westminster adopted with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947, passed by the New Zealand Parliament. New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947 passed, granting Parliament of New Zealand the ability to amend the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852. First public performance by National Orchestra. Mabel Howard becomes first woman cabinet minister. Fire in Ballantyne's department store, Christchurch, 41 people die. 1948 British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 passed. Protest campaign against exclusion of Māori players from rugby tour of South Africa. Polio epidemic closes schools. Mount Ruapehu and Mount Ngauruhoe erupt. September: Meat rationing ends. 1949 1 January: New Zealanders become "British Subjects and New Zealand Citizens" Referendum agrees to compulsory military training. New Zealand gets first four navy frigates. 30 November: General election: National Government elected. 1950s 1950 Naval and ground forces sent to Korean War. New Zealand Legislative Council abolished. Wool boom. June: Butter rationing ends. 1951 Prolonged waterfront dispute, state of emergency proclaimed. ANZUS treaty signed between United States, Australia and New Zealand. Māori Women's Welfare League established. 27 December: 1951 New Zealand general election 1952 Population reaches over two million. 9 September: Rimutaka Tunnel collapses 23 July: Yvette Williams wins gold medal in Olympics 10 July: Broken Barrier film released 1953 First tour by a reigning monarch. Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay first to climb Mount Everest. Railway disaster at Tangiwai, 151 people die. 1954 New Zealand signs South East Asia Collective Defence Treaty. Gains seat on United Nations Security Council. 20 September: in midst of moral panic, the Mazengarb Report is presented. 13 November: 1954 New Zealand general election. Social Credit gets 10 percent of vote in general election, but no seats in Parliament. 1955 Pulp and paper mill opens at Kawerau. 3 November: Rimutaka rail tunnel opened. 1956 New Zealand troops sent to Malaya. Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. 1957 17 February: Last hanging, of Walter James Bolton. Scott Base established in Ross Dependency. Court of Appeal constituted. Dairy products gain 10 years of unrestricted access to Britain. 30 November: General election, National loses election, Walter Nash leads Second Labour Government. 1958 PAYE tax introduced. Arnold Nordmeyer's "Black Budget". First geothermal electricity generated at Wairakei. First heart-lung machine used at Greenlane Hospital, Auckland. The first Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints built in the Southern Hemisphere is opened at Hamilton 1959 Antarctic Treaty signed with other countries involved in scientific exploration in Antarctica. Auckland Harbour Bridge opened. 1960s 1960 Regular television programmes begin in Auckland. Government Service Equal Pay Act passed. 26 November: General election, National Government elected. Treasury leases New Zealand's first computer from IBM. 1961 New Zealand joins the International Monetary Fund. Capital punishment abolished for ordinary crimes such as Murder but Remains for Treason, Espionage and "crimes committed during War". 1962 New Zealand troops sent to Malaysia during confrontation with Indonesia. Western Samoa becomes independent. Sir Guy Powles becomes first Ombudsman. New Zealand Māori Council established. 11 August: Cook Strait rail ferry service begins. Taranaki gas well opens. 1963 3 July: New Zealand National Airways Corporation Flight 441 crashes in the Kaimai Ranges; 23 killed. 30 November: 1963 New Zealand general election. 1964 Marsden Point oil refinery opens at Whangarei. Auckland's population reaches half a million. Lyttelton Road Tunnel opens; at nearly 2,000m long, it was the country's longest road tunnel until 2017. 1965 NAFTA agreement negotiated with Australia. Benmore Dam commissioned. Inter-Island HVDC commissioned, connecting the North and South Island power grids. Support for United States in Vietnam; New Zealand combat force sent, protest movement begins. Cook Islands becomes self-governing. 1 April: TEAL renamed Air New Zealand. Air New Zealand introduces the Douglas DC-8 jet aircraft on international routes. 1966 International airport officially opens at Auckland. New Zealand labour force reaches one million. National Library of New Zealand created. Te Atairangi Kaahu becomes first Māori Queen. 26 November: 1966 New Zealand general election, National wins a third term. 1967 Referendum extends hotel closing hours to 10pm. 10 July: Decimal currency introduced; New Zealand dollar replaces the pound at a rate of £1 to $2 (one shilling to 10 cents; one penny to cent) Lord Arthur Porritt becomes first New Zealand-born Governor-General. Denny Hulme becomes New Zealand's first (and currently only) Formula 1 World Champion. 1968 10 April: Inter-island ferry sinks in severe storm in Wellington Harbour; 51 people killed. 24 May: Three die in Inangahua earthquake. National Airways Corporation introduces Boeing 737 jet services on domestic routes. 1969 Vote extended to 20-year-olds. First output from Glenbrook Steel Mill. Television networked nationwide. Breath and blood tests introduced for suspected drunk drivers. 29 November: General election, National wins fourth election in a row. 1970s 1970 US Vice President Spiro Agnew Visits New Zealand to prop up the NZ Governments support for the Vietnam War and is met by an anti-war protest in Auckland which turns violent. Natural gas network commissioned, supplying gas from Kapuni to Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Whanganui, Palmerston North and Wellington. 1971 New Zealand secures continued access of butter and cheese to the United Kingdom. Nga Tamatoa protest at Waitangi celebrations. Tiwai Point aluminium smelter begins operating. Manapouri Power Station completed. Warkworth satellite station begins operation. 1972 Values Party is formed. Equal Pay Act passed. 25 November: General election. Labour Government elected; Norman Kirk becomes 29th Prime Minister. December: New Zealand ends its role in the Vietnam War when Troops are withdrawn under the new Labour Government and Compulsory Military Training is Abolished. 1973 Naval frigate dispatched in protest against French nuclear testing in the Pacific. New Zealand's population reaches three million. Oil price hike means worst terms of trade in 30 years. Colour TV introduced. 1974 1 April: Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) established. 31 August: Prime Minister Norman Kirk dies; Bill Rowling succeeds Kirk as 30th Prime Minister. Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. 1975 4 January: Lynne Cox became the first woman to swim across Cook Strait. 14 September: Māori land march protesting at land loss leaves Te Hāpua 13 October: Māori land march reaches Parliament building in Wellington, Whina Cooper presents a Memorial of Rights to the Prime Minister Bill Rowling and Māori Affairs Minister Matiu Rata. The Waitangi Tribunal is established. Second TV channel starts broadcasting. 29 November: 1975 New Zealand general election. Robert Muldoon becomes 31st Prime Minister after National Party victory. 1975 in New Zealand television 1976 New Zealand's national day 6 February renamed from New Zealand Day to Waitangi Day Matrimonial Property Act passed. Pacific Islands "overstayers" deported. EEC import quotas for New Zealand butter set until 1980. Introduction of metric system of weights and measures. Subscriber toll dialling introduced. Lyttelton–Wellington steamer ferry service ends. 1977 National Superannuation scheme begins. New Zealand signs the Gleneagles Agreement. The 200 nautical mile (370 km) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is established. 5 January: Bastion Point occupied by protesters. 21 November: God Defend New Zealand officially adopted as a national anthem (alongside God Save the Queen) 1978 Registered unemployed reaches 25,000. New Zealand Film Commission established. 12 February: 17 arrested after protestors led by Eva Rickard set up camp on the Raglan golf course. 1 April: National Airways Corporation merges with Air New Zealand. 25 May: Army and Police remove protesters from Bastion Point, 218 arrests are made. 25 November: General election, National re-elected. 1979 Air New Zealand Flight 901 crashes on Mount Erebus, Antarctica, 257 people die. Carless days introduced to reduce petrol consumption. 7 November: MP Matiu Rata resigns from the Labour Party to join Mana Motuhake Party. Nambassa 3-day music and alternatives festival held in Waihi. Largest event of its kind in New Zealand. 1980s 1980 Social Credit wins East Coast Bays by-election. Saturday trading partially legalised. Eighty-day strike at Kinleith Mill. 1981 South African rugby team's tour brings widespread disruption. 28 November: 1981 New Zealand general election, National re-elected for third term. 1982 CER agreement signed with Australia. First kōhanga reo established. First FM radio broadcast. Year-long wage, price and rent freeze imposed lasts until 1984. First New Zealand Football team to compete at FIFA World Cup Finals 1983 Visit by nuclear-powered United States Navy frigate "Texas" sparks protests. Official Information Act replaces Official Secrecy Act. New Zealand Party founded. Restructuring (1984 to date) 1984 to 1989 1984 Te Hikoi ki Waitangi march and disruption of Waitangi Day celebrations. Auckland's population exceeds that of the South Island. 14 July: 1984 New Zealand general election won by Labour under David Lange. Constitutional crisis follows general election; outgoing Prime Minister Robert Muldoon refuses to implement advice of Prime Minister elect David Lange. Government devalues New Zealand dollar by 20 percent. 26 July: David Lange becomes New Zealand's 32nd Prime Minister; Fourth Labour government formed. Finance Minister Roger Douglas begins deregulating the economy. New Zealand ratifies the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. 1985 Anti-nuclear policy leads to refusal of a visit by the American warship, the USS Buchanan. 10 July: Greenpeace vessel Rainbow Warrior bombed and sunk by French DGSE agents in Auckland harbour. 4 March: New Zealand dollar floated. First case of locally contracted AIDS is reported. Waitangi Tribunal given power to hear grievances arising since 1840. 20 November: Archbishop Paul Reeves appointed Governor General. 1986 Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986 passed. Royal Commission reports in favour of an MMP (Mixed Member Proportional) electoral system. Jim Bolger becomes National Party leader. Soviet cruise ship, the Mikhail Lermontov, sinks in Marlborough Sounds. Goods and Services Tax introduced. First visit to New Zealand by the Pope. The Constitution Act ends the right of the British Parliament to pass laws for New Zealand. Royal Commission into Broadcasting and Related Communications reports 1987 Share prices plummet by 59 percent in four months. Māori Language Act making Māori an official language passed. Anti-nuclear legislation enacted. First Lotto draw. New Zealand's first heart transplant is performed. New Zealand wins Rugby World Cup. Significant earthquake in the Bay of Plenty. 15 August: General election, Labour re-elected. 1988 Number of unemployed exceeds 100,000. Bastion Point land returned to Māori ownership. Combined Council of Trade Unions formed. Royal Commission on Social Policy issues April Report. Gibbs Report on hospital services and Picot Report on education published. State Sector Act passed. Cyclone Bola strikes northern North Island. Electrification of the central section of the North Island Main Trunk railway completed. New Zealand Post closes 432 post offices. Fisheries quota package announced for Māori iwi. 1989 Prime Minister David Lange suggests formal withdrawal from ANZUS. Jim Anderton founds NewLabour Party. Lange resigns and Geoffrey Palmer becomes 33rd Prime Minister. First annual balance of payments surplus since 1973. Reserve Bank Act sets bank's role as one of maintaining price stability. First school board elections under Tomorrow's Schools reforms. First elections under revised local government structure. Sunday trading begins. The final Remnants of capital punishment are abolished 26 November: Third TV channel begins. Māori Fisheries Act passed. 1990s 1990 New Zealand celebrates its sesquicentennial. Māori leaders inaugurate National Congress of Tribes. Dame Catherine Tizard becomes first woman Governor-General. Geoffrey Palmer resigns as prime minister; Mike Moore succeeds him as the 34th Prime Minister. 30 April: One- and two-cent coins are phased out. Commonwealth Games held in Auckland. Telecom sold for $4.25 billion. Pay Television Network Sky TV began broadcasting. Big earthquake in Hawke's Bay. 27 October: 1990 New Zealand general election: National Party has landslide victory. Jim Bolger becomes 35th Prime Minister. 13–14 November: David Gray kills thirteen at Aramoana, before police shoot him dead. 1991 The Resource Management Act 1991 is enacted, rewriting planning law. One- and two-dollar coins introduced to replace their respective banknotes. The "Mother of All Budgets" is presented by Finance Minister Ruth Richardson. The Alliance party is formed. Employment Contracts Act passed. Consumers Price Index has lowest quarterly increase for 25 years. Welfare payments cut. Number of unemployed exceeds 200,000 for the first time. New Zealand troops join multi-national force in the Gulf War. An avalanche on Aoraki / Mount Cook reduces its height by 10.5 metres. 1992 Government and Māori interests negotiate Sealord fisheries deal. Public health system reforms. State housing commercialised. New Zealand gets seat on United Nations Security Council. Student Loan system is started / Tertiary Fees raised 1993 Centennial of women's suffrage celebrated. New Zealand First launched by Winston Peters. 6 November: General election won by National, without obtaining a majority. Referendum favours MMP electoral system. Opposition MP Peter Tapsell becomes Speaker of the House, thus giving the government a majority. 1994 Government commits 250 soldiers to front-line duty in Bosnia. Government proposes $1 billion cap in plan for final settlement of Treaty of Waitangi claims. New Zealand's first casino opens in Christchurch. David Bain is convicted of murdering five members of his family. First fast-ferry service begins operation across Cook Strait. 1995 Team New Zealand wins America's Cup. Occupation of Moutoa Gardens, Wanganui. Waikato Raupatu Claims Settlement Act passed. New political parties form: the Conservatives, Christian Heritage and United New Zealand. Renewal of French nuclear tests results in New Zealand protest flotilla and navy ship "Tui" sailing for Moruroa Atoll. Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Auckland, Nelson Mandela visits. New Zealand contingent returns from Bosnia. 1996 Imported pests Mediterranean fruit flies and white-spotted tussock moths cause disruption to export trade and to Aucklanders. Kahurangi National Park, the 13th National Park, is opened in north-west Nelson. Waitangi Tribunal recommends generous settlement of Taranaki land claims. First legal sports betting at TAB. The commercial radio stations and networks owned by Radio New Zealand are sold to Clear Channel creating The Radio Network. $170 million Ngāi Tahu settlement proposed, $40 million Whakatohea settlement announced. 12 October: First MMP election brings National/New Zealand First coalition government. 1997 America's Cup damaged in an attack by a Māori activist. TV4 begins daily broadcasts. Customs Service cracks down on imported Japanese used cars following claims of odometer fraud. Auckland's Sky Tower is opened. Compulsory superannuation is rejected by a margin of more than nine to one in New Zealand's first postal referendum. Jim Bolger resigns as prime minister after losing the support of the National Party caucus and is replaced by New Zealand's first woman prime minister, Jenny Shipley. 1998 Auckland city businesses hit by a power cut lasting several weeks. The crisis of over a month results in an inquiry into Mercury Energy. The women's rugby team, the Black Ferns, become the world champions. The National – New Zealand First coalition Government is dissolved leaving the Jenny Shipley led National Party as a minority government. Several cases of tuberculosis discovered in South Auckland in the worst outbreak for a decade. The Hikoi of Hope marches to Parliament, calling for more support for the poor. The government announces plans to lease 28 new fighter aircraft but says no to a new naval frigate. Prime TV launched 1999 APEC is held in Auckland Alcohol purchase age for off-licenses reduced from 20 to 18 years of age 27 November: 1999 New Zealand general election. Helen Clark's Fifth Labour Government is sworn in. 2000s 2000 January: The name suppression of American billionaire Peter Lewis, who was arrested and convicted of drug possession charges, causes controversy. Knighthoods are Abolished 2001 Interest accrual is removed from student loans while studying. Students who accrued interest prior to 2001 are still required to pay. Air New Zealand bailout, government purchases a 76.5% share in the company New Zealand contributes Troops to Operation Enduring Freedom against the Taliban and Al Qaeda in Afghanistan 2002 Kiwibank is formed 30 June: The population of Canterbury reaches half a million. 27 July: 2002 general election, Labour-led government returned for a second term. 2003 Population of New Zealand exceeds 4 million. Prostitution Reform Act 2003 passed in parliament Appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council abolished; Supreme Court of New Zealand established, and begins work in early 2004. 2004 Foreshore and Seabed Act passed. Civil Union Act passed Māori Party formed. Maori TV begins broadcasting 2005 17 September: 2005 general election, Labour-led government returned for a third term. 2006 Labour enacts its election promise to remove interest on loans to students living in New Zealand. Five cent coins are dropped from circulation and existing 10-cent, 20-cent and 50-cent coins are replaced with smaller coins. The government announces a NZ$11.5 billion surplus, the largest in the country's history and second only to Denmark in the Western World. South Island population reaches 1 million 2007 David Bain's final Privy Council appeal results in the quashing of his convictions for the murder of his family. A re-trial is ordered by the Solicitor-General of New Zealand. 2 May: Freeview is launched, providing free-to-air digital television. 1 July: KiwiSaver retirement savings scheme introduced. 2 July Willie Apiata receives the first Victoria Cross for New Zealand, the first New Zealander awarded a VC since World War II. 18 December:Electoral Finance Act enacted. 2008 11 January: mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary dies. 8 November: General election: The National Party gains the largest share ending 9 years of Labour-led government. 27 November: (28 November NZ Time.) XL Airways Germany A320 Flight 888T, an aeroplane owned by Air New Zealand crashes in the Mediterranean Sea off the south coast of France, killing all seven on board, 5 of whom are New Zealanders. Helen Clark is named Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), ranking third in the UN office National reintroduces titular honours 8 years after Labour removed them from the New Zealand Honours System in 2000. 2009 Knighthoods, Abolished by the previous government, are restored. 6 March: David Bain retrial begins, resulting in not guilty verdicts on all five murder charges on 5 June. 28 April: First confirmed New Zealand case in the 2009 swine flu pandemic. 2010s 2010 4 September: A magnitude 7.1 earthquake strikes the Canterbury Region causing widespread damage to Christchurch and surrounding areas. 19 November: Pike River mine explosion traps and kills 29 miners. 2011 22 February: A magnitude 6.3 earthquake strikes Christchurch causing widespread damage and 184 deaths. 8 March: 2011 New Zealand census scheduled for this date is cancelled due to the Christchurch earthquake. 23 October: All Blacks win Rugby World Cup against France, 8–7 in Eden Park, New Zealand. 26 November: 2011 general election: Fifth National Government re-elected to second term with reduced majority. 2012 5 November: Royal Commission into the Pike River mine disaster reports. 2013 19 August: Same-sex marriage is legalised. 12 October: 2013 local government elections held. 1 December: Analogue television is switched off. 2014 20 January: Eketahuna earthquake causes moderate damage in the lower North Island. 20 September: 2014 general election is held. The National Party wins a third term in office. October: New Zealand wins a seat on the United Nations Security Council, starting from 2015. New Zealand last held a seat in 1993–1994. 2015 February: New Zealand joins the fight against ISIS by sending troops to Iraq to train Iraqi Soldiers against the Islamic Terror Group. 25 October: The All Blacks Win the Rugby World Cup, the only team to ever win the tournament twice in a row. 2016 14 November: A magnitude 7.8 earthquake strikes near the town of Kaikoura in the South Island. 5 December: John Key announces he will stand down as prime minister and leader of the National Party on 12 December. 12 December: Bill English becomes the 39th Prime Minister of New Zealand. 2017 26 June: Emirates Team New Zealand wins the 35th America's Cup. 2 July: Waterview Tunnels open; at 2.4 km long each, they overtake the Lyttelton Road Tunnel to become the country's longest road tunnels. 23 September: 2017 general election is held. The National Party wins a plurality, while the Labour Party significantly increases its number of seats. 26 October: Labour and New Zealand First form a coalition government. Labour leader Jacinda Ardern becomes the 40th Prime Minister of New Zealand. 2019 15 March: Christchurch mosque shootings, 51 people are killed during an attack on two mosques. December 2019: Whakaari / White Island eruption. 47 people were on the island at the time. Twenty-two people died, either in the explosion or from injuries sustained, including two whose bodies were never found and were later declared dead. A further 25 people suffered injuries, with the majority needing intensive care for severe burns. 2020s 2020 28 February: COVID-19 reaches New Zealand. 17 October: Originally scheduled for 19 September and delayed due to a second COVID-19 outbreak, the 2020 general election is held. 6 November Official election results give Labour 65 seats, enough for a majority government, the first time that a party has won enough seats to govern alone since the mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) system was introduced in 1996. 2021 17 March: Emirates Team New Zealand successfully defends the 36th America's Cup held in Auckland, New Zealand against Luna Rossa. See also List of years in New Zealand Timeline of the New Zealand environment References External links New Zealand at Timelines of History Today in New Zealand History calendar at New Zealand History Online New Zealand timelines
912080	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20M.%20Branham	William M. Branham	William Marrion Branham (April 6, 1909 – December 24, 1965) was an American Christian minister and faith healer who initiated the post–World War II healing revival, and claimed to be a prophet with the anointing of Elijah, who had come to herald Christ's second coming; his followers have been labeled a "doomsday cult". He had a lasting influence on televangelism and the modern charismatic movement and is credited as "a principal architect of restorationist thought" for charismatics by some Christian historians, and has been called the "leading individual in the Second Wave of Pentecostalism." At the time they were held, his inter-denominational meetings were the largest religious meetings ever held in some American cities. Branham was the first American deliverance minister to successfully campaign in Europe; his ministry reached global audiences with major campaigns held in North America, Europe, Africa, and India. Branham claimed that he had received an angelic visitation on May 7, 1946, commissioning his worldwide ministry and launching his campaigning career in mid-1946. His fame rapidly spread as crowds were drawn to his stories of angelic visitations and reports of miracles happening at his meetings. His ministry spawned many emulators and set the broader healing revival that later became the modern charismatic movement in motion. At the peak of his popularity in the 1950s, Branham was widely adored and "the neo-Pentecostal world believed Branham to be a prophet to their generation". From 1955, Branham's campaigning and popularity began to decline as the Pentecostal churches began to withdraw their support from the healing campaigns for primarily financial reasons. By 1960, Branham transitioned into a teaching ministry. Unlike his contemporaries, who followed doctrinal teachings which are known as the Full Gospel tradition, Branham developed an alternative theology which was primarily a mixture of Calvinist and Arminian doctrines, and had a heavy focus on dispensationalism and Branham's own unique eschatological views. While widely accepting the restoration doctrine he espoused during the healing revival, his divergent post-revival teachings were deemed increasingly controversial by his charismatic and Pentecostal contemporaries, who subsequently disavowed many of the doctrines as "revelatory madness". His racial teachings on serpent seed and his belief that membership in a Christian denomination was connected to the mark of the beast alienated many of his former supporters. His closest followers, however, accepted his sermons as oral scripture and refer to his teachings as The Message. Despite Branham's objections, some followers of his teachings placed him at the center of a cult of personality during his final years. Branham claimed that he had converted over one million people during his career. His teachings continue to be promoted by the William Branham Evangelistic Association, which reported that about 2 million people received its material in 2018. Branham died following a car accident in 1965. Throughout his healing revivals, Branham was accused of committing fraud by investigative news reporters, fellow ministers, host churches, and governmental agencies. Numerous people pronounced healed died shortly thereafter, investigators discovered evidence suggesting miracles may have been staged, and Branham was found to have significantly embellished and falsified numerous stories he presented to his audiences as fact. Branham faced legal problems as a result of his practices. The governments of South Africa and Norway intervened in order to stop his healing campaigns in their countries. In the United States, Branham was charged with tax evasion for failing to account for the donations received through his ministry; admitting his liability, he settled the case out of court. The news media has linked Branham to multiple notorious figures. Branham was baptized and ordained a minister by Roy Davis, the National Imperial Wizard (leader) of the Ku Klux Klan; the two men maintained a lifelong relationship. Branham helped launch and popularize the ministry of Jim Jones.Paul Schäfer, Robert Martin Gumbura, and other followers of William Branham's teachings have regularly been in the news due to the serious crimes which they committed. Followers of Branham's teachings in Colonia Dignidad were portrayed in the 2015 film Colonia. Early life Childhood William M. Branham was born near Burkesville, Kentucky, on April 6, 1909, the son of Charles and Ella Harvey Branham, the oldest of ten children. He claimed that at his birth, a "Light come whirling through the window, about the size of a pillow, and circled around where I was, and went down on the bed". Branham told his publicist Gordon Lindsay that he had mystical experiences from an early age; and that at age three he heard a "voice" speaking to him from a tree telling him "he would live near a city called New Albany". According to Branham, that year his family moved to Jeffersonville, Indiana. Branham also said that when he was seven years old, God told him to avoid smoking and drinking alcoholic beverages. Branham stated he never violated the command. Branham told his audiences that he grew up in "deep poverty", often not having adequate clothing, and that his family was involved in criminal activities. Branham's neighbors reported him as "someone who always seemed a little different", but said he was a dependable youth. Branham explained that his tendency towards "mystical experiences and moral purity" caused misunderstandings among his friends, family, and other young people; he was a "black sheep" from an early age. Branham called his childhood "a terrible life." Branham was involved in a firearms incident and was shot in both legs in 1923, at age 14. The wounds were life threatening and Branham was rushed to the hospital for treatment. His family was unable to pay for his medical bills, but members of the Indiana Ku Klux Klan stepped in to cover the expenses. The help of the Klan during his impoverished childhood had a profound impact on Branham throughout his life. As late as 1963, Branham continued to speak highly of the them saying, "the Ku Klux Klan, paid the hospital bill for me, Masons. I can never forget them. See? No matter what they do, or what, I still... there is something, and that stays with me..." Branham would go on to maintain lifelong connections to the KKK. Branham's father owned a farm near Utica, Indiana and took a job working for O.H. Wathen, owner of R.E. Wathen Distilleries in nearby Louisville, Kentucky. Wathen was a supplier for Al Capone's bootlegging operations. Branham told his audiences that he was required to help his father with the illegal production and sale of liquor during prohibition. Branham's father was arrested and convicted for his criminal activities in 1924 and served a prison sentence. Conversion and early influences Branham told his audiences that he left home at age 19 in search of a better life, traveling to Phoenix, Arizona, where he worked on a ranch for two years and began a successful career in boxing. While Branham was away, his brother Edward aged 18, shot and killed a Jeffersonville man and was charged with murder. Edward died of a sudden illness only a short time later. Branham returned to Jeffersonville in June 1929 to attend the funeral. Branham had no experience with religion as a child; he said that the first time he heard a prayer was at his brother's funeral. Soon afterward, while he was working for the Public Service Company of Indiana, Branham was overcome by gas and had to be hospitalized. Branham said that he heart a voice speaking to him while he was recovering from the accident, which led him to begin seeking God. Shortly thereafter, he began attending the First Pentecostal Baptist Church of Jeffersonville, where he converted to Christianity. The church was pastored by Roy Davis, a founding member of the second Ku Klux Klan and a leading recruiter for the organization. Davis later became the National Imperial Wizard (leader) of the KKK. Davis baptized Branham and six months later, he ordained Branham as an Independent Baptist minister and an elder in his church. Branham traveled with Davis and they participated together in revivals in other states. At the time of Branham's conversion, the First Pentecostal Baptist Church of Jeffersonville was a nominally Baptist church which adhered to some Pentecostal doctrines, including divine healing and speaking in tongues; Branham reported that his baptism at the church was done using the Jesus name formula of Oneness Pentecostalism. Branham claimed to have been opposed to Pentecostalism during the early years of his ministry. However, according to multiple Branham biographers, like Baptist historian Doug Weaver and Pentecostal historian Bernie Wade, Branham was exposed to Pentecostal teachings from his conversion. Branham claimed to his audiences he was first exposed to a Pentecostal church in 1936, which invited him to join, but he refused. Weaver speculated that Branham hid his early connections to Pentecostalism to make his conversion story more compelling to his Pentecostal audiences during the years of the healing revival. Weaver identified several parts of Branham's reported life story that conflicted with historical documentation and suggested Branham began significantly embellished his early life story to his audiences beginning in the 1940s. During June 1933, Branham held tent revival meetings that were sponsored by Davis and the First Pentecostal Baptist Church. On June 2 that year, the Jeffersonville Evening News said the Branham campaign reported 14 converts. His followers believed his ministry was accompanied by miraculous signs from its beginning, and that when he was baptizing converts on June 11, 1933, in the Ohio River near Jeffersonville, a bright light descended over him and that he heard a voice say, "As John the Baptist was sent to forerun the first coming of Jesus Christ, so your message will forerun His second coming". Belief in the baptismal story is a critical element of faith among Branham's followers. In his early references to the event during the healing revival, Branham interpreted it to refer to the restoration of the gifts of the spirit to the church. In later years, Branham significantly altered how he told the baptismal story, and came to connect the event to his teaching ministry. He claimed reports of the baptismal story were carried in newspapers across the United States and Canada. Because of the way Branham's telling of the baptismal story changed over the years, and because no newspaper actually covered the event, Weaver said Branham may have embellished the story after he began achieving success in the healing revival during the 1940s. Besides Roy Davis and the First Pentecostal Baptist Church, Branham reported interaction with other groups during the 1930s who were an influence on his ministry. During the early 1930s, he became acquainted with William Sowders' School of the Prophets, a Pentecostal group in Kentucky and Indiana. Through Sowders' group, he was introduced to the British Israelite House of David and in the autumn of 1934, Branham traveled to Michigan to meet with members of the group. Early ministry Branham took over leadership of Roy Davis's Jeffersonville church in 1934, after Davis was arrested again and extradited to stand trial. Sometime during March or April 1934, the First Pentecostal Baptist Church was destroyed by a fire and Branham's supporters at the church helped him organize a new church in Jeffersonville. At first Branham preached out of a tent at 8th and Pratt street, and he also reported temporarily preaching in an orphanage building. By 1936, the congregation had constructed a new church on the same block as Branham's tent, at the corner of 8th and Penn street. The church was built on the same location reported by the local newspaper as the site of his June 1933 tent campaign. Newspaper articles reported the original name of Branham's new church to be the Pentecostal Tabernacle. The church was officially registered with the City of Jeffersonville as the Billie Branham Pentecostal Tabernacle in November 1936. Newspaper articles continued to refer to his church as the Pentecostal Tabernacle until 1943. Branham served as pastor until 1946, and the church name eventually shortened to the Branham Tabernacle. The church flourished at first, but its growth began to slow. Because of the Great Depression, it was often short of funds, so Branham served without compensation. Branham continued traveling and preaching among Pentecostal churches while serving as pastor of his new church. Branham obtained a truck and had it painted with advertisements for his healing ministry which he toured in. In September 1934, he traveled to Mishawaka, Indiana where he was invited to speak at the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ (PAJC) General Assembly meetings organized by Bishop G. B. Rowe. Branham was "not impressed with the multi-cultural aspects of the PAJC as it was contrary to the dogmas advanced by his friends in the Klu Klux Klan." Branham and his future wife Amelia Hope Brumbach (b. July 16, 1913) attended the First Pentecostal Baptist Church together beginning in 1929 where Brumbach served as young people's leader. The couple began dating in 1933. Branham married Brumbach in June 1934. Their first child, William "Billy" Paul Branham was born soon after their marriage; the date given for his birth varies by source. In some of Branham's biographies, his first son's birth date is reported as September 13, 1935, but in government records his birth date is reported as September 13, 1934. Branham's wife became ill during the second year of their marriage. According to her death certificate, she was diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis in January 1936, beginning a period of declining health. Despite her diagnosis, the couple had a second child, Sharon Rose, who was born on October 27, 1936. In September 1936, the local news reported that Branham held a multi-week healing revival at the Pentecostal Tabernacle in which he reported eight healings. The following year, disaster struck when Jeffersonville was ravaged by the Ohio River flood of 1937. Branham's congregation was badly impacted by the disaster and his family was displaced from their home. By February 1937, the floodwaters had receded, his church survived intact and Branham resumed holding services at the Pentecostal Tabernacle. Following the January flood, Hope's health continued to decline, and she succumbed to her illness and died on July 22, 1937. Sharon Rose, who had been born with her mother's illness, died four days later (July 26, 1937). Their obituaries reported Branham as pastor of the Pentecostal Tabernacle, the same church where their funerals were held. Branham frequently related the story of the death of his wife and daughter during his ministry and evoked strong emotional responses from his audiences. Branham told his audiences that his wife and daughter had become suddenly ill and died during the January flood as God's punishment because of his failure to embrace Pentecostalism. Branham said he made several suicide attempts following their deaths. Peter Duyzer noted that Branham's story of the events surrounding the death of his wife and daughter conflicted with historical evidence; they did not die during the flood, he and his wife were both already Pentecostals before they married, and he was pastor of a Pentecostal church at the time of their deaths. By the summer of 1940, Branham had resumed traveling and held revival meetings in other nearby communities. Branham married his second wife Meda Marie Broy in 1941, and together they had three children; Rebekah (b. 1946), Sarah (b. 1950), and Joseph (b. 1955). Healing revival Background Branham is known for his role in the healing revivals that occurred in the United States in the 1940s and 1950s, and most participants in the movement regarded him as its initiator. Christian writer John Crowder described the period of revivals as "the most extensive public display of miraculous power in modern history". Some, like Christian author and countercult activist Hank Hanegraaff, rejected the entire healing revival as a hoax and condemned the movement as cult in his 1997 book Counterfeit Revival. Divine healing is a tradition and belief that was historically held by a majority of Christians but it became increasingly associated with Evangelical Protestantism. The fascination of most of American Christianity with divine healing played a significant role in the popularity and inter-denominational nature of the revival movement. Branham held massive inter-denominational meetings, from which came reports of hundreds of miracles. Historian David Harrell described Branham and Oral Roberts as the two giants of the movement and called Branham its "unlikely leader." Early campaigns Branham had been traveling and holding revival meetings since at least 1940 before attracting national attention. Branham's popularity began to grow following the 1942 meetings in Milltown, Indiana where it was reported that a young girl had been healed of tuberculosis. The news of the reported healing was slow to spread, but was eventually reported to a family in Missouri who in 1945 invited Branham to pray for their child who was suffering from a similar illness; Branham reported that the child recovered after his prayers. News of two events eventually reached W. E. Kidston. Kidston was intrigued by the reported miracles and invited Branham to participate in revival meetings that he was organizing. W. E. Kidston, was editor of The Apostolic Herald and had many contacts in the Pentecostal movement. Kidston served as Branham's first campaign manager and was instrumental in helping organize Branham's early revival meetings. Branham held his first large meetings as a faith healer in 1946. His healing services are well documented, and he is regarded as the pacesetter for those who followed him. At the time they were held, Branham's revival meetings were the largest religious meetings some American cities he visited had ever seen; reports of 1,000 to 1,500 converts per meeting were common. Historians name his June 1946 St. Louis meetings as the inauguration of the healing revival period. Branham said he had received an angelic visitation on May 7, 1946, commissioning his worldwide ministry. In his later years, he also connected the angelic visitation with the establishment of the nation of Israel, at one point mistakenly stating the vision occurred on the same day. His first reported revival meetings of the period were held over 12 days during June 1946 in St. Louis. Time magazine reported on his St. Louis campaign meetings, and according to the article, Branham drew a crowd of over 4,000 sick people who desired healing and recorded him diligently praying for each. Branham's fame began to grow as a result of the publicity and reports covering his meetings. Herald of Faith magazine which was edited by prominent Pentecostal minister Joseph Mattsson-Boze and published by Philadelphia Pentecostal Church in Chicago also began following and exclusively publishing stories from the Branham campaigns, giving Branham wide exposure to the Pentecostal movement. Following the St. Louis meetings, Branham launched a tour of small Oneness Pentecostal churches across the Midwest and southern United States, from which stemmed reports of healing and one report of a resurrection. By August his fame had spread widely. He held meetings that month in Jonesboro, Arkansas, and drew a crowd of 25,000 with attendees from 28 different states. The size of the crowds presented a problem for Branham's team as they found it difficult to find venues that could seat large numbers of attendees. Branham's revivals were interracial from their inception and were noted for their "racial openness" during the period of widespread racial unrest. An African American minister participating in the St. Louis meetings claimed to be healed during the revival, helping to bring Branham a sizable African American following from the early days of the revival. Branham held interracial meetings even in the southern states. To satisfy segregation laws when ministering in the south, Branham's team would use a rope to divide the crowd by race. Author and researcher Patsy Sims noted that venues used to host campaign meetings also hosted KKK rallies just days prior to the revival meetings, which sometimes led to racial tensions. Sims, who attended both the KKK rallies and the healing revivals, was surprised to see some of the same groups of people at both events. According to Steven Hassan, KKK recruitment was covertly conducted through Branham's ministry. After holding a very successful revival meeting in Shreveport during mid-1947, Branham began assembling an evangelical team that stayed with him for most of the revival period. The first addition to the team was Jack Moore and Young Brown, who periodically assisted him in managing his meetings. Following the Shreveport meetings, Branham held a series of meetings in San Antonio, Phoenix, and at various locations in California. Moore invited his friend Gordon Lindsay to join the campaign team, which he did beginning at a meeting in Sacramento, California, in late 1947. Lindsay was a successful publicist and manager for Branham, and played a key role in helping him gain national and international recognition. In 1948, Branham and Lindsay founded Voice of Healing magazine, which was originally aimed at reporting Branham's healing campaigns. The story of Samuel the Prophet, who heard a voice speak to him in the night, inspired Branham's name for the publication. Lindsay was impressed with Branham's focus on humility and unity, and was instrumental in helping him gain acceptance among Trinitarian and Oneness Pentecostal groups by expanding his revival meetings beyond the United Pentecostal Church to include all of the major Pentecostal groups. The first meetings organized by Lindsay were held in northwestern North America during late 1947. At the first of these meetings, held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canadian minister Ern Baxter joined Branham's team. Lindsay reported 70,000 attendees to the 14 days of meetings and long prayer lines as Branham prayed for the sick. William Hawtin, a Canadian Pentecostal minister, attended one of Branham's Vancouver meetings in November 1947 and was impressed by Branham's healings. Branham was an important influence on the Latter Rain revival movement, which Hawtin helped initiate. In January 1948, meetings were held in Florida; F. F. Bosworth met Branham at the meetings and also joined his team. Bosworth was among the pre-eminent ministers of the Pentecostal movement and a founding ministers of the Assemblies of God; Bosworth lent great weight to Branham's campaign team. He remained a strong Branham supporter until his death in 1958. Bosworth endorsed Branham as "the most sensitive person to the presence and working of the Holy Spirit" he had ever met. During early 1947, a major campaign was held in Kansas City, where Branham and Lindsay first met Oral Roberts. Roberts and Branham had contact at different points during the revival. Roberts said Branham was "set apart, just like Moses". Branham spent many hours ministering and praying for the sick during his campaigns, and like many other leading evangelists of the time he suffered exhaustion. After one year of campaigning, his exhaustion began leading to health issues. Branham reported to his audiences that he suffered a nervous breakdown and required treatment by the Mayo Clinic. Branham's illness coincided with a series of allegations of fraud in his healing revivals. Attendees reported seeing him "staggering from intense fatigue" during his last meetings. Just as Branham began to attract international attention in May 1948, he announced that due to illness he would have to halt his campaign. His illness shocked the growing movement, and his abrupt departure from the field caused a rift between him and Lindsay over the Voice of Healing magazine. Branham insisted that Lindsay take over complete management of the publication. With the main subject of the magazine no longer actively campaigning, Lindsay was forced to seek other ministers to promote. He decided to publicize Oral Roberts during Branham's absence, and Roberts quickly rose to prominence, in large part due to Lindsay's coverage. Branham partially recovered from his illness and resumed holding meetings in October 1948; in that month he held a series of meetings around the United States without Lindsay's support. Branham's return to the movement led to his resumed leadership of it. In November 1948, he met with Lindsay and Moore and told them he had received another angelic visitation, instructing him to hold a series of meetings across the United States and then to begin holding meetings internationally. As a result of the meeting, Lindsay rejoined Branham's campaigning team. Style Most revivalists of the era were flamboyant but Branham was usually calm and spoke quietly, only occasionally raising his voice. His preaching style was described as "halting and simple", and crowds were drawn to his stories of angelic visitation and "constant communication with God". Branham tailored his language usage to best connect to his audiences. When speaking to poor and working-class audiences, he tended to use poor grammar and folksy language; when speaking to more educated audiences and ministerial associations, he generally spoke using perfect grammar and avoided slang usage. He refused to discuss controversial doctrinal issues during the healing campaigns, and issued a policy statement that he would only minister on the "great evangelical truths". He insisted his calling was to bring unity among the different churches he was ministering to and to urge the churches to return to the roots of early Christianity. In the first part of his meetings, one of Branham's companion evangelists would preach a sermon. Ern Baxter or F. F. Bosworth usually filled this role, but other ministers like Paul Cain also participated in Branham's campaigns in later years. Baxter generally focused on bible teaching; Bosworth counseled supplicants on the need for faith and the doctrine of divine healing. Following their build-up, Branham would take the podium and deliver a short sermon, in which he usually related stories about his personal life experiences. Branham would often request God to "confirm his message with two-or-three faith inspired miracles". Supplicants seeking healing submitted prayer cards to Branham's campaign team stating their name, address, and condition; Branham's team would select a number of submissions to be prayed for personally by Branham and organized a prayer line. After completing his sermon, he would proceed with the prayer line where he would pray for the sick. Branham would often tell supplicants what they suffered from, their name, and their address. He would pray for each of them, pronouncing some or all healed. Branham generally prayed for a few people each night and believed witnessing the results on the stage would inspire faith in the audience and permit them to experience similar results without having to be personally prayed for. Branham would also call out a few members still in the audience, who had not been accepted into the prayer line, stating their illness and pronouncing them healed. Branham told his audiences that he was able to determine their illness, details of their lives, and pronounce them healed as a result of an angel who was guiding him. Describing Branham's method, Bosworth said "he does not begin to pray for the healing of the afflicted in body in the healing line each night until God anoints him for the operation of the gift, and until he is conscious of the presence of the Angel with him on the platform. Without this consciousness he seems to be perfectly helpless." Branham explained to his audiences that the angel that commissioned his ministry had given him two signs by which they could prove his commission. He described the first sign as vibrations he felt in his hand when he touched a sick person's hand, which communicated to him the nature of the illness, but did not guarantee healing. Branham's use of what his fellow evangelists called a word of knowledge gift separated him from his contemporaries in the early days of the revival. This second sign did not appear in his campaigns until after his recovery in 1948, and was used to "amaze tens of thousands" at his meetings. As the revival progressed, his contemporaries began to mirror the practice. According to Bosworth, this gift of knowledge allowed Branham "to see and enable him to tell the many events of [people's] lives from their childhood down to the present". This caused many in the healing revival to view Branham as a "seer like the old testament prophets". Branham amazed even fellow evangelists, which served to further push him into a legendary status in the movement. Branham's audiences were often awestruck by the events during his meetings. At the peak of his popularity in the 1950s, Branham was widely adored and "the neo-Pentecostal world believed Branham to be a prophet to their generation". Growing fame and international campaigns In January 1950, Branham's campaign team held their Houston campaign, one of the most significant series of meetings of the revival. The location of their first meeting was too small to accommodate the approximately 8,000 attendees, and they had to relocate to the Sam Houston Coliseum. On the night of January 24, 1950, Branham was photographed during a debate between Bosworth and local Baptist minister W. E. Best regarding the theology of divine healing. Bosworth argued in favor, while Best argued against. The photograph showed a light above Branham's head, which he and his associates believed to be supernatural. The photograph became well-known in the revival movement and is regarded by Branham's followers as an iconic relic. Branham believed the light was a divine vindication of his ministry; others believed it was a glare from the venue's overhead lighting. In January 1951, former US Congressman William Upshaw was sent by Roy Davis to a Branham campaign meeting in California. Upshaw had limited mobility for 59 years as the result of an accident, and said he was miraculously healed in the meeting. The publicity of the event took Branham's fame to a new level. Upshaw sent a letter describing his healing claim to each member of Congress. The Los Angeles Times reported on the healing in an article titled "Ex-Rep. Upshaw Discards Crutches After 59 Years". Upshaw explained to reporters that he had already been able to walk without the aid of his crutches prior to attending Branham's meeting, but following Branham's prayer his strength increased so that he could walk much longer distances unaided. Upshaw died in November 1952, at the age of 86. Branham's meetings were regularly attended by journalists, who wrote articles about the miracles reported by Branham and his team throughout the years of his revivals, and claimed patients were cured of various ailments after attending prayer meetings with Branham. Durban Sunday Tribune and The Natal Mercury reported wheelchair-bound people rising and walking. Winnipeg Free Press reported a girl was cured of deafness. El Paso Herald-Post reported hundreds of attendees at one meeting seeking divine healing. Despite such occasional glowing reports, most of the press coverage Branham received was negative. According to Pentecostal historian Rev. Walter Hollenweger, "Branham filled the largest stadiums and meeting halls in the world" during his five major international campaigns. Branham held his first series of campaigns in Europe during April 1950 with meetings in Finland, Sweden, and Norway. Attendance at the meetings generally exceeded 7,000 despite resistance to his meetings by the state churches. Branham was the first American deliverance minister to successfully tour in Europe. A 1952 campaign in South Africa had the largest attendance in Branham's career, with an estimated 200,000 attendees. According to Lindsay, the altar call at his Durban meeting received 30,000 converts. During international campaigns in 1954, Branham visited Portugal, Italy, and India. Branham's final major overseas tour in 1955 included visits to Switzerland and Germany. Allegations of fraud To his American audiences, Branham claimed several high profile events occurred during his international tours. Branham claimed to visit and pray for King George VI while en route to Finland in 1950. He claimed the king was healed through his prayers. Researchers found no evidence that Branham ever met King George; King George was chronically ill and died about a year after Branham claimed to heal him. Branham also claimed to pray for and heal the granddaughter of Florence Nightingale at a London airport. Branham's campaign produced photos of an emaciated woman who they claimed to be Nightingale's granddaughter. However, Florence Nightingale never married and had no children or grandchildren. Investigators of Branham's claim were unable to identify the woman in the photograph. Branham similarly claimed to pray for King Gustaf V while in Sweden in April 1950. Investigators found no evidence for the meeting; King Gustaf V died in October 1950. Branham claimed to stop in Egypt in 1954 while en route to India to meet with King Farouk; however Farouk had been deposed in 1952 and was not living in Egypt at the time. Branham claimed to visit the grave of Buddha while in India, however Buddha was cremated and has no grave. In total, critics of Branham identified many claims which appeared to be false when investigated. Weaver accused Branham of major embellishments. Branham faced criticism and opposition from the early days of the healing revival, and he was repeatedly accused of fraud throughout his ministry. According to historian Ronald Kydd, Branham evoked strong opinions from people with whom he came into contact; "most people either loved him or hated him". Kydd stated that it "is impossible to get even an approximate number of people healed in Branham's ministry." No consistent record of follow-ups of the healing claims were made, making analysis of many claims difficult to subsequent researchers. Additionally, Branham's procedures made verification difficult at the time of his revivals. Branham believed in positive confession. He required supplicants to claim to be healed to demonstrate their faith, even if they were still experiencing symptoms. He frequently told supplicants to expect their symptoms to remain for several days after their healing. This led to people professing to be healed at the meetings, while still suffering from the condition. Only follow up after Branham's waiting period had passed could ascertain the final result of the healing. From the early days of the healing revival, Branham received overwhelmingly unfavorable coverage in the news media, which was often quite critical. At his June 1947 revivals in Vandalia, Illinois, the local news reported that Beck Walker, a man who was deaf and mute from birth, was pronounced healed but failed to recover. Branham claimed Walker failed to recover his hearing because he had disobeyed Branham's instruction to stop smoking cigarettes. Branham was lambasted by critics who asked how it was possible the deaf man could have heard his command to stop smoking. At his 1947 meetings in Winnipeg, Branham claimed to have raised a young man from the dead at a Jeffersonville funeral parlor. Branham's sensational claim was reported in the news in the United States and Canada, leading to a news media investigation to identify the funeral home and the individual raised from the dead. Reporters subsequently found no evidence of a resurrection; no funeral parlor in the city corroborated the story. The same year the news media in Winnipeg publicized Branham's cases of failed healing. In response, the churches which hosted Branham's campaign conducted independent follow-up interviews with people Branham pronounced healed to gather testimonies which they could use to counter the negative press. To their surprise, their investigation failed to confirm any cases of actual healing; every person they interviewed had failed to recover. At meetings in Vancouver during 1947, newspaper reporters discovered that one young girl had been in Branham's prayer lines in multiple cities posing as a cripple, but rising to walk after Branham pronounced her healed each time. An investigative reporter suspected Branham had staged the miracle. Reporters at the meeting also attempted to follow up on the case of a Calgary woman pronounced healed by Branham who had died shortly after he left the city. Reporters attempted to confront Branham over these issues, but Branham refused to be interviewed. Branham was also accused of fraud by fellow ministers and churches that hosted his meetings. In 1947, Rev. Alfred Pohl, the Missionary-Secretary of Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, served as Branham's guide and host at meetings across western Canada. Pohl stated that many people Branham pronounced as healed later died and produced witnesses to validate his allegations. Pohl stated that the numerous deaths "severely tested the faith" of many ministers who had trusted in Branham. Pohl also claimed Branham was frequently given and accepted large financial gifts from individuals who he pronounced as healed, including those who subsequently died. In 1948, W. J. Taylor, a district superintendent with the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, raised concerns again following another wave of Branham meetings and asked for a thorough investigation. Taylor presented evidence that claims of the number of people healed were vastly overestimated, and that multiple people pronounced healed by Branham had subsequently died. While he stated his personal admiration for Branham, the troubling number of deaths led him to suggest "there is a possibility that this whole thing is wrong". Churches in Canada continued to experience crises following Branham campaign meetings as they attempted to explain the numerous failed healings to their congregations. At meetings in Regina, Branham pronounced the wife of a prominent minister healed of cancer. The minister and his wife were overjoyed, and the minister excitedly shared the details of the healing with his radio audience in Ontario later that week. To his surprise, his wife died only days later of her illness. The confusion created by the situation led ministers to claim Branham had deceived them. According to Kydd, "the controversy surrounding Branham deepened" with time. Kydd reported that by watching films of the revival meetings, "the viewer would assume almost everyone was healed", but "results were less promising whenever follow-up was made." One such case was Carol Strubler, who at age nine in 1954 was prayed for by Branham at a recorded revival in Washington, D.C., when he preached a sermon entitled "The Deep Calleth Unto The Deep". One newspaper reported, "Rev. William Branham of Jeffersonville, Ind., prayed for her and assured the heartbroken mother her daughter would live. A week later the mother told this newspaper she was confident the evangelist's words were true and had cancelled a scheduled visit to St. Christopher's Hospital in Philadelphia." However, Strubbler died "of acute leukemia, just three weeks after [Branham] told her mother she was healed of the fatal sickness." Another case was four-year-old Donny Morton, who was diagnosed with a rare brain condition. At recorded meetings in California during April 1951, Branham pronounced Morton healed, but the child subsequently died in October. His story was published in Readers Digest. Similar allegations came from Branham's European campaigns. Rev. Walter Hollenweger, who served as a translator on Branham's European tours, reported that "very few were actually healed" in the campaigns, and the overwhelming majority pronounced healed by Branham failed to recover. Hollenweger said that while there were a few "well-attested cases of miraculous healing", Branham was "naïve" and "dishonest" and misled his audiences when he reported the number of people healed. Hollenweger was disappointed that Branham refused to acknowledge the numerous failed pronouncements of healings. In 1955, Leonard Steiner, pastor of a Pentecostal church in Zurich Switzerland that hosted a Branham meeting reported cases of failed healing and the negative consequences for members of his congregation. Allegations in Norway led authorities to limit Branham's ability to hold meetings; the Directorate of Health forbade Branham from laying hands on the sick and sent police to his meetings to enforce the order. Serious allegations also were made following Branham's meetings in South Africa during 1952 and complaints were lodged with government authorities. Michael Plaff, a doctor, was pronounced healed of cancer by Branham during one meeting. In February 1952, the Branham campaign published an article claiming Plaff had visited the hospital the day after he was prayed for and his cure was confirmed by medical tests. However, Plaff had already died of his cancer just days after being pronounced healed. A minister attending meetings in Durban with his congregation reported that over twenty people suffering from tuberculosis were pronounced healed by Branham, but all failed to recovered. In another case, a woman suffering a heart condition was pronounced healed by Branham, but died less than a week later. A 23-year-old leukemia patient was pronounced healed by Branham, but failed to recover and died about thirteen months later. The Branham campaign published a book entitled "A Prophet Visit South Africa" to publicize the success of the tour. The book related the details of dozens of healings. Investigators in South Africa followed up on the reported healings and found that 46 of the people Branham said had been healed had failed to recover. After reviewing the results of the investigation, one minister concluded "that the cures claimed are so largely exaggerated as to be almost fraudulent in their claim." When Branham attempted to visit South Africa again in 1965, the South African government placed restrictions on his visa preventing him from holding any healing revivals while he was in the country. Ern Baxter, who participated in most of Branham's campaigns between November 1947 and 1953, reflected on the exaggerated reports of miracles in the healing revival in a 1978 interview. He explained that the allegations eroded the trust of the crowds who attended the healing services. Some attendees of Branham's meetings believed that some healings were staged and accused him of selectively choosing who could enter the prayer line. Some people left his meetings disappointed after finding Branham's conviction that everyone in the audience could be healed without being in the prayer line proved incorrect. Branham generally attributed the failure of supplicants to receive healing to their lack of faith. According to Pohl, Hollenweger, and Steiner, Branham's practice of blaming the supplicant for lack of faith was severely damaging in multiple churches and left many people who failed to receive healing in despair. The "word of knowledge" gift used by Branham was also subject to much criticism. Hollenweger investigated Branham's use of the "word of knowledge gift" and found no instances in which Branham was mistaken in his often-detailed pronouncements. Criticism of Branham's use of this gift was primarily around its nature; some asserted that it was a non-Christian practice and accused him of witchcraft and telepathy. Branham was openly confronted with such criticisms and rejected the assertions. Others alleged that Branham's discernments were not genuine. Many people Branham prayed for were required to first write their name, address, and what they were seeking prayer for on prayer cards. The cards were submitted to Branham's team who would choose the supplicants to be prayed for by Branham and organize the prayer line. Some critics accused Branham's team of sharing prayer card information with Branham before he began his prayer lines. Financial difficulties In 1955, Branham's campaigning career began to slow following financial setbacks. Even after he became famous, Branham continued to wear inexpensive suits and refused large salaries; he was not interested in amassing wealth as part of his ministry and was reluctant to solicit donations during his meetings. During the early years of his campaigns, donations had been able to cover costs, but from 1955, donations failed to cover the costs of three successive campaigns, one of which incurred a $15,000 deficit. ($ in 2020 dollars) Some of Branham's business associates thought he was partially responsible because of his lack of interest in the financial affairs of the campaigns and tried to hold him personally responsible for the debt. Branham briefly stopped campaigning and said he would have to take a job to repay the debt, but the Full Gospel Business Men's Fellowship International ultimately offered financial assistance to cover the debt. Branham became increasingly reliant on the Full Gospel Businessmen to finance his campaign meetings as the Pentecostal denominations began to withdraw their financial support. Finances became an issue again in 1956 when the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) charged Branham with tax evasion. The American government targeted the other leading revivalists with lawsuits during the same time period, including Oral Roberts, Jack Coe, and A. A. Allen. The IRS asserted income reported by the ministers as non-taxable gifts was taxable, despite the fact Branham had not kept the gifts for himself. Except Allen, who won his legal battle, the evangelists settled their cases out of court. The IRS investigation showed Branham did not pay close attention to the amount of money flowing through his ministry, and had failed to document gifts and donations he received or how the proceeds were used. It also revealed that others assisting in his campaigns were taking financial advantage of the campaigns. Branham reported his annual salary to the IRS as $7,000 ($ in 2020 dollars) while his manager Gordon Lindsay's was reported at $80,000. ($ in 2020 dollars) Comparatively, Oral Roberts earned a salary of $15,000 in the same years. Branham's case was eventually settled out of court when Branham admitted to tax evasion and agreed to pay of a $40,000 penalty. ($ in 2020 dollars) Branham was never able to completely pay off the tax liability. End of the revival By the mid-1950s, dozens of the ministers associated with Branham and his campaigns had launched similar healing campaigns. In 1956, the healing revival reached its peak, as 49 separate evangelists held major meetings. Branham and Lindsay ineffectively attempted to encourage the other evangelists to help their local churches rather than launch national careers. The Branham campaign held meetings across the United States in 1956, and a large meeting in Mexico City that had 20,000 in attendance. However the swelling number of competitors and emulators were further reducing attendance at Branham's meetings. His correspondence also decreased sharply. Whereas he had once received "a thousand letters a day", by 1956 his mail dropped to 75 letters a day. Branham thought the decline was temporary. He continued expecting something greater, which he said "nobody will be able to imitate". In 1955, he reported a vision of a renewed tent ministry and a "third pull which would be dramatically different" than his earlier career; he began to increasingly refer to the vision as his popularity began to decline. Amid the financial issues in 1956, Lindsay left Branham's campaign team. Branham eventually criticized the Voice of Healing magazine which he had helped create as a "massive financial organization" that put making money ahead of promoting good. The loss of Lindsay as a manager and the publicity of Voice of Healing was a major setback for Branham. After 1956, attendance at Branham's meetings dwindled and his appeal became limited to the loyal following that developed around him during the earlier years. Branham came to depend on The Herald of Faith published by Joseph Mattsson-Bose as his primary publicity tool for the final years of his ministry. Branham also began to criticize other leading contemporaries in the healing revival leading to open hostilities between the evangelists. In 1957 Branham openly criticized A. A. Allen concerning the validity of a miracle reported in his campaigns. Allen replied by circulating a letter at the Christian Fellowship Convention criticizing Branham for creating divisions and suggesting Branham may soon die as a result of his actions. Branham also began to criticize Oral Roberts and Billy Graham. The bad feelings and breakdown of cooperation between the leaders of the movement contributed to the end of the healing revival. In the closing years of the revival, Branham helped launch and popularize the ministry of Jim Jones, the founder and leader of the Peoples Temple. According to Historian Catherine Wessinger, while rejecting Christianity as a false religion, Jones covertly used popular Christian figures to advance his own ideology. Jones needed a religious headliner to endorse his ministry and invited Branham to share the platform with him at a self-organized religious convention held at the Cadle Tabernacle auditorium in Indianapolis from June 11 to 15, 1956. Branham critics Peter Duyzer and John Collins reported that Branham "performed numerous miracles", drawing a crowd of 11,000. Branham was an important influence on Jones, who copied many of his styles, methods, and teachings. Jones later became known for the mass murder and suicide at Jonestown in November 1978. According to Collins, Jim Jones and Paul Schäfer were influenced to move to South America by Branham's 1961 prophecy concerning the destruction of the United States in a nuclear war. Jones later said that he and Branham "did not see eye to eye", and Jones accused Branham of being disingenuous. Consensus among historians is that the healing revival ended in 1958. By 1960, the number of evangelists holding national campaigns dropped to 11. Several perspectives on the decline of the healing revival have been offered. Crowder suggested Branham's gradual separation from Gordon Lindsay played a major part in the decline. Harrell attributed the decline to the increasing number of evangelists crowding the field and straining the financial resources of the Pentecostal denominations. Weaver agreed that Pentecostal churches gradually withdrew their support for the healing revival, mainly over the financial stresses put on local churches by the healing campaigns. The Assemblies of God were the first to openly withdraw support from the healing revival in 1953. Weaver pointed to other factors that may have helped destroy the initial ecumenism of the revival; tension between the independent evangelists and the Pentecostal churches caused by the evangelists' fund-raising methods, denominational pride, sensationalism, and doctrinal conflicts—particularly between the Oneness and Trinitarian factions within Pentecostalism. Weaver also believed that "fraud and chicanary" by the revivals evangelists also played a major role in the decline. Later life Teaching ministry As the healing revival began to wane, many of Branham's contemporaries moved into the leadership of the emerging Charismatic movement, which emphasized use of spiritual gifts. The Charismatic movement is a global movement within both Protestant and non-Protestant Christianity that supports the adoption of traditionally Pentecostal beliefs, especially the spiritual gifts (charismata). The movement began in the teachings of the healing revival evangelists and grew as their teachings came to receive broad acceptance among millions of Christians. At the same time the Charismatic movement was gaining broad acceptance, Branham began to transition to a teaching ministry. He began speaking on the controversial doctrinal issues he had avoided for most of the revival. By the 1960s, Branham's contemporaries and the Pentecostal denominations that had supported his campaigns regarded him as an extremely controversial teacher. The leadership of the Pentecostal churches pressed Branham to resist his urge to teach and to instead focus on praying for the sick. Branham refused, arguing that the purpose of his healing ministry was to attract audiences and, having thus been attracted, it was time to teach them the doctrines he claimed to have received through supernatural revelation. Branham argued that his entire ministry was divinely inspired and could not be selectively rejected or accepted, saying, "It's either all of God, or none of God". At first, Branham taught his doctrines only within his own church at Jeffersonville, but beginning in the 1960s he began to preach them at other churches he visited. His criticisms of Pentecostal organizations, and especially his views on holiness and the role of women, led to his rejection by the growing Charismatic movement and the Pentecostals from whom he had originally achieved popularity. Branham acknowledged their rejection and said their organizations "had choked out the glory and Spirit of God". As a result of their view of his teachings, many Pentecostals judged that Branham had "stepped out of his anointing" and had become a "bad teacher of heretical doctrine". Despite his rejection by the growing Charismatic movement, Branham's followers became increasingly dedicated to him during his later life. Some even claimed he was the Messiah, treated him as deity, and began to baptise and pray in his name. Branham quickly condemned their belief as heresy and threatened to stop ministering, but the belief persisted. Many followers moved great distances to live near his home in Jeffersonville and, led by Leo Mercer, subsequently set up a colony in Arizona following Branham's move to Tucson in 1962. Many believed the rapture was imminent and that it was necessary to be near Branham in Arizona to take part. Branham lamented Mercer and the actions of his group as he worried that a cult was potentially being formed among his most fanatical followers. Before he died, some of his followers had already begun compiling his sermons and treating them as oral scripture, with a significant minority of his followers believing in his divinity. Teachings Branham developed a unique theology and placed emphasis on a few key doctrines, including his eschatological views, annihilationism, oneness of the Godhead, predestination, eternal security, and the serpent's seed. His followers refer to his teachings collectively as "The Message". Kydd and Weaver have both referred to Branham's teachings as "Branhamology"; other sources refer to his teachings as "Branhamism". Most of Branham's teachings have precedents within sects of the Pentecostal movement or in other non-Pentecostal denominations. The doctrines Branham imported from non-Pentecostal theology and the unique combination of doctrines that he created as a result led to widespread criticism from Pentecostal churches and the Charismatic movement. His unique arrangement of doctrines, coupled with the highly controversial nature of the serpent seed doctrine, caused the alienation of many of his former supporters. The Full Gospel tradition, which has its roots in Wesleyan Arminianism, is the theology generally adhered to by the Charismatic movement and Pentecostal denominations. Branham's doctrines are a blend of both Calvinism and Arminianism, which are considered contradictory by many theologians; the teachings have been described as "jumbled and contradictory and difficult to categorize". As a result, the theology he developed in the later years of his life seemed "complicated and bizarre" to many people who admired him personally during the years of the healing revival. Many of his followers regard his sermons as oral scripture and believe Branham had rediscovered the true doctrines of the early church. Divine healing Throughout his ministry, Branham taught a doctrine of faith healing that was often the central teaching he espoused during the healing campaign. He believed healing was the main focus of the ministry of Jesus Christ and believed in a dual atonement; "salvation for the soul and healing for the body". He believed and taught that miracles ascribed to Christ in the New Testament were also possible in modern times. Branham believed that all sickness was a result of demonic activity and could be overcome by the faith of the person desiring healing. Branham argued that God was required to heal when faith was present. This led him to conclude that individuals who failed to be healed lacked adequate faith. Branham's teaching on divine healing were within the mainstream of Pentecostal theology and echoed the doctrines taught by Smith Wigglesworth, Bosworth, and other prominent Pentecostal ministers of the prior generation. Restorationism Of all of Branham's doctrines, his teachings on Christian restorationism have had the most lasting influence on modern Christianity. Charismatic writer Michael Moriarty described his teachings on the subject as "extremely significant" because they have "impacted every major restoration movement since". As a result, Moriarty concluded Branham has "profoundly influenced" the modern Charismatic movement. Branham taught the doctrine widely from the early days of the healing revival, in which he urged his audiences to unite and restore a form of church organization like the primitive church of early Christianity. The teaching was accepted and widely taught by many of the evangelists of the healing revival, and they took it with them into the subsequent Charismatic and evangelical movements. Paul Cain, Bill Hamon, Kenneth Hagin, and other restoration prophets cite Branham as a major influence. They played a critical role in introducing Branham's restoration views to the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement, the Association of Vineyard Churches, and other large Charismatic organizations. The Toronto Blessing, the Brownsville Revival, and other nationwide revivals of the late 20th century have their roots in Branham's restorationist teachings. The teaching holds that Christianity should return to a form mirroring the primitive Christian church. It supports the restoration of apostles and prophets, signs and wonders, spiritual gifts, spiritual warfare, and the elimination of non-primitive features of modern Christianity. Branham taught that by the end of the first century of Christianity, the church "had been contaminated by the entrance of an antichrist spirit". As a result, he believed that from a very early date, the church had stopped following the "pure Word of God" and had been seduced into a false form of Christianity. He stated the corruption came from the desire of early Christianity's clergy to obtain political power, and as a result became increasingly wicked and introduced false creeds. This led to denominationalism, which he viewed as the greatest threat to true Christianity. Branham viewed Martin Luther as the initiator of a process that would result in the restoration of the true form of Christianity, and traced the advancement of the process through other historic church figures. He believed the rapture would occur at the culmination of this process. Although Branham referred in his sermons to the culmination of the process as a future event affecting other people, he believed he and his followers were fulfilling his restoration beliefs. Annihilationism Annihilationism, the doctrine that the damned will be totally destroyed after the final judgment so as to not exist, was introduced to Pentecostalism in the teachings of Charles Fox Parham (1873–1929). Not all Pentecostal sects accepted the idea. Prior to 1957, Branham taught a doctrine of eternal punishment in hell. By 1957 he began promoting an annihilationist position in keeping with Parham's teachings. He believed that "eternal life was reserved only for God and his children". In 1960, Branham claimed the Holy Spirit had revealed this doctrine to him as one of the end-time mysteries. Promoting annihilationism led to the alienation of Pentecostal groups that had rejected Parham's teaching on the subject. Godhead Like other doctrines, the Godhead formula was a point of doctrinal conflict within Pentecostalism. As Branham began offering his own viewpoint, it led to the alienation of Pentecostal groups adhering to Trinitarianism. Branham shifted his theological position on the Godhead during his ministry. Early in his ministry, Branham espoused a position closer to an orthodox Trinitarian view. By the early 1950s, he began to privately preach the Oneness doctrine outside of his healing campaigns. By the 1960s, he had changed to openly teaching the Oneness position, according to which there is one God who manifests himself in multiple ways; in contrast with the Trinitarian view that three distinct persons comprise the Godhead. Branham came to believe that trinitarianism was tritheism and insisted members of his congregation be re-baptized in Jesus's name in imitation of Paul the Apostle. Branham believed his doctrine had a nuanced difference from the Oneness doctrine and to the end of his ministry he openly argued that he was not a proponent of Oneness doctrine. He distinguished his baptismal formula from the Oneness baptism formula in the name of Jesus by teaching that the baptismal formula should be in the name of Lord Jesus Christ. He argued that there were many people named Jesus but there is only one Lord Jesus Christ. By the end of his ministry, his message required an acceptance of the oneness of the Godhead and baptism in the name of Lord Jesus Christ. Opposition to modern culture As Branham's ministry progressed, he increasingly condemned modern culture. According to Weaver, Branham's views on modern culture were the primary reason the growing Charismatic movement rejected him; his views also prevented him from following his contemporaries who were transitioning from the healing revival to the new movement. He taught that immoral women and education were the central sins of modern culture. Branham viewed education as "Satan's snare for intellectual Christians who rejected the supernatural" and "Satan's tool for obscuring the 'simplicity of the Message and the messenger'". Weaver wrote that Branham held a "Christ against Culture" opinion, according to which loyalty to Christ requires rejection of non-Christian culture. Pentecostalism inherited the Wesleyan doctrine of entire sanctification and outward holiness from its founders, who came from Wesleyan-influenced denominations of the post-American Civil War era. The rigid moral code associated with the holiness movement had been widely accepted by Pentecostals in the early twentieth century. Branham's strict moral code echoed the traditions of early Pentecostalism but became increasingly unpopular because he refused to accommodate mid-century Pentecostalism's shifting viewpoint. He denounced cigarettes, alcohol, television, rock and roll, and many forms of worldly amusement. Branham strongly identified with the lower-class roots of Pentecostalism and advocated living an ascetic lifestyle. When he was given a new Cadillac, he kept it parked in his garage for two years out of embarrassment. Branham openly chastised other evangelists, who seemed to be growing wealthy from their ministries and opposed the prosperity messages being taught. Branham did not view financial prosperity as an automatic result of salvation. He rejected the financial aspects of the prosperity gospel that originated in the teachings of Oral Roberts and A. A. Allen. Branham condemned any emphasis on expensive church buildings, elaborate choir robes, and large salaries for ministers, and insisted the church should focus on the imminent return of Christ. Branham's opposition to modern culture emerged most strongly in his condemnation of the "immorality of modern women". He taught that women with short hair were breaking God's commandments and "ridiculed women's desire to artificially beautify themselves with makeup". Branham believed women were guilty of committing adultery if their appearance was intended to motivate men to lust, and viewed a woman's place as "in the kitchen". Citing the creation story in which Eve is taken from Adam's side, Branham taught that woman was not part of God's original creation, and she was a byproduct of man. According to Weaver, "his pronouncements with respect to women were often contradictory". Branham once told women who refused to dress according to his instructions "not to call themselves Christians" but qualified his denunciations by affirming that obedience to the holiness moral code was not a requirement for salvation. While he did not condemn women who refused the holiness moral code to Hell, he insisted they would not be part of the rapture. Weaver wrote that Branham's attitude to women concerning physical appearance, sexual drive, and marital relations was misogynistic, and that Branham saw modern women as "essentially immoral sexual machines who were to blame for adultery, divorce and death. They were the tools of the Devil." Some of Branham's contemporaries accused him of being a "woman hater", but he insisted he only hated immorality. According to Edward Babinski, women who follow the holiness moral code Branham supported regard it as "a badge of honor". Serpent seed, Predestination, & Race Branham taught an unorthodox doctrine on the source of original sin. He believed that the story of the fall of man in the Garden of Eden is allegorical and interpreted it to mean that the serpent had sexual intercourse with Eve, and their offspring was Cain. Branham also taught the belief that Cain's modern descendants were masquerading as educated people and scientists, and were "a big religious bunch of illegitimate bastard children" who comprised the majority of society's criminals. He believed that the serpent was an intelligent human-like ape he described as the missing link between the chimpanzee and man, and he also speculated that the serpent was possibly a giant. Branham believed that the serpent was transformed into a reptile snake after it was cursed by God. Branham's teachings on Predestination were deeply connected to his serpent seed doctrine. Branham believed the term "predestination" was widely misunderstood and preferred to use the word "foreknowledge" to describe his views. Branham taught that humanity's choice in salvation was negated by their ancestry, and that genetics determined one's eternal destiny; the offspring of Cain were foreordained to damnation while the offspring of Seth were foreordained to salvation. Weaver commented that Branham seemed unaware that his teachings conflicted with free will, and that he taught a Calvinistic form of the doctrine of predestination and openly supported Calvin's doctrine of Eternal Security, both of which were at odds with the Arminian view of predestination held by Pentecostalism. Unlike his views on the Godhead and Annihilationism, there was no precedent within Pentecostalism for his views on predestination, and opened him to widespread criticism. Branham lamented that more so than any other teaching, Pentecostals criticized him for his predestination teachings. According to Steven Hassan, "Branham’s sermons lay the foundation to believe that black people are the inferior race." Branham used the term "hybrid" to describe anything he believed to be tainted by the serpent. Branham accused Eve of producing a "hybrid" race, and he traced the hybrid line of the Serpent's Seed to Ham the biblical progenitor of the African peoples, King Ahab, Judas Iscariot, Roman Catholics, and the future Antichrist. Branham reported discussing the possibility that blacks were descended from apes as early as 1929, but claimed to reject the belief at the time. In his recorded sermons, Branham first publicly hinted at his belief in the serpent seed doctrine in 1953. He began to openly teach serpent seed in 1958 at the height of racial unrest in the United States. Prof. Doug Weaver and Prof. Jon Schambers both independently investigated Branham's serpent seed doctrine. Weaver suggested that Branham may have become acquainted with the serpent seed doctrine through his Baptist roots, and Schambers connected Branham's teaching to the white supremacy movement. Branham was baptized and ordained by Roy Davis, a founding member and later Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan; Branham and Davis continued to associate throughout Branham's life. Schambers, Weaver, and historian Roy Moore also suggested Branham may been influenced by the teachings of Baptist minister Daniel Parker's two-seed doctrine. Although not widely accepted, Parker's teachings were well known among Baptists in Indiana and Kentucky; Parker also connected the serpent's seed to the non-white races. Branham was open about the implications of his beliefs and publicly supported segregation. Branham also openly opposed interracial relationships and connected people of mixed race ancestry to the wicked "hybrid" race of the serpent. Weaver called Serpent Seed Branham's "most disreputable" doctrine. Branham's embrace of the serpent seed doctrine alienated most of the members of his Pentecostal audience. According to Pearry Green, The broader Pentecostal movement considers Branham's version of the serpent seed doctrine repugnant and in their point of view, it was the "filthy doctrine ... that ruined his ministry." No other mainstream Christian group held a similar view; Branham was widely criticized for spreading the doctrine. Branham's followers consider the serpent seed doctrine one of his greatest revelations, and his most original; despite its racial nature, most are unaware of the origins of the teaching within the white supremacy movement. When confronted with the accusations of racism, some of his followers have denied the teaching of serpent seed has any connection to white supremacy or racism, and have pointed out that non-white followers of Branham accept the doctrine and its implications. Hassan wrote that Branham's followers use "deceptive tactics to recruit and indoctrinate unsuspecting people," and that "recruiters do not tell new members" about the historic "deep ties to white supremacy groups." Leaders in Branham's movement have taken actions to prevent followers from discovering the true origin of the serpent seed teaching. Eschatology and the Seven Seals In his later years, Branham began to preach almost exclusively on biblical prophecy. In 1960, Branham preached a series of sermons on the seven church ages based on chapters two and three of the Book of Revelation. The sermons used the dispensational system of C. I. Scofield, Clarence Larkin, and Jehovah's Witness founder Charles Taze Russel. As in their dispensational systems, Branham said each church represents a historical age, and that the angel of each age was a significant church figure. Branham identified historical Christian figures as church age messengers, naming some of the same men as Russel. Whereas Russel had claimed to be the seventh messenger himself during the 1890s, Branham's sermons differed and he described his own characteristics as the attributes of the Laodicean Church age messenger; Branham believed the age would immediately precede the rapture. Branham explained the Laodicean age would be immoral in a way comparable to Sodom and Gomorrah, and it would be a time in which Christian denominations rejected Christ. As described by Branham, the characteristics of the Laodicean age resemble the modern era. Branham also asserted the final messenger would be a mighty prophet who put the Word of God first, that he would be a lover of the wilderness, that he would hate wicked women, and be an uneducated person. Branham compared the messenger to this last age to John the Baptist and said he would come in the spirit of Elijah the prophet and cited the Book of Malachi 4:5–6 (3:23–24 in Hebrew) as the basis for claiming the Elijah spirit would return. Branham preached a series of sermons in 1963 on the Seven Seals, which he regarded as a highlight of his ministry. Branham believed the sermons would produce "rapturing faith" which was necessary for his followers to escape the tribulation, and that the sermons contained "the complete revelation of Jesus Christ". Weaver wrote that "the importance of the revelation of the seals to Branham's 'prophetic' identity cannot be overestimated". Branham viewed the revelation of the seals as the crowning achievement of his ministry and the ultimate fulfillment of his purpose as a prophet. According to Weaver, the sermons were primarily "a restatement of the dispensationalism espoused in the sermons on the seven church ages". The sermons focused on the Book of Revelation 6:1–17, and provided an interpretation of the meaning of each of the seals, which Branham connected with his prior sermons on the church ages. Like his sermons on the church ages, Branham's sermons on the seals were largely borrowed from the writings of Charles Taze Russell and Clarence Larkin. Branham claimed the sermons were inspired through an angelic visitation and the appearance of what he believed to be a supernatural cloud in Arizona that was visible in the American Southwest on February 28, 1963. Branham interpreted the cloud to be the face of Jesus Christ, and a fulfillment of 1 Thessalonians 4:16: "For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout". Branham believed the events of 1963 indicated the rapture was imminent. As a result of his teachings, many of Branham's followers believe that Jesus Christ returned in some form in 1963. By 1987, it was widely known the cloud Branham believed to be supernatural had been manmade and was reported as such by Weaver in his first biography of Branham. Prof. James McDonald of the University of Arizona Institute of Atmospheric Physics was present when the 1963 cloud phenomena appeared. He investigated the phenomena and discovered that the cloud had been created by an exploded Thor rocket carrying a classified spy satellite launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base that failed to make orbit. The United States Air Force later declassified the launch records and acknowledged the manmade origin of the cloud. Military personnel involved in the launch stated that they had "immediately recognized the McDonald cloud as from an explosion of a rocket the afternoon of 28 February 1963". Branham claimed to his audiences that he was hunting in Arizona when angels appeared to him and created the cloud overhead. Peter Duyzer presented evidence that Branham falsely claimed to be hunting in Arizona when the cloud appeared, and was actually in Texas where he was assisting with efforts to have the death sentence of Leslie Elaine Perez overturned. In his sermons on the seven seals, Branham again indicated he was a prophet who had the anointing of Elijah and was a messenger heralding the second coming of Christ. Branham did not directly claim to be the end-time messenger in either of his sermons on the church ages or the seven seals. Weaver believed Branham desired to be the eschatological prophet he was preaching about, but had self-doubt. At the time, Branham continued to leave the identity of the messenger open to the interpretation of his followers, who widely accepted that he was that messenger. Beginning in 1958, Branham began to claim Luke 17:30 was being fulfilled. By the 1960s, he began to make frequent references to the scripture claiming that through his ministry the "Son of Man was being revealed". According to Weaver, Branham's "obsession with Luke 17:30 and Malachi 4:5-6 dominated the end of his ministry". In 1964 and 1965 he began to make special emphasis that the Son of Man could only be revealed through the ministry of a prophet. Branham's teachings on the subject caused confusion among his followers who repeatedly asked him to clarify his relationship to Christ. Some of his followers believed he was claiming divinity and were prepared to accept his claims. Branham's responses and statements on the subject of his divinity were contradictory leaving his followers divided on the subject. In his final revival meetings before his death, Branham stated "The Elijah of this day is the Lord Jesus Christ. He is to come according to Luke 17:30. The Son of Man is to reveal Himself among His people. Not a man, God. But it'll come through a prophet." His final statement on the subject convinced a number of his followers he was indeed claiming divinity. Anti-denominationalism Branham believed denominationalism was "a mark of the beast", which added to the controversy surrounding his later ministry. Branham stated that he was not opposed to organizational structures; his concern focused on the "road block to salvation and spiritual unity" he believed denominations created by emphasizing loyalty to their organizations. Branham's doctrine was similar to the anti-Catholic rhetoric of classical Pentecostalism and Protestantism, which commonly associated the mark of the beast with Catholicism. Branham, however, adopted the teaching of Charles Taze Russell which associated the image of the beast with Protestant denominations. In his later years, he came to believe all denominations were "synagogues of Satan". Branham's teaching was particularly damaging to his relationship with Pentecostals denominations who were angered that he would associate them with the mark of beast. Scholar Robert Price and Doug Weaver suggested that Branham's stance on denominations was developed in response to their rejection of his teachings in an attempt to maintain the loyalty of his closest followers. Throughout the 1960s, Branham demanded his listeners leave any denomination they were part of to demonstrate their loyalty to him and his message. He argued that continued allegiance to any denomination would lead to an acceptance of the mark of the beast, which would mean missing the rapture. He insisted the prior healing revival when he cooperated with denominations had been a preparatory step to get the attention of God's chosen people, so he could eventually inform them of their need to exclusively follow his teaching ministry. Prophecies Branham issued a series of prophecies during his lifetime. One of his first was a prophetic vision he reported having in 1916 foretelling that 16 men would fall to their death during the construction of the Clark Memorial Bridge. Branham claimed repeatedly throughout his ministry that the vision was fulfilled during the 1927-1929 construction of the bridge, but there is no evidence of the drownings having ever occurred. Branham also claimed that he foretold the coming of the 1937 Ohio River Flood, the same flood he told his audience led to the death of his wife and daughter. His most significant prophecies were a series of prophetic visions he claimed to have in June 1933. The first time he published any information about the visions were in 1953. Branham reported that in his visions he saw seven major events would occur before the Second Coming of Christ, including the prediction of the rise of Adolf Hitler, the Second World War, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia, and the rise of communism. Most of his predictions had already been fulfilled by the first time he reported the visions in 1953. In the 1933 visions, he reported seeing self-driving "egg-shaped" cars in one vision. Branham later claimed he saw a car in 1960 that fulfilled his vision. Among the prophecies was also a prediction that the United States would "elect the wrong president" as a result of giving women the right to vote, which he later interpreted to be John F. Kennedy. He also predicted a powerful woman would take control of the United States, which he later interpreted to be the Roman Catholic Church, which he reported as also being fulfilled with the election of Kennedy who was Roman Catholic. His visions ended with the apocalyptic destruction of the United States that left the nation's cities in smoldering ruins. After sharing his prophetic visions, Branham offered a prediction that the rapture would happen by 1977. In 1964, Branham said judgement would strike the west coast of the United States and that Los Angeles would sink into the ocean; his most dramatic prediction. Following the 1964 prophecy, Branham again predicted the rapture would happen by 1977 and would be preceded by various worldwide disasters, the unification of denominational Christianity, and the rise-to-power of the Roman Catholic Pope. Branham was deeply anti-Catholic, and viewed the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church as the agents of Satan who would bring about the end of the world. Branham's prediction of the end of the world by 1977 was widely circulated and well known. After the world failed to end in 1977, Time Magazine included the failed prediction as one of the "top ten end-of-the-world prophecies". Weaver wrote that Branham gradually revised and embellished some of his prophecies over time, sometimes substantially. Critics of Branham investigated his prophecies. They claimed that many of Branham prophecies were only publicly reported after their fulfillment. Duzyer also reported that several of Branham's prophecies, like the 16 drownings or the destruction of the United States, were never fulfilled. Branham's followers believe his prophecies came true, or will do so in the future. Death Branham continued to travel to churches and preach his doctrine across Canada, the United States, and Mexico during the 1960s. His only overseas trip during the 1960s proved a disappointment. Branham reported a vision of himself preaching before large crowds and hoped for its fulfillment on the trip, but the South African government prevented him from holding revivals when he traveled to the country in 1965. Branham was saddened that his teaching ministry was rejected by all but his closest followers. Pentecostal churches which once welcomed Branham refused to permit him to preach during the 1960s, and those who were still sympathetic to him were threatened with excommunication by their superiors if they did so. He held his final set of revival meetings in Shreveport at the church of his early campaign manager Jack Moore in November 1965. Although he had hinted at it many times, Branham publicly stated for the first time that he was the return of Elijah the prophet in his final meetings in Shreveport. On December 18, 1965, Branham and his family—except his daughter Rebekah—were returning to Jeffersonville, Indiana, from Tucson for the Christmas holiday. About east of Friona, Texas, and about southwest of Amarillo on US Highway 60, just after dark, a car driven by a drunken driver traveling westward in the eastbound lane collided head-on with Branham's car. He was rushed to the hospital in Amarillo where he remained comatose for several days and died of his injuries on Christmas Eve, December 24, 1965. Branham's death stunned the Pentecostal world and shocked his followers. His funeral was held on December 29, 1965, but his burial was delayed until April 11, 1966; Easter Monday. Most eulogies only tacitly acknowledged Branham's controversial teachings, focusing instead on his many positive contributions and recalled his wide popularity and impact during the years of the healing revival. Gordon Lindsay's eulogy stated that Branham's death was the will of God and privately he accepted the interpretation of Kenneth E. Hagin, who claimed to have prophesied Branham's death two years before it happened. According to Hagin, God revealed that Branham was teaching false doctrine and God was removing him because of his disobedience. In the confusion immediately following Branham's death, expectations that he would rise from the dead developed among his followers. Most believed he would have to return to fulfill a vision he had regarding future tent meetings. Weaver attributed the belief in Branham's imminent resurrection to Pearry Green, though Green denied it. Even Branham's son Billy Paul seemed to expect his father's resurrection and indicated as much in messages sent to Branham's followers, in which he communicated his expectation for Easter 1966. The expectation of his resurrection remained strong into the 1970s, in part based on Branham's prediction that the rapture could occur by 1977. After 1977, some of his followers abandoned his teachings. Legacy and influence Branham was the "initiator of the post-World War II healing revival" and, along with Oral Roberts, was one of its most revered leaders. Branham is most remembered for his use of the "sign-gifts" that awed the Pentecostal world. According to writer and researcher Patsy Sims, "the power of a Branham service and his stage presence remains a legend unparalleled in the history of the Charismatic movement." The many revivalists who attempted to emulate Branham during the 1950s spawned a generation of prominent Charismatic ministries. Branham has been called the "principal architect of restorationist thought" of the Charismatic movement that emerged out of the healing revival. The Charismatic view that the Christian church should return to a form like that of the early church has its roots in Branham's teachings during the healing revival period. The belief is widely held in the modern Charismatic movement, and the legacy of his restorationist teaching and ministering style is evident throughout televangelism and the Charismatic movement. The more controversial doctrines Branham espoused in the closing years of his ministry were rejected by the Charismatic movement, which viewed them as "revelatory madness". Charismatics are apologetic towards Branham's early ministry and embrace his use of the "sign-gifts". Charismatic author John Crowder wrote that his ministry should not be judged by "the small sliver of his later life", but by the fact that he indirectly "lit a fire" that began the modern Charismatic movement. Non-Charismatic Christianity completely rejected Branham. Crowder said Branham was a victim of "the adoration of man" because his followers began to idolize him in the later part of his ministry. Harrell took a similar view, attributing Branham's teachings in his later career to his close friends, who manipulated him and took advantage of his lack of theological training. Weaver also attributed Branham's eschatological teachings to the influence of a small group of his closest followers, who encouraged his desire for a unique ministry. According to Weaver, to Branham's dismay, his followers had placed him at the "center of a Pentecostal personality cult" in the final years of his ministry. Edward Babinski describes Branham's followers as "odd in their beliefs, but for the most part honest hard-working citizens", and wrote that calling them a cult "seems unfair". While rejecting Branham's teachings, Duyzer offered a glowing review of Branham's followers, stating he "had never experienced friendship, or love like we did there". Though Branham is no longer widely known outside Pentecostalism, his legacy continues today. Summarizing the contrasting views held of Branham, Kydd stated, "Some thought he was God. Some thought he was a dupe of the devil. Some thought he was an end-time messenger sent from God, and some still do." Branham's followers Followers of Branham's teachings can be found around the world; Branham claimed to have made over one million converts during his campaign meetings. In 1986, there were an estimated 300,000 followers. In 2000, the William Branham Evangelical Association had missions on every inhabited continent—with 1,600 associated churches in Latin America and growing missions across Africa. In 2018, Voice of God Recordings claimed to serve Branham-related support material to about two million people through the William Branham Evangelical Association, and estimated there were 2-4 million total followers of Branham's teachings. Branham's followers do not have a central unifying leadership. Shortly after Branham's death, his followers divided in multiple feuding groups. Many different followers of Branham's teachings have claimed to be his immediate successor, or an Elisha to his Elijah. Many also believe that Branham's son Joseph has claimed the inheritance of his father's ministry. Each of the men claiming to be his successor have established new sects of Branham's followers. Branham's sons Joseph and Billy Paul lead the William Branham Evangelical Association and hold influence over many churches. Peary Greene (1933-2015) in Arizona, and Ewald Frank in Germany both held influence over a significant number of churches. Tensions over Branham's identity are one the primary causes of divisions between the groups. Followers of Branham's son expect the resurrection of Branham to fulfill unfinished prophecies. Followers of the Green and Frank believe Branham's prophecies will have a spiritual fulfillment and not require his return. Still other groups believe Branham was the return of Christ. His followers "range widely in belief in practice." Some followers have attempted to reform Branham's most extreme teachings. While most churches adhere to a common set of tenants, the "extreme local authority" of the church promoted by Branham has led to widespread differences in interpretation of Branham's prophetic teachings. One common theme among all groups is the belief that Branham was the return of Elijah the prophet and receiving his prophetic revelations is necessary to escape the impending destruction of the world. Some groups of Branham's followers refuse medical treatment because of their divine healing beliefs. Many followers of Branham's teachings live within insular communities, with their own schools and with no access to television or internet or outside media. Some groups prohibit their members from having relationships with outsiders. Those who leave are often shunned or disowned. People who try to leave the teachings of Branham often face extreme repercussion. Carl Dyck wrote, "Those who have come out of this group give solemn evidence of the devastating effect that Branhamism had on them, both emotionally and psychologically. In fact, the followers of Branham pray that evil will come upon people who leave their church." Branham's followers have harassed critics and individuals who reject Branham's teachings. Dyck reported that people who published material critical of Branham's teachings have been threatened by his followers and warned they may be killed. The news media have also reported critics of Branham's teaching being threatened and harassed by his followers. In his book Churches that Abuse, Ronald Enroth wrote that some churches use Branham's teachings to "belittle, insult, and berate" their members as part of their discipleship teachings on submission, humility, and obedience. According to Enroth, Branham's followers believe subjecting themselves to this treatment is necessary for them to "be refined and perfect" and "ready to meet Jesus" at this second coming. Enroth reported instances of families being separated, with children being taken from their parents and reassigned to other families to be raised as a form of discipline. He also reported multiple cases of physical abuse against both adults and children in the United States and Mexico. Branham's followers are widely spread throughout the world. In Iran, Branham's followers have faced persecution, with the government shutting down ten of their house churches in 2018 and jailing several Branham followers. In 2020, the Russian government labeled missionaries of Branham's teaching as "extremists" and banned the importation of Branham related publications to the Russian Federation. Branham's followers are often in the news for criminal activity. In a 2008 California court case, authorities investigating Leo Mercer's group of Branham followers in Arizona discovered that following "Branham's death in 1965, Mercer gradually became more authoritative, employing various forms of punishment. He would ostracize people from the community and separate families. Children were beaten for minor infractions like talking during a march or not tying their shoes. Mercer would punish girls by cutting their hair, and force boys to wear girls’ clothing. There was also evidence that Mercer sexually abused children." "In one instance, Mercer ordered that [a girl's] hair be cut off to punish her because he had had a vision from God that she was being sexually inappropriate with young children. [She] was beaten and forced to wear masculine clothes that covered much of her body, hiding her bruises. Her fingertips were burned so she would know what hell felt like." The Living Word Fellowship, a group of over 100 churches at its peak, was founded by John Robert Stevens, who had been heavily influenced by Branham and promoted many of his doctrines, was often reported in the news during the 1970s and 1980s as a doomsday cult. The organization disbanded in 2018 following widespread allegations of sexual molestation of children. In 2002, Ralph G. Stair, a leader of a Branham's followers in United States, was arrested and convicted of molesting minors, raping multiple women in his church, and financial crimes. Paul Schäfer, a follower and promoter of William Branham's teachings based in Chile, was discovered to have been running a compound where he was sexually molesting and torturing children in 1997. Schäfer had a history of child molestation dating to the 1950s. Schäfer was later arrested in 2006, convicted, and died in prison. The government of Chile banned Ewald Frank from entering the country after finding he had been visiting and holding revival meetings with Schäfer's followers at Colonia. Schäfer's followers speculated to news reporters that Frank and Schäfer had known each other since the 1950s when they were both at Branham's European campaign meetings together. Alleged accomplices in Schäfer's crimes who were charged and awaiting trial fled Chile and took refuge in Frank's church in Germany, where they were protected from extradition. German protestors picketed in front of Frank's church to protest his actions. Schäfer and his compound were portrayed in the 2015 film Colonia. In 2014, Robert Martin Gumbura, a leader of Branham's followers in Zimbabwe, was arrested and convicted for raping multiple women in his congregation. Gumbura and his followers were polygamous. Gumbara reportedly had relations with over 100 women. He died in prison in 2021. Polygamist followers of Branham's teachings have also been reported by news media in the United States for marriage to minors. Authorities have gone so far as to raid one church and threaten members with legal action for violating bigamy laws. Polygamy is a point of conflict among Branham's followers; not all groups accept the practice. Supporters of polygamy claim Branham authorized the practice in his 1965 sermon entitled "Marriage and Divorce". Roberts Liardon commented, "According to Branham, since women introduced men to sex, polygamy was brought about. Women had to be punished. So men could have many wives, but women only one husband." In 2020, Joaquim Gonçalves Silva, a prominent leader of Branham's followers in Brazil was accused of raping multiple women. Sivas died while awaiting trial for his alleged crimes. In 1997, the O'odham Nation in Arizona accused Wayne Evans of defrauding their tribe of over $1 million dollars and giving that money to Voice of God Recordings. The tribe filed a racketeering case against them to recover their money. In 2001, Evans pleaded guilty to charges of embezzlement, and Voice of God Recordings returned the funds to the tribe. Joseph Coleman, a follower of William Branham in the United States with influence over multiple churches, was connected to "a multi-million dollar fraud through an investment management company". News reported that Coleman's son had solicited over $20 million in funds under false claims. He and his fellow conspirators pleaded guilty in 2010 and in 2011 were sentenced to two years in prison and ordered to pay millions in restitution. The FBI reported that, "rather than using the investors’ capital to support the two funds, the defendants used the vast majority of investor money to purchase lavish gifts for their friends and themselves" In 2020, Vinworth Dayal, a minister who promoted Branham's teachings in Trinidad was arrested and charged with money laundering through his church. Pearry Green was a defendant in multiple criminal cases concerning his financial dealings. In a 2003 case, he pleaded guilty to theft of government property in U.S. District court. In 2014, Pastor Donny Reagan made news in the United States for promoting Branham's racial teachings. Several news outlets labeled Reagan as the "most racist pastor in America." In 2017, street preachers promoting Branham in Canada began to make national news in the United States and Canada for their aggressive behavior. Their tactics prompted officials to pass legislation targeting their activities in 2019. They were arrested multiple times in both countries for harassing women for their appearance and disrupting church services. The CBC investigated Branham and focused their reporting on his connections to Jim Jones and the Ku Klux Klan and labeled Branham's followers a "doomsday cult". In 2021, they were reported in the news again as fugitives who were evading arrest after attacking women at a Presbyterian Church in Canada. In 2018, Pastor Théodore Mugalu, a leader of Branham's followers in the Democratic Republic of Congo encouraged his followers to violence against Catholics in his country. News reports claimed that Mugala's followers forced 145 priests and nuns to strip naked, cover their heads, and filmed their whippings. In 2021, Steven Hassan's Freedom of Mind Institute published an article labeling Branham's followers a cult stating, "Branham's ministry was characterized by white supremacy and deeply misogynist attitudes." "The Message cult has always been deeply connected to white supremacy groups." According to Hassan, Branham's followers use "deceptive tactics to recruit and indoctrinate unsuspecting people. Recruiters do not tell new members that the cult originated with deep ties to white supremacy groups." Hassan concluded by stating that "The Message churches have a significant following and an enormous potential to influence people and create violence." Notes Footnotes References Further reading Hagiographical External links 1909 births 1965 deaths 20th-century apocalypticists American faith healers American Christian mystics American Pentecostal pastors American evangelicals American Charismatics Angelic visionaries Annihilationists Branhamism Christian new religious movements Christians from Indiana Christians from Kentucky Converts to Christianity Oneness Pentecostalism Pentecostalism Pentecostal theologians People from Jeffersonville, Indiana People from Cumberland County, Kentucky Protestant mystics Pyramidologists Road incident deaths in Texas
915493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert	Robert	The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (Hrōþiberhtaz). Compare Old Dutch Robrecht and Old High German Hrodebert (a compound of Hruod () "fame, glory, honour, praise, renown" and berht "bright, light, shining"). It is the second most frequently used given name of ancient Germanic origin. It is also in use as a surname. Another commonly used form of the name is Rupert. After becoming widely used in Continental Europe it entered England in its Old French form Robert, where an Old English cognate form (Hrēodbēorht, Hrodberht, Hrēodbēorð, Hrœdbœrð, Hrœdberð, Hrōðberχtŕ) had existed before the Norman Conquest. The feminine version is Roberta. The Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish form is Roberto. Robert is also a common name in many Germanic languages, including English, German, Dutch, Norwegian, Swedish, Scots, Danish, and Icelandic. It can be used as a French, Polish, Irish, Finnish, Romanian, and Estonian name as well. Variations Popularity and trivia The name Robert was a royal name in France, Germany, Scotland and England during the medieval period, and was the name of several kings, dukes, and other rulers and noblemen. It was one of the most popular male names in medieval Europe, likely due to its frequent usage amongst royalty and nobility. To this day, Robert remains one of the most frequently given male names. Robert was in the top 10 most given boys' names in the United States for 47 years, from 1925 to 1972. While some names become less frequently used due to negative associations, Robert is still widely used despite its connection to many negatively evaluated historical figures. In Italy during the Second World War, the form of the name, Roberto, briefly acquired a new meaning derived from, and referring to the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. The name's second component, berhta-, is the original root for the modern English word "bright". The name Robert almost exactly shares its meaning with the name Waldemar / Vladimir. People named Robert Royalty Kings of Scotland Robert I of Scotland (1274–1329) ("Robert the Bruce"), king and national hero of Scotland, legendary for his victory at the Battle of Bannockburn, one of the most prominent and skilled warriors of his time who freed Scotland from the English rule during the Wars of Scottish Independence Robert II of Scotland (Robert Stewart) (1316–1390), one of the principal commanders at the Battle of Halidon Hill Robert III of Scotland (c. 1337/40–1406) Kings of France Robert I of France (c.866–923) Robert II of France (972–1031) King of Naples Robert of Naples (1276–1343) King of Germany Robert of Germany (Rupertus, Rex Romanorum) (1352–1410) King of Hungary and Croatia Charles I Robert (1288–1342) King of Bulgaria Robert of Bulgaria, Tsar of the Kingdom of Bulgaria (1894–1943) Dukes of Normandy Robert I, Duke of Normandy (1000–1035), also known as Robert the Magnificent or Robert the Devil; father of William the Conqueror Robert Curthose (c.1051–1134, son of William the Conqueror, claimant to throne of Kingdom of England, one of the principal commanders of the First Crusade and its battles Siege of Antioch, Battle of Ascalon, Battle of Dorylaeum (1097), Siege of Jerusalem (1099), Siege of Nicaea and Battle of Tinchebray Duke of Chartres Prince Robert, Duke of Chartres, Crown Prince of France (1840–1910) Duke of Parma Robert I, Duke of Parma (1848–1907) Count of Flanders Robert I, Count of Flanders (c.1035–1093) Robert II, Count of Flanders (c.1065–1111), one of the principal commanders of the First Crusade and its battles Siege of Antioch, Battle of Ascalon, Siege of Jerusalem (1099), Siege of Ma'arra and Siege of Nicaea Crown Prince of Bavaria Robert I, crown prince of Bavaria (1869–1955), also known as Prince Rupprecht, last heir apparent to the Bavarian throne, one of the most prominent military commanders of World War I, claimant to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland, one of the principal commanders of Battle of the Somme Latin Emperor and Emperor of Constantinople Robert I, Latin Emperor (d. 1228), Emperor of the Latin Empire and Constantinopole Duke of Sicily and Prince of Benevento Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085), Norman nobleman, adventurer and explorer, leader of the conquest of southern Italy and Sicily Medieval figures Robert III of Artois (1287–1342), Lord of Conches-en-Ouche, of Domfront, and of Mehun-sur-Yèvre, Earl of Richmond, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Saint-Omer and Hundred Years' War (1337–1360) Robert of Bellême, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, Anglo-Norman nobleman, and one of the most prominent figures in the competition for the succession to England and Normandy, member of the House of Bellême, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Tinchebray Sir Robert Bemborough, medieval knight who led the Montfortist faction during the Combat of the Thirty Robert de Craon (died 1147), the second Grand Master of the Knights Templar from June 1136 until his death, one of the principal commanders of the Second Crusade Robert de Juilly (died 1377), Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller from 1374 to his death Robert IV of Sablé (1150–1193), eleventh Grand Master of the Knights Templar from 1191 to 1192 and Lord of Cyprus from 1191 to 1192, one of the principal commanders of the Third Crusade and Battle of Arsuf Folk heroes Robert Huntington, known as Robin Hood, legendary heroic outlaw and nobleman originally depicted in English folklore, highly skilled archer and swordsman, sometimes regarded as a national hero of England Robert Roy Macgregor (1671–1734), Scottish outlaw and national hero Nobility Robert Benson, 1st Baron Bingley Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey Robert Bruce, 1st Earl of Ailesbury Robert Carey, 1st Earl of Monmouth Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, British lawyer, politician and diplomat, one of the architects of the League of Nations; Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury Sir Robert Dashwood, 1st Baronet, English politician Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, English nobleman and military commander, one of the principal commanders of English Armada, Capture of Cadiz, Islands Voyage, Essex Campaign in Ireland and Irish Nine Years' War Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, British statesman and military commander, governor-general of British Empire, one of the principal commanders of Dutch Revolt, Eighty Years' War, Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) and Battle of Zutphen Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, British nobleman and military leader, Roundhead and one of the principal commanders of English Civil War Robert Finlay, 1st Viscount Finlay, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain Sir Robert Gordon, 1st Baronet, Scottish politician and courtier Robert Greville, 2nd Baron Brooke, English Baron, military commander and Roundhead general Robert Harley, British statesman and Master of the Mint Robert Henley, 1st Earl of Northington, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain Robert Herbert, 12th Earl of Pembroke Sir Robert Inglis, 2nd Baronet, English Conservative politician; Robert Kerr, 1st Earl of Ancram Robert Kerr, 1st Marquess of Lothian Sir Robert Kingsmill, 1st Baronet, Royal navy officer, one of the principal commanders of French expedition to Ireland (1796) Robert III de La Marck, Seigneur of Fleuranges, Marshal of France Robert Maxwell, 1st Earl of Nithsdale, Scottish nobleman and military commander, one of the principal commanders of Thirty Years' War Robert Maxwell, 5th Lord Maxwell, Scottish soldier and nobleman, member of the Council of Regency of the Kingdom of Scotland, Regent of the Isle of Arran, patriarch of the House of Maxwell/Clan Maxwell, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Solway Moss and Battle of Melrose Robert Paston, 1st Earl of Yarmouth Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet, British politician and industrialist and one of early textile manufacturers of the Industrial Revolution, father of Sir Robert Peel, twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Robert Pierrepont, 1st Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull Robert Raymond, 1st Baron Raymond Robert Reid, 1st Earl Loreburn Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick Robert Rolfe, 1st Baron Cranworth, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain Lord Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford, British peer and politician Robert Windsor-Clive, 1st Earl of Plymouth, British nobleman and Conservative politician Robert Stewart, 1st Marquess of Londonderry Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Irish/British statesman, British Foreign Secretary, central to the management of the War of the Sixth Coalition that defeated Napoleon, principal British diplomat at the Congress of Vienna, leader of the British House of Commons in the Liverpool, Chief Secretary for Ireland, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, one of the principal leaders of Irish Rebellion of 1798 Religious figures and saints Saint Robert Bellarmine (died in 1621), Jesuit Doctor of the Church, one of the leaders of Roman Inquisition and Galileo affair Saint Robert of Bury (died 1181) Saint Robert of Molesme (d. 1111), founder of the Cistercian Order Saint Robert of Newminster (d. 1159), established the Abbey of Newminster at Morpeth, Northumberland Roberto de Nobili (1577–1656), Italian Jesuit missionary to Southern India Roberto de' Nobili (1541–1559), Roman Catholic cardinal Robert de Sorbon (1201–1274), French theologian and founder of College of Sorbonne Saint Robert de Turlande (d. 1067), founding abbot of the Abbey of Casa Dei, also called Chaise-Dieu Presidents and prime ministers Sir Robert Borden, Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the eighth prime minister of Canada, best known for his leadership of Canada during World War I, member of the Imperial War Cabinet and a key figure in Conscription Crisis of 1917; Robert Abela, Maltese lawyer and politician, currently serving as the 14th prime minister of Malta Lord Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, British statesman, serving as Prime Minister three times for a total of over thirteen years, one of the principal commanders of Second Boer War, one of the establishers of British concentration camps during the war; Robert Fico, Slovak politician who served as Prime Minister of Slovakia from 2012 to 2018 Robert Haab, Swiss politician and President of Switzerland Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, Lord High Treasurer of the British Empire, sometimes regarded as the first Prime Minister of Great Britain, one of the principal commanders of Nine Years' War and War of the Spanish Succession Robert "Bob" Hawke, Australian politician who served as Prime Minister of Australia and Leader of the Labor Party Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool, British statesman and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1812 to 1827, Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, one of the principal commanders of War of the Sixth Coalition and War of 1812 Robert F. Kennedy, American politician and lawyer who served as the 64th United States Attorney General, United States Senator for New York, brother of the U.S. president John F. Kennedy, one of the principal commanders of Cuban Missile Crisis and Bay of Pigs Invasion, assassinated in June 1968; Robert Kocharyan, Armenian politician who served as the first president of Nagorno-Karabakh Republic and the second president of Armenia between 1998 and 2008, one of the principal commanders of First Nagorno-Karabakh War; Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, English statesman, Conservative politician, and poet, who served as Viceroy of India (Governor-General) between 1876 and 1880 and British Ambassador to France from 1887 to 1891, one of the leading perpetrators of the Great Famine of 1876–1878 Sir Robert Menzies, Australian politician who twice served as Prime Minister of Australia, in office from 1939 to 1941 and again from 1949 to 1966, making him the longest serving prime minister of Australia in history, one of the principal commanders of Vietnam War and Malayan Emergency Roberto Micheletti, Honduran politician who served as the president of Honduras following the 2009 Honduran coup d'état Roberto María Ortiz, 19th president of Argentina during the Infamous Decade Sir Robert Peel, British statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, father of modern British policing, leader of Peelite, founder of Conservative Party of United Kingdom and the Metropolitan Police Service; Robert Schuman, Luxembourg-born French statesman, Christian Democrat, activist, Prime Minister of France, a reformist Minister of Finance and a Foreign Minister, one of the founders of the European Union, the Council of Europe and NATO; Sir Robert Stout, New Zealand politician who served as 13th Prime Minister of New Zealand on two occasions in the 19th century, and later Chief Justice of New Zealand; Roberto Suazo Córdova, 29th President of Honduras Robert Themptander, Swedish politician and public official who served as Prime Minister of Sweden from 1884 to 1888 Roberto Sánchez Vilella, Governor of Puerto Rico, Head of State and Head of Government of Puerto Rico Sir Robert Walpole, British statesman who served as the first Prime Minister of Great Britain, one of the principal commanders of War of Austrian Succession and War of Jenkins' Ear Dictators Baron Robert Clive, British army officer and privateer who established the military and political supremacy of the East India Company in Bengal, served as the Commander-in-Chief of British India, one of the organizers of the Great Bengal famine of 1770, one of the principal commanders of Carnatic Wars, Siege of Arcot, Battle of Arnee, Battle of Chingleput, Battle of Chandannagar and Battle of Plassey Robert Mugabe, former Zimbabwean politician and revolutionary, Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 and President (Dictator) from 1987 to 2017, one of the principal commanders of Rhodesian Bush War, Kivu conflict and Second Congo War, the leading perpetrator of Gukurahundi Genocide Secretaries of Defense Robert Gates, (1943) American statesman, scholar, intelligence analyst, and university president who served as the director of Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Director of Central Intelligence and 22nd United States Secretary of Defense from 2006 to 2011, one of the principal commanders of 2011 military intervention in Libya and Iraq War Robert A. Lovett, (1895–1986) fourth United States Secretary of Defense, one of the principal commanders of Cold War, Berlin Blockade and Korean War Robert McNamara, (1916–2009) American business executive and the eighth United States Secretary of Defense, one of the principal commanders of Cambodian Civil War, Laotian Civil War, Cold War and Cuban Missile Crisis, key figure in Gulf of Tonkin incident, leader of Project 100,000, Operation Pierce Arrow, Pleiku Campaign, Battle of Ia Drang and Operation Rolling Thunder, one of the principal commanders of Vietnam War Wartime figures and military leaders Sir Robert Abercromby, British general, appointed Knight of the Order of the Bath, a Governor of Bombay (now Mumbai) and Commander-in-Chief of the Bombay Army and then Commander-in-Chief, India, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Crooked Billet and Siege of Yorktown Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell, British Army officer, writer, founder and first Chief Scout of the world-wide Boy Scout Movement, and founder of the world-wide Girl Guide / Girl Scout Movement, one of the principal commanders of Anglo-Ashanti wars, Siege of Mafeking, Second Matabele War and Second Boer War Robert S. Beightler, American military officer, major General, military governor of Okinawa, War Department General Staff, commander of the 37th Infantry Division, one of the principal commanders of Bougainville campaign and Battle of Manila (1945) Robert Blake, British Royal Navy officer and one of the most important military commanders of the Commonwealth of England, one of the most famous English admirals of the 17th century, one of the principal commanders of Anglo-Spanish War (1654-1660), First Anglo-Dutch War and Battle of the Kentish Knock Robert Brooke-Popham, senior commander in the Royal Air Force and leader of Operation Matador (1941) Robert Brownrigg, British statesman, general and soldier who brought the last part of Sri Lanka under British rule, Governors of British Ceylon, General Officer Commanding, Ceylon, one of the principal commanders of Great Rebellion of 1817–18 Robert Bruce, first chief commander of Saint Petersburg, one of the principal commanders of Great Northern War Robert C. Buchanan, American military officer, one of the principal commanders of Black Hawk War and Rogue River Wars Robert Lee Bullard, senior officer in the United States Army during World War I, the principal commander of Battle of Cantigny Robert H. Dick, Scottish soldier, one of the principal commanders of First Anglo-Sikh War Robert L. Eichelberger, general officer in the United States Army who commanded the Eighth United States Army in the Southwest Pacific Area during World War II, one of United States most decorated and skillful military commanders, one of the principal commanders of Siberian Intervention, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Battle of Buna–Gona, Operation Downfall, Battle of Davao, Philippines Campaign (1944-1945), Landing at Aitape, Battle of Hollandia, New Guinea campaign, Invasion of Palawan, Battle of Biak, Battle of the Visayas and Battle of Mindanao Robert von Eggenberg, Austrian colonel-general, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Sisak and Long Turkish War Robert Eikhe, Latvian Bolshevik, provincial head of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in Siberia during the forced collectivization of agriculture, perpetrator of numerous mass executions during the Great Purge Robert Emmet, Irish Republican, orator and rebel leader, principal commander of Irish rebellion of 1803 Roberto Farinacci, leading Italian Fascist politician and important member of the Grand Council of Fascism, Secretary of National Fascist Party and one of the leading perpetrators of the Holocaust in Italy Robert L. Ghormley, admiral in the United States Navy, serving as Commander of South Pacific Area during World War II, one of the principal commanders of Guadalcanal campaign Robert Rollo Gillespie, officer in the British Army, one of the principal commanders of Anglo-Nepalese War, Vellore mutiny, Invasion of Java (1811) and Battle of Nalapani Robert Gysae, a German U-boat commander in the Kriegsmarine during World War II, one of the main commanders of Battle of the Atlantic Robert Haining, British Army officer, one of the principal commanders of 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine Robert Peverell Hichens, British Lieutenant Commander and the most highly decorated officer of the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve (RNVR) Robert Hoke, Confederate major general during the American Civil War, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Plymouth (1864) Robert B. Johnston, retired United States Marine Corps lieutenant general whose last duty assignment was as Commander, Marine Forces Atlantic Marine Forces Europe and II Marine Expeditionary Force, one of the principal commanders of Operation Restore Hope and Gulf War Robert Kekewich, British Army officer, principal leader of Battle of Rooiwal Robert E. Lee, American and Confederate general, supreme commander of the Confederate States Army during American Civil War, one of the most famous military commanders of his time, widely regarded as one of the greatest generals of all time and one of the founders of modern warfare, served as superintendent of United States Military Academy, one of the principal commanders of Mexican–American War; Robert A. Lewis, United States Army Air Forces officer serving in the Pacific Theatre during World War II, one of the pilots of the Enola G, the B-29 Superfortress bomber which dropped the atomic bomb Little Boy on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, during the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Robert A. Little, World War I fighter pilot and the most successful Australian flying ace; Sir Robert Mansell, English Royal Navy officer and a member of parliament (MP), mostly for Welsh constituencies, one of the principal commanders of Battle of the Narrow Seas Robert McDade, United States Army colonel, one of the principal commanders of Pleiku Campaign and Battle of la Drang Robert McGowan Littlejohn, major general in the United States Army, leader of War Assets Administration Robert Monckton, officer of the British Army and also a colonial administrator in British North America, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Fort Beauséjour, St. John River Campaign, Battle of the Plains of Abraham and Capture of Martinique Robert Munro, 18th Baron of Foulis, known as the Black Baron, Scottish soldier and military warlord, one of the principal commanders of Siege of Stralsund (1628) and Battle of Lützen (1632) Robert Monro, Scottish general during Thirty Years' War, one of the principal commanders of Siege of Stralsund (1628), Battle of Frankfurt an der Oder, Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) and Battle of Benburb Sir Robert Moray, Scottish soldier, statesman, diplomat, judge, spy and natural philosopher, one of the founders of Royal Society and Freemasonry Robert Nivelle, French artillery officer who served as one of the principal commanders of the Boxer Rebellion and led the French forces during World War I as commander in-chief of French army, one of the principal commanders of many WWI battles, including Western Front, Nivelle Offensive, Battle of the Hills, Second Battle of the Aisne and Battle of Verdun, the longest battle in history; Robert "Robin" Olds Jr., American fighter pilot and general officer in the U.S. Air Force, one of the principal commanders of Operation Bolo and Action of 23 August 1967 Robert Olds Sr., general officer in the US Army Air Forces, instructor at Air Corps Tactical School, member of the Bomber Mafia and theorist of strategic air power Robert Orme, British soldier and military leader, one of the principal commanders of Battle of the Monongahela in July 1755 Robert Patterson, Irish-born United States major general during the American Civil War, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Hoke's Run and First Battle of Bull Run Sir Robert Pigot, 2nd Baronet, British Army officer during the American Revolutionary War, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Rhode Island and Battle of Bunker Hill Robert W. Porter Jr., United States Army four-star general who served as Commander in Chief, United States Southern Command from 1965 to 1969, one of the key figures in Operation Condor Robert Rogers, American colonial frontiersman and officer in the British Army, commander of Rogers' Rangers, one of the principal commanders of Battle on Snowshoes (1757), Battle on Snowshoes, St. Francis Raid, Battle of Bloody Run and Battle of Mamaroneck Robert Ross, officer in the British Army, born in Ireland, one of the principal commanders of War of 1812, Battle of Bladensburg, Burning of Washington, Battle of Baltimore and Battle of North Point Robert Ritter von Greim, German Field Marshal (the highest military rank of Germany) and pilot, second and last supreme commander of German Air Forces "Luftwaffe", one of Nazi Germanys most decorated and skillful generals, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Kursk (the largest tank battle in history), Operation Kutuzov and Warsaw uprising Roberto Rodriguez Fernandez, Cuban revolutionary, one of the principal commanders of Cuban Revolution and Battle of Santa Clara Robert Sale, British army officer, one of the principal commanders of Kabul Expedition (1842) and Battle of Jellalabad Robert Segercrantz, Russian general in the Russian Imperial army, one of the principal commanders of Crimean War and Caucasian War Robert Gould Shaw, American officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War, commander of the first all-African American regiment (the 54th Massachusetts) in the Northeast, one of the principal commanders of Second Battle of Fort Wagner Robert Sink, senior United States Army officer who fought during World War II, the Korean War, and early parts of the Vietnam War, mostly remembered for his command of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, part of the 101st Airborne Division, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Bloody Gulch Robert F. Stockton, United States Navy commodore, United States Senator from New Jersey, Military Governor of California, one of the principal commanders of Mexican-American War Sir Robert Stopford, distinguished officer in the Royal Navy, one of the principal commanders of Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841), Oriental Crisis of 1840 and Invasion of Java (1811) Robert A. Theobald, United States Navy officer who served in World War I and World War II, achiever of the rank of rear admiral, the air forces commander during Attack on Pearl Harbor Robert F. Travis, United States Army Air Forces general during World War II Robert Toombs, American lawyer, planter, army general, and politician from Georgia who became one of the organizers of the Confederacy and served as its first Secretary of State, one of the principal commanders of Peninsula Campaign and Battle of Columbus (1865) Robert Stanford Tuck, British fighter pilot, flying ace, and test pilot, member of the Royal Air Force, war hero of World War II Robert C. Tyler, Confederate brigadier general during the American Civil War, one of the principal commanders of Battle of West Point Robert O. Tyler, American soldier who served as a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Gettysburg Robert von Ungern-Sternberg, also known as The Mad Baron or The Bloody White Baron, Austrian-born, Russian Empire's Baltic German anti-Bolshevik lieutenant general in the Russian Civil War and then an independent warlord whose Asiatic Cavalry Division wrested control of Mongolia from the Republic of China in 1921 after its occupation, one of the principal commanders of Mongolian Revolution of 1921 and Siberian Intervention, remembered as one of the most cruel and violent military leaders of all time; Robert "Roy" Urquhart, British Army officer, one of the principal commanders of Battle of Arnhem, Operation Market Garden, Operation Doomsday and Malayan Emergency Robert Viren, general, admiral and career naval officer in the Imperial Russian Navy in Russian Empire, one of the principal commanders of Russo-Japanese War, the commander of the Black Sea Fleet; Robert Whittaker, City of London banker and a senior officer in Britain's part-time Territorial Army (TA), chief of staff at Anti-Aircraft Command during World War II Robert Zapp, German U-boat commander in World War II, one of the principal commanders of Torpedo Alley Other military Robert B. Abrams, four-star general in the United States Army who currently serves as the commander of U.S. Forces Korea, concurrently serving as the commander of United Nations Command and commander of R.O.K.-U.S. Combined Forces Command, previously served as the 22nd commanding general of U.S. Army Forces Command Robert Grierson Combe, Scottish-Canadian military officer Robert E. Cushman Jr., United States Marine Corps general who served as the 25th Commandant of the Marine Corps Robert Kajuga, national president and leader of the MRND-affiliated extremist militia, the Interahamwe, one of the leading perpetrators of Rwandan genocide, one of the principal commanders of First Congo War Robert J. Miller, United States Army Special Forces soldier of Company A, 3rd Battalion, 3rd Special Forces Group (Airborne) Robert Neller, retired United States Marine Corps four-star general who served as the 37th Commandant of the Marine Corps Robert H. Reed, General in the United States Air Force and the former chief of staff of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe Robert Rheault, American colonel in the U.S. Army Special Forces who served as commander of the First Special Forces Group in Okinawa, and the Fifth Special Forces Group in Vietnam Robert M. Shoemaker, United States Army general and former commander of the United States Army Forces Command, inductee into the Aviation Hall of Fame Nazis Robert Grawitz, Nazi German physician and an SS functionary, chief physician of the SS, head of the German Red Cross, overseer of the experimentation on inmates in Nazi concentration camps, one of the leading organisers of euthanasia and mass killings during Aktion T4; Robert Ley, DAF Führer of Nazi Germany (head of the German Labour Front), high-ranking member of the SS, labour and economical leader of Nazi Germany, founder of Volkswagen, creator of NSDAP School system, also known for his role in the Holocaust, Final Solution and Aktion T4, Kristallnacht and Night of the Long Knives as well as managing the labour in Nazi concentration camps; Robert Mulka, German Nazi SS-Hauptsturmführer and later SS-Obersturmführer, commander of Auschwitz concentration camp, holocaust perpetrator who played a major role in the transformation of Auschwitz from a concentration camp into an extermination complex; Robert Ritter, Nazi German "racial scientist" doctor of psychology and medicine, with a background in child psychiatry and the biology of criminality, one of the leading perpetrators of Romani Genocide; Robert Wagner, Gauleiter of Gau Baden, Gauleiter of Alsace and head of the civil government of Alsace during the Nazi German occupation of France during World War II, one of the leaders of Beer Hall Putsch involved in large scale mass killings during the Holocaust, executed for war crimes Nuclear physicists Robert Oppenheimer (1904—1967), American theoretical physicist, professor of physics at the University of California, wartime head of the Los Alamos Laboratory, principal leader of the Manhattan Project, founder of Nuclear Warfare, commander of the Nuclear Test "Trinity", developer and inventor of the atomic bomb Robert Serber (1909—1997), American physicist who participated in Robert Oppenheimers nuclear weapon development project known as Manhattan Project, best remembered for giving the names of Thin man, Fat Man and Little Boy nuclear bombs Explorers Robert Bartlett, Newfoundland-born American Arctic explorer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, accompanied United States Navy Commander Robert Peary on his attempts to reach the North Pole Robert O'Hara Burke, Irish soldier and police officer who explored Australia, leader of the first expedition to cross Australia from south to north Robert Dudley, English explorer and cartographer Sir Robert McClure, Irish explorer of the Arctic who in 1854 traversed the Northwest Passage by boat and sledge and was the first to circumnavigate the Americas Robert Peary, American explorer and United States Navy officer who made several expeditions to the Arctic, reached the geographic North Pole with his expedition on April 6, 1909, believed to be the first man to have ever reached the North Pole Robert Falcon Scott, British Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions including Discovery Expedition and Terra Nova Expedition, one of the leading figures of Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, widely regarded as one of the greatest explorers of all time Robert Swan, the first person to walk to both Poles Movie industry Robert Altman (1925–2006), American film director, screenwriter, and producer Robert "Robbie" Amell (born 1988), Canadian-American actor and producer Robert "Rob" Benedict (born 1970), American actor and writer Robert "Bob" Bergen, American voice actor Robert Carlyle (born 1961), Scottish actor Robert Cespedes (born 1954), Thai actor and singer Robert "Bob" Chapek (born 1960), American media executive and businessman, chairman of Disney Parks, Experiences and Products, the current CEO of Walt Disney Company Robert "Robbie" Coltrane (born 1950), Scottish actor and author Robert Cummings (1910–1990), American actor Robert Davi (born 1954), American actor Robert De Niro (born 1953), American actor, director and producer Robert Downey Sr. (1936–2021), American actor, director and producer Robert Downey Jr. (born 1965), American actor Roberto Draghetti (1960–2020), Italian actor and voice actor Robert Duvall (born 1931), American actor Robert Eggers (born 1983), American film director, screenwriter and production designer Robert Englund (born 1947), American actor, voice actor, singer and film director Robert Fuller, American horse rancher and actor Robert Goulet (1933–2007), French-Canadian singer and actor Robert Guillaume (1927–2017), American actor and singer Robert Gustafsson (born 1964), Swedish comedian and actor Robert Hardy (1925–2017), British actor Robert Hays (born 1947), American actor Robert "Bob" Iger (born 1951), American media executive, film producer, author and businessman, chairman and chief executive officer of The Walt Disney Company Robert Irwin (born 2003), Australian television personality and wildlife photographer Robert "Rob" Kardashian (born 1987), American television personality Robert Knepper (born 1959), American actor Robert "Rob" Letterman (born 1970), American film director and screenwriter Robert "Rob" Lowe (born 1964), American actor, producer and director Robert "Rob" Marshall (born 1960), American film and theater director, producer and choreographer Robert McKimson (1910–1977), American animator and illustrator, best known for his work on creating the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of cartoons Robert "Rob" Minkoff (born 1962), American film and animation director Robert Mitchum (1917–1997), American film actor, director, author, poet, composer and singer Robert Montgomery (1904–1981), American actor, director and producer Robert Mulligan (1925–2008), American film director Robert Patrick (born 1958), American actor and voice actor Robert Pattinson (born 1986), British actor Robert "Bob" Peck (1945–1999), English stage, television and film actor Robert Redford,(born 1936), American actor, director and producer Robert Rodriguez (born 1968), American film director, screenwriter, producer, musician, filmmaker and visual effects supervisor, best known for his film Alita: Battle Angel Robert Ryan (1909–1973), American actor Robert Schwentke,(born 1968), German film director Robert Sheehan (born 1988), Irish actor Robert Singer, American film director and producer Robert Smigel (born 1960), American actor, voice actor, comedian, humorist, writer, director, producer and puppeteer Robert Adolf Stemmle (1903–1974), German screenwriter and film director Robert Stromberg (born 1965), American special effects artist, designer and film director Robert Taylor (1911–1969) American actor, one of the most famous Hollywood actors of his time Robert Vaughn (1932–2016), American actor Robert Wagner (born 1930), American actor Robert Walker (1918–1951), American actor Robert B. Weide (born 1959, American screenwriter, producer and director Robert Wiene (1873—1938), film director of the silent era of German cinema Robert Wise (1914–2005), American film director Robert Young (1907–1998), American actor Robert Zemeckis (born 1952), Lithuanian-Italian born American film director, screenwriter and producer, best known for his "Back to the Future" film trilogy, frequently credited as an innovator in visual effects Musicians Robert Abisi, member of the electronic music and DJ duo Lost Kings Robert Babicz, Polish born German electronic music producer, DJ and mastering engineer Robert "Rob" Barrett, guitarist for death metal band Cannibal Corpse Robert "Rob" Bourdon, American musician, drummer and founding member of the rock band Linkin Park Roberto Carlos, Brazilian singer-songwriter, also known as King of Latin Music or simply The King Robert "Bob" Crosby, American jazz singer and bandleader, best known for his group the Bob-Cats Robert van de Corput, real name of the award-winning Dutch DJ, twice worlds No.1 DJ, composer and music producer Hardwell; Robert "Bobby" Darin, American singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, impressionist, and actor Robert DeLong, American electronic musician, record producer, composer and performer Robert Francis, American multi-instrumentalist, singer, songwriter; Robert Fripp, English musician, songwriter, and record producer, best known as the guitarist, founder and longest-lasting member of the band King Crimson Robert "Bobby" Hackett, American jazz musician Robert "Rob" Halford, English singer and songwriter, lead vocalist of the Grammy Award-winning heavy metal band Judas Priest, also a member of Fight, Two, Halford, Great White and Black Sabbath Robert Hughes, real name of the Canadian trap music DJ and record producer known as Vincent and Tiger Drool; Robert Hunter, American poet, principle lyricist for the rock band Grateful Dead Robert "Rob" Hyman, American singer, songwriter, keyboard and accordion player, producer, arranger, recording studio owner and a founding member of the rock band The Hooters Robert Janson, Polish composer, singer, guitarist, leader and co-founder of the band Varius Manx Robert Johnson, American blues singer-songwriter and musician; Robert Kajanus, Finnish composer, conductor and teacher, founder of the Helsinki Philharmonic Orchestra Robert Kelly, American singer, songwriter, record producer, and former semi-professional basketball player who helped redefine R&B and hip hop, earning the nicknames "King of R&B" and "King of Pop-Soul" Robert "Bob" Kerr, comic musician who plays trumpet and cornet Robert "Robby" Krieger, American guitarist and singer-songwriter best known as the guitarist of the rock band The Doors, inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Robert "Bob" Marley, Jamaican singer-songwriter, widely regarded as one of the greatest musicians of all time Robert "Bobby" McFerrin, American musician, singer, conductor, arranger and record producer Robert Miles, Swiss-born Italian DJ and record producer, inventor of the dream trance genre; Robert Mirabal, Native American musician and flute player Robert Del Naja, British artist, musician, singer and songwriter, founding member of the band Massive Attack Roberto "Bert" Nievera, Filipino-American singer Robert Palmer, English composer, songwriter, singer and record producer; Robert Plant, English singer, songwriter, and musician, lead singer and lyricist of the English rock band Led Zeppelin; Robert "Bob" Rifo, founder of the Italian electronic music project The Bloody Beetroots Robert Ritchie, American singer-songwriter, rapper, musician, record producer, and actor known as Kid Rock; Robert "Rob" Scallon, American YouTuber, musician and multi-instrumentalist Robert Schumann, German composer and music critic, one of the greatest composers of romantic era; Robert "Bob" Seger, American singer-songwriter and guitarist Robert Smith, lead singer of The Cure; Robert "Rob" Swire, Australian electronic music producer and DJ, also known as one of the members of dubstep/electro house duo Knife Party and drum and bass band Pendulum; Robert Tepper, American songwriter, composer, recording artist and singer Robert Trujillo, American singer and songwriter, one of the members of American heavy metal band Metallica; Robert "Bobby" Vee, American singer, songwriter, musician and teen idol Robert Volkmann, German composer Robert "Rob" Zombie, American musician, singer, songwriter, programmer, voice actor, filmmaker and founding member of the heavy metal band White Zombie Robert "Bob" Weir, American musician and songwriter, one of the founders of the rock band Grateful Dead, also a member of bands The Other Ones, The Dead, Kingfish, Bobby and the Midnites, RatDog, Furthur and Dead & Company Robert Rihmeek Williams, American rapper, singer and activist known as Meek Mill Robert "Robbie" Williams, British singer and songwriter Robert van Winkle, real name of American rapper, actor, and television host Vanilla Ice Robert "Bob" Wiseman, Canadian film composer, songwriter and music teacher Robert Allen Zimmerman, real name of American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan. Scientists Robert Boyle, British natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor, first modern chemist, and one of the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method, also remembered for creating Boyle's law, which describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a closed system, one of the founders of the Royal Society, widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time Robert Bunsen, German chemist who discovered caesium in 1860 and rubidium in 1861, pioneer of photochemistry and organoarsenic chemistry and developer of the Bunsen burner Robert F. Christy, Canadian-American theoretical physicist, astrophysicist, one of the last surviving people to have worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II, president of California Institute of Technology (Caltech) Robert Darwin, English medical doctor, who today is best known as the father of the naturalist Charles Robert Darwin Robert Esnault-Pelterie, French aircraft designer and spaceflight theorist, developer of ballistic missiles, father of modern rocketry Robert Fulton, American engineer and inventor who is widely credited with developing a commercially successful steamboat known as North River Steamboat Robert H. Goddard, American engineer, professor, physicist, and inventor, credited with creating and building the world's first liquid-fueled rocket, father of the modern rocketry Robert C. Green, American medical geneticist, physician, and public health researcher Robert J. Van de Graaff, engineer and physicist, inventor of high-voltage Van de Graaff generators Robert Gardiner Hill, British surgeon specialising in the treatment of lunacy, normally credited with being the first superintendent of the Lincoln Lunatic Asylum to develop a mode of treatment in which reliance on mechanical medical restraint and coercion could be dropped altogether in 1838 Robert Hooke, English natural philosopher, architect and polymath, best known for discovering and naming the Cell in 1665 and numerous other contributions, widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time Sir Robert Jones, 1st Baronet, Welsh orthopaedic surgeon who helped to establish the modern specialty of orthopaedic surgery in Britain, early proponent of the use of radiography in orthopaedics, and described the eponymous Jones fracture Robert Koch, German physician and microbiologist, founder of modern bacteriology, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905 for his research on Tuberculosis, widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists of all time Robert Andrews Millikan, American experimental physicist honored with the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923 for the measurement of the elementary electric charge and for his work on the photoelectric effect Sir Robert Robinson, Nobel Prize and Medal of Freedom winning British organic chemist Robert A. Rolfe, English botanist specialising in the study of orchids Robert Shapiro, professor emeritus of chemistry at New York University, best known for his work on the origin of life Robert Winston, British professor, medical doctor, scientist Robert W. Wood, American physicist and inventor who is often cited as being a pivotal contributor to the field of optics and a pioneer of infrared photography and ultraviolet photography Robert J. White, American neurosurgeon best known for his head transplants on living monkeys Intelligence officers Robert Hanssen, former Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) secret agent who spied for Soviet and Russian intelligence services against the United States from 1979 to 2001 Robert S. Mueller III, American attorney who served as the sixth Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 2001 to 2013, leader of the investigations of September 11 attacks and Boston marathon bombing Prison officials Robert McKenty, warden of Eastern State Penitentiary Robert J. Kirby, 45th commandant of Sing Sing prison Criminals Robert J. Anderson (1966–2006), American murderer Robert Bales, former United States army soldier who committed the Kandahar massacre Robert John Bardo, American assassin of Rebecca Schaeffer Robert Berdella, American serial killer, known as The Kansas City Butcher and The Collector Robert Durst (1943–2022), American convicted murderer Robert Black, Scottish serial killer Robert Newton Ford, 19th century American outlaw Robert Garrow, American spree killer Robert Hansen, American serial killer known as "The Butcher Baker" Robert Hawkins, mass murderer who perpetrated the Westroads Mall shooting Robert Jay Mathews, American neo-Nazi terrorist and the leader of The Order, an American white supremacist militant group Robert Maudsley, English serial killer Robert A. Long, American spree killer who perpetrated the 2021 Atlanta spa shootings Robert "Bobby" Long, American serial killer and rapist Robert Napper, British serial killer Robert Perrino (1938–1992), Bonanno crime family associate and murder victim Robert Pickton, Canadian serial killer Robert Ben Rhoades, American serial killer known as "The Truck Stop Killer" Robert Lloyd Schellenberg, Canadian drug contrabandist Robert M. Shelton, leader of United Klans of America, a Ku Klux Klan group Robert Steinhäuser, German mass murderer and perpetrator of the Erfurt school massacre Robert Stroud, a convicted murderer, American federal prisoner and author known as the "Birdman of Alcatraz" who has been cited as one of the most notorious criminals in the United States Robert Tilton, American televangelist and fraud Robert Trimbole, Australian businessman, drug baron and organised crime boss Robert Lee Yates, American serial killer from Spokane, Washington Judges Robert J. Cindrich, American judge, former United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania Robert H. Jackson, American attorney and judge who served as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, previously served as United States Solicitor General, and United States Attorney General, the Chief United States Prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials Robert Morgenthau, American lawyer, District Attorney for New York County and United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York Robert Price, British judge and politician Robert Rajanayagam Selvadurai (1894–1973), Sri Lankan Tamil lawyer, police magistrate, and civil servant Political figures Robert Buckland, Welsh Conservative Party politician and barrister who served as Solicitor General for England and Wales and Minister of State for Prisons, currently serving as Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor Robert J. Bulkley, United States Democratic Party Politician from Ohio; Robert Baird, American clergyman and author Robert Byrd, American lawyer and politician who served as a United States Senator from West Virginia for over 51 years, from 1959 until his death in 2010 Robert Chadwick, Pennsylvania State Representative Robert J. Clendening, Pennsylvania State Representative Robert Crosser, U.S. Representative from Ohio, the longest serving member of the United States House of Representatives from the state of Ohio Robert "Bob" Dole, American politician and attorney who represented Kansas in the United States Senate from 1969 to 1996 Robert Budd Dwyer, the 30th State Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, best remembered for his public suicide on live TV; Robert A. Green, U.S Representative from Florida Arthur Robert Guinness, Zealand politician and Speaker of the House of Representatives Robert Gunawardena (1904–1971), founder of the Trotskyist Lanka Sama Samaja Party, diplomat Robert G. Harper, a Federalist, member of the United States Senate from Maryland, serving from January 1816 until December of the same year; Robert H. Foerderer, U.S. Congressman from Pennsylvania from 1901 to 1903 Robert M. La Follette Jr., U.S. senator from Wisconsin from 1925 to 1947 Robert J. Gamble, Representative and Senator from South Dakota Robert Edward Jayatilaka, Sri Lankan Sinhala politician Sir Robert Laurie, 5th Baronet, Scottish soldier and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1774 to 1804 Robert Lee Henry, Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from Texas from 1897 to 1917; Robert Lowe, British statesman and pivotal figure who shaped British politics in the latter half of the 19th century Robert James Manion, Canadian politician best known for leading the Conservative Party of Canada from 1938 until 1940. Robert "Bob" Moses, American educator and civil rights activist, leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) in Mississippi during the Civil Rights Movement, co-founder of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, one of the founders of Freedom Summer project Robert "Beto" O'Rourke, American politician who represented Texas's 16th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 2013 to 2019 who sought the 2020 Democratic nomination for President of the United States, also a past member of the music band Foss and hacker group Cult of the Dead Cow Robert Schmidt, Reich Minister of Food and Agriculture of Germany Robert Sobukwe, prominent South African political dissident and teacher who founded and became the first president of the Pan Africanist Congress Robert Roosevelt, a sportsman, author and politician who served as a United States Representative from New York and as Minister to the Hague, brother of the president of America Theodore Roosevelt; Robert K. Steel, American businessman, financier and government official; Robert A. Taft, American conservative politician, lawyer, and scion of the Taft family; Robert L. "Bob" Turner, American businessman and politician Robert F. Williams, American civil rights leader and author best known for serving as president of the Monroe, North Carolina chapter of the NAACP Secretaries of War Robert Todd Lincoln, American politician, lawyer, and businessman, the first son of Abraham Lincoln, United States Secretary of War and United States Minister to the United Kingdom Robert P. Patterson, United States Secretary of War Secretaries of State Lord Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe, Secretary of State for India during World War I and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland Robert M. T. Hunter, Virginia lawyer, politician and plantation owner, U.S. Representative (1837–1843, 1845–1847), Speaker of the House (1839–1841), and U.S. Senator (1847–1861), during the American Civil War, the Confederate States Secretary of State (1861–1862) and then a Confederate Senator (1862–1865) Robert Smith, second United States Secretary of the Navy from 1801 to 1809 and the sixth United States Secretary of State from 1809 to 1811 Sir Robert Southwell, Irish diplomat, Secretary of State for Ireland and President of the Royal Society from 1690 Governors Robert J. Bentley, American politician and physician who served as the 53rd Governor of Alabama from 2011 until 2017; Robert Brooke, soldier and Virginia political figure who served as the tenth Governor of Virginia Robert Brooke, lieutenant-colonel in the army of Bengal and governor of the island of St Helena from 1788 to 1800 Robert Carter I, American colonist, Colonial Governor of Virginia and Speaker of the Virginia House of Burgesses; Robert Stockton Green, American Democratic Party politician, who served as the 27th Governor of New Jersey from 1887 to 1890 Robert Hunter, British military officer, colonial governor of New York and New Jersey from 1710 to 1720, and governor of Jamaica from 1727 to 1734; Robert M. La Follette, American lawyer and politician who served as the 20th Governor of Wisconsin; Robert S. Kerr, American businessman and politician, 12th Governor of Oklahoma Robert S. Kerr III, American politician, Lieutenant Governor of Oklahoma Robert Lowry, American politician and a Confederate States Army general during the American Civil War, who served as 32nd Governor of Mississippi; Robert D. Orr, American politician and diplomat who served as the 45th Governor of Indiana from 1981 to 1989 Robert E. Quinn, American attorney and politician from Rhode Island who served as the 58th Governor of Rhode Island and Judge for the Rhode Island Superior Court Robert Marcellus Stewart, 14th Governor of Missouri from 1857 to 1861, during the years just prior to the American Civil War; Robert Yellowtail, leader of the Crow Nation, the first Native American to hold the post of Agency Superintendent at a reservation in the Crow Indian Reservation Mayors Robert Worth Bingham, American politician, judge, United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom and mayor of Louisville, Kentucky Robert Brent, the first Mayor of Washington, D.C., the federal capital of the United States; Robert T. Conrad, the first mayor of Philadelphia to take office following the Consolidation Act of 1854; Robert "Rob" Ford, Canadian politician and businessman who served as the 64th Mayor of Toronto; Robert King High, American politician who served as 29th mayor of the city of Miami; Robert H. Morris, 64th mayor of New York City; Robert F. Wagner Jr., American politician who served three terms as the mayor of New York City from 1954 through 1965 Founding fathers of United States Robert R. Livingston, American lawyer, politician, diplomat from New York, 1st United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 1st Chancellor of New York and a Founding Father of the United States Robert Morris, English-born merchant, United States Secretary of the Navy, United States Superintendent of Finance and a Founding Father of the United States Literary figures Robert Browning, English poet and playwright whose mastery of the dramatic monologue made him one of the foremost 19th century poets Robert Burns, Scottish/British poet and lyricist, widely regarded as the national poet of Scotland Robert Commanday, American music critic, chief classical music critic of the San Francisco Chronicle (1964–1994) Robert Cormier, American author and journalist, known for his deeply pessimistic novels Robert Frost, American poet Robert Hardman (born 1965), British journalist, author, and documentary filmmaker Robert Harris, English novelist and former BBC reporter Robert A. Heinlein, American science-fiction writer, one of the pioneers of hard science fiction genre Robert Hichens, English journalist, novelist, music lyricist, short story writer, music critic Robert E. Howard, American author who wrote pulp fiction, well known for his character Conan the Barbarian, regarded as the father of the sword and sorcery subgenre Robert G. Ingersoll, American writer and orator during the Golden Age of Freethought, who campaigned in defense of agnosticism Robert "Bob" Kane, American comic book artist and writer, best known for creating the character Batman Robert Kirkman, American comic book author best known for creating The Walking Dead Robert "Rob" Liefeld, American comic book artist and writer, best known for creating the character Deadpool Robert Rozhdestvensky, Soviet Russian poet, regarded as one of the most significant Russian poets Robert W. Service, British-Canadian poet and writer Robert J.C. Stead, Canadian novelist Robert Louis Stevenson, Scottish novelist, poet, essayist, musician and travel writer, best known for his work Treasure Island, which became one of the most popular literary works of all time Robert Anton Wilson, American author, futurist, philosopher and self-described agnostic mystic, co-author (with Robert Shea) of The Illuminatus! Trilogy Businessmen Robert Bosch, German industrialist, businessman, engineer and inventor, founder of Robert Bosch GmbH (Bosch) Robert Kardashian, American attorney and businessman Robert Kiyosaki, American businessman and author, founder of the Rich Dad Company Robert Kyncl, American business executive, Chief Business Officer of YouTube and former Vice President of Content Acquisitions of Netflix Robert Napier, Scottish marine engineer and founder of Robert Napier and Sons Robert Miles Sloman, English-German shipbuilder, ship owner and sailor Robert Smalls, American businessman, publisher, and politician who, born into slavery in Beaufort, South Carolina, freed himself, his crew, and their families during the American Civil War by commandeering a Confederate transport ship, CSS Planter in 1862 Robert F. Smith, American billionaire, businessman, philanthropist, chemical engineer, and investor, founder, chairman, and CEO of private equity firm Vista Equity Partners Robert Trump, American real estate developer and business executive, brother of the president of America Donald Trump Robert Winthrop, wealthy banker and capitalist in New York City Administrators of NASA Robert A. Frosch, American scientist who was the fifth administrator of NASA from 1977 to 1981 Robert M. Lightfoot Jr., engineer and former Acting Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), serving from January 20, 2017, until April 23, 2018, making him the longest-serving Acting Administrator in NASA history Astronauts Robert L. Behnken, United States Air Force officer, NASA astronaut and former Chief of the Astronaut Office Robert D. Cabana, director of NASA's John F. Kennedy Space Center, a former NASA astronaut, and a veteran of four Space Shuttle flights Robert J. Cenker, American aerospace and electrical engineer, aerospace systems consultant, and former astronaut Robert Crippen, American retired naval officer and aviator, test pilot, aerospace engineer, and retired astronaut Robert Curbeam, former NASA astronaut and captain in the United States Navy Robert L. Gibson, former American naval officer and aviator, test pilot, aeronautical engineer, and a retired NASA astronaut, as well as a professional pilot and regular racer at the annual Reno Air Races Robert S. Kimbrough, retired United States Army officer, and a NASA astronaut Robert Lawrence Jr., a United States Air Force officer and the first African-American astronaut Robert F. Overmyer, American test pilot, naval aviator, aeronautical engineer, physicist, United States Marine Corps officer and USAF/NASA astronaut Robert A. Parker, American physicist and astronomer, former Director of the NASA Management Office at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and a retired NASA astronaut Robert Satcher, American physician, chemical engineer and NASA astronaut Robert C. Springer, retired American astronaut and test pilot Robert L. Stewart, retired brigadier general of the United States Army and a former NASA astronaut Robert Thirsk, a Canadian engineer and physician, and a former Canadian Space Agency astronaut Roberto Vittori, Italian air force officer and an ESA astronaut Sportsmen Robert Green, English former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper, played in the Premier League and Football League and for the England national team Robert Alexander, Irish sportsman Roberto Baggio, Italian former professional footballer who mainly played as a second striker, or as an attacking midfielder Roberto Carlos, Brazilian footballer, widely regarded as one of the best football players of all time Robert Griffin III, American football quarterback for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League Robert Gsellman (born 1993), American baseball player Robert Howard, Irish Grandmaster of taekwondo Robert "Bobby" Hull, Canadian former ice hockey player who is regarded as one of the greatest players of all time Róbert Jež, retired Slovak footballer Robert Kerr, Irish Canadian sprinter Robert "Robbie" Kerr, British racing driver Robert Lewandowski, Polish football player who plays as a striker for Bayern Munich and is the captain of the Poland national team Roberto López Ufarte, Basque former footballer Roberto Mancini, Italian football manager and former player who is the manager of the Italy national team Robert "Bob" McNamara, American baseball player Robert Alexander Michel Melki (born 1992), Swedish-Lebanese footballer Robert Mühren, Dutch professional footballer Robert Person (born 1969), American baseball player Robert "Bobby" Orr, Canadian former professional ice hockey player, widely acknowledged as one of the greatest of all time Robert Remus, American professional wrestler known as Sgt. Slaughter Robert "Rob" Terry, Welsh professional wrestler and bodybuilder Robert Whittaker, New Zealand-born Australian professional mixed martial artist Robert Wickens, Canadian racing driver Paranormal Robert the Doll, a supposedly haunted doll exhibited at a museum, center of an urban legend Others Robert Ballard, retired United States Navy officer and a professor of oceanography at the University of Rhode Island who is best known for the discovery of the wrecks of the RMS Titanic in 1985 Robert Barclay Allardice, generally known as Captain Barclay, Scottish walker of the early 19th century, known as the celebrated pedestrian, considered the father of the 19th century sport of pedestrianism, a precursor to racewalking Robert T. Barrett, American painter, illustrator, and professor of illustration at Brigham Young University Robert Bevan, British painter, draughtsman and lithographer, founding member of the Camden Town Group, the London Group, and the Cumberland Market Group Robert Capa, Hungarian war photographer and photojournalist Robert Chung, Hong Kong academician, former Director of the Public Opinion Programme (POP) of the University of Hong Kong, head of the Hong Kong Public Opinion Research Institute Robert Conquest, an English-American historian and poet Robert Cornelius, American pioneer of photography and a lamp manufacturer who took the first light picture ever taken and whose self-taken portrait is the first known photographic portrait taken in America Robert de Cotte, French architect-administrator, under whose design control of the royal buildings of France the earliest notes presaging the Rococo style were introduced Robert G. Elliott, American executioner Robert Elms, English writer and broadcaster Robert Gibbings, Irish artist and author who was most noted for his work as a wood engraver and sculptor Robert Gregg, Anglican Archbishop Robert Gray, first Anglican Bishop of Cape Town and Metropolitan of Africa Robert Gray, English Bishop of Bristol Robert Gray, American merchant sea captain who pioneered the maritime fur trade Robert H. Gray, American data analyst, author and astronomer Robert Grierson, Canadian missionary to Korea Roparz Hemon (Robert Hemon), Breton author and scholar of Breton expression Robert Henri, American painter and teacher Robert Hichens, British sailor who was part of the deck crew on board the RMS Titanic as one of six quartermasters on board the vessel and was at the ships wheel when it struck the iceberg Carl Robert Jakobson, Estonian writer, politician and teacher, one of the most important people in the Estonian national awakening Robert Knox, Irish bishop Robert Lopez, award-winning American songwriter of musicals, best known for co-creating The Book of Mormon and Avenue Q, and for composing the songs featured in the 3D Disney computer animated films Frozen and Coco Roberto Matta, of Chilean painter and a seminal figure in 20th century abstract expressionist and surrealist art Robert Molyneux, English-American Catholic priest and Jesuit missionary to the United States Robert de Montesquiou, French aesthete, Symbolist poet and art collector Captain Robert Nairac, British Army officer in 14 Intelligence Company who was abducted from a pub in Dromintee, south County Armagh, during an undercover operation and assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) on his fourth tour of duty in Northern Ireland as a Military Intelligence Liaison Officer Robert M. Price, American theologian and writer Robert "Bob" Ross, American painter, art instructor, and television host Robert O. Scholz, American architect from Washington, D.C. Robert Livingston Rudolph, American bishop of the Reformed Episcopal Church Robert Stevens, British-born American photojournalist killed in the 2001 anthrax attacks Robert Scotland Liddell, British war reporter and photographer Robert Topala, also known as Zhenmuron, Swedish musician and video game developer known for developing the popular rhythm based arcade art game Geometry Dash Robert Barron (bishop), American prelate of the Catholic Church, author, theologian and evangelist, known for his Word on Fire ministry Robert Wadlow, known as the Alton Giant and the Giant of Illinois, an American who became famous as the tallest person in recorded history Robert Wipper, Russian historian of classical antiquity, medieval and modern period Fictional characters Robert "Rocky" Balboa, the main character in Rocky Balboa film series; King Robert Baratheon, a fictional king in A Song of Ice and Fire novels by George R. R. Martin & the 2011 TV series Game of Thrones (King of the Andals, the Rhoynar and the First Men, Lord of the Seven Kingdoms, Protector of the Realm, Lord of Storm's End, Lord Paramount of the Stormlands) Commander Robert Hicks, A senior officer with the LAPD Special Operations Bureau in 2017 TV series S.W.A.T. Robert, main character of the 2021 action thriller Roberrt Robert Barone, a character from the 1996 sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond Robert Blake, main character in the story The Haunter of the Dark by H.P. Lovecraft Robert the Devil, main character of a legend of medieval origin about a Norman knight who discovers he is the son of Satan Robert "Yokai" Callaghan, a former robotics professor at the San Fransokyo Institute of Technology and the main antagonist of Big Hero 6 Robert Philip, one of the main characters in the 2007 film Enchanted Robert Jürgens, owner of Griffolyon, character from the Japanese Manga series Beyblade Robert Drake, fictional superhero known as Iceman, appearing in comic books published by Marvel Comics, a founding member of the X-Men Robert Ford, main character in TV series Westworld Robert "Rob" Smith, character from the TV series The Goldbergs Robert Langdon, symbologist and cryptologist in Dan Brown's novels Angels & Demons, The Da Vinci Code, The Lost Symbol & Inferno, the 2006 film The Da Vinci Code & the 2009 film Angels & Demons Robert McGonagall, father of Minerva McGonagall, the transfiguration teacher and Head of Gryffindor House in the Harry Potter franchise; Robert "Bobby" Nash, a firefighter in TV series 9-1-1 Robert Neville, a main protagonist and US Army Virologist in 2007 movie I Am Legend; Robert "Bob" Newby, a character from the TV series Stranger Things Robert Paulson, a character in Chuck Palahniuk's novel Fight Club and the 1999 film of the same name Robert "Bob" Fossil, a zoo owner in the TV series The Mighty Boosh Robert Reynolds, a Marvel Comics Superhero known as Sentry Robbie Rotten, the main villain in LazyTown since the second play, Glanni Glæpur í Latabæ (Robbie Rotten in LazyTown); Robert "Robbie" Shapiro, character from TV series Victorious Robert "Bobby" Singer, fictional character in The CW Television Network's horror-drama television series Supernatural Robert The Scotsman, character from animated series Samurai Jack Robert "Robb" Stark, a fictional character in A Song of Ice and Fire novels by George R. R. Martin & the 2011 TV series Game of Thrones Robert Chan, chief executive of Umbrella Corps in Resident Evil franchise Robert "Bob" Kendo, a character from Resident Evil franchise Robert, character from the Lithuanian soap opera Moterys meluoja geriau (Women lie better) and its Latvian version Viņas melo labāk Robert T. Sturgeon, video game character in the Ninja Gaiden series Robert "Bob" Gray, real name of the character known as It or Pennywise the Dancing Clown from the horror story and movies of the same name Sponge Robert "Bob" SquarePants, title character of the animated series SpongeBob SquarePants Robert "Bob" the Builder, a character from the British animated series Bob the Builder Robert Seaver, a character from Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey Robert Bruce Banner, a major character featured in Marvel Comics, known as The Incredible Hulk Dr Robert Gru, character from the Despicable Me franchise Robert "Bob" Parr, a fictional superhero known as Mr Incredible from The Incredibles franchise Robert Underdunk Terwilliger, known as Sideshow Bob, a character from the animated series The Simpsons Folklore Robert Goodfellow, domestic and nature sprite, demon, or fairy in mythology Knight Robert, a legendary Christmas character from German folklore Robert, one of the names often used to refer to a legendary Christmas character known as Krampus Robert, one of the names often used to refer to the Devil in mythology In different languages Indo-European Germanic Major Afrikaans: Robert Austrian-Bavarian: Rupert, Ruprecht, Rupprecht Danish: Robert Dutch: Robrecht, Robbert English: Robert Hunsrik: Robert German: Rupert, Ruprecht, Rupprecht Flemish: Robbert Frisian: Robert Icelandic: Róbert Norwegian: Robert Scots: Rabert Swedish: Robert Yiddish: ראבערט (Rabert) Others Dalecarlian: Robert Elfdalian (Övdalian): Rodbert Gothic: Hroþobrecht Finland Swedish: Robert Frankish: Chrodobert, Chrodobrecht Limburgish: Robbert Luxembourgish: Robbert Vandalic: Chrodobert, Chrodobrecht Yenish: Rupert Old Norse: Hrōðberχtr Proto-Germanic: Hrōþiberhtaz Proto-Norse: Hrōðberχtr Balto-Slavic Baltic Major Latvian (Lettish): Roberts, Robērs Lithuanian: Robertas Other Latgalian: Roberts Old Prussian: Robertis Samogitian: Robertas Slavic Major Belorussian: Роберт (Robert) Bosnian: Robert, Роберт Bulgarian: Робърт/Роберт (Robert) Croatian: Robert Czech: Robert Macedonian: Роберт (Robert) Polish: Robert Russian: Роберт (Robert), Роман (Roman) Serbian: Robert/Роберт Slovak: Róbert Slovene: Roberto Others Church Slavonic: Роберт (Robert) Kashubian: Robert Old Church Slavonic: Роберт (Robert) Old East Slavic: Роберт (Robert) Rusyn: Роберт (Robert) Celtic Major Irish: Roibeárd Welsh: Robat, Rhobert Others Breton: Roparzh, Roperzh, Roparz, Ropars Celtiberian: Hraidbeardaz Cornish: Robert Gaulish: Raibeard Manx: Robard Scottish Gaelic: Raibeart Hellenic Ancient Macedonian: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Greek: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Pontic Greek: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Italic Latin: Robertus, Rupertus Classical Latin: Robertus, Rupertus, Rodbertus Late Latin: Robertus, Rupertus Oscan: Robertus Umbrian: Robertus Vulgar Latin: Robertus, Rupertus Romance Major Catalan: Robert French: Robert Italian: Roberto Portuguese: Roberto Romanian: Robert Spanish: Roberto Others Aragonese: Roberto Aromanian (Vlach): Robert Asturian: Robert Asturleonese: Roberto Champenois: Robert Corsican: Roberto Dalmatian: Roberto Emilian: Robert Franco-Provençal: Robert Friulian: Robèrto Galician: Roberte Gallo: Robert, Roberte Galician-Portuguese: Roberteo Istriot: Robert Ladino: רוברטו (Roberto) Ligurian: Roberto Lombard: Roberto Neapolitan: Roberto Occitan: Robert Picard: Robert Piedmontese: Robert Sardinian: Robertu Talian: Roberto Venetian: Roberto Walloon: Robert Indo-Iranian Balochi: رابرت (Robert) Bengali: রবার্ট (Rabārṭa) Dari: رابرت (Robert) Gujarati: રોબર્ટ (Rōbarṭa) Hindi: रॉबर्ट (Robart) Kashmiri: रॉबर्ट (Robart) Kurdish: رابرت (Robert) Malvi: रॉबर्ट (Robart) Marathi: रॉबर्ट (Rŏbarṭa) Mazanderani: رابرت (Robert) Nimadi: रॉबर्ट (Robart) Odia: ରବର୍ଟ (Robert) Ossetian (Ossetic): Роберт Pashto: رابرټ (Robert) Persian: رابرت (Robert) Punjabi: ਰਾਬਰਟ (Rābaraṭa) Romani: Robert Sanskrit: रॉबर्ट (Robart) Tajik: Роберт Urdu: رابرٹ (Robert) Other Albanian: Robert Armenian: Ռոբերտ (Robert), Ռուբեն (Ruben), Ռուպեն (Rupen, Roupen) Dacian: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Esperanto: Robert, Roberto Hittite: 𒊒𒁁𒊑𒀾 (Ruberitàš, Ruberetàš) Illyrian: Robert Messapic: Robert Philistine: Robert Proto-Indo-European (PIE): kreHbʰerHǵ Thracian: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Tocharian: Roberetus Major language varieties Germanic English American English: Robert African-American English: Robert Appalachian English: Robert Australian English: Robert Australian Aboriginal English: Robert British English: Robert Caribbean English: Robert Canadian English: Robert Hiberno-English (Irish English): Rhobert Indian English: Robert Malaysian English: Robert Middle English: Robert New York City English: Robert New Zealand English: Robert Nigerian English: Robert North American English: Robert Old English: Robert, Rodbert, Rodbrecht Singapore English: Robert South African English: Robert Ugandan English: Robert Dutch Belgian Dutch: Robert, Robbert Low Franconian: Robert, Robbert Zeelandic: Robert, Robbert German Austrian German: Robert Bernese German: Robert Brazilian German: Robert Central German: Robert, Rupert East Low German: Robert, Rupert, Rupprecht High German: Robert, Rupert, Rupprecht High Prussian: Robert Low German: Robert, Rupert, Rupprecht Low Prussian: Robert Plautdietsch: Robert Swiss German: Robert Upper German: Robert, Rupert, Rupprecht West Low German (Low Saxon): Robert, Rupert, Rupprecht Romance French African French: Robert Belgian French: Robert Canadian French: Robert Norman French: Robert Old French: Robert Quebec French: Robert Swiss French: Robert Italian Swiss Italian: Robert Portuguese Angolan Portuguese: Roberto Brazilian Portuguese: Roberto European Portuguese: Roberto Spanish Andean Spanish: Roberto Bolivian Spanish: Roberto Mexican Spanish: Roberto Canarian Spanish: Roberto Castilian Spanish: Roberto Chilean Spanish: Roberto Colombian Spanish: Roberto Cuban Spanish: Roberto Old Spanish: Robertus Panamanian Spanish: Roberto Peruvian Spanish: Roberto Peninsular (European) Spanish: Roberto Venezuelan Spanish: Roberto Indo-European mixed languages Porglish: Roberto Portuñol: Roberto Runglish: Robert, Роберт Spanglish: Roberto Uralic Finno-Ugric Major Estonian: Raivo, Robert, Roobert Finnish: Robert, Roobert, Roopertti, Roope Hungarian: Róbert Others Erzya: Роберт Ingrian (Izhorian): Raivo, Raivert, Rovert, Robert Karelian: Roope, Roopertti, Roobert, Robert, Роопе, Роопертти, Рооберт, Роберт Khanty: Роберт Komi: Роберт Komi-Permyak: Роберт Kven: Roope, Roopertti Livonian: Raivo, Robert, Roobert Ludic: Roope, Roopertti, Roobert, Robert Mansi: Роберт Mari: Роберт Meänkieli: Roopertti Moksha: Роберт Sámi: Roope, Roopertti, Roobert, Robert, Роопе, Роопертти, Рооберт, Роберт Seto: Raivo, Robert Udmurt: Роберт Veps: Roope, Roopertti, Roobert, Robert Võro: Raivo Votic: Robert Zyrian: Роберт Samoyedic Enets: Роберт Forest Nenets: Роберт Kamassian: Роберт Mator: Роберт Nenets: Роберт Nganasan: Роберт Selkup: Роберт Tundra Nenets: Роберт Afro-Asiatic Berber Central Atlas Tamazight: ⵔⵓⵒⴻⵔⵜ (Rupert), ⵔⵓⵒⴻⵔⵟ (Rupert), ⵔⵓⵒⴻⵔX (Rupert) Kabyle: ⵔ--ⴲⴻⵔX (Robert), ⵔ--ⴱⴻⵔⵜ (Robert), ⵔ--ⴲⴻⵔⵜ (Robert), ⵔ--ⴱⴻⵔⵟ (Robert), ⵔ--ⴲⴻⵔⵟ (Robert) Shilha: روبرت (Robert) Shawiya: Robert Tarifit (Riffian): ⵔ--ⴱⴻⵔX (Robert) Tuareg: Robert Semitic Amharic: ሮበርት (Roberiti) Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Aramaic: ܪܝܫܒܝܬ (Robert) Chaldean (Assyrian) Neo-Aramaic (Suret): ܪܝܫܒܝܬ (Robert) Ge'ez: ሮበርት (Roberiti) Hausa: روبرت (Robert) Hebrew (Ivrit): רוברט (Robert), רובן (Ruben), ראובן (Reuben) Maltese: Robert Phoenician: 𐤓𐤏𐤁𐤄𐤓𐤈‎ (Robhert) Tigre: ሮበርት (Roberiti) Tigrinya: ሮበርት (Roberiti) Suryat Neo-Aramaic (Turoyo): ܪܝܫܒܝܬ (Robert) Other Akkadian: 𒊒𒁁𒊑𒀾 (Ruberitàš, Ruberetàš) Coptic: rꜥbꜣr.t (Rabarat) Egyptian: 𓁶𓁹𓉐𓃾𓁶𓏴 (Robaert) Shilha (Tachelhit): Robert Major language varieties Algerian Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Egyptian Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Hadhrami Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Lebanese Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Libyan Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Mesopotamian (Iraqi) Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Modern Hebrew: רוברט (Robert), רובן (Ruben), ראובן (Reuben) Sudanese Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Syrian Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Yemeni Arabic: روبرت (Robert) Dravidian Major Kannada: ರಾಬರ್ಟ್ (Rābarṭ) Malayalam: റോബർട്ട് (Ŗēābarṭṭ) Tamil: ராபர்ட் (Rāparṭ) Telugu: రాబర్ట్ (Rābarṭ) Tulu: రాబర్ట్ (Rābarṭ) Others Brahui: روبرت (Robert) Chenchu: రాబర్ట్ (Rābarṭ) Kui: ରବର୍ଟ (Robert) Kuvi: ରବର୍ଟ (Robert) Turkic Major Azerbaijani: Robert Chuvash: Роберт Kazakh: Роберт Kyrgyz: Роберт Tatar: Robert Turkish: Robert Turkmen: Роберт Uyghur: روبېرت Uzbek: Роберт Others Altai: Роберт (Robert) Gagauz: Robert Khakas: Роберт Qashqai: Роберт Tuvan: Роберт Yakut: Роберт Kartvelian Georgian: რობერტ (Robert) Mingrelian: რობერტ (Robert) Northeast Caucasian Avar: Роберт Chechen: Роберт Ingush:Роберт Kabardian: Роберт Lezgian (Lezgi): Роберт Rutul: Роберт Northwest Caucasian Abkhaz: Роберт Adyghe: Роберт Austronesian Major Cebuano (Bisaya): Robert Fijian: Lopate Hawaii: Lopaka Ilocano: Robert Indonesian: Robert, Robiy Javanese: Robert, Ropert Kapampangan: Robert, Ropert Lampung: Robert Malay: Robert, Ropert Malagasy (Madagascaran): Ropert Māori: Ropata Pangasinan: Robert, Ropert, Lopaka Tagalog (Filipino): Robert Tausug: روبېرت (Robert) Waray: Ropert, Robert Others Botolan: Robert Dusun: Robert Kavalan: Robert Ifugao: Robert Melanau: Robert Palauan: Ropate Rapa Nui: Ropate Sakizaya: Lopat Sambal: Robert Samoan: Ropati Sangirese: Robert Saisiyat: Robert Seediq: Robert Tahitian: Robert Taroko: Robert Tetum: Ropert, Robert Tongan: Lopate Tombulu: Robert Tsou: Lopat Yami (Tao): Robert Sino-Tibetan Burmese: ရောဘတ် (Rawbhaat) Cantonese: 羅伯特 (Robert) Chinese Simplified: 罗伯特 (Robert) Chinese Traditional: 羅伯特 (Robert) Mandarin: 罗伯特 (Luōbótè) Hakka: 罗伯特 (Robert) Kokborok (Tipuri): Robert Classical Tibetan: རབཏ (Rabata) Standard Tibetan: རབཏ (Rabata) Hmong-Mien Iu Mien: Robert Hmu: Robert Xong: Robert Austroasiatic Khmer: រ៉ូបឺត (Roubɨt) Mundari: Robert Muong: Robert Vietnamese: Robert Kra-Dai Lao: โรเบิร์ต (Ro beir̒t) Thai: โรเบิร์ต (Ro beir̒t) Koreanic Jeju: 로버트 (Robeoteu) Korean: 로버트 (Robeoteu) Japonic Japanese: ロバート (Robaato) Ryukyuan: ロバート (Robaato) Mongolic Buryat: Robert, Роберт Mongolian: Роберт Oirat: Роберт Niger-Congo Akan: Robert Bambara: Robert Dagbani: Robert Fula: Robert Igbo: Robert Luganda: Robert Maninka: Robert Shona: Robert Swahili: Robert Swazi: Robert Tegali: Robert Twi: Robert Venda: Robert Wolof: Robert Xhosa: Robert Yoruba: Robert Zulu: Robert Nilo-Saharan Fur: Robert Lugbara: Robert Maasai: Robert Nubian: Robert Songhay: Robert Teso: Robert Trans-New Guinea Ekari: Robert Enga: Robert Huli: Robert Kuman: Robert Western Dani (Laani): Robert Makasae: Robert Melpa: Robert Tyrsenian Etruscan: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Rhaetic: Rovertios Lemnian: Rovertioš Camunic: ΡϙβερχιϙΣσς, ΡϙβερτιϙΣσς (Robertios, Rovertios) Tungusic Even: Роберт Evenki: Роберт Kili: Роберт Manchu: Robert Nanai: Роберт Negidal: Роберт Orok: Роберт Oroqen: Роберт Udege: Роберт Ulch: Роберт Xibe (Sibe): Роберт Eskimo-Aleut Greenlandic: Robert Inuit: Robert Inuktun: Robert Inuktitut: Robert Inupiaq: Robert Yupik: Robert Hurro-Urartian Hurrian: Robert Kassite: Robert Urartian (Vannic): Robert Khoisan Hadza: Robert Khoe: Robert Khoekhoe: Robert !Kung: Robert Naro Sandawe: Robert Shua Taa (!Xo): Rõbèrt Tsoa Ainu Hokkaido Ainu: ロベルツ (Roberutsu) Kuril Ainu: Sakhalin Ainu: Languages Isolates Major Basque: Robert Others Aquitanian: Robert Elamite: 𒊒𒁁𒊑𒀾 (Ruberitàš, Ruberetàš) Eteocretan: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Eteocypriot: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Hattic: 𒊒𒁁𒊑𒀾 (Ruberitàš, Ruberetàš) Iberian: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Ancient Ligurian: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Minoan: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) North Picene: Roveret Paleo-Sardinian (Nuragic): Roberto Sicanian: Ροβέρτος (Rovértos) Sumerian: 𒊒𒁁𒊑𒀾 (Ruberitàš, Ruberetàš) Tartessian: Roberet Creoles English-based Belizean Creole: Robert Bocas del Toro Creole (Panamanian Patois): Robert Cameroonian Pidgin: Robert Ghanaian Pidgin: Robert Guyanese Creole: Robert Hawaiian Pidgin: Robert Jamaican Patois: Robert Krio: Robert Liberian Kreyol: Robert Manglish: Robert Nigerian Pidgin: Robert Singlish: Robert Tok Pisin: Robert Trinidadian Creole: Robert French-based Antillean Creole: Robert Haitian Creole: Robert Mauritian Creole: Robert Michif: Robert Réunion Creole: Robert Portuguese-based Cape Verdean Creole: Roberto Guinea-Bissau Creole: Roberto Papiamento: Roberto Spanish-based Chavacano: Roberto Native American Major Apache: Robert Aymara: Robert Akatek: Robert Ch'ol: Robert Chuj: Robert Coyutla Totonac (Tachihuiin): Robert Cree: ᕒᐅᐯᕒ‡ (Ropêrth), ᕈᐅᐸᕃᕪ (Ropareth) Eastern Bolivian Guarani: Robert Garifuna: Robert Guarani (Paraguayan): Robert Hopi: Robert Huave: Robert Isthmus Zapotec (Diidxaza): Robert Jakaltek (Popti'): Robert Keres: Robert Kʼicheʼ: Robert Lalana-Tepinapa Chinantec (Tsa Jujmi): Robert Mapuche (Mapudungun): Robert Mazatecan (Mazatec): Robert Mayan: Robert Miskito: Robert Mixean: Robert Mixtec: Robert Mezquital Otomi: Robert Nahuatl (Aztec): Robert Nheengatu: Robert Quechuan (Inca): Robert Navajo: Robert Nawat (Pipil / Nicarao): Robert Purépecha: Robert Shuar: Robert Terêna (Etelena): Robert Tojolabʼal: Robert Trique: Robert Tupinamba (Tupi): Robert Wastek (Huastec): Robert Yucatec Maya: Robert Zapotec: Robert Others Arapaho: Róbert Ashaninka: Robert Blackfoot (Siksiká): Roᑭᒪ (Roperto) Bribri: Robert Carrier (Dakelh): Robert Cherokee: ᎶᏪᏘ (Loweti), ᎶᏪᏖ (Lowete) Choctaw: Robert Chukchi: Роберт Crow: Robert Cora: Robert Dakota: Róbert Delaware: Robért Dogrib / Tlicho: Robert Fox (Kickapoo): Robert Gwich'in (Dinji Zhu' Ginjik): Robert Haida: Robert Kawesqar: Robert Ket: Роберт Lakota: Róbert Mescalero-Chiricahua: Robert Miami-Illinois: Robert Mikasuki (Miccosukee): Robert Mohawk: Robert Mura: Robert Muscogee (Creek): Robert Naskapi: ᕒᐅᐯᕒ‡ (Ropêrth), ᕈᐅᐸᕃᕪ (Ropareth) Nez Perce: Robert Ojibwe: Robert Paiute: Robert Pirahã: Rõbęrť Pomoan (Pomo): Robert Puelche: Robert Selk'nam (Ona): Robert Shipibo: Robert Shoshoni: Robert Shuar: Robert Tlingit: Robert Tsafiki: Robert O'odham: Rœbert Waiwai: Robert Wiyot (Wishosk / Soulatluk): Robert Yaghan: Robert Ye'kuana: Robert Yurok: Robert Zuni: Robert Australian Aboriginal Major Anindilyakwa: Robert Arrernte (Aranda): Robert Bininj Gun-Wok (Kunwinjku): Robert Dhuwal (Djambarrpuyngu): Robert Murrinh-patha: Robert Ngaanyatjarra: Robert Pitjantjarjara: Robert Tiwi: Robert Warlpiri: Robert Western Desert language: Robert Others Burarra: Robert Garrwa: Robert Gija: Robert Guniyandi: Robert Iwaidja: Robert Lardil: Robert Luritja: Robert Maung: Robert Miriwoong: Robert Ngarinyin: Robert Wagiman: Robert Wambaya: Robert Wardaman: Robert Yolŋu Matha: Robert Yankunytjatjara: Robert Yawuru: Robert Names with a similar meaning Fame The names first element, Hrōþi, can also be found in names: Roger, Roland, Rudolph, Roderick, Roman, Rose, Rodney Other names also meaning "fame", "glory", "praise", "honour": Stephen / Steven Louis / Lewis / Ludwig Raymond Tim / Timothy Michael Sonny Lothar Waldemar/Vladimir Morgan Neil / Niles / Nolan Gustav Justin Joseph Ahmed / Hamid / Muhammad Ottomar / Othmar / Omar Bright The names second element, *Berhta, can also be found on names: Albert, Herbert, Humbert, Bertrand, Cuthbert Other names also meaning "bright", "shining", "light": Walter / Walther Waldemar / Vladimir Arnold Adolf Julian Zeus Jair / Jahir Harvey Lucas / Luke / Lucius Lucy / Lucinda / Cindy / Sindy See also Rob (given name), short for Robert Robby, nickname for Robert Robbie, nickname for Robert Bob (given name), nickname for Robert Bobby (given name), nickname for Robert Roberts (surname) Robertson (surname) Roberson Rupert (name), alternate version of Robert Robin (name), formerly a nickname for Robert Robinson (name) Robinett Robinet Robinette References English-language masculine given names English masculine given names German masculine given names Dutch masculine given names Germanic given names French masculine given names Romanian masculine given names Norwegian masculine given names Swedish masculine given names Danish masculine given names Estonian masculine given names Icelandic masculine given names Irish masculine given names Scottish masculine given names
939561	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspect%20Zero	Suspect Zero	Suspect Zero is a 2004 American psychological thriller film directed by E. Elias Merhige and starring Aaron Eckhart, Ben Kingsley, and Carrie-Anne Moss. The film was produced by Tom Cruise's co-owned company Cruise/Wagner Productions. It was a box office bomb failing to earn half of its estimated $27 million production costs at the box office. The film is about the hunt for Suspect Zero, a potential serial killer who is able to kill indefinitely because he is able to remain undetectable by law enforcement agencies. It features various elements from declassified DIA Stargate remote viewing protocols. Plot Traveling salesman Harold Speck is approached by a man in a diner who asks him an uncomfortable question. After leaving the diner, Harold is found dead with his eyelids cut off and clutching a symbol consisting of a circle with a line through it. The murder is investigated by FBI Agent Thomas Mackelway (Aaron Eckhart), who was recently suspended for beating suspected serial killer Raymond Starkey. Mackelway receives a series of taunting faxes from someone who may be Speck's killer. As the investigation proceeds, Mackelway and his partner, Fran Kulok (Carrie-Anne Moss), become aware of the possible existence of Suspect Zero, a "super serial killer" responsible for hundreds of deaths who leaves no evidence behind to link his crimes together. Another body is found in the trunk of a car bearing an M.O. similar to Speck's murder. The ownership of the car is traced to a room in a halfway house occupied by Benjamin O'Ryan. The agents discover that the room is filled with obsessive-compulsive sketches of the crossed-circle symbol, a Bible which contains sketches of missing persons, and a book on ritual. Questioning the other occupants of the halfway house, Mackelway is told by one of them the symbol represents a zero, not a circle. Information sent by the killer leads Mackelway to O'Ryan (Ben Kingsley), who believes himself to be a former member of the FBI. The agents must decide if O'Ryan is the key to catching Suspect Zero, or if he is Suspect Zero himself. Outside a bar, O'Ryan kills a man who attempts to kidnap and rape a young girl. When Mackelway and Kulok arrive, they find that the body belongs to Starkey, who had been released from prison. Evidence reveals that O'Ryan was part of Project Icarus, a secret government project attempting to cultivate telepathic abilities in individuals for military purposes. The experiments gave O'Ryan the ability to see the actions of serial killers, driving him to hunt them down. O'Ryan demonstrates that Mackelway shares his abilities to some degree. Neither Kulok or Mackelway's superiors are convinced by his theories that O'Ryan is chasing the killer rather than being the killer. Suspect Zero is revealed to be a man who drives cross-country in a refrigerated truck. He targets children, whom he abducts and transports to his ranch, where he kills them. Mackelway links these crimes by recognizing that victims had signs of freezer burns while being transported. Mackelway chases one truck driver to a carnival, only to find that the child he saw in his vision as "captured" is free. O'Ryan suddenly appears and captures Mackelway. After refusing to be frightened, O'Ryan spares Mackelway. Eventually, the two men track Suspect Zero to his ranch and find numerous shallow graves. Chasing him, both vehicles crash off the road. Kulok manages to free a child while Mackelway kills Suspect Zero. O'Ryan then tries to convince Mackelway to end his suffering by killing him. When Mackelway refuses, O'Ryan pretends to attack him, prompting Kulok to shoot him to defend her partner. Cast Aaron Eckhart – Thomas Mackelway Ben Kingsley – Benjamin O'Ryan Carrie-Anne Moss – Fran Kulok Kevin Chamberlin – Harold Speck Harry J. Lennix – Rich Charleton Production Screenplay The film is based on a first draft by Zak Penn, which allegedly impressed Steven Spielberg so much in its depiction of serial killers' elongated middle fingers that he went home and checked his children's hands. After it was sold to Universal Studios for $750,000, Cruise/Wagner Productions (founded by Tom Cruise and Paula Wagner) became its producers. However the script was put onto the back burner after a deal to make the movie in 1997 with Sylvester Stallone fell through. After several more years, Cruise/Wagner Productions hired Bill Ray to rewrite Penn's original script. Changes included moving the action from Texas, making the lead character a burned-out, disgraced FBI agent rather than a rookie, and turning a maverick criminal profiler into a psychic with the power of remote viewing. Filming The film began shooting in Albuquerque, New Mexico in 2002. The State was chosen because it offered tax-free incentives and financial funding to film companies using New Mexico. The program was established to entice film makers to the State. Reception On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Suspect Zero holds an approval rating of 18% with a rating average of 4.4/10 based on 129 reviews. Its consensus reads, "Other than Ben Kingsley, there's not much to like in this preposterous thriller." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 37 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "Generally unfavorable reviews". Roger Ebert felt that the film was too confusing, stating "enigmatic flashes of incomprehensible action grow annoying, and a point at which we realize that there's no use paying close attention, because we won't be able to figure out the film's secrets until they're explained to us." Nick Schager from Slant Magazine wrote a particularly scathing review of the film, stating "Suspect Zero proves, uninspired imitation is the lowest form of thriller filmmaking." Carla Meyer from the San Francisco Chronicle was also critical of the film, writing, "Suspect Zero needed to be exceptional, and it isn't. It's merely adequate, with one riveting element but limited chills." Home media Suspect Zero was released via DVD on April 12, 2005, and was re-released via DVD on August 1, 2017 by Paramount Home Entertainment References External links Cast/Crew listing by the New York Times New York Times Review by Manohla Dargis "Anatomy of a Murder: the Unmaking of Suspect Zero, or How to Kill a Movie in a Hollywood Minute" back-story commentary 2004 films American films 2000s English-language films Paramount Pictures films Columbia Pictures films American psychological thriller films 2004 psychological thriller films American police detective films Films shot in New Mexico American vigilante films Paranormal films Cruise/Wagner Productions films Lakeshore Entertainment films Films with screenplays by Zak Penn Films directed by E. Elias Merhige Films scored by Clint Mansell Films with screenplays by Billy Ray Films produced by Tom Rosenberg Films produced by Gary Lucchesi
947144	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah%20Jane%20Smith	Sarah Jane Smith	Sarah Jane Smith is a fictional character played by Elisabeth Sladen in the long-running BBC Television science fiction series Doctor Who and two of its spin-offs. Sarah Jane is a dogged investigative journalist who first encounters alien time traveller The Doctor while trying to break a story on a top secret research facility, and subsequently becomes his travelling companion on a series of adventures spanning the breadth of space and time. After travelling with The Doctor in four seasons of the show they suddenly part ways, and after this she continues to investigate strange goings-on back on Earth. Over time, Sarah Jane establishes herself as a committed defender of Earth from alien invasions and other threats, occasionally reuniting with The Doctor in the course of her own adventures, all the while continuing to work as a freelance investigative journalist. Sarah Jane is one of the Doctor's longest-serving companions, co-starring in 18 stories with the third and fourth incarnations of the Doctor, on the programme from 1973 to 1976 (seasons 11 – 14). She and robotic dog K9 appear in the 1981 television pilot K-9 and Company. She returned in the 20th-anniversary Fifth Doctor story The Five Doctors (1983) and the 30th-anniversary story Dimensions in Time (1993), then co-starred in two BBC radio serials with the Third Doctor (The Paradise of Death and The Ghosts of N-Space), and starred in a series of spin-off audio dramas entitled Sarah Jane Smith for independent production company Big Finish. After the television revival of Doctor Who in 2005, she appears in several episodes with the Tenth Doctor, and as the central character of her own series The Sarah Jane Adventures from 2007 to 2011, which included appearances by both the Tenth and Eleventh Doctors. In April 2020, former Doctor Who showrunner Russell T Davies released an epilogue to Sarah Jane's story on the anniversary of Sladen's death, detailing various characters attending Sarah's funeral. Casting Doctor Who producer Barry Letts offered the part of Sarah Jane to actress April Walker, who accepted the role and was duly contracted by the BBC. During rehearsals for The Time Warrior, it became clear to Jon Pertwee and Letts that the two leads had little rapport and were physically mis-matched (it has been claimed that Pertwee demanded the part be recast, because he said he would not play opposite an actress who was taller than him). Letts therefore released Walker from her contract (though she was still paid in full for season 11). Although committed to not talking about the issue in her release agreement, Walker began to discuss the circumstances surrounding her casting decades later. After giving some written interviews to fanzines, in May 2020 Walker gave an on screen interview to 'Time Space Visualiser' giving much further detail about the circumstances, including revealing later work alongside Pertwee. Walker admitted that although she understood Pertwee's thinking, she told him she would never forgive him for what he had done. Letts began a second batch of auditions and saw Elisabeth Sladen after a recommendation from fellow BBC producer Bill Slater, who had twice cast the actress recently in separate episodes of Z-Cars. Sladen performed her audition alongside actor Stephen Thorne and after impressing Letts, he arranged for her to meet Pertwee before any decisions were made. Pertwee stood behind Sladen and gave a 'thumbs-up' to Letts who then offered her the role. Appearances Television 1973–1976, 1981, 1983; introduction and classic run Sarah Jane first appears in the Third Doctor serial The Time Warrior (1973–74), where she has managed to infiltrate a top secret research facility by posing as her aunt, Lavinia Smith, a famous virologist. Introduced as an ardent feminist, Sarah Jane sneaks aboard the TARDIS and becomes embroiled in a battle against a militaristic alien Sontaran in the Middle Ages who is kidnapping scientists from the present day. Subsequently, she accompanies The Doctor (Jon Pertwee) on several journeys in the TARDIS, and she also assists the United Nations Intelligence Taskforce led by Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart (Nicholas Courtney) on a number of occasions. After Pertwee's departure, Sladen remains following Season 11 finale Planet of the Spiders (1974), in which The Doctor regenerates for the third time. In season 12's consecutive 1975 serials The Sontaran Experiment, Genesis of the Daleks and Revenge of the Cybermen, Sarah and male companion Harry Sullivan (Ian Marter) face the series' three iconic recurring creatures, the Sontarans, the Daleks and the Cybermen. In Genesis Sarah is present at the creation of the Daleks and meets their creator, Davros (Michael Wisher). Sarah Jane departs in the Season 14 serial The Hand of Fear (1976) after The Doctor receives a summons to his home planet, Gallifrey. Sladen has described Sarah as "a bit of a cardboard cut-out. Each week it used to be, 'Yes Doctor, no Doctor'..." Following her tenure as a companion, Sladen reprised the role of Sarah Jane in a pilot episode for an Earth-based spin-off series, K-9 and Company, in 1981. In the pilot episode, titled "A Girl's Best Friend", Sarah Jane receives the robot dog K9 Mark III (John Leeson) as a Christmas present from The Doctor. The pilot did not lead to a series, but the character reappeared in Doctor Who for the 1983 twentieth anniversary story The Five Doctors, in which she is transported to Gallifrey by Lord President Borusa (Philip Latham) to take part in the Game of Rassilon in The Death Zone devised by Time Lord founder Rassilon (Richard Mathews). Here, Sarah is reunited with the Third Doctor, and also meets the First, Second and Fifth. The Five Doctors shows that Sarah Jane still owns and is working with K9. The character made an appearance in the 1993 Children in Need special (a crossover with long-running British soap EastEnders), Dimensions in Time, wherein various Doctors and companions are teleported to Albert Square as part of a plot by the Rani (Kate O'Mara). Though Sladen would not make any more official Doctor Who television appearances until 2006, in the interval the actress reprised her role as Sarah Jane twice on BBC radio with Jon Pertwee, and in a series of Big Finish audio dramas, and in the unofficial direct-to-video spin-off film Downtime (1995) alongside the Brigadier, Second Doctor companion Victoria Waterfield (Deborah Watling) and Leeson in a rare on-screen role. 2006–2011; revived series and spin-off Following Russell T Davies' 2005 Doctor Who revival, Sladen returned to the show in the Series 2 episode "School Reunion" (2006). "School Reunion" revisits Sarah Jane, still working alongside K9 since The Five Doctors, when she encounters the Tenth Doctor (David Tennant) while they both investigate mysterious goings on at a school run by Headmaster Finch (Anthony Head). Exposition in the episode reveals that, having waited years for The Doctor to return to her, Sarah Jane assumed he had died, though later came to suspect his involvement when witnessing the alien spaceship above London in Doctor Who Christmas special "The Christmas Invasion". On meeting Sarah Jane, current companion Rose (Billie Piper) reflects on her future after The Doctor. Though K9 Mark III still assists Sarah Jane, he has fallen into disrepair; after K9 Mark III sacrifices himself to save Sarah Jane and The Doctor, The Doctor leaves Sarah Jane a new K9 model, K9 Mark IV, and takes her advice by inviting Rose's boyfriend Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) aboard the TARDIS as his second companion. The success of "School Reunion" led to the development of The Sarah Jane Adventures, starring Sladen as Sarah Jane, produced by BBC Wales for CBBC. In The Sarah Jane Adventures, Sarah Jane investigates alien activity covertly from her manor house in Bannerman Road in Ealing, driving an emerald green Nissan Figaro and with the help of her sentient supercomputer Mr Smith (voice of comedian Alexander Armstrong), as well as an alien activity scanner and sonic lipstick device. In the special premiere episode "Invasion of the Bane" (2007), Sarah Jane adopts a son: Bane creation, genetic archetype and boy genius Luke Smith (Tommy Knight), and befriends her neighbour Maria Jackson (Yasmin Paige) during her investigation of Bane leader Mrs Wormwood (Samantha Bond). Sarah Jane remarks that since meeting them she is no longer content to live alone; she discloses she never married after parting from the Fourth Doctor, to whom no one could ever compare. Sometime between "School Reunion" and "Invasion of the Bane", K9 has left Sarah Jane to close off a black hole, occasionally passing close enough to contact her; due to the concurrent development of the K-9 television series, to which creator Bob Baker owns the rights, K9 only appears in two episodes of the first series. In the first series, Sarah Jane learns how to be a mother to Luke, the while strengthening her friendship with teenage neighbour Maria, the person Sarah Jane "trusts the most". Along with Luke and his friend Clyde Langer (Daniel Anthony) they defeat and repel various threats to the contemporary Earth. Amongst these threats, series one introduces The Trickster (Paul Marc Davis), a cosmic being who makes alterations to the timeline to cause chaos and destruction; he becomes a recurring adversary for Sarah Jane. Sarah Jane finds a new enemy in the Slitheen, a family of criminal aliens originally seen in Doctor Who, and an ally in alien research scientist Professor Rivers (Floella Benjamin). Time travel scenes also depict 13-year-old Sarah Jane (Jessica Ashworth), for whom the death of her best friend Andrea Yates (Jane Asher) gave Sarah Jane her resolve to fight against loss of life. Sarah Jane then reappears in Doctor Who in the two-part fourth series finale episodes "The Stolen Earth" and "Journey's End" (2008), which crosses over from Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures. When Daleks invade Earth, Sarah Jane is summoned along with UNIT officer Martha Jones (Freema Agyeman) and Torchwood leader Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) by former PM Harriet Jones (Penelope Wilton) to help The Doctor save the universe. On the Dalek ship Davros (Julian Bleach) recognises Sarah Jane from their encounter in the classic series' episode Genesis of the Daleks. In The Sarah Jane Adventures second series (2008), Maria moves away to America in The Last Sontaran, and Sarah Jane befriends new neighbour Rani Chandra (Anjli Mohindra) in The Day of the Clown; the same episode features flashbacks to Sarah Jane's (Jessica Mogridge) childhood in her Aunt Lavinia's home. In The Temptation of Sarah Jane Smith, Sarah Jane saves the lives of her parents, Eddie (Christopher Pizzey) and Barbara (Rosanna Lavelle) in 1951; by doing so she plays into The Trickster's hands, creating a post-apocalyptic alternative universe in the present day. Learning of this however, her parents choose to die, becoming heroes to restore the timeline. In series two finale Enemy of the Bane, Sarah Jane's old friend Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart (Nicholas Courtney) from UNIT assists her against united adversaries Mrs Wormwood and Sontaran Commander Kaagh (Anthony O'Donnell). Sarah Jane feels threatened on a personal level by Mrs Wormwood's claim to be Luke's mother as his creator. Sladen has relatively scarce screen-time in 'Sarah-lite' serial The Mark of the Berserker due to back-to-back filming. Though K9 makes no appearances in series two, he appears to assist Sarah Jane against Ambassador Ranius (Ronnie Corbett) in a mini-episode for Comic Relief (2009). In series three (2009), Sarah Jane makes a new enemy in the body-stealing alien Androvax (Mark Goldthorp) as well as a lukewarm ally in the form of the interplanetary police force, the Judoon (from Doctor Who). In the second two-parter, Sarah Jane is able to recover K9 full-time (reflecting a real-world deal struck with the creators of the children's series K-9). In a crossover with the parent show, Sarah Jane reveals her intention to marry her secret fiancé, barrister Peter Dalton, in The Wedding of Sarah Jane Smith. However, Dalton's involvement in Sarah Jane's life proves to be a scheme of The Trickster. The Doctor gatecrashes the wedding to foil The Trickster's plot to make Sarah Jane give up on alien hunting, and explains to Sarah Jane that The Trickster is a powerful member of the extra-dimensional so-called Pantheon of Discord. The serial clarifies that Sarah Jane owes her independent wealth to her Aunt Lavina's will. In 'Sarah-lite' two-parter Mona Lisa's Revenge, Sarah Jane and Luke have their first argument as he progresses into his teenage years; they argue about the cleanliness of Luke's room. In series finale The Gift, though she is reluctant to use weapons or cause harm, when Luke falls deathly ill for the first time ever due to the machinations of the Blathereen-Slitheen, Sarah Jane takes up arms to confront them. In the episode's conclusion, regretfully she is forced to kill them using Mr Smith. Sarah Jane next appears in the Tenth Doctor two-part Doctor Who finale, "The End of Time", in 2010. When The Doctor is slowly dying from radiation poisoning, he makes timely visits to his close friends and companions; The Doctor saves Luke's life from an oncoming car on Bannerman Road (an inside joke by Russell T Davies commenting on actors' failure to look for cars before crossing the street because traffic is always stopped for them, something that he believes is especially important in a children’s show) and bids a silent farewell to Luke and to Sarah Jane. In the fourth season (2010) of The Sarah Jane Adventures, Sarah Jane sees Luke off to university in the first two-parter of the series, but continues her adventures alongside Rani and Clyde. The trio encounter the Eleventh Doctor (Matt Smith), as well as Sarah Jane's immediate predecessor as The Doctor's companion, Jo Grant (Katy Manning), in Death of the Doctor; aliens known as the Shansheeth fake The Doctor's death as part of a plot to gain access to the TARDIS using Jo and Sarah Jane's memories. The Empty Planet is this series' 'Sarah-lite' serial; with the rest of the population, Sarah Jane mysteriously vanishes, leaving Rani and Clyde to investigate without her. In Lost in Time, Sarah Jane is sent back in time on a mission from the mysterious Shopkeeper (Cyril Nri). Sarah Jane is convinced to retire by an alien plot in the series finale, earning a new nemesis and doppelgänger in Ruby White (Julie Graham); she is saved from Ruby when Luke drives down from university to her rescue. Sladen's death ended the show in the middle of its fifth series, which aired in 2011. In its premiere story, Sarah Jane adopts a new child in the form of Sky Smith (Sinead Michael), a genetically-engineered alien girl with abilities relating to electromagnetism; the Shopkeeper arranged for their encounter, but declines to explain his motives to Sarah Jane. Sarah Jane's final broadcast appearance comes in series five finale The Man Who Never Was. The final story ends with a short montage of archive footage and audio recordings celebrating Sarah Jane's journey from lone investigator to mother of two surrounded by friends. The series ends with the final caption: "And the story goes on... forever." The cast and writers of The Sarah Jane Adventures produced a special 2020 webcast epilogue for the show with a mix of narrated and acted elements entitled "Farewell, Sarah Jane". In the story, Sarah Jane's friends and many past companions of the Doctor return to London to attend her funeral. Literature Sarah Jane appears in several Doctor Who novels and short stories, notably in the Eighth Doctor Adventures novels Interference: Book One and Interference: Book Two by Lawrence Miles; and the Past Doctor Adventures novel Bullet Time by David A. McIntee, all taking place after she stops travelling with The Doctor. She appears in Ian Marter's Harry Sullivan's War published by Target Books; Marter played companion Harry Sullivan in seven television serials. Different accounts of Sarah Jane's life have been given in the Doctor Who literature. Interference and the Virgin New Adventures novel Christmas on a Rational Planet, also by Miles, suggest that Sarah Jane married someone named Paul Morley sometime between 1996 and 1998 and took his name. In the short story "Lily" by Jackie Marshall, in Big Finish's Short Trips: A Christmas Treasury, the Fifth Doctor pays a visit to an older Sarah Jane, who has a daughter, Lauren, and an autistic granddaughter, Lily; Lauren's father is named Will. In the Past Doctor Adventure Bullet Time, Sarah Jane is apparently killed—although the story is ambiguous about whether she actually dies—in 1997 when she sacrifices herself so that she cannot be used as a hostage to stop the Seventh Doctor from taking action to aid an escaping alien ship, contradicting her other spin-off appearances. However, the novel takes place during a story arc where enemies of The Doctor were attempting to eliminate his companions from the Timeline (revealed in the later novel Sometime Never...), and Sarah Jane's death may have been reversed when those enemies are defeated. In any case, other stories have shown her alive after 1997. Sarah Jane was mentioned in the prologue of the Virgin Publishing novelisation of The Power of the Daleks by John Peel. It revealed that Sarah Jane was working as UNIT's official chronicler and that in "1996" she covered the aftermath of the Cybermen's failed attempt to drain Earth of its energy and the technology left behind in their wake (The Tenth Planet, which was actually set in 1986). Stories written as in-universe articles in Doctor Who Magazine Winter Special 1991 (subtitled "UNIT Exposed"), made statements about Sarah Jane's life after leaving the Fourth Doctor. She wrote a history of UNIT, Fighting for Humankind ("heavily vetted and evidently subjected to considerable censorship"), as well as a series of science fiction novels. These featured an extraterrestrial called The Doctor and his companion Nicola Jones, who frequently encountered WIN (World Investigative Network), commanded by General Lutwidge-Douglas. Titles included Day of the Dinosaurs, Sutekh the Destroyer and The North Sea Monster. Another in-universe article was written by Kevin W. Parker, Roving Reporter, which was a biography of Sarah Jane from her childhood to the early 1990s. She grew up with her aunt Lavinia after her parents died in a car crash. She went to Caterham School For Girls and the University of Nottingham. She was engaged to Andrew Lofts, an aspiring television journalist; it didn't last. She ended up working with UNIT; her exact duties were never described. In the spring of 1981, she left UNIT after being hospitalized from an accident in a quarry. Afterwards she developed a romantic relationship with Harry Sullivan; they parted amicably and were still very fond of each other, and were still close friends, even to the time of the article. She wrote science fiction novels World War Skaro and The Monster at the End of Space which made it onto the Times and New York Times bestseller lists. Though there are as yet no original Sarah Jane Adventures novels, many of the television episodes have been novelised. Audio drama Between seasons 13 and 14, Sladen appeared as Sarah Jane, with Tom Baker as the Fourth Doctor, in the audio play The Pescatons, released on LP by The Decca Record Company Limited in 1976. She also appeared with Baker in "The Time Machine", episode three of the BBC Radio 4 series Exploration Earth broadcast on 4 October 1976. Also in 1976 she appeared as Sarah Jane alongside Tom Baker's Doctor in the first ever BBC Enterprises audio spin-off from Doctor Who: a cassette and LP release of an abridged version of Genesis of the Daleks, narrated by Baker. Sarah Jane (played by Sladen) appeared in two BBC Radio plays starring Jon Pertwee as The Doctor in the 1990s: The Paradise of Death and The Ghosts of N-Space. She also appears, voiced by Sladen, in her own range of Big Finish audio dramas, consisting of nine stories released between 2002 and 2006. This series came to an unexpected end when the character was given her own television series, The Sarah Jane Adventures, detailed above. There are loose allusions to the audio series in the television series, including Sarah Jane's ownership of a Volkswagen. Sarah Jane appears in two audio stories based on The Sarah Jane Adventures, released in November 2007 on CD: The Glittering Storm by Stephen Cole and The Thirteenth Stone by Justin Richards, with both stories read by series star Elisabeth Sladen. This is the first time that BBC Audiobooks have commissioned new content for exclusive release on audio. Further pairs of audio stories were released every year until 2010, again all read by Sladen. In 2011, two audio stories were read by Daniel Anthony and Anjii Mohindra. Sladen's daughter Sadie Miller took over the role of Sarah Jane Smith for Big Finish audio dramas in 2021, first in Return of the Cybermen in March, a reworking of Gerry Davis' 1974 original script which was eventually filmed as Revenge of the Cybermen, with Tom Baker as the fourth Doctor; and then in The Third Doctor Adventures in May, with Tim Treloar as the third Doctor. The canonicity of Sarah Jane's appearances in the audio dramas is, like all Doctor Who spin-off media, unclear, and they may not even take place in the same continuity as one another. For example, the novels' mention of Sarah Jane as having been married is contradicted by the later Sarah Jane Smith audio play Dreamland, and the Sarah Jane Adventures episode "Invasion of the Bane". Reception, impact and legacy Sarah Jane Smith was consistently voted the most popular Doctor Who companion until the advent of the new series in 2005. Even in more recent times the character has continued to vie in popularity with Rose Tyler, Donna Noble, and Ace. Sladen felt that part of her popularity was working alongside Pertwee and Baker, who were popular Doctors. Daniel Martin of The Guardian named her the best companion in 2007, writing that her "jolly-hockey-sticks good nature" made her so beloved. The Daily Telegraph Gavin Fuller also ranked Sarah Jane number one, praising Sladen's portrayal and saying that she displayed "great determination and bravery". In 2012, Toby Whithouse, who wrote Sarah Jane's return to the series in "School Reunion", said she was his favourite companion from the classic series. Concerning the impact of the character, he said: References External links Sarah Jane Smith on the BBC's Doctor Who website ("New Series") Sarah Jane Smith on the BBC's Doctor Who website ("Classic Series") Online TV Interview on Liverpool Reporter hosted by Jonathan Thompson with Elisabeth Sladen in 2006 BBC Norfolk Kids: The Sarah Jane Adventures BBC Norfolk: Interview with Elisabeth Sladen regarding Sarah Jane Smith Doctor Who companions Female characters in television Television characters introduced in 1973 Fictional orphans Fictional people from London Fictional reporters Recurring characters in Doctor Who The Sarah Jane Adventures characters UNIT Fictional British people Fictional journalists and mass media people
954394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Allen	Martin Allen	Martin James Allen (born 14 August 1965) is an English football manager and former player. He played more than 100 games as a midfielder for both Queens Park Rangers and West Ham United before finishing his playing career with Portsmouth and Southend United. Five years later, he took his first job in management, at non-league Barnet. He has since managed Brentford, Milton Keynes Dons, Leicester City, Cheltenham Town and Notts County. He rejoined Barnet as manager on 16 April 2012 on a short-term, three-match contract succeeding Lawrie Sanchez. In July 2012 he became manager of Gillingham and in the 2012–13 season led the team to the Football League Two title, earning Allen his first promotion as a manager and Gillingham's first divisional title in 49 years. He was sacked as Gillingham manager in October 2013. Allen rejoined Barnet for a fourth spell in 2014, leading the Bees back into League Two before dropping divisions to join Eastleigh in December 2016, a role he held only until the following February. Playing career Often referred to by his nickname of "Mad Dog", Allen began his career with Queens Park Rangers, signing professional in 1983 and spending six years at Loftus Road playing in the 1986 League Cup Final defeat against Oxford United, before a £670,000 move to West Ham United. Signed by manager Lou Macari, Allen made his debut on 26 August 1989 in a 3–2 home win against Plymouth Argyle. He scored the second goal, the other West Ham goals coming from David Kelly and Kevin Keen. Under manager Billy Bonds Allen was part of the team which won promotion to the First Division in 1991 and to the Premier League in 1993. Allen was frequently booked during his West Ham career and had a reputation for poor discipline. He was sent off in a match on 17 January 1990 for a two-footed lunge on Derby County's Mark Patterson. During a game on 30 November 1991 against Sheffield Wednesday, managed by Allen's manager at Queens Park Rangers, Trevor Francis, Allen was booked after only 20 seconds of being on the pitch for a jump tackle on Carlton Palmer which saw Palmer carried off with a suspected broken leg. Although not sent-off, West Ham manager Bonds fined Allen a week's wages. During his time at Queens Park Rangers Allen had been refused permission, by manager Francis, to attend the birth of his first child as Allen would miss an important match. Allen attended the birth and was disciplined by the club. Under Bonds and Harry Redknapp Allen formed a successful partnership with Peter Butler with Allen contributing 34 goals from midfield in 234 appearances. However, by 1995 team discipline was poor at West Ham and with Allen playing alongside Julian Dicks, John Moncur and Don Hutchison bookings were commonplace. Allen was again dismissed in a match against Queens Park Rangers on 3 May 1995 after fouling Rufus Brevett. He would play only five more games before being allowed to leave. Allen stayed with the Hammers until September 1995 when he made a £500,000 switch to Portsmouth after a successful loan spell at Fratton Park. After three frustrating years with Pompey, which took in a brief loan stint at Southend United, he retired and began a coaching career. Management career Reading Allen began his management career as an assistant manager at hometown club Reading, where he joined Alan Pardew when the Royals were in the relegation zone. The team produced championship form in their closing 20 fixtures, winning 12 and drawing 4 to secure a top 10 finish. Two years later they won promotion to Division One. Barnet Allen's first full manager role was at Conference side Barnet, from March 2003 to March 2004. He succeeded from Peter Shreeves, to whom he was assistant manager from March 2002. Allen built a team from scratch in pre-season of the 2003–04 campaign. The team shot straight to the top end of the table, however Allen left for Brentford with a few weeks of the season remaining in a move that disappointed many Barnet fans. Under the guidance of new manager Paul Fairclough, the Bees made the play-offs but were beaten in the semi-finals by Shrewsbury Town. Brentford Allen took over from Wally Downes at Second Division side Brentford in March 2004. He had a good run at the club, saving them from relegation to the Third Division in what remained of the 2003–04 season. In the 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons he took Brentford to the play-offs with fourth and third-place finishes respectively, but they were eliminated by Sheffield Wednesday and Swansea City respectively in the semi-finals on both occasions. Allen won press attention during the 2004–05 season for the success of his self-described "two bob team", which was composed of ageing pros (John Salako, Andy Myers, Scott Fitzgerald and Jamie Lawrence), free transfers (Deon Burton, Chris Hargreaves, Stewart Talbot and Isaiah Rankin) and young guns who would go on to play in the Premier League (Jay Tabb, Stephen Hunt, Sam Sodje and Michael Turner). Allen took Brentford to the fifth round of the FA Cup in two consecutive years, going out to Premier League sides Southampton in the 2004–05 season (losing 3–1 in a replay, after a 2–2 draw at St Mary's) and Charlton Athletic 3–1 in the 2005–06 season. He also was in charge of one of the major giant killings in the fourth round in the 2005–06 season, beating Premier League side Sunderland 2–1. At Brentford, he proved to be a very popular manager with the fans and an object of curiosity to opponents and media alike due to his unconventional managerial methods, which paid off due to the relative success Brentford had under him on a limited budget. He participated in a 25-mile sponsored bike ride in November 2005 to raise funds for Brentford. To inspire the team, Allen swam in the Tees before a 1–0 FA Cup fourth round replay victory over Hartlepool United in February 2005 and jumped naked into the Solent before Brentford's 2–2 draw at Southampton in the following round. In May 2006, Allen announced his resignation as manager of Brentford, citing lack of Board commitment to investing in the team to take it to the next level. In July 2006 he completed his UEFA Pro Licence in coaching. With the club struggling in League One in late 2010, there was speculation that Allen would replace Andy Scott as manager, but the reports were quashed by Brentford chief executive Andrew Mills. Milton Keynes Dons Allen then dropped down a level to manage League Two team Milton Keynes Dons for the 2006–07 season, a club with heavy financial backing and ambitions from owner Pete Winkelman, albeit one that had been in severe decline for the past few years and had dropped from the Championship to League Two in three seasons. Allen managed to arrest the club's decline and took his team to the play-offs, but lost in the semi-finals to Shrewsbury Town. Leicester City In May 2007, Allen became the new manager at Championship side Leicester City, after Leicester and Milton Keynes Dons had negotiated a compensation package. In August 2007, striker Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink agreed contract terms with Leicester and chairman Milan Mandarić invited him to undergo a medical at Leicester. But when Hasselbaink arrived in Leicester on 13 August, Allen told him that the medical was no longer going take place. Six days later, Mandarić confirmed an interest in striker Derek Riordan, who was lacking first team football at Celtic. However, Allen refused to make an offer for Riordan, which further aggravated Mandarić. Relations with chairman Milan Mandarić quickly deteriorated and his contract was terminated by mutual consent on 29 August 2007 after just four games in charge. After leaving Leicester, Allen declared his interest in managing Swindon Town, which eventually went to Maurice Malpas. Cheltenham Town Allen was appointed as manager of Cheltenham Town on 15 September 2008, on a three-year contract. His father, Dennis, had been manager at Whaddon Road between 1974 and 1979. With financial difficulties hitting the club and an increasingly troubled dressing room atmosphere, the entire Cheltenham squad were put up for sale. Allen allowed key players to leave mid-season either on loan or for reduced prices, contributing to a run of results which left Cheltenham near the foot of the League Two table. On 20 October 2009 and amidst poor results on the pitch, Allen was suspended by Cheltenham Town and placed on gardening leave pending an internal investigation into allegations that he racially abused a nightclub bouncer. In November Gloucestershire police announced that no action would be taken against Allen concerning the alleged nightclub incident. He remained on leave whilst Cheltenham Town considered his future at the club. On 11 December it was announced he had left the club. In January 2010 he was appointed part-time scout for Queens Park Rangers. Return to Barnet On 23 March 2011, Allen returned to his first managerial club, Barnet, until the end of the 2010–11 season. He was working on an eight-game contract but left after only three games, in which Barnet were unbeaten, to take charge of Notts County. Notts County Allen took charge of Notts County on 11 April 2011 signing a one-year rolling contract. Notts County won eight points out of the seven games Allen was in charge of at the end of the 2010–11 season, enough for them to avoid relegation. Allen was named League One Manager of the Month in September 2011 after leading the team to four wins and a draw in the league. Allen was sacked by Notts County on 18 February 2012. Third spell at Barnet Allen was appointed caretaker manager of Barnet on 16 April 2012 for the last three games of the 2011–12 season, replacing Lawrie Sanchez. Barnet managed two wins under Allen's managership, finished 22nd and avoided relegation from League Two with a 2–1 win on 5 May 2012 on the last day of the season, against Burton Albion. Following the end of the season, Allen's contract ended. Gillingham On 5 July 2012, Allen was appointed manager of Gillingham signing a two-year contract. His first match as Gillingham manager came on 14 August 2012, a 2–1 away win against Bristol City in the League Cup. While at Gillingham, Allen oversaw the Kent side's best ever start to a league season. He also broke the club record for most away wins in a football league season with a 1–0 win over Chesterfield, the eleventh of the season on 23 February 2013. On 6 April 2013 Gillingham secured promotion to League One, Allen's first ever promotion in his career as a manager. They secured the League Two title with a 2–2 draw against AFC Wimbledon at Priestfield on 20 April. On 20 May 2013, Allen was crowned League 2 Manager of the Year by the LMA for his achievements with the club. Allen was sacked by Gillingham in October 2013 after sixteen months in charge. Gillingham had won just two games from eleven played on their return to League One. Fourth spell at Barnet Allen was appointed head coach of Barnet on 19 March 2014 until the end of the 2014–15 season, marking his fourth spell at the club. He coached them to the 2014–15 Football Conference championship on 25 April 2015 to secure promotion to League Two. Barnet comfortably avoided relegation in their first season back in League Two, finishing 15th. However, despite the Bees starting the 2016–17 season just outside the play-off zone in 8th place, Allen made an unexpected request to terminate his contract to join National League side Eastleigh. The request was granted on 1 December 2016. Eastleigh On 1 December 2016, Eastleigh had confirmed that Allen had joined up with them taking the Manager's position previously help by Ronnie Moore. His first game incharge was in the FA Cup against Halifax Town which ended 3–3. This required a replay in which Eastleigh went away to Halifax and won 2–0. For the third round of the FA Cup Allen and Eastleigh were drawn an away match against Brentford. BBCs Football Focus interviewed Allen in the lead up to the game and he revealed he almost quit football due to health problems while suffering from stress at Barnet. Eastleigh lost their game against Brentford 5–1. Allen was fired by Eastleigh on 22 February 2017 after only winning two of his 14 games in charge. Fifth spell at Barnet On 19 March 2018, the departure of Graham Westley and the return of Allen as manager of Barnet was announced. On 10 May 2018, it was announced that Allen had left the club, following relegation from the Football League. Chesterfield Less than a week after leaving Barnet, Allen was appointed manager of Chesterfield, who themselves had seen relegation from the Football League at the end of the 2017–18 season. Allen was sacked on 27 December 2018, with the club sitting third bottom of the National League table. Managerial statistics Honours As a player Queens Park Rangers Football League Cup runner-up: 1986 West Ham United Football League Second Division runner-up: 1990–91 As a manager Brentford Supporters Direct Cup (1): 2004 Gillingham Football League Two (1): 2012–13 Barnet Conference Premier (1): 2014–15 As an individual League One Manager of the Month (3): September 2004, February 2006, September 2011 League Two Manager of the Month (2): August 2012, January 2013 League Two Manager of the Season 2012–13 BBC Radio London Sports Personality of the Year (1): 2005 Family His cousins, Paul Allen, Bradley Allen and Clive Allen, were also footballers, as was his uncle Les Allen. His father, Dennis, played for Reading, Charlton Athletic and Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic. His son Charlie Allen played under his management at several clubs and now plays for Farnborough. His nephew Harry Grant played professionally, and Harry's brother Freddie trained with Oxford United's youth team before being released by the club. Business career Having run his own soccer schools programme across 13 towns while still playing professionally. Allen, a UEFA Pro Licence holder and a graduate of the LMA's Certificate in Applied Management at Warwick University, created the company Pro FC which finds young people with the potential to become footballers. He is also non-exec director of the football charity, Coaching for Hope. Journalism In December 2013 Allen began writing for the Daily Mail. His column, "Mad Dog on Monday", is published online via the Daily Mail's website, Mail Online Sport.'' References External links Martin Allen at westhamstats.info 1965 births Living people Sportspeople from Reading, Berkshire English footballers England under-21 international footballers Association football midfielders Queens Park Rangers F.C. players West Ham United F.C. players Portsmouth F.C. players Southend United F.C. players Premier League players English Football League players English football managers Barnet F.C. managers Brentford F.C. managers Milton Keynes Dons F.C. managers Leicester City F.C. managers Cheltenham Town F.C. managers Notts County F.C. managers Gillingham F.C. managers Eastleigh F.C. managers Chesterfield F.C. managers English Football League managers National League (English football) managers Daily Mail journalists Alumni of the University of Warwick Martin Footballers from Berkshire
960364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20T.%20King	Peter T. King	Peter Thomas King (born April 5, 1944) is a former American politician who represented New York in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1993 to 2021. A member of the Republican Party, he represented a South Shore Long Island district that includes parts of Nassau County and Suffolk County and was numbered as the 3rd and later the 2nd district. King was formerly Chair of the House Committee on Homeland Security, where he drew attention in early 2011 for holding hearings on the extent of radicalization of American Muslims. He stepped down because of Republican conference term limits, but remained a member of the Committee. On November 11, 2019, King announced he would not seek re-election in the 2020 elections and would retire after his current term expired. He resigned from the Financial Services Committee on January 15, 2020. King also previously served on the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. Early life, family, education and military career King was born in the New York City borough of Manhattan and raised in the Sunnyside neighborhood in nearby Queens. He is the son of Ethel M. King (née Gittins) and Peter E. King, a New York City police officer. His paternal grandparents were Irish immigrants from the island of Inishbofin in County Galway. His maternal grandfather was Welsh, and his maternal grandmother was also Irish, from County Limerick. He graduated from St. Francis College in 1965 with a B.A. in Political Science, and earned his J.D. from Notre Dame Law School in 1968. That same year, he began service in the 165th Infantry Regiment of the New York Army National Guard. He worked for the Nassau County District Attorney's Office until 1974, when he was honorably discharged from the 165th Infantry Regiment. King and his wife, Rosemary, reside in Seaford, New York, and have two adult children. His daughter, Erin King Sweeney, served on the town council for Hempstead, New York. Political career King first sought public office in 1977, running for an at-large seat on the Hempstead, New York Town Council and winning with the backing of the then-powerful Nassau County Republican Party machine led by Joseph Margiotta. In 1981, he successfully ran for Nassau County Comptroller, again with Margiotta's support. The next year, when several prominent Republican politicians, led by then Senator Alfonse D'Amato, sought to displace Margiotta, King joined them in this internal Republican dispute; at one point, he was the only Nassau politician to do so. King was re-elected in 1985 and 1989. As Comptroller, he displayed independence, often criticizing the budget proposals of County Executives Francis Purcell and later County Executive Thomas Gulotta, both Republicans. King ran for Attorney General of New York in 1986, and won the Republican primary after Ulster County District Attorney E. Michael Kavanagh dropped out to run for Lieutenant Governor. However, he was defeated by a large margin by incumbent Democratic Attorney General Robert Abrams. King was first elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1992. When Democratic Party Rep. Robert Mrazek announced his short-lived 1992 U.S. Senate candidacy against Republican incumbent Al D'Amato, King ran for the Third District congressional seat that had been held by Mrazek. Despite being outspent 5-to-1, King won 49.6% to 46.5%. From 1993 to 2008, he sometimes faced only token opposition, while in other races, he ran against candidates who could self-finance their campaigns. Although King was outspent in those races, he won by double-digit margins. In 2006, Nassau County Legislator Dave Mejias challenged King. While some pundits believed this race would be close due to dissatisfaction with President George W. Bush, King defeated Mejias 56% to 44%. King again sought re-election to Congress in 2008. The Democrats fielded 25-year-old newcomer Graham Long in a long-shot bid to defeat King. King won the 2008 election with 64% of the vote. In 2013, St. John's University honored King with a Doctor of Laws degree, and he gave their commencement address. He was recognized for assisting New York City following Hurricane Sandy. Potential bids for U.S. Senate and Presidency King had contemplated running for Senate in 2000 against Hillary Clinton, and even created an exploratory committee in 2003 to challenge Chuck Schumer. On both occasions he ultimately decided not to pursue the challenge. After briefly contemplating running for Governor of New York in 2010, King announced that he was seriously considering running for U.S. Senate in a special election for the last two years of the term won in 2006 by Hillary Clinton, who had been appointed Secretary of State. When Kirsten Gillibrand, the representative of New York's 20th congressional district, was appointed to fill the seat by Governor David Paterson, King initially said he would consider holding off on making a run for the seat. However, two days after the Gillibrand pick, King demanded Paterson justify his selection of the congresswoman, saying there were more qualified candidates. In August 2009, King ruled out a Senate run; however, in January 2010, he said he was reconsidering a run. King ultimately decided to run for re-election, which he won with 72% of the vote. During a 2013 radio interview in New Hampshire, King said that he was in the state "because right now I'm running for President," for the 2016 election. However, during a March 2014 CNN interview, King said he was considering running, not actively running. In a July 2015 interview with Wolf Blitzer on CNN, King announced he would not be running for president. King had earlier characterized a potential candidacy as being opposed to potential Tea Party movement candidates such as Rand Paul and Ted Cruz, whom he criticized for their national defense policies. He later opposed Republican efforts to tie the repeal of delay of the Affordable Care Act to a continuing resolution before and during the 2013 government shutdown. Political positions and statements King was ranked as the most bipartisan member of the U.S. House of Representatives during the 114th United States Congress in the Bipartisan Index created by The Lugar Center and the McCourt School of Public Policy that ranks members of the U.S. Congress by the frequency by which each member's bills attract co-sponsors from the opposite party and each member's co-sponsorship of bills by members of the opposite party. He was a member of the Republican Main Street Partnership. In 2010, when Charles Rangel of New York was censured for ethical violations, King, along with Alaska Representative Don Young, were the only two Republicans voting against. Although he supported John McCain for president in 2000, and despite his earlier disagreements with George W. Bush, King later became a Bush supporter. He opposed McCain's calls for an end to coercive interrogation methods used with suspected terrorists, as well as the senator's 2007 effort to enact a path to citizenship for current undocumented immigrants. On April 19, 2016, King stated that he would take cyanide should Ted Cruz ever win the Republican nomination for president, stating: The animosity stemmed from the Texas senator not supporting a 9/11-related health care bill for police and firefighters and a statement that New York values are socially liberal. King, like all 195 Republican members of the House present, voted against both articles of impeachment against President Donald Trump. Economy King voted for the 2008 Wall Street bailout, saying it was "necessary for the financial health of New York and his district." He opposed the 2009 economic stimulus package. King was one of five New York Republicans in the House to vote against the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. He voted against it due to the $10,000 cap the bill would impose on the deductibility of state, local, and property taxes and the impact that would have in New York, a high-tax state. Upon the possibility of a second round of cuts, King reiterated he would be "forced to oppose" more tax cuts if legislation included a provision "permanently extending the $10,000 cap on the state and local tax (SALT) deduction". Only twelve Republican members of Congress in total voted against the bill. Labor issues King was considered a pro-union Republican. At times, King was highly critical of his party's leadership for being, in his view, "anti-union." During his time in Congress, King's voting record was significantly more pro-labor than most members of his party. In 2019, the AFL-CIO gave King a score of 55%; compared to a House Republican average of 31% for that same year. King holds a lifetime score of 54%. 2019 marked the first time since 2010 (when King scored the GOP average of 7%) that King's score was not at least double the Republican average. Guns King is pro-gun control. He cites his support of gun control based on his experiences in New York, "Virtually every time there's a murder in New York, the gun tracked comes from another state," he states, expressing that without stricter gun control, people in New York will get killed. King supports banning individuals on the terrorist watch list from purchasing guns. He also supports the banning of bump stocks, in the wake of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting. He describes the banning of bump stocks as being "morally, legally, and common sense-wise the right thing to do." King supports expanding background checks for commercial gun sales (including at gun shows), and co-sponsored a bipartisan bill on this issue with Mike Thompson in 2013. The National Rifle Association gave King a lifetime rating of D. Health care On May 4, 2017, King voted in favor of repealing the Affordable Care Act and replacing it with the American Health Care Act. House Intelligence Committee King was a member of the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence. In 2018, he voted to release the Nunes memo, written by Committee staff at the request of Republican Committee Chairman U.S. Representative Devin Nunes, over the objections of senior FBI leaders and all Democratic members of the committee. The memo states that the FBI "may have relied on politically motivated or questionable sources" to obtain a Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) warrant on Trump adviser Carter Page in October 2016, and in three subsequent renewals, during the early phases of the FBI's investigation into possible Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. At the time President Trump asserted that the memo discredited the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. The FBI was asserted that "material omissions of fact ... fundamentally impact the memo's accuracy." Irish republicanism and the IRA King began actively supporting the Irish republican movement in the late 1970s. He frequently traveled to Northern Ireland to meet with senior members of the paramilitary group, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), many of whom he counted as friends. King compared Gerry Adams, the leader of Sinn Féin, the political wing of the Irish republican movement, to George Washington, and said that the "British government is a murder machine". King met Adams in person in 1984. King became involved with Irish Northern Aid (NORAID), an organization that the British, Irish, and U.S. governments had accused of financing IRA activities and providing them with weapons. Regarding the IRA's violent campaign against British rule in Northern Ireland, King said, "If civilians are killed in an attack on a military installation, it is certainly regrettable, but I will not morally blame the IRA for it." King called the IRA "the legitimate voice of occupied Ireland". Speaking at a pro-IRA rally in 1982 in Nassau County, New York, King pledged support to "those brave men and women who this very moment are carrying forth the struggle against British imperialism in the streets of Belfast and Derry." In 1985, the Irish government boycotted New York's annual St. Patrick's Day celebrations in protest over King serving as Grand Marshal of the event; the Irish government condemned him as an "avowed" supporter of "IRA terrorism". At the parade he again offered words of support for the IRA. During the murder trial of an IRA member in the 1980s, a judge in Northern Ireland ejected King from the courtroom, describing King as "an obvious collaborator with the IRA". In 1993, King lobbied unsuccessfully for Gerry Adams to be a guest at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton. King was a go-between during the Northern Ireland peace process, and has said the IRA was a "legitimate force that had to be recognized" to have peace. In 2002, King denounced congressional investigation of the IRA-FARC links in the Colombia Three case. Although disgruntled by Sinn Féin's opposition to the 2003 United States invasion of Iraq, King supported bail in 2008 for an IRA Maze escapee, Pól Brennan. Brennan was facing charges for illegally entering the U.S. and was deported to the Republic of Ireland in April 2009. In a 2005 interview, King said he had "cooled on Ireland", blaming an epidemic of what he called "knee-jerk anti-Americanism" that swept through Ireland after the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq. "I don't buy that it's just anti-Bush. There's a certain unpleasant trait that the Irish have, and it's begrudgery ... and resentment towards the Americans." King said he had turned down an offer from the Obama administration to be the US ambassador to Ireland in 2009. At a September 2011 hearing conducted by the UK Parliament's Home Affairs Select Committee as part of its "Roots of Violent Radicalisation" inquiry, King defended his 1985 "If civilians are killed" remarks and extolled his role in the peace process as an "honest mediator". His office cited Congressional Research Service and House of Commons researchers noting that King became the first member of Congress to testify before a UK parliamentary hearing. In 2011, King said that his ties to the IRA had been "entirely distorted", arguing that if the accusations were true then "I doubt the president of the United States would have offered me the position of ambassador to Ireland." Islam During the 1990s, King enjoyed a close relationship with the Muslim community in his congressional district. King often gave speeches at the Westbury Islamic Center, held book signings in the prayer hall, hired Muslim interns, and was one of the few Republicans who supported U.S. intervention in the 1990s to help Muslims in Bosnia and Kosovo. The Muslim community thanked King for his work by making him the guest of honor for the 1993 opening of a $3 million prayer hall. For years, a picture of King cutting the ceremonial ribbon hung on the bulletin board by the mosque's entrance. In a September 2007 interview with the website Politico.com, King said "There are too many mosques in this country ... There are too many people sympathetic to radical Islam. We should be looking at them more carefully and finding out how we can infiltrate them." King later said he meant to say that too many mosques in the United States do not cooperate with law enforcement. National security King supported the Iraq War. King supported President Barack Obama's order to kill Osama bin Laden, saying that he knew it was a "tough decision" to make in the situation room. He also approved of Obama's surprise trip to Afghanistan in May 2012. The New York Times wrote in 2006 that King had been "the Patriot Act's most fervent fan." In 2008, King told the Times, "Look, we have not been attacked in seven years and it's not because of luck." King opposed Obama's executive order to close the Guantanamo Bay detention camp. Since 2009, King has argued against holding terrorist trials in New York City, saying that enormous security risks and financial costs would accompany the public trials. In April 2011, he called for Attorney General Eric Holder to resign due to Holder's plans to transfer Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and four other alleged co-conspirators in the September 11, 2001, attacks from Guantanamo to New York City for trials in U.S. federal court. King denounced Holder's plan "as the most irresponsible decision ever made by any attorney general." King continued to challenge Holder in April 2011, demanding to know why the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), its co-founder Omar Ahmad, the Islamic Society of North America, the North American Islamic Trust, and other unindicted "co-conspirators" in the Holy Land Foundation "terrorism financing" trial, were not being prosecuted by the United States Department of Justice. In a letter to Holder, King wrote he had recently learned that the decision had been made by high-ranking Justice Department officials "over the vehement and stated objections of special agents and supervisors of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, as well as the prosecutors at the U.S. Attorney's Office in Dallas", adding that "there should be full transparency into the Department's decision." Holder responded that the decision not to prosecute had been made during the Bush administration. The U.S. Attorney in Dallas said he alone had been responsible for the decision, which had been made based on an analysis of the law and the evidence, with no political pressure involved. In December 2009, King commented on reports that accused attempted airline bomber, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, had admitted to being trained and equipped in Yemen and on then pending plans to release several Guantanamo prisoners to Yemen: "I don't think Guantanamo should be closed, but if we're going to close it I don't believe we should be sending people to Yemen where prisoners have managed to escape in the past . ... Obviously, if [Abdulmutallab] did get training and direction from Yemen, it just adds to what is already a dangerous situation", he said. King criticized the activities of WikiLeaks and in December 2010 suggested that the group be designated a "terrorist organization" and treated as such by U.S. agencies. In 2011, King became a co-sponsor of the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA). He praised President Obama's nominations of Leon Panetta for United States Secretary of Defense and General David Petraeus for Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, saying, "Director Panetta has done an outstanding job at the CIA, and General Petraeus has distinguished himself as one of the great American military leaders. Both men ... will be instrumental as we continue to combat the terrorist threat." On June 11, 2013, King stated that Edward Snowden should be punished for releasing classified information to the American public, and added that journalists Glenn Greenwald and Laura Poitras should also be punished for publishing classified documents provided by Snowden. On June 12, 2013, on Fox News, King called for prosecution of Greenwald, alleging that the journalist was said to be in possession of names of CIA agents around the world and would be "threatening to disclose" them. Via Twitter, Greenwald immediately refuted King's claim and called it a "blatant lie". King suggested in 2014 that "foreign policy was not a major issue" for President Obama, as he had worn a light tan suit in August in Washington the day before. He also said that "There's no way any of us can excuse what the president did yesterday" in reference to wearing the light tan suit as he addressed the media. King and Congressman Bill Pascrell (D-NJ) asked Congress on March 11, 2015, to make anthrax vaccines that are about to expire and otherwise would be disposed of available to emergency responders. They made their request in a letter to fellow members of Congress shortly after King introduced the bill (H.R. 1300) on March 4, 2015. King previously introduced the bill in September 2014, but it was not enacted. King supported President Donald Trump's 2017 executive order to temporarily curtail immigration to the United States from some Muslim-majority countries until better screening methods are devised. He stated that "I don't think the Constitution applies to people coming in from outside the country, especially if there is a logical basis for it." Radicalization hearings In December 2010, King announced that, when he became Chairman of the House Homeland Security Committee, he would hold hearings on the alleged radicalization of some American Muslims. While allowing that, "The overwhelming majority of Muslims are outstanding citizens," he claimed some Islamic clerics were telling their congregations to ignore extremism and to refrain from helping government investigators. King cited Justice Department statistics showing that, over the previous two years, 50 U.S. citizens had been charged with major acts of terrorism and that all were motivated by radical Islamic ideologies. The first hearing, held on March 10, 2011, was entitled "The Extent of Radicalization in the American Muslim Community and that Community's Response." The hearing included testimony from Representative John D. Dingell of Michigan, Representative Keith Ellison of Minnesota, who was one of two Muslims in the U.S. Congress at the time, Representative Frank Wolf (R-VA), and Los Angeles County Sheriff Leroy Baca. Others to provide testimony included Dr. M Zuhdi Jasser, a secular Muslim and Founder of the American Islamic Forum for Democracy; Melvin Bledsoe, whose son Abdulhakim Mujahid Muhammad, a Muslim convert, is serving a life sentence for killing a soldier and wounding another in the 2009 Little Rock recruiting office shooting; and Abdirizak Bihi, the Director of the Somali Education and Social Advocacy Center. The Council on American Islamic Relations submitted a statement to the committee. In an article for the National Review, King announced that his second and third Homeland Security Committee hearings on radicalization would focus on foreign money coming into American mosques and al Shabab's efforts to recruit young Muslim men in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The second hearing was set for mid-May while the third was tentatively scheduled for July. King stated he would continue to hold radicalization hearings as long as he is chairman of the House Homeland Security Committee. Reactions Bennie Thompson (D-MS), the ranking Democrat on the Homeland Security Committee, responded by saying that "none of these law enforcement and intelligence officials have backed King's assertions that the Muslim community has not been helpful in thwarting terrorist attacks." Thompson wrote King, demanding that the scope of the hearings be widened to include all extremist groups in the United States, irrespective of ideology or religion. Los Angeles County Sheriff Lee Baca said there was nothing to support King's claims of non-cooperation by American Muslims, and invited King to Los Angeles to show the reported cooperation between Muslim-Americans and federal law enforcement. The Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC), in a letter to King, claimed that his call was sweeping and misguided and called for a meeting with him to discuss his initiatives, the proposed hearings, and the efforts of the Muslim American community to fight radicalization. The Council on American Islamic Relations joined fifty other activist and Human Rights organizations, including Amnesty International, the Sikh Coalition, the Japanese American Citizens League and Unitarian Universalist Service Committee in signing a letter to Speaker of the House John Boehner (R-OH) and Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi (D-CA), comparing the hearings to those held by Senator Joe McCarthy in the 1950s and calling them "divisive and wrong", and "an affront to fundamental [American] freedoms" Seema Jilani, a freelance journalist writing an opinion piece in The Guardian, described King as "America's new McCarthy", who was instigating "a bigoted witchhunt." Jay Sekulow, Chief Counsel for the conservative religious organization American Center for Law and Justice (ACLJ), which opposed the building of the Park51 Community Center, declared his support for King and the hearings and remarked, "This hearing isn't about profiling — it's about protecting our homeland." Frank Gaffney, founder and president of the American Center for Security Policy, praised King for holding a hearing "about an issue that has long been deemed politically untouchable" and opined that King had indeed shown there is "a problem of 'extremism' within the American Muslim community." Several members of Congress, including Representatives Mike Rogers and Joe Walsh, wrote letters of support for King's hearings. Rogers wrote that radicalization could happen anywhere in the United States, and thus it is an issue all Americans have to deal with. Walsh added that "Homegrown terrorists are the number one threat facing American families right now, and it would be irresponsible and negligent not to try and identify the causes of their radicalization." Social issues LGBT rights In the 114th Congress, King had a score of 4 out of 100 from the Human Rights Campaign for his voting record on LGBT rights issues. He does not support same-sex marriage and opposed the Supreme Court taking on the landmark Obergefell v. Hodges case. Abortion King identifies as "pro-life." While in Congress, King consistently received a score of 0%, from NARAL-Pro Choice America, an abortion rights organization. When asked at the Republican National Convention in 2012, King said, "[The] main purpose of government is to protect innocent life, no matter where that life is." In the same interview, King said a woman should not be punished for getting an abortion but doctors who perform the procedure should be. Marijuana King had a "C" rating from NORML regarding his voting record on cannabis-related matters. He has twice voted against providing veterans access to medical marijuana via the Veterans Health Administration. Criticism of Occupy Wall Street King was harshly critical of the Occupy Wall Street movement from the beginning; commenting on October 7, 2011: King supported Mayor Bloomberg's decision to have the NYPD forcibly evict the Occupy protestors from Manhattan's Zuccotti Park; calling them, "low life dirtbags" and "losers", who "live in dirt." Bloomberg received widespread bipartisan support for the removal. Noteworthy statements On July 5, 2009, shortly after the death of Michael Jackson, King made a video statement chiding the media for its coverage of Jackson's death: King's statement generated national media coverage. In reaction to the controversy, King said, "I believe I'm articulating the views of a great majority of the American people". Responding to the 2014 death of Eric Garner by police, King said, "If he had not had asthma, and a heart condition, and was so obese, almost definitely he would not have died from this." In the wake of the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, King posted on Facebook that it was a "vicious Islamic terrorist attack" and said the "Islamic threat to the United States is greater than at any time since 9/11." He proceeded to then critique "leftwing editors at the New York Times and the liberal ideologies" of the American Civil Liberties Union, saying both the newspaper and the organization were attempting to "intimidate" critics of radical Islam. On May 26, 2018, responding to the owner of the New York Jets supporting the right of National Football League players to kneel in protest during the national anthem, King likened the protest to that of "Nazi salutes" Committee assignments King's committee assignments for the 116th United States Congress: Committee on Homeland Security Subcommittee on Counterterrorism and Intelligence (Ranking Member) Subcommittee on Emergency Preparedness, Response, and Communications King was a member of the House Baltic Caucus, the Congressional NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus and the Climate Solutions Caucus. Electoral history (U.S. House of Representatives) Third party candidates omitted, so percentages may not add up to 100%. See also 9/11 Commission United States Department of Homeland Security References External links Profile at SourceWatch Gerry Adams' US Ally, Peter King Help Trump Frame His 'Muslim' Ban? \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1944 births 21st-century American politicians American gun control activists American people of Irish descent American people of Welsh descent American critics of Islam Living people Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state) Military personnel from New York City Politicians from Nassau County, New York New York (state) Republicans Notre Dame Law School alumni People from Sunnyside, Queens People from Seaford, New York Provisional Irish Republican Army Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives St. Francis College alumni United States Army soldiers
972958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Transporter	The Transporter	The Transporter (French: Le Transporteur) is a 2002 English-language French action-thriller film directed by Corey Yuen and Louis Leterrier (who is credited as artistic director on the film), and written by Luc Besson, who was inspired by BMW Films' The Hire series. The film stars Jason Statham as Frank Martin, a driver for hire—a mercenary "transporter" who will deliver anything, anywhere, no questions asked—for the right price. It also stars Shu Qi as Lai Kwai. It is the first installment in the Transporter franchise, succeeded by three sequels, Transporter 2 and Transporter 3, The Transporter Refueled (a reboot), and a television series. Plot Frank Martin is a former special operations soldier and now highly skilled driver/mercenary residing in southern France whose callsign is "The Transporter". He strictly follows three rigid rules when transporting: Never change the deal. No names. Never open the package. In Nice, Frank is hired to transport three bank robbers with his black BMW 735i, but they hoist a fourth man in his car after the robbery. Explaining the extra weight will affect his precisely planned getaway, he refuses to drive until, in desperation, the leader kills one of his men who is pushed out of the car. Later they offer more money for Frank to drive them to Avignon. He refuses the deal. The robbers escape in another car, but are foiled by their amateur driving. At Frank's villa on the French Riviera, local Police Inspector Tarconi questions Frank about the black BMW that fled the scene of the robbery Frank was the getaway driver for. Lacking any real proof, Tarconi leaves. Frank is then hired to deliver a package of to an American, Darren "Wall Street" Bettencourt. The package is loaded into Frank's trunk. While changing a flat tire, Frank notices the package moving. Realizing a person is inside, he violates his third rule in order to give the person something to drink. He discovers a woman, tied up and gagged. She attempts to escape but Frank recaptures her and returns her to the trunk along with two policemen who spot them. Frank delivers the package to Bettencourt as promised and agrees to another job, transporting a briefcase. As he stops to buy drinks for the cops in his trunk, a bomb hidden in the briefcase explodes. Out for vengeance, Frank returns to Bettencourt's villa where he kills and wounds several henchmen. Frank then steals a car (a Mercedes-Benz S-Klasse) to get away, only to find "the package" bound and gagged in the back seat. He brings the young woman, whose name is Lai, back to his house. Bettencourt visits one of his surviving men in hospital in order to determine who attacked his residence, before killing the man after discovering that Frank is alive. The next day, Tarconi arrives and asks about Frank's car, which Frank claims was stolen. Lai supports Frank's alibi by introducing herself as his new cook and girlfriend. Tarconi again leaves with no concrete evidence. Shortly after, Bettencourt's hitmen fire missiles and automatic weapons down on the house. Frank and Lai barely escape through an underwater passage to a nearby safe house. Later, while being questioned at the police station, Lai accesses Tarconi's computer to find information on Bettencourt. Frank, presumed dead by Bettencourt wants to rebuild his villa and start a new life and advises Lai to do so too before she tells him that Bettencourt is a human trafficker with 400 Chinese trapped in shipping containers, including her family. Lai and Frank go to Bettencourt's office, where Bettencourt reveals that Lai's father, Kwai, is also a human trafficker and Bettencourt's partner in crime. Kwai arrives and his henchmen subdue Frank. When Tarconi arrives, Kwai and Bettencourt accuse Frank of kidnapping Lai. Tarconi has Frank arrested and locked up in the station. Realizing Frank would not be constrained by search warrants and that he would be able to solve the case faster than the police, Tarconi agrees to aid Frank's escape as his faux hostage and releases him at the harbour of Cassis. Frank then tracks the criminals to the docks in Marseille, where they load the containers onto trucks. However, Frank is spotted and forced to fight his way through the guards, and fails to stop the trucks. He then steals an old car and makes chase at dawn before it breaks down on a small country road. He then commandeers a small airplane from a farmer and follows the highway to the trucks where he parachutes onto one of them. After a lengthy fight, Frank manages to kill Bettencourt by throwing him out of the moving truck and also some of his henchmen, only to be ambushed by Kwai once he gets out of the truck where he is marched to a cliff edge. However, Frank is saved when Lai reluctantly shoots her father. Afterwards, Tarconi arrives with the police, and they rescue the people trapped inside the two containers as he congratulates Frank on his work. Cast Jason Statham as Frank Martin Shu Qi as Lai Kwai François Berléand as Inspector Tarconi Matt Schulze as Darren "Wall Street" Bettencourt Ric Young as Mr. Kwai Releases Theatrical release The Transporter premiered in 2,573 theaters. With a production budget of $20.5 million, it grossed $25,296,447 in the United States and a total of $43,928,932 worldwide. Cut and uncut releases The film was cut to receive a PG-13 rating in the United States, and this version was also released in the United Kingdom and several other countries. Japan and France received the uncut versions. Certain sequences of violence were either cut or toned down for the PG-13 cut. These include: The fight on the bus, which included Frank using a knife and knee. The final fight on the highway, where Frank fights Wall Street in the truck. In the original French version, Wall Street is crushed beneath the wheels of the truck after Frank throws him from it. In the US PG-13 version, he is simply thrown out of the truck and onto the highway. The uncut fight on the bus can be seen in the "Extended Fight Sequences" on the North American DVD, but with no sound. The Japanese region-free Blu-ray cut of this film has the original uncut French version of the film. It also has several special features and deleted scenes. However, it does not include the North American special feature of the uncut fight scenes (with no sound). The uncut version of Transporter 2 is also included in this special boxed set. Soundtrack Tweet – "Boogie 2Nite" Nate Dogg – "I Got Love" Sacario featuring Angie Martinez and Fat Joe – "Live Big (Remix)"† "Benzino – Rock The Party"† Knoc-Turn'al – "Muzik" Angie Martinez featuring Lil' Mo and Sacario – "If I Could Go!"† Tamia – "Be Alright"† Missy Elliott – "Scream AKA Itchin' Gerald Levert – "Funny"† Hustlechild – "I'm Cool"† Keith Sweat – "One on One"† Nadia – "Life of a Stranger" † indicates that the song did not appear in the film Home media The DVD version was released on 23 October 2003. It included fifteen minutes of extended fight scene footage and a feature-length commentary. On 23 August 2005, the film was released again in a "Special Delivery Edition". This version included all the features of the original release plus a new behind-the-scenes documentary, a making-of featurette, and a storyboard-to-film comparison. The film was also released as a part of "The Transporter Collection", which featured the first two films in the series. A Blu-ray format was released on 14 November 2006. Reception Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 54% based on reviews from 127 critics and an average rating of 5.6 out of 10. The site's consensus reads: "The Transporter delivers the action at the expense of coherent storytelling." At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 51 based on 27 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Manohla Dargis, of the Los Angeles Times, complimented the action, saying, "[Statham] certainly seems equipped to develop into a mid-weight alternative to Vin Diesel. That's particularly true if he keeps working with director Corey Yuen, a Hong Kong action veteran whose talent for hand-to-hand mayhem is truly something to see." Roger Ebert wrote, "Too much action brings the movie to a dead standstill." Eric Harrison, of the Houston Chronicle, said, "It's junk with a capital J. The sooner you realize that, the more quickly you can settle down to enjoying it." References External links Official Website 2002 films 2002 action thriller films 2000s crime thriller films 20th Century Fox films 2000s chase films English-language films EuropaCorp films Films scored by Stanley Clarke Films about kidnapping Films about automobiles Films about human trafficking Films about organized crime in France French films about revenge Films directed by Corey Yuen Films directed by Louis Leterrier Films produced by Luc Besson Films set in France Films set on the French Riviera Films shot in Saint-Tropez French films French action thriller films Patricide in fiction Films with screenplays by Luc Besson Films with screenplays by Robert Mark Kamen Transporter (franchise) English-language French films 2002 directorial debut films
993655	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asif%20Ali%20Zardari	Asif Ali Zardari	Asif Ali Zardari (; ; born 26 July 1955) is a Pakistani politician who is the president of Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians and was the co-chairperson of Pakistan People's Party. He served as the 11th president of Pakistan from 2008 to 2013, the first president born after Partition. He is member of National Assembly of Pakistan since August 2018. The son of Hakim Ali Zardari, a landowner from Sindh, Zardari rose to prominence after his marriage to Benazir Bhutto in 1987, who became the Prime Minister of Pakistan after her election in 1988. When Bhutto's government was dismissed by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan in 1990, Zardari was widely criticized for involvement in corruption scandals that led to its collapse. When Bhutto was reelected in 1993, Zardari served as Federal Investment Minister and Chairperson of Pakistan Environmental Protection Council. Following increasing tensions between Bhutto's brother Murtaza and Zardari, Murtaza was killed by police in Karachi on 20 September 1996. Bhutto's government was dismissed a month later by President Farooq Leghari, while Zardari was arrested and indicted for Murtaza's murder as well as corruption charges. Although incarcerated, he nominally served in Parliament after being elected to the National Assembly in 1990 and Senate in 1997. He was released from jail in 2004 and went into self-exile to Dubai, but returned when Bhutto was assassinated on 27 December 2007. As the new Co-Chairman of the PPP, he led his party to victory in the 2008 general elections. He spearheaded a coalition that forced military ruler Pervez Musharraf to resign, and was elected President on 6 September 2008. He was acquitted of various criminal charges the same year. As president, Zardari remained a strong American ally in the war in Afghanistan, despite prevalent public disapproval of the United States following the Raymond Davis incident and the Nato attack in Salala in 2011. Domestically, Zardari achieved the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment in 2010, which constitutionally reduced his presidential powers. His attempt to prevent the reinstatement of Supreme Court judges failed in the face of massive protests led by his political rival Nawaz Sharif. The restored Supreme Court dismissed the PPP's elected Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani for contempt in 2012 after Gillani refused to write to the Government of Switzerland to reopen corruption cases against Zardari. Zardari's tenure was also criticised for mishandling nationwide floods in 2010, and growing terrorist violence. Following multiple bombings of Hazaras in Quetta in early 2013, Zardari dismissed his provincial government in Balochistan. Towards the end of his term, Zardari recorded abysmally low approval ratings, ranging from 11 to 14%. After the PPP was heavily defeated in the 2013 general election, Zardari became the country's first elected president to complete his constitutional term on 9 September 2013. His legacy remains divisive, with political observers accusing his administration of corruption and cronyism. Early life and education Zardari was born on 26 July 1955 in Karachi, Sindh in the Zardari family. He is of Baloch origin, belonging to the Sindhi-speaking Zardari tribe. He is the only son of Hakim Ali Zardari, a tribal chief and prominent landowner, and Bilquis Sultana Zardari. His paternal grandmother was of Iraqi descent, while his mother was the granddaughter of Hassan Ali Effendi, a Sindhi educationist who is known as the founder of the Sindh Madressatul Islam. In his youth, he enjoyed polo and boxing. He led a polo team known as the Zardari Four. His father owned Bambino—a famous cinema in Karachi—and donated movie equipment to his school. He also appeared in a 1969 movie, Salgira, as a child. Zardari's academic background remains a question mark. He received his primary education from Karachi Grammar School. His official biography says he graduated from Cadet College, Petaro in 1972. He went to St Patrick's High School, Karachi from 1973 to 1974; a school clerk says he failed his final examination there. In March 2008, he claimed he had graduated from the London School of Business Studies with a bachelor of education degree in the early 1970s. Zardari's official biography states he also attended Pedinton School in Britain. His British education, however, has not been confirmed, and a search did not turn up any Pedinton School in London. The issue of his diploma was contentious because a 2002 rule required candidates for Parliament to hold a college degree, but the rule was overturned by Pakistan's Supreme Court in April 2008. Career Early political career and Benazir Bhutto era Zardari's initial political career was unsuccessful. In 1983, he lost an election for a district council seat in Nawabshah, a city of Sindh, where his family owned thousands of acres of farmland. He then went into real estate. He married Benazir Bhutto on 18 December 1987. The arranged marriage, done in accordance with Pakistani culture, was initially considered an unlikely match. The lavish sunset ceremony in Karachi was followed by immense night celebrations that included over 100,000 people. The marriage enhanced Bhutto's political position in a country where older unmarried women are frowned upon. Zardari deferred to his wife's wishes by agreeing to stay out of politics. In 1988, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq died in a plane crash. A few months later, Bhutto became Pakistan's first female Prime Minister when her party won 94 of 207 seats contested in the 1988 elections. Involvement in the first Bhutto Administration and first imprisonment He generally stayed out of his wife's first administration, but he and his associates became entangled in corruption cases linked to the government. He was largely blamed for the collapse of the Bhutto administration. After the dismissal of Bhutto's government in August 1990, Benazir Bhutto and Zardari were prohibited from leaving the country by security forces under the direction of the Pakistan Army. During the interim government between August and October, caretaker Prime Minister Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi, a Bhutto rival, initiated investigations of corruption by the Bhutto administration. Jatoi accused Zardari of using his wife's political position to charge a ten percent commission for obtaining permission to set up any project or to receive loans. He was tagged with the nickname "Mr. Ten Percent". He was arrested on 10 October 1990 on charges relating to kidnapping and extortion. The charges alleged an extortion scheme that involved tying a supposed bomb to a British businessman's leg. The Bhutto family considered the indictment politically motivated and fabricated. In the October 1990 elections, he was elected to the National Assembly while in jail. Bhutto and the PPP staged a walkout from the inaugural session of the National Assembly to protest Zardari's incarceration. He posted $20,000 bail, but his release was blocked by a government ordinance that removed a court's power to release suspects being tried in the terrorist court, which fast-track trials for alleged terrorists. The ordinance was later revoked and a special court acquitted him of bank fraud and conspiracy to murder political opponents. He was freed in February 1993. In March 1994, Zardari was acquitted of bank fraud charges. All other corruption charges relating to Bhutto's first term were dropped or thrown out of the courts. On 25 March 1991, the hijackers aboard Singapore Airlines Flight 117 demanded Zardari's release among other demands. The hijackers were killed by Singapore Commandos. Political involvement in the second Bhutto Administration In April 1993, he became one of the 18 cabinet ministers in the caretaker government that succeeded Nawaz Sharif's first abridged premiership. The caretaker government lasted until the July elections. After Bhutto's election, he served as her Investment Minister, chief of the intelligence bureau, and the head of the Federal Investigation Agency. In February 1994, Benazir sent Zardari to meet with Saddam Hussein in Iraq to deliver medicine in exchange for three detained Pakistanis arrested on the ambiguous Kuwait-Iraq border. In April 1994, Zardari denied allegations that he was wielding unregulated influence as a spouse and acting as "de-facto Prime Minister". In March 1995, he was appointed chairman of the new Environment Protection Council. During the beginning of the second Bhutto Administration, a Bhutto family feud between Benazir and her mother, Nusrat Bhutto, surfaced over the political future of Murtaza Bhutto, Nusrat's son and Benazir's younger brother. Benazir thanked Zardari for his support. In September 1996, Murtaza and seven others died in a shootout with police in Karachi, while the city was undergoing a three-year civil war. At Murtaza's funeral, Nusrat accused Benazir and Zardari of being responsible and vowed to pursue prosecution. Ghinwa Bhutto, Murtaza's widow, also accused Zardari of being behind his killing. President Farooq Leghari, who would dismiss the Bhutto government seven weeks after Murtaza's death, also suspected Benazir and Zardari's involvement. Several of Pakistan's leading newspapers alleged that Zardari wanted his brother-in-law out of the way because of Murtaza's activities as head of a breakaway faction of the PPP. In November 1996, Bhutto's government was dismissed by Leghari primarily because of corruption and Murtaza's death. Zardari was arrested in Lahore while attempting to flee the country to Dubai. Jail and exile The New York Times report A major report was published in January 1998 by The New York Times detailing Zardari's vast corruption and misuse of public funds. The report discussed $200 million in kickbacks to Zardari and a Pakistani partner for a $4 billion contract with French military contractor Dassault Aviation, in a deal that fell apart only when the Bhutto government was dismissed. It contained details of two payments of $5 million each by a gold bullion dealer in return for a monopoly on gold imports. It had information from Pakistani investigators that the Bhutto family had allegedly accrued more than $1.5 billion in illicit profits through kickbacks in virtually every sphere of government activity. It also reported Zardari's mid-1990s spending spree, which included hundreds of thousands of dollars spent on jewellery. The arrangements made by the Bhutto family for their wealth relied on Western property companies, Western lawyers, and a network of Western friends. The report described how Zardari had arranged secret contracts, painstaking negotiations, and the dismissal of anyone who objected to his dealings. Citibank, already under fire for its private-banking practices, got into further trouble as a result of the report. Zardari's financial history was one case study in a 1999 U.S. Senate report on vulnerabilities in banking procedures. Second imprisonment and conviction In March 1997, Zardari was elected to the Senate while in a Karachi jail. In December 1997, he was flown to Islamabad under tight security to take his oath. In July 1998, he was indicted for corruption in Pakistan after the Swiss government handed over documents to Pakistani authorities relating to money laundering. The Swiss had also indicted him for money laundering. At the same time, in a separate case, he and 18 others were indicted for conspiracy to murder Murtaza Bhutto. After criminal prosecutions began, Citibank closed Zardari's account. In April 1999, Bhutto and Zardari were convicted for receiving indemnities from a Swiss goods inspection company that was hired to end corruption in the collection of customs duties. The couple received a fine of $8.6 million. Both were also sentenced to five years imprisonment, but Bhutto could not be extradited back to Pakistan from her self-imposed exile. Zardari was already in jail awaiting trial on separate charges. The evidence used against them had been gathered by Swiss investigators and the Pakistani Bureau of Accountability. In May 1999, he was hospitalised after an alleged attempted suicide. He claimed it was a murder attempt by the police. In August 2003, a Swiss judge convicted Bhutto and Zardari of money laundering and sentenced them to six months imprisonment and a fine of $50,000. In addition, they were required to return $11 million to the Pakistani government. The conviction involved charges relating to kickbacks from two Swiss firms in exchange for customs fraud. In France, Poland, and Switzerland, the couple faced additional allegations. In November 2004, he was released on bail by court order. A month later, he was unexpectedly arrested for failing to show up for a hearing on a murder case in Islamabad. He was placed under house arrest in Karachi. A day later, he was released on $5,000 bail. His release, rearrest, and then release again was regarded as a sign of growing reconciliation between Musharraf's government and the PPP. After his second release in late 2004, he left for exile in Dubai. Exile and legal problems He returned to Lahore in April 2005. Police prevented him from holding rallies by escorting him from the airport to his home. He criticised Musharraf's government, but rumours of reconciliation between Musharraf and the PPP grew. Zardari went back to Dubai in May 2005. In June 2005, he suffered a heart attack and was treated in the United Arab Emirates. A PPP spokesman stated he underwent angioplasty in the United States. In September 2005, he did not show up for a Rawalpindi hearing on corruption charges; the court issued an arrest warrant. His lawyers stated he could not come because he was recovering from his treatment. Following a request by the Rawalpindi court, Interpol issued a red notice in January 2006 against the couple which called on member nations to decide on the couple's extradition. When Bhutto announced in September 2007 her upcoming return to Pakistan, her husband was in New York City undergoing medical treatment. After the October 2007 bombing in Karachi that tainted Bhutto's return, he accused Pakistani intelligence services of being behind the attacks and claimed "it was not done by militants". He had not accompanied Bhutto, staying in Dubai with their daughters. Bhutto called for the removal of the chief investigator of the attacks because she claimed he had been involved in Zardari's alleged torture in prison in 1999. In November 2007, Musharraf instituted emergency rule for six weeks (see Pakistani state of emergency, 2007), under the pretext of rising Islamist militancy, a few days after Bhutto's departure for Dubai to meet with Zardari. Immediately after the state of emergency was invoked, Bhutto returned to Pakistan, while Zardari again stayed behind in Dubai. Emergency rule was initiated right before the Supreme Court of Pakistan began deliberations on the legality of Musharraf's U.S.-backed proposal—the National Reconciliation Ordinance (NRO)—to drop corruption charges against Bhutto and Zardari in return for a joint Bhutto-Musharraf coalition to govern Pakistan. Bhutto and Zardari sympathised with Musharraf on his feud with the Supreme Court, but simultaneously criticised the imposition of martial law. Before the Supreme Court could issue a decision, Musharraf replaced its members with his supporters. In the midst of his exile, Zardari had several different legal problems. In Pakistan, Musharraf granted him amnesty for his alleged offences through the National Reconciliation Ordinance, drafted in October 2007. However, the ordinance faced mounting public pressure and an uncompromising judiciary. In addition, it only dealt with charges up to 1999. This left open the possibility of investigations into his alleged involvement in about $2 million in illegal kickbacks to Saddam Hussein, discovered in October 2005, under the oil-for-food program. If the ordinance was rescinded, he would have had to deal with charges relating to evading duties on an armoured BMW, commissions from a Polish tractor manufacturer, and a kickback from a gold bullion dealer. In Switzerland, Bhutto and Zardari appealed the 2003 Swiss conviction, which required the reopening of the case in October 2007. In November 2007, Swiss authorities returned the frozen $60 million to him through offshore companies because of the National Reconciliation Ordinance. In Spain, a criminal investigation was opened over the money laundering for the oil-for-food program because of the illicit profits handled through Spanish firms. In Britain, he was fighting a civil case against the Pakistani government for the proceeds from the liquidation sale of a Surrey mansion. He successfully used his medical diagnosis to postpone a verdict on his British manor trial. In exile, he shifted between homes in New York, London, and Dubai, where his three children lived. On the night of 27 December 2007, he returned to Pakistan following his wife's assassination. Co-chairperson of the PPP Bhutto's assassination and succession Zardari prevented Bhutto's autopsy in accordance with Islamic principles. He and their children attended her funeral, which was held the next day. He denied government allegations that the assassination was sponsored by Al-Qaida. He called for an international inquiry into her death and stated that she would still be alive if Musharraf's government had provided adequate protection. He and his family offered to accept Musharraf's demand to exhume Bhutto's body in exchange for a United Nations inquiry, but Musharraf rejected the proposal. In Bhutto's political will, she had designated Zardari her successor as party leader. However, their nineteen-year-old son, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari, became Chairman of the PPP because Zardari favoured Bilawal to represent Bhutto's legacy, in part to avoid division within the party due to his own unpopularity. He did, however, serve as Co-Chairman of the PPP for at least three years until Bilawal completed his studies overseas. February parliamentary elections and coalition formation Zardari called for no delays to the 8 January parliamentary elections and for the participation of all opposition parties. Other major political parties quickly agreed to participate, ending any chance of a boycott. Because of the turmoil after the Bhutto assassination, the elections were postponed six weeks to 18 February. In January 2008, he suggested that if his party did win a majority, it might form a coalition with Musharraf's Pakistan Muslim League-Q (PML-Q). He and Nawaz Sharif, leader of the Pakistan Muslim League (N) party (PML-N), threatened national protests if any vote-rigging was attempted. He himself could not run for Parliament because he had not filed election papers in November 2008, back when he had no foreseeable political ambition while Bhutto was alive. The PPP and the PML-N won the largest and second largest number of seats respectively in the February elections. He and Sharif agreed to form a coalition government, ending American hopes of a power-sharing deal between him and Musharraf. They agreed to restore the judiciary, but Zardari took a less stringent stance than Sharif. He met with U.S. ambassador Anne W. Patterson, who pushed for a pact with Musharraf. To strengthen the new coalition, he reached out to Awami National Party, the Muttahida Qaumi Movement, and Baloch nationalist leaders, who had all boycotted the elections. After weeks of speculation and party infighting, he said he did not want to become Prime Minister. In mid-March 2008, he chose Yousaf Raza Gillani for Prime Minister in a snub to the more politically powerful Makhdoom Amin Fahim. Coalition government He and Sharif agreed in a 9 March 2008 agreement, known as the Murree Declaration, to the reinstatement by 30 April 2008 of 60 judges previously sacked by Musharraf. The deadline was later extended to 12 May. He and Sharif held unsuccessful talks at London in May. After the coalition failed to restore the judiciary, the PML-N withdrew from the government in mid-May, pulling its ministers out of the cabinet. The coalition regrouped, again with the PML-N, and proposed a constitutional amendment that would remove the power of the President to dismiss Parliament. By late May, the coalition was set in a confrontation with Musharraf. At the same time, the government was successful in getting Pakistan readmitted to the Commonwealth. He and Sharif met in Lahore in June 2008 to discuss Musharraf's removal and the constitutional amendments, which the PML-N viewed as not going far enough to fulfill the Murree declaration. He opposed impeachment calls because he claimed the coalition did not have the two-thirds majority in both legislative bodies—National Assembly and Senate. He was unwilling to restore the judiciary as divisions in the coalition grew and popular sentiment shifted towards Sharif. The coalition criticised the government for barring Sharif from competing in the June by-elections. Because of the impasses over Musharraf and the judiciary, the coalition could not address rising food shortages and spiraling inflation, which was the highest in 30 years. In August 2008, Zardari relented, and the coalition agreed to proceed full speed towards Musharraf's impeachment by drafting a charge-sheet against him. The coalition charged him with high treason for the 1999 coup and the imposition of martial law. He warned Musharraf against dismissing Parliament, and the coalition selected Gillani instead of Musharraf to represent Pakistan at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. On 18 August, Musharraf resigned in order to avoid impeachment. Although Zardari favoured granting Musharraf immunity from prosecution, the coalition could not agree on a decision. The coalition also could not reach a united stance on the future of the judiciary. Rise to presidency Presidential elections were held within three weeks after the departure of Musharraf. Zardari vowed to pursue an unpopular campaign against tribal militancy in Pakistan and had the support of the United States. He claimed he had a London business school degree to satisfy a prerequisite for the presidency, but his party did not produce a certificate. He was endorsed by the PPP and the Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) for the presidency. The PML-N nominated former justice Saeed-uz-Zaman Siddiqui, while the PML-Q put forth Mushahid Hussain Sayed. Zardari won a majority in the Electoral College with 481 of 702 votes. He was elected President on 6 September 2008. President of Pakistan Initial days At the inauguration on 9 September 2008, Afghan President Hamid Karzai was a guest of honour, which was a signal for much closer cooperation between the two nations in addressing the tribal insurgency along the Afghanistan-Pakistan border. After the election, Zardari promised to approve the constitutional provision that removed the President's power to dismiss Parliament, but public scepticism remained on whether he would actually carry out his promise. His economic competence was questioned after allegations that he had raised grain procurement prices through inflationary subsidies and scrapped the capital gains tax. His first parliamentary speech was overshadowed by 20 September Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing. A few days later, he went to the United Nations Headquarters in New York City on his first overseas trip as President. United Nations visit From 23 to 26 September 2008, he met with various foreign leaders, including U.S. President George W. Bush and Chinese President Hu Jintao. He suffered political embarrassment by flirting with U.S. Vice Presidential candidate Sarah Palin and making tongue-in-cheek comments about her. Although, at the United Nations General Assembly, he publicly condemned U.S drone attacks in Pakistan, The Washington Post reported that he had signed a "secret deal" when he met with senior American officials that arranged for the coordination of Predator strikes and a jointly approved list of prominent targets. He and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh agreed to resume peace talks by the end of 2008. Economic crises From 14 to 17 October 2008, he was in China to negotiate foreign aid, as Pakistan faced the possibility of defaulting on its payments. China refused to offer any aid commitments, but instead promised to provide assistance in the development of two nuclear power plants and more future business investments. After Saudi Arabia, Britain, China, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates refused to provide any bailout, he officially asked the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for assistance in solving Pakistan's balance of payments problem on 22 October. He went to Saudi Arabia from 4 to 6 November in hopes of obtaining financial aid and securing trade agreements. However, leaked cables revealed increasingly strained relations between Zardari and Saudi royalty, primarily because of Saudi distrust of Zardari and preference for Sharif. Weaker cooperation led to decreased oil subsidies as part of a broader Saudi policy of withholding monetary assistance. In mid-November 2008, Zardari's government officially sent a letter of intent to the IMF regarding a bailout to help increase its foreign exchange reserves. In a $11.3 billion multi-year loan package, Pakistan received a $7.4 billion loan for 2008–10. The IMF stipulated stringent reform conditions, which included rebuilding the tax structure and privatising state enterprises. The World Bank and Asian Development Bank withheld a combined $3 billion aid in the 2010–11 fiscal year and the IMF withheld since May 2010 the last segment of its aid package. In January 2011, the MQM withdrew from the government. Zardari's ruling coalition averted a government collapse by accepting the opposition's economic proposals, which restored gas subsidies and abandoned many of the IMF's suggested reforms. In an effort to curb government expenditures, Zardari swore in an "austerity cabinet" in February 2011 which reduced the cabinet from 60 ministers to 22. Foreign policy Relationship with India In early October 2008, he received fierce domestic criticism for repeatedly calling Kashmiri nationalists (see Kashmir conflict) in India "terrorists". In mid-November 2008, he suggested Pakistan was ready for a no-first-use nuclear policy and called for closer economic ties. The relationship between the two nations was damaged by the November 2008 Mumbai attacks. He initially denied any links between the perpetrators and Pakistan, but the government soon pursued military action against Lashkar-e-Taiba leaders in a 7 December raid. India cleared Zardari's government of any direct involvement in the attacks, but simultaneously demanded the extradition of 20 Pakistanis which it alleged had taken part in them. Zardari offered to send Inter-Services Intelligence Director-General Ahmed Shuja Pasha to assist in the investigation. In June 2009, Zardari met Singh for the first time since the Mumbai attacks at a Shanghai Cooperation Organization summit in Yekaterinburg, Russia. On 8 April 2012, President Zardari, along with his son Bilawal Zardari Bhutto, visited Dargah Sharif in Ajmer, India on a private visit. He also met with the Indian Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh. War in Afghanistan The government has had a longstanding conflict in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistani regions bordering Afghanistan. Diplomatic relations with Afghan President Hamid Karzai improved after Musharraf's departure and Zardari's rise to power. The Obama administration's AfPak policy, through AfPak envoy Richard Holbrooke, reflected the unified approach the United States took in dealing with Afghanistan and Pakistan. In his first visit to Afghanistan as President in early January 2009, Zardari promised a renewed relationship to improve cooperation. In late March, Obama announced a civilian aid package of $7.5 billion over five years in return for cooperation in the AfPak conflict. In late April, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown visited Zardari and promised $1 billion over the next four years. In May, Obama held a trilateral summit in Washington D.C with Karzai and Zardari, where they discussed further cooperation. At Brussels in mid-June, Zardari unsuccessfully sought trade concessions from the European Union; it instead pledged $90 million development aid to curtail tribal influence by insurgents. After the U.S. Congress passed Obama's civilian aid package in October, army generals in the Pakistani military establishment widened the growing rift with Zardari's government and openly criticised U.S. interference. In February 2009, FATA's provincial government officially declared Islamic law in Swat to achieve a ceasefire with the northwestern Pashtun tribes. Because the United States and Britain opposed the measure, Zardari did not sign the Swat ceasefire until mid-April, when domestic pressure from Parliament mounted. By the end of April, the agreement collapsed as the Pakistani military pursued an unpopular offensive in the neighbouring Dir district. In September 2010, Zardari and Karzai met in Islamabad and both advocated fighting insurgents rather than trying to end the war with diplomacy. Zardari went to the United States in January 2011 to attend Special Envoy Holbrooke's funeral. Following Osama bin Laden's death in a compound in Abbottabad in May 2011, Obama called Zardari and collaborated on the events. Reinstatement of the judiciary In February 2009, Zardari and the Musharraf-appointed Supreme Court attempted to disqualify Nawaz Sharif from running in any elections and tried to force his brother Shahbaz Sharif to resign as Chief Minister of Punjab province. Zardari dismissed the Punjab provincial government and only partially reinstated the judiciary by restoring 56 other judges deposed by Musharraf—but not their former leader, Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry. After Nawaz Sharif defied house arrest and rallied with thousands of his supporters, the Sharif brothers vowed to join forces with the Lawyers' Movement in the "Long March". Zardari's government gave in to popular pressure and Prime Minister Gilani in an early morning speech on 16 March 2009 promised to reinstate Chaudhry by 21 March. Ten judges were reinstated on 16 March, and Chaudry assumed his position on 22 March. Zardari's month-long direct control of the Punjab ended on 30 March. Nizam-e-Adl Regulation In April 2009, President Asif Ali Zardari signed the Nizam-e-Adl Regulation into law. The regulation formally established Sharia law in the Malakand division. Reduction of presidential powers In late November 2009, Zardari ceded to Prime Minister Gillani the chairmanship of the National Command Authority, Pakistan's nuclear arsenal oversight agency. In December 2009, the Supreme Court ruled that the National Reconciliation Ordinance amnesty was unconstitutional, which cleared the way for the revival of corruption cases against Zardari. Although Zardari had immunity from prosecution because he was President, the end of NRO and his earlier corruption cases challenged the legality of his presidency. Calls for his resignation escalated. Zardari, who rarely left the Aiwan-e-Sadr presidential palace, responded with a nationwide spurt of speeches in January 2011. In January 2010, the Supreme Court ordered Pakistan's government to reopen Zardari's corruption charges in Switzerland. However, Zardari prevented the MQM-leaning Attorney General, Anwar Mansoor, from filing charges, so Mansoor resigned in protest in early April. That same month, Zardari won a key victory against the judiciary over his corruption trials when Geneva Attorney General Daniel Zappelli stated that Zardari can not be prosecuted under international laws because of his presidential immunity. Zardari was supported by Prime Minister Gilani, who defied the Supreme Court order. In February 2010, Zardari sparked a standoff by attempting to appoint a Supreme Court candidate without the court's approval, but the confrontation ended after he backed down and nominated a candidate acceptable by the court. In April 2010, after months of political pressure, the government passed the 18th Amendment, which reduced the President to a ceremonial figurehead by stripping the office of the power to dissolve Parliament, to dismiss the Prime Minister, and to appoint military chiefs. The amendment also lifted the restriction of two terms as Prime Minister, which enabled Zardari's foremost political rival, Nawaz Sharif, to seek a third term. The amendment was passed with virtually unanimous support in Parliament and Zardari himself espoused the legislation because of political pressure. After the 18th Amendment, Zardari's main power derived from his position as leader of the PPP, which controls the largest bloc in Parliament. In late September 2010, the Supreme Court considered removing presidential immunity. In October, Chief Justice Chaudry met with his colleagues to discuss troubling media rumours that Zardari's government was planning to fire them; Chaudry requested government assurance that the stories were unfounded. In early January 2011, Zardari signed the 19th Amendment, which lessened the likelihood of future clashes between the President and the judiciary by strengthening the power of the Chief Justice in deciding judicial appointments. In March 2011, Zardari delivered his annual parliamentary address to a half-empty chamber because of an opposition walkout. In November 2012, the Pakistan government in response to the court orders, finally wrote to the Swiss authorities seeking to reopen the corruption cases against Zardari. The Swiss government responded by saying that the corruption cases being time-barred cannot be reopened. 2010 Pakistan floods and Europe tour The 2010 Pakistan floods began in late July with rain in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and soon submerged a fifth of Pakistan and afflicted 20 million people, resulting in one of the nation's largest natural catastrophes. Simultaneously, British Prime Minister David Cameron sparked a serious diplomatic row with Pakistan during his visit to India by stating that elements within Pakistan were promoting the "export of terror" a week before a planned visit by Zardari to Britain. Zardari ignored domestic pressure and began his European trip in Paris on 1 August, meeting French President Sarkozy. In France, he drew a rebuke from the U.S. after stating that NATO had "lost the battle for hearts and minds" in the Afghan war. As the flood's devastation became increasingly evident, he was widely criticised for flying in a helicopter to his Normandy chateau and dining at Cameron's Chequers countryside home. Protests within Britain, mainly among the British Pakistani community, grew against his visit. The widely expected maiden speech by his son Bilawal was cancelled, as Zardari faced criticism for using the trip to advance Bilawal's political aspirations. Zardari returned to Pakistan on 10 August. He first visit to an area affected by the flooding was in Sukkur on 12 August. He cancelled the 14 August Independence Day celebrations and instead visited Naushera. He flew over devastated areas with United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon on 15 August. He left the country on 18 August and attended the four-way Russian summit at Sochi, which included Tajikistan and Afghanistan. On 19 August, he visited Jampur with U.S. Senator John Kerry. He ordered local authorities to concentrate efforts to save Shahdadkot from inundation on 24 August. 2011 Dubai hospitalisation In early December 2011 Zardari flew to Dubai undergoing medical tests and treatment, reportedly for a "small stroke". According to the prime minister, Yousuf Raza Gilani, Zardari sought medical treatment outside of Pakistan because of "threats to his life". He finds himself currently in the midst of the "Memogate" controversy. Zardari left the hospital on 14 December to recuperate at the Persian Gulf, while his son, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari, the chairman of Pakistan Peoples Party, assumed a more prominent role in Pakistan. By 19 December, Zardari had returned to Pakistan. China Pakistan Economic Corridor Pakistan and China on 22 May 2013 inked several Agreements and Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) that mainly included the long-term Economic Corridor plan, maritime cooperation and satellite navigation. President Asif Ali Zardari and Chinese Premier Li Keqiang witnessed the signing ceremony as the representatives of the two countries inked the documents at a ceremony held at the Aiwan-e-Sadr. The visit of Chinese Premier Li Keqiang marked the signing of important documents aimed at long-term cooperation between the two countries in multiple areas. Completion of presidential tenure Zardari completed his five-year term on 8 September 2013, becoming the first democratically elected President in the 66-year-long history of Pakistan to complete his tenure. He received a guard of honour while leaving the Aiwan-e-Sadr. He was succeeded by Mamnoon Hussain as President. Post-presidency He became active in the PPP, which he voted to revamp, after his presidency. He succeeded Ameen Faheem as chairman of PPPP in 2015. In December 2016, he announced that both he and his son Bilawal, would contest the 2018 general election. In July 2017, during the investigation of Panama Papers case, Zardari demanded Nawaz Sharif's resignation. In August 2017, Pakistan's anti-corruption acquitted him from his last pending case in which he was accused along with his late wife, Benazir Bhutto, of laundering illegal kickbacks and maintaining assets beyond known sources of income. The case had dogged him for 19 years. His rival Imran Khan believed that Zardari's acquittal was the result of a deal between PML-N and PPP. However he denied any kind of collaboration. The National Accountability Bureau also challenged the acquittal. On 2 September, after his wife's murder case verdict which declared Pervez Musharraf as fugitive and convicted two senior police officer, he said that he was not satisfied with the verdict and that he will appeal the judgment as it had acquitted five Pakistani Taliban suspects. In 2019, he was arrested in Islamabad over a money laundering case. An anti-graft court issued an indictment of Zardari on corruption charges on August 10, 2020. NAB Court Indicts Asif Ali Zardari And Faryal Talpur In Corruption References on 29 September 2020 Personal life Family Zardari and Benazir Bhutto had one son and two daughters. His son, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari, is the current Chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party. His older daughter, Bakhtawar, was born on 25 January 1990, and his younger daughter, Aseefa, was born on 2 February 1993. After Benazir Bhutto's death, his sister Faryal Talpur became the guardian of his children and he changed Bilawal Zardari's name to Bilawal Bhutto Zardari. His mother died in November 2002, during his detention in jail. His father Hakim Ali Zardari died in May 2011. After that he became the chieftain of the Zardari tribe. However, initially he had decided not to assume leadership and wanted to pass the position to his son Bilawal. Spirituality Zardari is a Sufi, being a disciple of Prof. Ahmad Rafique Akhtar, who hails from Gujjar Khan and is the guide of many other officials from civil and military circles as well. Health His mental health has been a subject of controversy. He has repeatedly claimed he was tortured while in prison. He was diagnosed with dementia, major depressive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder from 2005 to 2007, which helped influence the verdict of one of his corruption trials. He now claims he is completely healthy, with only high blood pressure and diabetes. Zardari is said to have a belief in the occult and superstitions. According to a report by the Dawn newspaper, "a black goat is slaughtered almost daily to ward off the 'evil eye' and protect President Zardari from 'black magic.' "It has been an old practice of Zardari to offer Sadaqah (charity) of animal sacrifice and distribute meat to the poor. He has been doing this for a long time," the newspaper quoted the Pakistan president's spokesman Farhatullah Babar as saying. Wealth In 2005, Daily Pakistan reported he was the second richest man in Pakistan with an estimated net worth of $1.8 billion. He amassed great wealth while his wife was Prime Minister. In 2007, he received $60 million in his Swiss bank account through offshore companies under his name. He was reported to have estates in Surrey, West End of London, Normandy, Manhattan (a condominium in Belaire Apartments), and Dubai, as well as a 16th-century chateau in Normandy. In Britain, he used a common legal device—the purchase of property through nominees with no family link to the Bhuttos. His homes in Karachi, Lahore, and Islamabad are called Bilawal House I, Bilawal House II, and Zardari House respectively. Surrey estate He bought a 365-acre (148-hectare) 20-bedroom luxury estate in Rockwood, Surrey in 1995 through a chain of firms, trusts, and offshore companies in 1994. The country home's refurbishment abruptly ended in October 1996, shortly before the end of his wife's second term. He initially denied for eight years that he owned the property and no one paid the bills for the work on the unoccupied mansion. Creditors forced a liquidation sale in 2004 and the Pakistani government claimed the proceeds because the home had been bought with money obtained through corruption. However, he stepped in to claim that he actually was the beneficial owner. , the proceeds were in a liquidator bank account while a civil case continues. The estate includes two farms, lodgings, staff accommodation, and a basement made into an imitation of a local pub. The manor has nine bedrooms and an indoor swimming pool. He had sent large shipments from Karachi in the 1990s for the refurbishment of Surrey Palace. He has faced allegations from various people, including the daughter of Laila Shahzada, that he acquired stolen art to decorate the palace. He earlier had plans for a helipad, a nine-hole golf course, and a polo pony paddock. See also Singapore Airlines Flight 117, the hijackers demanded Zardari's release Notes References External links Works President Zardari's 2008 address to the 63rd session of the United Nations General Assembly The Terrorists Want to Destroy Pakistan, Too Partnership With Pakistan Pakistan Is Steadfast Against Terror "Democracy Is the Greatest Revenge" Pakistan's Project of Renewal Pakistan Did Its Part \|- Living people 1955 births Bhutto family BOL Network people Businesspeople from Sindh Pakistani real estate businesspeople Cadet College Petaro alumni Karachi Grammar School alumni Members of the Senate of Pakistan Overturned convictions in Pakistan Pakistan Peoples Party politicians Pakistani industrialists Pakistani democracy activists Pakistani exiles Pakistani expatriates in the United Arab Emirates Pakistani investors Pakistani landowners Pakistani prisoners and detainees Pakistani Shia Muslims Pakistani people convicted of tax crimes Pakistani politicians convicted of corruption Pakistani actor-politicians Pakistani people of Iraqi descent People acquitted of corruption People from Dubai People from Shaheed Benazir Abad District Presidents of Pakistan Pakistani money launderers Spouses of national leaders St. Patrick's High School, Karachi alumni Tumandars Asif People convicted of money laundering Pakistani MNAs 2018–2023 Spouses of prime ministers of Pakistan Pakistan Peoples Party MNAs Pakistani MNAs 1988–1990 Pakistani MNAs 1990–1993 Pakistani MNAs 1993–1996 Federal ministers of Pakistan Heads of government who were later imprisoned
996386	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyle%2C%20County%20Roscommon	Boyle, County Roscommon	Boyle (; ) is a town in County Roscommon, Ireland. It is located at the foot of the Curlew Mountains near Lough Key in the north of the county. Carrowkeel Megalithic Cemetery, the Drumanone Dolmen and the lakes of Lough Arrow and Lough Gara are also close by. , the population of the town was 2,568. History Early history On 15 August 1599, the Battle of Curlew Pass between English and Irish forces was fought in the Curlew mountains during the Nine Years' War, between an English force under Sir Conyers Clifford and a native Irish force led by Aodh Ruadh Ó Domhnaill (Red Hugh O'Donnell). The English were ambushed and routed while marching through a pass in the Curlew Mountains, with the English forces suffering heavy casualties. Losses by allied Irish forces were not recorded. The Queen's principal secretary, Sir Robert Cecil, rated this defeat (and the simultaneous defeat of Harrington in Wicklow) as the two heaviest blows suffered by the English in Ireland. Boyle suffered hardship during the famine years (1847–49). The following quote from the novel Woodbrook is one example: A retired herd, Mick Maxwell, speaking to Thompson about his grandfather during the famine, related the following: 'when his grandfather, the only man strong enough, brought fifty and sixty corpses on a barrow, one by one, two miles from Cootehall near his home to the graveyard at Ardcarne'. 19th century In 1859, Fraser's Ireland described Boyle as including a "sessions-house [courthouse], hospitals, schools, the houses and offices for the agents of the Lorton Estate, the police barracks, Church, Methodist chapel, public garden". The entry also noted the "preservation of the fine ruins of the Abbey of Boyle, one of the most interesting of all our ecclesiastical structures", and that the town was "one of the principal towns of County Roscommon, and carries on a considerable retail trade in the supply of necessaries for the surrounding district". By 1881 Slater's directory reported the town had a dispensary, three banks, three hotels and two newspapers. Boyle also had a post office, 40 grocery shops, 25 pubs (sixteen of which were also groceries), 12 bakeries and an assortment of businesses including fire insurance companies, booksellers, ironmongers and hardware stores, butchers, an auctioneer and churches for both Protestants and Catholics. 20th century In 1917, Sinn Féin won their first ever seat in parliament for the constituency of Roscommon North, centred on Boyle, with the election of George Noble Plunkett. Plunkett's son, Joseph Mary Plunkett, had been executed by the British in May 1916 for his association with the 1916 Rising. Michael Collins campaigned on the candidate's behalf, as did Michael O'Flanagan, later to become President of Sinn Féin. A plaque on the courthouse, on The Crescent in Boyle, commemorates this. This was the first by-election following the Easter Rising of 1916 and it was crucial that the democratic mandate be obtained by Sinn Féin. Landmarks King House King House is an early Georgian mansion located in the centre of the town and was restored in 1989 after some years of neglect, including surviving potential demolition for a car park. The house was built for Sir Henry King (d. 1839) MP, 3rd. Lord Kingston, between 1720 and 1740, whose family were one of the most wealthy in Ireland. It was subsequently home to Edward King, 1st Earl of Kingston. The design is attributed to William Halfpenny (d. 1755) who was an assistant to Edward Lovett Pearce. The large 'U' shaped house may incorporate walls from an earlier 17th century house which was burnt. It is unusual in Ireland for the 'big house' to be located in the town, as most houses are situated in a demesne. It is also unusual for the floors to be vaulted. Perhaps, according to Rev. Daniel Beaufort, this is a response to the earlier fire. Since 1810, when the King Family moved to Rockingham, the house had been used as a military barracks. Throughout the nineteenth century, it was the home of the Connaught Rangers, adapted as a barracks for twelve officers and 260 soldiers. On the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922, the newly formed Irish National Army took possession of the house and it was renamed Dockery Barracks in honour of a commanding officer killed in Boyle during the Civil War. Roscommon County Council purchased the building in 1987 and began a restoration project in 1989 following years of neglect. Using artisans and local craftsmen who employed traditional techniques and materials, the three floors and basement were restored. Included in the restoration were the main entrance gallery with its tripartite windows and original fireplace, the vaulted ceilings on all floors, and the main salon which is in use again as a venue for recitals and banquets. The other rooms in the house are used for temporary exhibitions and these are open to visitors. In The Kings of Connaught exhibition, visitors are led through a series of tableaux. The displays, ranging all over the floors, cover four main themes: The Kingdom of Connaught - from the earliest recorded times showing the importance of the clans and their kings; The King Family - meet the families who lived in the house from Sir John King who came to Boyle in 1603 to the fascinating accounts of life, both for the family and the staff, at Rockingham Estate (now Lough Key Forest Park); The Restoration - a room left partially restored so that visitors can see the fabric of the house. Boyle Abbey The Cistercian abbey was founded in the 12th century under the patronage of the local ruling family, the MacDermotts and is one of the best preserved in Ireland. It was colonised from Mellifont in 1161. The building of the chancel and the transepts with their side-chapels probably began shortly after this date, though the lancet windows in the east gable were inserted in the 13th century. There is a combination of rounded and pointed arches in the transepts and crossing. The existing large square tower formed part of the church from the beginning, though it was raised in height at a later stage. The five eastern arches of the nave and their supporting pillars were built at the end of the 12th century, and have well-preserved capitals typical of the period. Although built at the same time, the arches of the northern side of the nave are different in type and have differently shaped columns and capitals. The three westernmost arches in the south arcade which have leafed and figured capitals were built after 1205, as was the west wall before the church was finally consecrated in 1218. Nothing remains of the cloister, but on the eastern side, there are two doorways of c.1200, now blocked up. On the west side, there is a two-storey gatehouse, which acts as an interpretative centre. The rest of the buildings surrounding the cloister are largely 16th or 17th century. The Abbey was one of the most important in Connacht, and was invaded by Richard de Burgo, Maurice Fitzgerald, and Justiciar, in 1235. In 1659, the Cromwellians occupied the monastery and did a great deal of destruction. Though damaged during the 17th and 18th centuries when it was used to accommodate a military garrison, Boyle Abbey is one of the best preserved structures of its type, and attracts thousands of visitors per year. A restored gatehouse 16th/17th century vintage houses an exhibition. The Abbey is now a national monument in state care. There is a Sheela na gig hidden above one of the central Romanesque arches. It can be seen from ground level, just at the top of the column, where the arch begins. Lough Key Forest Park Situated off the N4 is Lough Key Forest Park, a parkland area that has a visitor centre and activity facilities, including Boda Borg, a puzzle solving activity centre which is a Swedish concept originally unique to Sweden but now has locations in Ireland and the United States. The park covers , and was formerly part of the Rockingham estate. This was the seat of the Stafford-King-Harman family who at the end of the nineteenth century held over in north County Roscommon and County Sligo. Rockingham House was designed by John Nash in the early 19th century for the English landlord John King. It had a domed front and 365 windows. Rockingham House was suspiciously destroyed by fire in 1957, after which it was taken over by the Irish Land Commission. Declared as unsafe in 1970, it was demolished. The tunnels to Rockingham House are still accessible to this day. A viewing tower was built in 1973. In the town park, known locally as the Pleasure Grounds behind King House stood a statue of William of Orange. This was pulled down and destroyed by locals in 1945, though the base of the statue remains. There are several islands on Lough Key. Castle Island is among the better known islands, while Trinity Island contains the ruins of a chapel, linked to the Cistercian monastery in the town. There are two trees growing on the island with interlinked branches, said to mark the graves of Una Bhan Mac Diarmid and Tomás Láidir Mac Coisdealbhaigh, two ill-fated lovers, celebrated in the poem Una Bhan. Other places of interest Abbeytown bridge is a five-arch stone bridge across the Boyle River close to the abbey. Originally built in the late 12th Century, it is one of the oldest surviving stone bridges in Ireland. It has been widened but still carries a 5-ton load. The Drumanone Dolmen (portal tomb) is just west of the town. It is a site of Irish and European historic archaeological significance. This Dolmen located outside Boyle, is an example of a portal dolmen and was built before 2000 BC. The capstone of the tomb, 4.5m x 3m wide, is one of the largest to be seen in Ireland. Drumanone Dolmen has portal stones more than 2m high and a doorstone about 2m high. The capstone is about 4m square and has slipped back to cover the polygonal chamber. The sides of the chamber are each composed of a single stone. It is located in pasture land approximately 300m north of the Boyle River. Transport Boyle railway station opened on 3 December 1862. Boyle lies on the railway line from Dublin to Sligo, and the N4 Dublin-Sligo main road skirts the town. The town is linked to the River Shannon navigation system via the Boyle canal, the Boyle River and Lough Key. The town was once on the N4 national primary road from Dublin to Sligo but was bypassed in 1999. It is connected to the N4 by the R294 regional road (which also connects it to Ballina, County Mayo) and the N61 national secondary road which links Boyle to Athlone via Roscommon. Boyle has a Locallink bus service to Roscommon three times daily. People Boyle is the birthplace of actress Maureen O'Sullivan (Jane in the Tarzan movies), writer Patrick Chapman, Suffragette and women's rights campaigner Margaret Cousins, physician Robert Cryan, and hometown of actor and comedian Chris O'Dowd. O'Dowd filmed segments of his comedy Moone Boy in the town during 2012 and 2013. Neville Knott, interior designer and television personality also lives locally, and orchestral conductor Michael Bowles (1909–1998) grew up in Boyle. The writer John McGahern grew up near Boyle and Boyle is mentioned in several of his books. In his novel The Dark, a scene is played out in the dining room of the former Royal Hotel, overlooking the river. Singer John Reilly lived in Boyle, and is credited by Christy Moore as a source of several well-known folk standards. Other local recording artists include The Grehan Sisters, who hosted Christy Moore's first broadcast as a guest on their BBC radio series. London-born John Carty is an Irish traditional musician and has lived in Boyle since 2003. Caitlín Ní Thoirbheird was a Conradh na Gaeilge activist and Irish language educator in the early 20th century. She spent her life in Boyle. Arts festival Boyle Arts Festival is a summer event and has been held since 1990 - with the 2016 event billed as the 27th festival. Events include an art exhibition of works by contemporary Irish artists, classical and traditional music, poetry, drama, lectures and children's events. See also List of towns and villages in Ireland Market Houses in Ireland References External links "Real Boyle" website "Boyle Today" website Towns and villages in County Roscommon Civil parishes of County Roscommon
1006325	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Gallo	Joe Gallo	Joseph Gallo (April 7, 1929 – April 7, 1972), also known as "Crazy Joe", was an Italian-American mobster of the Colombo crime family of New York City. In his youth, Gallo was diagnosed with schizophrenia after an arrest. He soon became an enforcer in the Profaci crime family, later forming his own crew which included his brothers Larry and Albert. In 1957, Joe Profaci allegedly asked Gallo and his crew to murder Albert Anastasia, the boss of the Gambino crime family; Anastasia was murdered on October 25 at a barber shop in midtown Manhattan. In 1961, the Gallo brothers kidnapped four of Profaci's top men: underboss Joseph Magliocco, Frank Profaci (Joe Profaci's brother), caporegime Salvatore Musacchia and soldier John Scimone, demanding a more favorable financial scheme for the hostages' release. After a few weeks of negotiation, Profaci and his consigliere, Charles "the Sidge" LoCicero, made a deal with the Gallos and secured the peaceful release of the hostages. This incited the First Colombo War. In 1961, Gallo was convicted of conspiracy and extortion for attempting to extort money from a businessman, and was sentenced to seven-to-fourteen years in prison. While Gallo was imprisoned, Profaci died of cancer in 1962, Magliocco took over, and the Gallo crew attempted to kill Carmine Persico in 1963. Patriarca family boss Raymond L.S. Patriarca negotiated a peace agreement between the two factions, but after Gallo was released from prison on April 11, 1971, he stated that the agreement did not apply to him because he was in prison when it was negotiated. Upon his release, a peace offering of $1,000 was made by boss Joseph Colombo, but Gallo demanded $100,000; Colombo refused. On June 28, 1971, at an Italian-American Civil Rights League rally in Columbus Circle in Manhattan, Colombo was shot three times by an African-American gunman who was immediately killed by Colombo's bodyguards; Colombo survived the shooting but was paralyzed. Although many in the Colombo family blamed Gallo for the shooting, the police eventually concluded that the gunman acted alone after they had questioned Gallo. The Colombo family leadership was convinced that Gallo ordered the murder after his falling out with the family, inciting the Second Colombo War. On April 7, 1972, around 4:30 a.m., Gallo was shot dead at Umbertos Clam House in Manhattan's Little Italy while celebrating his 43rd birthday; several accounts have been given as to who was the killer. Early life Joe Gallo was born in the Red Hook, Brooklyn, area of New York City. His parents were Umberto and Mary Gallo. A bootlegger during Prohibition, Umberto did little to discourage his three sons from participating in local criminal activity. In 1949, after viewing the film Kiss of Death, Joe began mimicking Richard Widmark's gangster character "Tommy Udo" and reciting movie dialogue. In 1950, after an arrest, Gallo was temporarily placed in Kings County Hospital Center in Brooklyn, where he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. Albert Seedman, the head of New York City Police Department's Detective Bureau, called Gallo "that little guy with steel balls". Gallo's brothers, Larry and Albert "Kid Blast" Gallo, were also his criminal associates. Gallo's first wife whom he married around 1960, divorced in the mid-1960s, and then remarried in July 1971 was Las Vegas showgirl Jeffie Lee Boyd. Later in 1971, Jeffie divorced Gallo again. The couple had one daughter, Joie. In March 1972, three weeks before his death, Gallo married 29-year-old actress Sina Essary. He became the stepfather of Sina's daughter, Lisa Essary-Gallo (born 1962). Early criminal career Gallo started as an enforcer and hitman for Joe Profaci in the Profaci crime family. He ran floating dice and high-stakes card games, an extortion racket, and a numbers game betting operation. Gallo's headquarters was an apartment on President Street in Brooklyn, dubbed "The Dormitory", where he allegedly kept a pet lion named Cleo in the basement. Within a few years, Gallo secretly owned several Manhattan nightclubs and two sweat shops in the Garment District. In 1957, Profaci allegedly asked Gallo and his crew to murder Albert Anastasia, the boss of the Gambino crime family. Anastasia's underboss, Carlo Gambino, wanted to replace him and asked Profaci for assistance. On October 25, Anastasia entered the barber shop at the Park Sheraton Hotel in midtown Manhattan. As Anastasia relaxed in the barber's chair, two men—scarves covering their faces—rushed in, shoved the barber out of the way, and killed the Gambino boss in a hail of bullets. Anastasia's killers have never been conclusively identified, but Carmine Persico later claimed that he and Gallo had shot Anastasia, joking that he was part of Gallo's "barbershop quintet". The following year, Gallo and his brothers were summoned to Washington, D.C., to testify before the McClellan Committee of the United States Senate on organized crime. While visiting Senate Counsel Robert F. Kennedy in his office, Gallo flirted with Kennedy's secretary and told Kennedy his carpet would be excellent for a dice game. On the witness stand, none of the brothers provided any useful information. First Colombo War On February 27, 1961, the Gallo brothers kidnapped four of Profaci's top men: underboss Joseph Magliocco, Frank Profaci (Joe Profaci's brother), caporegime Salvatore Musacchia and soldier John Scimone. Profaci himself eluded capture and flew to sanctuary in Florida. While holding the hostages, Larry and Albert sent Joe to California. The Gallos demanded a more favorable financial scheme for the hostages' release. Joe wanted to kill one hostage and demand $100,000 before negotiations, but his brother Larry overruled him. After a few weeks of negotiation, Profaci and his consigliere, Charles "the Sidge" LoCicero, made a deal with the Gallos and secured the peaceful release of the hostages. However, Profaci had no intention of honoring this peace agreement. On August 20, 1961, he ordered the murders of Larry Gallo and Joseph "Joe Jelly" Gioielli, a member of the Gallo crew. Gunmen allegedly murdered Gioielli after inviting him to go fishing. Larry survived a strangulation attempt by Persico and Salvatore "Sally" D'Ambrosio at the Sahara club in East Flatbush after a police officer intervened. The Gallo brothers had been previously aligned with Persico against Profaci and his loyalists; they then began calling Persico "the Snake" after he had betrayed them. The gang war continued, resulting in nine murders and three disappearances. With the start of the war, the Gallo crew retreated to the Dormitory. Persico was indicted later that year for the attempted murder of Larry Gallo, but the charges were dropped when Larry refused to testify. In November 1961, Gallo was convicted of conspiracy and extortion for attempting to extort money from a businessman. On December 21 of that year, he was sentenced to seven-to-fourteen years in prison. Prison While serving his sentence, Gallo was incarcerated at three New York state prisons: Green Haven Correctional Facility, Attica Correctional Facility, and Auburn Correctional Facility. In 1962, while Gallo was serving time in Attica, his brothers Larry and Albert, along with five other members of the Gallo crew, rushed into a burning Brooklyn tenement near their hangout, the Longshore Rest Room, and rescued six children and their mother from a fire. The crew was briefly celebrated in the press. While at Green Haven, Gallo became friends with African-American drug trafficker Leroy "Nicky" Barnes. Gallo predicted a power shift in the Harlem drug rackets towards black gangs, and coached Barnes on how to upgrade his criminal organization. On August 29, 1964, Gallo sued the Department of Corrections, stating that guards inflicted cruel and unusual punishment on him at Green Haven after he allowed a black barber to cut his hair. The prison commissioner characterized Gallo as a belligerent inmate and an agitator. At Auburn, Gallo took up watercolor painting and became an avid reader. He worked as an elevator operator in the prison's woodworking shop. During a prison riot at Auburn, he rescued a severely wounded corrections officer from angry inmates. The officer later testified for Gallo at a parole hearing. According to Donald Frankos, a fellow inmate at Auburn, Gallo was "articulate and had excellent verbal skills being able to describe gouging a man's guts out with the same eloquent ease that he used when discussing classical literature." In May 1968, while Gallo was still in prison, his brother Larry died of cancer. Release from prison and Second Colombo War While Gallo was serving his sentence, big changes were happening in the Profaci family. On June 7, 1962, after a long illness, Profaci died of cancer. Magliocco took over and continued the battle with Gallo's brothers. On May 19, 1963, a Gallo hit team shot Persico multiple times, but he survived. In 1963, through negotiations with Patriarca family boss Raymond L.S. Patriarca, a peace agreement was reached between the two factions. Gallo later stated that the peace agreement did not apply to him because he was in prison when it was negotiated. Later in 1963, The Commission forced Magliocco to resign after the body discovered he helped formulate a plot to overthrow them, and installed Joseph Colombo, an ally of Gambino, as the new Profaci family boss; the Profaci family then became the Colombo crime family. However, Colombo soon alienated Gambino with his establishment of the Italian-American Civil Rights League and the media attention that it entailed. Gallo was released from prison on April 11, 1971. His second wife, Sina, described him shortly after his release, saying he appeared extremely frail and pale. "He looked like an old man. He was a bag of bones. You could see the remnants of what had been a strikingly handsome man in his youth. He had beautiful features—beautiful nose, beautiful mouth and piercing blue eyes." Gallo soon became a part of New York high society. His connection started when actor Jerry Orbach played the inept mobster Kid Sally Palumbo in the 1971 film The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight, a role based loosely on Gallo. After his release, Colombo and Joseph Yacovelli invited Gallo to a peace meeting with an offering of $1,000. Gallo reportedly told the family representatives that he was not bound by the 1963 peace agreement and demanded $100,000 to settle the dispute, to which Colombo refused. On June 28, 1971, at the second League rally in Columbus Circle in Manhattan, Colombo was shot three times, once being in the head, by an African-American gunman named Jerome A. Johnson; Johnson was immediately killed by Colombo's bodyguards. Colombo survived the shooting, but was paralyzed until his death in May 1978. Although many in the Colombo family blamed Gallo for the shooting, the police eventually concluded that Johnson was a lone gunman after they had questioned Gallo. The Colombo leadership was convinced that Gallo ordered the murder after his falling out with the family. Murder On April 7, 1972, around 4:30 a.m., Gallo and his family entered Umbertos Clam House in Manhattan's Little Italy to celebrate his 43rd birthday with sister Carmella, wife Sina, her daughter Lisa, his bodyguard Peter "Pete the Greek" Diapoulas, and Diapoulas's companion. Earlier that evening, the Gallo party had visited the Copacabana with Jerry Orbach and his wife, Marta, to see a performance by comedian Don Rickles and singer Peter Lemongello. Once at Umbertos, the Gallo party took two tables, with Gallo and Diapoulas facing the wall. Rickles and Lemongello, whom Gallo had invited to join them at Umbertos, managed to find an excuse to get out of the engagement, possibly saving their lives. Colombo associate Joseph Luparelli claimed he was sitting at the bar, unbeknownst to Gallo. When Luparelli saw Gallo, he claimed he immediately left Umbertos and walked to a Colombo hangout two blocks away. After contacting Yacovelli, Luparelli said he recruited Colombo associates Philip Gambino, Carmine "Sonny Pinto" DiBiase, and two other men reputedly members of the Patriarca family to kill Gallo due to their belief the Colombo family had a contract on Gallo's life. On reaching Umbertos, Luparelli said he stayed in the car and the other four men went inside through the back door. Between seafood courses, Luparelli asserted the four gunmen walked into the dining room and opened fire with .32- and .38 caliber revolvers. Gallo swore and attempted to draw his handgun, but twenty shots were fired at him, and he was hit in the back, elbow and buttock. After overturning a butcher block dining table, Gallo staggered to the front door. Witnesses claimed that he was attempting to draw fire away from his family. Diapoulas was shot once in the hip. The mortally wounded Gallo stumbled into the street and collapsed. He was taken in a police car to Beekman-Downtown Hospital where he was pronounced dead shortly after at around 5:30 a.m. Luparelli's account earned wide publicity, but was met with skepticism by police. NYPD homicide detective Joe Coffey, who inherited the Gallo case from original investigators, reported that based on eyewitness testimony and crime scene reconstruction police always believed the Gallo shooter was a lone man. Coffey also asserted that police circulated a false story about three shooters to help screen information from supposed witnesses or informers: anyone who reported three gunmen rather than one was immediately deemed unreliable. Author Charles Brandt notes that "[Luparelli's] statement was never corroborated in a single detail" and resulted in no arrests. Brandt further speculates that Luparalli's confession was most likely disinformation ordered by his Colombo family superiors intended to defuse tensions after the Gallo shooting. Umbertos was owned by associates of the Genovese crime family, which would normally imply the Genovese family had given their blessing to a killing on their territory. But Luparelli's account, that the shooting was a spontaneous unplanned act without approval from high-ranking mafiosi, took pressure off the feuding Colombo and Genovese families. A differing but equally disputed<ref name="esq">[https://www.esquire.com/entertainment/a30061890/joseph-crazy-joe-gallo-the-irishman-true-story/ The Irishman'''s Joe Gallo Was One of New York's Most Famous Reputed Mobsters], Esquire</ref> account of the murder was offered by Frank Sheeran, a hitman and labor union boss. Shortly before his death in 2003, Sheeran claimed that he was the lone triggerman in the Gallo hit acting on orders from mobster Russell Bufalino, who felt that Gallo was drawing undue attention with his flashy lifestyle and Italian-American Civil Rights League. Coffey and several other New York police officers accept that Sheeran killed Gallo. Furthermore, an eyewitness at Umbertos on the night of the incident, later a New York Times editor who spoke on condition of anonymity, also identified Sheeran as the man she observed shooting Gallo. Jerry Capeci, a journalist and Mafia expert who was at Umbertos shortly after the shooting as a young reporter for the New York Post, later wrote if he were "forced to make a choice" about who shot Gallo, Sheeran was the most likely culprit. Bill Tonelli disputes the truthfulness of Sheeran's claim in his Slate article "The Lies of the Irishman", as does Harvard Law School professor Jack Goldsmith in "Jimmy Hoffa and 'The Irishman': A True Crime Story?" which appeared in The New York Review of Books. Former Colombo family capo Michael Franzese, also disputes that Sheeran was the killer when reviewing the scene depicting the assassination in The Irishman, claiming that 'he knows for a fact what happened there' based on his personal involvement with the mafia at the time. Gallo's widow had later stated she remembered the attack involving multiple men, all of which were short and appeared to be Italian. Sheeran, on the other hand, was of mixed Irish-Swedish descent and 6'4". Aftermath Gallo's funeral was held under police surveillance; his sister Carmella declared over his open coffin that "the streets are going to run red with blood, Joey!" Looking for revenge, Albert Gallo sent a gunman from Las Vegas to the Neapolitan Noodle restaurant in Manhattan, where Yacovelli, Alphonse Persico, and Gennaro Langella were dining. However, the gunman did not recognize the mobsters and shot four innocent diners instead, killing two of them. After this assassination attempt, Yacovelli fled New York, leaving Persico as the new boss. The Colombo family, led by the imprisoned Persico, was plunged into a second internecine war which lasted for several years, until a 1974 agreement allowed Albert and his remaining crew to join the Genovese family. An increasingly paranoid Luparelli fled to California, then contacted the Federal Bureau of Investigation and reached a deal to become a government witness. He then implicated the four gunmen in the Gallo murder. However, the police could not bring charges against them; there was no corroborating evidence and Luparelli was deemed an unreliable witness. No one was ever charged in Gallo's murder. Gallo Crew Albert "Kid Blast" Gallo – transferred to Genovese crime family in 1975 Larry Gallo – died of cancer in 1968 Frank "Punchy" Illiano – transferred to Genovese crime family in 1975, died in January 2014 Bobby Boriello – transferred to Gambino crime family in 1972, murdered in 1991 on orders of Anthony Casso Nicholas Bianco – transferred to Patriarca crime family in 1963, died of natural causes in 1994 Vic Amuso – transferred to Lucchese crime family, serving life in prison Joseph "Joe Pesh" Luparelli – entered witness protection program in 1972, current location unknown Joe Gioelli – murdered in 1961 by Profaci gunmen Carmine "the Snake" Persico – Colombo family boss, died in 2019 while serving 139-year sentence in prison Michael Rizzitello – transferred to Los Angeles crime family, died while incarcerated due to complications of cancer in 2005 Peter Diapoulas John Cutrone – led breakaway faction from Gallo crew, murdered in 1976 by unknown gunmen Gerry Basciano – seceded from Gallo crew, murdered in 1976 by unknown gunmen Steve Cirrilo – murdered in 1974 by Cutrone gunmen Joseph Cardiello – defected to Profaci, murdered by Gallo gunmen on December 10, 1963 Louis Mariani – murdered by Profaci gunmen on August 10, 1963 Leonard "Big Lenny" Dello – died in 2009 John Commarato Alfonso Serantonio Joseph Yancone Eugene LaGana Frank Balzano Sergio "SergForce" Gallo Dan 'Big Fish' Cantelliani Hugh "Apples" McIntosh – died in 1997 In popular culture Author Jimmy Breslin's 1969 book The Gang That Couldn't Shoot Straight was a fictionalized and satirical depiction of Gallo's war with the Profaci family. It was made into a 1971 feature film with Jerry Orbach playing Kid Sally Palumbo, a surrogate for Gallo. After his murder, producer Dino De Laurentiis produced a more serious, but still fictionalized drama about Gallo titled Crazy Joe, released in 1974. Based on newspaper articles by reporter Nicholas Gage, the movie was directed by Carlo Lizzani and starred Peter Boyle as the title character. Gallo is the main character in Bob Dylan's biographical, 12-verse ballad "Joey". The song appears in Dylan's 1976 album Desire. Dylan was criticized for overly romanticizing Gallo's life in the song. Gallo is portrayed by Sebastian Maniscalco in the 2019 Martin Scorsese film The Irishman. See also List of unsolved murders References Further reading Albanese, S. Jay, Contemporary Issues in Organized Crime'', Criminal Justice Press 1995 External links Joey Gallo's Murder New York City Gangland by Arthur Nash, Chapter 6: "The Godfather Game: Gangland Jumps the Shark" Gallo article at americanmafia.com Joe Gallo Mafia Archives at thechicagosyndicate.com Death of Gallo at crimelibrary.com Former Umberto's Clam House at Google Maps Green-Wood Cemetery Burial Search 1929 births 1972 deaths 1972 murders in the United States 20th-century American criminals American people convicted of murder Burials at Green-Wood Cemetery Colombo crime family Deaths by firearm in Manhattan Male murder victims Murdered American gangsters of Italian descent People from Red Hook, Brooklyn People murdered by the Colombo crime family People murdered in New York City People with schizophrenia Unsolved murders in the United States
1018479	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal%20Jordan	Hal Jordan	Harold "Hal" Jordan, also known as Green Lantern, is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created in 1959 by writer John Broome and artist Gil Kane, and first appeared in Showcase #22 (October 1959). Hal Jordan is a reinvention of the previous Green Lantern who appeared in 1940s comic books as the character Alan Scott. Hal Jordan is a former combat pilot who works for Ferris Aircraft as a test pilot, a member and occasionally leader of an intergalactic police force called the Green Lantern Corps, as well as a founding member of the Justice League, DC's flagship superhero team, alongside well-known heroes such as Batman, Superman, and Wonder Woman. He fights evil across the universe with a ring that grants him a variety of superpowers, but is usually portrayed as one of the protectors of Sector 2814, which is the sector where Earth resides. His powers derive from his power ring and Green Lantern battery, which in the hands of someone capable of overcoming great fear allows the user to channel their will power into creating all manner of fantastic constructs. Jordan uses this power to fly, even through the vacuum of space; to create shields, swords, and lasers; and to construct his Green Lantern costume, which protects his secret identity in his civilian life on Earth. Jordan and all other Green Lanterns are monitored and empowered by the mysterious Guardians of the Universe, who were developed from an idea editor Julius Schwartz and Broome had originally conceived years prior in a story featuring Captain Comet in Strange Adventures #22 (July 1952) entitled "Guardians of the Clockwork Universe". During the 1990s, Jordan also appeared as a villain. The story line Emerald Twilight saw a Jordan traumatized by the supervillain Mongul's destruction of Jordan's hometown Coast City, adopt the name "Parallax", and threaten to destroy the universe. In subsequent years, DC Comics rehabilitated the character, first by having Jordan seek redemption for his actions as Parallax, and later by revealing that Parallax was in fact an evil cosmic entity that corrupted Jordan and took control of his actions. Between the character's stint as Parallax and his return to DC Comics as a heroic Green Lantern once more, the character also briefly served as the Spectre, a supernatural character in DC Comics stories who acts as God's wrathful agent on Earth. Outside of comics, Hal Jordan has appeared in various animated projects, video games and live-action. Jordan's original design in the comics was based on actor Paul Newman, and the character is ranked 7th on IGN's in the Top 100 Comic Book Heroes in 2011. In 2013, Hal Jordan placed 4th on IGN's Top 25 Heroes of DC Comics. Hal Jordan made his cinematic debut in the 2011 film Green Lantern, played by Ryan Reynolds. Publication history Recreated for the Silver Age After achieving great success in 1956 in reviving the Golden Age character The Flash, DC editor Julius Schwartz looked toward recreating the Green Lantern from the Golden Age of Comic Books. Drawing from his love for science-fiction, Schwartz intended to show the new Green Lantern in a more modern light, enlisting writer John Broome and artist Gil Kane, who in 1959 would reintroduce Green Lantern to the world in Showcase #22 (October 1959) by creating Hal Jordan. The character was a success, and it was quickly decided to follow up his three-issue run on Showcase with a self-titled series. Green Lantern #1 began in July–August 1960 and would continue until #89 in April–May 1972. Starting in issue #17, Gardner Fox joined the book to share writing duties with John Broome. The quartet of Schwartz, Broome, Fox, and Kane remained the core creative team until 1970. O'Neil/Adams and socially-conscious Green Lantern/Green Arrow Starting with issue #76 (April 1970), Dennis O'Neil took over scripting and Neal Adams, who had drawn the cover of issue #63, became the series' artist. O'Neil and Adams had already begun preparation for the classic run in the form of their re-workings of another DC superhero, the archer Green Arrow. In an introduction to the 1983 reprinting of this O'Neil/Adams run, O'Neil explains that he wondered if he could represent his own political beliefs in comics and take on social issues of the late sixties and early seventies. O'Neil devised the idea of portraying Hal Jordan, effectively an intergalactic law enforcement officer, as an establishment gradualist liberal figure against Oliver Queen (Green Arrow), who O'Neil had characterized as a lusty outspoken anarchist who would stand in for the counter-culture movement. The first of these socially motivated Green Lantern/Green Arrow stories was written with Gil Kane slated to be the artist, but Kane dropped out and was replaced by Neal Adams. The stories tackled questions of power, racism, sexism, and exploitation, and remain viewed in the comics community as the first socially-conscious superhero stories. Despite the work of Adams and O'Neil, Green Lantern sales had been in a major decline at the time Green Arrow was brought on as co-star, and their stories failed to revive the sales figures. Green Lantern was canceled with issue #89 (April/May 1972), and the climactic story arc of the Green Lantern/Green Arrow series was published as a back-up feature in The Flash #217 through #219. In sharp contrast to the socially relevant tales which preceded it, this story centered on emotional themes, with Green Arrow struggling to deal with the guilt of having killed a man. Green Lantern continued to appear in backup stories of Flash from 1972 until the Green Lantern title was resumed in 1976. 1980s exile In Green Lantern #151 (April 1982) through #172 (January 1984), Jordan is exiled into space for a year by the Guardians in order to prove his loyalty to the Green Lantern Corps, having been accused of paying too much attention to Earth when he had an entire "sector" of the cosmos to patrol. When he returns to Earth, he finds himself embroiled in a dispute with Carol Ferris. Faced with a choice between love and the power ring, Jordan resigns from the Corps. The Guardians call Jordan's backup, John Stewart, to regular duty as his replacement. In 1985, the "Crisis on Infinite Earths" storyline that rebooted much of DC Comics' character continuity saw Jordan again take up the mantle of Green Lantern. The new Corps, with seven members residing on Earth, included several aliens, John Stewart, and Guy Gardner. Jordan becomes romantically involved with an alien Lantern named Arisia, for which he comes under fire due to Arisia being only a teenager. The alien Lanterns take a more direct hand in human affairs, a fact not appreciated by human governments. Eventually, the Earth corps break up, several members returning to their home sectors. The Guardians soon return to this dimension, and Jordan works with them to rebuild the fractured Corps. 1990s During this time, the character's origin story is re-told and expanded in two limited series by Keith Giffen, Gerard Jones, and James Owsley, Emerald Dawn and Emerald Dawn II. The first series expanded the role of the Corps in his origin and also provided more details about his childhood and his relationship with his father and brothers, while the sequel detailed the role of Jordan in the downfall of Sinestro. In the 1992 prestige format graphic novel Green Lantern: Ganthet's Tale, Hal Jordan first encounters Ganthet, one of the Guardians of the Universe. Ganthet asks Hal to help him battle a renegade Guardian who has attempted to use a time machine to change history. Reign of the Supermen, Destruction of Coast City, and transformation into Parallax In the 1993 Reign of the Supermen! storyline, the alien tyrant Mongul and his forces destroy Coast City (Jordan's former home), murdering all of its seven million inhabitants, while Jordan was off world. Angered, he flies to Engine City and attacks Mongul, eventually knocking him out with Steel's hammer. This leads into the Emerald Twilight arc, which sees Jordan using his power ring to recreate Coast City as an instrument in the process of overcoming his grief, and talking to ring-created versions of his old girlfriend and parents. After his ring's power expires, a projection of a Guardian appears and admonishes him for using the ring for personal gain and summons him to Oa (the homeworld of the Guardians and the Green Lantern Corps) for disciplinary action. Angered at what he sees as the Guardians' ungrateful and callous behavior, Jordan absorbs the energy from the Guardian's projection, goes insane and attacks Oa to seize the full power of the Central Power Battery (the source of power for all Green Lanterns), defeating and severely injuring several members of the Green Lantern Corps in the process, taking their power rings as his own and leaving them to die in space. He arrives on Oa and kills Kilowog, Sinestro, and all the Guardians except for Ganthet, who was protected by the other Guardians and survived without Jordan's knowledge. He then renounces his life as Green Lantern, adopting the name Parallax after absorbing the Power Battery's vast powers. Ganthet designates Kyle Rayner to replace Jordan as the Green Lantern of Earth when Rayner comes into possession of the last power ring, created from the shattered remains of Jordan's. Guy Gardner has visions of the Green Lantern Corps' destruction and his yellow power ring's energy (being powered by residual Green Lantern's energy) starts to fluctuate. Soon after, Gardner goes to Oa to investigate, bringing Martian Manhunter, Darkstar (Ferrin Colos), The Ray, Wonder Woman, Captain Atom, Alan Scott and Arisia with him. Jordan uses the element of surprise, attacks, and easily defeats them, leaving Guy in a coma. After the battle, Jordan sends them all back to Earth warning them to leave him alone in the future. Not long afterwards, Parallax attempts to rewrite history to his own liking with the help of Extant in the universe-wide event Zero Hour: Crisis in Time. Parallax destroys the Time Trapper and attempts to remake the universe into a perfect, peaceful place, causing time disruptions throughout the universe. Superman, Kyle Rayner and Metron call upon Earth's heroes to stop the mysterious disturbances. Jordan and Extant are eventually defeated when Hal exhausts most of his power from both fighting and manipulating the time stream. Green Arrow then takes advantage of Jordan's drained state and shoots an arrow into a weakened Jordan's chest. Jordan makes a brief and redemptory appearance as Parallax in the 1996 Final Night miniseries/crossover storyline, apparently sacrificing his life to combat a threat to the solar system. Transformation into Spectre In the 1999 mini-series Day of Judgment, Jordan becomes the newest incarnation of the Spectre, released from Purgatory after a fallen angel attempted to take that power. Soon after assuming this mantle, Jordan chooses to bend his mission from a spirit of vengeance to one of redemption, also making other appearances through some of DC Comics' other story lines, such as advising Superman during the Emperor Joker storyline (where the Joker steals the reality-warping power of Mister Mxyzptlk) and erases all public knowledge of Wally West's identity as the Flash after his terrible first battle with Zoom, which led to his wife miscarrying their twins. He also appeared in a 4-part story arc in the series Legends of the DC Universe (issues #33–36). A new series based on this premise, titled The Spectre (vol. 4), ran for 27 issues from 2001 to 2003. In it, Hal loses his beloved brother, Jack Jordan, to a supernatural assassin. After the series ended, Jordan was forced to return, temporarily, to the Spectre's mission of vengeance, following a confrontation between the new Justice Society of America and the Spirit King, an old foe of the Spectre and Mister Terrific, who had managed to "resurrect" the ghosts of all those the Spectre had damned to Hell when Jordan's attempt to turn the Spectre's mission to redemption weakened his hold on the damned, until Hal 'accepted' his original mission of vengeance. During the Identity Crisis storyline, Green Arrow visits Jordan at his grave, asking to exact revenge on Sue Dibny's killer. Although Hal admits knowing the culprit's identity (revealed later was Jean Loring), he refused as the Spectre to a higher purpose, and implying to Oliver that the killer would eventually be caught, thus explaining the Spectre's inaction. 2000s In 2004, DC launched the Green Lantern: Rebirth miniseries which brought Hal Jordan back to life and made him a Green Lantern once again, and in a redesigned Corps uniform. Shortly after the conclusion of Rebirth, DC Comics began a new Green Lantern (vol. 4) series, beginning with a new #1 and retconning his past murders as Parallax as the result of an intergalactic fear-driven parasite. The Green Lantern Corps has also been successfully rebuilt. Despite the revelation that Hal's past villainous activity was because of the influence of the parasite Parallax, many of his fellow Corps officers are unwilling to trust him, even Jordan, on some levels, believes the reason that Parallax succeeded in possessing him was because he surrendered to it, and thus acknowledges that he truly has a dark side. Despite being freed from Parallax, his experience also leads him occasionally to have a lack of confidence and self-doubt, making him no longer a daredevil he once was. Jordan also becomes friends with Kyle Rayner after their first battle with Parallax. In the new volume, Jordan moves to the nearly deserted Coast City, which is slowly being rebuilt. Reinstated as a captain in the United States Air Force, Jordan now works in the test pilot program at Edwards Air Force Base. The series introduces new supporting characters for Hal, including a man from his and his late-father's pasts, Air Force General Jonathan "Herc" Stone, who learns his secret identity during a battle with the Manhunters and acts as his ally. He also begins to develop a romantic attraction with his fellow pilot, the beautiful Captain Jillian "Cowgirl" Pearlman. Returning characters also include Carol Ferris, Tom Kalmaku, and Jordan's younger brother James Jordan with his sister-in-law Susan and their children, Howard and Jane. In this new title, he faces revamped versions of his Silver Age foes such as Hector Hammond, The Shark and Black Hand. A new account of Green Lantern's origins is also released as part of this series. In this new origin, Hal Jordan is working as an assistant mechanic under Tom Kalmaku, barred from flying due to his insubordination while in the USAF and his employer's lingering guilt about his father's death in the line of duty. Green Lantern Abin Sur, while fighting the villain Atrocitus, crashes near Coast City. Knowing he is close to death, Sur sends his ring to seek a replacement (as all rings do when their wearer dies), and his ring fetches Jordan. Sur then informs Jordan that he is to replace him as the Green Lantern of Sector 2814. Infinite Crisis As part of DC's 2006 event Infinite Crisis, Hal helps briefly with the attack of the OMACs and Brother Eye. He also fights alongside a group of heroes against the Society of Supervillains, defending Metropolis. Guy Gardner leads the Green Lantern Corps attack against Superboy-Prime with Hal appearing in the group. As part of DC's post-Infinite Crisis retconning of the entire universe, all current stories skipped ahead one year in an event called One Year Later. This brought drastic changes to Hal Jordan's life, as with every other hero in the DC Universe. It is revealed that Jordan spent time as a P.O.W. in an unnamed conflict and has feelings of guilt from his inability to free himself and his fellow captives. Sinestro Corps War and other Pre-Flashpoint stories Hal and the rest of the Green Lantern Corps find themselves at war with Sinestro and his army, the Sinestro Corps during the events of the Sinestro Corps War As a Green Lantern native to Earth, Hal is featured in the Final Crisis mini-series by Grant Morrison. In the Agent Orange story arc, Jordan is briefly in command of Agent Orange's power battery after he steals it from Agent Orange in a battle. The orange light of avarice converses with Jordan, his costume changes, and he becomes the new Agent Orange. However, Larfleeze quickly takes his power battery back from Jordan. Jordan is also a character of focus in the new Justice League of America series as a charter member of the revamped JLA. He is also involved in the first plotline of the Brave and the Bold monthly series, teaming up first with Batman and later Supergirl. When teamed with the fledgling Supergirl, Hal is very impressed with her cleverness, although he finds her flirtatious behavior somewhat unnerving. In the Justice League: Cry for Justice mini-series, Hal leads his own Justice League with Green Arrow, Shazam, Supergirl, Congorilla, Starman, Batwoman, and the Atom in order to avenge the deaths of Martian Manhunter and Batman. Jordan eventually recruits some of the former Titans members for the League's new lineup, including Batman's successor Dick Grayson, Donna Troy, and Starfire. 2010s During the Blackest Night event, Hal allies himself with six other Lantern Corps during The War of Light. He finds himself facing many of his deceased allies, enemies, and people he failed to save reanimated as undead Black Lanterns under the control of the Green Lantern Corps' ancient enemy Nekron. Hal finds himself not only teaming up with Barry Allen (otherwise known as The Flash), who is also resurrected from his death, but also must work with his enemies Sinestro, Atrocitus, Larfleeze, and his former lover Carol Ferris. New 52 In 2011, after the universe-altering event Flashpoint, DC Comics relaunched its entire line of stories. In this era, Jordan returns to civilian life on Earth, having been discharged from the United States Air Force. This iteration of the hero, written by Geoff Johns and Robert Venditti, sees him team up with the villain Sinestro as the pair encounter ramifications of the Brightest Day/Blackest Night storylines, as well as a crossover with New Gods characters in Green Lantern: Godhead. Hal Jordan is featured as a part of Justice League series relaunch as well. The initial issues of the title take place five years prior as Jordan assists Batman against a mysterious threat. It is shown he is already friends with Barry Allen and each know the other's secret identity. Hal also believes with the ring he can overcome anything by himself by sheer force of will. This leads to reckless behavior that almost gets him killed. It is only when Batman reminds him of his mortality by revealing his own identity as Bruce Wayne that Hal reconsiders his approach. Five years after the team forms, Green Lantern resigns from the Justice League in an effort to keep the group functioning after his behavior put the team in peril during their fight with David Graves. Subsequently, he returns to the Justice League to help Jessica Cruz learn how to control her powers. In the aftermath, Hal gets a new look as he goes rogue from the Green Lantern Corps in order to create a scapegoat for the Corps and be the focus of the universe's blame and distrust for everything that had taken place in recent issues, such as the Third Army's assault or Relic's attack. The Corps itself – unaware of Jordan's intentions to show the universe that the Green Lanterns are not corrupt and will go after one of their own – believes that he has actually betrayed them when he attacks Kilowog. Along the way, Jordan steals a Green Lantern prototype gauntlet and power pack from the armoury, allowing him to continue to operate as a hero without the need for a power ring, although he is sometimes required to fight other Lanterns to maintain the illusion of independence. DC Rebirth Jordan returns to Earth temporarily to assign Simon Baz and Jessica Cruz the task of protecting Earth while he and the rest of the human Green Lanterns are away. He takes their power batteries and fuses them into a single battery to help the two bond as Lantern partners. Subsequently, in DC Rebirth, Hal returns as Green Lantern again, now equipped with his self-constructed power ring, searching for the rest of the Green Lanterns and hunting down the Sinestro Corps. Hal takes on several Yellow Lanterns before fighting Sinestro and getting injured. He is healed by Soranik, Sinestro's daughter who now is a Yellow Lantern like her father. After being healed, he takes on and defeats Sinestro and saves Guy Gardner, who was being tortured by Sinestro. Hal is now reunited with the Green Lanterns who have entered a war with the Sinestro Corps. The battle leads them to the planet of Green Lantern Tomar-Tu. As they fight, Braniac shrinks the planet with the Lanterns in it. The shrunken planet is given to the Grand Collector which turns out to be Larfleeze, the Orange Lantern. Hal is believed to be dead in the destruction that came with the shrinking of the planet. He has been transported to the Emerald Space, an afterlife for deceased Lanterns. Guardians, Ganthet and Sayd call upon White Lantern Kyle Rayner to rescue Hal. Kyle pulls him out of the Emerald Space and the two meet up with the rest and escape from the shrunken planet and restore it. Larfleeze escapes with his orange construct Lanterns. The Green and Yellow Lanterns form an alliance. Jordan appears with the Justice League in the Dark Nights: Metal mini-series. The Green Lantern With writer Grant Morrison taking the helm, Jordan returns to interstellar duty after a brief reprieve. Discovering a cosmic conspiracy is afoot, Jordan, under the orders of The Guardians Of The Universe, goes undercover and infiltrates the ranks of the sinister new threat of Controller Mu's Blackstars. There's a double-agent in the Green Lantern force, a traitor who's aiding these new antagonists and the undercover op is undertaken to root out the mole, while Jordan can gather intel and take down the threat. Mu is a lone Controller, with his Blackstars being an extremist separatist sect and a true cult, treating the idea of 'control' as almost a kind of religion. The story seems Jordan dealing with the threat of The Blackstars, while forming a dynamic with their general, Countess Belzebeth. With The Blackstars hunting for 5 mysterious 'components' to change reality, Jordan is faced with tough cases to crack. He arrests a Terravore pretending to be god and busts Volgar Zo's Planet Trafficking Ring, resolving the issue of Grand Theft Planet. He finds his old foe Evil Star's Star-Band stolen by The Blackstars. He dons the persona of 'The Man With No Name' to find intel. He faces the deadly trials and tests of a Blackstar on the Vampire World of Vorr. He then, with the aid of Belzebeth, joins The Blackstars in proper fashion and is dubbed a Knight of O.M.E.N. (Over-Master's Executive Network), the network under which all Blackstars operate. And as is law in the cult, he takes on a new name: Blackstar Parallax. He then faces down his old pal Adam Strange, forced to kill him to prove his loyalty to Mu and wins, while actually sparing and saving Adam's life through deceit. He then teams up with Adam, his wife Alanna and their daughter Alea to save the day. Controller Mu is killed by Alanna after he calls Jordan's bluff and his cover's busted. But Mu's 'death' sets off The U-Bomb to end the universe, which Jordan stops utilizing the power of the all Green Lanterns, mainlining The Central Power Battery. Then he vanishes, savior once more, presumed dead. But he's in truth spared and saved by his ring, which took him inside the universe it contains, where in classic foe Myrwhydden is caged. There he meets the A.I of his ring, Pengowirr (an anagram of Power Ring), and better understands the nature of his bond with his ring. From there onwards, he is able to consistently converse with the ring, as the partnership deepens. Hal reunites with Green Arrow and goes on an adventure busting up an assassin from a cosmic cartel of Hadea Maxima, while dealing with a drug dealer from Dimension Zero, Glorigold DeGrande. Teaming up with Xeen Arrow and Xeen Lantern, the heroes save the day by shooting a giant cosmic arrow at the assassin Azmomza on Earth's moon. Hal then takes off for R&R on Athmoora, the fantasy world of 2814 and faces the evil wizard Ah-Bah-Nazzur, who turns out to be a Blackstar mind-controlled Green Lantern of Earth-20, Abin Sur. Teaming up with him and The Guardians Of The Multiverse, a team of multiversal Green Lanterns, a cosmic interpol, Hal faces off against The Anti-Man/The Qwa-Man, The Mad Lantern, who is his Anti-Matter counterpart, set loose by Controller Mu and The Blackstars. From there on, he reunites with Uugo, The Conscious Planet, Strong-Woman Of Thronn and joins this team on a rescue operation for The Star Sapphire of Earth-11 on the forbidden universe of Earth-15. Becoming part of The Cosmic Grail Quest, Jordan finds himself in grave danger facing a mysterious Lantern figure. Powers and abilities As a Green Lantern, Hal Jordan is semi-invulnerable, capable of projecting hard-light constructions, flight, and utilizing various other abilities through his power ring which are only limited by his imagination and willpower. Jordan, as a Green Lantern, has exceptional willpower. As Parallax, Hal was one of the most powerful beings in all of the DC Universe. In addition to his normal Green Lantern powers, he was able to manipulate and reconfigure time-space to his will, manipulate reality at a large scale, had vast superhuman strength which he demonstrated by being able to knock out Superman with one punch, a higher sense of awareness and enhanced durability. As Parallax, he was still able to be harmed nearly just as easily as a normal Green Lantern but seemed to be able to endure more physical punishment. While Hal Jordan was Parallax, he was never defeated by physical force; all of his very few defeats were of a changed mental state during or after the battle, which was usually the result of dealing with his own conscience, and he would just give up, leave the battle, and hide himself. Other versions As with other characters published by DC Comics, many alternative universe versions and analogues of the character have appeared within both the Green Lantern series and other titles. In Action Comics #856, a Bizarro version of Hal, called Yellow Lantern, is featured. Yellow Lantern possessed a Sinestro Corps ring and used it to inflict fear among Htrae's inhabitants. The Green Lantern of Earth-5 is shown to be the Hal Jordan of Captain Marvel's world (Earth-5) in the New 52 multiverse. He is killed in Countdown: Arena #2 by Monarch. A Green Lantern named Hal Jordan III, grandson of the original Hal Jordan, from the world of Batman Beyond. He is labelled as Green Lantern of Earth-12. He loses his left arm in battle with Monarch. The character has also appeared in and been the focus of many Elseworlds titles, including JLA: Age of Wonder, DC: The New Frontier, Superman: Red Son as a former POW turned leader of the Green Lantern Marine Corps., JLA: The Nail (where he was the leader and most powerful member of the JLA in a world where Superman was never found by the Kents), Green Lantern: Evil's Might and the John Byrne penned Superman & Batman: Generations 2 (this Jordan pursuing a career in politics before he was forced to use the ring against Sinestro) and a part of the Frank Miller Dark Knight universe, appearing in All Star Batman and Robin and Batman: The Dark Knight Strikes Again. In The Dark Knight Returns, it is stated that Jordan left Earth years ago when politics forced the heroes to 'retire', while in The Dark Knight Strikes Again, he returned when Batman requested his help to destroy Lex Luthor's weapons satellites. In The Dark Knight III: The Master Race, Hal returns to Earth once again when a group of Kryptonians, led by the ruthless Quar, are released from Kandor. The Kryptonians dismiss him as nothing but a man with a ring and burn his hand off before leaving him to fall to his death, although he is rescued by the Hawks and manages to reclaim his hand and ring later. In the DC/Marvel Company crossover series Amalgam Comics, there appeared to be two amalgams of Hal. Iron Lantern was the amalgam of Hal Jordan and Tony Stark. His identity was known as Hal Stark. Another unknown amalgam of Hal Jordan appeared in Speed Demon #1, in which the Speed Demon killed "Madman" Jordan, as apparently this Jordan had committed a horrible crime. Hal Jordan is a character in JLA/Avengers, which featured a crossover between DC and Marvel Comics. Despite the fact that both teams travel to both of their respective universes, this is one of the few comics featuring multiple universes that remains in (DC) continuity. During this story, Hal gets a vision of his future as Parallax in the 'real' universe after a reality is created where the two universes have regularly interacted for years, but nevertheless resolves to restore reality as the heroes cannot choose their lives over the lives of those being affected by the current chronal disruption. An alternate version of Hal Jordan also appeared in the Pocket Universe Earth created by the Time Trapper. He, along with various other heroes who had no superpowers in this reality, teamed up with a good version of Lex Luthor to stop three evil Kryptonians who had escaped from the Phantom Zone. Hal Jordan piloted an advanced jet craft that was easily destroyed by the Kryptonians. Though Jordan was never one of the main characters in the award-winning mini-series Kingdom Come, a version of him from the Earth-22 (A post Infinite Crisis alternate universe) made a cameo at the end of the storyline" Thy Kingdom Come" story arc on the issue of Justice Society of America (vol. 3) #22, during Batman's funeral. A new version of Power Ring, the villainous Green Lantern analogue of the Crime Syndicate of America, appeared and is stated as being the "original" (though previously unseen) iteration of the character. He has been presumed dead years earlier. It is implied that he was reborn in his reality as a direct result of Jordan's resurrection in Green Lantern: Rebirth. In the alternate timeline of the Flashpoint event, Hal Jordan was reckless as a flying ace. He along with Carol Ferris was on an F-22 Raptor entering Western Europe territory before the Shark attacks. Hal forces the Shark to crash his jet into Carol's jet, and both of them barely got out of the ejection system. Upon their return to America, Hal was about to fly the jet. However, he witnesses a spaceship crash to Earth and was approached by the ship's survivor, Abin Sur, asking for help. However, Abin Sur is subsequently taken into custody by Cyborg and the government to be questioned about his reasons for being on Earth. Later, when Amazonian invisible planes invade over Coast City, Hal and Carol manage to shoot down the invisible planes and the hydra that they dropped. Later, Hal is recruited by the President of the United States for a mission to use a Green Arrow Industries nuclear weapon to bomb Western Europe. Later, Hal is ready to fly on the F-35 with the Green Arrow nuclear weapon attempting to destroy Western Europe at the end of the Atlantean/Amazon war. During the battles on New Themyscira, Hal possesses the remaining nuclear weapon, but his firing mechanism jams. Hal's only option is to fly through New Themyscira on a suicide attack, causing a process which destroys not only New Themyscira's invisible shield, but Hal with it. Afterwards, Thomas Kalmaku gives Carol a note saying that Hal was afraid to say that he had always loved her. Carol sees the engagement ring that he was going to propose to her. In the distant future, the Book of Oa shows that Hal will eventually marry Carol and their son would be named Martin Jordan after Hal's father. The comic book prequel tie-in to the Injustice game series: In the prequel comic to Injustice: Gods Among Us, that universe's Hal Jordan willingly joining Superman's group of heroes in obtaining peace on Earth through more forceful matters. However, he became an unwitting pawn to both Sinestro and Superman. In the prequel to the Injustice 2 game, after Superman's Regime has been defeated, Hal admits his guilt and accepts full responsibility for his past deeds as an unwitting pawn to the Regime and Yellow Lantern. As he is a very important figure to the Green Lantern Corps, the Guardians enact a rehabilitation program as part of his atonement. Due to his newfound hatred towards Sinestro for tricking him into believing that Guy Gardner killed John Stewart, he gets into a fight with him and unintentionally catches the Red Lantern Corps' attention, giving them the opportunity to locate Sinestro before he is sent to another prison. During the rehabilitation program, Hal is often visited by Guy's spirit, who reveals himself to be a manifestation of Hal's guilt. After a brutal attack by Atrocitus and the Red Lantern Corps, Hal rescues the remaining Green Lanterns and becomes a Red Lantern to ensure their escape from the planet. Upon learning that Red Lanterns recruited Starro, Hal still has the remaining will to break free from the red power ring's influence to warn the other Green Lanterns and Guardians about this. He cuts his finger that has a red power ring to proof his attempt to warn the Green Lanterns and Guardians about the Red Lanterns' attack on Oa using Starro, but was too late to prepare the enemy Lanterns' quick arrival. Even with the help from Titans members Starfire, Wonder Girl and Superboy, including Jaime Reyes/the current Blue Beetle, Booster Gold and Lobo, but still no match against the Red Lanterns' might thanks to Starro's mind control on other Green Lanterns and the Guardians, Hal has no choice to join the fight as a Green Lantern while overcoming his guilt on his own merit and needs Sinestro's aid only temporarily, including turning Lobo into a Green Lantern without any choice. Thanks to the interference of Brainiac's army for causing the Red Lanterns' retreat and leaving Starro to handle its destructive reign on Oa, who attempts to take a Kryptonian DNA sample from Superboy, the Green Lanterns and the Titans won; however, Sinestro seemingly died sacrificing his life saving his daughter from Starro's control, Booster Gold sacrifices his life to save Jaime, who implanted the Blue Beetle Scarab to self-destruct Starro once and for all, while Superboy and Wonder Girl are now staying safe with the Legion of Super-Heroes in a distant future to clear Superman and Wonder Woman's names from their past reign. Guy urges Hal to keep looking for the true meaning of redemption to make up for his past mistakes, before departing for the afterlife. In the possible future of Futures End, Hal Jordan had left his role as Corps leader behind, promising to never again leave Earth unprotected after a gruesome war killed thousands of people, including Hal's mother. Living what looks like a bachelor's life in Coast City, Hal learns from his deceased father that Krona has become the new leader of the Black Lantern Corps, which forces Hal to renege on his vow and to take them head on with only the help of a new ally, Relic. The ensuing battle occurs near the Source Wall, which is a miniature Blackest Night version, with Relic giving Hal access to the rest of the emotional spectrum needed to handle his foes. As Hal is quickly overrun, he sacrifices himself to end the Black Lantern threat once and for all. Critically wounded and barely alive, Hal is placed inside the Source Wall, just like Relic was. In the crossover series Star Trek/Green Lantern: The Spectrum War, the return of Nekron in a not-too-distant future results in the complete destruction of the DC Universe, with Hal Jordan and the other members of the original 'new Guardians' the only survivors after Ganthet initiates the 'Last Light' protocol, banishing all surviving ring-wielders to the alternate Star Trek universe, where his corpse is collected by the USS Enterprise. After Hal makes contact with the Enterprise and learns of Nekron's return in this universe, he assists the crew in thwarting the new ring-bearers, as well as dealing with the threats of Atrocitus, Sinestro and Larfleeze. With Nekron defeated, Hal joins the Enterprise in their mission of exploration. In the sequel, Hal leads the Enterprise crew in tracking down the Oa of this universe, culminating in Kirk becoming the first Green Lantern native to the Star Trek universe, accompanying Hal as he prepares to search for this world's version of Krypton. In the in-continuity company-wide story Convergence, the Zero Hour-era Hal Jordan and the people of Metropolis are stolen from that timeline immediately before the reboot event at the end of Zero Hour by Brainiac and stored on the planet Telos along with cities of heroes and villains from other eras and Earths of the DC Comics multiverse. The villain Deimos, also on the planet, steals the power of the Time Masters and attempts to remake the multiverse in his image, only to be killed by Hal Jordan using the power of Parallax and still vengeful over the loss of Coast City. This attack causes the multiverse to begin to unravel, prompting a crisis event from which it will not survive. When Brainiac explains that he can send the heroes home, he is prevented by damage from the original Crisis on Infinite Earths event from restoring the universe to normal. Seeking redemption for his recent actions, Parallax volunteers to go with the pre-Flashpoint era Superman to the time of the original Crisis. Their contribution to that great battle is enough to change the outcome and avert the collapse of the original Multiverse; and thus Parallax saves the Multiverse, and undoes the events of Zero Hour in the process. In the DC Bombshells series, Hal Jordan is an American pilot attending a Christmas party in London who becomes smitten with Harley Quinn after witnessing her beat up most of the men at the scene. Harley tricks him to take her to the airfield, where she knocks him out and steals his plane. In the series Green Lantern: Earth One, set in the near future, Hal Jordan is a former astronaut who worked on a joint project between NASA and Monarcha Energy to build Arrowhead, an orbital platform which was intended to be used for deep space exploration, but which Jordan discovered was in fact a space weapon. It is implied that Arrowhead was used in a coup which ushered in an authoritarian regime. Feeling responsible for not speaking up, and disillusioned with humanity, Hal took a job as an asteroid miner with Ferris Galactic in an attempt to leave Earth. Jordan stumbles across one of the few remaining power rings in the galaxy, as the Green Lantern Corps was wiped out by the Manhunters generations ago. Thrust into the wider galaxy, Jordan teams up with Kilowog, a ring-bearer and the descendant of a Green Lantern, and begins searching for allies against the Manhunters. After repeatedly failing to enlist the aid of the few remaining ring-bearers, Jordan is eventually captured while his ring is drained and enslaved by the Manhunters on a planet that is revealed to be Oa. He discovers the presumed destroyed Central Power Battery, and is able to rally the bearers of all surviving power rings to join him in rescuing the Battery and freeing the slaves. With the Battery restored and the power rings' full powers unlocked, the Green Lantern Corps is revived under the leadership of Arisia. Hal returns to Earth and reveals his identity as a Green Lantern to his Captain, Amy Seaton. In other media Television Live action series Jordan was portrayed in live-action television by Howard Murphy in the 1979 Legends of the Superheroes. Hal Jordan is alluded to in The Flash episodes "Rogue Air" and "Welcome to Earth-2". Animated series Hal Jordan was the featured character in a solo series which was part of The Superman/Aquaman Hour of Adventure and as well as part of the Justice League segments in 1967, voiced by Gerald Mohr. Michael Rye voiced Hal Jordan in the various Super Friends incarnations: Challenge of the Super Friends, Super Friends, Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show, and The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians. Hal Jordan appears briefly in the Justice League Unlimited episode "The Once and Future Thing, Part 2: Time, Warped", voiced by Adam Baldwin. Hal Jordan made a cameo appearance in the Duck Dodgers episode "The Green Loontern" in which he is voiced by Kevin Smith. Hal Jordan made a non-speaking cameo in the season four finale episode of The Batman and was voiced by Dermot Mulroney in season five episodes "Ring Toss" and the series finale episode "Lost Heroes". Hal Jordan appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by Loren Lester. He appears in the episodes "The Eyes of Despero!", "Aquaman's Outrageous Adventure!" & "Sidekicks Assemble!" in a non-speaking cameo and is mentioned in "Darkseid Descending!" and appears in the episode "The Scorn of the Star Sapphire!" Hal Jordan appears in Young Justice with the episodes "Fireworks", "Failsafe", "Usual Suspects", "Auld Acquaintance", "Alienated" and "Endgame" in a non-speaking appearance and the episode "Agendas". Josh Keaton provided the voice for Jordan, who was the star in Green Lantern: The Animated Series, which aired from 2012–2013. Hal Jordan appears in DC Super Hero Girls, voiced again by Josh Keaton. He appears as a student in Super Hero High. He later appears in its TV version, voiced by Jason Spisak. He is depicted as a stereotypical high school jock with a strong, charming and somewhat narcissistic demeanor. His tendency to act without thinking often earns the ire of fellow Green Lantern Jessica Cruz. He is also afraid of his ex-girlfriend, Carol Ferris/Star Sapphire. He is the second-in-command and acting leader of The Invinci-Bros. Hal Jordan appears in Justice League Action, with Keaton reprising his role again. Film Live action films Ryan Reynolds portrayed Hal Jordan in the 2011 live-action Green Lantern film directed by Martin Campbell. Hal Jordan is portrayed by Zach Cregger in the 2011 short film The Death and Return of Superman. Hal Jordan will appear in the DC Extended Universe live-action reboot Green Lantern Corps. In Marc Guggenheim and Greg Berlanti's script for The Flash, Jordan would have made an appearance at the end of the film. Animated films Hal Jordan appears in the animated film adaptation of a Darwyn Cooke graphic novel entitled Justice League: The New Frontier, voiced by David Boreanaz. Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Green Lantern: First Flight, voiced by Christopher Meloni. Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Justice League: Crisis on Two Earths, voiced by Nolan North. Hal Jordan appears in the anthology feature film Green Lantern: Emerald Knights, voiced by Nathan Fillion. Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Justice League: Doom with Nathan Fillion reprising his role. When Vandal Savage enacts Batman's stolen plans to defeat the Justice League, Hal is lured to a mine with Scarecrow's will-undermining fear gas by Star Sapphire. After failing to save her hostages and causing a large explosion deep inside the mine, Hal renounces his ring and resigns himself to suffocation inside the mine. Batman then shows Hal that the dead hostages were actually androids, and the plan was a trick, giving Hal the willpower to again use his ring. He defeats Star Sapphire in the final battle. Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox with Nathan Fillion reprising his role. In the Flashpoint timeline, he never became Green Lantern, remaining a hot-headed fighter pilot. He is recruited by the U.S. government to fly Abin Sur's spacecraft to bomb the Atlantean fleet. However, he and the craft are swallowed by an Atlantean sea monster right before Hal drops the bomb, which detonates it, killing Hal. Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Lego Batman: The Movie – DC Super Heroes Unite (an adaptation of the video game of the same name), voiced by Cam Clarke. Hal Jordan appears in the animated films Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Attack of the Legion of Doom and Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: Justice League: Cosmic Clash with Josh Keaton reprising his role. Hal Jordan appears in The Lego Movie, voiced by Jonah Hill. He is depicted as a Master Builder and is considered to be a nuisance to Superman. Hal Jordan appears in The Lego Batman Movie, with Jonah Hill reprising his role. He is shown as a member of the Justice League and seen at Superman's party. Hal Jordan appears in The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part, with Jonah Hill reprising his role. Hal Jordan makes a cameo appearance in Teen Titans Go! To the Movies. Hal Jordan appears in Superman: Red Son, voiced by Sasha Roiz. He is tasked by President Lex Luthor to learn the power behind Abin Sur's Green Lantern ring after the latter crashes on Earth. In 1983, he leads a squad of Green Lanterns which includes John Stewart and Guy Gardner, each with their own reverse-engineered power ring, against Superman over the Atlantic Ocean. Although the Lanterns initially have the upper hand, Wonder Woman interrupts the battle unsuccessfully pleading both sides to end the conflict before leaving, scorning man's world. Hal then comments "Women, right?" to Superman, who promptly punches Hal into the ocean before defeating all of the other Lanterns as well. It is left unclear if Hal or any of the other Lanterns survived, as they are not seen again. Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Injustice, voiced by Brian T. Delaney. DC Animated Movie Universe Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Justice League: War, voiced by Justin Kirk. Hal Jordan appears in the animated film Justice League: Throne of Atlantis with Nathan Fillion reprising his role from Justice League: The Flashpoint Paradox. Hal Jordan appears in The Death of Superman, with Nathan Fillion reprising his role. He is the second hero to be defeated by Doomsday, following Hawkman. Hal Jordan appears in Reign of the Supermen, again voiced by Nathan Fillion. Hal Jordan makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in Justice League Dark: Apokolips War, during which he accompanies the Justice League to confront Darkseid on Apokolips, only to be killed by Paradooms. He is the first major casualty of the film. Miscellaneous Hal Jordan is featured in the Smallville Season 11 digital comic based on the TV series. San Francisco bar Whitechapel created a cocktail named after Hal Jordan using Aviation American Gin. The gin brand is owned by actor Ryan Reynolds who portrayed Jordan in the 2011 film. Hal Jordan is portrayed by Dylan Saunders in the parody musical Holy Musical B@man! by StarKid Productions Video games Jordan appears as a playable character in Justice League Heroes, voiced by John Rubinow. Jordan appears as a playable character in Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe, voiced by Josh Phillips. Jordan appears as a playable character in the DS version of Batman: The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame with Loren Lester reprising his role. Jordan appears as a playable character in Green Lantern: Rise of the Manhunters, voiced by Ryan Reynolds reprising his role. Jordan appears as a playable character in LittleBigPlanet 2 and LittleBigPlanet PS Vita, voiced by Joseph May. Jordan appears as a playable character in DC Universe Online, voiced by Gray Haddock. Jordan appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 2: DC Super Heroes, voiced by Cam Clarke. Jordan appears as a playable character in Injustice: Gods Among Us, with Adam Baldwin reprising his role. In the game, there are two Hal Jordans: one native to the Injustice universe who supports Superman's Regime and has become a Yellow Lantern due to his change in personality, and another from a more regular universe who along with several other Justice League members is brought to the Injustice universe in order to help Batman's Insurgency defeat the Regime. Jordan appears as a playable character in The Lego Movie Videogame. Jordan appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham with Josh Keaton reprising his role. Jordan appears as a playable character in Infinite Crisis with Adam Baldwin reprising his role. The Hal Jordan native to the Injustice universe returns as a playable character in the sequel Injustice 2, voiced by Steven Blum. Thanks to the rehabilitation by the Guardians, he has rejoined the Green Lantern Corps and now supports Batman, while fighting the remaining inner struggle since Hal's purge from Yellow Lantern's fear spectrum, the Red Lantern's rage spectrum. Hal Jordan appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains, with Keaton reprising his role again. Collected editions See also Kristogar Velo Footnotes References Daniels, Les DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes. Boston, MA: Bulfinch, 1995. O'Neil, Dennis "Introduction by Dennis O'Neil". Green Lantern/Green Arrow Volume One. Ed. Robert Greenberger. New York, NY: DC Comics, 2000. Giordano, Dick "Introduction by Dick Giordano". Green Lantern/Green Arrow: More Hard-Traveling Heroes. Ed. Robert Greenberger. New York, NY: DC Comics, 1993. Lawrence, Christopher "Neal Adams". Wizard. Sept. 2003. Casey, Todd "Green Mile". Wizard. Nov. 2004. External links Official Green Lantern (Hal Jordan) Website Green Lantern (1959) at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on August 29, 2016. Green Lantern's (Hal Jordan's) origin @ dccomics.com Bio at the Unofficial Green Lantern Corps Webpage Characters created by Gil Kane Characters created by John Broome Comics characters introduced in 1959 DC Comics male superheroes Fictional avatars Fictional aviators Fictional characters from California Fictional mass murderers Fictional secret agents and spies Fictional United States Air Force personnel Green Lantern Corps officers Fictional military captains Fictional American Jews in comics Jewish superheroes Fictional fighter pilots Vigilante characters in comics
1021904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96stersund	Östersund	Östersund (; ) is an urban area (city) in Jämtland in the middle of Sweden. It is the seat of Östersund Municipality and the capital of Jämtland County. Östersund is located at the shores of Sweden's fifth largest lake, Storsjön, opposite the island Frösön, and is the only city in Jämtland. Östersund is the region's cultural and economical centre and by tradition a city of trade and commerce. Östersund had one of the most extensive garrisons in Sweden prior to its closure in the early-21st century. The city is the Mid Sweden University's largest campus site with approximately 7,000 students. With a total population of 50,960 (2017) Östersund is the 22nd most populous city in Sweden, the 46th most populous city in Scandinavia, and by far the largest inland city in Northern Sweden. The city was the only Swedish city founded and chartered in the 18th century. Östersund was founded in order to create a trade monopoly over Jämtland whose inhabitants' lucrative trade annoyed the Swedish Crown. The intention was to persuade the local farmers to deliver merchandise to middlemen in Östersund, but the population opposed this economic philosophy, and Östersund long remained small. It took until the end of the 19th century for Östersund to truly become a city, after the arrival of the railroad and the economic liberalization of that time. Östersund is situated in inland Scandinavia and connected to Sundsvall in the east on the Swedish coast, and Trondheim in the west at the shores of the Norwegian Sea. Östersund is located in the middle of Scandinavia, in the middle of Sweden, in the middle of Jämtland County and in the middle of Östersund Municipality. As the most centrally located city in Sweden, the city credits itself as the centre of Sweden. Östersund is marketed as – Winter City. Winter City as a project is run by the municipality together with city enterprises. Östersund has had a long history as a centre of outdoor activities with a modern cross-country ski stadium and an actual piste in the city itself. Östersund has also hosted several World Championships in various sports such as biathlon, speed skating and ski orienteering along with Swedish National Championships in cross-country skiing and snocross. The city has been the applicant city of Sweden for several Winter Olympic Games, but has yet to host one. The precursor to the Winter Olympic Games, the Nordic Games, were however held at several occasions in the city, due to lack of snow in Stockholm. Geography Östersund is the only city in the province and is located on the shore of Storsjön, the fifth largest lake in Sweden. The area surrounding this lake is commonly referred to as Storsjöbygden and has been described as the world's northernmost located genuine agricultural society in the inland with continental climate. The city sprawls along the eastern slopes of lake Storsjön with most of the city, and the city core itself, located on the mainland, facing the non mainland part of the city, the island of Frösön, which for a very long time was the actual centre of Jämtland. Today, a sizeable part of the city's population live on the slopes of the island that face the city centre. Östersund is a bimunicipal town because a minor part of it, with roughly 400 inhabitants, is actually situated in Krokom Municipality. The city spans across Östersundet and the city was named after this strait. Östersund can be directly translated from Swedish to English as "East Sound". The name of the strait derives from an older Jamtish name now present in the form Åstersånn. Climate Östersund has a subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) and is located in the far north of the north temperate climate zone. The cold Arctic winds that occasionally find their way to the city are called ('the north-westerner') or ('the cold-westerner') locally. However the winter climate is much warmer than most locations at similar latitudes. This is due to the Gulf Stream and the many passages in the mountain range, bringing warmer Atlantic winds to the city during winters. This somewhat maritime character also makes the summers in the city rather cool, in comparison to other towns in inland Scandinavia, which all have a more continental climate with cold winters and warm summers. It contains a strong influence of the humid continental climate (Dfb) courtesy of its mild September lows extending the mild mean temperatures. Though Östersund is in fact affected by the Gulf Stream, it lacks the high frequency of rain or snow following the currents. This is due to the Scandinavian Mountain Range acting as a natural barrier, receiving most of the precipitation, giving Östersund and the surrounding area a rain deficit. Another issue that has to be taken into account is the higher elevation of Östersund compared to the weather stations in Ångermanland farther east. For example, Sollefteå at a similar latitude to the east but at sea level, albeit inland, has three degrees warmer July days. Östersund has a high exposition of sunlight and was the sunniest city in Sweden in the summer of 2007 (1 July to 9 August) with 654 hours of sun. However, in comparison to east coast locations, sunshine is relatively low. Cityscape Östersund was laid out with roads spanning from north to south countered by several alleys from east to west, which is why an alley in Östersund is synonymous with a road leading down towards Storsjön. From the inner city one may gaze upon Storsjön, Frösön and the Jamtish fell region with snow-clad mountains. This was made possible due to the topography and the grid plan. The regularity in Östersund's road system and the slanting alleys leading from higher altitudes down towards Storsjön have created the "windows to the west" characteristic and unique to Östersund as a city. The alleys, often seen as rather steep, have created the illusion that the houses in the city core are climbing to higher grounds. These houses were conformed upon their construction to fit with the slopes. The first city plan of Östersund was made with several large segments in the core being reserved as green areas. Östersund was thus planned as a green city and special lots, e.g. 'spice garden lots' were created along with construction lots. These lots shifted with a construction lot alternating with a spice garden lot. The garden lots are no longer existent since they too have been constructed upon. Many of the fences that separated each lot from another with trees and verdure were left intact. The large green areas are still present, with parks such as Kyrkparken, Österängsparken and Badhusparken being the most prominent. Badhusparken was once the location of a large bath house (hence the name Badhus-) though it was torn down in 1881 when the railway was constructed. A new larger two-storey pompous bath house was later built on poles a few metres from the shore, enabling the population to bathe in the waters of Storsjön during summers. This house was also torn down when a new bath house with heated water was founded in 1938. When Östersund started to grow as a city in the late 19th century the houses consisted predominantly of wood, though stone had become popular in the central parts. These houses were heavily characterized by Neo-Gothicism and Neo-Renaissance architecture. A very common feature of these houses were towers, some even resembling those on old castles like the one on Hotell Grand at the main square. In the early 20th century a new age had come and in the main road, Prästgatan, the new age came fiercely. The wooden houses were replaced by stone buildings, because a city's well-being was measured in how many stone buildings it had. At the same time military barracks were constructed in connection to the older settlement. Jugendstil became popular too as an addition to the National Romantic style architecture. In the 1930s, the functionalistic style made itself apparent in Östersund's outskirts, which were growing. In the 1940s, the city was made more car-friendly and the city was first and foremost planned for cars. Later the sanitarian issues was brought up, which resulted in the construction of a sewage treatment works and the waste water was no longer flushed directly into Storsjön. Östersund was also affected by the Million Programme, though to a lesser extent than other cities. During the same period older buildings such as Hotell Grand (to make room for Storsjöteatern), Cellfängelset (a jail located at the beginning of Prästgatan), Flickskolan (the girl school next to the city hall, where the current county library is located) and Västra stationen (at Badhusparken) were torn down. The local media described it all as e.g. "demolishing madness". When the Good Templar house was threatened in order to widen Rådhusgatan the city's inhabitants had had enough and the building was saved. The buildings along Storgatan (literally: 'the large street') with entire segments intact since the 1880s are considered one of the best preserved city settlements in Sweden. The wooden façades are rich with details and the house are relatively low, short and slim. A great amount of work was put down on creating a balance between details and entirety. Parallel with Storgatan lies Prästgatan – 'the priest street', Östersund's main shopping street. The buildings between the two streets are often connected and the streets create small rooms mostly inaccessible for keen winds. These so-called rooms also stimulate the social life on the streets. Stortorget – the main town square in central Östersund is one of six "closed squares" built in Sweden, the others being the ones in Uppsala, Karlstad, Vimmerby, Piteå and Haparanda. It was created through indentation in four different blocks to deliberately create an open air room with openings to every direction, a style deriving from how cities were planned during the Renaissance. However the town square lost its original shape when it was opened up and expanded towards the lake. Stortorget has long been the city's main market place and core; it is also here that the thousand-year-old market Gregorie market is held each year in March. The city festival Storsjöyran has Stortorget as its main centre. Districts and housing estates Before Östersund was established the population in the area was very scarce. In Odensala and Torvalla older settlements existed; the name Odensala can be derived from the Viking age and the Halls of Odin (though Torvalla means 'dry wealds' with no reference to Thor). These two villages were later incorporated into Östersund and are today two major urban districts. Besides them the urban districts of Staden, Norr, Söder, Odenslund, Karlslund, Körfältet Odenskog, Lugnvik are found on the mainland of Östersund. On the island Frösön are the six urban districts Hornsberg, Östberget, Frösödal, Mjälle, Valla and Härke. The central parts of Östersund are a part of the urban district Staden – 'the city', which has become synonymous with Östersund for many people living in the nearby villages and towns. As Östersund is the only city in the area and nearest city for many it is common to call it , though the dative form has increasingly grown unusual. The residents of Östersund are referred to as , though local people in rural areas call them 'towners', and 'towner', in singular. Landmarks The most well-known landmark of Östersund is the national romantic Östersund City Hall (). It is 51 meters tall and contains 136 rooms. It is the greatest constructional symbol of the National Romantic architecture in Östersund. The city hall looks almost like a fortress and has a particular connection to the local art of Jämtland. The bell tower is of typical Jamtish design, shaped like an onion. Local sculptor Olof Ahlberg (1876–1956) made most of the sculptural details and the ornaments are made from Jamtish limestone. Östersund City Hall was designed by Frans Bertil Wallberg (1862–1935) and was seen by contemporary colleagues as the best of modern Swedish architecture. The main part of the building is accentuated by a grand tower and a monumental stairway. It is accompanied by only one wing, the north wing, as the second, south wing, was torn down in the 1970s. A recently built landmark is Arctura, named after Jämtland's provincial star Arcturus, a large hot water accumulator tank. Due to its appearance it is referred to as ('the Thermos'). At night the 65-meter building is illuminated with various lights to give the appearance of sunrise and the Aurora Borealis, for example. History Lake Storsjön's shores have long been inhabited. The area where Östersund is situated was for a very long time Frösön's link to the east mainland. Frösön, the island of the Norse god Freyr, was originally the centre of the region and it was here the only inland Scandinavian hill fort, Mjälleborgen, was built around 300 AD. The ancient Scandinavian thing Jamtamót was held on this island, the christening of Jämtland begun here and it was here the world's northernmost raised runestone, Frösö Runestone, was raised. Plans regarding the foundation of a Swedish city or köping (market town, 'Chipping') in Jämtland existed among governmental officials already after the previously Norwegian province was ceded from Denmark-Norway in 1645. Queen Christina demanded the establishment of a sconce on Andersön shortly after the province became Swedish; this sconce would together with Frösö sconce secure Swedish control of Jämtland. Christina's intention was to locate the "Jamts' city" within this fortification. In order to construct the sconce the local inhabitants were coerced into forced labour 1651 but after protests and lack of capital the project was ended in 1654. In 1758, the plans were brought back up through an initiative from the chief financial director Pehr Schissler and the proposition did however initiate a new debate whether or not a city was to be established in Jämtland, in order to counteract the trading and faring traditions of Jämtland's farmers. Several other attempts at concentration had previously been taken, and deemed unsatisfactory. Östersund was founded and given its charter by Monarch Gustav III of Sweden on 23 October 1786, shortly after the outskirt of the Odensala farmers' lands were bought for the purpose. Several other places had been suggested, like Huså, the then-largest settlement in Jämtland, along with Krokom, Sunne and Ede outside of Brunflo. Frösön was also a candidate but the lot fell on Östersund, as it was deemed most favourable. The only things actually located in the area at the time were the main road and the bridge to Frösön. Östersund was upon its foundation freed from taxes for a period of 20 years and completely liberated from trade regulations and guild order. In other remote locations of the Nordic region, similar cities were founded, like Reykjavík in Iceland the very same year, Tromsø (1794) in Northern Norway and Tampere (1775) and Kuopio (1782) in the Finnish inland. Östersund is however the only city in present-day Sweden to have been founded in the 18th century. The city developed poorly and had to struggle in its infancy. The state tried to persuade the Jamtish traders on Frösön to migrate to the new city but they had no intentions of leaving such a rich parish with the fertile soils Frösön consisted of in favour of the swamp and marshes across the strait. During its first 50 years the city's population only grew by an average of eight people per year. The city became the county seat of the newly founded county consisting of the provinces Jämtland and Härjedalen in 1810, and a county council was established. Though, Östersund remained a de facto farming village with fewer than 400 inhabitants in 1820. An upswing occurred in the 1850s, as trade was liberalized and the logging industry developed. It took until the construction of the railroad in 1879 before Östersund became a real city and actually gained the status as Jämtland's centre, at Frösön's expense. Thanks to the "farmer chieftain" Nils Larson i Tullus, the railroad came to pass through the city itself instead of outside it, as planned. The railway from coast to coast across the then-union between Sweden and Norway was finished in 1882, connecting Östersund more closely to Trondheim and Sundsvall. Östersund then came to grow faster than any other Swedish city. After ten years it had passed 20 Swedish cities in population. The city attracted immigrants, a slight majority from the Jamtish countryside, though still with a high number of settlers from southern Sweden. While Östersund was in its most intense state of growth, popular movements emerged among the inhabitants. In Jämtland and Härjedalen the Good Templar movement (a part of the temperance movement) came to dominate completely. In 1883, 700 of the city's total population of 3,000 were organized Good Templars. The greatest symbol of the movements grandeur was the Order House constructed in 1885 in the city, . When one of the most prominent leaders, Joseph Malins, visited the city he announced that it was the world's largest order house. Many of the leading people behind the popular movements in Östersund saw industrialization as a significant threat to the native districts and the old village and farming community. The work from the movements made the city and its centre-right governance extremely hostile to industry. Instead they wanted to portray Östersund as a centre of outdoor activities, culture, education and tourism. Industry was not allowed to threaten the good environment and cultural history traditions. In 1917 when the Great War was fought on the continent and with the February revolution in Russia, the beginning of the Russian Revolution also affected Östersund. Rationing led to lack of supplies and a revolution was feared. Some of the citizens, primarily soldiers, went on hunger strikes and at the first of May that year 4,000 demonstrators gathered in front of the city hall demanding lower prices on milk and wood. The year after, the Spanish flu spread like wildfire across the world. The city doctor in Östersund noted that "Östersund ought without objection to have been more haunted by the flu than any other Swedish city", which is why Östersund was referred to by locals as , 'capital of the Spanish flu'. Despite the Great Depression and several crises resulting in a very high unemployment rate, Östersund continued to grow in the interwar period. In 1918 the Odenslund area was incorporated. The business sector remained largely unaffected and Östersund continued to be one of the least industrialized cities in Sweden. Instead Östersund continued to focus on wholesale trade and became a centre for it in northern and north-central Sweden. The city's central position was strengthened when the Inlandsbanan railway was constructed through Jämtland from the north to the south. The first scheduled bus route was created in the 1920s between Östersund and the nearby town of Brunflo. In the next decade well over 40 bus routes were functioning in Östersund. The dairy was located west of the bus square, Gustav III:s torg, at the current site of the shopping mall Kärnan. This square naturally become a central part of the city. Östersund continued to grow after the Second World War. Lugnvik was incorporated into the city in 1954 and Östersund was, like the rest of Jämtland, affected by the Rehn-Meidner-model, though not in the same way. The Swedish Keynesian policy was launched in order to improve the mobility of the labour force. Jämtland was struck hard by this when the people moved from the countryside to cities, from inland to coast and from the north to the south. As an urban area Östersund was affected by the Million Programme and urban districts like Körfältet were created. The negative view towards industry changed when the Social Democrats came to power for the first time in the city's history in 1952. Industries were enticed to Östersund through the national localization policy and industrial areas were created in Odenskog and Lugnvik. Development was not, as already mentioned, as good in the rest of Jämtland as it was in Östersund and as a counter to the governmental policy, the Republic of Jamtland was established in 1963. Östersund became the capital of the tongue-in-cheek republic and the home of the freedom festival Storsjöyran. Östersund continued to grow and in 1970 Frösö köping was made part of Östersund. In 1971 a major reform occurred in Sweden creating large municipalities replacing all the older institutions; the new large municipality was named after the city. As in the rest of Sweden, the public sector greatly expanded at this time. In 1960 the public sector of Sweden constituted about 30 per cent of Sweden's total gross domestic product; by the mid-1980s the number had grown to 65 per cent. At the time jobs were growing in the county council, the government and in the new municipality. The main reasons for the large expansion were the expanded transfer payment to the households that occurred along with growing interest and public consumption. Everything was financed by heavy tax increases. The entirety of the 1970s was a period of expansion. Besides the new industrial complex the Frösö bridge was constructed, a new police station, Z-kupolen (burned to the ground in 1989), Storsjöteatern, Folkets hus, neighborhood churches, malls, etc. The county administrative office and the hospital were expanded and large residential areas grew up in the aforementioned Körfältet and Lugnvik areas, as well as in Odensala. As early as the 1940s, the city tried to have a humanities university college located on Frösön. Opposition between cities in Norrland was great and it was Umeå that finally emerged victorious in 1962. Östersund did, however, get a university college for social workers () in 1971. Since 2005 Östersund has been one of the main campus sites of the Mid Sweden University (Mittuniversitetet). A number of governmental offices have also been built in the city in recent years. Garrison town Östersund became a garrison town when the Norrland Artillery Regiment (A 4) was founded in the city in 1892, followed by the upgrading of the Jämtland Ranger Corps to the Jämtland Ranger Regiment (I 23). This was done with the growing fear of a Russian assault whereas Jämtland-Trøndelag and Norrbotten became the most prioritized defense regions. The dissolution of the union between Sweden and Norway contributed by enhancing Östersund as a military city and strengthening its presence; the Jämtland Ranger Regiment was located in the city in 1910 and the Jämtland Wing (F 4) came to Frösön in 1926. Östersund's importance as a garrison town grew when the city was connected to the Boden Fortress, following the construction of the Inlandsbanan railway. After the fall of the Iron Curtain, the destruction of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the Dissolution of the USSR in 1991 Sweden had lost its national threat and the demand for a strong defense organization was deemed unnecessary. The issue was debated throughout the 1990s and the final decision came in 2004 where all military presence in Östersund was ended. Upon delivering the message the Swedish Minister for Defence Leni Björklund was publicly booed by the city's inhabitants. The ending of Östersund's status as a garrison town has however created larger enthusiasm regarding the city's future as the private sector has grown larger and more companies are being established, much of which is due to the financial compensation offered by the state. The older areas reserved for military activities have been opened up and two more urban districts were made available. Politics and governance Östersund is the capital of Jämtland County and thus, the county governor Britt Bohlin Ohlsson resides in the city. Bohlin Ohlsson is the head of Jämtland County Administrative Board (), an administrative entity appointed by the Swedish Government. Östersund is also the seat of Jämtland County Council (). The County Council is the elected assembly of Jämtland County. The County Council's responsibilities lie primarily within the public health care system and transportation between the municipalities. Östersund is the seat of Östersund Municipality (). The legislative body of the municipality is the 67-member municipal assembly (kommunfullmäktige), elected by proportional representation for a four-year term. The assembly appoints the municipality's main governing body, the 15-member executive committee (). The executive committee is headed by the Mayor (). Östersund has historically been dominated by the Conservatives, the freeminded (later on Liberal People's Party) and the Social Democrats. Though contrary to Sweden on a national level, Östersund's centre-right parties long remained in majority. The situation changed only in 1952 when the Social Democrats were included and they won an absolute majority in 1962. In 1966 the agrarian and rural Centre Party entered the scene, along with the minor Christian Democrat and Communist parties. A new centre-right municipal government was appointed and the Centre Party became the largest party in that coalition in 1970. However, since the 1980s the Social Democratic Party has been in power (excluding a term in the 1990s) supported by the communists (now Left Party) and occasionally the Green Party (entered in 1982). Jens Nilsson from the Social Democratic Party is the mayor of Östersund and has been so since 1997. Demography Transport The airport is situated outside the city centre, on the island of Frösön. Åre Östersund Airport (previously named ) is an international airport and the ninth biggest in Sweden with roughly 390,000 passengers in 2005. The airport is one of few Swedish airports with incoming foreign charter traffic and the only one with considerable economic growth in that sector. The European route E14 runs through Östersund from Trondheim to Sundsvall and briefly merges with the European route E45 (referred to as Inlandsvägen locally) coming from the north. The two roads are later split in Brunflo where E14 continues heading east and E45 turns south again. Östersund has passenger rail services to and from, mainly, Sundsvall and Stockholm. Norrtåg operates Mittbanan from Storlien to Sundsvall. Inlandsbanan runs in the same directions as European Route 45. Östersund is connected to Stockholm via long distance SJ 3000 (higher-speed trains), InterCity and night train. There are overnight services to and from Gothenburg and, seasonally, Malmö. Local company Stadsbussarna i Östersund (literally: 'the City Buses in Östersund') has nine routes in the city. As Östersund is located on the shores of Storsjön, (English: 'the great lake'), it also has a harbour. There is also a harbour on the Frösö side of the strait. Several bridges span across Storsjön connecting Östersund with communities nearby, Frösöbron across Östersundet, Vallsundsbron from Frösön across Vallsundet to 'the other side' and Rödöbron from Frösön to Rödön in Krokom Municipality. Trade and commerce Like the rest of Jämtland Östersund is heavily dominated by many small businesses. The city is the centre of trade and commerce in Jämtland County and has more than 300 shops. The retail trade's turnover is 30 per cent higher than it ought to be, given the number of inhabitants the city has. Trade in the central business district ( – 'the city') is mostly concentrated on the shopping and pedestrian street Prästgatan where large local shopping malls such as Kärnan and Mittpunkten along with department stores such as Åhléns are located. There are large clothing companies such as H&M and Lindex and smaller ones like WESC, approximately 50 restaurants, shoe stores, sporting goods retailers like Stadium and Intersport, several supermarkets (Östersund has rather few convenience stores), etc. Storgatan, the street that runs parallel with Prästgatan, is also lined with shops, restaurants and coffeehouses. Unlike Prästgatan this street is not a pedestrian street. Östersund is the city in Sweden with the most square metres of window display per capita. The most prominent figure in Östersund's business life throughout the 20th century was the car salesman (who started out selling horses) Sven O. Persson, founder of Persson Invest, Byggelit and Bilbolaget. A significant real estate owner was Maths O. Sundqvist (1950–2012). Östersund has had a long history as a marketplace with the already mentioned ancient Gregorie market, tracing its lineage back to the 11th century, held in early March. Despite being banned in 1914, it continued to be held for a couple of years. In 1950, the market was reborn shortly and was completely resurrected in 1986, when the city celebrated its 200th anniversary, and has been held yearly since then. In 1948, when the markets were non-existent, visions to restore Östersund's market traditions in a modern version were brought up. The result was the trade fair Expo Norr, initiated in 1950 in order to strengthen Östersund as a leading centre of trade in the northern parts of Sweden. The trade fair is an annual event just like Gregorie market, though Expo Norr is held during the summer and not during the winter. Expo Norr is usually attended by 30,000 individuals every year. Like many other county capitals in Sweden the county council and the municipality are among the largest employers. Besides trading and public services Östersund has some larger companies such as Solectron, Cybercom, Volex, Husqvarna AB, Swedbank's telephone bank and Telia. Companies such as the dairy cooperation Milko and Inlandsbanan AB have located their corporate headquarters in the city. A national survey done by the Confederation of Swedish Enterprise shows that out of every company in Östersund Municipality 52 per cent are "very positive towards globalization", thus ranking Östersund at number eight in Sweden as the most globalization-friendly municipality (2008). Culture Cultural venues Östersund is the cultural centre of Jämtland County and home to the prize winning museum Jamtli. The museum has both an indoor exhibition area and an outdoor area which contains a number of historical buildings from all over the county, depicting the old lives of peasants, the early city of Östersund and the Scandinavian inland herding. The museum exhibition hosts an interesting set of tapestries, the Överhogdal tapestries, showing a rich imagery of both Norse and Christian origin from the Viking Age. The mythical Storsjöodjuret (Great Lake Monster) has an exhibit of its own. Another remnant from the Viking age is Frösöstenen, one of the world's most northerly rune stones located on Frösön, the island of Freyr. The county library, , is located in the city. It is the oldest county library in Sweden, being founded in 1816 by the will of professor Carl Zetterström. As the library grew it was moved to a bigger facility. The older building is now situated beside the old church in Kyrkparken. Lake Storsjön has been trafficked for a long time and the steamships S/S Thomée and S/S Östersund are still in operation every summer. Unlike most boats, they are seen as male and not female. S/S Thomée is the only one that sets sail from Östersund's harbour. S/S Östersund sails from Arvesund, located at Storsjön's western shore but makes visits to Jamtli's steamboat jetty. Frösö Zoo was one of Sweden's largest zoological gardens with exotic animals. Prior to its closing in 2019, it had roughly 700 animals including Siberian tigers, lions, polar wolves, and monkeys. Frösö Zoo also had a tropical house, a biological museum and an amusement park. Outside of Östersund in the village of Orrviken there is a moose zoo called Moose Garden, allowing close encounters with tame moose. Färgfabriken ('the paint factory') is a centre for experimental culture based in Stockholm that portrays itself as a laboratory of contemporary art. A branch named Färgfabriken Norr was established in Östersund between April 2008 and January 2011. Gaaltije, the centre for South Sami culture, opened in 1999 and is a living source of knowledge for South Sami culture, history and business. Gamla Tingshuset holds a small cinema, a café, a small venue and practice halls. It is usually a meeting place for the town's youth. Events The city festival Storsjöyran (referred to as simply Yran, literally meaning: The Great Lake Giddy Festival), the oldest city festival in Scandinavia and with 55,000 visitors every year the largest in Sweden. Storsjöyran is held in the middle of Östersund the last weekend of July. Although the event starts the weekend before with the opening of Krogstråket when regional bars and restaurants gather near the lake. Jamtli Christmas Market is well attended market taking place the second weekend of Advent. Expo Norr, Sweden's oldest merchandise trade fair held in June with roughly 400 exhibitors. Vinterparken ('The Winter Park'), with seasonal lakeside events. Media The largest daily newspaper in Östersund is Östersunds-Posten (ÖP) with a circulation of 30,000 copies and the second largest is Länstidningen Östersund (LT) with a circulation of 15,000 copies (2006 for both). Like most Swedish newspaper they each have a political editorial page, views of the Centre Party are expressed in ÖP and views of the Swedish Social Democratic Party are expressed in LT. Länstidningen is unique in Sweden, as it is the only Swedish newspaper with press support that has ever made itself non-dependent on state subsidy. Much of the paper's success is ascribed to the then editor-in-chief awarded with the Grand Journalism Award (). Since 2006 the newspaper has been dependent on state subsidy. The media group Mittmedia has owned both newspapers since 2005. Two free daily newspapers exist in the city, 100 procent Östersund and Lokaltidningen Storsjön. Local radio stations include Radio Jämtland (a part of Sveriges Radio), One FM and Modern Times Group's Rix FM. Films shot in Östersund The following feature films have been shot in Östersund: Bitter Flowers Dunderklumpen Marianne The American Education Östersund recently became a university city and the Mid Sweden University has its largest campus site in Östersund with well over 7,000 students. The Mid Sweden University was a university college (högskola) named Mitthögskolan until it was granted university status in 2005, making it the youngest university in Sweden. Mitthögskolan was the result of the merger between the University College of Sundsvall/Härnösand (Högskolan i Sundsvall/Härnösand) and the University College of Östersund (Högskolan i Östersund) Östersund is a centre for the research in social sciences (business administration, psychology, sociology and political science) and social work, whilst the research in Health Sciences is split between Östersund and Sundsvall. The city has several secondary schools (gymnasieskolor) of which Palmcrantzskolan (PC) and Wargentinsskolan (Wargen) are the two largest. Among the smaller are Storsjögymnasiet, Östersund's gymnasieskola and Dille Gård Naturbruksgymnasium. Sports Östersund is marketed as the Winter City and has a long history of winter sports. It is internationally perhaps most known as one of the regular Biathlon World Cup hosts in late-November and early-December. World Cup competitions have been held there since 1989. The Biathlon World Championship 1970 were hosted in Östersund in 1970, 2008 and 2019. The cross-country skiing stadium is located two kilometres () from the city centre and is one of the most well-equipped and spectator friendly ski stadiums in Sweden. The stadium is also internationally renowned due to the topography of its ski tracks, the compact track-system and the fact that Östersund is usually quite a reliable locality for snow during the winter months. A number of biathlon world cup races have been held at the stadium as well as several national championships in cross-country skiing. Nationellt Vintersportcentrum (NVC, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre) is a research and training project run by the sports movement, the university, the municipality and the county council. The Swedish Olympic Committee (SOC) use its lab for various tests. Östersund, in association with the neighboring municipality of Åre, had plans to be the candidate of Sweden for the organization of the XXII Olympic Winter Games, the 2014 Winter Olympics, but the candidacy proposal was rejected by the government. It would have been the fourth attempt of this city (after 1994 where Östersund lost the bid with the score 45–39 to Lillehammer in the final round, 1998 and 2002). Östersund has a basketball team in Sweden's highest division (Ligan), Jämtland Basket. Östersund's Fallskärmsklubb is the oldest of Sweden's drop zones and was formed in 1958. The very first civilian parachute jump was done actually on the ice of Storsjön in February 1956. The jumpers were officers from the Swedish Parachute rangers regiment that also wanted to jump on their spare time. Östersund's Fallskärmsklubb is today localized to Optand's airfields, approximately south from Östersund where the education of students and skydiving for experienced jumpers are carried out year-round with the exception of late autumn until early winter. Other sports clubs include: IFK Östersund Ope IF Östersunds FK Fältjägarnas IF 2021 Special Olympics World Winter Games Östersund along with Åre were originally to host the 2021 Special Olympics World Winter Games. It would have marked the first time that Sweden had ever hosted the Special Olympics. However, due to lack of funding on 19 December 2019, the event did not take place in Sweden. Instead it will take place in Kazan, Russia and was delayed to 2022. Notable residents Alexander Edler (born 1986), professional ice hockey defenseman for the Vancouver Canucks Emil Fjellström (1884–1944), stage and film actor Mathias Fredriksson (born 1973), former cross-country skier Anna Haag (born 1986), cross-country skier Martha Hedman (1883–1974), Swedish-American stage actress Emil Jönsson (born 1985), cross-country skier Annika Norlin (born 1977), singer/songwriter for Hello Saferide and Säkert! Anna Andresdotter Nilsson (born 1997), music touring assistant at Creative Artist Agency International relations Twin towns – Sister cities Östersund is twinned with: Trondheim, Norway (since 1946) Sanok, Poland See also Storsjön Frösön References Notes External links County seats in Sweden Populated places in Östersund Municipality Municipal seats of Jämtland County Jämtland Swedish municipal seats Populated places established in 1786 Diocese of Härnösand Populated lakeshore places in Sweden Ski areas and resorts in Sweden Planned cities 1786 establishments in Sweden
1033871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%27Arcy%20Wentworth	D'Arcy Wentworth	D'Arcy Wentworth (14 February 1762 – 7 July 1827) was an Irish surgeon, the first paying passenger to arrive in the new colony of New South Wales. He served under the first seven governors of the Colony, and from 1810 to 1821, he was great assistant to Governor Lachlan Macquarie. Wentworth led a campaign for the rights and recognition of emancipists and for trial by jury. Early life D'Arcy Wentworth was born in Portadown, County Armagh, Ireland, the sixth child and fourth son of Martha and D'Arcy Wentworth. His family had left Yorkshire for safe haven in Ireland after the execution of Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, in 1641. In 1778, aged sixteen, D'Arcy was apprenticed to Alexander Patton, a surgeon-apothecary, in nearby Tandragee. In 1782, he joined the Irish Volunteers (18th Century), one of the local regiments formed during the American War of Independence, to defend Ireland against invasion from France; his commission as a junior officer was signed by George III. In May 1785, having completed a seven-year apprenticeship, D'Arcy left Ireland. He was seeking an appointment with the East India Company, and as the training of Irish surgeons was not recognised in England, it was necessary to go to London to gain accreditation. Life in England Wentworth sailed on the mailboat from Donaghadee to Portpatrick in Scotland. First he went to South Yorkshire, as the guest of his cousin, William Wentworth-Fitzwilliam, 4th Earl Fitzwilliam, at Wentworth Woodhouse. It was the beginning of a lifelong friendship. Fitzwilliam gave D'Arcy encouragement and advice. He attended Whig party gatherings and race meetings at York, Doncaster and Wakefield with Fitzwilliam, who introduced him to the societies of York and London, their up and coming lawyers, young politicians and aspiring bureaucrats. On 1 December 1785, Wentworth went before the Court of Examiners of the Company of Surgeons in London. He qualified as a Mate to Indiamen, eligible to work with the East India Company, once he had twelve months practical experience walking the wards in one of London's large charity hospitals. Wentworth accepted the invitation of Percivall Pott, one of his examiners, to walk the wards of St Bartholomew's, Smithfield under his direction. He attended lectures by other prominent physicians including John Hunter, and dissections held in the Company of Surgeons' anatomy theatre at the Old Bailey. Wentworth waited in vain for a position to become available in the East India Company. Warren Hastings had brought peace to India, and the Company had an over supply of surgeons. Wentworth supported himself in London by mastering the art of card playing, and gambling at card tables in several inns and coffee houses, but he found many of those who lost to him would simply refuse to pay. Eventually, Wentworth pursued a number of prominent players who had defaulted on their debts. Chief Magistrate and novelist, Henry Fielding, described gambling as the School in which most Highwaymen of great Eminence have been bred. Wentworth was arraigned before the Courts four times for highway robbery, but never convicted. On each occasion his defaulter either failed to appear to prosecute him, found himself unable to positively identify D'Arcy Wentworth, or sought only to name and shame him. In March 1787, Fitzwilliam's patronage secured Wentworth a direction from the Home Office, to leave without delay for Portsmouth, where the First Fleet was making ready to sail to Botany Bay. He was to seek out John White, Principal Surgeon, on the Charlotte, who could advise him of any vacancies for assistant surgeons on the Fleet. D'Arcy learnt there, that to become a naval surgeon he would require another accreditation from the Company of Surgeons. He returned to his studies, and on 5 July 1787, he was examined a second time by the Court of Examiners and qualified as an Assistant Surgeon, Second Mate, Third Rate. Arrival in the Colony of New South Wales On 17 January 1790, Wentworth left England on the Second Fleet on board the Neptune, the most notorious of the convict transports. The neglect and ill treatment of her convicts resulted in the deaths of one hundred and forty-seven men and eleven women, over 30% of the convicts she transported. Wentworth was on board as a passenger; he had no influence, no position on the ship and no employment arranged in the Colony. He arrived in Sydney on 26 June 1790, and spent his first five weeks assisting the local surgeons to care for the newly arrived convicts. The Colony was short of food, strict rationing had been in place for three months. Five weeks after the Neptune arrived, to avoid a worsening disaster, Governor Arthur Phillip sent nearly 200 convicts and their superintendents to Norfolk Island on the Surprize, en route to China. Wentworth went with them, "to act as an assistant to the surgeon there, being reputed to have the necessary requisites for such a situation". Wentworth disembarked at Norfolk Island on 16 August 1790. The Commandant, Lieut. Governor Philip Gidley King appointed him as an unpaid Assistant Surgeon. On the island, he became friends with Captain John Hunter, whose vessel, HMS Sirius, had been wrecked on a sunken reef off the island five months earlier. Hunter and most of his crew were stranded on Norfolk Island for nearly a year, awaiting a vessel to return them to Sydney. In December 1791, King appointed Wentworth to a second position on Norfolk Island, Superintendent of Convicts, responsible for overseeing up to 150 convict labourers on building projects, land clearing and farm work. In June 1793, Earl Fitzwilliam offered him a lifeline; he appointed his London lawyer, Charles Cookney, Wentworth's agent, making it possible for him to become an early trader in the Colony. Public life During his thirty-seven years in New South Wales, D'Arcy Wentworth served under the first seven governors of the Colony. Governor Arthur Phillip, RN, 12 October 1786 to 10 December 1792 Arthur Phillip, the first Governor of New South Wales, returned to England in 1792, after five years in the Colony. He applied for leave in April 1790, and again in March and November 1791, but received no response from London. Weak, ill, and in constant pain, the Governor made his own arrangements. He delegated Major Francis Grose, senior officer of the New South Wales Corps, to act as administrator in his absence, and on 11 December 1792 he left Sydney Town on the Atlantic. Two Aboriginal men, Bennelong and Imeeranwanyee, who had befriended and assisted him during the first years of the settlement, accompanied him to England. Governor John Hunter, RN, 6 February 1794 to 27 December 1800 Phillip’s successor, Captain John Hunter, was appointed in February 1794. He had been Phillip’s second in command, the captain of HMS Sirius that had provided a naval escort for the First Fleet. He was to return to the Colony on HMS Reliance, but after she was thrown ashore at Plymouth in wild weather, it was another year before he sailed. After an anxious voyage through French infested waters, Governor Hunter arrived in Sydney Town on 7 September 1795, nearly three years after Phillip’s departure. In that time, Major Grose had placed the Colony under martial law. He had abolished the Courts, made generous land grants to his officers and provided them with convict labour, fed and clothed at Government expense. Food produced on their farms could be sold profitably to the Government Stores. Under Phillip rationing had applied to everyone, including the Governor. After a poor harvest in 1793, Grose decreased food rations for the convicts but not for the military. Phillip had not permitted the military to import spirits or goods to trade. Neither Grose nor William Paterson, who succeeded him in December 1794, imposed these restrictions. Groups of officers chartered ships to deliver alcohol and tradeable goods to the Colony, the scarce coinage was replaced by rum, that became the Colony’s currency, used to pay for labour, food and other necessities. The New South Wales Corps became known as the Rum Corps. When Hunter arrived in late 1795, he found the Colony completely altered, rife with drunkenness and crime. The populace, subject to the whims of the Rum Corps, was riven with divisions and hostilities. The Rum Corps officers controlled the prices of all imported commodities, and their monopoly over trading reaped enormous profits. Emancipated convicts, those who had served their time, no longer on Government rations, were unable to pay for necessities. If they provided labour to officers or wealthy settlers, they were exploited for negligible reward. Many went into debt or bankruptcy, abandoned their land grants or sold them cheaply to the officers and crowded back into Sydney Town to live or to await an opportunity to join a ship going home. Governor Hunter gave D’Arcy Wentworth permission to leave Norfolk Island, and he arrived back in Sydney on 5 March 1796. He had worked without a break for six years on the island. He received £40 a year as Superintendent of Convicts, but had not been paid for his work as Assistant Surgeon. His applications for leave and requests for his position to be regularised had been ignored. In London, Earl Fitzwilliam pursued the matter of payment for his service as Assistant Surgeon, and in 1798, as a result of his efforts, Wentworth was paid arrears of £160, for six years work. Soon after Wentworth’s return, Governor Hunter appointed him to Sydney Cove Hospital as an Assistant Surgeon, replacing Samuel Leeds, who had disqualified himself though drunkenness. In Sydney, Hunter allowed several people, including Wentworth, to act as traders, in an attempt to break the power of the Rum Corps officers through competition, and to lower the price of commodities. On 11 May 1799, he appointed Wentworth Assistant Surgeon at Parramatta, in charge of the hospital there, replacing James Mileham, who was later court martialled for refusing to attend the settlers, free people, and others. D’Arcy Wentworth took up duty at Parramatta Hospital, ‘’two long sheds, built in the form of a tent, and thatched…capable of holding two hundred patients.’’ It was large and clean with a large vegetable garden attached to it. A week later, on 16 May 1799, Governor Hunter granted him a fourteen year lease over six acres and twenty roods at Parramatta, on a knoll overlooking the river. Wentworth planted a dozen young Norfolk Island pines along the ridge line, and built a comfortable two storey house, that he named Wentworth Woodhouse. John Price, surgeon on the Minerva, visited him there, he described it as charmingly situated and, as Milton says, "Bosom'd high in tufted trees". Governor Philip Gidley King, RN, 28 September 1800 to 12 August 1806 Wentworth had been friendly with Philip Gidley King on Norfolk Island. On 15 April 1800, King returned to Sydney from London with a dormant commission, to act as governor in the case of the death or during the absence of Captain John Hunter. During Governor Hunter’s final five months in the Colony, Wentworth provided friendship, assistance and undivided loyalty. His support rankled King. Wentworth had been friendly with Philip Gidley King on Norfolk Island, but when King took over as governor, he curtailed D’Arcy Wentworth’s trading, impounded his trading stock and sent him back to Norfolk Island. John Grant, an emancipist, commented, Governor King hates Hunter’s friends. Captain William Bligh, RN, 13 August 1806 to 26 January 1808 Captain William Bligh, who succeeded King, had D’Arcy Wentworth court martialled for disrespect, the result of conflicting instructions given by the Governor. As a consequence of Bligh’s belligerence, Wentworth supported Major George Johnston and John Macarthur in the Rum Rebellion on 26 January 1808, that overthrew the Governor and placed him under house arrest. Major-General Lachlan Macquarie, CB, 1 January 1810 to 1 December 1821 Lachlan Macquarie came ashore in Sydney on 1 January 1810. On 7 January he issued a Government and General Order declaring all official appointments made since Bligh’s arrest null and void. On 20 February 1810, he ordered that D’Arcy Wentworth remain as Principal Surgeon, pending instructions from London. Macquarie recommended his appointment in his first despatch:Mr Wentworth is a gentleman of considerable professional abilities, extremely attentive and humane in his attendance and practice, and in every respect well qualified for being placed at the head of the medical department here. Under Governor Macquarie, D’Arcy Wentworth found great recognition. From the outset Macquarie respected his judgement, he placed new and heavy responsibilities on his shoulders, and Wentworth responded with absolute loyalty and diligence. Macquarie found him indefagitable in his Exertions and Assiduity. The two men, both over six feet tall, were the same age, forty-seven, born a fortnight apart in 1762. They shared their generation’s belief in the principles of the Enlightenment. They recognized that reason, science, and an exchange of ideas, knowledge and experience were necessary to progress the Colony and to achieve Macquarie’s vision for a more harmonious and inclusive society. On 31 March 1810, Macquarie appointed D’Arcy Wentworth, Treasurer of the Colonial Police Fund, the consolidated revenue fund of the Colony. He was effectively the Treasurer of the Colony, responsible for receiving revenue raised from government activities, including three-quarters of all customs duties, fees collected at the port and town of Sydney, licensing fees from markets, inns, hotels and breweries, and the licences recently issued to publicans for vending spirituous liquors. Macquarie ordered the Fund was to be used for:All Gaol and Police Expenses of every description shall be defrayed, together with such other Expended as may be necessarily incurred in ornamenting and improving the Town of Sydney, and in constructing and repairing the Quays, Wharfs, Bridges, Streets and Roads. Wentworth submitted quarterly accounts to the Governor for his approval, that were published in the Sydney Gazette. On 7 April 1810, Macquarie made Wentworth a Commissioner of the new turnpike road to be built from Sydney to Parramatta and the Hawkesbury. On 17 May 1810, the Governor appointed Wentworth one of two Justices of the Peace. On 11 August 1810, D’Arcy Wentworth was made a member of the Court of Civil Jurisdiction. On 6 October 1810, Macquarie announced Sydney was to have a single effective police force. He appointed D’Arcy Wentworth Chief Magistrate and Superintendent of Police, informing Lord Liverpool:I found the police of the town of Sydney very defective and totally inadequate to the preserving of peace and good order in this populous and extensive town. Under the Appellation of Superintendent of the Police at Sydney, I have appointed Mr D’Arcy Wentworth, the present Acting Principal Surgeon, whose long residence in the Country gave him so full a Knowledge of the Persons and Characters of the Inhabitants as rendered him particularly well qualified for the Situation…He has merited my fullest Approbation and that of the Public. In 1814, Macquarie set up the Native Institute for the Education of Indigenous Children, and appointed D’Arcy Wentworth to the committee of management. Wentworth had the respect and trust of the Aboriginal people in Sydney, they could take their grievances to him as Police Magistrate and could look to him for support and redress. Peter Cunningham, a Scot who made four trips to the Colony as ship’s surgeon, before settling in the Hunter Valley, observed:all the Natives around Sydney understand English well, & speak it too, so as to be understood by the residents. The Billingsgate slang they certainly have acquired in perfection, & no white need think of competing with them in abuse or hard swearing, a constant torrent of which flows from their mouths as long as their antagonist remains before them; it is no use for him to reply, his words being quickly drowned in the roar of cursings & contemptuous appellations. I have stood for a considerable time witnessing contests of this kind, our Native satyrs invariably forcing their opponents to retrograde, while the instant blacky perceived whity beating a retreat, he vociferates after him—“Go along you dam rascal; go along you dam scoundrel; go along you dam blackguard” exalting his voice as the enemy retires. But should this volley of abuse provoke “white fellow” to run up and threaten to strike him, “blacky” would dare him to the scratch, threaten him with Jail & Massa Wenta (Mr Wentworth) if he attempted it. The Rum Hospital One of Wentworth’s achievements was the construction of new hospital for Sydney. In 1806, Governor Bligh reported the wooden hospital at Dawes Point, that arrived on the Second Fleet, was rotten and decayed, not worth rep’g, and the other hospitals were in a ruinous state. Macquarie confirmed this in his first despatch to London: there will be an absolute necessity for building a new general hospital as soon as possible. It was necessary to provide a proper place of reception, and more secure detention of the sick, and of moving it to a more airy and retired situation in the town. Without waiting for a reply, within two months the Governor had called for tenders. Macquarie signed the contract for construction of a new hospital on 6 November 1810, with a consortium of businessmen – Garnham Blaxcell and Alexander Riley, later joined by D'Arcy Wentworth. They would receive convict labour and a monopoly on rum imports, from which they expected to recoup the cost of the building and gain considerable profits. The contract allowed them an exclusive right to import 45,000 (later increased to 60,000) gallons of rum to sell, with the excise collected, paid into the Colonial Fund. Their projected profit on the building of the hospital did not eventuate, as a result of many unforeseen problems and the cost of the remedial work required. On its completion in 1816, convict patients were transferred to the new hospital, known as the "Rum Hospital". Wentworth made lifelong friends among his fellow surgeons and colleagues in the Colony, but he remained detached from its social castes and allegiances. Historian James Auchmuty commented that despite his general popularity, comparative wealth and powerful connexions at home, Wentworth mixed little in non-official social life, observing, the liberal views imbibed in the Ireland of his youth, which had resulted in more than usual sympathy with the convict population, and the circumstances of his personal life in the Colony prevented him from fully sharing in the social round. Bank of New South Wales The Colony of New South Wales was established without any cash. Coinage brought to the Colony leaked out rapidly, mainly on ships that called with necessities, clothes, food, and knick knacks. As a result there was insufficient coinage to permit normal business transactions, forcing the population to rely on local promissary notes and rum. On 30 April 1810, Macquarie wrote to Lord Castlereagh:there is one circumstance to which I beg your Lordship’s most serious attention, as on it seems to hinge much of the future prosperity of this colony. In consequence of there being neither gold nor silver coins of any denomination, nor any legal currency, as a substitute for specie in the colony, the people have been in some degree forced on the expedient of issuing and receiving notes of hand to supply the place of real money, and this petty banking has thrown open a door to frauds and impositions of a most grievous nature to the country at large…At present the agricultural and commercial pursuits of the territory are very much impeded and obstructed by the want of some adequately secured circulating medium. Under D’Arcy Wentworth, the Colonial Fund had a quasi-bank role, printing and issuing bank notes to people who had claims on the Fund. Wentworth had the Sydney Gazette print books of notes, labelled Police Fund, with four different Sterling values: two shillings and sixpence, five shillings, ten shillings and one pound. To protect against forgery, he had a Latin quotation from Cicero with a decorative border printed on the reverse side, and he signed each note. They circulated throughout the Colony, helping to overcome the shortage of small change. The idea of establishing a bank was raised in March 1810, but it wasn't until November 1816 that a meeting was held to discuss the proposal. In February 1817, the Bank of New South Wales was established; Macquarie gave it a Charter as a joint stock company, providing its directors with limited liability. The first directors were: D'Arcy Wentworth, John Harris, Robert Jenkins, Thomas Wylde, Alexander Riley, William Redfern and John Thomas Campbell. Campbell, Macquarie’s secretary, was elected the bank's first president; D’Arcy Wentworth was elected president in 1825. The new bank facilitated financial transactions and encouraged commerce; it helped bring to an end the Colony’s dependence on rum as money, and the need for dubious promissary notes. The bank received deposits from the Colonial Fund, previously held by Wentworth. Macquarie and the Emancipists In his third despatch to London, written on Easter Monday 1810, Macquarie reported on what he saw was the Colony’s most pressing problem: I was very much surprised and Concerned, on my Arrival here, at the extraordinary and illiberal Policy I found had been adopted by all the Persons who had preceded me in Office, respecting those Men who had been originally sent out to this Country as Convicts, but who, by long Habits of Industry and total Reformation of Manners, had not only become respectable, but by Many Degrees the most Useful Members of the Community. Those persons have never been Countenanced or received into Society. I have nevertheless, taken upon my self to adopt a new Line of Conduct, Conceiving that Emancipation, when united with Rectitude and long-tried good Conduct, should lead a Man back to that Rank in Society which he had forfeited, and do away, in as far as the Case will admit, All Retrospect of former bad Conduct. This appears to me to be the greatest inducement that Can be held out towards the Reformation of Manners of the establishment, and I think it is Consistent with the gracious and humane Intentions of His Majesty and His Ministers. Macquarie welcomed the emancipists into society, he appointed them to positions in the public sector, reversing the previous policy towards former convicts. Most likely D’Arcy Wentworth had advocated on their behalf, for Macquarie had assumed he was an emancipist. He listed for Castlereagh the men who gave the most liberal assistance to government and conducted themselves with the greatest propriety, whom he had: admitted to my table,namely Mr D’Arcy Wentworth, principal Surgeon; Mr William Redfern, Assistant Surgeon; Mr Andrew Thompson, an opulent Farmer and Proprietor of Land; and Mr Simeon Lord, an opulent Merchant., On 26 July 1811, Lord Liverpool acknowledged the principles Macquarie had outlined. The Governor resolutely pursued his new Line of Conduct, championing emancipists of good conduct, raising them into key positions of authority and to a new rank in society. His approach startled and dismayed the Exclusives and wealthier free settlers, and met immediate opposition within the barracks, from the officers of the 73rd Regiment, sent to the Colony to replace the discredited Rum Corps. The most vigorous opponents of the Governor’s new inclusiveness were the clergy and judiciary. They worked to frustrate and denigrate his progress, and complained noisily to London. They petitioned Members of Parliament, the Colonial Office and influential spokesmen within their own hierarchies, belaboring them with an increasing stream of grievances and gossip. D’Arcy, working close to Macquarie, became an easy target for much of the venom directed towards the Governor. In London, Opposition support for their campaign spurred the Secretary of State, Earl Bathurst, to propose in April 1817: the appointment of commissioners who shall forthwith proceed to the settlement with full powers to investigate all the complaints which have been made, both with respect to the treatment of convicts, and the general administration of the government. John Thomas Bigge & his Report Nearly two years later, on 19 January 1819, John Thomas Bigge was appointed Commissioner of Inquiry, with a private instruction from Earl Bathurst to end Macquarie’s dream of an inclusive society in the Colony. Bigge did not attack Macquarie directly in his report, tabled in Parliament in 1822 and 1823, though he maligned him to the authorities in London. In his attempt to discredit Macquarie, Bigge’s report took aim at those closest to the Governor. He attacked D’Arcy Wentworth in particular, personally and professionally, and others who supported Macquarie’s policy of a more inclusive society, including William Redfern and J.T. Campbell, the Governor’s Secretary. In May 1818, D’Arcy Wentworth had submitted his resignation as Principal Surgeon. Macquarie recommended that William Redfern, his Assistant Surgeon, an emancipist, replace him. Bigge opposed his appointment. On 23 October 1819, three weeks after James Bowman, Wentworth's replacement, arrived with Commissioner Bigge, he retired as Principal Surgeon. He had served 29 years as a surgeon in New South Wales, ten of those as Principal Surgeon. The Government and General Order announcing his retirement included a note from the Governor:His Excellency would be doing Injustice to his own Feelings as well as to the Merits of Mr Wentworth, were he not to express an entire Satisfaction at, and unqualified Approbation of, the able, zealous, humane and intelligent Manner in which he has uniformly conducted the Duties of Principal Surgeon; and which His Excellency is happy to bear Testimony, were also conducted with the strictest Honour and Integrity. And whilst His Excellency regrets the Retirement of so able and useful a Medical Officer, he doubts not that the numerous and humane and charitable Acts which have so eminently distinguished his Professional Character during a long Course of Years will afford him a constant Source of the most consolatory and gratifying Reflections on every Retrospect of his active and important Public Service. In March 1820, Wentworth resigned as Superintendent of Police, and received another public acknowledgement from Macquarie:In receiving Mr Wentworth’s resignation of the office of Superintendent of Police, which he has filled for nearly ten years past with equal credit to himself and benefit to the community, his Excellency feels it due to that Gentleman to express in this public manner his unqualified approbation his steady, upright, able and impartial conduct in the discharge of its arduous and important duties. Six months later, when Wentworth resigned as Treasurer of the Police Fund, Macquarie made a furtherpublic Testimony of Approbation of his honourable, zealous, and punctual discharge of the important Trust which has been confided to him for upwards of ten Years past as Treasurer of the Police Fund.In his Report, Bigge referred to the punctuality and credit with which Mr Wentworth acquitted himself in the discharge of his duty as Treasurer. A few months later, on 26 March 1821, Wentworth’s replacement William Minchin died. Macquarie persuaded him to return as Superintendent of Police and Treasurer of the Colonial Revenue, writing to Earl Bathurst, there was no-one else in the Colony capable of performing the duties. D’Arcy agreed to his request, and on 21 July 1821, his return was greeted with wide acclaim. On 31 January 1822, his sixtieth birthday, Macquarie invited D’Arcy and other close friends to celebrate. At day break on 12 February 1822, with his wife Elizabeth and son Lachlan, he passed through an immense concourse to the harbour, filled with a great gathering of launches, barges, cutters, pinnaces and wherries, and went aboard the Surry, for the voyage home. The Surry was towed slowly through the ships in the cove, which were all manned with colours displayed, and many of them saluting in honour of the occasion, the Battery saluting at the same time with 19 guns. The New Fort (named Fort Macquarie) and all the Rocks on Bennelong Point, as well as the Dawes Battery and the Rocks on the Northern side of the Harbour were covered with men, women and children and a vast number of boats were also sailing or rowing in the Harbour, full of People – cheering us repeatedly as we passed along through them. The Sydney Gazette reported: never did Sydney look so attractive and gay. The shores were lined with spectators, innumerable, but on each countenance was an indication of feeling too big, too sincere for utterance. Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane, CB, 1 December 1821 to 1 December 1825 D’Arcy Wentworth continued to serve and advise Macquarie’s successor, Governor Brisbane. He remained Treasurer of the Colonial Revenue until the arrival of his replacement, William Balcombe, in April 1824. Brisbane recommended him as chairman of the Court of Quarter Sessions, and he was elected by his brother magistrates in November 1824, but he declined, reluctant to implement the more punitive regime recommended by Bigge, and to be responsible for ensuring his fellow magistrates did likewise. He served as Superintendent of Police until Captain Francis Rossi arrived to replace him on 19 May 1825, when he retired altogether from public life. The Bench of Magistrates publicly thanked him on his retirement, stating they echoed the Public voice, and were indebted to his superior information in dispensing Justice. As a public official, Wentworth’s capacity to advocate openly for reform had been constrained. Free of the obligations of public office, he was free to give his full support to the emancipist cause, to enter political debate, and to work with his son William Charles, as an advocate for an independent constitution for the Colony. In October he made a formal request to Brisbane, with two Parramatta magistrates, for respectable emancipists to be added to the lists of jurors. Brisbane sent their petition to Earl Bathurst for his attention. In May 1825, Governor Brisbane was recalled. On 26 October 1825, D’Arcy Wentworth presented an Address of Farewell to him on behalf of the Emancipists. He arranged the Official Farewell Dinner for the Governor, with one hundred guests, at the Woolpack Inn in Parramatta on 7 November 1825. D’Arcy sat beside the Governor at the dinner, but he was ill and he retired early. His son William proposed the toasts, to the King, to Governor Brisbane, to the prosperity of Australia and to the memory of Governor Phillip. In solemn silence they toasted the memory of Governor Macquarie. Then they charged their glasses and drank to the health of D’Arcy Wentworth. William returned thanks on his behalf, acknowledging he was proud to be the son of such a worthy man, proud that the community possessed this upright and zealous friend of liberty. At his farewell dinner, Governor Brisbane, in defiance of the Exclusives and the Bigge Report, recognised the importance and significance of the Emancipists, and he undertook to champion their cause with the British Government. Lieut. General Sir Ralph Darling, GCH, 19 December 1825 to 21 October 1831 Governor Darling arrived in Sydney on 17 December 1825, to actively implement the socially destructive policies recommended in the Bigge Report. Darling’s policies made life more punitive for the convicts and more onerous for the soldiers. Emancipists and convicts were now excluded from Government employment. Freed convicts who had been given pardons by the Crown were now dealt with by the courts as convicts without status; emancipists and descendants of convicts were excluded from Government House. Under Darling, as a consequence of the Bigge Report, all heads of Government agencies were replaced with new appointments from London; many wealthy settlers arrived, rapidly expanding the frontier of settlement and increasing the rate of dispossession of the Aboriginals. Darling appointed many of these wealthy settlers as magistrates, and allowed the settlers and Mounted Police a freer hand to deal more punitively with convict absconders, bushrangers and Aboriginals. In dealing with clashes between the settlers and Aboriginal land owners, Darling followed Earl Bathurst’s instructions - to treat Aborigines as enemy combatants not British subjects. He supported “dispersals” of any gatherings of Aborigines, he used the Military to suppress Aboriginal dissent, and issued muskets to settlers in the Hunter Region for them to defend themselves. Under Darling, no longer an officer of the Crown, D’Arcy Wentworth was free to promote the cause of the Emancipists and trial by jury, and he became their figure head and leader. The press came under pressure for its criticism of the Governor and government policies. D’Arcy initially led the protagonists supporting freedom of the press, a fully elected representative government for the Colony, and no taxation without representation. Amongst the leading agitators were the Australian newspaper and its proprietors: two barristers, Robert Wardell and William Charles Wentworth, D’Arcy Wentworth’s son. Following Darling’s persecution of two soldiers, Sudds and Thompson in November 1826, that resulted in the death of Sudds,The Australian pressed for the recall of Governor Darling. William Wentworth became the voice for representative government for the Colony, and for Governor Darling’s recall. Private life In September 1789, D’Arcy Wentworth and Jane Austen, invited by Earl Fitzwilliam, attended a huge garden party at Wentworth Woodhouse in honour of the Prince of Wales. After the event, the couple left for Scotland, where they married under Scottish law, that unlike England, did not require parental consent or the posting of marriage banns. After their return to London, at the end of October, Wentworth was arrested and held in Newgate on suspicion of highway robbery. He was tried and released on 9 December 1789. Three days later he went to Portsmouth to arrange their passage to New South Wales on the Neptune. At Christmas, the couple visited the Austen family in Hampshire, where Reverend Austen agreed to legalise their Scottish marriage, to marry them under English law, by special license. When James Austen, his eldest son, arrived from Oxford, and reported what he had read in the London papers about Wentworth’s trial, Reverend Austen changed his mind. He convinced Jane her relationship with Wentworth would damage her family’s reputation and the future prospects of her five brothers. He persuaded her to remain at home, her family closed ranks around her, she remained confined within their orbit. Neither Jane Austen nor D’Arcy Wentworth ever remarried. He remained the fixed star in her firmament and the inspiration for much of her writing. She named him Fitzwilliam Darcy, Mr Darcy, in Pride and Prejudice, the story of their meeting and romance; and Captain Wentworth in Persuasion, her imagined story of his return to her. D’Arcy Wentworth sailed from Portsmouth on 17 January 1790. The day before, her brother Henry reflected his family’s anger in a piece he wrote for The Loiterer, at Oxford. He applauded: the world for getting rid of its superfluous inhabitants, both Poets & Pickpockets Prudes & Prostitutes, in short all those who have too much cunning or too little money…shipped off with the very first cargo of Convicts to Botany Bay Following Jane's rejection, on board the convict transport Neptune, Wentworth entered a relationship with a convict girl, Catherine Crowley. She remained his partner in the Colony until her death at Parramatta in January 1800. Their son William Charles was born at sea on the Surprize, standing off Norfolk Island in a violent storm on 13 August 1790; a daughter, Martha, died at four months, during an outbreak of fever carried by the Third Fleet; two more sons followed, D’Arcy, born in 1793, and John in 1795. D’Arcy Wentworth made numerous attempts to return to England from Norfolk Island and from Sydney. In September 1800, he entrusted a letter to Governor Hunter, returning to England, to deliver to his wife in Hampshire. On 13 October 1801, Captain John Hunter delivered the letter to Jane Austen in Bath, opening a correspondence between the couple that continued until her death in 1817. In 1802, Wentworth sent his two eldest sons, William and D’Arcy, to school in England, intending to follow as soon as he was able. In 1805, from Norfolk Island, banished by Governor King, he sent his youngest son John, to join them. In 1807, Fitzwilliam, appalled by reports of Bligh’s behaviour towards D’Arcy Wentworth, applied to Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary of State for the Colonies, for him to be given leave of absence to return to London. Fitzwilliam wrote again the following year, to inform Castlereagh that Wentworth had been: suspended from the duties of his office & consequently from its emoluments, this devoted man is retained a prisoner in the Colony. Bligh named D’Arcy Wentworth as one of the twelve ringleaders of the Rum Rebellion, declaring them to be in a state of mutiny and rebellion He wanted them arrested and charged with treason. he forbad them leaving the Colony under any circumstances, proclaiming that ships’ masters would take them, at their peril. In late July 1808, Wentworth finally received permission from Lord Castlereagh to leave the Colony, allowing him to return to England, but it had come too late. Bligh was under house arrest in Government House, his rage undiminished, and plans were under way for him to return to England. All those involved in the Rum Rebellion anticipated harsh repercussions. Wentworth knew Bligh’s anger would be directed at him; he believed he would be arrested and charged with treason when he arrived in England. He expected no leniency. He replied, I am under the painful necessity of declining to avail myself of the leave granted me, until the result be known. He wrote to his wife, telling her the approval for his leave had been given, but with great regret he had decided not to apply to return to England at this time. He resolved to remain in the Colony and see out the storm from a safe distance. In 1809, after eight years of correspondence, their long held hopes of being reunited had come to nothing. Jane Austen moved to Chawton Cottage that year, determined to devote herself to writing. From 1811, she sent her husband a copy of each of her novels as they were published. At the end of April 1818, he received a parcel of books, not addressed by her hand. Opening Persuasion, he read that Jane was now mouldering in the grave, it was devastating news. Reading her story of his imagined return to her, he recognized her anger, her frustration and despair. Wentworth entered a period of grief and dark reflection: he lost his energy, he was tired, his health began to trouble him. He decided to withdraw from his commitments. On 5 May 1818, after a conversation with Macquarie, he submitted his resignation as Principal Surgeon. By July 1820, he had resigned from all his public offices, other than a weekly attendance on the bench at Parramatta. Wentworth’s hopes for a quiet retirement were disrupted by the arrival of Commissioner Bigge, who asserted his authority over the Governor, attacking him and his administration. Wentworth was called to attend Macquarie, as stress and despair affected his health. In 1821, Wentworth leased Wentworth Woodhouse in Parramatta, and moved to live at his farm Home Bush. By 1823, he had acquired 17,000 acres of land, that he used to produce meat for the Colony just as he had done on Norfolk Island. In the early 1800s, he had bought a prize stallion named Hector, imported from India, from Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington. When Hector arrived, there were fewer than three hundred horses in the Colony, by 1821, there were more than four thousand. With his prize sire, Wentworth bred carriage horses and racehorses, Hector was the great foundation sire of Australian Cavalry horses known as Walers, for New South Wales. The first exports of Walers, as light cavalry horses, began in 1816. In the First World War around one hundred and sixty thousand Walers were sent overseas, between 1861 and 1931 almost half a million were exported. Death In the winter of 1827, a severe strain of influenza swept through the Colony. On Saturday, 7 July 1827, a cold winter morning, D’Arcy Wentworth died of pneumonia at his farm, Home Bush. On Monday 9 July, despite dreadful weather and the risk of influenza, a funeral procession more than a mile long, with forty carriages and more than fifty men on horseback, accompanied his hearse on its journey to Parramatta. D’Arcy Wentworth was buried there, in St John’s cemetery. The inscription on his tomb reads: an honest man, the noblest work of God. He left two mature sons, William Charles and D’Arcy, children of Catherine Crowley, and seven children with Mary Ann Lawes, three sons and four daughters; their fourth son was born in 1828. Wentworth named her in his will as: my dear friend Ann Lawes the mother of seven of my children. After his funeral the mourners gathered at Hannah Walker’s Red Cow Inn at Parramatta, to salute his life and drink a toast to his memory. The Monitor described D’Arcy Wentworth as a lover of liberty on whom the people could rely, the natural protector of the people’s rights. He was a lover of freedom; a constant and steady friend to the people; a kind and liberal master; a just and humane magistrate; a steady friend. The Australian noted his reputation as a doctor and as a magistrate: As a medical practitioner, Mr Wentworth was distinguished for his tenderness with which he treated his patients of every degree, and that class of unfortunate persons whom the charge of General Hospital placed so extensively under his care. He was peculiarly skilful in treating the diseases of children… As an able, upright and impartial Magistrate, Mr Wentworth’s merits were well remembered by all classes of the community. Sydney Gazette acknowledged Wentworth had studiously devoted the best part of his eventful life to the service of its public, he was loyal from principle, and indefatigable in his public career; a Patriot in whom were blended the political virtues of loyalty and independence. Recognition The Sydney suburbs of Wentworthville and Wentworth Point, the New South Wales town, Wentworth, the federal electorate of Wentworth, more than sixty avenues, drives, places, roads, streets and ways in Sydney, and more than twenty in both Melbourne and Brisbane, are named Wentworth, in honour of D'Arcy and his son, William Charles. Darcy Street (formerly D'Arcy Street), within Parramatta, was named for D’Arcy Wentworth. Woodhouse Lane, also within Parramatta, was named after the two storey house, Wentworth Woodhouse, he built nearby. In 1824, explorer Hamilton Hume named an imposing peak in the Victorian Central Highlands, Mount Wentworth, after D'Arcy Wentworth. In 1836, Sir Thomas Mitchell noting that Port Philip was visible from the summit, renamed it Mount Macedon. References Citations Sources Auchmuty, J.J. (1967) Wentworth, D'Arcy (1762-1827), Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume II, Melbourne University Press. Barker, Hedley Philip (1971), 'D'Arcy Wentworth', with bibliography, unpublished thesis submitted for M.A., Department of History, University of New England, Armidale, NSW. Includes illustrations, maps, portraits. Burke, Bernard (1891). A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Colonial Gentry (aka Burke's Colonial Gentry ) vol 1. p 95-97. London, Harrison & Sons, 1891. Connor, John (2002) The Australian Frontier Wars 1788-1838, University of New South Wales Press, Sydney. Dermody, Kathleen (1990) D'Arcy Wentworth 1762-1827, A Second Chance. PhD thesis, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT. Historical Records of Australia, series 1, volumes 2 to 13, series 4, volume 1. Historical Records of New South Wales, volumes 1, 5, 6 and 7. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, OUP, 2004. Ritchie, John (1997). The Wentworths: Father and Son. The Miegunyah Press at Melbourne University Press. . Walker, William Wallace, Jane & D'Arcy: Jane Austen & D'Arcy Wentworth. Volume 1, Folly is not always Folly; Volume 2, Such Talent & Such Success. Arcana Press. Sydney. 2017. External links State Records of NSW, Wentworth, D'Arcy (1811-Feb 1818) State Records of NSW, Wentworth, D'Arcy (Apr 1818-Feb 1822) State Records of NSW, Wentworth, D'Arcy (Mar 1822-Nov 1824) State Records of NSW, Wentworth, D'Arcy (Dec 1824) to West, James (1823) Australian Obituaries; Australian (Sydney), 11 July 1827, p 4: The Australian. D'Arcy's son, William Charles, was a joint owner of the Australian newspaper. Australian Dictionary of Biography: D'Arcy Wentworth http://www.janeanddarcy.com D’Arcy Wentworth: Heroic Inspiration? 1762 births 1827 deaths Australian surgeons Colony of New South Wales people History of Sydney People from Portadown People from Sydney 19th-century Australian public servants
1035700	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Avery	James Avery	James LaRue Avery (November 27, 1945 – December 31, 2013) was an American actor and poet. He was best known for his roles as Philip Banks in The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, Shredder in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Judge Michael Conover on L.A. Law, Steve Yeager in The Brady Bunch Movie, Haroud Hazi Bin in Aladdin and Dr. Crippen on The Closer (2005–2007). Early life Avery was born on November 27, 1945, in [The Neighborhood Subdivision of Pughsville] (located in the Northern Suffolk, Virginia area) , to mother Florence J. Avery. His father denied paternity and was not listed on his birth certificate. Florence would eventually move James to Atlantic City, New Jersey. He served in the U.S. Navy in the Vietnam War from 1968 to 1969, and eventually moved to San Diego, California, where he began to write poetry and TV scripts for PBS. He won an Emmy for production during his tenure there, and then received a scholarship to UC San Diego, where he attended Thurgood Marshall College (then Third College), earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama and literature in 1976. Career Avery began his career in the 1980s with appearances in television series such as NBC's Hill Street Blues, Showtime sitcom Brothers as Bubba Dean, Amen, FM and L.A. Law. In the 1990s, he achieved prominence for his role as Philip Banks in The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, a character that was ranked number 34 in TV Guides "50 Greatest TV Dads of All Time". After The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air ended, he played the lead role of Alonzo Sparks in the UPN comedy series Sparks that lasted for two seasons. Other notable roles in television included Dr. Crippen in The Closer, Charles Haysbert in The Division, and Michael Kelso's commanding officer at the police academy late in the series run of That '70s Show. Among his most notable voice credits are the voices of Shredder in the original Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series, and James Rhodes/War Machine in the 1990s Iron Man series. He also lent his powerful bass voice as Junkyard Dog in Hulk Hogan's Rock 'n' Wrestling (1985–1986), Turbo in Rambo and the Forces of Freedom (1986), and Haroud Hazi Bin in Aladdin (1994). Avery was the commencement speaker for his alma mater, UC San Diego's Thurgood Marshall College in 2007, and again in 2012..judge Personal life In 1988, Avery married his girlfriend Barbara. Barbara was dean of student life at Loyola Marymount University. He had no biological children, but was a stepfather to Barbara's son, Kevin Waters. Death On December 31, 2013, Avery died at the age of 68 at Glendale Memorial Medical Center. His publicist, Cynthia Snyder, told the Associated Press that Avery died following complications from open heart surgery. Janet Hubert, who portrayed his on-screen wife Vivian on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air for the first three seasons, said after his death: "RIP James, all the world is a stage, and we are all merely players in this production called LIFE." Will Smith commented on Avery's death, saying: "Some of my greatest lessons in acting, living, and being a respectable human being came through James Avery. Every young man needs an Uncle Phil. Rest in peace." Joseph Marcell (Geoffrey) called Avery a "gentle giant". Avery's remains were cremated and scattered near the Pacific Ocean. In April 2020, Will Smith reunited with the cast of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air'' on a video conference honoring Avery's best moments on the show. Filmography Film Television Video games References External links The HistoryMakers Biography, photos and video clips 1945 births 2013 deaths African-American male actors African-American poets American male film actors American male poets American male television actors American male voice actors American television personalities American television writers American male television writers Male actors from New Jersey Male actors from Virginia People from Atlantic City, New Jersey People from Suffolk, Virginia Screenwriters from California Screenwriters from New Jersey Screenwriters from Virginia United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War United States Navy sailors University of California, San Diego alumni Virginia State University alumni 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors 20th-century American poets African-American screenwriters 20th-century American male writers 20th-century African-American writers 21st-century African-American people African-American male writers African-American United States Navy personnel
1044491	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palio%20di%20Siena	Palio di Siena	The Palio di Siena (; known locally simply as Il Palio) is a horse race that is held twice each year, on 2 July and 16 August, in Siena, Italy. Ten horses and riders, bareback and dressed in the appropriate colours, represent ten of the seventeen contrade, or city wards. The Palio held on 2 July is named Palio di Provenzano, in honour of the Madonna of Provenzano, a Marian devotion particular to Siena which developed around an icon from the area of the city. The Palio held on 16 August is named Palio dell'Assunta, in honour of the Assumption of Mary. Sometimes, in case of exceptional events or local or national anniversaries deemed relevant and pertinent ones, the city community may decide for an extraordinary Palio, run between May and September. The last two were on 9 September 2000, to celebrate the city entering the new millennium and on 20 October 2018, in commemoration of the end of the Great War. The Corteo Storico, a pageant to the sound of the March of the Palio, precedes the race, which attracts visitors and spectators from around the world. The race itself, in which the jockeys ride bareback, circles the Piazza del Campo, on which a thick layer of earth has been laid. The race is run for three laps of the piazza and usually lasts no more than 90 seconds. It is common for a few of the jockeys to be thrown off their horses while making the treacherous turns in the piazza, and indeed, it is not unusual to see riderless horses finishing the race. History Origins The earliest known antecedents of the race are medieval. The town's central piazza was the site of public games, largely combative: pugna, a sort of many-sided boxing match or brawl; jousting; and in the 16th century, bullfights. Public races organized by the contrade were popular from the 14th century onwards; called , they were run across the whole city. When the Grand Duke of Tuscany outlawed bullfighting in 1590, the contrade took to organizing races in the Piazza del Campo. The first such races were on buffalo-back and called bufalate; asinate, races on donkey-back, later took their place, while horse racing continued elsewhere. The first modern Palio (called palio alla tonda to distinguish it from the earlier palio alla lunga) took place in 1633. A second Palio in August At first, one race was held each year, on 2 July. A second, on 16 August, was added from 1701, though initially, the August race was run intermittently rather than every year. The August race (il palio dell'Assunta), which coincided with the Feast of the Assumption, was probably introduced "spontaneously" as part of the feasting and celebration associated with this important festival. 16 August was presumably chosen because the other days of the mid-August canonical festival, the 14th and 15th of the month, were already taken up respectively by the Corteo dei Ceri (Procession of the Ceri) and by the census. The August Palio started out as an extension of the celebrations of the July Palio and was organized and funded by July's winning contrada, though only if the contrada in question could afford it. After 1802, however, organisation and funding the August race became a central responsibility of the city, which removed annual uncertainty over whether or not an August Palio would run. It has been held at least since 15 August 1581 when 15-year-old jockey Virginia Tacci was the first female to ride a steed in the race. Restriction In 1729, the city's Munich-born governor, Violante of Bavaria, defined formal boundaries for the contrade, at the same time imposing several mergers so that the number of Sienese contrade was reduced to seventeen. This was also the year of the decree restricting to ten the number of contrade that could participate in a Palio; the restriction, which remains in force, resulted from the number and extent of accidents experienced in the preceding races. The seventeen contrade The seventeen contrade are: In each race, only ten of the seventeen contrade participate: the seven which did not participate in the previous year's Palio and three others chosen by drawing lots. The race today The first race (Palio di Provenzano) is held on 2 July, which is both the Feast of the Visitation and the date of a local festival in honour of the Madonna of Provenzano (a painting once owned by the Sienese leader Provenzano Salvani, which was supposed to have miraculous curative power). The second race is held on 16 August (Palio dell'Assunta), the day after the Feast of the Assumption, and is likewise dedicated to the Virgin Mary. After exceptional events (e.g., the Apollo 11 moon landing) and on important anniversaries (e.g., the centennial of the Unification of Italy), the Sienese community may decide to hold a third Palio between May and September. The most recent was in 2018 to celebrate the anniversary of the end of WWI. The field consists of ten horses, so not all seventeen contrade can take part in the Palio on any occasion. The seven contrade that did not take part in that month of the previous year are automatically included; three more are chosen by draw (twice a year, in the last days of May and at the beginning of July). Private owners (among them, some jockeys) offer the pick of their stables, selected during the year after trial races, other Palio races in Italy and veterinary examination, from which main representatives of the participating contrade, the Capitani, choose ten of approximately equal quality, three days before the race. A lottery then determines which horse will run for each contrada. Six trial races are run, the first on the evening of the horse selection and the last on the morning before the Palio. Corruption (bribery) is commonplace, prompting the residents of each contrada, known as contradaioli, to keep a close watch on their stable and their rider. The horses are of mixed breed; no purebred horses are allowed. The race is preceded by a spectacular pageant to the sound of the March of the Palio, the Corteo Storico, which includes (among many others) Alfieri, flag wavers, in medieval costumes. Just before the pageant, a squad of carabinieri on horseback, wielding swords, demonstrate a mounted charge around the track. They take one lap at a walk, in formation, and a second at a gallop that foreshadows the excitement of the race to come, before exiting down one of the streets that leads out of Piazza del Campo. Spectators arrive early in the morning, eventually filling the centre of the town square, inside the track, to capacity; the local police seal the entrances once the festivities begin in earnest. Seats ranging from simple bleachers to elaborate box seats may be had for a price, but sell out long before the day of the race. At 7:30 p.m. for the July race, and 7 p.m. for the August race, the detonation of an explosive charge echoes across the piazza, signaling to the thousands of onlookers that the race is about to begin. The race itself runs for three laps of the Piazza del Campo, the perimeter of which is covered with several inches of dirt (imported and laid for the occasion at great expense to the city) and the corners of which are protected with padded crash barriers for the occasion. The jockeys ride the horses bareback from the starting line, an area between two ropes. Nine horses, in an order only decided by lot immediately before the race starts, enter the space. The tenth, the rincorsa, waits outside. When the rincorsa finally enters the space between the ropes the starter (mossiere) activates a mechanism that instantly drops the canapo (the front rope). This process (the mossa) can take a very long time, as deals have usually been made between various contrade and jockeys that affect when the rincorsa moves - he may be waiting for a particular other horse to be well- or badly-placed, for example. On the dangerous, steeply canted track, the riders are allowed to use their whips (in Italian, nerbi, stretched, dried bulls' hide) not only for their own horse, but also for disturbing other horses and riders. The Palio in fact is won by the horse who represents his contrada, and not by the jockeys. The winner is the first horse to cross the finish line—a horse can win without its rider (a condition known as cavallo scosso). A horse can also win without its decorative headgear (spennacchiera), although the opposite belief is widely held even among the Sienese. The loser in the race is considered to be the contrada whose horse came second, not last. The winner is awarded a banner of painted silk, or palio, which is hand-painted by a different artist for each race. The enthusiasm after the victory, however, is so extreme that the ceremony of attribution of the palio is quite instantaneous, being the first moment of a months-long celebration for the winning ward. There are occasional outbreaks of violence between partisans of rival contrade. There may be some danger to spectators from the sheer number of people in attendance. There have also been complaints about mistreatment of horses, injuries and even deaths, especially from animal-rights associations and even from some veterinarians. In the Palio held on 16 August 2004, the horse for the contrada of Bruco (the Caterpillar) fell and was badly trampled, as the race was not stopped despite possible additional safety risks for other horses. The horse died of its injuries, raising further complaints from animal-rights organizations. The Palio differs from "normal" horse races in that part of the game is for the wards to prevent rival contrade from winning. When a contrada fails to win, its historical enemy will celebrate that fact nearly as merrily as a victory of its own, regardless of whether adversarial interference was a deciding factor. Few things are forbidden to the jockeys during the race; for instance, they can pull or shove their fellows, hit the horses and each other, or try to hamper other horses at the start. The most successful ward is Oca, the Goose, which has won 63 races (at least according to their records, which start from 1644), followed by Chiocciola, the Snail, with 51, and Tartuca, the Tortoise, with 46. Oca is also the contrada with the most wins in recent history (from 1900 to 2010) with 21 victories, followed by Selva, the Forest, with 18, and Drago, the Dragon, with 17. Among jockeys, the most victorious of all time is Andrea Degortes, nicknamed Aceto ('Vinegar'), with 14 wins (from 1964 to 1996). Angelo Meloni, nicknamed Picino (active from 1897 to 1933) has the second in the number of wins with 13 successes, and Luigi Bruschelli, nicknamed Trecciolino (still active), has the third most of 12 wins (although he claims 13 victories, his horse won without him one year). The most successful horses were Folco and Panezio with eight wins each, followed by Topolone with seven. In recent history (from 1900 to the present), only three wards have succeeded in winning both the July and the August races in a single year (the term in Italian is fare cappotto) with the same jockey. Tartuca (the Tortoise) accomplished the feat in 1933 with jockey Fernando Leoni (nicknamed "Ganascia") on Folco. In 1997, Giraffa (the Giraffe) won both races, with jockey Giuseppe Pes, nicknamed Il Pesse. In 2016, jockey Jonatan Bartoletti, on the mount "Preziosa Penelope", won both the July and August races for Lupa (the She-wolf). Ritual and rivalry The Palio di Siena is more than a simple horse race. It is the culmination of ongoing rivalry and competition between the contrade. The lead-up and the day of the race are invested with passion and pride. Formal and informal rituals take place as the day proceeds, with each contrada navigating a strategy of horsemanship, alliances and animosities. There are the final clandestine meetings among the heads of the contrade and then between them and the jockeys. There is the two-hour pageant of the Corteo Storico, and then all this is crowned by the race, which takes only about 75 seconds to complete. Although there is great public spectacle, the passions displayed are still very real. The contrada that has been the longest without a victory is nicknamed nonna ('grandmother'). Civetta (the Owlet) had the title from 1979 until 2009, when it won 16 August race. Torre (the Tower) had this title for being without victory for 44 years (from 1961 to 2005), and Bruco (the Caterpillar) held the title for not winning over 41 years (from 1955 to 1996). Last nonna was Lupa (the She-Wolf), which has not had a victory since 2 July 1989, a period of years, until July 2016, when it finally won, leaving now the nonna title to Aquila (the Eagle). Palio (Drappellone) The drappellone ("banner"), or palio, known affectionately as "the rag" in Siena, is the trophy that is to be delivered to the contrada that wins the Palio. The palio is an elongated rectangular piece of silk, hand-painted by an artist for the occasion. It is held vertically on a black-and-white shaft halberd and topped by a silver plate, with two white and black plumes draped down the sides. The palio, along with the plumes, remains the property of the contrada. The plate is returned to the city of Siena before the two Palii of the following year, after the date and the name of the victorious contrada are inscribed on its back. There is one silver platter for the Palio in July and another for the August Palio. The plates are replaced approximately every ten years. The value of the banner is unique, because it represents a particular historical period of the city of Siena. The palii often reflect the symbols of the various governments that have presided at various times, including the crest of the grand duchy of Lorraine, the crest of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, the crest of the Kingdom of Savoy of Italy, symbols from Fascist Italy, and most recently, imagery of the Republic. The process that an artist should follow in designing the palio is rigid: it must follow a precise iconography that includes some sacred symbols, as the July Palio is dedicated to the Madonna of Provenzano, and that of August to the Madonna of the Assumption. It must present the insignia of the city, those of the third part of the city, and the symbols or colors of the ten contrade participating in the race. There are, however, no limits regarding the style of the art. The palio is first presented at a press conference in the courtyard of the Podestà of the City Hall about a week before the race. Preparations throughout the year Although many activities take place within each contrada, the organization of the Palio is still the largest, since it is not just in two races each year. Each time, the festival itself runs for four days of events, the preparation for which lasts all year. Beginning in early winter, the contrada leaders talk and develop strategies, making contacts with the jockeys and horse owners. These leaders prepare those who will race in the Piazza del Campo or take part in minor Palios elsewhere in nearby towns (la cosiddetta provincia) and bring them to training courses organized by the city in the spring. The full activities of the Palio start to grow in momentum towards the end of May, with the drawing of lots of the three remaining contrade that will join the seven that have won the right to race. With districts and teams outlined, contrade begin to talk about "deals" (engagement of jockeys) and "parties" (secret pacts for the win), despite not knowing which horse they will draw in the lot. About a week before the race, the palio (drappellone) itself is presented to the city, which has commissioned a local artist (in the case of the Palio of July) or internationally recognized artist (in the case of the Palio of August or a special Palio) to create the prize. Also at this time, visits occur to the horses which will be presented for the lottery. In the first of the four days of the festival, the lottery is held to select which barbero (the term for "racehorse" in the city of Siena and Tuscany) will go to which contrada. The stone race track around the square is covered with a layer of dirt composed of a mixture of tuff, clay and sand. Six trials are run, during which the riders have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with their horse and with the track itself, its sounds and rhythms of the race. The trials, Prova, are held the evening of the horse lottery and twice daily for the next two days. Attended by many tourists and contrada members in square, barriers are mounted on the outside of the track so no people may move in and out during the race. The children of the contrade are assembled in bleachers to sing closest to the city hall during the trials, but adults will sit there on the race day. Children are no longer allowed to stand in the middle of the piazza during the race, and can only view from a bleacher or window. Among the events that mark the approach of the Palio are the rehearsal dinner, the "mass" of the jockeys and the blessing of the horse and jockey. Extraordinary Palios An extraordinary Palio is a third Palio which may take place during the period between May and September and is associated with events or anniversaries of major importance for the community of Siena. The most recent extraordinary Palio was held in 2018. An extraordinary Palio on 9 September 2000 coincided with the advent of the new millennium and was won by Selva (Forest), by jockey Giuseppe Pes riding on the horse Urban II. Prior to this, the last extraordinary Palio was held on 13 September 1986 to celebrate the centenary of the abolition of the Balia and Biccherna governments. In earlier times, the third Palio was a way to honor distinguished guests passing through or visiting Siena. Examples are the extraordinary Palio of 7 June 1676, during the visit to Siena of the wife of Prince Don Agostino Chigi, and that of 15 June 1673 (not considered official), honouring the visit to Siena of Cardinal Flavio Chigi. Even the Grand Duke of Tuscany requested another round of Palio, perhaps closer to the ordinary. From the second half of the 19th century, extraordinary Palios began to be organized for celebration of special events, rather than illustrious visits. This was the case of a meeting of the Society of Sciences or the inauguration of important monuments (such as the inauguration of the monument to the fallen in the Battle of Curtatone and Montanara, on 29 May 1893). In 1896, they even ran four Palios, both ordinary and two extraordinary. The first extraordinary race was on 16 August, which is considered extraordinary because it was requested by the citizens as the original race was moved to 25 August due to transfer from Siena's VIII Corps, and the second was on 23 September for the inauguration of the monument to Giuseppe Garibaldi. A third Palio, the "Palio of Peace", was held in 1945 by popular acclaim to celebrate the end of World War II and was won by Gioacchino Calabro riding Rubacuori su Folco, for the contrada of Drago (Dragon). An extraordinary Palio was held in 1969 to commemorate the conquest of the moon by the Apollo 11 mission. After 1945 the habit of running extraordinary palios to mark important centenaries emerged. A palio was held on 28 May 1950 to celebrate the five hundredth anniversary of the canonization of Saint Bernardine of Siena. On 5 June 1961 an extraordinary palio marked the centenary of unification. The most recent centenary palio, held on 20 October 2018, commemorated the ending of the First World War in 1918. Victories per contrada Controversy and equine security measures For several years, the Palio has been the focus of numerous protests by animal-rights organizations, including the Anti-Vivisection League. Concerns include primarily race incidents causing falls, which in some cases have led to horses' deaths. In 2011, these concerns resulted in Italy's tourism minister blocking the Palio from being nominated for listing in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. The results of calculations on the percentage of accidents caused by the Palio vary depending on who makes them. According to the Anti-Vivisection League, a total of 48 horses have died from 1970 to 2007, an average of one dead horse per year. However, the calculations carried out by supporters of the Palio for the same period, which include all the tests held before the real race, give a rate of 2.05% of fatal accidents per ride. Many rules governing the protection of animals have been developed and implemented only since the 1990s; supporters of the Palio stress that injuries have been drastically reduced since then. In recent decades, the city of Siena has adopted a series of measures to ensure the protection of horses (and riders) before, during and after the race, but these measures are still judged insufficient by some animal welfare groups, who continue to seek abolition of the race. Among the measures taken include: A compulsory health check held by a commission appointed by the City Council and consisting of two surgeons Serum chemistry analysis, introduced in May 1999 in order to confirm and verify what has always been required by the Rules, or the prohibition of administration of substances with stimulants and depressants and local anesthetics Approval in 1999 the "Protocol for the provision of incentives for the maintenance of the Palio horse" and the establishment of the register of horses trained to run. A register of farmers was introduced in 2004, instead of half blood Arabian horses (deemed physically fit to travel) and a register of barriers Building a track in the town of Mociano, identical in shape and slope to the Piazza del Campo. From March to June, in addition to Monticiano and Monteroni d'Arbia, the horses intended for the Palio train here. Protections (formerly known as materassoni) present the curve of St. Martin in June 1999 set up a barrier of protection to high absorption in PVC, raising the parapet of the House and the curve of shirts introduction of safety for the emergency personnel of 118, Intervention on the composition, method of implementation and monitoring of the layer of tuff Care of horses that no longer run the Palio (due to age or injury) at the Equestrian Center of State Forestry, "The Caggio", in the town of Radicondoli. Alcohol test for jockeys by order of the Secretary of Health Francesca Martini. Photo gallery Feature films This is the race that is seen in: Palio by Alessandro Blasetti (1932) La ragazza del Palio by Luigi Zampa (1957) Bianco rosso celeste – cronaca dei giorni del Palio di Siena by Luciano Emmer (1963) "The Winds Rise", the first episode of the 1983 miniseries The Winds of War, ABC miniseries directed by Dan Curtis Il bianco e il nero – Tutti i colori del Palio di Siena by Anton Giulio Onofri (2002) The Last Victory by John Appel (2004) Visioni di Palio by Anton Giulio Onofri (2004) Piazza delle Cinque Lune by Renzo Martinelli (2006) Quantum of Solace, the 22nd James Bond movie, directed by Marc Forster (2008) Palio by Cosima Spender and John Hunt (2015) Notes References Brown, Margaret Mcdonough and Titus Buckhardt (1960). Siena, the City of the Virgin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Drechsler, Wolfgang (2006). "The Contrade, the Palio and the Ben Comune: Lessons from Siena", Trames 10(2), 99-125. Dundes, Alan and Alessandro Falassi (2005). La Terra in Piazza. An Interpretation of the Palio of Siena. 2 the new edn. (Orig. 1972). Siena: Nuova Immagine. (Standard work, but meanwhile very controversial because of its Freudian interpretation.) Falassi, Alessandro (1985). "Palio Pageant: Siena's Everlasting Republic", The Drama Review 29(3), 82-92. Handelman, Don (1998). Models and Mirrors: Towards an Anthropology of Public Events. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Silverman, Sydel (1979). "On the Use of History in Anthropology: The Palio of Siena", American Ethnologist 6(3), 413-436. (Most important counter-model to Dundes & Falassi.) Pascal, C. Bennett (1981). "October Horse", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 85, 261-291. Spicer, Dorothy Gladys (1958). Festivals of Western Europe. Wilson. Il Palio di Siena website - English Summary. See also Ansano "Ansanello" Giovannelli List of jockeys of Palio di Siena (with articles on Wikipedia in Italian) Bravio delle botti of Montepulciano The Girl who rode the wind by Stacy Gregg (featuring Palio and Palio of Peace also modern racing) External links The Palio The definitive English language site for all Palio Di Siena related information Archive of the Palio di Siena I The Italian archive site includes access to short contemporary films of the Palio for 1930 and most subsequent years. Archive of the Palio di Siena II History of the Race www.palio.be www.thepalio.eu Siena - Map It Out! How to Survive a Day at the Palio How to be more than a spectator Siena Culture of Tuscany Italian traditions Festivals in Italy Horse races in Italy Tourist attractions in Tuscany Sport in Tuscany 1656 establishments in the Grandy Duchy of Tuscany August events Historical competitions of Italy
1045002	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20George%27s%20Hall%2C%20Liverpool	St George's Hall, Liverpool	St George's Hall is a building on St George's Place, opposite Lime Street railway station in the centre of Liverpool, England. Opened in 1854, it is a Neoclassical building which contains concert halls and law courts, and is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building. On the east side of the hall, between it and the railway station, is St George's Plateau and on the west side are St John's Gardens. The hall is included in the William Brown Street conservation area. In 1969 the architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner expressed his opinion that it is one of the finest neo-Grecian buildings in the world, although the building is known for its use of Roman sources as well as Greek. In 2004, the hall and its surrounding area were recognised as part of Liverpool's World Heritage Site until its revocation of World Heritage status in 2021. The Liverpool Register Office and Coroner's Court have been based in the hall since 2012. History The site of the hall was formerly occupied by the first Liverpool Infirmary from 1749 to 1824. Triennial music festivals were held in the city but there was no suitable hall to accommodate them. Following a public meeting in 1836 a company was formed to raise subscriptions for a hall in Liverpool to be used for the festivals, and for meetings, dinners and concerts. Shares were made available at £25 each and by January 1837 £23,350 () had been raised. In 1838 the foundation stone was laid to commemorate the coronation of Queen Victoria. A competition was announced on 5 March 1839 via an advertisement in The Times to design the hall, first prize was 250 guineas, second prize 150 guineas. By July more than eighty entries had been received, and the competition was won by Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, a London architect aged 25 years, the second prize went to George Alexander of London. The requirement was: "There is to be accommodation in the main hall for 3000 persons; and there is also to be a concert room, capable of accommodating 1000 persons, applicable to other purposes such as lectures and smaller meetings....the cost of the building will be £35,000" There was a need for assize courts in the city and a competition to design these with first prize £300 and second prize £200 was announced. There were eighty-six entries and it was also won by Elmes. The original plan was to have separate buildings but in 1840 Elmes suggested that both functions could be combined in one building on a scale which would surpass most of the public buildings in the country at the time. Construction started in 1841 and the building opened in 1854 (with the small concert room opening two years later). "How frequently I observe the great & true end & aim of Art entirely lost sight of in the discussion of some insignificant detail or quaint Antiquarianism. Bold and original conceptions never can find favour while so much stress is laid upon precedent" Harvey Lonsdale Elmes in a letter to Robert Rawlinson Elmes died in 1847 and the work was continued by John Weightman, Corporation Surveyor, and Robert Rawlinson, structural engineer, until in 1851 Charles Cockerell was appointed architect. Cockerell was largely responsible for the decoration of the interiors. The eventual cost of the building exceeded £300,000 (roughly equivalent to £33,000,000 in 2019). During the 2000s a major restoration of the hall took place costing £23m and it was officially reopened on 23 April 2007 by Prince Charles. The magnificent sculpture of the exterior was by William Grinsell Nicholl. Structure Plan The Great Hall (also known as the Concert Hall) is the largest room, rectangular in shape, and occupies the centre of the building with an organ on its north wall. Two long corridors flank the east and west walls of the Great Hall. To the north of the Concert Hall is the Civil Court and beyond this is the North Entrance Hall; above this, reached by two staircases, is the elliptical Small Concert Room. To the south of the Great Hall is the Crown Court, beyond this is the South Entrance Hall above which reached by two staircases is the Grand Jury Room. In the middle of the west front is the Law Library, to the north of this is the Vice-Chancellor's Court, to the south of the Law Library is the Sheriff's Court. The floor below consists of a cavernous basement with cells for prisoners along the west wall. Exterior The main entrance is in the centre of the east façade and is approached by a wide flight of steps. On the steps is a statue of Benjamin Disraeli by Charles Bell Birch, moved here to make way for Liverpool's cenotaph. At the south-east corner is a bronze statue of Major-General William Earle by the same sculptor. This front has a central portico of 16 Corinthian columns flanked on each side by series of square, unfluted columns, between which are reliefs that were added between 1882 and 1901 by Thomas Stirling Lee, C. J. Allen and Conrad Dressler. The west front has a projecting central part with square columns supporting a large entablature. The north front has a semicircular apse with columns and three doorways that are flanked by statues of nereids or tritons bearing a cornucopia with lamps attached, the central doors on the south and east fronts have similar statues, and were sculpted by William Nicholl. The south front has an octastyle portico (eight columns wide), two columns deep, on steps above a rusticated podium. On the south portico entablature is a classical Latin inscription using V where U would now be used, that reads ‘ARTIBVS LEGIBVS CONSILIIS LOCVM MVNICIPES CONSTITVERVNT ANNO DOMINI MDCCCXLI’ (For Arts, Law and Counsel the townspeople built this place in 1841). The tympanum in the pediment above the south portico once contained sculptures of Britannia enthroned at the centre protecting agriculture and the arts and offering an olive branch to the four quarters of the globe, carved by William Nicholl, this was removed for safety's sake in 1950, the sculptures had become unsafe due to erosion by atmospheric pollution, and subsequently lost, reputedly turned into hardcore. Interior The main entrance crosses a corridor and leads into the Great Hall. This measures by and is high. The inspiration for the Great Hall are the Baths of Caracalla. The roof is a tunnel vault, built of hollow brick was designed by Robert Rawlinson completed 1849, it is carried on eight columns, 18 feet in height, of polished red Cairngall granite, these reduce the span to 65 feet, the spandrels contain allegorical plaster work angels, twelve in total, designed by Cockerell, representing fortitude, prudence, science, art, justice and temperance etc. The vault also decorated with plaster work by Cockerell, contains coffering, the centres of the main coffers have coat of arms of Liverpool, or the coats of arms of Lancashire or St George and the dragon, in the centre of the vault are the Royal Arms used by Queen Victoria this is above a matching coat of arms in the Minton floor. The walls have niches for statues. The highly decorated floor consists of Minton encaustic tile and it is usually covered by a removable floor to protect it. It contains over 30,000 tiles. The doors are bronze and have openwork panels which incorporate the letters SPQL (the Senate and the People of Liverpool) making an association with the SPQR badge of ancient Rome. The ten brass and bronze chandeliers in the Great Hall, designed by Cockerell, originally powered by town gas weigh 15 cwt, are decorated with prows of ships, heads of Neptune and Liver Birds. The organ is at the north end and at the south end is a round arch supporting an entablature between whose columns is a gate leading directly into the Crown Court. The niches contain the statues of William Roscoe by Chantrey, Sir William Brown by Patrick MacDowell, Robert Peel by Matthew Noble, George Stephenson by John Gibson, Hugh Boyd M‘Neile by George Gamon Adams, Edward Whitley by A. Bruce Joy, S. R. Graves by G. G. Fontana, Rev Jonathan Brookes by B. E. Spence, William Ewart Gladstone by John Adams-Acton, the 14th Earl of Derby by William Theed the Younger, the 16th Earl of Derby by F. W. Pomeroy, and Joseph Mayer by Fontana. In 2012 a statue of Kitty Wilkinson by Simon Smith was unveiled, the first in 101 years, and the first of a woman. The stained glass in the semicircular windows at each end of the hall was added in 1883–84 by Forrest and Son of Liverpool. Sharples and Pollard regard this as "one of the greatest Victorian interiors". The Crown Court has a tunnel vault on red granite columns and the Civil Court a coved ceiling on grey granite columns. The South Entrance Hall is approached through the portico, is low and has Ionic columns. Below this is a larger vaulted space which was adapted to form a new entrance in 2003–05. The North Entrance Hall has Doric columns on its landing and a Doric ambulatory around the apse with two bronze Torchères by Messengers of Birmingham decorated with allegorical scenes, the apse contains stairs, unlike the other main entrances where the stairs are external. A copy in plaster of part of the Parthenon frieze runs round its walls. In the centre of the south wall is a marble statue of Henry Booth shown standing up, carved 1874 by William Theed the Younger, placed here in 1877, flanking the statue are sculptures of caryatids. The Small Concert Room designed by Charles Robert Cockerell and completed in 1856, is elliptical measuring 72 by 77 feet, when built it had a capacity for 1,100 people, the stage is 30 by 12 feet, and is lavishly decorated. In the past it was known as the Golden Concert Room. A balcony supported by caryatids runs round the room. At the back of the platform are attached columns, decorated with arabesques, supporting a frieze with griffins and between the columns are mirrors. The concert room was refurbished between 2000 and 2007. This included making alterations to comply with the Disability Discrimination Act, restoring the historical painting scheme and restoring the chandelier, which consists of 2,824 crystal pieces. It has seating for an audience of 480. Ventilation and heating of the building In the basement is part of a unique heating and ventilation system devised by Dr Boswell Reid. This was the first attempt at providing air conditioning in a public building in the United Kingdom, its aim being to warm and ventilate the building without draughts. Air drawn in via two shafts at either end of the eastern portico was warmed by five hot water pipes, that were heated by two coke-fired boilers and two steam boilers, these latter two were only used in extremely cold weather. The air was circulated by four fans wide driven by a 10 horsepower steam engine. In hot weather the air was cooled using cold mains water, small fountains in the air shafts cooling the incoming air. The air from the system entered the Great Hall via grilles at the back of the sculpture niches and in the risers of the seating tiers in the Small Concert Hall, stale air was drawn out through grilles in the ceilings. The air flow was controlled by a large number of workers opening and closing a series of canvas flaps via ropes and pulleys, though the court rooms had valves beneath the benches that could be controlled by the occupants. The system treated different parts of the building as zones allowing separate heating. In 2005 the Heritage Group of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers awarded its first Blue Plaque to St George's Hall recognising it as the World's First Air Conditioned Building. Assizes Until 1984 the Liverpool Assizes (later the Crown Court) were held in the courtroom at the southern end of St George's Hall. Notable cases heard include those of Florence Maybrick in 1889 and William Herbert Wallace in 1931. The court now often doubles for the Old Bailey in film and TV dramas. Events held at the building Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited St George's hall on 9 October 1851, although complete externally work was still underway internally. The inaugural event opened by the mayor and borough council and was started on 18 September 1854, and was a three-day festival of music, followed on 22 September, with the British Association for the Advancement of Science holding the first of many meetings at the Hall. On 15 April 1857 a banquet for 800 people was held in honour of William Brown benefactor of Liverpool's museum and library. On 23 April 1864 a Fancy Dress ball was held in aid of St Ann 's Dispensary. The Small Concert Room it was regularly host to Charles Dickens, who held many of his readings there. Prior to Dickens sailing to America a banquet was hosted in the Great Hall for him on 10 April 1869. A cross section of activities in the 1880s include 24 March 1886, evening concert in a aid of District Cotton Porters and Dock Labourers; 1 November 1886 Large Hall, benevolent fund Liverpool Operative Platerworkers' Association; 5 April 1887 'Special' Grand Jury Room. To exhibit the new and improved method of applying gas to high class cookery; 22 December 1888, Large Hall, People's concert, Messiah. During the 1911 Liverpool general transport strike, many meetings were held there, including the rally which sparked the 'Bloody Sunday' attacks, when police baton charged thousands of people who had gathered to hear the syndicalist Tom Mann speak. On 15 March 1915 Lord Kitchener inspect 12,000 soldiers of the Liverpool Pals on St George's Plateau, by September 1914, more than 30,000 men had enlisted at St George's Hall. The Plateau has been associated with public rallies and gatherings, including events following the deaths of the Beatles members John Lennon and George Harrison, and the homecomings of Liverpool and Everton football teams after Cup Final victories. The opening of the European Capital of Culture celebrations in 2008 saw Ringo Starr play on the roof of the building to over 50,000 people. The Weeping Window sculpture was displayed at St George's Hall from 7 November 2015 to 17 January 2016, it was made from ceramic poppies from Blood Swept Lands and Seas of Red. The commemoration of the 30th anniversary of the Hillsborough disaster saw from 13 April 2019 nine banners hung from the front of St George's Hall, featuring the images of the 96 who lost their lives, along with the powerful words ‘Never Forgotten’ on the Monday morning 15 April 96 lanterns were lit on the steps of the Hall, and members of the public paid their respects and left tributes. Organ and organists The organ was built by Henry Willis and completed in 1855 with 100 speaking stops across four manual divisions (of non-standard compass, 63 notes GG to a) and pedals (30 notes). It comprised a total of 119 ranks of pipes, plus 10 couplers, 10 composition pedals, and 36 pistons to set combinations of stops. It was initially tuned to meantone temperament to the specification of S. S. Wesley but in 1867 W. T. Best, city organist, had it retuned to equal temperament. The organ was rebuilt in 1896 when the key action was changed from the Willis-Barker lever assisted tracker (i.e. pneumatic assisted mechanical) action to pneumatic action. Also the manual compass was changed to the now standard CC to c, 61 notes, making the bottom 5 pipes on every manual stop redundant. In 1931 the organ was reconstructed by Henry Willis III when the number of stops was increased to 120 and electro-pneumatic action introduced for the combination systems and some of the key action. Its power source was still the Rockingham electric blowing plant which had replaced the two steam engines (one of 1855 and a second which had been added in about 1877 to run the increased pressure required since 1867 for some reed stops. In the interim this higher pressure had been hand blown!) The 1924 electric blowers remained in use until 2000 when the present new low and high pressure blowers were fitted by David Wells. In 1979 it was given a general clean and overhaul by Henry Willis IV. The total number of registers, including 24 couplers, is 144. With 7,737 pipes, it was the largest organ in the country until a larger one was built at the Royal Albert Hall in 1871, after which an organ even larger than the one at the Royal Albert Hall was constructed at Liverpool Anglican Cathedral, using over 10,000 pipes. Repairs were made to the organ as part of the restoration of the hall in 2000–2007, including replacement of the bellows leather. The organ is maintained by David Wells, Organ Builders. The first organist was W. T. Best (1826–97) who was appointed in 1855 and served until 1894. He was succeeded in 1896 by Dr Albert Lister Peace (1844–1912) who continued in the post until the year of his death. In 1913 Herbert Frederick Ellingford (1876–1966) was appointed organist. On 21 December 1940 the hall and its organ were damaged in an air-raid. It was not possible to obtain sufficient money to rebuild the organ until the 1950s. In 1954 Henry Willis & Sons were asked to undertake this project and Dr Caleb E. Jarvis (1903–1980) was its consultant. Dr Jarvis was appointed organist in 1957 and on his death in 1980 he was succeeded by Noel Rawsthorne (1929–2019), who had just retired as organist to the Anglican Cathedral. Noel Rawsthorne served as organist to the hall for four years. Following his retirement in 1984, Professor Ian Tracey, who is also Organist Titulaire of the Anglican Cathedral, was appointed to the post. St George's Plateau This is the flat space between the hall and the railway station and contains statues of four lions by Nicholl and cast iron lamp standards with dolphin bases. Also on the plateau are monuments, including equestrian bronzes of Prince Albert and Queen Victoria by Thomas Thornycroft, and a monument to Major-General William Earle by Birch. Between the equestrian statues is the Grade I Liverpool Cenotaph which was unveiled in 1930, designed by L. B. Budden and sculpted by H. Tyson Smith. It consists of a simple horizontal block with a bronze relief measuring over on each side. Sharples and Pollard regard it as one of the most remarkable war memorials in the country. In 2017 Liverpool City Council announced a £45m programme to re-design several major streets in the city centre, including Lime Street which would involve expanding the plateau. The work is timetabled to be completed by winter 2021. Restoration Following the restoration leading to the reopening of the hall in April 2007 it was granted a Civic Trust Award. It included the creation of a Heritage Centre which gives an introduction to the hall and its history. Guided tours, a programme of exhibitions and talks are arranged. Over the Christmas periods of 2007 and 2008 an artificial skating rink was installed in the Concert Hall. In January 2008 Liverpool started its tenure as European Capital of Culture with the People's Opening at St George's Hall with a performance which included the Beatles' drummer Ringo Starr playing on its roof. The building has since been regularly used as a stage and backdrop for major civic and cultural events, from the city's Christmas Markets to the World War 1 tribute Weeping Window in 2015 and the Liverpool Giants in 2014 and 2018. Quotes about St George's Hall "This magnificent edifice will be a perennial monument of the energy and public spirit, in the nineteenth century, of the people of Liverpool; a place which of all the cities and towns in the British Empire is surpassed only by the metropolis in magnitude, wealth and importance; and which in the quick yet solid growth of its commercial greatness surpasses even the metropolis itself". The Illustrated London News 23 September 1854 "The combination of a magnificent interior with an even grander exterior, is an achievement of which ancient Rome itself could offer no parallel, for however splendid and well organised were the interiors of the great thermae, basilicas and other structures, we have nothing to show that the exteriors of their buildings ever reached the same level of coherence and dignity. Indeed, all the remains point in the other direction. Hence the real greatness of Elmes' achievement". Charles Herbert Reilly "The south end of St. George's Hall is quite conventional and rather resembles Donaldson's project for the Royal Exchange. Except for the superior proportions and the splendid pile of steps at the base (by Cockerell) - which rise however, much too abruptly from an exiguous terrace along St. John's Lane- this porticoed and pedimented facade is, in fact not very different from Tite's at the Exchange. The north end is not identical but has a semicircular projection housing the Concert Room in the first storey. The different treatment of the two ends hardly ever seen at once either from the east or west. The extreme severity of the rounded north end is quite out of accord with the new visual tastes of the Victorian Age for sharpened accents and complex rhythms. The podium below is barely broken by the simple frames of the two entrance doors (this is an error there are three doors at the north end); the parapet above is absolutely continuous and unornamented. Thus there is no central focus of interest and nothing to distract attention from the even half-circle of giant Corinthian columns. The unbroken length of the east portico is surmounted by an equally unbroken attic masking the vault of the main hall. Thus the effect is even more severe. Ranges of square pilasters, for two-thirds of their height, are used here along the side wings. Such pilasters also rise like an open screen in the projecting middle section of the west front. These novel members provide a very interesting kind of structural articulation recalling the more original aspects of Schinkel's Classicism as much as the long east portico does that of his more conventional Altes Museum. Though the tremendous scale of the composition is new to Britain, the spirit is still that of the classical rationalism which dominated the end of the 18th century. The great scale and general severity reflect the dreams of French architects like Ledoux and Boulée in the Revolutionary epoch, dreams that were codified by Durand in his Précis des leçons d'architecture données à l'École royale polytechnique (1802–05) and thus transmitted to a later generation. Behind and between the columnar and pseudo-columnar elements which dominate the facades the wall surfaces are rather flat. The relief of the various panels articulating these surfaces and that of the rare window frames is very low. Windows are completely suppressed on the south and the east fronts; the mouldings throughout, though large in size because of the tremendous scale, are extremely refined, cold and quite unornamented." Henry-Russell Hitchcock The following is about the Small Concert Hall: "Exquisite in color and covered with most elegant decoration in low relief, this room is above all a masterly exercise in the use of those 'shams' Camdenians most abominated. The balconies are of cast iron designed to look like some sort of woven wickerwork; of iron also are the pierced ventilating grilles along the front of the stage and in the ceiling panels around the central skylight. The delicate arabesques of the pilasters and friezes are papier-mâché. The graceful caryatids, seemingly sustaining the balcony on their fingertips, must be of iron or some synthetic composition; they were certainly never carved in stone. Whether these are themselves supports or whether the balcony is cantilevered on iron beams, the real construction is concealed. The wall panels not of wood but of plaster, supebly [sic] grained and varnished. Only the mirrors between the columns on the stage are what they seem; yet by a final paradox they create a faery unreality by their repeated reflection." Henry-Russell Hitchcock "Judging from his numerous perspective sketches, Elmes had the ability to rapidly design a building in perspective; not only did he prepare numerous sketches of the exterior, but also perspective views of the interior of the great loggia, and various other features. His full-size details, although Classic in spirit, are essentially modern in character; every suite of mouldings received due consideration as to its placing, and its ultimate relation to the scheme as a whole. Nothing could surpass the beauty of the Neo-Grec ornament selected for terminating the dominating attic. The whole building fulfils the highest canons of the academic style, and is unsurpassed by any other modern building in Europe. Albert Richardson See also Grade I listed buildings in Liverpool Architecture of Liverpool List of public art in Liverpool Baths of Caracalla References Citations Sources External links St George's Hall Site Conservation of reliefs History of the ventilation system Panoramic images of the hall from the City of Liverpool website Panoramic images of the hall from the BBC website Photographs (47) from Art and Architecture Organ Specifications Liverpool, St George's Hall Grade I listed buildings in Liverpool Liverpool, St George's Hall Liverpool, St George's Hall Grade I listed museum buildings Tourist attractions in Liverpool Museums in Liverpool Prison museums in the United Kingdom History museums in Merseyside Neoclassical architecture in Liverpool Greek Revival architecture in the United Kingdom Government buildings completed in 1854 1854 establishments in England
1046360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Croker	Richard Croker	Richard Welstead Croker (November 24, 1843 – April 29, 1922), known as "Boss Croker," was an American politician who was a leader of New York City's Tammany Hall and a political boss. Biography Richard Croker was born in the townland of Ballyva, in the parish of Ardfield, six miles south of Clonakilty in County Cork on November 24, 1843, son of Eyre Coote Croker (1800–1881) and Frances Laura Welsted (1807–1894). He was taken to the United States by his parents when he was just two years old. They boarded the Henry Clay in Cobh, County Cork and headed for the land of opportunity. There were significant differences between this family and the typical family leaving Ireland at that time. They were Protestant, and were not land tenants. Eyre Coote Croker owned an estate in Ardfield, in south west Cork. Upon arrival in the United States, Eyre Coote Croker was without a profession, but he had a general knowledge of horses and soon became a veterinary surgeon. During the Civil War, he served in that same capacity under General Daniel Sickles. Richard Croker was educated in New York public schools. Croker dropped out of school at age twelve or thirteen to become an apprentice machinist in the Harlem Railroad machine shops. Not long after, he became a valued member of the Fourth Avenue Tunnel Gang, a street gang that attacked teamsters and other workers that gathered around the Harlem line's freight depot. Croker eventually became the gang's leader. He joined one of the Volunteer Fire Departments in 1863, becoming an engineer of one of the engine companies. That was his gateway into public life. James O'Brien, a Tammany associate, took notice of Croker after Croker won a boxing match against Dick Lynch whereby Crocker knocked out all of Lynch's teeth. Croker became a member of Tammany Hall and active in its politics. In the 1860s he was well known for being a "repeater" at elections, voting multiple times at the polls. He was an alderman from 1868–70, Coroner of New York County, New York from 1873–76. Croker was charged with the murder of John McKenna, a lieutenant of James O'Brien, during a fight on election day of 1874 with O'Brien's rival political group. O'Brien was running for Congress against the Tammany-backed Abram S. Hewitt. John Kelly, the new Tammany Hall boss, attended the trial and Croker was freed after the jury was undecided. Croker moved to Harrison, New York by 1880. He was appointed the New York City Fire Commissioner in 1883 and 1887 and city Chamberlain from 1889-90. After the death of John Kelly, Croker became the leader of Tammany Hall, and for some time almost completely controlled that organization. As head of Tammany, Croker received bribe money from the owners of brothels, saloons and illegal gambling dens. Croker was chairman of Tammany's Finance Committee but received no salary for his position. Croker also became a partner in the real estate firm Meyer and Croker with Peter F. Meyer, from which he made substantial money. This money was often derived from sales under the control of the city through city judges. Other income came by way of gifts of stock from street railway and transit companies, for example. The city police were largely still under the control of Tammany Hall, and payoffs from vice protection operations also contributed to Tammany income. Croker survived Charles Henry Parkhurst's attacks on Tammany Hall's corruption and became a wealthy man. Several committees were established in the 1890s, largely at the behest of Thomas C. Platt and other Republicans, to investigate Tammany and Croker, including the 1890 Fassett Committee, the 1894 Lexow Committee, during which Croker left the United States for his European residences for three years, and the Mazet Investigation of 1899. Croker's greatest political success was his bringing about the 1897 election of Robert A. Van Wyck as first mayor of the five-borough "greater" New York, and during Van Wyck's administration Croker is popularly supposed to have completely dominated the government of the city. Croker was in the newspapers in 1899 after a disagreement with Jay Gould's son, George Gould, president of the Manhattan Elevated Railroad Company, when Gould refused Croker's attempt to attach compressed-air pipes to the Elevated company's structures. Croker owned many shares of the New York Auto-Truck Company, a company which would have benefited from the arrangement. In response to the refusal, Croker used Tammany influence to create new city laws requiring drip pans under structures in Manhattan at every street crossing and the requirement that the railroad run trains every five minutes with a $100 violation for every instance. Croker also held 2,500 shares of the American Ice Company, worth approximately $250,000, which came under scrutiny in 1900 when the company attempted to raise the price of ice in the city. After Croker's failure to carry the city in the presidential election of 1900 and the defeat of his mayoralty candidate, Edward M. Shepard in 1901, he resigned from his position of leadership in Tammany and was succeeded by Lewis Nixon. He departed the United States in 1905. An associate described Croker as having "[a] strong frame, a deep chest, a short neck and a pair of hard fists... He speaks in monosyllables, [and] commands a vocabulary that appears to be limited to about three hundred words..." Thoroughbred racing Croker operated a stable of thoroughbred racehorses in the United States in partnership with Mike Dwyer. In January 1895, they sent a stable of horses to England under the care of trainer Hardy Campbell, Jr. and jockey Willie Simms. Following a dispute, the partnership was dissolved in May but Croker continued to race in England. In 1907, his horse Orby won Britain's most prestigious race, The Derby. Orby was ridden by American jockey John Reiff, whose brother Lester had won the race in 1901. Croker was also the breeder of Orby's son Grand Parade, who won the Derby in 1919. Death Croker returned to Ireland in 1905 and died on April 29, 1922, at Glencairn House, his home in Stillorgan outside Dublin. His funeral, celebrated by South African bishop William Miller, drew some of Dublin's most eminent citizens; the pallbearers were Arthur Griffith, the President of Dáil Éireann; Laurence O'Neill, the Lord Mayor of Dublin; Oliver St. John Gogarty; Joseph MacDonagh; A.H. Flauley, of Chicago; and J.E. Tierney. Michael Collins, Chairman of the Provisional Government, was represented by Kevin O'Shiel; the Lord Lieutenant, Viscount FitzAlan, was represented by his under-secretary, James MacMahon. In 1927, J. J. Walsh claimed that, just before his death, Croker had accepted the Provisional Government's invitation to stand in Dublin County in the imminent Irish election. Family Croker married twice; first, in 1873, to Elizabeth Fraser (b. abt. 1853 in New York, d. 6 September 1914 in Berne, Switzerland). They had several children, including: Richard Samuel Croker "Jr." (30 March 1877 in New York – aft. 1940), attended Brown University and married 12 March 1898 to Mary Brophy, without issue. Francis H. "Frank" Croker (15 Sep 1878 in Fordham, Bronx County, New York – 22 Jan 1905 in Ormond Beach, Florida). His monumental grave was erected by his father following his death from injuries sustained in avoiding a motorcyclist while automobile racing. No issue. Joseph Croker (January 1880 in New York – bef. 1890) Herbert Vincent "Bertie" Croker (abt. 1882 USA – 12 May 1905) Florence Genevieve Croker (b. 7 October 1884 in Manhattan, New York), married at least two times. Howard F. Croker (b. 5 May 1886 in New York City, New York – January 1979), married 1 May 1915 on Long Island to Gertrude White (b. 19 Oct 1893, Cedarhurst, Long Island, New York) Ethel J. Croker (b. 16 July 1888 in New York City, New York), married Thomas Francis White (b. 19 December 1882). He married Beulah Benson Edmondson (1884–1957) in November 1914 when he was 71 years old. She was of American Indian descent, her tribal name being Ketaw Kaluntuchy. Disputed will Croker left an estate estimated to $3–5 million to his second wife, Beulah, disinheriting his estranged children. He had converted to Catholicism shortly before his death but this does not appear to have played a role in his disinheriting his children. A note in his handwriting, dated at Glencairn, November 15, 1919 read as follows: Croker's other surviving children, Richard, Ethel, and Howard, unsuccessfully challenged the will in a celebrated probate lawsuit in the Court of King's Bench in Ireland. They claimed that their father in 1919 was of unsound mind and unduly influenced by his wife, and that the 1914 marriage was void as she was already married to one Guy R. Marone. A jury rejected all allegations. The widow and children had related lawsuits in the United States. References Further reading External links 1843 births 1922 deaths 19th-century Irish people 20th-century Irish people People from County Cork Leaders of Tammany Hall American racehorse owners and breeders Owners of Epsom Derby winners Converts to Roman Catholicism Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923) American political bosses from New York (state) New York (state) Democrats Coroners of New York County, New York
1046514	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism%20of%20Walmart	Criticism of Walmart	The American multinational retail chain Walmart has been criticized by many groups and individuals, such as labor unions and small-town advocates, for its policies and business practices, and their effects. Criticisms include charges of racial and gender discrimination, foreign product sourcing, anti-competitive practices, treatment of product suppliers, environmental practices, the use of public subsidies, and its surveillance of its employees. The company has denied any wrongdoing and said that low prices are the result of efficiency. In 2005, labor unions created new organizations and websites to criticize the company, including Wake Up Walmart (United Food and Commercial Workers) and Walmart Watch (Service Employees International Union). By the end of 2005, Walmart had launched Working Families for Walmart to counter those groups. Efforts to counter criticism include a public relations campaign in this same year, which included several television commercials. The company retained the public relations firm Edelman to interact with the press and respond to negative media reports, and has started working with bloggers by sending them news, suggesting topics for postings, and inviting them to visit Walmart's corporate headquarters. In November 2005, a documentary film critical of Walmart (Walmart: The High Cost of Low Price) was released on DVD. Critics say that Walmart's lower prices draw customers away from smaller Main Street businesses, hurting local small-town communities, and that the company hurts the United States economy by relying excessively on Chinese-produced products – Walmart is the largest importer in the United States in many categories, such as electronics and fast-moving consumer goods. The 2006 book The Walmart Effect by business journalist Charles Fishman contains much of the criticism, though it also enumerates Walmart's positive impacts within society. Some libertarian economists, such as those at the Cato Institute, claim that Walmart is successful because it sells desirable products at low prices. Local communities When Walmart plans a new store location, as often as not the company has to fight its way into town in the municipal equivalent of civil war between pro and anti Walmart factions. Opponents cite concerns such as traffic congestion, environmental problems, public safety, absentee landlordism, bad public relations, low wages and benefits, and predatory pricing. Opposition by activists, competitors, local citizens, labor unions, and religious groups may include protest marches, property damage to store buildings, or by creating bomb scares. Some city councils have denied permits to developers planning to include a Walmart in their project. Those who defend Walmart cite consumer choice and overall benefits to the economy, and object to bringing the issue into the political arena. In 1998, Walmart proposed construction of a store west of the intersection of Charlotte Pike (U.S. Route 70) and Interstate 40 outside Nashville, Tennessee. The building site was home to both Native American burial grounds and a Civil War battlefield. Protests were mounted by Native Americans and Civil War interest groups, but the Walmart store was eventually constructed after moving graves and some modifications of the site so as not to interfere with the battlefield. Civil War relics were discovered at the site. The project developers donated land to permit access to the Civil War historic site. The Native sites were removed and re-buried elsewhere. A Walmart superstore opened in 2004 in Mexico, from the historic Teotihuacan archaeological site and Pyramid of the Moon. Although the location was supported by Mexico's National Anthropology Institute, the United Nations, and the Paris-based International Council on Monuments and Sites, there had been protests organized by local merchants, as well as environmental groups and anti-globalization groups who opposed the construction. Poet Homero Aridjis called the opening as "supremely symbolic" and "like planting the staff of globalization in the heart of ancient Mexico". Archaeologists oversaw construction and discovered a small clay and stone altar along with some other artifacts where the store's parking lot is now located. In 2005, developers demolished the long-closed Dixmont State Hospital in Kilbuck Township, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh, with plans to build a shopping complex anchored by a Walmart. While there were initially no general objections to the Walmart store itself, many residents did not want to see Dixmont demolished, despite the fact that the Dixmont complex, having been abandoned in 1984, was beyond maintainable condition and teenagers were dangerously trespassing onto the property on a regular basis. However, while the land was being excavated (after the hospital complex was torn down) in order to create a plateau for the store to be built upon, a landslide occurred covering Pennsylvania Route 65 and the Fort Wayne Line railroad tracks between PA 65 and the Ohio River. Both routes were shut down for weeks. While Walmart did "stabilize" the landslide, many residents said that Walmart merely stabilized the hillside so that it could continue with work to build the store. Ultimately, in 2007 Walmart decided against developing the site, allowing the land to return to nature, with a Walmart location to be constructed in nearby Economy, Pennsylvania, instead behind the Northern Lights Shopping Center. After some opposition from the local Giant Eagle location at the plaza, the Walmart location opened in 2014. In the 2010s, a proposal to build the Midtown Walmart supercenter in Midtown Miami was met with litigation and opposition from local businesses, delaying construction of the project. A Florida Third District Court of Appeal panel of judges denied the opposition's challenge of the city's approvals and Walmart broke ground on the development in January 2016. In 2014, researchers at the University of South Carolina and Sam Houston State University published a study on whether Walmart affected local crime rates. In the 1990s, crime rates were in fact decreasing throughout most of the United States. The study found that this decrease was "nowhere near" as impressive in most communities that had a Walmart store, as if the presence of the large retailer was somehow stunting the decrease. The authors acknowledged the cause-and-effect arrow may go in the opposite direction. For example, one co-author stated, "Counties with more social capital – citizens able and willing to speak up about the best interests of the community – tend to have lower crime rates. Counties with more crime may have less social capital and, therefore, less ability to prevent Wal-Mart from building." Allegations of predatory pricing and supplier issues Walmart has been accused of selling merchandise at such low costs that competitors have tried to sue it for predatory pricing (intentionally selling a product at low cost in order to drive competitors out of the market). In 1995, in the case of Walmart Stores, Inc. v. American Drugs, Inc., pharmacy retailer American Drugs accused Walmart of selling items at too low a cost for the purpose of injuring competitors and destroying competition. The Supreme Court of Arkansas ruled in favor of Walmart saying that its pricing, including the use of loss leaders, was not predatory pricing. In 2000, the Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Trade, and Consumer Protection accused Walmart of selling butter, milk, laundry detergent, and other staple goods at low cost, with the intention of forcing competitors out of business and gaining a monopoly in local markets. The case was settled out of court. Crest Foods filed a similar lawsuit in Oklahoma, accusing Walmart of predatory pricing on several of its products, in an effort to drive Crest Foods's own company-owned store in Edmond, Oklahoma, out of business. In 2003, Mexico's antitrust agency, the Federal Competition Commission, investigated Walmart for "monopolistic practices" prompted by charges that the retailer pressured suppliers to sell goods below cost or at prices significantly less than those available to other stores. Mexican authorities found no wrongdoing on the part of Walmart. However, in 2003, Germany's High Court ruled that Walmart's low cost pricing strategy "undermined competition" and ordered Walmart and two other supermarkets to raise their prices. Walmart won appeal of the ruling, then the German Supreme Court overturned the appeal. Walmart has since sold its stores in Germany. Walmart has been accused of using monopoly power to force its suppliers into self-defeating practices. In 2006, Barry C. Lynn, a senior fellow at the New America Foundation (a think tank), said that Walmart's constant demand for lower prices caused Kraft Foods to "shut down thirty-nine plants, to let go [of] 13,500 workers, and to eliminate a quarter of its products." Kraft was unable to compete with other suppliers and said the cost of production had gone up due to higher energy and raw material costs. Lynn said that in a free market, Kraft could have passed those costs on to its distributors and ultimately consumers. As another example in 2006, most Walmart store pharmacies filled many generic prescriptions for $4 for a month's supply. However, in California and ten other states, complaints from other pharmacies resulted in Walmart being required to charge at least $9 for a month's supply of certain drugs. In May 2010, Walmart's United States stores pulled the Chinese-made Miley Cyrus line of necklaces and bracelets after an Associated Press release that the jewelry contained harmful amounts of the toxic metal cadmium. Cadmium in jewelry is not known to be dangerous if the items are simply worn, but concerns come when a child bites or sucks on the jewelry, as children are apt to do. Walmart said that while the jewelry is not intended for children, "it is possible that a few younger consumers may seek it out in stores. We are removing all of the jewelry from sale while we investigate its compliance with our children's jewelry standard", Walmart said. Labor relations With over 2.2 million employees worldwide, Walmart has faced a torrent of lawsuits and issues with regards to its workforce. These issues involve low wages, poor working conditions, inadequate health care, as well as issues involving the company's strong anti-union policies. In November 2013, the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) announced that it had found that in 13U.S. states Walmart had pressured employees not to engage in strikes on Black Friday, and had illegally disciplined workers who had engaged in strikes. Critics point to Walmart's high turnover rate as evidence of an unhappy workforce, although other factors may be involved. Approximately 70percent of its employees leave within the first year. Despite this turnover rate, the company is still able to affect unemployment rates. This was found in a study by Oklahoma State University which states, "Walmart is found to have substantially lowered the relative unemployment rates of blacks in those counties where it is present, but to have had only a limited impact on relative incomes after the influences of other socio-economic variables were taken into account." Wages Walmart reports that in 2006 its workers earned an average of $10.11 per hour. Human Rights Watch estimates that this is below the average of $10.24 earned by workers at discount department stores, $10.55 at warehouse clubs and supercenters, and $11.12 at grocery stores. Walmart managers are judged, in part, based on their ability to control payroll costs. The Wall Street Journal says this puts extra pressure on higher-paid workers to be more productive. Walmart insists its wages are generally in line with the current local market in retail labor. Other critics have noted that in 2001, the average wage for a Walmart Sales Clerk was $8.23 per hour, or $13,861 a year, while the federal poverty line for a family of three was $14,630. Walmart founder Sam Walton once said, "I pay low wages. I can take advantage of that. We're going to be successful, but the basis is a very low-wage, low-benefit model of employment." In August 2006, Walmart announced that it would roll out an average pay increase of 6% for all new hires at 1,200 United States Walmart and Sam's Club locations, but at the same time would institute pay caps on veteran workers. While Walmart maintains that the measures are necessary to stay competitive, critics believe that the salary caps are primarily an effort to push higher-paid veteran workers out of the company. In 2008, Walmart agreed to pay at least $352 million to settle lawsuits claiming that it forced employees to work off the clock. "Several lawyers described it as the largest settlement ever for lawsuits over wage violations." Because Walmart employs part-time and relatively low paid workers, some workers may partially qualify for state welfare programs. This has led critics to claim that Walmart increases the burden on taxpayer-funded services. A 2002 survey by the state of Georgia's subsidized healthcare system, PeachCare, found that Walmart was the largest private employer of parents of children enrolled in its program; one quarter of the employees of Georgia Walmarts qualified to enroll their children in the federal subsidized healthcare system Medicaid. A 2004 study at the University of California, Berkeley charges that Walmart's low wages and benefits are insufficient, and although decreasing the burden on the social safety net to some extent, California taxpayers still pay $86 million a year to Walmart employees. On September 4, 2008, the Mexican Supreme Court of Justice ruled that Walmart de Mexico, the Mexican subsidiary of Walmart, must cease paying its employees in part with vouchers redeemable only at Walmart stores. In July 2016, some workers in China went on unofficial strike at Walmart stores in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, and Harbin, Heilongjiang Province against the company's new working-hours scheduling system. The striking workers protested the system, which allowed managers to schedule an unlimited number of hours per day totalling up to 174 hours per month without overtime pay. According to Walmart, workers could either opt into the new schedule or keep their original shifts, but pointed out that the new scheduling, which Walmart claim most workers they had contacted supported, allowed employees to work more shifts if they choose. Chinese Walmart staff accused the country's only officially recognised union, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU), as being apathetic to their cause and unreceptive to workers' opinions. The ACFTU had previously signed an agreement with the company in 2006 that allowed Walmart to set up management-controlled unions instead. The union asked for the workers to return to their jobs. Reuters reported that by July 8, 2016, the striking workers returned to work when management agreed to consider their protests. Later it was reported that OUR Walmart provided strategic advice to the Walmart Chinese Workers Association (WCWA) prior to the strikes in China. In January 2018, Walmart announced the increase of the minimum wage for its U.S. employees to $11 per hour. Working conditions Walmart has faced accusations involving poor working conditions for its employees. For example, a 2005 class action lawsuit in Missouri asserted approximately 160,000 to 200,000 people who were forced to work off-the-clock, were denied overtime pay, or were not allowed to take rest and lunch breaks. In 2000, Walmart paid $50 million to settle a class-action suit that asserted that 69,000 current and former Walmart employees in Colorado had been forced to work off-the-clock. The company has also faced similar lawsuits in other states, including Pennsylvania, Oregon, and Minnesota. Class-action suits were also filed in 1995 on behalf of full-time Walmart pharmacists whose base salaries and working hours were reduced as sales declined, resulting in the pharmacists being treated like hourly employees. Beginning in 2001, a lawsuit on behalf of 1.5 million women workers at Walmart was filed against the company, alleging that the company followed rules and practices that discriminated against women when it came to pay and promotions. Beginning in 2005, the class-action suit Dukes v. Walmart Stores, Inc. was heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Sociologist Dr. William Bielby provided expert opinion on the case, in which he evaluated Walmart's employment policies and corporate culture "against what social science research shows to be factors that create and sustain bias and those that minimize bias" and claimed there was gender bias. In 2011, for the U.S. Supreme Court case Walmart v. Dukes, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia rejected Bielby's testimony, saying it was "worlds away" from proof. The Supreme Court threw out the lawsuit in a 5-4 vote, ruling that the plaintiffs did not meet the rules to proceed as a class. On October 16, 2006, approximately 200 workers on the morning shift at a Walmart Super Center in Hialeah Gardens, Florida, walked out in protest against new store policies and rallied outside the store, shouting "We want justice" and criticizing the company's recent policies as "inhuman". This marks the first time that Walmart had faced a worker-led revolt of such scale, according to both employees and the company. Reasons for the revolt included cutting full-time hours, a new attendance policy, and pay caps that the company imposed in August 2006, compelling workers to be available to work any shift (day, swing or night), and that shifts would be assigned by computers at corporate headquarters and not by local managers. Walmart quickly held talks with the workers, addressing their concerns. Walmart asserts that its policy permits associates to air grievances without fear of retaliation. A 2004 report by Democratic United States Representative George Miller alleged that in ten percent of Walmart's stores, nighttime employees were locked inside, holding them prisoner. There has been some concern that Walmart's policy of locking its nighttime employees in the building has been implicated in a longer response time to dealing with various employee emergencies, or weather conditions such as hurricanes in Florida. Walmart said this policy was to protect the workers and the store's contents in high-crime areas and acknowledges that some employees were inconvenienced in some instances for up to an hour as they had trouble locating a manager with the key. However, fire officials confirm that at no time were fire exits locked or employees blocked from escape. Walmart has advised all stores to ensure the door keys are available on site at all times. In January 2004, The New York Times reported on an internal Walmart audit, conducted in July 2000, which examined one week's time-clock records for roughly 25,000 employees. According to the Times, the audit, "pointed to extensive violations of child-labor laws and state regulations requiring time for breaks and meals", including 1,371 instances of minors working too late, during school hours, or for too many hours in a day. There were 60,767 missed breaks and 15,705 lost meal times. Walmart's vice president for communications responded that company auditors had determined that the methodology used by The New York Times was flawed, and the company "did not respond to it in any way internally." Walmart has been accused of allowing undocumented workers to work in its stores. In one case, federal investigators say Walmart executives knew that contractors were using undocumented workers as they had been helping the federal government with an investigation for the previous three years. Some critics said that Walmart directly hired undocumented workers, while Walmart says they were employed by contractors who won bids to work for Walmart. On October 23, 2003, federal agents raided 61 Walmart stores in 21 United States states in a crackdown known as "Operation Rollback", resulting in the arrests of 250 nightshift janitors who were undocumented. Following the arrests, a grand jury convened to consider charging Walmart executives with labor racketeering crimes for knowingly allowing undocumented workers to work at their stores. The workers themselves were employed by agencies Walmart contracted with for cleaning services. Walmart blamed the contractors, but federal investigators point to wiretapped conversations showing that executives knew some workers did not have the correct documentation. The October 2003 raid was not the first time Walmart was found using unauthorized workers. Earlier raids in 1998 and 2001 resulted in the arrests of 100 workers without documentation located at Walmart stores around the country. In November 2005, 125 alleged undocumented workers were arrested while working on construction of a new Walmart distribution center in eastern Pennsylvania. According to Walmart, the workers were employees of Walmart's construction subcontractor. Allegations of wrongful termination On January 13, 2011, four employees at a Walmart in Layton, Utah were confronted by a shoplifter who pulled out a handgun and took one of the employees hostage in an attempt to leave a small, closed office. The other three employees disarmed and subdued the shoplifter, and all four held onto the man until police arrived. A week later, the four employees were fired for violating a company policy requiring employees to "disengage" and "withdraw" from any situation involving a weapon. The four fired employees, together with two other Walmart employees who had been fired after subduing violent customers, sued Walmart in the United States federal court in June 2011. After the Utah Supreme Court ruled (in response to a request from a federal judge) that Utah law prohibited the firing of workers for defending themselves from injury or death, Walmart and the workers settled the case on undisclosed terms. On July 9, 2013, an employee at a Walmart in Kemptville, Ontario, confronted a customer who had left his dog locked in his truck with the windows rolled up. She called the police when the customer refused to solve the problem. She was fired later the same day, reportedly on the grounds of "being rude to a customer", after rejecting instructions from her manager that such incidents should be reported to the store management rather than directly to the police. The National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) has long had the goal of protecting workers, whether unionized or not, who engage in concerted activity by speaking with each other regarding conditions, wages, and/or benefits. The NLRB has recently stated that this also applies to social media. The key point is whether or not the intent appears to be to communicate with fellow employees. And Walmart's official policy is viewed as acceptable and not overly restrictive in this regard, revised in part after consultations with the NRLB. However, in practice, Walmart may not always follow such a policy. For example, a September 2013 article in The Atlantic Wire, reports the case of a 17-year veteran of Walmart's Paramount, California location who started at $5.50 an hour as an overnight stocker and became a manager in housewares. "For 14 years I was a model associate", he states. In 2012, he became increasingly involved with OUR Walmart and was fired in May 2013. He reports that after he began speaking about labor conditions "they started silencing me, by holding me to standards that they weren't holding other associates to. We were so understaffed, and the workload placed on me [was] unsurmountable." Health insurance According to a September 2002 survey by the state of Georgia, one in four children of Walmart employees were enrolled in PeachCare for Kids, the state's health-insurance program for uninsured children, compared to the state's second-biggest employer, Publix, which had one child in the program for every 22 children of employees. A December 2004 nationwide survey commissioned by Walmart showed that the use of public-assistance health-care programs by children of Walmart workers was at a similar rate to other retailers' employees, and at rates similar to the United States population as a whole. As of October 2005, Walmart's health insurance covered 44% or approximately 572,000 of its 1.3 million United States workers. In comparison, Walmart rival and wholesaler Costco insures approximately 85% of its workers. In 2003 Walmart spent an average of $3,500 per employee for health care, 27% less than the retail-industry average of $4,800. When asked why so many Walmart workers choose to enroll in state health care plans instead of Walmart's own plan, Walmart CEO Lee Scott acknowledged that some states' benefits may be more generous than Walmart's own plan: "In some of our states, the public program may actually be a better value – with relatively high income limits to qualify, and low premiums." Critics of Walmart say in Walmart: The High Cost of Low Price that employees are paid so little they cannot afford health insurance. On October 26, 2005, a Walmart internal memo sent to the firm's board of directors advised trimming over $1 billion in health care expenses by 2011 through measures such as attracting a younger, implicitly healthier work force by offering education benefits. The memo also suggested giving sedentary Walmart staffers, such as cashiers, more physically demanding tasks, such as "cart-gathering", and eliminating full-time positions in favor of hiring part-time employees who would be ineligible for the more expensive health insurance and several policy proposals which may violate the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The memo also accused Walmart's lower paid employees of abusing emergency room visits, "possibly due to their prior experience with programs such as Medicaid", whereas such visits may actually be due to the reduced ability of uninsured or underinsured people to make timely appointments to see a regular physician. On January 12, 2006, the Maryland legislature enacted a law requiring that all corporations with more than 10,000 employees in the state spend at least eight percent of their payroll on employee benefits, or pay into a state fund for the uninsured. Walmart, with about 17,000 employees in Maryland, was the only known company to not meet this requirement before the bill passed. On July 7, 2006, the Maryland law was overturned in federal court by a United States District judge who held that a federal law, the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA), preempted the Maryland law. The judge said the law would "hurt Walmart by imposing the administrative burden of tracking benefits in Maryland differently than in other states." On April 17, 2006, Walmart announced it was making a health care plan available to part-time workers after one year of service, instead of the prior two-year requirement. By January 2007, the number of workers enrolled in the company's health care plans increased by 8%, which Walmart attributed to the introduction of less expensive insurance policies. However, even with this increase, less than half of Walmart's employees, or 47.4%, received health insurance through the company, with 10%, or 130,000, receiving no coverage at all. In March 2008, Walmart sued a former Walmart employee, Deborah Shank, to recover the money it spent for her health care after she was brain-damaged, restricted to a wheelchair, and nursing home-bound after her minivan was hit by a truck. Walmart sued the former employee for $470,000 after she received a settlement from the accident, citing that company policy forbids employees from receiving coverage if they also win a settlement in a lawsuit. After a wave of bad publicity, Walmart dropped its suit. In 2011, Walmart stopped providing health insurance for part-time employees working under 24 hours per week. In 2013, health insurance benefits will not be available to employees who work fewer than 30 hours per week. Experts in labor and health care observed that the change will shift the burden of providing health care for Walmart employees to the federal government, as eligibility for Medicaid has been expanded under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA or ACA). An analysis of Walmart's health plans as compared to plans offered in the ACA's health insurance marketplaces found that Walmart's plans have larger networks of providers than most plans in the marketplaces, and that gross premiums (before accounting for tax credits) are less expensive under Walmart's plans. In October 2014, Walmart announced that they were cutting benefits for all associates working under 30 hours a week, which is said to affect roughly 30,000 (2%) of Walmart's workforce. The company acknowledged a $500 million jump in health care expenses as the primary reason for their decision. Walmart executive Sally Welborn stated in a blog post, "This year, the expenses were significant and led us to make some tough decisions as we begin our annual enrollment." Labor union opposition Walmart has been criticized for its policies against labor unions. Critics blame workers' reluctance to join the labor union on Walmart anti-union tactics such as managerial surveillance and pre-emptive closures of stores or departments who choose to unionize. Walmart claims that it is not anti-union but "pro-associate", arguing that its employees do not need to pay third parties to discuss problems with management as the company's open-door policy enables employees to lodge complaints and submit suggestions all the way up the corporate ladder. In 1970, Walmart's late founder Sam Walton resisted a unionization push by the Retail Clerks International Union in two small Missouri towns by hiring a professional union buster to conduct an anti-union campaign. On the union buster's advice, Walton also took steps to show his workers how the company had their best interests in mind, encouraging them to air concerns with managers and implementing a profit-sharing program. A few years later, Walmart hired a consulting firm, Alpha Associates, to develop a union avoidance program. In 2000, meat cutters in Jacksonville, Texas, voted to unionize. Walmart subsequently eliminated in-house meat-cutting jobs in favor of prepackaged meats, claiming that the measure would cut costs and prevent lawsuits. Walmart said that the nationwide closing of in-store meat packaging had been planned for many years and was not related to the unionization. In June 2003, a National Labor Relations Board judge ordered Walmart to restore the meat department to its prior structure, complete with meat-cutting, and to recognize and bargain with the union over the effects of any change to case-ready meat sales. Walmart's anti-union policies also extend beyond the United States. The documentary Walmart: The High Cost of Low Price, shows one successful unionization of a Walmart store in Jonquière, Quebec, Canada, in 2004, but Walmart closed the store five months later because the company did not approve of the new "business plan" a union would require. In September 2005, the Québec Labor Board ruled that the closing of a Walmart store amounted to a reprisal against unionized workers and has ordered additional hearings on possible compensation for the employees, though it offered no details. In March 2005, Walmart executive Tom Coughlin was forced to resign from its board of directors, facing charges of embezzlement. Coughlin said that the money was used for an anti-union project involving cash bribes paid to employees of the United Food and Commercial Workers Union in exchange for a list of names of Walmart employees that had signed union cards. He also said that the money was unofficially paid to him, by Walmart, as compensation for his anti-union efforts. In August 2006, Coughlin pleaded guilty to stealing money, merchandise, and gift cards from Walmart, but avoided prison time due to his poor health. He was sentenced to five years probation and required to pay a $50,000 fine and $411,000 in restitution to Walmart and the Internal Revenue Service. A United States attorney has stated that no evidence was found to back up Coughlin's initial claims, and Walmart continues to deny the existence of the anti-union program, though Coughlin himself apparently restated those claims to reporters after his conviction. Walmart has also had some run-ins with the German Ver.di labor union as well. These issues, combined with cultural differences and low performing stores, led Walmart to pull out of the German market entirely in 2006. In August 2006, Walmart announced that it would allow workers at all of its Chinese stores to become members of trade unions, and that the company would work with the state-sanctioned All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) on representation for its 28,000 staff. However, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions has been criticized because it is the only trade union in China and as a tool of the government, ACFTU has been seen as not acting in the best interest of its members (workers), bowing to government pressure on industry growth and not defending workers' rights. In November 2012, the United Food & Commercial Workers joined with several Walmart workers with a plan to go on strike on Black Friday at several stores nationwide in protest to low pay, an increase in health insurance premiums, and not being given the option to have the day off or having Thanksgiving off. Walmart has countered this by saying that the strike is illegal due to the union not being sanctioned by the company, and that the striking workers are a small minority of the company's workforce, with the vast majority of workers willing and ready to work the retail industry's busiest day of the year. In May 2013, Walmart employees associated with a union-backed labor group called OUR Walmart began what it says will be the first "prolonged strikes" in Walmart's history. For Thanksgiving 2013, CNN estimates that approximately a million United States Walmart employees would work over the course of the holiday, with big specials starting at 6:00 pm on Thanksgiving Day. The company stated that employees would receive "a nice Thanksgiving dinner at work", extra "holiday pay", and 25% discount off one purchase, regardless of how many items are purchased at that time. According to the Cleveland Plain Dealer, the extra holiday pay equaled the average daily shift the employee worked during the previous two weeks. Walmart would also expand its one-hour guarantee from three items the year before to twenty-one items. This means that a customer standing in line for such an item from 6–7 pm or from 8–9 pm would be guaranteed to get it at that price some point before Christmas. In July 2019, the Walmart subreddit was flooded with pro-union memes in a protest to the firing of an employee who posted confidential material to the subreddit. Many of these posts were angry with Walmart surveying its staff on the Internet. The posting of the union content is in a response to the aforementioned alleged anti-union position Walmart has taken in the past. Surveillance patent In July 2018, Walmart was granted a patent titled "Listening to the Frontend" for audio surveillance technology that could allow it to record employees as well as its shoppers. The company says the technology could help it boost worker productivity by generating performance metrics for each employee based on cashier area sounds, such as checkout scanner beeps, and even conversations. It wouldn't say whether it plans to actually implement the multi-sensor system. Gender and sexual orientation In 2007, a gender discrimination lawsuit, Dukes v. Walmart Stores, Inc., was filed against Walmart, alleging that female employees were discriminated against in matters regarding pay and promotions. A class action suit was sought, which would have been the nation's largest in history, covering 1.5 million past and current employees. On June 20, 2011, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Walmart's favor, stating that the plaintiffs did not have enough in common to constitute a class. The court ruled unanimously that because of the variability of the plaintiffs' circumstances, the class action could not proceed as presented, and furthermore, in a 54 decision that it could not proceed as any kind of class action suit. Several plaintiffs, including the lead plaintiff, Betty Dukes, expressed their intent to file individual discrimination lawsuits separately. According to a consultant hired by plaintiffs in a sex discrimination lawsuit, in 2001, Walmart's EEOC filings showed that female employees made up 65 percent of Walmart's hourly paid workforce, but only 33percent of its management. Just 35 percent of its store managers were women, compared to 57 percent at similar retailers. Walmart says comparisons with other retailers are unfair, because it classifies employees differently; if department managers were included in the totals, women would make up 60 percent of the managerial ranks. Others have criticized the lawsuit as without basis in the law and as an abuse of the class action mechanism. In 2007, Walmart was named by the National Association for Female Executives as one of the top 35 companies for Executive Women. Walmart's rating on the Human Rights Campaign's Corporate Equality Index, a measure of how companies treat LGBT employees and customers, has increased greatly during the past decade. The company was praised for expanding its anti-discrimination policy protecting gay and lesbian employees, as well as for a new definition of "family" that included same-sex partners. However, they have been criticized by the HRC in other areas, such as not renewing its membership in the National Gay and Lesbian Chamber of Commerce. In January 2006, Walmart announced that "diversity efforts include new groups of minority, female and gay employees that meet at Walmart headquarters in Bentonville to advise the company on marketing and internal promotion. There are seven Business Resource Groups: women, African-Americans, Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans, Gays and Lesbians, and a disabled group." Poorly run and understaffed stores In 2015, the Walmart CEO acknowledged a need for Walmart to refocus on cleanliness and tidiness, restocking shelves quickly, integration with digital, sideline businesses such as gas stations and care clinics, better selection such as in fresh produce, and correcting the situation in which Walmart prices were not always as low as those of competitors. In a January 2012 article in the Harvard Business Review, Professor Zeynep Ton stated, "Moreover, the financial benefits of cutting employees are direct, immediate, and easy to measure, whereas the less-desirable effects are indirect, long term, and difficult to measure." A lot of retailers, including Walmart, evaluate managers by a ratio of sales to payroll expense. Managers do not have direct control over sales, almost never making decisions on merchandise mix, layout, or pricing. However, they very much have direct control over payroll and when sales numbers drop, such managers are quick to reduce payroll. That is, labor ends up being treated as a cost driver rather than a sales driver. At times, these pressures have even been such that Walmart managers placed pressure on employees to "work off the clock", a form of wage theft. As counter examples of companies which are both price leaders and invest in their employees, Prof. Ton points to QuikTrip convenience stores, Mercadona and Trader Joe's supermarkets, and Costco wholesale clubs. In February 2013, Walmart received an American Customer Satisfaction Index rating of 71 as compared to 81 for Target, placing Walmart last for the year among retail and department stores. According to Bloomberg News, this marks the sixth year in a row Walmart has either finished last or tied for last. According to a March 2013 Bloomberg News article, during the last five years Walmart added 455 United States stores for a 13% increase. During this same period, its overall United States employees including Sam's Clubs employees went down ever so slightly at 1.4% which translates to a reduction of 20,000 employees. In Wisconsin, an employee who oversees grocery deliveries and who is a member of OUR Walmart reports that the store is a long way from the previous mantra of "in the door and to the floor". Instead, merchandise ready for the sales floor remains on pallets and in steel bins in the back of the store with "no passable aisles". Professor Zeynep Ton states that companies can get in a downward spiral where too few labor hours lead to operational problems and lower sales and these reduced sales then become a rationale to reduce labor hours even further. "It requires a wake-up call at a higher level", she said. A customer from Delaware states that the cosmetics section "looked like someone raided it" and "You hate to see a company self-destruct, but there are other places to go." A customer in California states, "You wait 20, 25 minutes for someone to help you, then the person was not trained on mixing paint. It was like, you have to help them help you." An April 3, 2013 The New York Times article cites Supermarket News that Walmart's grocery prices are usually about 15 percent cheaper than competitors. At the start of 2007, the company had an average of 338 employees for each Walmart and Sam's Club store in the United States, and by April 2013, this had reduced to an average of 281 employees per store. Terrie Ellerbee, associate editor of grocery publication The Shelby Report, traced the problem to 2010 when Walmart reduced the number of different merchandise items carried in an attempt to make stores less cluttered. Customers did not like this change, and Walmart added the merchandise back, but did not add employees back. An April 5, 2013, article in the Consumerist includes photographs of Walmart shelves which are only partially stocked, primarily in health and beauty products. One employee is quoted as saying, "As soon as we get a full crew we start to lose people through them quitting or being fired. Management seems to wait until we need 6 or 7 people, then we get a rash of new hires." And another employee is quoted as saying, "they make the rest of us work faster and harder, saying the task manager system, which is basically a [point-of-sale] system telling them how long it should take us to do our job, says we should be done already or we're taking too long." An April 9, 2013 article in Time Business & Money reported that some Walmart stores have cut labor hours so much that they were having trouble physically moving merchandise from the back onto stores shelves. However, even with these problems, Walmart was performing better than Target in the measure of retail turnover, turning over its entire inventory 8 times a year as compared to 6.4 for Target. Walmart states it has 90% to 95% in-stock, but given inventory levels in United States stores, even this means the company could be foregoing $1.29 billion to $2.58 billion in potential sales. The article's author writes that no amount of "computer wizardry" will eliminate the need for human beings to also move merchandise onto shelves. The author further writes that Walmart's whole business model is based on reducing the carrying costs of unsold merchandise, and any speed bump along the line adds back costs. Front-end managers are supposed to open another register any time there are more than three customers in line, but these employees have to come from some other part of the store, and the night crew may or may not be able to catch up. In September 2013, Bloomberg Businessweek reported that Walmart will be offering 35,000 part-time employees full-time jobs and will be offering another 35,000 temporary employees permanent part-time positions. Walmart will also be looking to hire 55,000 seasonal employees for the upcoming holiday season. This compares to 120,000 jobs Walmart has cut over the last five years. This number does conflict with the 20,000 jobs cut from the above Bloomberg News of March 2013. For Thanksgiving 2013 specials, Walmart included twenty-one items which included a one-hour guarantee, where customers would pay at that time and then go online to arrange delivery to a store of their choice by Christmas. However, there were problems and delays for some customers when they went online to register their access codes and paid gift certificates. In February 2014, a local NBC affiliate in Troy, Alabama, United States, showed photographs of empty shelves and aired customer complaints, with one customer stating, "And merchandise? When you don't have any salt on the shelf, no matter what brand, that's pretty bad." Regarding the cleanliness and repair of restrooms, another customer stated, "The bathrooms? They have things that are broken in there and instead of fixing the problem, they have a trash bag taped over it, and it smells horrible." The reporter who was taking photographs was approached by three persons who identified themselves as managers and escorted out of the store. Within 24 hours, perhaps motivated by the fact that the story did appear on TV, Walmart's corporate office sent additional employees from neighboring stores to this store. No AEDs in stores (automated external defibrillators) Many Walmart stores have no AEDs, which has led to criticism from those who have needed them whilst in their premises. In 2011, the Walmart store in Kirksville, Missouri, had an opportunity to participate in a local program which placed 26 AEDs in various schools, churches, and businesses. The local store management was initially open to participation. However, Walmart corporate declined to participate. In 2015 in Saskatoon, Canada, a 62-year-old man had a heart attack in a parking lot of a Walmart store. Two off-duty nurses who knew CPR who offered assistance, whilst a third person ran to a different store to get that store's AED machine, and the man survived. The man's family criticized Walmart for not having an AED machine. The director of corporate affairs for Walmart Canada said the store has an employee on shift who is trained in first aid and CPR as is required by Canadian law, and that the company is in the process deciding whether or not to place AEDs in stores. In 2018 in Alberta, Canada, a woman shopping with her adult daughters had a heart attack at a Walmart store. The 911 operator instructed one daughter to find an AED machine. The employee at the Walmart customer service desk did not know whether or not the store had one. Alberta law does not require AEDs in businesses, and Walmart stores in Alberta do not have them. The woman was not able to be resuscitated and died. Imports and globalization As a large customer to most of its vendors, Walmart openly uses its bargaining power to bring lower prices to attract its customers. The company negotiates lower prices from vendors. For certain basic products, Walmart "has a clear policy" that prices go down from year to year. If a vendor does not keep prices competitive with other suppliers, they risk having their brand removed from Walmart's shelves in favor of a lower-priced competitor. While Sam Walton was alive, Walmart had a "Buy American" campaign, but it was exposed shortly after he died that signs saying "Buy American" were on bins of Asian made products. Yet by 2005, about 60% of Walmart's merchandise was imported, compared to 6% in 1984, although others estimated the percentage was 40% from the beginning. In 2004, Walmart spent $18 billion on Chinese products alone, and if it were an individual economy, the company would rank as China's eighth largest trading partner, ahead of Russia, Australia, and Canada. One group estimates that the growing United States trade deficit with China, heavily influenced by Walmart imports, is estimated to have moved over 1.5 million jobs that might otherwise be in the United States to China between 1989 and 2003. According to the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO), "Walmart is the single largest importer of foreign-produced goods in the United States", their biggest trading partner is China, and their trade with China alone constitutes approximately 10% of the total United States trade deficit with China . Overseas labor concerns Walmart has been criticized for not providing adequate supervision of its foreign suppliers. It has also been criticized for using sweatshops and prison labor. In 1995, Chinese dissident Harry Wu charged that Walmart was contracting prison labor in Guangdong Province. Walmart said it did not use prison labor. There have also been reports of teenagers in Bangladesh working in sweatshops 80 hours per week at $0.14 per hour, for Walmart supplier Beximco. The documentary film Walmart: The High Cost of Low Price shows images of Walmart goods-producing factories in poor condition, and factory workers subject to abuse and conditions that the documentary producers considered inhumane. Walmart currently uses monitoring which critics say is inadequate and "leaves outsiders unable to verify" conditions. Since Walmart will not release its audits or factory names, outside organizations are expected to simply accept Walmart's claims as fact. Critics suggest an agency such as Social Accountability International or the Fair Labor Association should do the monitoring. In 2004, Walmart began working with Business for Social Responsibility, a San Francisco, California-based nonprofit organization, to reach out to groups active in monitoring overseas plants. In June 2006, Walmart was excluded from the investment portfolio of The Government Pension Fund of Norway, which held stock values of about $430 million in the company, due to a social audit into alleged labor rights violations in Walmart operations in the United States, Canada, Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Although Walmart did not respond to questions from the fund's auditors, it later said the decision "[does not] appear to be based on complete information". On November 24, 2012, a fire in a Bangladesh clothing factory resulted in the death of 112 workers. Survivors said that fire extinguishers did not work, an exit door was locked, and that when the fire alarm went off, bosses told workers to return to their sewing machines. Victims were trapped or jumped to their deaths from the eight-story building, which had no fire escapes or exits. Initially Walmart said it could not confirm that it had ever sourced apparel from the factory. However photos taken by Bangladeshi labor activists showed Walmart-branded clothing present in the factory after the fire. Walmart later said that a supplier had subcontracted work to the factory "in direct violation of our policies." However, on December 4, documents revealed that at least five supplier companies had been using the Bangladesh factory to provide apparel for Walmart and its subsidiary Sam's Club during the past year. It was also disclosed in a November 24 article in The New York Times that officials who had attended a 2011 Bangladesh meeting to discuss factory safety in the garment industry said that the Walmart official there had played the lead role in blocking an effort to have global retailers pay more for apparel to help Bangladesh factories improve their electrical and fire safety. Allegations of bribery and coverup in Mexico In 2012, The New York Times reported that Walmart had been made aware eight years earlier that executives of Walmart México, its subsidiary in that country, had paid millions of dollars in bribes to local officials to expedite permits for construction and operation of its many stores in that country. The company had opened many stores in Mexico in the late 1990s and early 2000s, attempting to widely establish itself before competitors could. Sergio Cicero, a lawyer who had been responsible for obtaining those permits and was bitter about being passed over for the position of general counsel with Walmart México provided the company's corporate general counsel's office with evidence showing that the company had made large payments to gestores, workers who deal with bureaucracies on behalf of citizens and businesses, with coded indications that the money was being passed on to officials to expedite permits. Company officials hired a veteran FBI agent to conduct a preliminary inquiry, instead of hiring an outside law firm as it usually did for major inquiries, such as a similar one in 2003 which found that Walmart México had been helping high-volume customers evade that country's sales taxes. The special investigative team found evidence corroborating almost all of Cicero's allegations, and evidence suggesting that the bribery had been even more extensive, including $16 million in "donations" to local politicians and their organizations. They recommended opening a full investigation, and possibly notifying the Justice Department, as it appeared that both Mexican law and the United States Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) had been violated. Executives at Walmart México chafed at the investigation, reportedly complaining that that was how business was done in the country. They told their counterparts at corporate headquarters that the investigators were being too aggressive, and some of the company's top executives apparently agreed. Feeling Walmart had had enough bad publicity in recent years, they allowed the investigation to be concluded by a short report from José Luis Rodríguezmacedo, the head of Walmart México, who had himself been suspected of involvement. It largely blamed Cicero, claiming he had fabricated the allegations to conceal his own embezzlement from the company with the help of the gestores, one of whom was his wife's law partner. Some Walmart executives found the report incomplete and contradictory, but the investigation was closed. None of the Mexican executives investigated were ever disciplined, and some were even promoted afterwards. In December 2011, several months before the story broke, Walmart announced it had begun an internal review of its FCPA compliance procedures. It was unclear how the Justice Department might respond. While the FCPA's five-year statute of limitations appeared to bar prosecution under that statute, falsified financial statements in the years since could be seen as obstruction of justice under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, and acts taken to conceal the bribery investigation subsequent to 2007 could constitute conspiracy. Product selection Walmart's product selection has been criticized by some groups in the past, primarily as viewed as a promotion of a particular ideology or as a response to its original rural, religious and conservative target market. In 2003, Walmart removed certain men's magazines from its shelves, such as Maxim, FHM, and Stuff, citing customer complaints regarding their sexual content. Later that year, it decided to partly obscure the covers of Cosmopolitan, Marie Claire, and Redbook on store shelves due to "customer concerns", and refused to stock an issue of Sports Illustrateds swimsuit special because it objected to one photograph. Since 1991, Walmart has not carried music albums marked with the Recording Industry Association of America's (RIAA's) Parental Advisory Label (although it allows R-rated movies and video games rated "Mature"), although it carries edited versions of such albums, with obscenities removed or overdubbed with less offensive lyrics. In one example in 2005, Walmart rejected the original cover of country singer Willie Nelson's reggae album, Countryman, which featured marijuana leaves, in an apparent pro-marijuana statement. To satisfy Walmart, the record label, Lost Highway Records, issued the album with an alternative cover, without recalling the original cover. In 2009 Green Day refused to make an edited version of their album 21st Century Breakdown for Walmart, with frontman Billie Joe Armstrong claiming "You feel like you're in 1953 or something", thus the album is not carried by Walmart. However albums carrying the label can be found in Canadian Walmart stores, for example. In 1999, Walmart announced that it would not stock emergency contraception pills in its pharmacies, not citing any particular reasons except for a "business decision" that was made earlier. The move was criticized by family planning advocates, saying that women in small towns where Walmart pharmacies had little competition would have greater difficulties in obtaining the drug. The decision was challenged in 2006, as three Massachusetts women filed suit against the company after they were unable to purchase emergency contraception at their local Walmart stores, resulting in a ruling that required Walmart to stock the drug in all of its pharmacies in Massachusetts. Expecting that other states would soon do the same, Walmart reversed its policy and announced that it would begin to stock the drug nationwide, while at the same time maintaining its conscientious objection policy, allowing any Walmart pharmacy employee who does not feel comfortable dispensing a prescription to refer customers to another pharmacy. Walmart has also been criticized for selling some controversial products. For example, in 2004 Walmart carried the anti-Semitic hoax The Protocols of the Elders of Zion in its online catalogue. The Jewish civil rights organization Anti-Defamation League wrote to the President of Walmart in September 2008 noting the text, "has been the major weapon in the arsenals of anti-Semites around the world", and called on Walmart to, "unequivocally state the nature of the book and to disassociate itself from any endorsement of it." Walmart stopped selling the book shortly thereafter. In October 2004, Walmart canceled its order for The Daily Show's America (The Book) after discovering a page that depicts each US Supreme Court judge nude. A week later, it returned copies of comedian George Carlin's When Will Jesus Bring the Pork Chops?, with a cover recreating The Last Supper with Jesus' seat empty and Carlin seated next to it. The company said that the copies were shipped to it by mistake and a Walmart spokeswoman said she did not "believe this particular product would appeal" to its customer base. In January 2006, Walmart was criticized for the recommendation system on its website which suggested that some black-related DVDs, such as Introducing Dorothy Dandridge and documentaries on Baptist minister and civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. were similar to the Planet of the Apes television series DVD box set. It quickly corrected the page, saying that it was a software glitch, but ultimately blamed the matter on human error. A December 2007 report published by the Environmental Investigation Agency, a non-governmental agency, revealed that some furniture sold at Walmart was made from wood which had been illegally logged in protected Russian habitats for Siberian tigers and other wildlife. This led the company to investigate its suppliers and promise to eliminate products made from illegal wood by 2013. They also joined the Global Forest & Trade Network, an organization dedicated to eliminating illegal logging. In 2015, Walmart stopped selling modern sporting rifles like the AR-15. In 2018 it stopped selling firearms and ammunition to 18-20 year olds, which led to a lawsuit. In 2017 Walmart was sued for selling fake craft beer. The beer is labeled and marketed as being produced by the non-existent "Trouble Brewery" but is actually made by WX Brands, a large corporate brewery that also makes Genesee beer. At the end of 2017, Walmart removed T-shirts which implied a promotion of violence, with the words "Rope. Tree. Journalist. Some Assembly Required". Executive Director Dan Shelley of the Radio Television Digital News Association said that while RTDNA is "a fierce proponent of the First Amendment that is politically nonpartisan" and that Walmart is within its legal rights to sell the T-shirt, "that doesn't mean it is the right thing to do." A Walmart spokesperson said the shirt "clearly violates our policy." In May, 2019, Walmart was sued by the Center For Inquiry (CFI) for selling homeopathic products on the shelf next to traditional medicine. The CFI, a not-for-profit educational organization, stated in the complaint that Walmart "uses marketing, labeling, and product placement to falsely present homeopathic products as equivalent alternatives to science-based medicines, and to represent homeopathic products as effective treatments for specific diseases and symptoms." Nicholas Little of CFI said that homeopathic products should remain legal to purchase, but should be labelled products honestly. The FDA currently does not regulate homeopathic products, but in recent years has signaled their intent to regulate the industry to a higher level. This follows on from a similar lawsuit filed by CFI against pharmacy chain CVS in 2018. Walmart responded by stating "Our Equate private label homeopathic products are designed to include information directly stating that the claims are not based on accepted medical evidence and have not been evaluated by the FDA. We take allegations like these seriously and will respond as appropriate with the court." In an August, 2019 interview, Little commented that "The problem is the government agencies (the FDA and FTC) aren't doing their job. ... The FDA and FTC have rules and guidelines, but they don't enforce them." In July, 2019, CFI announced that the Stiefel Freethought Foundation was contributing an additional $150,000 to the previously committed $100,000 to support the two lawsuits. In December 2020, the United States Department of Justice sued Walmart after it was discovered that it contributed to the opioid epidemic in the United States by filling illegal prescriptions of controlled substances and failing to report suspicious orders to the Drug Enforcement Agency. Walmart stopped distributing controlled substances in 2018. Walmart accused the DoJ of cherry-picking, claiming that pharmacists refuse to fill most illegally prescribed drugs from questionable doctors and sent "tens of thousands of investigative leads to" the DEA. Taxes Until the mid-1990s, Walmart took out corporate-owned life insurance policies on its employees including "low-level" employees such as janitors, cashiers, and stockers. This type of insurance is usually purchased to cover a company against financial loss when a high-ranking employee (i.e. management) dies, and is usually known as "key person insurance". Critics derided Walmart as buying what they called "dead peasants insurance" or "janitor insurance". Critics, as well as the United States Internal Revenue Service, charge that the company was trying to profit from the deaths of its employees, and take advantage of the tax law which allowed it to deduct the premiums. The practice was stopped in the mid-1990s when the federal government closed the tax deduction and began to pursue Walmart for back taxes. Animal welfare Walmart's cage-free eggs will not come from free range producers, but rather industrial-scale farms where the birds will be allotted between 1 and 1.5 square feet each, a stressful arrangement which can cause cannibalism. Unlike battery cages, the systems Walmart's suppliers will use allow the hens to move around, but relative to battery cages they have higher hen mortality rates and present distinct environmental and worker health problems. On November 28, 2016, Paola Gaviño in coordination with the animal protection NGOs, The Humane League and Mercy For Animals, launched a multinational campaign to raise awareness of Walmart's failure to produce a policy to source 100% cage-free eggs throughout Latin America. Walmart has not committed to phasing out battery cages in Latin America as it has in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. The campaign argues that battery cages are unnecessarily cruel and also increase the risk of food safety issues, including an increased risk of Salmonella contamination. On March 10, 2017, a Thunderclap campaign reached over one million people and protests have occurred in from Lynn, Massachusetts, to Seattle, Washington; as well as Mexico City, where Walmart Mexico's HQ is located. On March 30, 2017, activists traveled to Walmart's headquarters in Mexico to deliver more than 125,000 petition signatures from campaign supporters. Midtown Walmart Midtown Walmart was a controversial proposal by Walmart to build a supercenter location on a site in the planned sub-district of Midtown Miami in the city of Miami, Florida, US. The proposal never met local regulations because Walmart never owned all of the land upon which it planned to build, yet they fought for five years to build on land they did not own and the city violated its own laws to help make that happen. Walmart's Midtown plan was rejected the first time in February 2013, but was redesigned by Gensler and approved by Miami Planning and Zoning Director Francisco Garcia in August 2013, then upheld on appeal by the City Commission in November 2013, Midtown Walmart faced public and political opposition from area residents, business owners, and community activists after being adapted to meet strict zoning regulations that resulted in the design differing from the typical layout, such as utilizing second story roof parking versus a surface lot with more street liner retail spaces instead of a totally blank wall perimeter. The original 2013 plan included 550 parking spaces on two levels above the store. Walmart did build urban locations in Santurce, (downtown) San Juan, Puerto Rico, known as "Plaza 18", as well as Washington, D.C., where the city's first Walmart is a true mixed-use development, with third party retail as well as 300 apartments above the store. Walmart's plan in Midtown Miami was not an urban store, but rather a suburban-style Super Center with parking in two floors above the ground level, instead of in an open lot. If built, it would be the first traditional Walmart location within the City of Miami limits, although there are numerous locations just outside city limits in Doral, Hialeah, Gladeview, North Miami Beach, and Westchester, as well as a "Neighborhood Market" in the western fringes of the city. Purchased in October 2011, the retailer closed on the sale in January 2014 for US$8.2 million, the currently vacant site sits at the southern tip of Midtown between North Miami Avenue and Midtown Boulevard from Northeast 29th and 31st Streets, between the burgeoning neighborhoods of Wynwood and Edgewater. After more than two years of litigation, Walmart won their first court battle in August 2015. The litigation once again targeted the City's departure from the law by providing Walmart illegal zoning variances and the illegal street re-configuration caused by the development which would contribute excessively to local traffic problems. The Midtown development already contains a Target and a Ross which makes another big box retailer like Walmart redundant for the site. The Walmart broke ground with an illegal permit from the City of Miami in January 2016, after a panel of state judges in the 3rd District Court of Appeals blocked a petition challenging the development. In 2016, Stern won a judgment against the City of Miami in a public records lawsuit related to Walmart's plan to build in Midtown Miami. That case proved Stern's claims that Walmart did not hold good title to all the land upon which they obtained a permit to build from the City. As a result, the City of Miami froze their permit and eventually, construction of the Walmart was involuntarily halted when the City revoked their foundation permit on June 21, 2016, and construction ceased at the site within the week, which is how Walmart's vacant Midtown site remains. In September 2019, Walmart sold its land for $26.4 million. See also "Hell Comes to Quahog" People of Walmart Imminent lawless action Propane Boom "Something Wall-Mart This Way Comes" Walmarting Whirl-Mart References External links Articles, studies and resources on Walmart on Reclaim Democracy "Discounting Rights: Walmart's Violation of US Workers' Right to Freedom of Association" "Is Walmart Good For America?" on Frontline, PBS "Walmart's Absurd Anti-Union Training Video Just Got Leaked". In These Times. May 20, 2015. Wal-Town documentary Making Change at Walmart (MCAW) - a campaign run by the United Food and Commercial Workers International Union (UFCW) to change Walmart into a more responsible employer and to improve the lives of Walmart workers Business ethics cases Walmart Walmart Walmart labor relations
1052248	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loot%20%28play%29	Loot (play)	Loot is a two-act play by the English playwright Joe Orton. The play is a dark farce that satirises the Roman Catholic Church, social attitudes to death, and the integrity of the police force. Loot was Orton's third major production, following Entertaining Mr Sloane and the television play The Good and Faithful Servant. Playing with the conventions of popular farce, Orton creates a hectic world and examines English attitudes and perceptions in the mid twentieth century. The play won several awards in its London run and has had many revivals. Plot outline Loot follows the fortunes of two young thieves, Hal and Dennis. Together they rob the bank next to the funeral parlour where Dennis works and return to Hal's home to hide the money. Hal's mother has just died and the money is hidden in her coffin while her body keeps on appearing around the house. Upon the arrival of Inspector Truscott, the plot becomes bizarre as Hal and Dennis try to keep him off their trail, aided by Nurse McMahon and to the despair of Hal's father, Mr. McLeavy. The play satirises the rituals of bereavement, and the mismatch between nominal standards of behaviour—religious and secular—and people's actual conduct. The police, as represented by Inspector Truscott, are depicted as venal and corrupt. As is typical of Orton's writing the humour of the dialogue arises from the contrast between the shocking and bizarre elements that punctuate what the characters say and the mechanically genteel utterance that predominates in their speech. Production history Orton completed a first draft in October 1964, which premiered in Cambridge on 1 February 1965. The production starred Geraldine McEwan, Kenneth Williams, Duncan Macrae and Ian McShane and was directed by Peter Wood. Responses to the first production were extremely mixed, with many in the audience outraged, as Orton had intended, but largely negative reviews also affected the box office. The London Evening News called it "one of the most revolting things I've ever seen." The first run ended at Wimbledon on 20 March 1965 with the play considered a flop due to its problems with repeated script rewrites, uneven direction, a stylish but unsympathetic set, and what many considered the miscasting of Williams. Loot was successfully revived the following year, however, at the Jeanette Cochrane Theatre in Holborn. It opened on 27 September 1966 with Gerry Duggan as McLeavy, Sheila Ballantine as Fay, Kenneth Cranham as Hal, Simon Ward as Dennis, and Michael Bates as Inspector Truscott. It was directed by Charles Marowitz and designed by Tony Carruthers. The production transferred to the Criterion Theatre in November 1966. The play had its first Broadway production in New York at the Biltmore Theatre. It opened on 18 March 1968. Kenneth Cranham played Hal (as he had in the 1966 London production), James Hunter played Dennis, Liam Redmond played McLeavy, Carole Shelley played Fay, George Rose played Truscott, and Norman Barrs played Meadows. It was directed by Derek Goldby and designed by William Ritmann. The play was profiled in the William Goldman book The Season: A Candid Look at Broadway. Albert Finney directed a production at the Royal Court Theatre as part of its Joe Orton Festival. This production opened on 3 June 1975. Arthur O'Sullivan played McLeavy, Jill Bennett played Fay, David Troughton played Hal, James Aubrey played Dennis, Philip Stone played Truscott, and Michael O'Hagan played Meadows. It was designed by Douglas Heap, with costumes by Harriet Geddes. A production was staged at the Lyric Theatre in 1984 during the run of which the actor Leonard Rossiter died whilst waiting to go on stage. The play was staged at the Manhattan Theatre Club in a production directed by John Tillinger. It opened on 18 February 1986. Kevin Bacon played Dennis, Željko Ivanek played Hal, Zoë Wanamaker played Fay, Charles Keating played McLeavy, Joseph Maher played Truscott (winning a Drama Desk Award for his performance), and Nick Ullett played Meadows. This production transferred to the Music Box Theatre on Broadway on 28 June 1986. Alec Baldwin, in his Broadway debut, replaced Kevin Bacon in the role of Dennis. It was awarded the 1986 Outer Critics Circle Awards for best revival and best director. The Lyric Hammersmith staged a production directed by Peter James, which opened on 7 May 1992. Patrick O'Connell played McLeavy, Dearbhla Molloy played Fay, Ben Walden played Hal, Colin Hurley played Dennis, David Troughton (who had played Hal in the 1975 Royal Court production) played Truscott, and Richard Hodder played Meadows. It was designed by Bernard Culshaw. In June 2001 Braham Murray directed a production at the Royal Exchange, Manchester with Derek Griffiths as Truscott, Gabrielle Drake as Fay and Colin Prockter as McLeavy. Loot was revived from 11 December 2008 to 31 January 2009 at the Tricycle Theatre, London starring Matt Di Angelo and David Haig as Hal and Truscott. It transferred to Theatre Royal, Newcastle and ran between 2–7 February 2009. A 2017 production directed by Michael Fentiman was staged at the Park Theatre, Finsbury Park, before transferring to the Watermill Theatre, Newbury. Christopher Fulford played Inspector Truscott and Sinead Matthews Nurse McMahon. The dead body was played by Anah Ruddin. Positive reviews for the production were published in The Independent, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian and the Sunday Express. Michael Billington in The Guardian gave Loot a five star rating, commenting on the way Fentiman referenced the "shock tactics" in Orton's work, and stating: "the result not only sharpens an already subversive text but yields a first-rate production by Michael Fentiman that reminds us of the serious intent behind Orton’s drollery." Film version Loot was made into a film of the same name in 1970, directed by Silvio Narizzano and starring Richard Attenborough, Lee Remick, Hywel Bennett and comedian Dick Emery. References Sources Banham, Martin, ed. 1998. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. . Bigsby, C. W. E. 1982. Joe Orton. Contemporary Writers ser. London: Routledge. . Burke, Arthur. 2001. Laughter in the Dark - The Plays of Joe Orton. Billericay, Essex: Greenwich Exchange. . Charney, Maurice. 1984. Joe Orton. Grove Press Modern Dramatists ser. NY: Grove P. . Coppa, Francesca, ed. 2002. Joe Orton: A Casebook. Casebooks on Modern Dramatists ser. London: Routledge. . DiGaetani, John Louis. 2008. Stages of Struggle: Modern Playwrights and Their Psychological Inspirations. Jefferson: McFarland. . Orton, Joe. 1976. The Complete Plays. London: Methuen. . Ruskino, Susan. 1995. Joe Orton. Twayne's English Authors ser. Boston: Twayne. . External links Production details and photographs of 1980s Jonathan Lynn production starring Leonard Rossiter 1964 plays Comedy plays Black comedy plays LGBT-related plays Plays by Joe Orton Funeral homes in fiction
1052754	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurillac	Aurillac	Aurillac (; ) is the prefecture of the Cantal department, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Aurillacois or Aurillacoises. Geography Aurillac is at above sea level and located at the foot of the Cantal mountains in a small Sedimentary basin. The city is built on the banks of the Jordanne, a tributary of the Cère. It is south of Paris and north of Toulouse. Aurillac was part of a former Auvergne province called Haute-Auvergne and is only away from the heart of the Auvergne Volcano Park. Access to the commune is by numerous roads including the D922 from Naucelles in the north, the D17 from Saint-Simon in the north-east, Route nationale N122 from Polminhac in the east which continues to Sansac-de-Marmiesse in the south-west, the D920 to Arpajon-sur-Cère in the south-east, and the D18 to Ytrac in the west. The Figeac-Arvant railway passes through the commune with a station in the centre of town but there is no TGV service. About 50% of the commune is urbanised with farmland to the east and west of the urban area. Aurillac – Tronquières Airport is located in the south of the commune with its runway extending beyond the commune boundary. It is connected to Paris by two daily flights by the Air France subsidiary HOP!. The commune was awarded three flowers by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. The Jordanne river flows through the heart of the commune from north to south where it joins the Cère just south of the commune. Localities and districts Boudieu on the N122, which is called the Route de Sansac-de-Marmiesse or de Toulouse, is a farm with a farm house from the 1900s and three farm buildings. Boudieu-Bas on the N122 is a set of houses built in the 1960s with some buildings used commercially or for crafts. Gueret on the N122 is a farm with two houses and two agricultural buildings. This hamlet is traversed by an old country road from a place formerly called Julien from which name for the SNCF Julien Bridge comes. The former Julien is towards the Chateau of Tronquières in the urban area on Avenue Charles de Gaulle opposite the Medico-Surgical Centre (CMC). This farm with its house and barn were absorbed by the city on the creation of a district in the 1970s until the mid 1980s. The agricultural buildings were demolished to make room for a shop. La Sablère on the RN122 is a set of dwellings mostly from the 1980s. Originally there was a farm. This place spreads over two communes: Aurillac and Arpajon-sur-Cere with the majority of the buildings in Arpajon-sur-Cere. Le Barra near the avenue Aristide Briand, also called the Ancienne route de Vic or the old N120. This is a farm and houses. Les Quatre Chemins at the intersection of the D120 and the D922 on the borders of Aurillac, Naucelles, and Ytrac. It is a complex of commercial buildings and residences on the crossroads of the two former National highways. Tronquières on an avenue. Originally it was a farm with a chateau but the chateau and outbuildings were demolished in 2011. Today it is a grouping of housing units specializing in housing assistance for the integration of disabled people (ADAPEI) and the airport. It is the reception area for travellers to the city and a former landfill and rubbish centre. Before the construction of the airport the meadows were areas for summer grazing for nearby farms such as the Boudieu farm. Climate Influenced by its altitude, Aurillac features an oceanic climate (Cfb), closely bordering on a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb) under the Köppen system. In spite of this, the city enjoys more than 2,100 hours of sunshine per year on average, but also a high amount of precipitations per year on average. The record low temperature was on 9 January 1985 and the record high was on 30 July 1983. Toponymy The origin of the name Aurillac is from Aureliacum meaning "Villa of Aurelius" and dates back to the Gallo-Roman era. It is attested in the polygonal Fanum d'Aron which was built in the 1st century and discovered in 1977 at Lescudillier. History It is thought that in the Gallic era the original site of the city was on the heights overlooking the current city at Saint-Jean-de-Dône ("Dône" from dunum) and, like most oppida, it was abandoned after the Roman conquest in favour of a new city established on the plain. With the return of instability in the Lower Roman Empire there was a movement towards Encastellation and a new fortified site was established in mid-slope between the former oppidum and the old Gallo-Roman city where the Chateau of Saint-Étienne is today. The history of the city is really only known from 856, the year of the birth of Count Gerald of Aurillac at the castle where his father, also named Gerald, was lord. In 885 he founded a Benedictine monastery which later bore his name. It was in this monastery that Gerbert, the first French pope under the name of Sylvester II, studied. The city was made in a Sauveté area which was located between four crosses and was founded in 898 by Gerald shortly after the abbey. The first urban area was circular and built close to the Abbey of Aurillac. Gerald died around 910 but his influence was such that over the centuries Gerald was always a baptismal name prevalent in the population of Aurillac and the surrounding area. It was in the 13th century that municipal conflict began between consuls and abbots. After taking the Chateau of Saint-Étienne in 1255 and two negotiated agreements called the Peace of Aurillac, relations were normalised. In the 13th and 14th centuries Aurillac withstood several sieges by the English and in the 16th century continued to suffer from civil and religious wars. The influence of the abbey declined with its secularization and its implementation of orders. In 1569 the city was delivered by treason to the Protestants: people were tortured and held to ransom and the Abbey was sacked. The library and archives were all burned. Before the French Revolution Aurillac had a Présidial and carried the title of capital of the Haute-Auvergne. In 1790 on the creation of departments, after a period of alternating with Saint-Flour, Aurillac definitively became the capital of Cantal. The arrival of the railway in 1866 accelerated the development of the city. At the first census in 1759 there were 6,268 people in Aurillac, it now has about 28,000. Heraldry Politics and Administration Cantons Aurillac is the capital of the department of Cantal (seat of the prefecture) and of the Arrondissement of Aurillac as well as for three cantons (INSEE names): Aurillac-1: Ytrac and part of Aurillac Aurillac-2: part of Aurillac Aurillac-3: part of Aurillac Administration List of Successive Mayors Mayors from 1941 Twinning Aurillac has twinning associations with: Bocholt (Germany) since 1972. Bassetlaw (United Kingdom) since 1980. Bougouni (Mali) since 1985. Altea (Spain) since 1992. Vorona (Romania) since 2000. Demography In 2017 the commune had 25,499 inhabitants. Economy Aurillac is the seat of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Cantal which manages commercial villages (including that of Tronquières in Aurillac). Aurillac Airport is managed by the CABA (Urban Community of the Aurillac Basin Agglomeration). Shops Aurillac has hundreds of boutiques, shops, and artisans. Industry Processing of agricultural products, particularly milk and meat. Manufacturing and packaging of Cantal cheese. Historic French capital of umbrellas with half of French production - 250,000 units in 1999 - and provides 100 jobs. After declining for several decades at the end of the 20th century, Aurillac umbrella producers decided to join their forces and created the Economic Interest Group, or GIE in 1997. They then launched their products under a single label, L'aurillac Parapluie (The Aurillac Umbrella). Aurillac is also the seat of what was the European leader in healthcare duvets and pillows: Abeil and the plasturgist Auriplast specializes in injection and electroplating. Also found in Aurillac are different players in various food fields (e.g. the Couderc distillery with its famous gentian liqueur and famous establishments such as the Leroux and Bonal cheese factories, the Morin refinery, MAS charcuteries, Teil cured by the Altitude group, refrigerated transport operator Olano Ladoux etc.). Aurillac is best known for its Cheese centre based on the heights of Aurillac close to the Chateau Saint-Étienne. It was established in 1993, the structure consists of an association bringing together many organisations to develop scientific programs. It develops scientific programs relating to the cheese sector. Data processing Aurillac hosts several websites: video games with Jeuxvideo.com trucks with Net-truck aeronautical accessories with Aerodiscount Aurillac has also been the headquarters of the ERP vendor Qualiac since 1979. Culture and heritage The commune has a very large number of buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments. There are also a very large number of items which are registered as historical objects in various locations. Civil heritage Some of the most interesting sites are: The Chateau of Saint-Etienne (9th century) which overlooks the city. The Aurillac National Stud The Musée des volcans (Museum of Volcanos), at the château Saint-Étienne The Musée d'art et d'archéologie d'Aurillac (Museum of Art and Archaeology), 37 rue des Carmes The former Consul's House. The former Présidial The former Jesuit College The Palace of Justice (1872) The Prison (1855) The Police Station (1872) The Town Hall (17th century) The Prefecture (19th century) Religious heritage The commune has several religious buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments: The Abbey Saint-Géraud (11th century). The Abbey has several items that are registered as historical objects: The Organ (1760) The Instrumental part of the Organ (1760) A Reliquary of Saint Blaise (17th century) A Reliquary of Saint Benoît (17th century) A Reliquary of Saint Odon (17th century) The Church of Notre-Dame-aux-Neiges (1332). The chapel contains a large number of items which are registered as historical objects. The Church of Sacré Coeur (1937). The chapel has one group of items that is registered as an historical object: Interior Decor, Stained glass, Reliefs, paintings, and mosaics (20th century) The Chapel of Aurinques (1616). The chapel has a number of items that are registered as historical objects: A Bronze Bell (1554) An Ex-voto Painting: Procession of Acts of Grace (1701) An Ex-voto Painting: Deliverance of the Town (18th century) An Ex-voto Painting: Attack on the Town (1701) A Glass wall: Virgin and Child (163) The Church of Saint-Joseph-Ouvrier (20th century) Facilities Cultural facilities Aurillac has several dance centres: Folk dancing: dancers and singers from the Auvergne School Conservatory: National School of Music and Dance of Aurillac Arabesque; Katy Bardy Dance School Modern jazz and classical Chorège Dance School; La Manufacture: a higher centre of dance, movement, and images created by Vendetta Mathea. Society of Upper Auvergne: a Society of letters, sciences and arts "La Haute-Auvergne" Theatre 4: rue de la Coste next to the Consul's House Le Prisme: conference rooms and entertainment Cultural events and festivities The International festival of street theatre of Aurillac has been held every year since 1986 at the end of August for a period of four days. Since 2004 this festival has been preceded by "Les préalables" (Preliminaries) of variable duration (often starting in early August) with street performances throughout Cantal (and sometimes even in Corrèze) with the support of the association éclat. 2008 who inaugurated the first "University of Street Art". The European gourmet taste for three days in June is a gastronomic and cultural festival during which various prizes are awarded (Les Goudots gourmands)) and where there are cooking classes with different themes each year (e.g. 2008: Slow Food) provided by prominent chefs. In 2007 there was the first edition of '36 Hours of Aurillac with Solos and small dance pieces. Sports The Stade Aurillacois Cantal Auvergne: the Rugby Team had its 100th anniversary in 2004 and has played in Rugby Pro D2 since 2001, except for 2006-2007 where the "purgatory" in Fédérale 1 ended with the title of champion of France. Since the Second World War the club has always played either in the elite until 1986 (except 1949 and 1955) then later in group A, B, or Pro D2. Aurillac is rugby country as it is one of the few cities where there are more spectators at rugby matches than football matches. Matches take place at the Stade Jean Alric. The Athlétic Club Vélocipédique Aurillacois (Cycling Athletic Club): a cycling team founded in 1977 by Pierre Labro and led, since 1983, by André Valadou. In 2011 and 2012 it was the largest cycling club in Auvergne by number of members. In 2013 three riders from the club ranked at the highest level with Christophe Laborie among the professionals and François Bidard and Pierre Bonnet first in the amateur division. With a focus on training, the club sees at least one of its representatives each year wear Auvergne colours during a championship of France. The Aurillac FCA: a soccer team playing in CFA2 although the Aurillac reserve team plays in DH Auvergne and is Team C in the Regional Honour Division. Its training centre allows it to have 3 youth teams playing in the national championships (14 years, 16 years, and 18 years - the highest level for these categories). Aurillac Handball Cantal Auvergne: a professional Handball team who played in the first division for the 2008–2009 season for the first time in its history Basket club Aurillac Arpajon Géraldienne (BAAG): This is the Aurillac Basketball Club. Girls Team 1 plays at the highest regional level. This is the biggest club in the city in terms of members and results. There is also the Cantalienne Club. The Jean-Alric Stadium: the Municipal Stadium for the city of Aurillac and its rugby club - the Stade Aurillacois Cantal Auvergne. It owes its name to Jean Alric, a former player of the club, shot in Aurillac by the Germans during the Second World War. Volleyball Club (AVB): Aurillac has a volleyball club. The senior male and female teams play in Regional 1. The club has UFOLEP teams and youth teams. The club organises three tournaments open to everyone: A tournament starting in September; A night of volleyball in December (the largest in Auvergne); A Summer tournament in June. In 2011 Aurillac hosted the start of the Tour de France in the 10th stage. Places of Worship Saint Joseph Catholic Church Reformed Church of France, 10 rue des Frères-Delmas (Protestant) Evangelical Pentecostal Church - 6 Avenue des Pupilles de la Nation (ADD) (National Evangelical Council of France (CNEF)) Military Two military units are garrisoned in Aurillac: the 139th Infantry Regiment, 1906 the 2/16 Squadron of riot police which became the 33/5 in 1991 after the creation of legions of riot police then finally the 18/5 in 2011 after the dissolution of the GM group of Clermont-Ferrand. Aurillac has long been a garrison town with the 139th Infantry Regiment, who are noted for their feats during the Battle of the Somme. They have a remarkable chronology and a cabinet of trophies were displayed in the Hall of Honour of the Departmental Military Delegation who have since moved, forgetting to preserve and safeguard this part of history. The military square is wide and airy and a feature of military architecture of the time. It is now known as the Zone of Peace and is now converted into a parking lot leaving a clear view of the 3 buildings that surround it. The entrance to the barracks was destroyed and replaced by a modern building. It houses administrative services, treasury, CABA, Mortgages, Cadastre etc. In the 1950s the old military buildings became the "Cité Administrative". The clock building is called so because of the great clock that adorns this building. It is also commonly called the House of unions and associations. Originally these buildings were the former Convent of the Visitation, built in 1682. The Convent was converted into a barracks for infantry in 1792 and occupied half of the buildings until 1922, hence the transformation of buildings to equestrian use. Today the Pierre-Mendès-France Cultural Centre occupies the premises including the Museum of Art and Archaeology, the County Conservatory of Music and Dance, the youth service activities of the town of Aurillac, and a crèche for children. The Stables were then used by the national stud established by Napoleon in 1806; a depot of stallions was created in Aurillac. At the Battle of Austerlitz Napoleon rode Cantal, a speckled gray horse which is visible in a painting in the Art and Archaeology Museum. When the National Stud moved the stables were transformed into an exhibition hall / gallery and a range of exhibitions is held every year including the Salon des Métiers d'Art d'Aurillac. Notable people linked to the commune Aurillac was the birthplace of Saint Gerald of Aurillac (855-909), politician. Gerbert of Aurillac (938-1003), Mathematician, tutor to Hugues Capet, Pope under the name Sylvester II. William of Auvergne (1190-1249), Theologian, Bishop of Paris, Chaplain and minister for Saint Louis. Jean Cinquarbres (1514-1587, Orientalist, Principal of Fortet College the Professor of Hebrew and Syriac at the Royal College. Jean-Aymar Piganiol de La Force (1673-1753), Geographer. Antoine Delzons (1743-1816), MP Louis Furcy Grognier (1774-1837), Director of the Veterinary school of Lyon Jean-Baptiste Carrier (1756-1794), bloodthirsty republican revolutionary Édouard Jean-Baptiste Milhaud (1766-1833), cousin of Carrier, revolutionary, Commissioner of the Army, General of the Army of the Republic and the Empire, also known for his bloodthirsty actions Alexis Joseph Delzons (1775-1812), General of the Empire Charles Antoine Manhès (1777-1854), General of the Army of the Republic and the Empire Arsène Lacarrière-Latour (1778-1837), Engineer, architect, urban planner in Louisiana Eloy Chapsal (1811-1882), Painter and director of the Museum of Aurillac. Claude Sosthène Grasset d'Orcet (1828-1900), Archaeologist, historian Émile Duclaux (1840-1904), Physician, Chemist and biologist Jules Rengade (1841-1915), Doctor, médecin, novelist for children, scientific journalist Francis Charmes (1849-1916), Journalist, Academic Géraud Réveilhac (1851-1937), General Paul Doumer (1857-1932), President of the Third Republic Jean de Bonnefon (1866-1928), Journalist, polygrapher Pierre de Vaissière (1867-1942), paleographic archivist, historian Marie Marvingt (1875–1963), an athlete, mountaineer, Pioneer medical evacuation pilot, and the most decorated woman in the history of France. Georges Monnet (1898-1980), agronomist, politician Elie Calvet (1904-1929), Comedian, 1st Prize in Comedy from the Conservatory, died on stage receiving his award, nephew of the famous singer Rosa Emma Calvé (1858-1942) Bernard Tricot (1920-2000), Secretary-General of the Élysée from 1967 to 1969, one of the negotiators of the Évian Accords with the Algerian FLN to abandon French Algeria Jean-Benoît Puech (1947-), writer, author of La Bibliothèque d'un amateur (1980), Louis-René des Forêts, novel (2000), Une biographie autorisée (2010) Marc Mézard (1957-), theoretical physicist, director of the École normale supérieure (Paris) David Nègre (1973-), former professional footballer Roland Chassain, MP for Bouches-du-Rhône Jean-Yves Hugon, former MP for Indre Alain Delcamp, Secretary-General for the Senate Olivier Magne, international rugby player Jacques Maziol, Minister of Construction under de Gaulle, President-director general of Radio Monte-Carlo. Jean-Philippe Sol, international volley-ball player Sébastien Pissavy, founder of the jeuxvideo.com website Léo Pons, filmmaker Linked to Aurillac François Maynard (Toulouse 1582-Aurillac 1646), poet, one of the first members of the Académie française. Abel Beaufrère Alfred Durand (-1947), Professor of Geography at the Aurillac school, author of La vie rurale dans les massifs volcaniques des Dores, du Cézallier, du Cantal et de l'Aubrac, thesis, 1946, Clermont-Ferrand, 530 p. (reprint Créér), Aurillac, géographie urbaine, 1948, 254 pp. Marcel Grosdidier de Matons (1885-1945), Professor of Geography at the Aurillac school, author of Études de géographie urbaine (RHA), La Chataigneraie cantalienne Maxime Real del Sarte and Jean de Barrau did their military service at Aurillac Pierre Wirth (1921-2003), Professor at Aurillac school, author of Aurillac, 1973, Voyage à travers la Haute-Auvergne, 1973, Le Guide du Cantal, 1994Joseph Malègue' (1876-1940), Much of his novel of 900 pages, Augustin ou le Maître est là, takes place mainly in Aurillac: Under the table of Augustin is life in a prefecture of the province, which is actually Aurillac. See also Communes of the Cantal department Notes References Bibliography Alfred Durand, Aurillac, Urban Geography'', 1948, 254 pp. External links Aurillac Official website 36 Hours Festival Aurillac on Lion1906 Aurillac on the 1750 Cassini Map Communes of Cantal Prefectures in France Auvergne
1055626	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20Area%20Rapid%20Transit%20Police%20Department	Bay Area Rapid Transit Police Department	The BART Police (BARTPD), officially the Bay Area Rapid Transit Police Department, is the transit police agency of the BART rail system in the U.S. state of California. The department has approximately three hundred police personnel, including over two hundred sworn peace officers. The chief, Ed Alvarez commands the agency's law enforcement, parking, and community relations services. BART Police participates in a mutual aid agreement with other Bay Area law enforcement agencies. In 2011 and 2012 the department came under national scrutiny due to several officers involved in fatalities of the rail system's patrons. When terrorism began to be treated as a more active threat after the September 11 attacks, BART increased its emphasis on infrastructure protection. The police department hosts drills and participates in counter-terrorism working groups. The agency has an officer assigned full-time to the FBI's Joint Terrorism Task Force. Furthermore, a command officer is designated as a mutual-aid, counter-terrorism, and homeland-security liaison. BART's police dogs are certified in explosives detection. The stated goal of the BART Police Department is to build a more community-oriented police force that is tough on crime and strong on customer service. Zone commanders and their personnel form working partnerships with BART riders, employees, community groups, educational institutions, and businesses. The goal is to ensure that personal safety, quality of life, and protection of property remain among BART's top priorities for the stakeholders in its community. History In 1969, three years before BART opened for revenue service, the transit district's board of directors recommended that local police and sheriff's departments patrol the stations, trains, rights-of-way, and other BART-owned properties that were within their respective jurisdictions. The police chiefs and sheriffs, forecasting that BART's proposal would create jurisdictional disputes and inconsistent levels of police service, rejected the board's proposal. As a result, legislation was passed to form an autonomous law enforcement agency, the BART Police Department. During BART's first 13 years of revenue service, police officers reported to the transit district's headquarters in Oakland. In 1985, a team of officers was assigned to report to the Concord transportation facility, where a police field office was established. By not having to travel the 20 miles between Oakland and Concord, the officers were able to patrol their beats longer and become more familiar with the community. BART riders, station agents, and train operators benefited from having more police presence and interaction with the same officers. This led to three additional field offices within six months. In July 1993, then-police chief Harold Taylor recommended a comprehensive plan to decentralize the department into four geographical police zones, each with its own headquarters and field offices. Zone commanders would be given personnel, equipment, and resources to manage their respective police operations. A peer-review panel, which included four police chiefs and the safety-audit administrator from the American Public Transportation Association, gave Chief Taylor's plan its endorsement, along with other recommendations on how the BART police could work more closely with other transit employees, communities, businesses, and schools that the transit district serves. Police command-level officers provide input to planners for BART's future extensions to Warm Springs and Santa Clara County. BART Police formerly had an eagle-top shield type badge, but recently switched to the 7-point star style traditional to Bay Area law enforcement. Uniforms are dark blue, similar to SFPD. Officers are usually armed with either a SIG Sauer P320 or a Glock pistol for the sidearm. Officer-involved fatalities Bruce Edward Seward In 2001, a mentally ill man named Bruce Edward Seward was shot by an officer at the Hayward Station. Reportedly the sleeping passenger awoke and grabbed the officer's nightstick causing the officer to reflexively shoot him; resulting in death. Oscar Grant In 2009, officer Johannes Mehserle fatally shot Oscar Grant III on the Fruitvale station. Eyewitnesses gathered direct evidence of the shooting with cellular video cameras which were later submitted to social networks such as YouTube in addition to media outlets. The videos were watched hundreds of thousands of times online. In the days following the shooting, peaceful and violent demonstrations occurred. After an investigation and public uproar, Mehserle was arrested and charged with second-degree murder, to which he pleaded not guilty. He was convicted of involuntary manslaughter in 2010 and was sentenced to two years. Mehserle served his sentence at the Los Angeles County Jail and was released in 2011 on parole. Subsequent to the criminal trial Oakland civil rights attorney John Burris filed a US$25 million wrongful death civil lawsuit against BART on behalf of Grant's daughter and girlfriend. In response to the Grant shooting, BART created a civilian oversight committee to monitor police-related incidents. The civilian oversight of the BART Police Department is directly attributable to the leadership of Assemblyman Sandre Swanson who authored the legislation, BART director Carole Ward Allen who lobbied members of the California state legislature to create an oversight committee with an Independent Auditor position, and Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger who signed the bill into law. Charles Hill In 2011, a mentally ill homeless man, Charles Blair Hill, assaulted two officers with weapons at the Civic Center / UN Plaza station in San Francisco. As a result, he was shot by BART police. The department reported that Hill was drunk and armed with two knives and a broken bottle. Approximately twenty-three seconds after arriving on scene, the officers fired three rounds, striking Hill in the chest and killing him. BART Police chief Kenton Rainey stated lethal force was appropriate. The shooting of Charles Hill led to a non-violent but disruptive demonstration by approximately seventy-five protesters inside the Civic Center and 16th Street Stations on July 11. Demonstrators departing the 16th St Mission station returned downtown on Mission St, blocking traffic and engaging in acts of vandalism en route. One citizen was arrested for intoxication. Sahleem Tindle Officer Joseph Mateu shot and killed Sahleem Tindle in January 2018. Officer Mateu had heard shots, and ran to the scene where two men were fighting over a gun. He intervened, firing into Tindle's back three times. The shooting resulted in a civil rights lawsuit against BART. Prosecutors wound up declining to file any charges. Cell phone network shutdown On August 11, 2011, BART officials successfully prevented another evening-commute anti-police demonstration by shutting down the public cell phone network serving their jurisdiction in and between the downtown San Francisco stations. The police had received information that the protest was to be coordinated live via internet and text messages. This was the first documented instance of any government agency in the United States shutting down public communications to disrupt a protest. The American Civil Liberties Union called the decision "in effect an effort by a governmental entity to silence its critics." Numerous media outlets quoted BART officials making the claim that the planned protest was a threat to public safety but did not offer any analysis of the claim's merit. Operations The BART police have various positions in their ranks. including peace officers, community service officers, dispatchers, revenue protection guards, and administrative staff. Most officers are assigned to patrol, and others are assigned to special operations teams. The department's decentralized patrol bureau is divided into five police zones. Each has its own headquarters and field office. The police department has: criminal investigation, personnel and training, record, warrant, crime analysis, traffic administration, property and evidence, and revenue protection divisions. There is also the office of the chief which is composed of an internal affairs and a budget coordination office. Further specialties for the police department include: field training officer, K9, SWAT, bicycle patrol, background investigator, crime analyst, administrative traffic officer, FBI Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) investigator, and undercover anti-vandalism and special-enforcement teams. The agency has police facilities in: Castro Valley, Colma, Concord, El Cerrito, Hayward, Oakland, Pittsburg, Pleasanton, San Bruno, San Francisco, San Leandro, and Walnut Creek. Fallen officer One BART police officer has died in the line of duty. See also New York City Transit Police South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority Police Service References Further reading BART Police Policies and Procedures Manual 2011 edition (PDF, 594 pages) 2013 edition (PDF, 642 pages) External links BART Website Bay Area Rapid Transit Transit police departments of the United States Specialist police departments of California Government agencies established in 1972
1063371	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Massino	Joseph Massino	Joseph Charles Massino (born January 10, 1943) is an American former mobster. He was a member of the Mafia and boss of the Bonanno crime family from 1991 until 2004, when he became the first boss of one of the Five Families in New York City to turn state's evidence. Massino was a protégé of Philip Rastelli, who took control of the Bonanno family in 1973. Rastelli spent most of his reign in and out of prison, but was able to get the assassination of Carmine Galante, a mobster vying for power, approved in 1979. Originally a truck hijacker, Massino secured his own power after arranging two 1981 gang murders, first a triple murder of three rebel captains, then his rival Dominick Napolitano. In 1991, while Massino was in prison for a 1986 labor racketeering conviction, Rastelli died and Massino succeeded him. Upon his release the following year, he set about rebuilding a family that had been in turmoil for almost a quarter of a century. By the dawn of the new millennium, he was reckoned as the most powerful Mafia leader in the nation. Massino became known as "The Last Don", the only full-fledged New York boss of his time who was not in prison. In July 2004, Massino was convicted in a RICO case based on the testimony of several cooperating made men, including Massino's disgruntled underboss and brother-in-law Salvatore Vitale. He was also facing the death penalty if convicted in a separate murder trial due to be held later that year, but after agreeing to testify against his former associates, he was sentenced to life imprisonment for both indictments in 2005. Massino testified twice for the government, helping to win a murder conviction against his acting boss Vincent Basciano in 2011, and was resentenced to time served in 2013, though he will be on supervised release for the rest of his life. Early years Joseph Massino was born on January 10, 1943, in New York City. He was one of three sons of Neapolitan-American Anthony and Adeline Massino. Raised in Maspeth, Queens, Massino has admitted to being a juvenile delinquent by the age of 12 and claimed that at 14 he ran away from home to Florida. He dropped out of Grover Cleveland High School in tenth grade. Massino first met his future wife Josephine Vitale in 1956, and married her in 1960. The couple had three daughters. Massino also befriended Josephine's brother, Salvatore Vitale, who, after briefly serving in the Army, became one of Massino's most trusted allies. While athletic in youth, Massino was an avid cook, and grew overweight in adulthood. His weight gained him the nickname "Big Joey", and during a 1987 racketeering trial, when he asked FBI agent Joseph Pistone who was to play him in a film adaptation of his undercover work, Pistone joked that they could not find anyone fat enough. By 2004, Massino was suffering from diabetes and high blood pressure as well. After he turned state's evidence, Massino claimed his first murder victim was a Bonanno crime family associate named Tommy Zummo, whom he shot dead some time in the 1960s. The killing aroused the ire of Maspeth-based Bonanno caporegime Philip Rastelli, but he remained unaware of Massino's participation, and a nephew of Rastelli ultimately helped Massino become his protégé. Rastelli would set Massino up as a lunch wagon operator as part of his "Workmen's Mobile Lunch Association", an effective protection racket; after paying a kickback to Rastelli in the form of membership dues, Massino was assured no competition where he operated. Bonanno crime family Rise to power By the late 1960s, Massino was a Bonanno associate. He led a successful truck hijacking crew, with the assistance of his brother-in-law Salvatore Vitale and carjacker Duane Leisenheimer, while fencing the stolen goods and running numbers using the lunch wagon as a front. He also befriended another mob hijacker, future Gambino crime family boss John Gotti. Increasingly prosperous, Massino opened his own catering company, J&J Catering, which became another front for his activities. In 1973, boss Natale Evola died. On February 23, 1974, at a meeting at the Americana Hotel in Manhattan, the Commission named Massino's mentor, Rastelli as boss. On April 23, 1976, Rastelli was convicted of extortion, and on August 27, was sentenced to 10 years in prison. In his absence Carmine Galante, a former consigliere and convicted drug trafficker, seized control of the Bonannos as unofficial acting boss. In 1975, Massino and Vitale participated in the murder of Vito Borelli, who Massino claimed was primarily executed by Gotti at the behest of Paul Castellano of the Gambino crime family. The Borelli hit was significant for Massino in that he "made his bones"—proved his loyalty to the Mafia by killing on its behalf—and put him close to becoming a made man, a full member, in the Bonanno family. Massino also arranged the murder of one of his hijackers, Joseph Pastore, in 1976, after having Vitale borrow $9,000 from him on his behalf. While later acquitted of the crime, both Vitale and Massino would admit to participation after turning state's evidence. In March 1975, Massino was arrested along with of one of his hijackers, Raymond Wean, and charged with conspiracy to receive stolen goods. He was scheduled to go on trial in 1977, but the charges were dropped after he successfully argued that he had not been properly mirandized, disqualifying statements Massino gave to police from being used in trial. On June 14, 1977, Massino was inducted into the Bonanno family along with Anthony Spero, Joseph Chilli Jr. and a group of other men in a ceremony conducted by Carmine Galante. He worked as a soldier in James Galante's crew, and later worked in Philip "Phil Lucky" Giaccone's crew. Massino nevertheless remained loyal to Rastelli, then vying to oust Galante despite his imprisonment. Fearing Galante wanted him dead for insubordination, Massino delivered a request to the Commission, the governing body of the American Mafia, on Rastelli's behalf to have Galante killed. The hit was approved and executed on July 12, 1979; Rastelli subsequently took full control of the family and rewarded Massino's loyalty by promoting him to capo. By the beginning of the 1980s, Massino ran his crew from the J&S Cake social club, a property just behind J&J Catering. The building was seized in 1988 during a crackdown on the Bonannos' gambling activities. Three capos and Napolitano murders Following the Galante hit, Massino began jockeying for power with Dominick "Sonny Black" Napolitano, another Rastelli loyalist capo. Both men were themselves threatened by another faction seeking to depose the absentee boss led by capos Alphonse "Sonny Red" Indelicato, Dominick "Big Trin" Trincera and Philip Giaccone. The Commission initially tried to maintain neutrality, but in 1981, Massino got word from his informants that the three capos were stocking up on automatic weapons and planning to kill the Rastelli loyalists within the Bonanno family to take complete control. Massino turned to Colombo crime family boss Carmine Persico and Gambino boss Paul Castellano for advice; they told him to act immediately. Massino, Napolitano and Gerlando Sciascia, a Sicilian-born capo linked to the Montreal Rizzuto crime family, arranged a meeting at a Brooklyn social club with the three capos for May 5, 1981. They had four gunmen, including Vitale and Bonanno-affiliated Montreal boss Vito Rizzuto, hiding in a closet to ambush them. When Trinchera, Giaccone and Indelicato arrived with Frank Lino to meet Massino, they were shot to death, with Massino himself stopping Indelicato from escaping. Lino escaped unscathed by running out the door. The hit further improved Massino's prestige, but was marred by both Lino's escape and the discovery of Indelicato's body on May 28. Massino quickly won Lino over to his side, but Indelicato's son, Anthony "Bruno" Indelicato, vowed revenge. Napolitano assigned associate Donnie Brasco, who he hoped to make a made man, to kill Indelicato. "Brasco", however, was in fact an undercover FBI agent named Joseph Pistone; shortly after the hit was ordered, Pistone's assignment was ended and Napolitano was informed of their infiltration. Already skeptical of Napolitano's support of "Brasco", Massino was deeply disturbed by the breach of security when he learned of the agent's true identity. Vitale would later testify that this was the reason Massino subsequently decided to murder Napolitano as well; as he would later quote Massino, "I have to give him a receipt for the Donnie Brasco situation." In his own testimony, Massino instead claimed Napolitano was targeted for trying to take over the Bonannos himself. On August 17, the former renegade Frank Lino and Steven Cannone drove Napolitano to the house of Ronald Filocomo, a Bonanno family associate, for a meeting. Napolitano was greeted by captain Frank Coppa, then thrown down the stairs to the house's basement by Lino and shot to death. Napolitano's body was discovered the following year. Benjamin "Lefty" Ruggiero, who helped Pistone formally become a Bonanno associate, was also targeted, but was arrested en route to the meeting where he was expected to be murdered. On February 18, 1982, Anthony Mirra, the soldier who first "discovered" Pistone, was assassinated on Massino's orders. Mirra had gone into hiding upon Pistone's exposure but was ultimately betrayed and murdered by his protégé and cousin, Joseph D'Amico. Fugitive and Bonventre murder On November 23, 1981, based on information gained by Pistone's infiltration, six Bonanno mobsters, including the then-missing Napolitano, were indicted on racketeering charges and conspiracy in "the three capos" hit. In March 1982, Massino was tipped off by a Colombo-associated FBI insider that he was about to be indicted and went into hiding in Pennsylvania with Leisenheimer. On March 25, 1982, Massino was also charged with conspiracy to murder Indelicato, Giaccone and Trinchera and truck hijacking. In hiding, Massino was able to see the prosecution's strategy and better plan his defense as well as eventually face trial without association with other mobsters. Pistone later speculated Massino also feared retaliation upon the revelation that his associate, Raymond Wean, had turned state's evidence. Massino was visited by many fellow mobsters, including Gotti, and Vitale would secretly deliver cash to support him. On April 21, 1983, Rastelli was paroled, and he and Massino ordered the murder of Bonanno soldier Cesare Bonventre. Still a fugitive, Massino summoned Vitale, Louis Attanasio and James Tartaglione to his hideout and gave them the order. By this time, even though Rastelli was still officially head of the family, Massino was considered by most mobsters to be the family's street boss and field commander in all but name, as well as Rastelli's heir apparent. According to Vitale, Massino had Bonventre killed for giving him no support when he was in hiding. In April 1984, Bonventre was called to a meeting with Rastelli in Queens. He was picked up by Vitale and Attanasio and driven to a garage. En route, Attanasio shot Bonventre twice in the head but only wounded him; he would kill Bonventre with two more shots when they reached their destination. The task of disposing of Bonventre's corpse was handed to Gabriel Infanti, who promised Vitale that Bonventre's remains would disappear forever. However, after a tipoff, the remains were discovered on April 16, 1984, in a warehouse in Garfield, New Jersey, stuffed into two 55-gallon glue drums. For his part in the hit, Massino had Vitale initiated into the Bonanno family. 1986 conviction and 1987 acquittal Through Gotti associate Angelo Ruggiero, Massino was able to meet with defense attorney John Pollok in 1984 to negotiate his surrender. He finally turned himself in on July 7 and was released on $350,000 bail. That year, Massino and Salvatore Vitale secured no-show jobs with the Long Island based King Caterers in exchange for protecting them from Lucchese extortion. In 1985, Massino was indicted twice more, first as a co-conspirator with Rastelli in a labor racketeering case for controlling the Teamsters Local 814, then with a conspiracy charge for the Pastore murder that was added to the original three capos indictment. The second indictment also charged Vitale as a co-conspirator in the hijacking cases. The labor racketeering trial began in April 1986, with Massino as one of 12 defendants including Rastelli and former underboss Nicholas Marangello. While Massino protested in confidence to other mobsters he never had the opportunity to profit from the racket, he was implicated by both Pistone and union official Anthony Gilberti, and on October 15, 1986, was found guilty of racketeering charges for accepting kickbacks on the Bonannos' behalf. On January 16, 1987, Massino was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment, his first prison term. Rastelli, also convicted and in poor health during the trial, was sentenced to 12 years in prison. Around this time, Massino was believed to be the Bonanno family's official underboss. With Rastelli in declining health, Massino was also reckoned as the operating head of the family, though consigliere Anthony "Old Man" Spero was nominally acting boss. In April 1987, Massino and Vitale went on trial for truck hijacking and conspiracy to commit the triple murder, defended by Samuel H. Dawson and Bruce Cutler respectively. Prosecutor Michael Chertoff, describing Massino's rise in his opening statements, would characterize him as the "Horatio Alger of the mob." Raymond Wean and Joseph Pistone testified against Massino, but both proved unable to conclusively link Massino with any of the murder charges. On June 3, while both men were convicted on hijacking charges, they were cleared of the murder conspiracy charges. Further, the only proven criminal acts took place outside the RICO act's five-year statute of limitations; without evidence that the "criminal enterprise" was still active in this timeframe the jury returned a special verdict clearing Massino and Vitale of these charges as well. During Massino's imprisonment at Talladega Federal Prison for his 1986 conviction, Vitale functioned as his messenger, effectively becoming co-acting boss alongside Spero. On Massino's orders, Vitale organized the murder of Gabriel Infanti, who had also botched a 1982 hit on Anthony Gilberti and was suspected of being an informant. Bonanno boss The family regroups During his meetings with Massino in prison, Vitale, on behalf of the Bonannos' capos, urged his brother-in-law to become boss in name as well as in fact. Rastelli had spent all but two years of his reign behind bars, and many felt Massino would bring the family stability. Massino was reluctant to take over as long as Rastelli was alive. Not only was he respectful of Rastelli's sponsorship of his Mafia career, but Mafia tradition dictates that a boss keeps his title for life unless he abdicates. However, in the spring of 1991, Massino ordered Vitale to "make me boss" as soon as Rastelli died; Rastelli died on June 24, 1991. A few days after his funeral, Massino instructed Vitale to call a meeting of the family's capos, and Massino was acclaimed as boss. Massino was granted two years' supervised release on November 13, 1992. During that time, he could not associate with convicted mafiosi. To get around this restriction, Massino named Vitale underboss and retained him as his messenger for the duration of his supervised release. While the FBI suspected Vitale was a mafioso, he had never been convicted of a Mafia-related crime. The FBI would thus have no reason to be suspicious of him associating with Massino since they were brothers-in-law. He returned to his job at King Caterers, and in 1996 became co-owner of Casablanca, a well-reviewed Maspeth Italian restaurant. Massino was 48 years old at the time of his accession, and knew that he potentially had a long reign ahead of him. With this in mind, he was determined to avoid the pitfalls that landed other Mafia bosses in prison. Inspired by Genovese boss Vincent Gigante, Massino forbade his men from saying his name out loud due to FBI surveillance. Instead, they were to touch their ears when referring to him. Massino gained the nickname "The Ear" because of this. Massino took a great number of precautions in regards to security and the possibility of anything incriminating being picked up on a wiretap. He closed the family's longtime social clubs. He also arranged family meetings to be conducted in remote locations within the United States. In some cases, he held meetings in foreign countries, and had his capos bring their wives along so they could be passed off as vacations. Remembering how Pistone's infiltration had damaged the family, he also decreed that all prospective made men had to have a working relationship with an incumbent member for at least eight years before becoming made, in hopes of ensuring new mafiosi were as reliable as possible. Unusually for bosses of his era, he actively encouraged his men to have their sons made as well. In Massino's view, this would make it less likely that a capo would turn informer, since if that happened the defector's son would face almost certain death. To minimize the damage from informants or undercover investigations Massino decentralized the family's organization. He created a clandestine cell system for his crews, forbidding them from contacting one another and avoiding meeting their capos. He would instead create a new committee that would relay his orders to the crews. In contrast to his contemporaries, particularly the publicity-friendly Gotti and the conspicuous feigned insanity of Gigante, Massino himself was also able to operate with a relatively low public profile; both Pistone and mob writer Jerry Capeci would consequently refer to Massino as the "last of the old-time gangsters." A side effect of these reforms was the reduction of Vitale, in his own words, to "a figurehead." By the time of Massino's release the Bonanno family had grown tired of Vitale, regarding him as greedy and overstepping his authority. In the new structure of the family, Vitale lost the underboss's usual role as a go-between for the boss, as well as the share of the family's profits those duties entailed, and Massino made it clear to Vitale his unpopularity was a factor in these changes. Vitale remained loyal, however, and helped Massino organize the March 18, 1999 murder of Gerlando Sciascia. Massino indicated to fellow mobsters that Sciascia was killed for feuding with fellow Massino-confidant capo Anthony Graziano, accusing him of using cocaine, while in his own testimony Massino claimed Sciascia was killed for killing another mobster's son. Sciascia's body was not covertly buried but instead left to be discovered in a street in the Bronx, an attempt to make the hit look like a botched drug deal rather than a Mafia-ordered hit, and Massino had his capos attend Sciascia's funeral. Shortly after becoming boss, Massino announced that his men should no longer consider themselves as part of the Bonanno family. Instead, he renamed it the Massino family, after himself. Like many mafiosi, he was angered at family namesake Joseph Bonanno's tell-all autobiography, A Man of Honor, and regarded it as a violation of the code of omertà. He told Vitale that in his view, "Joe Bonanno disrespected the family by ratting." The new name was first disclosed after Massino was indicted in 2003 and did not catch on outside the Mafia. Relations with other families Before Massino became boss, John Gotti was one of his closest allies. Massino had backed Gotti in his plot to take over the Gambino family, and as Gambino boss, Gotti tried to get Massino a seat on the Commission as the Bonannos' acting boss. Gotti was reportedly infuriated that Massino had been officially promoted without him being consulted, and Massino would later testify he believed Gotti conspired with Vitale to kill him. Gotti, however, was marginalized by his 1992 racketeering and murder conviction and consequent life imprisonment. Massino, for his own part, was angered at Gotti's high public profile and later criticized Gotti for killing Gotti's predecessor, Paul Castellano. Massino also had a poor relationship with Vincent Gigante, who had backed the opposition to Rastelli and blocked Gotti's attempts to bring Massino onto the Commission. The Bonanno family had been in decline for the better part of the last quarter century since Joe Bonanno's ouster in the 1960s, and it was kicked off the Commission altogether following Pistone's infiltration. By the late 1990s, the situation was reversed and the Bonanno family was now reckoned as the most powerful crime family in New York and the nation, in no small part because Massino was the only full-fledged New York boss who was still on the streets. As it turned out, being thrown off the Commission actually worked in the Bonannos' favor; they were the only family whose leadership wasn't decimated in the Mafia Commission Trial. Wary of surveillance, Massino generally avoided meeting with members of other Mafia families and encouraged his crews to operate independently as well. In January 2000, however, Massino did preside over an informal Commission meeting with the acting bosses of the other four families. As the most powerful Mafia leader in both New York and the nation, Massino was in a position to make general policies for the Five Families. Under his direction, the Commission tightened qualifications to become a made man, requiring candidates have full Italian descent (previously having an Italian-American father was the minimum requirement) and imposed restrictions on initiating associates convicted on drug charges. According to Capeci, the murder of Sciascia soured relations between the Bonanno and Rizzuto families. Originally considered merely a Canadian Bonanno crew, the Rizzutos responded by taking even less heed from New York. Run-up to prosecution At the beginning of his reign as boss, Massino enjoyed the benefit of limited FBI attention. In 1987, with the Bonannos weakened, the FBI merged its Bonanno squad with its Colombo family squad, and this squad was initially preoccupied with the Colombos' third internal war. Another dedicated Bonanno squad would be established in 1996. The Bonanno squad's chief, Jack Stubing, was well aware of the measures Massino had taken to avoid scrutiny. He therefore decided to go after Massino with a rear-guard action. He convinced his bosses to lend him a pair of forensic accountants normally used in fraud investigations, believing that they could easily pinpoint conspirators in the family's money laundering schemes. Stubing believed that the threat of long prison sentences would be sufficient to get any conspirators to turn informer, and thus make it easier to trace how the money flowed to Massino. In the meantime, the FBI also targeted other members of the Bonanno administration. In 1995, consigliere Anthony Spero was sentenced to two years' imprisonment after being convicted of loansharking, then to life imprisonment in 2002 for murder. Graziano would assume Spero's duties, but he too plead guilty to racketeering charges in December 2002 and was sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment. Vitale would also plead guilty to loansharking charges in June 2002. Vitale was not immediately sentenced, and was placed under house arrest in the interim, but the relatively low maximum sentence he was eligible for led Massino to wrongly suspect he was cooperating with law enforcement. He secretly ordered that, if he was arrested, Vitale was to be "taken down"—demoted or killed. Until 2002, the Bonannos had been the only family in the modern history of the New York Mafia (i. e., since the Castellammarese War) to have never had a made man turn informant or government witness. Massino used this as a point of pride to rally his crime family. That year Frank Coppa, convicted on fraud and facing further charges from the FBI's forensic accounting investigation, became the first to flip. He was followed shortly by acting underboss Richard Cantarella, a participant in the Mirra murder, who was facing racketeering and murder charges. A third, Joseph D'Amico, subsequently turned state's evidence with the knowledge that Cantarella could implicate him for murder as well. All of these defections left Massino, at last, vulnerable to serious charges. 2004 conviction On January 9, 2003, Massino was arrested and indicted, alongside Vitale, Frank Lino and capo Daniel Mongelli, in a comprehensive racketeering indictment. The charges against Massino himself included ordering the 1981 murder of Napolitano. Massino was denied bail, and Vincent Basciano took over as acting boss in his absence. Massino hired David Breitbart, an attorney he had originally wanted to represent him in his 1987 trial, for his defense. Three more Bonanno made men would choose to cooperate before Massino came to trial. The first was James Tartaglione; anticipating he would shortly be indicted as well he went to the FBI and agreed to wear a wire while he remained free. The second was Salvatore Vitale. In custody Massino again put out the word, to a receptive Bonanno family, that he wanted Vitale killed. After learning of Massino's earlier plans to kill his brother-in-law from Coppa and Cantarella, prosecutors informed Vitale. Vitale was already dissatisfied by the lack of support he and his family received from Massino after his arrest. On the day he was arraigned with Massino, Vitale decided to flip as soon as it was safe to do so; he formally reached a deal with prosecutors in February. He was followed in short order by Lino, knowing Vitale could implicate him in murder as well. Also flipping was longtime Bonanno associate Duane Leisenheimer, concerned for his safety after an investigator for Massino's defense team visited to find out if he intended to flip. With these defections, Massino was slapped with a superseding indictment charging him with seven additional murders: the three capos (this time for participation in the murder itself rather than conspiracy), Mirra, Bonventre, Infanti and Sciascia. Of particular interest was the Sciascia hit, which took place after a 1994 amendment to racketeering laws that allowed the death penalty for murder in aid of racketeering. Massino's trial began on May 24, 2004, with judge Nicholas Garaufis presiding and Greg D. Andres and Robert Henoch heading the prosecution. He now faced 11 RICO counts for seven murders (due to the prospect of prosecutors seeking the death penalty for the Sciascia murder, that case was severed to be tried separately), arson, extortion, loansharking, illegal gambling, and money laundering. By this time, Time magazine had dubbed Massino as "the Last Don", in reference to his status as the only New York boss not serving a prison sentence at that point. The name stuck. Despite a weak start, with opening witness Anthony Gilberti unable to recognize Massino in the courtroom, the prosecution would establish its case to link Massino with the charges in the indictment through an unprecedented seven major turncoats, including the six turned made men. Vitale, the last of the six to take the stand, was of particular significance. He had spent most of his three decades in the Mafia as a close confidant to Massino, and his closeness to his brother in law allowed him to cover Massino's entire criminal history in his testimony. Brietbart's defense rested primarily on cross-examination of the prosecution witnesses, with his only witness being an FBI agent to challenge Vitale's reliability. His defense was also unusual in that he made no attempt to contest that Massino was the Bonanno boss, instead stressing the murders in the case took place before he took over and that Massino himself "showed a love of life...because the murders ceased." Vitale had admitted to 11 murders, but for his cooperation, was sentenced to time served in October 2010, and entered the witness protection program. After deliberating for five days, the jury found Massino guilty of all 11 counts on July 30, 2004. His sentencing was initially scheduled for October 12, and he was expected to receive a sentence of life imprisonment with no possibility of parole. The jury also approved the prosecutors' recommended $10 million forfeiture of the proceeds of his reign as Bonanno boss on the day of the verdict. Turning state's evidence Immediately after his July 30 conviction, as court was adjourned, Massino requested a meeting with Judge Garaufis, where he made his first offer to cooperate. He did so in hopes of sparing his life; he was facing the death penalty if found guilty of Sciascia's murder. Indeed, one of John Ashcroft's final acts as Attorney General was to order federal prosecutors to seek the death penalty for Massino. Massino thus stood to be the first Mafia boss to be executed for his crimes, and the first mob boss to face the death penalty since Lepke Buchalter was executed in 1944. Massino subsequently claimed he decided to turn informer due to the prospect of his wife and mother having to forfeit their houses to the government. Mob authors and journalists Anthony D. DeStefano and Selwyn Raab both consider the turning of so many made men as a factor in disillusioning Massino with Cosa Nostra, the former also assuming Massino had decided to flip "long before the verdict". Massino was the first sitting boss of a New York crime family to turn state's evidence, and the second in the history of the American Mafia to do so (Philadelphia crime family boss Ralph Natale had flipped in 1999 when facing drug charges). It also marked the second time in a little more than a year that a New York boss had reached a plea bargain; Gigante had pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice charges in 2003 after prosecutors unmasked his long charade of feigning insanity. At his advice, that October the FBI revisited the Queens mob graveyard where Alphonse Indelicato's body was found, and unearthed the bodies of Trinchera and Giaccone as well. They also hoped to find the body of John Favara, who accidentally killed Gotti's son, and the body of Tommy DeSimone. Massino also reported that Vincent Basciano, arrested in November, had conspired to kill prosecutor Greg Andres, but after failing a polygraph test regarding the discussion he agreed to wear a wire when meeting the acting boss in jail. While Massino was unable to extract an unambiguous confession regarding Andres, he did record Basciano freely admit to ordering the murder of associate Randolph Pizzolo. By the end of January 2005, when Basciano was indicted for the Pizzolo murder, Massino was identified by news sources as the then-anonymous fellow mobster who secretly recorded his confession, to the public disgust of Massino's family. Further confirmation of Massino's defection came in February as he was identified as the source for the graveyard, then in May when the Justice Department dropped the threat of the death penalty regarding the Sciascia case. In a hearing on June 23, 2005, Massino finalized his deal and pleaded guilty to ordering the Sciascia murder. For this and his 2004 conviction he was sentenced to two consecutive life sentences, with a possible reduction depending on his service as a witness. That same day Josephine Massino negotiated a settlement to satisfy the forfeiture claim, keeping the homes of herself and Massino's mother as well as some rental properties while turning over, among other assets, a cache of $7 million and hundreds of gold bars both of which were kept in his Howard Beach home, and the Casablanca restaurant. Massino was not replaced as Bonanno boss until 2013 when Michael Mancuso, who had replaced Basciano as acting boss, was reported to have formally assumed the title. Massino's testimony and release Massino was conspicuously absent from the prosecution witnesses at the 2006 racketeering trial of Basciano, the prosecution deciding he was not yet needed; he was also expected to testify against Vito Rizzuto regarding his role in the three capos murder, but the Montreal boss accepted a plea bargain in May 2007 before Rizzuto's case went to trial. He finally made his debut as a witness at Basciano's trial for the murder of Randolph Pizzolo in April 2011; Massino's testified both during the trial itself and, after Basciano was convicted, on behalf of the prosecution's unsuccessful attempt to impose the death penalty. During his testimony Massino noted, as a result of his cooperation, "I’m hoping to see a light at the end of the tunnel." Massino testified again in the 2012 extortion trial of Genovese capo Anthony Romanello, primarily to provide background as an expert on the American Mafia. While Massino had not worked closely with Romanello, prosecutors decided to use him after another mobster-turned-witness was dropped; the case ended in an acquittal. Massino had also been considered as a witness in the 2013 murder trial of Colombo acting boss Joel Cacace, but was dropped after he was unable to fully remember the meeting where he claimed Cacace indicated his involvement in the murder of NYPD officer Ralph Dols. In June 2013, the U.S. Department of Justice filed a request to Judge Garaufis for a reduction of Massino's sentence; prosecutors cited both the impact of Massino's unprecedented cooperation and his failing health as reasons for a reduction of his sentence. Garaufis granted their request on July 10, resentencing Massino to time served and supervised release for the remainder of his life. References Sources External links Joseph Massino – Biography.com The Bonanno Family – Crime Library 1943 births American Mafia cooperating witnesses American crime bosses American gangsters of Italian descent American money launderers American people convicted of murder Bonanno crime family Bosses of the Bonanno crime family Capo dei capi Gangsters sentenced to life imprisonment Federal Bureau of Investigation informants Living people People convicted of murder by the United States federal government People convicted of racketeering People from Maspeth, Queens
1070016	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unification%20of%20Germany	Unification of Germany	The unification of Germany into the German Empire, a Prussian-dominated nation state with federal features, officially occurred on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles in France. Princes of most of the German states gathered there to proclaim King Wilhelm I of Prussia as German Emperor during the Franco-Prussian War. A confederated realm of German princedoms, along with some adjacent lands, had been in existence for over a thousand years, dating to the Treaty of Verdun in 843. However, there was no German national identity in development as late as 1800, mainly due to the autonomous nature of the princely states; most inhabitants of the Holy Roman Empire, outside of those ruled by the emperor directly, identified themselves mainly with their prince, and not with the Empire as a whole. This became known as the practice of Kleinstaaterei, or "small-statery". By the 19th century, transportation and communications improvements brought these regions closer together. The Empire was dissolved in 1806 with the abdication of Emperor Francis II during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite the legal, administrative, and political disruption caused by the dissolution, the German-speaking people of the old Empire had a common linguistic, cultural and legal tradition. European liberalism offered an intellectual basis for unification by challenging dynastic and absolutist models of social and political organization; its German manifestation emphasized the importance of tradition, education, and linguistic unity. Economically, the creation of the Prussian Zollverein (customs union) in 1818, and its subsequent expansion to include other states of the German Confederation, reduced competition between and within states. Emerging modes of transportation facilitated business and recreational travel, leading to contact and sometimes conflict between and among German-speakers from throughout Central Europe. The model of diplomatic spheres of influence resulting from the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15 after the Napoleonic Wars endorsed Austrian dominance in Central Europe through Habsburg leadership of the German Confederation, designed to replace the Holy Roman Empire. The negotiators at Vienna took no account of Prussia's growing strength within and declined to create a second coalition of the German states under Prussia's influence, and so failed to foresee that Prussia would rise to challenge Austria for leadership of the German peoples. This German dualism presented two solutions to the problem of unification: , the small Germany solution (Germany without Austria), or , the greater Germany solution (Germany with Austria). Historians debate whether Otto von Bismarck—Minister President of Prussia—had a master plan to expand the North German Confederation of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the power of the Kingdom of Prussia. They conclude that factors in addition to the strength of Bismarck's led a collection of early modern polities to reorganize political, economic, military, and diplomatic relationships in the 19th century. Reaction to Danish and French nationalism provided foci for expressions of German unity. Military successes—especially those of Prussia—in three regional wars generated enthusiasm and pride that politicians could harness to promote unification. This experience echoed the memory of mutual accomplishment in the Napoleonic Wars, particularly in the War of Liberation of 1813–14. By establishing a Germany without Austria, the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism. German-speaking Central Europe in the early 19th century Prior to the Napoleonic Wars, German-speaking Central Europe included more than 300 political entities, most of which were part of the Holy Roman Empire or the extensive Habsburg hereditary dominions. They ranged in size from the small and complex territories of the princely Hohenlohe family branches to sizable, well-defined territories such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Prussia. Their governance varied: they included free imperial cities, also of different sizes, such as the powerful Augsburg and the minuscule Weil der Stadt; ecclesiastical territories, also of varying sizes and influence, such as the wealthy Abbey of Reichenau and the powerful Archbishopric of Cologne; and dynastic states such as Württemberg. These lands (or parts of them—both the Habsburg domains and Hohenzollern Prussia also included territories outside the Empire structures) made up the territory of the Holy Roman Empire, which at times included more than 1,000 entities. Since the 15th century, with few exceptions, the Empire's Prince-electors had chosen successive heads of the House of Habsburg to hold the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Among the German-speaking states, the Holy Roman Empire's administrative and legal mechanisms provided a venue to resolve disputes between peasants and landlords, between jurisdictions, and within jurisdictions. Through the organization of imperial circles (Reichskreise), groups of states consolidated resources and promoted regional and organizational interests, including economic cooperation and military protection. The War of the Second Coalition (1798-1802) resulted in the defeat of the imperial and allied forces by Napoleon Bonaparte. The treaties of Lunéville (1801) and the Mediatization of 1803 secularized the ecclesiastical principalities and abolished most free imperial cities and these territories along with their inhabitants were absorbed by dynastic states. This transfer particularly enhanced the territories of Württemberg and Baden. In 1806, after a successful invasion of Prussia and the defeat of Prussia at the joint battles of Jena-Auerstedt, Napoleon dictated the Treaty of Pressburg and presided over the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which, inter alia, provided for the mediatization of over a hundred petty princes and counts and the absorption of their territories, as well as those of hundreds of imperial knights, by the Confederation's member-states. Following the formal secession of these member-states from the Empire, the Emperor dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. Rise of German nationalism under the Napoleonic System Under the hegemony of the French Empire (1804–1814), popular German nationalism thrived in the reorganized German states. Due in part to the shared experience, albeit under French dominance, various justifications emerged to identify "Germany" as a single state. For the German philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte, The first, original, and truly natural boundaries of states are beyond doubt their internal boundaries. Those who speak the same language are joined to each other by a multitude of invisible bonds by nature herself, long before any human art begins; they understand each other and have the power of continuing to make themselves understood more and more clearly; they belong together and are by nature one and an inseparable whole. A common language may have been seen to serve as the basis of a nation, but as contemporary historians of 19th-century Germany noted, it took more than linguistic similarity to unify these several hundred polities. The experience of German-speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands. The exigencies of Napoleon's campaigns in Poland (1806–07), the Iberian Peninsula, western Germany, and his disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 disillusioned many Germans, princes and peasants alike. Napoleon's Continental System nearly ruined the Central European economy. The invasion of Russia included nearly 125,000 troops from German lands, and the loss of that army encouraged many Germans, both high- and low-born, to envision a Central Europe free of Napoleon's influence. The creation of student militias such as the Lützow Free Corps exemplified this tendency. The debacle in Russia loosened the French grip on the German princes. In 1813, Napoleon mounted a campaign in the German states to bring them back into the French orbit; the subsequent War of Liberation culminated in the great Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of Nations. In October 1813, more than 500,000 combatants engaged in ferocious fighting over three days, making it the largest European land battle of the 19th century. The engagement resulted in a decisive victory for the Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden, and it ended French power east of the Rhine. Success encouraged the Coalition forces to pursue Napoleon across the Rhine; his army and his government collapsed, and the victorious Coalition incarcerated Napoleon on Elba. During the brief Napoleonic restoration known as the 100 Days of 1815, forces of the Seventh Coalition, including an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington and a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher, were victorious at Waterloo (18 June 1815). The critical role played by Blücher's troops, especially after having to retreat from the field at Ligny the day before, helped to turn the tide of combat against the French. The Prussian cavalry pursued the defeated French in the evening of 18 June, sealing the allied victory. From the German perspective, the actions of Blücher's troops at Waterloo, and the combined efforts at Leipzig, offered a rallying point of pride and enthusiasm. This interpretation became a key building block of the Borussian myth expounded by the pro-Prussian nationalist historians later in the 19th century. Reorganization of Central Europe and the rise of German dualism After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna established a new European political-diplomatic system based on the balance of power. This system reorganized Europe into spheres of influence, which, in some cases, suppressed the aspirations of the various nationalities, including the Germans and Italians. Generally, an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the Austrian Empire's sphere of influence. The Congress established a loose German Confederation (1815–1866), headed by Austria, with a "Federal Diet" (called the Bundestag or Bundesversammlung, an assembly of appointed leaders) that met in the city of Frankfurt am Main. In recognition of the imperial position traditionally held by the Habsburgs, the emperors of Austria became the titular presidents of this parliament. Problematically, the built-in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia's 18th-century emergence in Imperial politics. Ever since the Prince-Elector of Brandenburg had made himself King in Prussia at the beginning of that century, their domains had steadily increased through war and inheritance. Prussia's consolidated strength had become especially apparent during the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War under Frederick the Great. As Maria Theresa and Joseph tried to restore Habsburg hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick countered with the creation of the Fürstenbund (Union of Princes) in 1785. Austrian-Prussian dualism lay firmly rooted in old Imperial politics. Those balance of power manoeuvers were epitomized by the War of the Bavarian Succession, or "Potato War" among common folk. Even after the end of the Holy Roman Empire, this competition influenced the growth and development of nationalist movements in the 19th century. Problems of reorganization Despite the nomenclature of Diet (Assembly or Parliament), this institution should in no way be construed as a broadly, or popularly, elected group of representatives. Many of the states did not have constitutions, and those that did, such as the Duchy of Baden, based suffrage on strict property requirements which effectively limited suffrage to a small portion of the male population. Furthermore, this impractical solution did not reflect the new status of Prussia in the overall scheme. Although the Prussian army had been dramatically defeated in the 1806 Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, it had made a spectacular comeback at Waterloo. Consequently, Prussian leaders expected to play a pivotal role in German politics. The surge of German nationalism, stimulated by the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period and initially allied with liberalism, shifted political, social, and cultural relationships within the German states. In this context, one can detect its roots in the experience of Germans in the Napoleonic period. The Burschenschaft student organizations and popular demonstrations, such as those held at Wartburg Castle in October 1817, contributed to a growing sense of unity among German speakers of Central Europe. Furthermore, implicit and sometimes explicit promises made during the German Campaign of 1813 engendered an expectation of popular sovereignty and widespread participation in the political process, promises that largely went unfulfilled once peace had been achieved. Agitation by student organizations led such conservative leaders as Klemens Wenzel, Prince von Metternich, to fear the rise of national sentiment; the assassination of German dramatist August von Kotzebue in March 1819 by a radical student seeking unification was followed on 20 September 1819 by the proclamation of the Carlsbad Decrees, which hampered intellectual leadership of the nationalist movement. Metternich was able to harness conservative outrage at the assassination to consolidate legislation that would further limit the press and constrain the rising liberal and nationalist movements. Consequently, these decrees drove the Burschenschaften underground, restricted the publication of nationalist materials, expanded censorship of the press and private correspondence, and limited academic speech by prohibiting university professors from encouraging nationalist discussion. The decrees were the subject of Johann Joseph von Görres's pamphlet Teutschland [archaic: Deutschland] und die Revolution (Germany and the Revolution) (1820), in which he concluded that it was both impossible and undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures. Economic collaboration: the customs union Another institution key to unifying the German states, the Zollverein, helped to create a larger sense of economic unification. Initially conceived by the Prussian Finance Minister Hans, Count von Bülow, as a Prussian customs union in 1818, the Zollverein linked the many Prussian and Hohenzollern territories. Over the ensuing thirty years (and more) other German states joined. The Union helped to reduce protectionist barriers between the German states, especially improving the transport of raw materials and finished goods, making it both easier to move goods across territorial borders and less costly to buy, transport, and sell raw materials. This was particularly important for the emerging industrial centers, most of which were located in the Prussian regions of the Rhineland, the Saar, and the Ruhr valleys. States more distant from the coast joined the Customs Union earlier. Not being a member mattered more for the states of south Germany, since the external tariff of the Customs Union prevented customs-free access to the coast (which gave access to international markets). Thus, by 1836, all states to the south of Prussia had joined the Customs Union, except Austria. In contrast, the coastal states already had barrier free access to international trade and did not want consumers and producers burdened with the import duties they would pay if they were within the Zollverein customs border. Hanover on the north coast formed its own customs union – the “Tax Union” or Steuerverein – in 1834 with Brunswick and with Oldenburg in 1836. The external tariffs on finished goods and overseas raw materials were below the rates of the Zollverein. Brunswick joined the Zollverein Customs Union in 1842, while Hanover and Oldenburg finally joined in 1854 After the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were annexed by Prussia and thus annexed also to the Customs Union, while the two Mecklenburg states and the city states of Hamburg and Bremen joined late because they were reliant on international trade. The Mecklenburgs joined in 1867, while Bremen and Hamburg joined in 1888. Roads and railways By the early 19th century, German roads had deteriorated to an appalling extent. Travelers, both foreign and local, complained bitterly about the state of the Heerstraßen, the military roads previously maintained for the ease of moving troops. As German states ceased to be a military crossroads, however, the roads improved; the length of hard–surfaced roads in Prussia increased from in 1816 to in 1852, helped in part by the invention of macadam. By 1835, Heinrich von Gagern wrote that roads were the "veins and arteries of the body politic..." and predicted that they would promote freedom, independence and prosperity. As people moved around, they came into contact with others, on trains, at hotels, in restaurants, and for some, at fashionable resorts such as the spa in Baden-Baden. Water transportation also improved. The blockades on the Rhine had been removed by Napoleon's orders, but by the 1820s, steam engines freed riverboats from the cumbersome system of men and animals that towed them upstream. By 1846, 180 steamers plied German rivers and Lake Constance, and a network of canals extended from the Danube, the Weser, and the Elbe rivers. As important as these improvements were, they could not compete with the impact of the railway. German economist Friedrich List called the railways and the Customs Union "Siamese Twins", emphasizing their important relationship to one another. He was not alone: the poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote a poem in which he extolled the virtues of the Zollverein, which he began with a list of commodities that had contributed more to German unity than politics or diplomacy. Historians of the German Empire later regarded the railways as the first indicator of a unified state; the patriotic novelist, Wilhelm Raabe, wrote: "The German empire was founded with the construction of the first railway..." Not everyone greeted the iron monster with enthusiasm. The Prussian king Frederick William III saw no advantage in traveling from Berlin to Potsdam a few hours faster, and Metternich refused to ride in one at all. Others wondered if the railways were an "evil" that threatened the landscape: Nikolaus Lenau's 1838 poem An den Frühling (To Spring) bemoaned the way trains destroyed the pristine quietude of German forests. The Bavarian Ludwig Railway, which was the first passenger or freight rail line in the German lands, connected Nuremberg and Fürth in 1835. Although it was long and only operated in daylight, it proved both profitable and popular. Within three years, of track had been laid, by 1840, , and by 1860, . Lacking a geographically central organizing feature (such as a national capital), the rails were laid in webs, linking towns and markets within regions, regions within larger regions, and so on. As the rail network expanded, it became cheaper to transport goods: in 1840, 18 Pfennigs per ton per kilometer and in 1870, five Pfennigs. The effects of the railway were immediate. For example, raw materials could travel up and down the Ruhr Valley without having to unload and reload. Railway lines encouraged economic activity by creating demand for commodities and by facilitating commerce. In 1850, inland shipping carried three times more freight than railroads; by 1870, the situation was reversed, and railroads carried four times more. Rail travel changed how cities looked and how people traveled. Its impact reached throughout the social order, affecting the highest born to the lowest. Although some of the outlying German provinces were not serviced by rail until the 1890s, the majority of the population, manufacturing centers, and production centers were linked to the rail network by 1865. Geography, patriotism and language As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors other than their language. The Brothers Grimm, who compiled a massive dictionary known as The Grimm, also assembled a compendium of folk tales and fables, which highlighted the story-telling parallels between different regions. Karl Baedeker wrote guidebooks to different cities and regions of Central Europe, indicating places to stay, sites to visit, and giving a short history of castles, battlefields, famous buildings, and famous people. His guides also included distances, roads to avoid, and hiking paths to follow. The words of August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben expressed not only the linguistic unity of the German people but also their geographic unity. In Deutschland, Deutschland über Alles, officially called Das Lied der Deutschen ("The Song of the Germans"), Fallersleben called upon sovereigns throughout the German states to recognize the unifying characteristics of the German people. Such other patriotic songs as "Die Wacht am Rhein" ("The Watch on the Rhine") by Max Schneckenburger began to focus attention on geographic space, not limiting "Germanness" to a common language. Schneckenburger wrote "The Watch on the Rhine" in a specific patriotic response to French assertions that the Rhine was France's "natural" eastern boundary. In the refrain, "Dear fatherland, dear fatherland, put your mind to rest / The watch stands true on the Rhine", and in such other patriotic poetry as Nicholaus Becker's "Das Rheinlied" ("The Rhine"), Germans were called upon to defend their territorial homeland. In 1807, Alexander von Humboldt argued that national character reflected geographic influence, linking landscape to people. Concurrent with this idea, movements to preserve old fortresses and historic sites emerged, and these particularly focused on the Rhineland, the site of so many confrontations with France and Spain. Vormärz and 19th-century liberalism The period of Austrian and Prussian police-states and vast censorship before the Revolutions of 1848 in Germany later became widely known as the Vormärz, the "before March", referring to March 1848. During this period, European liberalism gained momentum; the agenda included economic, social, and political issues. Most European liberals in the Vormärz sought unification under nationalist principles, promoted the transition to capitalism, sought the expansion of male suffrage, among other issues. Their "radicalness" depended upon where they stood on the spectrum of male suffrage: the wider the definition of suffrage, the more radical. Hambach Festival: liberal nationalism and conservative response Despite considerable conservative reaction, ideas of unity joined with notions of popular sovereignty in German-speaking lands. The Hambach Festival (Hambacher Fest) in May 1832 was attended by a crowd of more than 30,000. Promoted as a county fair, its participants celebrated fraternity, liberty, and national unity. Celebrants gathered in the town below and marched to the ruins of Hambach Castle on the heights above the small town of Hambach, in the Palatinate province of Bavaria. Carrying flags, beating drums, and singing, the participants took the better part of the morning and mid-day to arrive at the castle grounds, where they listened to speeches by nationalist orators from across the conservative to radical political spectrum. The overall content of the speeches suggested a fundamental difference between the German nationalism of the 1830s and the French nationalism of the July Revolution: the focus of German nationalism lay in the education of the people; once the populace was educated as to what was needed, they would accomplish it. The Hambach rhetoric emphasized the overall peaceable nature of German nationalism: the point was not to build barricades, a very "French" form of nationalism, but to build emotional bridges between groups. As he had done in 1819, after the Kotzebue assassination, Metternich used the popular demonstration at Hambach to push conservative social policy. The "Six Articles" of 28 June 1832 primarily reaffirmed the principle of monarchical authority. On 5 July, the Frankfurt Diet voted for an additional 10 articles, which reiterated existing rules on censorship, restricted political organizations, and limited other public activity. Furthermore, the member states agreed to send military assistance to any government threatened by unrest. Prince Wrede led half of the Bavarian army to the Palatinate to "subdue" the province. Several hapless Hambach speakers were arrested, tried and imprisoned; one, Karl Heinrich Brüggemann (1810–1887), a law student and representative of the secretive Burschenschaft, was sent to Prussia, where he was first condemned to death, but later pardoned. Liberalism and the response to economic problems Several other factors complicated the rise of nationalism in the German states. The man-made factors included political rivalries between members of the German confederation, particularly between the Austrians and the Prussians, and socio-economic competition among the commercial and merchant interests and the old land-owning and aristocratic interests. Natural factors included widespread drought in the early 1830s, and again in the 1840s, and a food crisis in the 1840s. Further complications emerged as a result of a shift in industrialization and manufacturing; as people sought jobs, they left their villages and small towns to work during the week in the cities, returning for a day and a half on weekends. The economic, social and cultural dislocation of ordinary people, the economic hardship of an economy in transition, and the pressures of meteorological disasters all contributed to growing problems in Central Europe. The failure of most of the governments to deal with the food crisis of the mid-1840s, caused by the potato blight (related to the Great Irish Famine) and several seasons of bad weather, encouraged many to think that the rich and powerful had no interest in their problems. Those in authority were concerned about the growing unrest, political and social agitation among the working classes, and the disaffection of the intelligentsia. No amount of censorship, fines, imprisonment, or banishment, it seemed, could stem the criticism. Furthermore, it was becoming increasingly clear that both Austria and Prussia wanted to be the leaders in any resulting unification; each would inhibit the drive of the other to achieve unification. First efforts at unification Crucially, both the Wartburg rally in 1817 and the Hambach Festival in 1832 had lacked any clear-cut program of unification. At Hambach, the positions of the many speakers illustrated their disparate agendas. Held together only by the idea of unification, their notions of how to achieve this did not include specific plans but instead rested on the nebulous idea that the Volk (the people), if properly educated, would bring about unification on their own. Grand speeches, flags, exuberant students, and picnic lunches did not translate into a new political, bureaucratic, or administrative apparatus. While many spoke about the need for a constitution, no such document appeared from the discussions. In 1848, nationalists sought to remedy that problem. German revolutions of 1848 and the Frankfurt Parliament The widespread—mainly German—revolutions of 1848–49 sought unification of Germany under a single constitution. The revolutionaries pressured various state governments, particularly those in the Rhineland, for a parliamentary assembly that would have the responsibility to draft a constitution. Ultimately, many of the left-wing revolutionaries hoped this constitution would establish universal male suffrage, a permanent national parliament, and a unified Germany, possibly under the leadership of the Prussian king. This seemed to be the most logical course since Prussia was the strongest of the German states, as well as the largest in geographic size. Generally, center-right revolutionaries sought some kind of expanded suffrage within their states and potentially, a form of loose unification. Their pressure resulted in a variety of elections, based on different voting qualifications, such as the Prussian three-class franchise, which granted to some electoral groups—chiefly the wealthier, landed ones—greater representative power. On 27 March 1849, the Frankfurt Parliament passed the Paulskirchenverfassung (Constitution of St. Paul's Church) and offered the title of Kaiser (Emperor) to the Prussian king Frederick William IV the next month. He refused for a variety of reasons. Publicly, he replied that he could not accept a crown without the consent of the actual states, by which he meant the princes. Privately, he feared opposition from the other German princes and military intervention from Austria or Russia. He also held a fundamental distaste for the idea of accepting a crown from a popularly elected parliament: he would not accept a crown of "clay". Despite franchise requirements that often perpetuated many of the problems of sovereignty and political participation liberals sought to overcome, the Frankfurt Parliament did manage to draft a constitution and reach an agreement on the kleindeutsch solution. While the liberals failed to achieve the unification they sought, they did manage to gain a partial victory by working with the German princes on many constitutional issues and collaborating with them on reforms. 1848 and the Frankfurt Parliament in retrospective analysis Scholars of German history have engaged in decades of debate over how the successes and failures of the Frankfurt Parliament contribute to the historiographical explanations of German nation building. One school of thought, which emerged after The Great War and gained momentum in the aftermath of World War II, maintains that the failure of German liberals in the Frankfurt Parliament led to bourgeoisie compromise with conservatives (especially the conservative Junker landholders), which subsequently led to the so-called Sonderweg (distinctive path) of 20th-century German history. Failure to achieve unification in 1848, this argument holds, resulted in the late formation of the nation-state in 1871, which in turn delayed the development of positive national values. Hitler often called on the German public to sacrifice all for the cause of their great nation, but his regime did not create German nationalism: it merely capitalized on an intrinsic cultural value of German society that still remains prevalent even to this day. Furthermore, this argument maintains, the "failure" of 1848 reaffirmed latent aristocratic longings among the German middle class; consequently, this group never developed a self-conscious program of modernization. More recent scholarship has rejected this idea, claiming that Germany did not have an actual "distinctive path" any more than any other nation, a historiographic idea known as exceptionalism. Instead, modern historians claim 1848 saw specific achievements by the liberal politicians. Many of their ideas and programs were later incorporated into Bismarck's social programs (e.g., social insurance, education programs, and wider definitions of suffrage). In addition, the notion of a distinctive path relies upon the underlying assumption that some other nation's path (in this case, the United Kingdom's) is the accepted norm. This new argument further challenges the norms of the British-centric model of development: studies of national development in Britain and other "normal" states (e.g., France or the United States) have suggested that even in these cases, the modern nation-state did not develop evenly. Nor did it develop particularly early, being rather a largely mid-to-late-19th-century phenomenon. Since the end of the 1990s, this view has become widely accepted, although some historians still find the Sonderweg analysis helpful in understanding the period of National Socialism. Problem of spheres of influence: The Erfurt Union and the Punctation of Olmütz After the Frankfurt Parliament disbanded, Frederick William IV, under the influence of General Joseph Maria von Radowitz, supported the establishment of the Erfurt Union—a federation of German states, excluding Austria—by the free agreement of the German princes. This limited union under Prussia would have almost entirely eliminated Austrian influence on the other German states. Combined diplomatic pressure from Austria and Russia (a guarantor of the 1815 agreements that established European spheres of influence) forced Prussia to relinquish the idea of the Erfurt Union at a meeting in the small town of Olmütz in Moravia. In November 1850, the Prussians—specifically Radowitz and Frederick William—agreed to the restoration of the German Confederation under Austrian leadership. This became known as the Punctation of Olmütz, but among Prussians it was known as the "Humiliation of Olmütz." Although seemingly minor events, the Erfurt Union proposal and the Punctation of Olmütz brought the problems of influence in the German states into sharp focus. The question became not a matter of if but rather when unification would occur, and when was contingent upon strength. One of the former Frankfurt Parliament members, Johann Gustav Droysen, summed up the problem: We cannot conceal the fact that the whole German question is a simple alternative between Prussia and Austria. In these states, German life has its positive and negative poles—in the former, all the interests [that] are national and reformative, in the latter, all that are dynastic and destructive. The German question is not a constitutional question but a question of power; and the Prussian monarchy is now wholly German, while that of Austria cannot be. Unification under these conditions raised a basic diplomatic problem. The possibility of German (or Italian) unification would overturn the overlapping spheres of influence system created in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. The principal architects of this convention, Metternich, Castlereagh, and Tsar Alexander (with his foreign secretary Count Karl Nesselrode), had conceived of and organized a Europe balanced and guaranteed by four "great powers": Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria, with each power having a geographic sphere of influence. France's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states. Russia's included the eastern regions of Central Europe and a balancing influence in the Balkans. Austria's sphere expanded throughout much of the Central European territories formerly held by the Holy Roman Empire. Britain's sphere was the rest of the world, especially the seas. This sphere of influence system depended upon the fragmentation of the German and Italian states, not their consolidation. Consequently, a German nation united under one banner presented significant questions. There was no readily applicable definition for who the German people would be or how far the borders of a German nation would stretch. There was also uncertainty as to who would best lead and defend "Germany", however it was defined. Different groups offered different solutions to this problem. In the Kleindeutschland ("Lesser Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the Prussian Hohenzollerns; in the Grossdeutschland ("Greater Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the Austrian Habsburgs. This controversy, the latest phase of the German dualism debate that had dominated the politics of the German states and Austro-Prussian diplomacy since the 1701 creation of the Kingdom of Prussia, would come to a head during the following twenty years. External expectations of a unified Germany Other nationalists had high hopes for the German unification movement, and the frustration with lasting German unification after 1850 seemed to set the national movement back. Revolutionaries associated national unification with progress. As Giuseppe Garibaldi wrote to German revolutionary Karl Blind on 10 April 1865, "The progress of humanity seems to have come to a halt, and you with your superior intelligence will know why. The reason is that the world lacks a nation [that] possesses true leadership. Such leadership, of course, is required not to dominate other peoples but to lead them along the path of duty, to lead them toward the brotherhood of nations where all the barriers erected by egoism will be destroyed." Garibaldi looked to Germany for the "kind of leadership [that], in the true tradition of medieval chivalry, would devote itself to redressing wrongs, supporting the weak, sacrificing momentary gains and material advantage for the much finer and more satisfying achievement of relieving the suffering of our fellow men. We need a nation courageous enough to give us a lead in this direction. It would rally to its cause all those who are suffering wrong or who aspire to a better life and all those who are now enduring foreign oppression." German unification had also been viewed as a prerequisite for the creation of a European federation, which Giuseppe Mazzini and other European patriots had been promoting for more than three decades: In the spring of 1834, while at Berne, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of Young Europe. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty; and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. [...] His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed [to] in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. [...] Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary. Prussia's growing strength: Realpolitik King Frederick William IV suffered a stroke in 1857 and could no longer rule. This led to his brother William becoming Prince Regent of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1858. Meanwhile, Helmuth von Moltke had become chief of the Prussian General Staff in 1857, and Albrecht von Roon would become Prussian Minister of War in 1859. This shuffling of authority within the Prussian military establishment would have important consequences. Von Roon and William (who took an active interest in military structures) began reorganizing the Prussian army, while Moltke redesigned the strategic defense of Prussia by streamlining operational command. Prussian army reforms (especially how to pay for them) caused a constitutional crisis beginning in 1860 because both parliament and William—via his minister of war—wanted control over the military budget. William, crowned King Wilhelm I in 1861, appointed Otto von Bismarck to the position of Minister-President of Prussia in 1862. Bismarck resolved the crisis in favor of the war minister. The Crimean War of 1854–55 and the Italian War of 1859 disrupted relations among Great Britain, France, Austria, and Russia. In the aftermath of this disarray, the convergence of von Moltke's operational redesign, von Roon and Wilhelm's army restructure, and Bismarck's diplomacy influenced the realignment of the European balance of power. Their combined agendas established Prussia as the leading German power through a combination of foreign diplomatic triumphs—backed up by the possible use of Prussian military might—and an internal conservatism tempered by pragmatism, which came to be known as Realpolitik. Bismarck expressed the essence of Realpolitik in his subsequently famous "Blood and Iron" speech to the Budget Committee of the Prussian Chamber of Deputies on 30 September 1862, shortly after he became Minister President: "The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood." Bismarck's words, "iron and blood" (or "blood and iron", as often attributed), have often been misappropriated as evidence of a German lust for blood and power. First, the phrase from his speech "the great questions of time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions" is often interpreted as a repudiation of the political process—a repudiation Bismarck did not himself advocate. Second, his emphasis on blood and iron did not imply simply the unrivaled military might of the Prussian army but rather two important aspects: the ability of the assorted German states to produce iron and other related war materials and the willingness to use those war materials if necessary. Founding a unified state —article from The New York Times published on July 1, 1866 By 1862, when Bismarck made his speech, the idea of a German nation-state in the peaceful spirit of Pan-Germanism had shifted from the liberal and democratic character of 1848 to accommodate Bismarck's more conservative Realpolitik. Bismarck sought to link a unified state to the Hohenzollern dynasty, which for some historians remains one of Bismarck's primary contributions to the creation of the German Empire in 1871. While the conditions of the treaties binding the various German states to one another prohibited Bismarck from taking unilateral action, the politician and diplomat in him realized the impracticality of this. To get the German states to unify, Bismarck needed a single, outside enemy that would declare war on one of the German states first, thus providing a casus belli to rally all Germans behind. This opportunity arose with the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Historians have long debated Bismarck's role in the events leading up to the war. The traditional view, promulgated in large part by late 19th- and early 20th-century pro-Prussian historians, maintains that Bismarck's intent was always German unification. Post-1945 historians, however, see more short-term opportunism and cynicism in Bismarck's manipulation of the circumstances to create a war, rather than a grand scheme to unify a nation-state. Regardless of motivation, by manipulating events of 1866 and 1870, Bismarck demonstrated the political and diplomatic skill that had caused Wilhelm to turn to him in 1862. Three episodes proved fundamental to the unification of Germany. First, the death without male heirs of Frederick VII of Denmark led to the Second War of Schleswig in 1864. Second, the unification of Italy provided Prussia an ally against Austria in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Finally, France—fearing Hohenzollern encirclement—declared war on Prussia in 1870, resulting in the Franco-Prussian War. Through a combination of Bismarck's diplomacy and political leadership, von Roon's military reorganization, and von Moltke's military strategy, Prussia demonstrated that none of the European signatories of the 1815 peace treaty could guarantee Austria's sphere of influence in Central Europe, thus achieving Prussian hegemony in Germany and ending the dualism debate. The Schleswig-Holstein Question The first episode in the saga of German unification under Bismarck came with the Schleswig-Holstein Question. On 15 November 1863, Christian IX became king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which the Danish king held in personal union. On 18 November 1863, he signed the Danish November Constitution which replaced The Law of Sjælland and The Law of Jutland, which meant the new constitution applied to the Duchy of Schleswig. The German Confederation saw this act as a violation of the London Protocol of 1852, which emphasized the status of the Kingdom of Denmark as distinct from the three independent duchies. The German Confederation could use the ethnicities of the area as a rallying cry: Holstein and Lauenburg were largely of German origin and spoke German in everyday life, while Schleswig had a significant Danish population and history. Diplomatic attempts to have the November Constitution repealed collapsed, and fighting began when Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the Eider river on 1 February 1864. Initially, the Danes attempted to defend their country using an ancient earthen wall known as the Danevirke, but this proved futile. The Danes were no match for the combined Prussian and Austrian forces and their modern armaments. The needle gun, one of the first bolt action rifles to be used in conflict, aided the Prussians in both this war and the Austro-Prussian War two years later. The rifle enabled a Prussian soldier to fire five shots while lying prone, while its muzzle-loading counterpart could only fire one shot and had to be reloaded while standing. The Second Schleswig War resulted in victory for the combined armies of Prussia and Austria, and the two countries won control of Schleswig and Holstein in the concluding peace of Vienna, signed on 30 October 1864. War between Austria and Prussia, 1866 The second episode in Bismarck's unification efforts occurred in 1866. In concert with the newly formed Italy, Bismarck created a diplomatic environment in which Austria declared war on Prussia. The dramatic prelude to the war occurred largely in Frankfurt, where the two powers claimed to speak for all the German states in the parliament. In April 1866, the Prussian representative in Florence signed a secret agreement with the Italian government, committing each state to assist the other in a war against Austria. The next day, the Prussian delegate to the Frankfurt assembly presented a plan calling for a national constitution, a directly elected national Diet, and universal suffrage. German liberals were justifiably skeptical of this plan, having witnessed Bismarck's difficult and ambiguous relationship with the Prussian Landtag (State Parliament), a relationship characterized by Bismarck's cajoling and riding roughshod over the representatives. These skeptics saw the proposal as a ploy to enhance Prussian power rather than a progressive agenda of reform. Choosing sides The debate over the proposed national constitution became moot when news of Italian troop movements in Tyrol and near the Venetian border reached Vienna in April 1866. The Austrian government ordered partial mobilization in the southern regions; the Italians responded by ordering full mobilization. Despite calls for rational thought and action, Italy, Prussia, and Austria continued to rush toward armed conflict. On 1 May, Wilhelm gave von Moltke command over the Prussian armed forces, and the next day he began full-scale mobilization. In the Diet, the group of middle-sized states, known as Mittelstaaten (Bavaria, Württemberg, the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the duchies of Saxony–Weimar, Saxony–Meiningen, Saxony–Coburg, and Nassau), supported complete demobilization within the Confederation. These individual governments rejected the potent combination of enticing promises and subtle (or outright) threats Bismarck used to try to gain their support against the Habsburgs. The Prussian war cabinet understood that its only supporters among the German states against the Habsburgs were two small principalities bordering on Brandenburg that had little military strength or political clout: the Grand Duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. They also understood that Prussia's only ally abroad was Italy. Opposition to Prussia's strong-armed tactics surfaced in other social and political groups. Throughout the German states, city councils, liberal parliamentary members who favored a unified state, and chambers of commerce—which would see great benefits from unification—opposed any war between Prussia and Austria. They believed any such conflict would only serve the interests of royal dynasties. Their own interests, which they understood as "civil" or "bourgeois", seemed irrelevant. Public opinion also opposed Prussian domination. Catholic populations along the Rhine—especially in such cosmopolitan regions as Cologne and in the heavily populated Ruhr Valley—continued to support Austria. By late spring, most important states opposed Berlin's effort to reorganize the German states by force. The Prussian cabinet saw German unity as an issue of power and a question of who had the strength and will to wield that power. Meanwhile, the liberals in the Frankfurt assembly saw German unity as a process of negotiation that would lead to the distribution of power among the many parties. Austria isolated Although several German states initially sided with Austria, they stayed on the defensive and failed to take effective initiatives against Prussian troops. The Austrian army therefore faced the technologically superior Prussian army with support only from Saxony. France promised aid, but it came late and was insufficient. Complicating the situation for Austria, the Italian mobilization on Austria's southern border required a diversion of forces away from battle with Prussia to fight the Third Italian War of Independence on a second front in Venetia and on the Adriatic sea. In the day-long Battle of Königgrätz, near the village of Sadová, Friedrich Carl and his troops arrived late, and in the wrong place. Once he arrived, however, he ordered his troops immediately into the fray. The battle was a decisive victory for Prussia and forced the Habsburgs to end the war, laying the groundwork for the Kleindeutschland (little Germany) solution, or "Germany without Austria." Realpolitik and the North German Confederation A quick peace was essential to keep Russia from entering the conflict on Austria's side. Prussia annexed Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and the city of Frankfurt. Hesse Darmstadt lost some territory but not its sovereignty. The states south of the Main River (Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria) signed separate treaties requiring them to pay indemnities and to form alliances bringing them into Prussia's sphere of influence. Austria, and most of its allies, were excluded from the North German Confederation. The end of Austrian dominance of the German states shifted Austria's attention to the Balkans. In 1867, the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph accepted a settlement (the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867) in which he gave his Hungarian holdings equal status with his Austrian domains, creating the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The Peace of Prague (1866) offered lenient terms to Austria, in which Austria's relationship with the new nation-state of Italy underwent major restructuring; although the Austrians were far more successful in the military field against Italian troops, the monarchy lost the important province of Venetia. The Habsburgs ceded Venetia to France, which then formally transferred control to Italy. The French public resented the Prussian victory and demanded Revanche pour Sadová ("Revenge for Sadova"), illustrating anti-Prussian sentiment in France—a problem that would accelerate in the months leading up to the Franco-Prussian War. The Austro-Prussian War also damaged relations with the French government. At a meeting in Biarritz in September 1865 with Napoleon III, Bismarck had let it be understood (or Napoleon had thought he understood) that France might annex parts of Belgium and Luxembourg in exchange for its neutrality in the war. These annexations did not happen, resulting in animosity from Napoleon towards Bismarck. The reality of defeat for Austria caused a reevaluation of internal divisions, local autonomy, and liberalism. The new North German Confederation had its own constitution, flag, and governmental and administrative structures. Through military victory, Prussia under Bismarck's influence had overcome Austria's active resistance to the idea of a unified Germany. Austria's influence over the German states may have been broken, but the war also splintered the spirit of pan-German unity: most of the German states resented Prussian power politics. War with France By 1870 three of the important lessons of the Austro-Prussian war had become apparent. The first lesson was that, through force of arms, a powerful state could challenge the old alliances and spheres of influence established in 1815. Second, through diplomatic maneuvering, a skillful leader could create an environment in which a rival state would declare war first, thus forcing states allied with the "victim" of external aggression to come to the leader's aid. Finally, as Prussian military capacity far exceeded that of Austria, Prussia was clearly the only state within the Confederation (or among the German states generally) capable of protecting all of them from potential interference or aggression. In 1866, most mid-sized German states had opposed Prussia, but by 1870 these states had been coerced and coaxed into mutually protective alliances with Prussia. If a European state declared war on one of their members, then they all would come to the defense of the attacked state. With skillful manipulation of European politics, Bismarck created a situation in which France would play the role of aggressor in German affairs, while Prussia would play that of the protector of German rights and liberties. Spheres of influence fall apart in Spain At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Metternich and his conservative allies had reestablished the Spanish monarchy under King Ferdinand VII. Over the following forty years, the great powers supported the Spanish monarchy, but events in 1868 would further test the old system. A revolution in Spain overthrew Queen Isabella II, and the throne remained empty while Isabella lived in sumptuous exile in Paris. The Spanish, looking for a suitable Catholic successor, had offered the post to three European princes, each of whom was rejected by Napoleon III, who served as regional power-broker. Finally, in 1870 the Regency offered the crown to Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a prince of the Catholic cadet Hohenzollern line. The ensuing furor has been dubbed by historians as the Hohenzollern candidature. Over the next few weeks, the Spanish offer turned into the talk of Europe. Bismarck encouraged Leopold to accept the offer. A successful installment of a Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen king in Spain would mean that two countries on either side of France would both have German kings of Hohenzollern descent. This may have been a pleasing prospect for Bismarck, but it was unacceptable to either Napoleon III or to Agenor, duc de Gramont, his minister of foreign affairs. Gramont wrote a sharply formulated ultimatum to Wilhelm, as head of the Hohenzollern family, stating that if any Hohenzollern prince should accept the crown of Spain, the French government would respond—although he left ambiguous the nature of such response. The prince withdrew as a candidate, thus defusing the crisis, but the French ambassador to Berlin would not let the issue lie. He approached the Prussian king directly while Wilhelm was vacationing in Ems Spa, demanding that the King release a statement saying he would never support the installation of a Hohenzollern on the throne of Spain. Wilhelm refused to give such an encompassing statement, and he sent Bismarck a dispatch by telegram describing the French demands. Bismarck used the king's telegram, called the Ems Dispatch, as a template for a short statement to the press. With its wording shortened and sharpened by Bismarck—and further alterations made in the course of its translation by the French agency Havas—the Ems Dispatch raised an angry furor in France. The French public, still aggravated over the defeat at Sadová, demanded war. Military operations Napoleon III had tried to secure territorial concessions from both sides before and after the Austro-Prussian War, but despite his role as mediator during the peace negotiations, he ended up with nothing. He then hoped that Austria would join in a war of revenge and that its former allies—particularly the southern German states of Baden, Württemberg, and Bavaria—would join in the cause. This hope would prove futile since the 1866 treaty came into effect and united all German states militarily—if not happily—to fight against France. Instead of a war of revenge against Prussia, supported by various German allies, France engaged in a war against all of the German states without any allies of its own. The reorganization of the military by von Roon and the operational strategy of Moltke combined against France to great effect. The speed of Prussian mobilization astonished the French, and the Prussian ability to concentrate power at specific points—reminiscent of Napoleon I's strategies seventy years earlier—overwhelmed French mobilization. Utilizing their efficiently laid rail grid, Prussian troops were delivered to battle areas rested and prepared to fight, whereas French troops had to march for considerable distances to reach combat zones. After a number of battles, notably Spicheren, Wörth, Mars la Tour, and Gravelotte, the Prussians defeated the main French armies and advanced on the primary city of Metz and the French capital of Paris. They captured Napoleon III and took an entire army as prisoners at Sedan on 1 September 1870. Proclamation of the German Empire The humiliating capture of the French emperor and the loss of the French army itself, which marched into captivity at a makeshift camp in the Saarland ("Camp Misery"), threw the French government into turmoil; Napoleon's energetic opponents overthrew his government and proclaimed the Third Republic. "In the days after Sedan, Prussian envoys met with the French and demanded a large cash indemnity as well as the cession of Alsace and Lorraine. All parties in France rejected the terms, insisting that any armistice be forged “on the basis of territorial integrity.” France, in other words, would pay reparations for starting the war, but would, in Jules Favre's famous phrase, “cede neither a clod of our earth nor a stone of our fortresses". The German High Command expected an overture of peace from the French, but the new republic refused to surrender. The Prussian army invested Paris and held it under siege until mid-January, with the city being "ineffectually bombarded". Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells, 300–400 grenades daily into the city. On 18 January 1871, the German princes and senior military commanders proclaimed Wilhelm "German Emperor" in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. Under the subsequent Treaty of Frankfurt, France relinquished most of its traditionally German regions (Alsace and the German-speaking part of Lorraine); paid an indemnity, calculated (on the basis of population) as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon Bonaparte imposed on Prussia in 1807; and accepted German administration of Paris and most of northern France, with "German troops to be withdrawn stage by stage with each installment of the indemnity payment". Importance in the unification process Victory in the Franco-Prussian War proved the capstone of the nationalist issue. In the first half of the 1860s, Austria and Prussia both contended to speak for the German states; both maintained they could support German interests abroad and protect German interests at home. In responding to the Schleswig-Holstein Question, they both proved equally diligent in doing so. After the victory over Austria in 1866, Prussia began internally asserting its authority to speak for the German states and defend German interests, while Austria began directing more and more of its attention to possessions in the Balkans. The victory over France in 1871 expanded Prussian hegemony in the German states (aside from Austria) to the international level. With the proclamation of Wilhelm as Kaiser, Prussia assumed the leadership of the new empire. The southern states became officially incorporated into a unified Germany at the Treaty of Versailles of 1871 (signed 26 February 1871; later ratified in the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871), which formally ended the war. Although Bismarck had led the transformation of Germany from a loose confederation into a federal nation state, he had not done it alone. Unification was achieved by building on a tradition of legal collaboration under the Holy Roman Empire and economic collaboration through the Zollverein. The difficulties of the Vormärz, the impact of the 1848 liberals, the importance of von Roon's military reorganization, and von Moltke's strategic brilliance all played a part in political unification. "Einheit – unity – was achieved at the expense of Freiheit – freedom. The German Empire became," in Karl Marx’s words, “a military despotism cloaked in parliamentary forms with a feudal ingredient, influenced by the bourgeoisie, festooned with bureaucrats and guarded by police.” Indeed many historians would see Germany’s “escape into war” in 1914 as a flight from all of the internal-political contradictions forged by Bismarck at Versailles in the fall of 1870. Political and administrative unification The new German Empire included 26 political entities: twenty-five constituent states (or Bundesstaaten) and one Imperial Territory (or Reichsland). It realized the Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German Solution", with the exclusion of Austria) as opposed to a Großdeutsche Lösung or "Greater German Solution", which would have included Austria. Unifying various states into one nation required more than some military victories, however much these might have boosted morale. It also required a rethinking of political, social, and cultural behaviors and the construction of new metaphors about "us" and "them". Who were the new members of this new nation? What did they stand for? How were they to be organized? Constituent states of the Empire Though often characterized as a federation of monarchs, the German Empire, strictly speaking, federated a group of 26 constituent entities with different forms of government, ranging from the main four constitutional monarchies to the three republican Hanseatic cities. Political structure of the Empire The 1866 North German Constitution became (with some semantic adjustments) the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire. With this constitution, the new Germany acquired some democratic features: notably the Imperial Diet, which—in contrast to the parliament of Prussia—gave citizens representation on the basis of elections by direct and equal suffrage of all males who had reached the age of 25. Furthermore, elections were generally free of chicanery, engendering pride in the national parliament. However, legislation required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the states, in and over which Prussia had a powerful influence; Prussia could appoint 17 of 58 delegates with only 14 votes needed for a veto. Prussia thus exercised influence in both bodies, with executive power vested in the Prussian King as Kaiser, who appointed the federal chancellor. The chancellor was accountable solely to, and served entirely at the discretion of, the Emperor. Officially, the chancellor functioned as a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the State Secretaries (bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. With the exception of the years 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the imperial chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia. The Imperial Diet had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills, but it could not initiate legislation. (The power of initiating legislation rested with the chancellor.) The other states retained their own governments, but the military forces of the smaller states came under Prussian control. The militaries of the larger states (such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony) retained some autonomy, but they underwent major reforms to coordinate with Prussian military principles and came under federal government control in wartime. Historical arguments and the Empire's social anatomy The Sonderweg hypothesis attributed Germany's difficult 20th century to the weak political, legal, and economic basis of the new empire. The Prussian landed elites, the Junkers, retained a substantial share of political power in the unified state. The Sonderweg hypothesis attributed their power to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the middle classes, or by peasants in combination with the urban workers, in 1848 and again in 1871. Recent research into the role of the Grand Bourgeoisie—which included bankers, merchants, industrialists, and entrepreneurs—in the construction of the new state has largely refuted the claim of political and economic dominance of the Junkers as a social group. This newer scholarship has demonstrated the importance of the merchant classes of the Hanseatic cities and the industrial leadership (the latter particularly important in the Rhineland) in the ongoing development of the Second Empire. Additional studies of different groups in Wilhelmine Germany have all contributed to a new view of the period. Although the Junkers did, indeed, continue to control the officer corps, they did not dominate social, political, and economic matters as much as the Sonderweg theorists had hypothesized. Eastern Junker power had a counterweight in the western provinces in the form of the Grand Bourgeoisie and in the growing professional class of bureaucrats, teachers, professors, doctors, lawyers, scientists, etc. Beyond the political mechanism: forming a nation If the Wartburg and Hambach rallies had lacked a constitution and administrative apparatus, that problem was addressed between 1867 and 1871. Yet, as Germans discovered, grand speeches, flags, and enthusiastic crowds, a constitution, a political reorganization, and the provision of an imperial superstructure; and the revised Customs Union of 1867–68, still did not make a nation. A key element of the nation-state is the creation of a national culture, frequently—although not necessarily—through deliberate national policy. In the new German nation, a Kulturkampf (1872–78) that followed political, economic, and administrative unification attempted to address, with a remarkable lack of success, some of the contradictions in German society. In particular, it involved a struggle over language, education, and religion. A policy of Germanization of non-German people of the empire's population, including the Polish and Danish minorities, started with language, in particular, the German language, compulsory schooling (Germanization), and the attempted creation of standardized curricula for those schools to promote and celebrate the idea of a shared past. Finally, it extended to the religion of the new Empire's population. Kulturkampf For some Germans, the definition of nation did not include pluralism, and Catholics in particular came under scrutiny; some Germans, and especially Bismarck, feared that the Catholics' connection to the papacy might make them less loyal to the nation. As chancellor, Bismarck tried without much success to limit the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and of its party-political arm, the Catholic Center Party, in schools and education- and language-related policies. The Catholic Center Party remained particularly well entrenched in the Catholic strongholds of Bavaria and southern Baden, and in urban areas that held high populations of displaced rural workers seeking jobs in the heavy industry, and sought to protect the rights not only of Catholics, but other minorities, including the Poles, and the French minorities in the Alsatian lands. The May Laws of 1873 brought the appointment of priests, and their education, under the control of the state, resulting in the closure of many seminaries, and a shortage of priests. The Congregations Law of 1875 abolished religious orders, ended state subsidies to the Catholic Church, and removed religious protections from the Prussian constitution. Integrating the Jewish community The Germanized Jews remained another vulnerable population in the new German nation-state. Since 1780, after emancipation by the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II, Jews in the former Habsburg territories had enjoyed considerable economic and legal privileges that their counterparts in other German-speaking territories did not: they could own land, for example, and they did not have to live in a Jewish quarter (also called the Judengasse, or "Jews' alley"). They could also attend universities and enter the professions. During the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras, many of the previously strong barriers between Jews and Christians broke down. Napoleon had ordered the emancipation of Jews throughout territories under French hegemony. Like their French counterparts, wealthy German Jews sponsored salons; in particular, several Jewish salonnières held important gatherings in Frankfurt and Berlin during which German intellectuals developed their own form of republican intellectualism. Throughout the subsequent decades, beginning almost immediately after the defeat of the French, reaction against the mixing of Jews and Christians limited the intellectual impact of these salons. Beyond the salons, Jews continued a process of Germanization in which they intentionally adopted German modes of dress and speech, working to insert themselves into the emerging 19th-century German public sphere. The religious reform movement among German Jews reflected this effort. By the years of unification, German Jews played an important role in the intellectual underpinnings of the German professional, intellectual, and social life. The expulsion of Jews from Russia in the 1880s and 1890s complicated integration into the German public sphere. Russian Jews arrived in north German cities in the thousands; considerably less educated and less affluent, their often dismal poverty dismayed many of the Germanized Jews. Many of the problems related to poverty (such as illness, overcrowded housing, unemployment, school absenteeism, refusal to learn German, etc.) emphasized their distinctiveness for not only the Christian Germans, but for the local Jewish populations as well. Writing the story of the nation Another important element in nation-building, the story of the heroic past, fell to such nationalist German historians as the liberal constitutionalist Friedrich Dahlmann (1785–1860), his conservative student Heinrich von Treitschke (1834–1896), and others less conservative, such as Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903) and Heinrich von Sybel (1817–1895), to name two. Dahlmann himself died before unification, but he laid the groundwork for the nationalist histories to come through his histories of the English and French revolutions, by casting these revolutions as fundamental to the construction of a nation, and Dahlmann himself viewed Prussia as the logical agent of unification. Heinrich von Treitschke's History of Germany in the Nineteenth Century, published in 1879, has perhaps a misleading title: it privileges the history of Prussia over the history of other German states, and it tells the story of the German-speaking peoples through the guise of Prussia's destiny to unite all German states under its leadership. The creation of this Borussian myth (Borussia is the Latin name for Prussia) established Prussia as Germany's savior; it was the destiny of all Germans to be united, this myth maintains, and it was Prussia's destiny to accomplish this. According to this story, Prussia played the dominant role in bringing the German states together as a nation-state; only Prussia could protect German liberties from being crushed by French or Russian influence. The story continues by drawing on Prussia's role in saving Germans from the resurgence of Napoleon's power in 1815, at Waterloo, creating some semblance of economic unity, and uniting Germans under one proud flag after 1871. Mommsen's contributions to the Monumenta Germaniae Historica laid the groundwork for additional scholarship on the study of the German nation, expanding the notion of "Germany" to mean other areas beyond Prussia. A liberal professor, historian, and theologian, and generally a titan among late 19th-century scholars, Mommsen served as a delegate to the Prussian House of Representatives from 1863 to 1866 and 1873 to 1879; he also served as a delegate to the Reichstag from 1881 to 1884, for the liberal German Progress Party (Deutsche Fortschrittspartei) and later for the National Liberal Party. He opposed the antisemitic programs of Bismarck's Kulturkampf and the vitriolic text that Treitschke often employed in the publication of his Studien über die Judenfrage (Studies of the Jewish Question), which encouraged assimilation and Germanization of Jews. See also Italian unification Formation of Romania Reichsbürgerbewegung References Sources Berghahn, Volker. Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. Beringer, Jean. A History of the Habsburg Empire 1700–1918. C. Simpson, Trans. New York: Longman, 1997, . Blackbourn, David, Marpingen: Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in Bismarckian Germany. New York: Knopf, 1994. Blackbourn, David. The Long Nineteenth Century: A History of Germany, 1780–1918. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff. The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. Blickle, Peter. Heimat: A Critical Theory of the German Idea of Homeland. Studies in German literature, linguistics and culture. Columbia, South Carolina: Camden House Press, 2004. Bridge, Roy and Roger Bullen, The Great Powers and the European States System 1814–1914, 2nd ed. Longman, 2004. Confino, Alon. The Nation as a Local Metaphor: Württemberg, Imperial Germany, and National Memory, 1871–1918. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997. Crankshaw, Edward. Bismarck. New York, The Viking Press, 1981. Dahrendorf, Ralf. Society and Democracy in Germany (1979) Dominick, Raymond, III. The Environmental Movement in Germany, Bloomington, Indiana University, 1992. Evans, Richard J. Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years, 1830–1910. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Evans, Richard J. Rethinking German History: Nineteenth-Century Germany and the Origins of the Third Reich. London, Routledge, 1987. Flores, Richard R. Remembering the Alamo: Memory, Modernity, and the Master Symbol. Austin: University of Texas, 2002. Friedrich, Karin, The Other Prussia: Royal Prussia, Poland and Liberty, 1569–1772, New York, 2000. Grew, Raymond. Crises of Political Development in Europe and the United States. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1978. Hollyday, F. B. M. Bismarck. New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1970. Holt, Alexander W. The History of Europe from 1862–1914: From the Accession of Bismarck to the Outbreak of the Great War. New York: MacMillan, 1917. Howard, Michael Eliot. The Franco-Prussian War: The German invasion of France, 1870–1871. New York, MacMillan, 1961. Hull, Isabel. Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany. Ithaca, New York, Syracuse University Press, 2005. Kann, Robert A. History of the Habsburg Empire: 1526–1918. Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1974 Kaplan, Marion. The Making of the Jewish Middle Class: Women, Family, and Identity in Imperial Germany. New York, Oxford University Press, 1991. Kocka, Jürgen and Mitchell, Allan. Bourgeois Society in Nineteenth Century Europe. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1993. Kocka, Jürgen and Mitchell, Allan. "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg." Journal of Contemporary History Vol. 23, No. 1 (January 1988), p. 3–16. Kocka, Jürgen and Mitchell, Allan. "Comparison and Beyond.'" History and Theory Vol. 42, No. 1 (February 2003), p. 39–44. Kocka, Jürgen and Mitchell, Allan. "Asymmetrical Historical Comparison: The Case of the German Sonderweg". History and Theory Vol. 38, No. 1 (February 1999), p. 40–50. Kohn, Hans. German History; Some New German Views. Boston: Beacon, 1954. Koshar, Rudy. Germany's Transient Pasts: Preservation and the National Memory in the Twentieth Century. Chapel Hill, 1998. Krieger, Leonard. The German Idea of Freedom, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1957. Lee, Lloyd. The Politics of Harmony: Civil Service, Liberalism, and Social Reform in Baden, 1800–1850. Cranbury, New Jersey, Associated University Presses, 1980. Llobera, Josep R. and Goldsmiths' College. "The role of historical memory in (ethno)nation-building." Goldsmiths Sociology Papers. London, Goldsmiths College, 1996. Mann, Golo. The History of Germany Since 1789 (1968) Namier, L.B. Avenues of History. New York, Macmillan, 1952. Nipperdey, Thomas. Germany from Napoleon to Bismarck, 1800–1866. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1996. Schjerve, Rosita Rindler, Diglossia and Power: Language Policies and Practice in the Nineteenth Century Habsburg Empire. Berlin, De Gruyter, 2003. Schulze, Hagen. The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck, 1763–1867. Cambridge & New York, Cambridge University Press, 1991. Scott, H. M. The Birth of a Great Power System. London & New York, Longman, 2006. Scribner, Robert W. and Sheilagh C. Ogilvie. Germany: A New Social and Economic History. London: Arnold Publication, 1996. Sheehan, James J. German History 1770–1866. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1989. Sked, Alan. Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815–1918. London, Longman, 2001. Sorkin, David, The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840, Studies in Jewish history. New York, Wayne State University Press, 1987. Sperber, Jonathan. The European Revolutions, 1848–1851. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984. Sperber, Jonathan. Popular Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Germany. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1984. Sperber, Jonathan. Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1993. Stargardt, Nicholas. The German Idea of Militarism: Radical and Socialist Critics, 1866–1914. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994. Steinberg, Jonathan. Bismarck: A Life (2011) Taylor, A. J. P., The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918, Oxford, Clarendon, 1954. Taylor, A. J. P. Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988. Victoria and Albert Museum, Dept. of Prints and Drawings, and Susan Lambert. The Franco-Prussian War and the Commune in Caricature, 1870–71. London, 1971. Walker, Mack. German Home Towns: Community, State, and General Estate, 1648–1871. Ithaca, Syracuse University Press, 1998. Wawro, Geoffrey. The Austro-Prussian War. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996. Wawro, Geoffrey]. Warfare and Society in Europe, 1792–1914. 2000. Wehler, Hans Ulrich. The German Empire, 1871–1918 (1997) Zamoyski, Adam. Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna. New York, HarperCollins, 2007. Further reading Bazillion, Richard J. Modernizing Germany: Karl Biedermann's career in the kingdom of Saxony, 1835–1901. American university studies. Series IX, History, vol. 84. New York, Peter Lang, 1990. Brose, Eric Dorn. German History, 1789–1871: From the Holy Roman Empire to the Bismarckian Reich. (1997) online edition Bucholz, Arden. Moltke, Schlieffen, and Prussian War Planning. New York, Berg Pub Ltd, 1991. Bucholz, Arden. Moltke and the German Wars 1864–1871. New York, Palgrave MacMillan, 2001. Clark, Christopher. Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600–1947. Cambridge, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006, 2009. Clemente, Steven E. For King and Kaiser!: The Making of the Prussian Army Officer, 1860–1914. Contributions in military studies, no. 123. New York: Greenwood, 1992. Cocks, Geoffrey and Konrad Hugo Jarausch. German Professions, 1800–1950. New York, Oxford University Press, 1990. Droysen, J.G. Modern History Sourcebook: Documents of German Unification, 1848–1871. Accessed April 9, 2009. Dwyer, Philip G. Modern Prussian history, 1830–1947. Harlow, England, New York: Longman, 2001. Friedrich, Otto. Blood and Iron: From Bismarck to Hitler the Von Moltke Family's Impact On German History. New York, Harper, 1995. Groh, John E. Nineteenth-Century German Protestantism: The Church As Social Model. Washington, D.C., University Press of America, 1982. Henne, Helmut, and Georg Objartel. German Student Jargon in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Berlin & NY, de Gruyter, 1983. Hughes, Michael. Nationalism and Society: Germany, 1800–1945. London & New York, Edward Arnold, 1988. Kollander, Patricia. Frederick III: Germany's Liberal Emperor, Contributions to the study of world history, no. 50. Westport, Conn., Greenwood, 1995. Koshar, Rudy. Germany's Transient Pasts: Preservation and the National Memory in the Twentieth Century. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Lowenstein, Steven M. The Berlin Jewish Community: Enlightenment, Family, and Crisis, 1770–1830. Studies in Jewish history. New York, Oxford University Press, 1994. Lüdtke, Alf. Police and State in Prussia, 1815–1850. Cambridge, New York & Paris, Cambridge University Press, 1989. Ogilvie, Sheilagh, and Richard Overy. Germany: A New Social and Economic History Volume 3: Since 1800 (2004) Ohles, Frederik. Germany's Rude Awakening: Censorship in the Land of the Brothers Grimm. Kent, Ohio, Ohio State University Press, 1992. Pflanze Otto, ed. The Unification of Germany, 1848–1871 (1979), essays by historians Schleunes, Karl A. Schooling and Society: The Politics of Education in Prussia and Bavaria, 1750–1900. Oxford & New York, Oxford University Press, 1989. Showalter, Dennis E. The Wars of German Unification (2nd ed. 2015), 412pp by a leading military historian Showalter, Dennis E. Railroads and Rifles: Soldiers, Technology, and the Unification of Germany. Hamden, Connecticut, Hailer Publishing, 1975. Smith, Woodruff D. Politics and the Sciences of Culture in Germany, 1840–1920. New York, Oxford University Press, 1991. Wawro, Geoffrey. The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2005. External links Documents of German Unification Bismarck and the Unification of Germany Modern history of Germany Germany . . Conflicts in 1866 Conflicts in 1871 . 19th century in politics
1071462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20Flyer%20%28film%29	Radio Flyer (film)	Radio Flyer is a 1992 American drama-fantasy film directed by Richard Donner and written by David Mickey Evans. It stars Lorraine Bracco, John Heard, Elijah Wood, Joseph Mazzello, Adam Baldwin, Ben Johnson and narrated by Tom Hanks. Evans was to make his directorial debut on the film but was replaced by Donner. Michael Douglas and Evans were executive producers. Filming locations included Novato, California, and Columbia Airport in Columbia, California. Plot Mike (Tom Hanks) observes his two sons fighting, with one insisting that a promise doesn't mean anything. To help them understand that a promise does mean something, he tells them the story of his youth. In 1969, 11-year-old Mike (Elijah Wood), his 8-year-old brother, Bobby, their mother, Mary, and their German Shepherd, Shane, relocate from New Jersey to Novato, California after their father/husband leaves them. There, Mary weds a new man named Jack MacKenzie, who the children call "The King". Unbeknownst to Mary, the King is an alcoholic who often gets drunk and beats Bobby. The King also repeatedly plays Hank Williams’s "Jambalaya (On the Bayou)" on his record player. Seeing that Mary has found happiness at last with the King, Bobby swears Mike to secrecy about the abuse. Instead, the two boys seek adventures to occupy the time that would otherwise be spent with the King; they recount the "seven great abilities and fascinations" of childhood while exploring their new surroundings and dealing with the neighborhood bullies. However, an unsupervised incident in the kitchen leads to Bobby being hospitalized by the King, but Shane gets revenge on the King by violently biting him on the arm. After spending time in jail, Jack is released following the death of his mother and returns to their house promising never to drink or abuse Bobby again; he violates his promise while the boys are at school and nearly kills Shane. As a result, the brothers devise a plan for Bobby to escape the King once and for all. Mary also starts to catch on to Jack's true nature and finally requests a divorce. Inspired by the urban legend of a boy named Fisher who attempted to fly away on his bicycle over a cliff nicknamed “The Wishing Spot”, the two convert their eponymous Radio Flyer toy wagon into an airplane in the hopes of sending Bobby and Shane away from harm. They draw up a schematic diagram with wings and an engine and scavenge numerous parts, secretly using the King's tools to build the aircraft in their shed. The boys also raise money by retrieving lost balls on a golf course and selling them back to the golfers. After leaving a farewell letter for their mother, the brothers take the device to the cliff at night, but the King discovers their plan and attempts to stop them, prompting Shane to furiously attack him. Bobby then speeds down the hill alone (knocking out the King with the wing of his plane) and triumphantly soars into the air as Mike and Shane look on. Mary arrives with police officer Jim Daugherty and the King is arrested. Though Mike never sees Bobby again, he continues to receive postcards from him from places all over the world. Back in the present, Mike reiterates to his sons the importance of keeping a promise, and imparts a lesson about history being in the mind of the teller. He concludes his story by saying, "That’s how I remember it." Cast Lorraine Bracco as Mary John Heard as Officer Jim Daugherty Elijah Wood as Mike Tom Hanks as Older Mike / Narrator (uncredited) Joseph Mazzello as Bobby Adam Baldwin as Jack "The King" MacKenzie (Jack's face is barely seen throughout the film) Ben Johnson as Bill "Geronimo Bill" Garette Ratliff as Chad Thomas Ian Nicholas as Ferdie Production David Mickey Evans's script for Radio Flyer was a hot property around Hollywood, and Warner Bros. and Columbia Pictures started a bidding war around it in November 1989. Warners had eyes on it as a vehicle for veteran director Richard Donner, while Columbia was buying it on behalf of Michael Douglas's production outfit Stonebridge Entertainment, which had a major production deal with the latter studio. Just before Thanksgiving, Columbia paid Evans a huge sum for a first-time Hollywood screenwriter: $1.25 million. The deal also gave Evans the opportunity to direct even though he had no prior experience helming a film. Douglas, however, believed Evans had the vision to pull it off. This was the first film Columbia put into production under the ownership of Sony, as well as one of the first films to be greenlit by the studio's new management, led by Peter Guber and Jon Peters. Filming started on June 18, 1990. Under Evans's direction, the film starred Rosanna Arquette as the mother, Tomas Arana as The King, and Luke Edwards and James Badge Dale as the children. The budget was set at $17–18 million after Evans agreed to cut some expensive effects sequences. However, Stonebridge executives found the dailies disappointing, and after 10 days of filming, Douglas shut down production, at a loss of $5 million. Douglas then recruited Richard Donner as the film's new director. With Evans's blessing, Donner accepted with a $5 million paycheck, while his wife, producer Lauren Shuler Donner came on board. Evans remained on the film as an executive producer. With the major players recast, Radio Flyer resumed production that October. Donner had Evans rewrite the script extensively to find a way to balance escapist fantasy and child abuse without alienating the audience. The film's original ending featured a present-day coda where a now-adult Mike, played by Tom Hanks, takes his children to the National Air and Space Museum, where the Radio Flyer/Plane hybrid is displayed next to the Wright Brothers' flying machine. Test audiences were confused by this ending and re-shoots led to the modern-day prologue and epilogue seen in the final film. A video game adaption of the film was being developed for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System by Ocean Software. The film was dedicated to the memory of script supervisor Nancy Benta Hansen and uncredited production assistant Simone Fuentes, "whose professionalism and humor we miss." Reception On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 35% based on reviews from 40 critics. The site's consensus is: "Overlaying its whimsical concept onto a gritty story of domestic abuse, Radio Flyer is a family film that is too harrowing for children and too saccharine for their parents." Roger Ebert and Leonard Maltin both criticized the film for presenting fantasy as a way of escaping child abuse. Said Ebert, "I was so appalled, watching this kid hurtling down the hill in his pathetic contraption, that I didn't know which ending would be worse. If he fell to his death, that would be unthinkable, but if he soared up to the moon, it would be unforgivable—because you can't escape from child abuse in little red wagons, and even the people who made this picture should have been ashamed to suggest otherwise." Because the film in fact ends with Bobby successfully evading his stepfather forever, viewers (including Ebert himself) have taken to speculating on the "true" ending, assuming that the one presented was a case of an unreliable narrator. References External links Official trailer HBO Max 1992 films 1990s fantasy drama films American fantasy drama films American films American aviation films Columbia Pictures films Films about brothers Films about child abuse Films about domestic violence Films directed by Richard Donner Films scored by Hans Zimmer Films with screenplays by David Mickey Evans 1992 drama films
1076967	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1986%20in%20Ireland	1986 in Ireland	Events from the year 1986 in Ireland. Incumbents President: Patrick Hillery Taoiseach: Garret FitzGerald (FG) Tánaiste: Dick Spring (Lab) Minister for Finance: Alan Dukes (FG) (until 14 February 1986) John Bruton (FG) (from 14 February 1986) Chief Justice: Thomas Finlay Dáil: 24th Seanad: 17th Events 2 January – The national offices of the Progressive Democrats were officially opened. 4 January – Phil Lynott, the lead singer of Thin Lizzy, died aged 35. 11 February – Ireland's new football team manager, Jack Charlton, arrived in Dublin. 18 March – Irish citizenship was conferred on Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, Tip O'Neill, for inspiring constitutional nationalists to launch an initiative for a new Ireland. 31 March – President Hillery and Mrs. Hillery started a four-day official visit to Austria. This was the first Irish state visit there. 4 May – radiation from the devastated Chernobyl nuclear reactor in the Ukraine reached Ireland. 6 May – the Divorce Action Group launched its campaign for the forthcoming divorce referendum. 21 May – eighteen Old Master paintings from the Beit collection were stolen from Russborough House by Martin "The General" Cahill. 30 May – Ireland West Airport Knock, County Mayo was officially opened. June (date unknown) – Mick Flavin becomes a new star to country music or a King Of Country. 2 June – Fire destroys Loreto Convent, St. Stephen's Green; six nuns die in the blaze. 6 June – John Stalker was removed from the 'shoot to kill' inquiry. 12 June – two giant pandas, Ming Ming and Ping Ping, arrived at Dublin Zoo. 21 June – an anti-divorce rally took place in Dublin. 27 June – across the country, counting began in the Divorce Referendum. Tallymen predicted a strong 'no' vote. 1 August – Monsignor James Horan, Parish Priest of Knock, County Mayo & Builder of Knock Airport, dies suddenly aged 75 in Lourdes 7 August – the deputy leader of the Democratic Unionist Party, Peter Robinson MP, was arrested and charged with illegal assembly, after a loyalist mob took over a village in County Monaghan. 25–6 August – the remnants of Hurricane Charley struck Ireland. Dublin suffered its worst flooding since records began in 1880, and a new record for the greatest rainfall in one day was set when 200 millimetres of rain was measured at Kilcoole in County Wicklow. The Dodder and Dargle rivers overflowed leading to flooding of 416 houses and 35 commercial premises in Dublin. November – Giant's Causeway and the Causeway Coast became the first Irish UNESCO World Heritage Sites designated. 23 October – thirteen-year-old Philip Cairns disappeared on his way back to school after lunch. 30 October – 20p coin enters circulation. December (date unknown) – the Government banned South African food imports, about half the total of South African imports into Ireland, in protest against apartheid. 25 December – Dublin Airport was open for the first time on a Christmas Day. 31 December – at the United States Embassy in Dublin, visa applications rose by 25%. 30,000 people emigrated during 1986. Arts and literature 17 May – the Self Aid unemployment benefit concert was held in Dublin, featuring dozens of performers. Sigerson Clifford published the second edition of his poetry collection Ballads of a Bogman, including the first publication of "The Boys of Barr na Sráide". Bob Geldof published his autobiography, Is That It? Patrick McCabe published his novel, Music on Clinton Street. John Montague became the first occupant of the Ireland Chair of Poetry. The film Eat the Peach was released. Sport Football Ireland did not qualify for the 1986 FIFA World Cup. Golf The Irish Open was won by Seve Ballesteros (Spain). Births 23 January – Luke Fitzpatrick, soccer player. 10 February – Steven Foley-Sheridan, soccer player. 17 February – Joey O'Brien, soccer player. 24 February – Claire Hennessy, author. 1 March – Shane O'Neill, Cork hurler. 4 April – Stephen Quinn, soccer player. 18 April – Conrad Logan, soccer player. 30 April – Derek Doyle, soccer player. 16 May – Andy Keogh, soccer player. 19 May – Paul Byrne, soccer player. 23 May – Shane McFaul, soccer player. 3 June – Donal Skehan, singer and television presenter. 8 June – Michael Shields, Cork Gaelic footballer, Australian rules footballer. 2 July – Katie Taylor, boxer 11 July – Gerard Nash, soccer player. 31 July – Gary Dicker, soccer player, Deirdre Codd , Wexford Camogie player. 22 August – Stephen Ireland, soccer player. 31 August – Colm Begley, Australian rules footballer. 10 September – Eoin Morgan, cricketer. 19 October – Shaun Williams, soccer player. 20 November – Evan McMillan, soccer player. Deaths 4 January – Phil Lynott, singer and songwriter (born 1949). 10 February – James Dillon, former leader of Fine Gael, TD and Minister (born 1902). 12 February – James Joseph Magennis, British Royal Navy submariner awarded Victoria Cross for taking part in Operation Struggle in 1945 (born 1919). 1 March – Cahir Davitt, lawyer and judge (born 1894). 4 March – Edward McLysaght, genealogist and writer (born 1887). 16 March – Pat Carroll, Offaly hurler (born 1956). 28 March – Eddie McAteer, Nationalist Party (Northern Ireland) MP (born 1914). 13 May – Peadar O'Donnell, Irish Republican socialist, Marxist activist and writer (born 1893). 22 May – James Christopher Branigan, aka "Lugs Branigan", police officer and boxer (born 1910). 20 July – Dermot Honan. licensed vintner, member of the Seanad from 1965 to 1973. 1 August – James Horan, Roman Catholic monsignor, conceived and created Ireland West Airport Knock (born 1911). 1 October – Seán Moore, Fianna Fáil TD (born 1913). Full date unknown Eddie Duffy, traditional Irish musician (born 1894). Cecil King, painter (born 1921). See also 1986 in Irish television References 1980s in Ireland Years of the 20th century in Ireland Ireland
1077400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922%20in%20Ireland	1922 in Ireland	Events from the year 1922 in Ireland. Incumbents Governor-General: Tim Healy (from 6 December) Chairman of the Provisional Government: Michael Collins (16 January 1922 to 22 August) W. T. Cosgrave (22 August to 6 December) President of the Executive Council: W. T. Cosgrave (from 6 December) Events January–February 2 January – the first edition of the newspaper Poblacht na hÉireann is published. It is established by Irish republican opponents to the Anglo-Irish Treaty who declare their fealty to the Irish Republic. 6 January – the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty are published. Éamon de Valera offers his resignation as president. 7 January – Dáil Éireann votes on the Treaty following Arthur Griffith's motion for approval. The result is 64 in favour and 57 against. 9 January – Éamon de Valera fails to be re-elected as President of the Irish Republic. 10 January – Arthur Griffith is elected President of the Provisional Government. Michael Collins becomes Minister for Finance. De Valera and 56 of his supporters walk out of Dáil Éireann. 12 January – the Government of the United Kingdom releases remaining Irish prisoners captured in the War of Independence. 16 January The Provisional Government of Ireland first meets; a transitional entity to ensure the establishment of the Irish Free State by the end of 1922. Dublin Castle handed over to the Irish Republican Army (IRA). The 2nd Southern Division of the Irish Republican Army, led by Ernie O'Malley, repudiates the authority of its GHQ. 30 January – the first meeting of the committee to draft a constitution for the Irish Free State takes place under the chairmanship of Michael Collins. 31 January The first unit of the new National Army, a former IRA unit of the Dublin Guard, takes possession of Beggars Bush Barracks, the first British military transfer to the new State (formal handover 1 February). The first edition of Iris Oifigiúil is published: it is the newspaper of record of the state and replaces The Dublin Gazette (7 November 1705–27 January 1922). 7 February – at the opening of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in Westminster, King George V of the United Kingdom says that the world is anxiously awaiting the final establishment of the Irish Free State. 10 February – the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922 is introduced in the British House of Commons. It provides for the dissolution of the Parliament of Southern Ireland and the election of a parliament to which the Provisional Government will be responsible. 11 February – Clones Affray (County Monaghan): gun battle at Clones railway station between IRA volunteers and members of the Ulster Special Constabulary travelling to Belfast; five killed. 12 February – at the launch of the Republican Party, Éamon de Valera says that the Treaty denies the sovereignty of the Irish people. 17 February – existing British postage stamps issued with overprint Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann 1922. 18 February – Liam Forde, Officer Commanding the Irish Republican Army Mid-Limerick Brigade, proclaims that it no longer recognises Collins's authority. February – the Civic Guard – predecessor of the Garda Síochána – is established as a police force to replace the Royal Irish Constabulary in areas outside Dublin and Ulster. March–April 22 March – senior officer Rory O'Connor declares that the Irish Republican Army will no longer obey Dáil Éireann. 1 April The British Government orders the release of all Irish prisoners in British prisons convicted of sedition. The Irish Post Office takes over responsibility for its own operations. 26–28 April – Dunmanway killings: Thirteen Protestant men, suspected of involvement as or with informants to the British Army, are killed in and around Dunmanway, County Cork. 14 April – Rory O'Connor, with 200 other anti-Treaty Irish Republican Army men under his command, occupies the Four Courts building in the centre of Dublin in defiance of the Provisional Government. 26 April – the Irish Catholic Church hierarchy implores the people of Ireland to accept the Treaty and to make the best of the freedom which it brings. May–June 4 May – a conference at the Mansion House, Dublin, between both sections of the Irish Republican Army secures a three-day truce. 15 May – the Civic Guard Mutiny begins in Kildare. 16 May – the final group of British troops leave the Curragh Camp. 19 May – the Irish Republican Army, with Collins's covert support, attempts to launch a "Northern Offensive" in Ulster. 20 May – a "pact" between de Valera and Collins provides that Sinn Féin contest election as a single party 22 May – two hundred men, all Catholics, are arrested and interned under the Special Powers Act after a period of public disorder and the murder of a member of the Parliament of Northern Ireland, mostly on the Argenta prison ship moored in Belfast Lough. They include national spokesman Sean Nethercott and national leader Cahir Healy. June – the first aircraft of the Air Corps arrives at Baldonnel Aerodrome. 1 June – official founding of the Royal Ulster Constabulary. 12 June – at Windsor Castle in England, King George V receives the colours of the six Irish regiments that are to be disbanded – the Royal Irish Regiment, the Connaught Rangers, the South Irish Horse, the Prince of Wales's Leinster Regiment, the Royal Munster Fusiliers and the Royal Dublin Fusiliers. 16 June – pro-treaty candidates receive 75 percent of the vote in the general election. 22 June – IRA agents assassinate British field marshal Sir Henry Wilson in London (they are sentenced to death on 18 July). 28 June – the Irish Civil War and Battle of Dublin begin when the National Army, using artillery loaned by the British, begins to bombard the anti-Treaty Irish Republican Army forces occupying the Four Courts. 29 June – the National Army storms the Four Courts, taking 33 prisoners with the loss of three of their men. 30 June – there is a major explosion in the Four Courts. On orders from Oscar Traynor, Ernie O'Malley surrenders the garrison to Brigadier General Paddy Daly of the Free State's Dublin Guard. Three republicans have died in the siege. July–August 4 July – the anti-Treaty Irish Republican Army captures Skibbereen and Listowel, effectively clearing pro-Treaty troops from County Cork and establishing the "Munster Republic". 5 July – end of the Battle of Dublin. Cathal Brugha refuses to surrender himself and is badly wounded as he tries to leave his garrison in the Hamman Hotel, dying two days later. 8 July – the National Army takes Blessington. 13 July – the Free State government appoints a War Council, comprising Michael Collins, Richard Mulcahy and Eoin O'Duffy, to direct military operations against the Irregulars. 16 July – three hundred IRA members are captured in Dundalk, County Louth, by the National Army. Seventy more surrender in County Sligo and their last stronghold in County Donegal is captured. 19 July – the National Army secures Limerick. 20 July – IRA surrender Waterford. 24 July – a National Army force lands near Westport, County Mayo, and the IRA abandons the town. 27 July – 105 IRA prisoners escape from Dundalk Gaol. 30 July – the Dublin Guard take Bruree. 31 July – Éamon de Valera's Private Secretary, Harry Boland, is seriously wounded while resisting arrest in a hotel room in Dublin. 2 August – the Dublin Guard lands from a ship at Fenit and begins to drive the IRA out of County Kerry. 3 August National Army troops driving south cross the River Shannon at Kilrush. IRA detachment led by Dan Breen lose Carrick-on-Suir to a National Army column. 5 August – the National Army enters Kilmallock. 7–8 August – National Army forces commanded by Emmet Dalton, embarked on ships in Dublin, land at Youghal, Union Hall and Passage West to retake County Cork from the "Munster Republic". 8 August – IRA blows up rail and road viaducts at Ballyvoile in County Waterford. 10 August – the National Army secures the city of Cork; end of the "Munster Republic". 11 August – Fermoy is abandoned to the National Army. 12 August – Arthur Griffith dies suddenly in Dublin. He founded Sinn Féin, was a supporter of national self-reliance and led the Treaty negotiations in 1921. 16 August – the funeral of Arthur Griffith takes place at Glasnevin Cemetery in Dublin. W. T. Cosgrave delivers the graveside oration. 17 August – Dublin Castle is formally handed over to the National Army as the last British Army troops leave. 19 August – remaining units of the Irish Republican Army are ordered to adopt guerrilla tactics. 22 August – Michael Collins is killed in an ambush at Béal na Bláth, County Cork. In his 32 years of life he fought during the Easter Rising in 1916, was a member of the delegation that negotiated the Treaty in 1921 and at the time of his death was Commander-in-Chief of the government forces. 28 August – all businesses close for the day as a mark of respect for the funeral of Michael Collins which takes place today. Richard Mulcahy delivers the graveside oration. September–October 9 September – the first meeting of the Provisional Parliament, or the Third Dáil, takes place at Leinster House. W. T. Cosgrave is elected President of Dáil Éireann and Chairman of the Provisional Government. 17 September – W. T. Cosgrave introduces the Constitution of Saorstát Éireann Bill to enable the implementation of the Treaty between Great Britain and Ireland. 16 October – two men, James Ambrose and Daniel King, are killed by shots fired into a car traveling from Newcastle West to Ballyquirk, Limerick. 26 October – the standing committee of Sinn Féin last meets before the party de facto dissolves. November–December 17 November – four IRA prisoners are executed by firing squad at Kilmainham Gaol after conviction by an Irish military court for the unlawful possession of guns. 24 November – Erskine Childers is executed by firing squad at Beggars Bush Barracks after conviction by an Irish military court for the unlawful possession of a gun, a weapon presented to him by Michael Collins in 1920 as a gift. 5 December – the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacts the Irish Free State Constitution Act, by which it legally sanctions the new Constitution of the Irish Free State. 6 December Twelve months after the signing of the Treaty the Irish Free State officially comes into existence. First domestically designed 2d postage stamp issued depicting a map of Ireland and inscribed Éire. The office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland is abolished and replaced by the offices of Governor-General of the Irish Free State (held by Timothy Michael Healy) and Governor of Northern Ireland (held by the Duke of Abercorn). 7 December – the Parliament of Northern Ireland votes to remain part of the United Kingdom. 8 December - Northern Ireland rejoins the United Kingdom. 10 December - anti-Treaty IRA men set fire to the home of Seán McGarry. His seven-year-old son, Emmet, is badly burned and dies. 11 December Seanad Éireann first meets. Existing British postage stamps issued with overprint Saorstát Éireann 1922 (an overprint of "Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann 1922" had been used since 17 February). Pope Pius XI sends a message to the government of the Irish Free State praying for a "happy era of peace and prosperity". 12 December – The Duke of Abercorn becomes first Governor of Northern Ireland, a post he held until 1945. 13 December – the Oireachtas meets for the first time, at Leinster House in Dublin. The Governor-General, Tim Healy, delivers the first address to both houses. A message from King George V is also read out. Undated – the names of King's County and Queen's County are informally changed to Offaly and Laois respectively. See also Timeline of the Irish Civil War Arts and literature 2 February – James Joyce's novel Ulysses is first published complete in book form by Sylvia Beach in Paris on his 40th birthday. John Lavery paints Michael Collins (Love of Ireland). Sport Football League of Ireland Winners: St James's Gate (first ever competition) FAI Cup Winners: St James's Gate 1–1, 1–0 Shamrock Rovers (first ever competition, played at Dalymount Park, Dublin, 17 March; replay at same venue 8 April) Gaelic Games The All-Ireland Champions are Kilkenny (hurling) and Dublin (Gaelic football) Births 9 January – Patrick Denis O'Donnell, military historian, writer and Commandant of the Irish Defence Forces (died 2005). 10 January – Terence Kilmartin, member of the British Special Operations Executive, journalist and translator (died 1991). 26 January – Seán Flanagan, captain of winning Mayo All Ireland football teams in the 1950s, Fianna Fáil TD, Cabinet Minister and MEP (died 1993). 22 February – Joe Carr, amateur golfer (died 2004). 7 March – Paddy Clancy, folk singer (died 1998). 4 April – Máire Mhac an tSaoi, Irish language scholar and academic. 25 April – Tommy Maher, Kilkenny hurler and coach (died 2015). 28 April – Proinsias Ó Maonaigh, fiddle player (died 2006). 4 June – Terry de Valera, youngest son of Éamon de Valera and Sinéad de Valera, solicitor, Taxing Master of Supreme Court until 1992 (died 2007). 14 June – Kevin Roche, architect (died 2019 in the United States). 12 July – Reginald Lyons, cricketer (died 1976). 14 July – Bríd Mahon, folklorist (died 2008). 15 July – Cathal Ó Sándair, writer (born in England; died 1996). 30 July – James Dooge, Fine Gael TD and Cabinet Minister (died 2010). 8 September – Kathleen Ryan, actress (died 1985). 11 September – Freddie Anderson, playwright and socialist (died 2001). 27 September – James Wilson, composer (died 2005). 1 October – Neil Blaney, Fianna Fáil TD, Cabinet Minister and MEP (died 1995). 25 October – Brendan Cauldwell, actor (died 2006). 28 October – Con Murphy, Cork hurler and President of the Gaelic Athletic Association (died 2007). 23 November – Denis Gallagher, Fianna Fáil TD and Cabinet Minister (died 2001). 24 November – Richard Leech, actor (died 2004). 3 December – Kit Lawlor, soccer player (died 2004). 19 December – Eamonn Andrews, broadcaster (died 1987). Deaths 5 January – Ernest Shackleton, explorer, remembered for his Antarctic expedition of 1914–1916 in the ship Endurance (born 1874). 11 January – Thomas Lough, Liberal politician in Britain, Lord Lieutenant of Cavan (born 1850). 1 February Harry Hammon Lyster, recipient of the Victoria Cross for gallantry in 1858 at Calpee, India (born 1830). William Desmond Taylor, film director in the United States, murdered (born 1872). 3 February – John Butler Yeats, artist and father of William Butler Yeats and Jack Butler Yeats (born 1839). 16 April – Frank Lawless, Sinn Féin TD, member of the 1st Dáil and the 2nd Dáil (born 1870). 29 April – Richard Croker, politician in the United States and a leader of New York City's Tammany Hall (born 1843). 22 May – William J. Twaddell, Ulster Unionist Party MP, assassinated by Irish Republican Army (born 1884). 31 May – Joseph McGuinness, Sinn Féin MP and TD, member of the 1st Dáil (born 1875). 22 June – Sir Henry Wilson, British Field Marshal and Conservative Party politician, killed by the IRA (born 1864). 7 July – Cathal Brugha, active in Easter Rising, Irish War of Independence, and Irish Civil War and first Ceann Comhairle of Dáil Éireann, shot by Free State troops (born 1874). 26 July – John Clark, boxer (born 1849). 2 August – Harry Boland, Irish Volunteer in Easter Rising, Sinn Féin MP, shot by members of the Free State National Army (born 1887). 12 August – Arthur Griffith, founder and third leader of Sinn Féin, served as President of Dáil Éireann (born 1872). 22 August – Michael Collins, Revolutionary and Commander-in-Chief of the Irish Free State Army, Cabinet Minister, shot and killed (born 1890). 21 September – Frederick Thomas Trouton, physicist responsible for Trouton's Rule (born 1863). 24 November – Erskine Childers, writer, nationalist, executed by Free State firing squad (born 1870). 8 December – executed in Mountjoy Jail during the Irish Civil War Richard Barrett, Irish Republican Army member (born 1889). Joe McKelvey, Irish Republican Army officer (born 1898). Liam Mellows, Sinn Féin politician, member of 1st Dáil (born 1895). Rory O'Connor, Irish republican activist, captured at the fall of the Four Courts (born 1883). 20 December – Séamus Dwyer, Sinn Féin politician, shot (born 1886). 25 December – Joseph MacDonagh, anti-Treaty Sinn Féin member of 1st Dáil representing Tipperary North, insurance broker (born 1883). References 1920s in Ireland Ireland Years of the 20th century in Ireland
1088753	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudeamus%20igitur	Gaudeamus igitur	"De Brevitate Vitae" (Latin for "On the Shortness of Life"), more commonly known as "Gaudeamus igitur" ("So Let Us Rejoice") or just "Gaudeamus", is a popular academic commercium song in many European countries, mainly sung or performed at university and high-school graduation ceremonies. Despite its use as a formal graduation hymn, it is a jocular, light-hearted composition that pokes fun at university life. The song is thought to originate in a Latin manuscript from 1287. It is in the tradition of carpe diem ("seize the day") with its exhortations to enjoy life. It was known as a beer-drinking song in many early universities and is the official song of many schools, colleges, universities, institutions, student societies and is the official anthem of the International University Sports Federation. Content The lyrics reflect an endorsement of the bacchanalian mayhem of student life while simultaneously retaining the grim knowledge that one day we will all die. The song contains humorous and ironic references to sex and death, and many versions have appeared following efforts to bowdlerise this song for performance in public ceremonies. In private, students will typically sing ribald words. The song is sometimes known by its opening words, "Gaudeamus igitur" or simply "Gaudeamus". In the UK, it is sometimes affectionately known as "The Gaudie". The centuries of use have given rise to numerous slightly different versions. Lyrics The proposition that the lyrics originate in 1287 is based on a manuscript held in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris. A poem starting with the words Subscribere proposui ("I have suggested signing (it)") has two verses that closely resemble the later Gaudeamus igitur verses, although neither the first verse nor the actual words Gaudeamus igitur appear. The music accompanying this poem bears no relation to the melody which is now associated with it. A German translation of these verses was made in about 1717 and published in 1730 without music. A Latin version in a handwritten student songbook, dating from some time between 1723 and 1750, is preserved in the Berlin State Library (formerly located at Marburg); however, this differs considerably from the modern text. The current Latin lyrics with a German translation were published by Halle in 1781 in Studentenlieder ("Students' Songs") written by Christian Wilhelm Kindleben (1748-1785), who admitted to making important changes to the text. Below is Kindleben's 1781 Latin version, with two translations to English (one anonymous, and another by Tr. J. Mark Sugars, 1997). The New-Latin word Antiburschius refers to opponents of the 19th-century politically active German student fraternities. The letters 'j' and 'u' used in some modern transcriptions do not occur in classical Latin. When sung, the first two lines and the last line of each stanza are repeated; for instance: Gaudeamus igitur, Iuvenes dum sumus, Gaudeamus igitur, Iuvenes dum sumus, Post jucundam juventutem, Post molestam senectutem, Nos habebit humus, Nos habebit humus. Music The first appearance in print of the present melody was in Lieder für Freunde der Geselligen Freude ("Songs for Friends of Convivial Joy"), published in Leipzig in 1782, together with Kindleben's German lyrics; however, the tune was evidently well known before this date. The first publication of the present Latin text together with the present melody was probably in Ignaz Walter's 1797 operatic setting of Doktor Faust. It is also heard in Berlioz' Damnation of Faust. Johannes Brahms quoted the melody in the final section of his Academic Festival Overture, in a fortissimo rendition performed by the full orchestra. Sigmund Romberg used it in the operetta The Student Prince, which is set at the University of Heidelberg. It is quoted in Johann Strauss II's "Studenten-Polka" (Française, Op.263), first performed at the students' ball at the Redoutensaal on 24 February 1862. The tune is quoted, along with other student songs, in the overture of Franz von Suppé's 1863 operetta Flotte Burschen, the action being once again set at the University of Heidelberg. Basing it on the original melody, Franz Liszt has composed the Gaudeamus igitur—Paraphrase and later (1870) the Gaudeamus igitur—Humoreske. Modern version is rearrangement for male chorus with piano accompaniment, by Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1874) (TH 187 ; ČW 413). Languages in which the anthem was performed at the Universiade In popular culture The melody is woven through the soundtrack of Harold Lloyd's silent film The Freshman (1925). It can be heard in the classic 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, during part of the sequence where the Wizard presents awards to each of Dorothy's companions. The song is sung in the James Stewart movie The Mortal Storm (1940). It was sung in Howard Hawks' Ball of Fire (1941) by a number of academics at a party where they are celebrating the upcoming nuptials of a professor played by Gary Cooper. It is sung in the remake of Ball of Fire, A Song Is Born (1948), starring Danny Kaye. It is performed as the musical theme of the classic 1951 Joseph L. Mankiewicz's film People Will Talk, delightfully "conducted" by Cary Grant - actually under Alfred Newman's baton. This film is a remake of the German Frauenarzt Dr. Praetorius, in which actor/director Curt Goetz performs that scene with the same music in the film based on his own play and screenplay. In Yasujirō Ozu’s 1952 film The Flavor of Green Tea over Rice (Ochazuke no Aji), the first verse is sung in a Tokyo bar by a young man who has just graduated and is about to embark on his working life. The song is sung on several occasions during the film The Student Prince, (1954), starring Edmund Purdom and Ann Blyth. The music is played at the end of the Perry Mason TV episode "The Case of the Brazen Request," (Season 5, Episode 12, Sept. 1961) during Perry's characteristic "wrap up" of the case. Peter Alexander sings this song in a medley in the 1963 film Der Musterknabe. An arrangement of the tune is played on The Andy Griffith Show episode "The Education of Ernest T. Bass" (1964), when Bass receives his diploma. In the film Lord Love a Duck (1966), a fairly modern vocal version is sung during graduation ceremonies. The Happy Days episode "Fonzie Drops In" (1974) plays the melody when the character Fonzie goes back to high school. It is alluded to in the Terry Pratchett novel Equal Rites (1987), where the character Treatle misquotes it: "Alma mater, gaudy armours eagle tour and so on." A modified version can be heard in some episodes of the Saturday-morning cartoon Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends. The melody also served as the music of the fictional school, Greenleaf High anthem, 'Hail To Thee O Greenleaf High' in the 1997 film In and Out. The song is sung in Lars von Trier's 1997 Danish TV mini-series Riget II, by a group of medical students as a sign of appreciation to their pathology teacher Professor Bondo, as a response to the latter having let a malign sarcoma be transplanted into his own bowels. This Song was Used in PopCap Games Bookworm Deluxe Highscore Menu. An excerpt of the song was performed by cast members of the television series The West Wing during the episode entitled "Debate Camp" (2002). Afterward, one character is asked by another what the lyrics mean, and he gives a standard English translation of the first verse. A sped-up orchestral version of the song plays shortly during a scene of the characters chasing a pet pig in the 2013 film Monsters University. In the 2013 Dutch film , the song is sung to uplift spirits, after a party of the fictional student society HSV Mercurius is shut down by riot police. Singing the song makes them feel proud to be students, as they stand their ground against the riot police. Yale University alumna Jodie Foster included a slightly sped-up version of the Yale Glee Club's 1991 a cappella recording of the song, arranged and conducted by legendary YGC Director Fenno Heath, in her 1991 film Little Man Tate. She wished to express "the grandeur of the college experience" on exceptionally-gifted-child character Fred Tate's first day at university. The song's title is featured in several section headings in Infinite Jest. This song is sung at Smith College's convocation ceremony in Northampton, Massachusetts at the start of every academic year. It is known as Smith's anthem. "Gaudeamus Igitur" is a short story by Shirley Jackson that appears in Let Me Tell You: New Stories, Essays, and Other Writing. The song was often heard in Tiny Toon Adventures in establishing shots of Acme Looniversity. Recordings This song is referenced in satirist Tom Lehrer's song "Bright College Days" in his 1959 self-published album More of Tom Lehrer and in his more-recent album An Evening Wasted with Tom Lehrer, in the line "Turn on the spigot, pour the beer and swig it, and gaudeamus ig-it-[hic!]-itur", the interruption being an intoxicated hiccup. In the middle section of the Allan Sherman song "Dropouts March" (on the album Allan in Wonderland (1964)), an Alma Mater Chorus sings the following humorous line set to the melody: "Ignoramus there you are; Sitting in your hopped-up car; And your brains ain't up to par; And your ears stick out too far". This song is on the full version of Melanie's "Stop I Don't Want to Hear It Anymore" from 1971. The song is referenced in the Godley & Creme song "Punchbag" from their L album. A performance of the first, most characteristic strophe was recorded in the mid-20th century by the Italian-American tenor Mario Lanza, and is still available under the title "Gaudeamus Igitur". A doo wop version is available by the Escorts, from 1962, perhaps the only doo wop song sung in Latin. (Coral 62317) See also Ars longa, vita brevis Gaudy Ubi sunt References External links Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Gustav Schwetschke: Gaudeamus igitur. Eine Studie von Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Nebst einem Sendschreiben und Carmen an Denselben von Gustav Schwetschke. Halle, 1872. Other (often non-original but altered) text variants: Johann Christian Christoph Rüdiger (editor, published as only "R-d-r"): Auswahl guter Trinklieder, oder Töne der Freude und des Weins, beym freundschaftlichen Mahle anzustimmen. Aus den besten Dichtern gesammlet. – Trink- oder Commersch-Lieder, beym freundschaftlichen Mahle zu singen, aus den besten Dichtern gesammlet. 2nd edition, Hendelscher Verlag, Halle 1795, p. 142–143. Neues deutsches allgemeines Commers- und Liederbuch. Germania, 1815, p. 20–21 and 180–183 (Das neue Gaudeamus). Leipziger Commersbuch. Bei Karl Tauchnitz, Leipzig, 1816, p. 106–108. Berlinisches Commersbuch. Bey Theodor Joh. Chr. Fr. Enslin, Berlin, 1817, p. 27–28 and 158–159 (Das neue Gaudeamus). Neues Commersbuch. Germania, 1818, p. 42–43. Neues teutsches allgemeines Commers- und Liederbuch. 3rd edition, Germania, 1820 (Tübingen in der Osiander'schen Buchhandlung), p. 25–26. Auswahl deutscher Volks- und Burschen-Lieder. Gedruckt und verlegt von der Deckerschen Geheimen Ober-Hofbuchdruckerei, Berlin, 1821, p. 113–114. Urceus Lebensreise. – Meine Lebensreise. In sechs Stazionen zur Belehrung der Jugend und zur Unterhaltung des Alters beschrieben von Urceus. Nebst Franz Volkmar Reinhard's Briefen an den Verfasser. Leipzig, 1825, p. 179–180 containg Das neue Gaudeamus (The new Gaudeamus). Deutsche Studenten-Lieder des siebzehnten und achtzehnten Jahrhunderts. Nach alten Handschriften gesammelt und mit einleitenden Bemerkungen über die geschichte des deutschen Studentenliedes versehen von Dr. Robert Keil und Dr. Richard Keil. Verlag von M. Schauenburg & C., Lahr, p. 165–167 having „Gaudeamus igitur. (Jenenser Blatt vom Jahr 1776.)“. a medical travesty, by Kayser from Breslau: Archivii italiani di laringologia periodico trimestrale. Anno X. Ottobre 1890 Fasc. 4. Napoli, 1890, p. 180–181. Internationales Centralblatt für Laryngologie, Rhinologie und verwandte Wissenschaften. Siebenter Jahrgang. (Juli 1890 bis Juni 1891.) Berlin, 1891, p. 132–133. . Gaudeamus igitur, lyrics in Latin, English, German, Finnish and Esperanto, midi melody Songs: De Brevitate Vitae performed by the Roosevelt Academy Choir Gaudeamus Igitur sung at Smith College convocation, 2008 Note the stomping and enthusiasm for the "Vivat academia!" and "Vivant professores" lines. Gaudeamus Igitur. Full Latin version. Sung by Basil Billow (audio) Commercium songs Latin-language songs Latin words and phrases Graduation songs Universiade Sporting songs
1102948	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy%20DeMeo	Roy DeMeo	Roy Albert DeMeo (; September 7, 1940 – January 10, 1983) was an Italian-American mobster in the Gambino crime family of New York City. He headed a group referred to as the "DeMeo crew", which became notorious for the large number of murders they committed and for the grisly way they disposed of the bodies, which became known as "the Gemini Method". The crew was responsible for a very large number of murders, possibly as many as 200, with the majority of them committed by DeMeo himself. Early life Roy Albert DeMeo was born on September 7, 1940 in Flatlands, Brooklyn, to a working-class Italian immigrant family of Neapolitan origin. The fourth of five children of Eleanor (a housewife) and Anthony DeMeo (a laundry company deliveryman), DeMeo graduated from James Madison High School in 1959, during which time he began earning money as a loanshark. Between the ages of fifteen and twenty-two, he also worked at a local grocery store, where he trained as an apprentice butcher. Roy's older brother Anthony Frank "Chubby" DeMeo, a U.S. Marine Corps corporal, was killed in action during the Korean War on April 23, 1951, aged twenty. His father died of a heart attack on December 12, 1960 when Roy was nineteen, and his mother subsequently returned to Italy with Roy's youngest brother to live with relatives near Naples. Criminal career Gambino family Roy DeMeo was initially an associate of the Flatlands–Canarsie faction of the Lucchese crime family, which controlled tow truck companies, junkyards, and car theft operations in that section of Brooklyn. Anthony Gaggi, a soldier in the Gambino crime family, noticed DeMeo in 1966 and told him that he could make even more money with his successful business if he came to work directly for the Gambinos. Through the late 1960s, DeMeo's organized crime prospects increased on two fronts. He continued in the loansharking business with Gaggi, and began developing a crew of young men involved in car theft. It was this collective of criminals that became known both in the underworld and in law enforcement circles as the DeMeo crew. The first member of the DeMeo crew was 16-year-old Chris Rosenberg, who met DeMeo in 1966 when he was dealing marijuana at a Canarsie gas station. DeMeo helped Rosenberg increase his business and profits by loaning him money so that he could deal in larger amounts. By 1972, Rosenberg had introduced his friends to DeMeo and they began working for him as well. The additional members of the crew came to include Joseph and Patrick Testa, Anthony Senter, Richard and Frederick DiNome, Henry Borelli, Joseph "Dracula" Guglielmo (DeMeo's cousin), and later, Vito Arena and Carlo Profeta. DeMeo joined a Brooklyn credit union that same year, gaining a position on the board of directors shortly afterward. He utilized his position to launder money earned through his illegal ventures. He also introduced colleagues at the credit union to a lucrative side-business, laundering the money of drug dealers he had become acquainted with. DeMeo also built up his loansharking business with funds stolen from credit union reserves. DeMeo's collection of loanshark customers, while still primarily those in the car industry, soon included other businesses such as a dentist's office, an abortion clinic, restaurants and flea markets. He was also listed as an employee for a Brooklyn company named S & C Sportswear Corporation, and frequently told his neighbors he worked in construction, food retailing and the used car business. Bonanno underboss Salvatore Vitale claimed to the FBI that in 1974 he was ordered to deliver the corpse of a man who had just been murdered to a garage in Queens so that it could be disposed of by DeMeo. In late 1974, a conflict that had erupted between the DeMeo crew and Andrei Katz, a young auto repair shop owner who was partners with DeMeo in a stolen car ring, had continued to escalate. In January 1975, Katz visited the Brooklyn District Attorney's Office and voluntarily provided them information that Chris Rosenberg was heavily involved in auto theft. DeMeo learned about the meeting immediately after it happened from an Auto Crimes detective on his payroll. Roy ordered DeMeo crew associate Henry Borelli to contact a female acquaintance, Babette Judith Questel, about being used as bait. In May, Andrei appeared before a Brooklyn grand jury and divulged what he knew about the DeMeo crew's illegal activities. On June 13, 1975, Questel was used to successfully lure Katz to her Manhattan apartment complex for what he thought was a date, where upon arrival he was immediately abducted by members of the DeMeo crew. He was then taken to the meat department of a supermarket in Rockaway Beach, Queens, where he was stabbed multiple times in the heart and then the back by a butcher knife. After being decapitated, Katz's head was then crushed when it was put through a machine normally used for compacting cardboard boxes. The body parts were wrapped in plastic bags and then deposited into the supermarket's dumpster, where they were discovered days later when a pedestrian walking his dog spotted one of Katz's legs lying on a curb near the store. The police reported to the press that a grisly, brutal killing had occurred, but that was the extent of the information given. The body was identified as that of Andrei Katz two days later through the use of dental records. Gemini Method As the 1970s continued, DeMeo cultivated his followers into a crew experienced with the process of murdering and dismembering victims. With the exception of killings intended to send a message to any who would hinder their criminal activities, or murders that presented no other alternative, a set method of execution was established by DeMeo and crew to ensure that victims would be dispatched quickly and then made to disappear. The style of execution was dubbed the "Gemini Method", after the Gemini Lounge, the primary hangout of the DeMeo crew, as well as the site where most of the crew's victims were killed. The process of the Gemini Method, as revealed by multiple crew members and associates who became government witnesses in the early 1980s, was to lure the victim through the side door of the lounge and into the apartment in the back portion of the building. At this point, a crew member (almost always DeMeo according to crew-member-turned-government-witness Frederick DiNome) would approach with a silenced pistol in one hand and a towel in the other, shooting the victim in the head then wrapping the towel around the victim's head wound like a turban to stanch the blood flow. Immediately after, another member of the crew (originally Chris Rosenberg, up until his 1979 murder, according to government witness testimony) would stab the victim in the heart to prevent more blood from pumping out of the gunshot wound. By then, the victim would be dead, at which point the body would be stripped of clothing and dragged into the bathroom, where the remaining blood drained out or congealed within the body. This was to eliminate the messiness of the next step, when crew members would place the body onto plastic sheets laid out in the main room and proceed to dismember it, cutting off the arms, legs and head. The body parts would then be put into bags, placed in cardboard boxes and sent to the Fountain Avenue Dump in Brooklyn. So many tons of garbage were dropped each day at the dump that it would be nearly impossible for the bodies to be discovered. During the initial stages of an early 1980s federal/state task force targeting the DeMeo crew, a plan by authorities to excavate sections of the dump to locate remains of victims was aborted when it was deemed too costly and unlikely to locate any meaningful evidence. The landfill, opposite the Starrett City Apartment Complex on Pennsylvania Avenue in the heavily African-American East New York section of Brooklyn, across the Belt Parkway, was closed in 1985, and capped over since, all signs (and odors) that a landfill had existed gone, replaced by a parkland. Some victims were killed in other ways for varying reasons. At times, suspected informants or those who committed an act of disrespect against a member of the crew or their superiors had their bodies left in the streets of New York to serve as a message and warning. There were also occasions where it would not be possible to lure the intended victim into the Gemini Lounge, in which case other locations would have to be used. A cabin cruiser owned by Richard DiNome was used on at least one occasion to dispose of remains. Further criminal career In the latter half of 1975, DeMeo became a silent partner in a peep show/prostitution establishment in Bricktown, New Jersey after the owner of the business became unable to pay his loansharking debts. DeMeo also began dealing in bestiality and child pornography, which he sold to his New Jersey establishment as well as connections he had in Rhode Island. When Gaggi found out about DeMeo's involvement in such taboo films, he ordered DeMeo to stop under the threat of death. However, DeMeo defied Gaggi and continued the practice. Gaggi did not retaliate, and, according to his nephew, Dominick Montiglio, the subject was never mentioned again as long as DeMeo continued making payments to Gaggi. DeMeo also dealt in narcotics despite the Gambino family strictly forbidding such activity; he financed a major operation importing Colombian marijuana, which was unloaded from an offshore freighter and sold at various auto shops in Canarsie, and also sold cocaine out of the Gemini Lounge. As 1975 drew to a close, DeMeo was the subject of Internal Revenue Service (IRS) investigations into his income. Months earlier, the Boro of Brooklyn Credit Union had been pushed into insolvency as a result of DeMeo and his colleagues' plundering of its finances. As a result, DeMeo quit the Credit Union. Before an indictment could be handed down against him, he utilized false affidavits from businesses owned by friends and acquaintances claiming he was on their payrolls as an employee. These affidavits served to account for some of his income, allowing him to reach a settlement with the IRS. DeMeo's sources of income, as well as his crew, continued to grow. By July 1976, DeMeo added an automobile firm by the name of Team Auto Wholesalers to his loanshark customers. The owner of Team Auto, Matthew Rega, also purchased stolen vehicles from the crew and sold them off at a New Jersey car lot that he owned. He also involved himself with hijacking delivery trucks from John F. Kennedy International Airport. His crew now included Edward "Danny" Grillo, a hijacker who had just been released from prison. In the fall of 1976, the Gambino family went through a massive change when its boss Carlo Gambino died of natural causes. Paul Castellano was named the boss, with Aniello Dellacroce retaining the position of underboss. The implications of this were twofold for DeMeo. Gaggi was elevated to the position of caporegime, taking over the crew of men Castellano previously headed. This promotion was beneficial for DeMeo, whose mentor was now even closer to the family leadership. Another advantage was that with Gambino deceased, new associates would be eligible for membership into the family. Castellano did not immediately "open the books" for new members, opting instead to promote existing members and shuffle around the crews' leaders. He also allegedly opposed the idea of DeMeo being made. Castellano involved himself in white-collar crime and looked down on street-level members such as DeMeo. Additionally, Castellano felt DeMeo was uncontrollable. Gaggi's attempts at persuading Castellano to make DeMeo were continually rejected. By 1977, DeMeo became distraught by this situation and searched for opportunities that would ensure larger returns for his superiors. The Westies alliance and Rosenberg DeMeo secured his induction into the Gambino family by forming an alliance with an Irish-American gang known as the Westies. The leader of a rival Irish gang, Mickey Spillane, was causing delays for the construction of the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center, much to the frustration of Gambino boss Paul Castellano, who had a part in the project. After the unsolved murder of Spillane in May 1977, Westies leader James Coonan assumed control of the Irish mob rackets on the West Side of Manhattan. DeMeo, sensing an opportunity to create a vast source of income for the Gambino family, persuaded Gaggi to consider a partnership with the Westies. Shortly afterwards, Coonan and his second-in-command Mickey Featherstone were called to a meeting with Castellano, in which they agreed to become a de facto arm of the Gambino family and share ten percent of all profits. In exchange, the Westies would be privy to several lucrative union deals and take on murder contracts for the family. It was his pivotal role in the Westie/Gambino alliance that reportedly convinced Castellano to give DeMeo his "button", or formally induct him into the family. DeMeo was made in mid-1977 and put in charge of handling all family business with the Westies. He was ordered to get permission before committing any murders and to avoid drug dealing. DeMeo's crew, however, continued to sell large amounts of cocaine, marijuana, and a variety of narcotic pills. DeMeo also continued to commit unsanctioned killings, such as the 1977 double homicide of Johnathan Quinn, a car thief suspected of cooperating with law enforcement, and Cherie Golden, Quinn's 19-year-old girlfriend. DeMeo's crew dumped the bodies in locations where they would be discovered to serve as a warning against cooperation with authorities. In 1978, Frederick DiNome, previously DeMeo's chauffeur, joined the crew. DeMeo and his crew murdered Edward Grillo, who had fallen into heavy debt with DeMeo and was believed to be becoming susceptible to police coercion. Grillo, who was dismembered and disposed of like many of the crew's murder victims, was the first known occurrence of internal crew discipline. The next member to be killed was Rosenberg, who had set up a drug deal with a Cuban man living in Florida and then murdered him and his associates when they traveled to New York to complete the sale. The Cuban had connections with a Cuban drug cartel, raising the possibility of violence between the Gambino family and the Cubans unless Rosenberg was dealt with. DeMeo was ordered to kill Rosenberg but stalled for weeks. During this period, DeMeo committed his most public murder. The victim was a college student with no criminal ties named Dominick Ragucci, who was paying for his tuition as a door-to-door salesman. DeMeo saw Ragucci parked outside his Massapequa Park, Long Island house and assumed he was a Cuban assassin. DeMeo and crew member Joseph Guglielmo pursued Ragucci in a seven-mile car chase on Route 110 through Amityville and Farmingdale, after which the student was shot to death by DeMeo. After returning home and gathering his family, DeMeo drove them out of New York and left them at a hotel for a short time. According to DeMeo's son Albert, he started crying when he discovered he had murdered an innocent boy. Gaggi was infuriated by the murder of Ragucci, and ordered DeMeo to kill Rosenberg before there were any other innocent victims. On May 11, 1979, Rosenberg reported to the Gemini clubhouse for the crew's usual Friday night meeting. Shortly after his arrival, DeMeo quickly fired a single bullet into the unsuspecting Rosenberg's head. The usually ice-cold DeMeo hesitated when the still-living Rosenberg managed to rise off the floor to one knee, but Anthony Senter then moved in and finished him off with four shots to the head. Unlike Grillo, Rosenberg's body was not dismembered or made to disappear. The Cubans had demanded that his murder make the papers. DeMeo's men placed Rosenberg's body in his car and left it on the side of Cross Bay Boulevard, near the Gateway National Wildlife Refuge in Broad Channel, Queens to be found. Albert DeMeo later recounted that Rosenberg's murder affected his father deeply, and that when DeMeo came home after the killing, he went into his study room and didn't come out for two days. Empire Boulevard operation As 1979 continued, DeMeo began to expand his business activities, in particular his auto theft operation, which soon became the largest in New York City's history. Dubbed the Empire Boulevard Operation by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents, the operation consisted of hundreds of stolen cars being shipped from the port of Newark, New Jersey to Kuwait and Puerto Rico. DeMeo put together a group of five active partners in the operation, all of whom earned approximately $30,000 a week each in profit. Aside from the active partners, other associates and crew members performed the actual stealing of the automobiles off the streets of New York. Among these associates was Vito Arena, a long-time car thief and armed robber who began working for DeMeo in 1978 after murdering his old partner. Like DiNome, Arena became closely involved with the DeMeo Crew by the end of the 1970s. In 1979, the scheme was nearly stopped by a legitimate car dealer who threatened to inform the police. He was murdered along with an uninvolved acquaintance before he could provide law-enforcement authorities with information. Eppolito murders In late 1979, DeMeo and Nino Gaggi became involved in a conflict with James Eppolito and James Eppolito Jr., two made Gambino members in Gaggi's crew. They were the paternal uncle and cousin, respectively, of a corrupt former New York City Police Department (NYPD) detective, Louis Eppolito, whose father, Ralph, brother of James Sr., was also a made member of the Gambino family. James Eppolito met with Paul Castellano and accused DeMeo and Gaggi of drug dealing, which carried the penalty of death. Castellano, to whom Gaggi was a close ally, sided against Eppolito in the situation and gave Gaggi permission to do what he pleased. He and DeMeo shot the two to death in Eppolito Jr.'s car en route to the Gemini Lounge on October 1, 1979. A witness driving by right as the shots were fired within the parked car managed to alert a nearby police officer, who arrested Gaggi after a shootout between the two that left Gaggi with a bullet wound in his neck. Since DeMeo had split up with Gaggi as they left the scene, he was not arrested or identified by the witness. Gaggi was charged with murder and the attempted murder of a police officer but through jury tampering was convicted only of assault and given a 5 to 15-year sentence in federal prison. DeMeo murdered the witness shortly after Gaggi's sentencing in March 1980. The Empire Boulevard Operation had continued to expand through 1979 and 1980 until the warehouse serving as its headquarters was raided by agents from the Newark branch of the FBI in the summer of 1980. The FBI had been surveilling the warehouse and some of the men unloading vehicles there and had shortly thereafter obtained a search warrant. Henry Borelli and Frederick DiNome were arrested in May 1981 for their roles in the operation, but there was not enough evidence to arrest any of the other active partners. DeMeo ordered Borelli and DiNome to plead guilty to the charges in hopes that it would stop any further investigations into his activities by the FBI or other law enforcement agencies. Downfall and murder By 1982, the FBI was investigating the enormous number of missing and murdered persons who were linked to DeMeo or who had last been seen entering the Gemini Lounge. Around this time an FBI bug in the home of Gambino family capo Angelo Ruggiero picked up a conversation between Ruggiero and Gene Gotti, a brother of John Gotti. In the conversation, it is discussed that Paul Castellano had put out a hit on DeMeo, but was having difficulty finding someone willing to do the job. Gene Gotti mentions that his brother, John, was wary of taking the contract, as DeMeo had an "army of killers" around him. It is also mentioned in this same secretly recorded conversation that, at that time, John had killed fewer than 10 people, while DeMeo had killed 37 that they had known about. According to mob turncoat Sammy Gravano, eventually the contract was given to Frank DeCicco, but DeCicco and his crew could not get to DeMeo either. DeCicco allegedly handed the job to DeMeo's own men. DeMeo's son Albert wrote that in his final days, DeMeo was paranoid and knew that he would be killed soon. In his final days, DeMeo was seen wearing a leather jacket, with a shotgun concealed underneath. DeMeo considered faking his own death by having his son shoot him and laying low. On January 10, 1983, DeMeo went to crew member Patty Testa's house for a meeting with his men. That night, he failed to attend his daughter Dione's birthday party, which caused his family to be suspicious. Albert DeMeo later found Roy's personal belongings such as his watch, wallet, and ring in his study room, and a Catholic pamphlet. Ten days later, on January 20, DeMeo's Cadillac was discovered in the parking lot of the Veruna Boat Club in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn. The car was towed to a nearby police station where it was searched by Organized Crime Control Bureau detectives. DeMeo's partially frozen body was found in the trunk with a chandelier on top of it. He had been shot multiple times in the head and had a bullet wound in his hand, assumed by law enforcement to be a reflexive defensive wound caused when his killers opened fire on him. The task force investigating the DeMeo crew theorized that DeMeo was set up in a similar manner to how he set up Rosenberg, and that Gaggi, Testa and Senter were present when he was killed. In April 1984, Colombo crime family soldier Ralph Scopo was overheard explaining to an associate that DeMeo had been killed by his own family because they merely suspected that he would not be able to stand up to legal charges that resulted from his stolen car ring. Albert DeMeo believed that his father was killed by members of his own crew. Aftermath In 1984, a 78 count indictment was filed against twenty-four defendants including the surviving members of the DeMeo crew, capo Nino Gaggi, and Gambino crime family head Paul Castellano. The charges related to auto-theft, racketeering, and drug trafficking. Paul Castellano was indicted for ordering the murder of DeMeo, as well as a host of other crimes, but was killed in December 1985 while out on bail in the middle of the first trial. The murder was ordered by John Gotti, who thus became the new boss of the Gambino family. After the death of Castellano, Nino Gaggi became the lead defendant but he too soon died later of natural causes. In March 1986, six were found guilty, with Henry Borelli and other person found guilty of two counts of murder. They were found guilty of murdering two people who threatened to expose the car theft ring. In June 1989, nine additional members, including Anthony Senter and Joseph Testa, were found guilty. At sentencing, Senter and Testa were given life sentences for murder with an additional 20 years for racketeering. Prosecutor William Mack Jr. said "The Roy DeMeo Crew is the most violent crew ever prosecuted in federal court, as far as my knowledge" and saying DeMeo "engaged in wholesale slaughter". The convictions were secured in large part by testimony of former members Frederick DiNome and Dominick Montiglio, as well as Vito Arena. Montiglio turned when he learned there was a contract on his life, and was placed in the witness protection program for 20 years for his testimony. Richard DiNome was killed in 1984. Frederick DiNome later died in what was ruled as a suicide. Vito Arena left New York in 1989 after serving 6 years of an 18-year sentence after his testimony. He was killed in a 1991 robbery in Texas. The Gemini Lounge later became a storefront church. DeMeo is the subject of the 1992 book Murder Machine by Jerry Capeci and Gene Mustaine. Roy DeMeo's son Albert also wrote a book about his life growing up called For the Sins of My Father, published in 2002. DeMeo is portrayed by Michael A. Miranda in the 2001 film Boss of Bosses. Ray Liotta plays DeMeo in the 2012 film adaptation of Anthony Bruno's book about Richard Kuklinski, The Iceman: The True Story of a Cold-Blooded Killer. Personal life Roy DeMeo married Gladys Rosamond Brittain (February 13, 1939 – September 7, 2002) in 1960. In 1966, DeMeo moved into a custom-built home in Massapequa, Long Island, where he lived with his wife and three children. The couple had two daughters and a son. By all accounts, he was a devoted family man. Describing growing up, Roy's son Albert DeMeo said "I grew up in a very normal household." Albert DeMeo became a stockbroker, but had a nervous breakdown after the release of Murder Machine in 1992. He was later diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. One of Roy's daughters became a clothing designer, and the other one a medical doctor. List of murders committed by the DeMeo crew References Further reading Abadinsky, Howard. Organized Crime. 5th Edition, Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1997 O'Brien, Joseph. Boss of Bosses: The Fall of the Godfather: The FBI and Paul Castellano. NY: Dell, 1992. Raab, Selwyn. The Five Families: The Rise, Decline & Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empire. New York: St. Martins Press, 2005. External links Roy Albert DeMeo Federal Bureau of Investigation Records Mobsters: Roy DeMeo - Full Episode (S2, E1) \| A&E My father the mobster - Albert DeMeo, The Guardian Albert DeMeo: “For The Sins of My Father” - The Diane Rehm Show 1940 births 1983 deaths 1983 murders in the United States American drug traffickers Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens) Criminals from Brooklyn Deaths by firearm in Brooklyn DeMeo Crew DeMeo Crew victims Gambino crime family Gangsters from New York City James Madison High School (Brooklyn) alumni Mafia hitmen Male murder victims Murdered American gangsters of Italian descent People from Flatlands, Brooklyn People from Massapequa, New York People murdered in New York City People of Campanian descent
1111684	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%20Thoma%20Syrian%20Church	Mar Thoma Syrian Church	The Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church, often shortened to Mar Thoma Church, and known also as the Reformed Syrian Church and the Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar, is an autonomous Reformed Oriental church based in Kerala, India. While continuing many of the Syriac high church practices, the church is reformed in its theology and doctrines. It employs a reformed variant of the West Syriac Rite Divine Liturgy of Saint James, translated to Malayalam. The Mar Thoma Church sees itself as continuation of the Saint Thomas Christians, a community traditionally believed to have been founded in the first century by Thomas the Apostle, who is known as Mar Thoma (Saint Thomas) in Syriac, and describes itself as "Apostolic in origin, Universal in nature, Biblical in faith, Evangelical in principle, Ecumenical in outlook, Oriental in worship, Democratic in function, and Episcopal in character". Until the beginning of the 20th century, Mar Thoma Christians lived in a few districts of Central Travancore (Pathanamthitta, Kollam, and Thiruvananthapuram districts) and Kunnamkulam (Thrissur district) in Kerala. Since that time they have spread with the 20th-century Indian diaspora to North America, Europe, the Middle East, Malaysia, Singapore, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. According to the figures provided by the church itself, it currently has over 1 million members. Their mother tongue is Malayalam, the language of Kerala, and historically the variety known as Suriyani Malayalam was associated with them. According to the 2011 Census of Kerala it was, with a membership of 405,089, the sixth largest Christian church in the state, coming after the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church (2,345,911), the Latin Catholic Church (932,733), the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (493,858), the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church (482,762), and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church (465,207). Definitions Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church is commonly called the Mar Thoma Church. In official and legal records the church is referred to as Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar or as Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church. Malabar is a term used to denote the Kerala coast in earlier days. The original Church was referred to as the Church of Malabar by the Jesuits and as the Syrian Church of Malabar in Missionary Registers from 1801 onward. Malankara is an ancient name derived from the name 'Maliankara', Maliankara Island is on the Southwestern side of the Indian Peninsula. It is between Gokarnam and Kanyakumari the southernmost point of India. Kerala, the present southwestern state of India is only a part of Malankara. It is also thought to be a cognate of this name Maliankara, a place near Muziris, where Thomas the Apostle first landed in Kerala. Mar Thoma is Aramaic, and means Saint Thomas. Members of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church are commonly called as Mar Thomiyar, Mar Thomites, or Mar Thoma Syrians. The original liturgical language used by Saint Thomas Christians was the East Syriac language which is a variant of Aramaic. The Reformation movement in the Malankara Syrian Church later resulted in the evolution of an independent indigenous Malankara church under the Mathoma Metropolitan, breaking all the ecclesiastical and temporal control from outside Malankara. In 1898, during the reign of Titus I Mar Thoma the church accepted as its name, Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church or Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar to comprise its order and heritage. The members of this church are known as Mar Thoma Nasrani or Mar Thoma Syrian Nasrani. Administration The Mar Thoma Syrian Church has a well-defined constitution and has a democratic pattern of administration. The central administrative setup consists of the Metropolitan, the Episcopal Synod (Consisting of all the Bishops of the Church), the Prathinithi Mandalam (House of Representatives) and the Sabha Council (Executive body of the house of representatives / Mandalam), and the Vaideeka Selection Committee (to select candidates for the ordained ministry of the church). The Central Administration of the Church is backed by the Dioceses. Each diocese has its own council and an assembly. The assembly members are elected by the individual parishes, and the diocesan council members are elected by the assembly. All members of a parish are members of the Edavaka Sangham (General Body) and they also have the right to elect their representatives to the Diocesan Assembly and Prathinidhi Mandalam (Church Parliament). The title of the head of the Church is "Mar Thoma Metropolitan". He is ordained from among the duly-consecrated bishops (Episcopas) of the Church, the choice being ordinarily that of the senior-most among them. The present Mar Thoma Metropolitan is Theodosius Mar Thoma who resides at Poolatheen at Church Headquarters in Tiruvalla, Kerala. He is 21 Mar Thoma in the line of continuation after the re-establishment of the Mar Thoma episcopacy after the Oath of the Koonan Cross (1653). If the Metropolitan is personally satisfied that he has difficulty continuing to perform the duties pertaining to his office, he may relinquish the powers and responsibilities of Metropolitan. Then he becomes the Mar Thoma Metropolitan Emeritus and is addressed as "Mar Thoma Valiya Metropolitan". The present "Mar Thoma Valiya Metropolitan is Philipose Chrysostom Mar Thoma Valiya Metropolitan. To assist the metropolitan there are Episcopas, the senior-most among them is called the Suffragan Metropolitan. Administrative divisions For administrative purposes, the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church is divided into 13 dioceses or popularly called 'Bhadhrasanams' (Mal ഭദ്രാസനം) headed by a Metropolitan or by an Episcopa. They are: Metropolitans and bishops Present episcopal synod The present members of the Episcopal Synod of Mar Thoma Church are: Theodosius Mar Thoma Euyakim Coorilos Joseph Barnabas Thomas Timotheos Isaac Philoxenos Abraham Paulos Mathews Makarios Gregorios Stephanos Thomas Theethos Mar Thoma Metropolitans The excommunication of Reformist bishops and their followers by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch in 1875, the Synod of 1876 (Mulanthuruthy) and the Royal Court Verdict of 1889 were turning points in the history of the Malankara Syrian Church of Malabar. The Reformist (Metran) faction continued to consecrate bishops to the Malankara See without the consent of Patriarch as they claimed Malankara church is independent of the Syrian Church. Before the death of Malankara Metropolitan Mathews Athanasius, he consecrated Thomas Athanasius as Suffragan bishop of Malankara Church. Following the death of Mathews Athanasius, the suffragan succeeded as the Metropolitan of the Malankara See in 1877 which led to a schism in the Malankara church. Those who supported reformation loyally followed the Malankara Metropolitan who was legally evicted from the Malankara Syrian Church. He died in 1893 without consecrating a successor and suggesting a new name for the church. The Metropolitan of Malabar Independent Syrian Church stepped in and consecrated Titus Mar Thoma as the new bishop. For the consecrations, from 1917 onward bishops from other churches were invited as guests. But the consecration was done only by the Metropolitan and was assisted as a witness by the other Bishops of the Mar Thoma Church and of the Malabar Independent Syrian Church. Clergy Semmasan (deacons): The Sabha Prathinidhi Mandalam elects a Vaidika Selection board to select candidates for the ordained ministry of the church through recommendations (letters from bishops-clergy by the level of exposure in church or by personal sponsorships of bishops or written support pledged from bishops), exams (English, General knowledge and Bible) and pre- and post- theological training interviews (with theological-sociological aspects and scrutiny through psychological and health evaluations). Following a Malankara Church tradition and from diasporic influence, the church follows a compulsory twelve-month (or 24 months with relocation, if failed in the first attempt) unpaid missionary service to those who are inclined to be a priest, before selection process as a "Tithe of Youth" program for "evaluation purposes". Additionally, this program was challenged in youth meets of the church at the time of its conception on the basis of non-guarantee in an entry, fast-changing world, career stagnation, and other economic factors and have arrived at a discussion level resolution of implementing this process after the pursual of their theological training and integrating the "Deacon" status during the time period under mentorship which enables the church to fill up NGO's, projects and mission fields with trained and theologically equipped individuals for staff duties and pastoring, thus avoid stress and negligence that would be otherwise imparted on the youth. During the intensive field training, when the inclined candidate is counted to be worthy for the controlled influx in church duties, the trained and experienced Deacons can be nominated for ordinations as Kassessas, by each diocese as the allotment. Kassessa (clergy priests): Persons receiving ordination as ministers shall be duly ordained deacons. They all have had their Bachelor of Divinity degree from the Mar Thoma Theological Seminary, Kottayam, Kerala, or from other recognized theological seminaries of India. The wife of a Kassissa is known as "Baskiamma" derived from" Baskiyomo in Syriac. Vicars general: From among the clergy who have completed 25 years of service in the ordained ministry and not less than sixty years of age are selected according to their contributions and ordained as vicars general. In the absence of the diocesan bishop, they may be appointed as deputy head of the bishopric. History Thomas Christians are popularly and traditionally called as Syrian Christians, in view of the Syriac liturgy (a variant of the classical form of Aramaic) used in church services since the early days of Christianity in India. The Saint Thomas Christians remained as Church of Malabar with fraternity relationship with Church of East, Church of Antioch, Church of Alexandria, etc. till the Advent of Portuguese and Jesuits of Roman Catholic church in the 15th century. Thereafter, the Christians of St Thomas had been influenced by many belief streams at different points of time. These influences have later resulted in serious rifts and in the breaking down of the monolithic apostolic church to different fragments under different faith streams. They were organised as a Church in the 8th century, served by foreign bishops, and with a hereditary local chief called Archdeacon (Arkadiyokon). In the 16th century the overtures of the Portuguese padroado to bring the Saint Thomas Christians into the Latin Rite Catholicism led to the first of several rifts in the community and the establishment of Pazhayakoor (Catholic) and Puthenkoor factions. Since that time further splits have occurred, and the Saint Thomas Christians are now divided into several denominations, each with their own liturgies and traditions. First century BC On the southwestern side of the Indian peninsula; between the mountains and the Erythraean Sea (now the Arabian Sea); stretching from Kannur to Kanyakumari was the land called Cherarajyam, which was ruled by local chieftains. Later this land came to be known as the Malabar region and (now Kerala). Muziris (near Kochi) was the important entry port. After the discovery of Hippalus, every year 100 ships arrived here from various parts of the then known world, including Red Sea ports. According to the Bible, during the time of Moses and Solomon, the Malabar Coast traded spices and luxury articles with Israel (I Kings 9:26–28, 10:11, 22; 2 Chronicles 8:18, 9:21). Excavations carried out at Pattanam (near Kochi) from 2005 provided evidence that the maritime trade between Kerala and the Mediterranean ports existed even before 500 BC or earlier. It is possible that some of those traders who arrived from the west, including Jews, remained in Kerala. While Augustus (31 BC- 14 AD) was the Roman emperor and Herod the Great (37–4 BC) was King of Judea, ambassadors from Malabar visited the Emperor according to an account of Nicolaus of Damascus. Certain nasrani writings hypothesize that these ambassadors were the Biblical Magi of Matthew 2:1, as a tradition. First 15 centuries Arrival of Saint Thomas Saint Thomas Christians believe that Thomas the Apostle arrived in the Malabar Coast around AD 52. He landed at Muziris (now estimated as Pattanam, near Kochi on the Malabar Coast), after his first mission in the Parthian empire, during the era of King Gondophares It is believed that St. Thomas itinerated for 30 years in Kerala and proceeded to the East coast of India from Malankara and died a martyrs' death at a place called Mylapore-Chinnamalai in Tamil Nadu. The Nazarenes in Malabar were either proselytized from mainstream Judaism by 'Mar Thomas' or 'Mar Bartholomeu'. Pantaneius's reference to the gift of 'Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew' by Bartholomeu to the Nazereans in Malabar is a clear pointer to the fact that Mar Thomas did evangelize Malabar, It could be further stated that either Mar Nathanael () aided in Mar Thomas' mission in India for a brief time before heading to Armenia or bar-Tau'ma, Son of Thomas assisted in his father's missionary activities per norms in , this could also explain why most of the priests in the order of St. Thomas were later allowed to be married, which led to the prerogative of sacerdotalism to certain groups/families and to people supported by them. First Christians In early Christian times, 'Nazranis' was not a separate religion, but a sect in the Jewish community. The term was used to denote followers of Jesus of Nazareth. (Acts. 24:5; 28:22). 'Khristianos' (or Christians) was initially used largely to refer non-Jewish people who followed Christ (Acts 11:26). In Kerala, the sect was known as 'Nazraani Margam'. Margam in Malayalam means, 'The Way'. (Acts 9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:22). Thus, the word Nazraani clearly shows that many who joined them were Jews. But in Kerala, this name was replaced by the word 'Christians' in the 20th century. The earliest families within the Jewish community to accept the path of Christianity through St. Thomas, later intermarried with the ethnic local community and Brahmins of the 6th century. This led to the upbringing of marginal class or 'sambandham' brahminic family clans like Pakalomattom, Sankarapuri and Kalli to a different socioeconomic status, they are now widely accepted as the first families who adopted an emigre way of life or 'Christianity' in Kerala. According to recent DNA research by Dr. Mini Kariappa, a significant number of Knanaya's share their ancestral roots with the West Eurasian gene pool of Jews. Administration Saint Thomas Christians were administratively under the single native dynastic leadership of Arkadyaqon (East Syrian term for an ecclesiastical head with extensive administrative powers, deriving from Greek αρχιδιάκονος = archdeacon) commonly referred as "Jathikku Karthavyan" ( Malayalam term meaning "Leader of The Community"). The Malankara Church believes that St. Thomas appointed elders at every place he preached to lead the believers. He prayed and laid his hands upon them, in the same way as the other disciples did (Book of Acts 6:1–6; 8:14–17; 13: 1–3). This was the system used until the arrival of Portuguese. By 1500, Malankara Church had Parish elders and a Church leader. Before the arrival of Portuguese, Latin was unknown to Malankara people. In the ‘'Decrees of The Synod of Udayamperoor'’ presented to the St. Thomas Christians in their mother tongue Malayalam, Malankara Mooppen was the name used to refer the Church leader, except on three occasions. During the period of Colonialism, (i.e., from the 16th century), the Portuguese Jesuits began deliberate attempts to annex the community into the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, and in 1599 AD, they succeeded in their attempt through the infamous Synod of Diamper. Resentment against these forceful measures led the majority of the community under their Arkadyaqon Thomas to swear an oath never to submit to the Portuguese, known as the Coonan Cross Oath in 1653. For the first time in 1653, the Church leader was given the title Mar Thoma when Thomas Arkadyaqon was consecrated as Mar Thoma I. The present head of the Mar Thoma Church is the twenty-first Mar Thoma. Pantaenus from Alexandria In the 2nd century (189-190 AD) AD, Pantaenus, the Philosopher and Missionary sent by Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria to India, found that there were many Christians in India with a Persian Bishop and that they had a copy of the Gospel according to Matthew in Aramaic. These Christians were the early evangelists of Malankara Church. Arrival of Knanaya Nazranis During the time of King Shapur II (310–379) of Persia, a group of 400 immigrants (72 families) from Persia arrived in Malabar under the leadership of merchant Knai Thomman. They were engaged in trade and settled down in Kodungallur. Another immigration from Persia occurred around 825 under the leadership of Persian merchant Marwan Sabriso, with two Bishops, Sapro and Prodh. Together they were known as Knanaya/Kanai people. They continued to remain partially in an endogamous group within the Nasrani community. They cooperated with the Malankara Church, attended worship services together but remained a separate identity. By the 10th century, in Malabar there were two Nazrani groups, the Saint Thomas Christians and Knanaya community. Bishops from Persia Following the arrival of Christians from Persia, their bishops, priests or laymen began visiting them. Most of them were not able to return due to financial difficulties and travelling long distances. The Knanaya people were worshipping together with the St. Thomas Christians. So these visitors also attended these services. It was a matter of ongoing dispute between different churches in Kerala whether the Syrian bishops had any administrative responsibility or jurisdiction over the St. Thomas Nazrani Christians. Persian crosses Persian crosses were in churches once attended by Nasranis. Out of five Persian crosses, two are in Kottayam Knanaya Valia Palli. According to the archaeologists, the earliest one was made in the 7th century. The cross became a symbol of Christianity in the west, during the time of Constantine (272–337). Saint Thomas Christians of Malabar had hardly any contact with other Christians before the arrival of Knanaya people from Persia. Moreover, two of the oldest church buildings that still exist in South India do not have any marking of a Cross on their original structure. So most probably it was during the 7th century that the cross became a symbol of St. Thomas Christians. Visits corroborating the existence of the Malankara Church The existence of this Church in the early centuries is evident in the writings of ancient travelers. 325 AD – It is recorded that there was a Syro-Chaldean bishop John "from India and Persia" who assisted at the Council of Nicea in 325 AD. 522 AD – an Egyptian Monk, Cosmas Indicopleustes in his writings, ‘'Universal Christian Topography'’ mentions that there was this Church with a bishop from Persia. 883 AD – Alfred the Great (849–899), King of Wessex, England reportedly sent gifts "in India to St. Thomas and to St. Bartholomew", through Sighelm, bishop of Sherborne. 1225 AD – Chau Ju-Kua a Chinese traveller visited Kerala. 1282 AD – Kublai Khan (1215–1294) Emperor of China sent an emissary to Kollam, It was followed by an emissary from Kollam under the leadership of a St. Thomas Christian. 1292 AD – Marco Polo (1254–1324) on his return journey from China visited Kerala, mentions that "The people are idolaters, though there are some Christians and Jews among them". Collection of deeds The rulers of Kerala, in appreciation of their assistance, had given to the Malankara Nazranis, three deeds on copper plates. These are known as Cheppeds, Royal Grants, Sasanam etc. Five sheets of them are now in the custody of the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church Headquarters at Thiruvalla. Iravi Corttan Deed: In the year 774 AD. Sri Vira Raghava Chakravarti, gave a deed to Iravi Corttan of Mahadevarpattanam. Tharissa palli Deed I: Perumal Sthanu Ravi Gupta (844–885) gave a deed in 849 AD, to Isodatta Virai for Tharissa Palli (church) at Curakkeni Kollam. According to historians, this is the first deed in Kerala that gives the exact date. Tharissa palli Deed II: A continuation of the above deed was given sometime after 849 AD. Portuguese period The Portuguese started settling in India with the arrival of Vasco da Gama in 1498. For the next 200 years, they took control over the sea routes and were powerful in the western parts of India. By 1500, Malankara Church was spread from Kannur in the North to Kollam in the South. It included the Saint Thomas Christians and the endogamous group, Knanaya Christians. The Saint Thomas Christians went through changes with the encounter of Portuguese in 1599. In the 16th century the overtures of the Portuguese padroado to initiate the Saint Thomas Christians into the Catholic Church led to the first of several rifts in the community and the establishment of Pazhayakoor and Puthenkoor factions. Since that time further splits have occurred. Synod of Diamper The Malankara Church had hardly any contact with the Western Church. The Portuguese used their power to bring the Malankara Church under Latin jurisdiction. A powerful Archbishop Aleixo de Menezes arrived in Goa in 1595. He then convened a Synod at Udayamperoor, south of Ernakulam, from 20 to 26 June 1599, known as the Synod of Diamper. Here the Archbishop demanded complete submission to the Latin jurisdiction. The representatives sent from various parishes in and around Cochin were forced to accept the decrees read out by the Archbishop. Divisions among Saint Thomas Christians A protest took place in 1653 with the Coonan Cross Oath. Under the leadership of Archdeacon Thomas (Mar Thoma I), the Thomas Christians publicly took an oath that they wouldn't obey the Jesuit bishops. Rome sent Carmelites in two groups from the Propagation of the Faith to Malabar headed by Fr. Sebastiani and Fr. Hyacinth. Fr. Sebastiani arrived first in 1655. He began to deal directly with the Archdeacon Thomas (Mar Thoma I). Fr. Sebastiani gained the support of many, especially with the support of Palliveettil Chandy, Alexandar Kadavil and the Vicar of Muttam. These were the three councilors of Mar Thoma I, who was reconciled with Gracia (SJ) before the arrival of Sebastaini, according to Jesuit reports. The Pazhayakūr Catholic faction persistently challenged the validity of the ordination of Mar Thoma I by laying hands of 12 priests. It led many people to believe what they said and chose to rejoin with the catholic faction. Between 1661 and 1662, out of the 116 churches, the Carmelites reclaimed eighty-four churches, leaving Archdeacon Mar Thomas I with thirty-two churches. The eighty-four churches and their congregations were the body from which the Syro Malabar Church and the Chaldean Syrian Church have descended. The other thirty-two churches and their congregations represented the nucleus from which the Syriac Orthodox (Jacobites & Orthodox), Thozhiyur, Mar Thoma (Reformed Syrians), Syro Malankara Catholics have originated. In 1665 with the request of the Archdeacon, Gregorios Abdul Jaleel a Bishop sent by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, arrived in India. A faithful group under the leadership of the Archdeacon welcomed him. The arrival of the Bishop Gregory of the Syriac Orthodox Church in 1665 marked the beginning of a formal schism among the St. Thomas Christians. Those who accepted the West Syrian theological and liturgical tradition of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch of Gregory became known as the Jacobite, while the Syrian Catholics remained in communion with Rome and later came to be known as the Syro Malabar Church. Oath of the Bent Cross Under the leadership of their elder Thomas, Nazranis around Cochin gathered at Mattancherry church on Friday, 24 January 1653 (M.E. 828 Makaram 3) and made an oath that is known as the Great Oath of Bent Cross. Thomas Whitehouse, an Anglican Protestant missionary quotes from the "Church Missionary Society Report for 1818-19," p. 317. "These Portuguese having murdered Mar Ignatius, we will no longer join them. We renounce them, and do not want either their love or their favour. The present Francis, bishop, shall not be our governor. We are not his children or followers. We will not again acknowledge Portuguese bishops." Those who were not able to touch the cross-tied ropes on the cross held the rope in their hands and made the oath. Because of the weight it is believed by the followers that the cross bent a little and so it is known as "Oath of the bent cross" (Coonen Kurisu Sathyam). Four months after this event, according to the beliefs, 12 elders of the church ordained the elder Thomas as their prelate with the ecclesiastical title Mar Thoma I. Their beliefs and practices before the arrival of the Portuguese as evident in the canons of the Synod of Diamper.Geddes, Michael, ‘'The History of the Church of Malabar.'’ (from 1501). London 1964 Malankara Church, maintained the spiritual presence of the body and blood of Christ in the sacrament. had no knowledge of the term purgatory, but prayed for the dead. had irregular practice of auricular confession. only had a few celibacy clergy in monastic rank, while celibate bishops visited periodically from the Middle East. Dutch period The Dutch East India Company defeated Portuguese for the supremacy of spice trade in Malabar in the year CE 1663. Malankara Nazranis used this opportunity to escape from Latin persecution with the help of the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch brought Bishop Gregorios Abdul Jaleel of Jerusalem of the Syrian Orthodox Church in their trading vessel in CE 1665. Thomas Arkadyaqon who was consecrated as Mar Thoma I entered into a relationship with the West Syriac Orthodox Church and gradually adopted West Syriac liturgy and practices. The Dutch were on the Malabar Coast from 11 November 1604 - 1795. Mar Thoma I to Mar Thoma VI were the prelates during this period. British period The English defeated the Dutch in 1795 and took over Cochin during the time of Mar Thoma VI. In 1806, Rev. Dr. Claudius Buchanan, an Anglican missionary visited Malankara and met Mar Thoma VI. The Bible that was translated from the original Aramaic into Malayalam by two Malpans (Syriac Professors) was printed with the help of Buchanan. The early British Residents happened to be people of evangelical persuasions and were curious about the native church. In 1808, a bond for the sum of 3000 Star Pagoda (Rs. 10,500) was handed over by General Colin Macaulay, the British Resident in Travancore to the Govt. for Mar Thoma VII with the condition that the interest (known as Vattipanam) be paid to the Metropolitan of the Syrian Church of Malabar. The next Resident Colonel John Munro was approached by a monk (Ramban) Pulikkottil Joseph Ittoop, with the idea of setting up a seminary for the Malankara church. The idea appealed to Munro and under his patronage, the Ramban got the construction completed by 1815. At the resident's behest, the Anglican Church Mission Society sent its missionaries on a Mission of Help, to educate the seminarians. In 1815, Joseph Ramban was consecrated by Philexenos of the Thozhyoor Church and was given the ecclesiastical title Dionysius II. To make the Malankara Church accept him as their head, Col. Munro had to get the rulers of Travancore and Cochin issue Royal proclamations ordering Christians to render obedience to Dionysius II. The next two prelates were also selected by Col. Munro and Royal proclamations were issued to them also. The British missionaries believed that a reformation of the Malankara Church was imperative (since, for instance, they found in the Indian church "those doctrines which we threw off at the Reformation: "Purgatory ... worshipping and adoration of images and relics, and also invocation of saints'") whose presence made reform imperative, and ventured to bring it about through a process of theological instruction and subtle persuasion. By and by, they prodded Metropolitan Punnathra Dionysius III into convening an assembly of his leading kathanars and missionaries at Mavelikkara to discuss the matter. This meeting which took place on 3 December 1818, appointed a committee of six elder kathanars to come up with scheme for reformation, in consultation with the metropolitan and missionaries. Some priests like Abraham Malpan, Kaithayil Gheevarghese Malpan etc., who worked along with the missionaries at the Kottayam seminary were part of this committee. They were especially receptive to Anglican ideas. Before the committee brought their findings Punnathra Dionosyus died and Cheppad Dionosyus became the Malankara Metropolitan. Cheppad Dionosyus rejected the committee findings and went on with actions that was against the reforms made by his predecessors. Later, as Anglicans such as Joseph Peet tried to dominate the Pazhaya Seminary and started to create other issue in the Church, Malankara metropolitan Dionysius IV convened a synod at Mavelikkara on 16 January 1836, where-in the participants resolved not to deviate from their Oriental Orthodox faith or traditions and to remain faithful to the Patriarch of Antioch. This ended the official partnership between the missionaries and the Malankara Syrian Church. Reformation in Malankara Church The British Anglicans had many well-wishers in the Malankara Church. Priests like Abraham Malpan and others continued to collaborate with the missionaries to reform the church from within. In 1836, Abraham Malpan, Kaithayil Gheevarghese malpan and other reformist kathanars submitted a memorandum to Resident Col. Fraser, levelling charges of abuse against metropolitan Dionysius IV and a 23-point stratagem for the reformation of the church. But as the metropolitan was against all reforms, nothing came of it. Regardless, Abraham Malpan produced a reformed revision of the West Syriac Rite and used it in the seminary and his parishes. Consequently, Abraham Malpan was excommunicated. Malankara metropolitan Dionysius IV refused to ordain anyone trained by reformist malpans. Abraham Malpan Though Maramon Palakunnathu Abraham Malpan was bounteous in his temperament, he never hesitated to introduce reforms in both teaching and practice. He also insisted on a high moral standard of conduct for laity and clergy alike. All this created a ferment in the Malankara Church and its effects are still discernible in the Church as a whole. Principal reforms Changes carried out during reformation: Icons, pictures, statues, and drawings of saints were removed from churches, and places of worship. Considered the practice of praying for the dead and of doing obeisance at their graves with lighted candles as abhorrent. Intercession of saints and prayers for the dead were discarded. All prayers, worship and devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary and the saints were omitted. All prayer requests to dead and prayers to uplift the dead from sin and suffering were omitted. Insisted that Sunday services are to be held in a reverent and spiritual way. During that time reading and expounding scriptures is to be done. Conducted worship services, including Holy Communion in the mother tongue, Malayalam along with Syriac. Liturgy amended to eliminate all Monophysite influences. Holy Communion was not celebrated when there were none to receive. Mandated that communion under both kinds should be distributed separately. Auricular confession was discontinued. Believed that those who come for confession should ask for forgiveness with fasting and prayer, instead of offering oil, incense and candles. Insisted that bishops should ordain only candidates who have been examined by them and the malpans (Meaning:- Syriac scholars). Repudiated the custom of smearing charcoal on the forehead on Ash Wednesday. Doctrinal positions The Church accepts the Bible and the Nicene creed as the basis for all matters of faith and doctrine. The Church accepts the principle of justification by faith alone. The Church accepts the principle of salvation by grace alone. The Church adheres to the doctrine of sole mediation of Christ The Church emphasizes the Priesthood of All Believers Only the councils of Nicea, Constantinople and Ephesus are commemorated in the Eucharist. The Church is neither Nestorian nor Monophysite, but a Reformed Oriental Church. The Clergy is dedicated to avoiding benefices other than the regulated salary, as a part of the principle of simple life (a Christian ideal of being poor and humble with unclouded conscientious and to be guarded away from mortal greed) for self and the adult laity. Child Baptism is upheld and given to children born in Christian families. Adult Baptism is given to new believers who come from other religions. The Church accepts the Perpetual virginity, Divine motherhood and Assumption of Mary, but regards that it has nothing to do with saintly intercession or a mediatrix role. With regard to the title of St. Mary as the Mother of God, the church affirms that the title was used by early Church fathers. The Church also recognises her as the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of Christ, who is God, not that the nature of the Word or his divinity received the beginning of its existence from the holy Virgin, but that, since the holy body, which the Word of God became, was born from her, the Word is said to be born according to the flesh (Gospel of St.John:1:14). As to her titles 'Mother of the Church' and 'Mother of all true Christians', biblical interpretation is used (Revelation to St.John:12:17). The Church calls St. Mary as Blessed and Holy as expressed in the liturgy. The Church endorses in the remembrance and respect of Saints, Martyrs, and acknowledgment of their feast days, but prohibits veneration and intercession through them. The lives of Saints and Martyrs are seen as an exemplar and inspiring to the Christian Model of living. The Church does not declare anyone saint or sinner but people who have led exceptionally devout (saintly)lives are acknowledged; and saints declared by all Christian denominations are called Saints thereupon with respect. Identifies Iconography (icons, images and drawings) as Christian or religious art. They are seen as spirituality in art but they are not supposed to be used for worship. Remembrance of dead loved ones is seen as natural and human but prayers for the departed were cancelled out to signify that salvation does not occur after death. There is no belief in purgatory. The Mission of spreading the Gospel is observed as the duty of the Church. The Church must work with an evangelical zeal. Expounding of the Holy Scriptures and their interpretations are seen as vital to religious services. Syriac is acknowledged as the liturgical language of the Church and is used alongside the vernacular for all occasions. The Holy Communion (Holy Qurbana), being a Dominical Sacrament and thus divinely instituted by Christ must be observed utmost spiritually and reverently and not just as a mere ritual. The Church gives freedom to the believers on the experience of the Holy Communion (on substantiation). It is understood as the grace of God to the individual. Nevertheless, the experience is viewed as a "Sacred Mystery". Confession is General and is said through prayer before the Holy Communion. The Faithful are supposed to confess their sins privately to God (at home, Church, etc.) and to their brethren, if they have sinned against them (Epistle of St.James:5:16). Course of events The first printed Malayalam Bible, translated from Syriac was published in 1811. Known as Ramban Bible it contained only the four Gospels. By 1841, the whole Bible was translated, printed and released. Counselled by Anglican missionaries who taught at the Orthodox Theological Seminary, Mar Thoma XI convened a meeting of representatives of the Malankara Church with the missionaries at Mavelikkara in 1818. In that meeting, a review committee was appointed to recommend reforms, in consultation with the metropolitan and the missionaries. Abraham Malpan, Kaithayil Geevarghese Malpan, Eruthikkal Markose Kathanar, Adangapurathu Joseph Kathanar were members of this committee. This was the first step in carrying out Reformation in Malankara Church. On 5 September 1836, the reformation was planned. The strategy was determined by a group of 12 clergymen under the leadership of Abraham Malpan. They issued an encyclical describing what they believed were the wrong teachings, a statement listing twenty-four practices of the Church which they believed were "evil" and had crept in by its association with other Churches and religions and the same as a petition to a British Resident.Mar Thoma Sabha Directory. (1999). pp. 82-89. On 27 August 1837 (Sunday), then suspended Abraham Malpan conducted the Holy Communion service in mother tongue Malayalam at his home parish at Maramon. Clergymen, who supported him also did the same thing in various other parishes on the same day. Connected with a saint (Baselios Yeldo), every year in the first week of October, there was a church festival at Maramon. During that time a wooden statue of that saint, they called "Muthappen" (Meaning:- Elder father) was taken around in procession, and people used to venerate the saint by offering prayers and ask for intercession. In 1837, Abraham Malpan from deeper biblical understandings and of the spiritual scruples surrounding it, took the statue and threw it into a well saying, "Why consult the dead on behalf of the living?" (Isaiah 8:19). So when the festival came there was no statue to be taken out for the procession. The use of the revised liturgy and the changes he brought about in practices disgruntled Mar Thoma XII. So Abraham Malpan was excommunicated. Deacons trained by him were refused priesthood. But Abraham Malpan was not disheartened. He continued with his spirited reforms. He returned to Maramon. Many of his students joined him to continue their studies. All those who believed that "The Church" needed a revitalization also joined him. Members of parishes in Kozhencherry, Kumbanad, Eraviperoor, Thumpamon, Elanthoor, Kundara, Kottarakara, Mavelikkara, Mallapally, and many other places made trips to Maramon to attend the service in Malayalam and listen to his sermons. Doors were also opened for reformation in other places by ministers who supported him. At this stage, he had three choices in front of him. Repent and go to the beliefs under Antioch; join the Anglican Church with western aid; or go forward with the Cleansing and restoring "The Church" to what he thought would bring it to a pristine position, A church uncontaminated by avarice, venality, licentiousness, and rapacity. He selected the third one. Abraham Malpan died in 1845. Realising the need for a bishop to lead the reformists, Abraham malpan sent his nephew Deacon Matthews to the patriarch in Antioch. The patriarch, unaware of Mathew's reformation leanings, ordained him as bishop Mathews Athanasius in 1842 and he returned to Travancore in 1843. Metropolitan Dionysius IV sent word to the patriarch that he has been deceived and called for prompt corrective action. Mathews Athanasius did not have the approval of the majority of Malankara Christians who were opposed to reforms. In spite of that, the initial patriarchate delegations failed in their mission to help their loyalists. More than anything else, this was due to the British support for the Reformist bishop and Mathews Athanasius ultimately became Malankara Metropolitan in 1852. Mathews Athanasius published the liturgy without the prayer to St. Mary. He consecrated Ouseph Koorilos, as Metropolitan/Bishop for Malabar Independent Church. The entirety of strong-arm actions incited many clergymen and Pulikkottil Ouseph Kathanar went to Antioch in 1864. He returned as Dionysious V in 1865. The Orthodox conservatives led by Dionysious V repeatedly sought intervention from the See of Antioch. Discerning the source of the reformists' strength, Patriarch Ignatius Peter IV travelled to London. Whilst being there, he made many supplications to several high ecclesiastical and governmental authorities, pleading to end the partisan British support for Mathews Athanasius in India. Eventually, the British government and churchmen came to accept a position of neutrality with respect to the affairs of the Malankara Church. The Archbishop of Canterbury Archibald Campbell Tait apprised the patriarch of this change in British stance. Armed with significant success, the patriarch sailed for India. Separation of the Reformists and establishment of Mar Thoma Church After reaching India, the Antiochian patriarch did everything within his power to aid the traditionalist Orthodox faithful. In 1875, Patriarch Ignatius Peter IV excommunicated Mathews Athanasius, Thomas Athanasius (ordained by Mathews Athanasius as his successor) and their Reformist followers from the Malankara Syrian Church. The Reformists desperately besought the Archbishop of Canterbury as well as British authorities, to intervene on their behalf, but to no avail. The British colonial administration abstained from extending their crucial endorsement to any one faction, thereby disengaging themselves from local church matters. Thus, the rival parties had to settle their disputes, entirely by means of court litigations. Dionysious V and his supporters filed a case on 4 March 1879. (Case O.S. No. 439 of 1054) demanding the possession of the seminary and the control of assets of the Church. Thomas Athanasius was then the Metropolitan. During the course of this litigation (1879–1889), answering a question Thomas Athanasius Metropolitan said, A meeting was convened by the Maharaja of Travancore, before the final verdict was given, Athanasius testified that, The final verdict which came on 12 July 1889, upheld the conservative position on the Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch, as being the only competent ecclesiastical authority historically authorized to ordain and appoint bishops to the Malankara Metropolitanate. The ruling declared Dionysious V the rightful Malankara Metropolitan owing to his loyalty to the Antiochian patriarchate known as Jacobite Syrian Christian Church wherefrom he received direct consecration and his acceptance by the majority of Malankara Christians. The judgement also dismissed all claims of the reformists and their leader Thomas Athanasius to the Metropolitanate or its assets. The Metran Kakshi decided to remain as an independent Malankara Church, and to give primary authority to the Holy Bible and continue as the successors of St. Thomas throne. They separated and established the Reformed Mar Thoma Syrian Church. Mar Thoma church during Indian Independence Movement Many in the Church was fascinated by Gandhian philosophy and particularly its Primates Abraham Thoma, Yuhanon Mar Thoma, and Alexander Mar Thoma were strong Advocates of Gandhian methods. They wore Ecclesiastical robes stitched from Khadi. The church actively worked in areas of education, empowerment of women, eradication of social evils, and self-reliance. Mar Thoma Sabha councils and Maramon Convention became a platform for disseminating Nationalist ideas. Many nationalist leaders like K. Keshavan, C. V. Kunjiraman, T. M. Varghese, Pattam Thanupillai had used Maramon Convention to mobilize people against Divan Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer's move to form an Independent Travancore separate from India. In 1936 Kunjiraman through his speech at Maramon gave an ultimatum to Travancore Royalty to give freedom of worship in temples for all Hindus immediately or see mass conversions to Christianity. The practice of political leaders attending with the Christian gathering at Maramon has its origin from that period. Ramaswami Iyer liquidated the Quilon bank and sealed off Malayala Manorama, the leading newspaper, for criticizing the divan. Abraham Mar Thoma spoke about these notorious acts and visited those who were jailed by him. He further visited the Maharaja of Travancore and complaint about Divans tyrannical rule. Mar Thoma church at this point passed a church resolution against Divan and independent Travancore which infuriated the divan and ordered for the Metropolitans arrest and imprisonment. However, the arrest order was not executed. It was all done at a point of time when other churches and communities of Travancore praised divan or feared to utter a word against the divan. Later the Mar Thoma church had to pay the price for that social action. The land allotted in the heart of Thiruvananthapuram to construct a church by Maharaja Sree Moolam Thirunal was taken back. Mar Thoma church was selectively targeted by Divan, by not giving permissions for the construction of cemeteries and new church buildings. Thevarthundiyil Titus popularly known as Titusji was the only Christian in the band of 78 inmates selected by Gandhiji from Sabarmati Ashram for breaking the salt law at Dandi in 1930 (Popularly known as Salt March). In 1937 when Mahatma Gandhiji was touring Kottayam, Mar Thoma Seminary School opened its doors to Gandhiji. He stayed a night there with K. K. Kuruvila is popularly known as Kerala Deenabandhu (because of his close association with C. F. Andrews Deenabandhu), then principal of the school, he was an MA graduate from Trinity College (Connecticut). Kuruvila was the founder of newspaper Kerala Bhooshanam which was active during the movement for responsible government in Travancore during the 1940s. K. C. Thomas (1901-1976) another noted freedom fighter of the era and once President of "Nivarthana Prasthanam" was in the thick of the agitations against Sir C.P.'s rule in Travancore. He was the secretary of the Jilla Committee of the State Congress was arrested along with Kannara Gopala Panikkar and jailed on 21 September 1938. Their Arrests led to widespread protests in Chengannur and finally led to the infamous 'Mills Maidhan Event' on 28 September 1938 where Divans police used brutal force to dismiss the protesting crowd which resulted in bloodshed. Cherian Thomas son of K.C. Thomas was actively involved with the Bhoodan Movement of Acharya Vinoba Bhave. N.G. Chacko, the freedom fighter plunged into freedom struggle during 1920. He was arrested and jailed for anti-British protests and waving black flag in protest against the visit of the Prince of Wales Lord Wellington, then Governor-General in 1921. P.T. Punnoose is another leader of the era, he started his political activities through Congress party in 1938 however later he became a Communist leader. He was the Secretary of Travancore Communist Party and one of the organisers of the Punnapra Vayalar Revolt. He laid strong foundations for the Communist party in Ambalappuzha, Cherthala, and Alappuzha. He was later elected from Ambalapuzha Constituency to the Indian Parliament. T. M. Varghese was a Christian among the trio who formed the Joint Political Party and spearheaded for the formation of a responsible Government. Another Mar Thoma Syrian and Gandhian of that era K.A. Mathew started his activities by writing articles in the magazine "The Christian Patriot" which articulated the dissemination of nationalist feelings among Indian Christians. In 1939 at Amsterdam when the union jack was raised in "International Christian Youth Assembly" for Indian delegates, K.A. Mathew raised the Indian flag in solidarity and carried along with him. Back in Travancore he was active in the movement against Divan Sir C.P. and his independent Travancore. He opposed a move among the Syrian Christians of Tiruvalla to erect a statue of Divan at the center of the town. He was implicated in many false allegations and cases by the divan and jailed him many times. He was elected to legislative assembly in 1948. Barrister George Joseph a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and a Home Rule proponent mobilized the people in the Vaikom Satyagraha in early stages but later handed over the leadership to K. Kelappan as per the wishes of Gandhiji. During his stay in Madurai he was closely associated with labour union movement and worked in changing the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA), which targeted specifically Kallar and Mukkulathor community. They affectionately called him Rosappu Durai (Master with a rose flower). He was a close friend of K. Kamaraj and Tamil Poet Subramanya Bharathi. Subramanya Bharathi Penned the patriotic song "Viduthalai Viduthalai" when he was staying at George's home. Seven years prior to his death George Joseph joined the Catholic church. Many young Syrian Christians who were staying in Malaya during the 1940s was attracted to Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose and joined the INA. O.C. Chacko a Marthomite from Kuriannoor, joined the Indian National Army in 1943 when he was in Singapore. A Mar Thoma priest, Rev. C.V. George from Ranny in his youth as an advocate was an active member in the freedom struggle and was jailed for his involvement in activities against British Raj. He is the only Mar Thoma Priest who is recognized and awarded as a freedom fighter by the Government. After India attained its freedom in 1947, the Government of India lowered to the level of a despotic rule during the time of Emergency of 1975. The Emergency was followed after election malpractice allegation and following the verdict against Indira Gandhi. All leaders who spoke against the Emergency rule were jailed or kept in house arrest. It was at this time Yuhanon Mar Thoma wrote a letter to Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India criticizing emergency and requesting to follow ideals of constitution. There were strong rumors about the anticipatory arrest of Yuhanon Mar Thoma. M.M.Thomas another Mar Thoma Syrian and theologian advocating Ecumenism of Churches had written many articles on the emergency situation. In spite of criticism from many Christian groups, M.M. Thomas made his point in depicting the basic fact of violation of human rights and stressed the need of the democratic organization of the people for the realization of social justice in India. Mar Thoma Church also passed a resolution against Emergency and for the restoration of democracy privately. Mar Thoma church was also closely associated with the land for the landless and home for the homeless movement much before Acharya Vinoba Bhave initiated Bhoodan movement. Faith and practices of the church Liturgy The word "liturgy" is derived from the Greek word leitourgia (leitos/loas: people +ergos: work) which means a service rendered to God and people. When the Bible was not available, the liturgy took the role of the Bible, much of the scripture is formed in the liturgical context. The original liturgical language used by the Malankara Church was Aramaic and Hebrew. The Bible that was in use also was in Hebrew. Later when Syriac replaced Aramaic in eastern countries, and the arrival of Knanaya people from Persia in AD 345, the Malankara Church began using Syriac. The Bible used in the Malankara Church is called the "Peshitta" and was in Estrangelo Syriac. This was the Bible that was in use till Malayalam (the language of Kerala) translation was available. The first printed Malayalam Bible, translated from Syriac was published in 1811 by Philipose Ramban with the provision of Claudius Buchanan, known as Ramban Bible it contained the four Gospels. (A copy of this Bible was later presented to Buchanan and is kept at Cambridge University Library.) By 1841, the whole Bible was translated, printed and released by missionary-scholar Benjamin Bailey with the help of Chandu Menon, a tahsildar in the Madras State service. Even though bishops from Syrian churches visited Kerala, they did not attempt to change the Bible into the newer forms of Syriac or to the native language. In June 1876, Patriarch of Antioch Ignatius Pathrose IV visited Kerala and a majority of the Malankara Church accepted him as the head of their church. But those who did not join them continued to follow their own leaders and kept their peculiar identity garnered from reformation. After Mar Thoma Church had begun to use the liturgy in mother tongue Malayalam, other churches continued to follow the same for a deeper engagement with the laity. A revised version of the ancient and apostolic liturgy known as People's liturgy, the Liturgy of St James (Gal.1:18-19), was adopted in the church, later the liturgy has been translated into various languages including English, Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada. The Mar Thoma church follows the West Syrian liturgical tradition and is Eastern in the nature of its worship and ethos. There are six liturgies other than Saint James liturgy (Mar Yakub liturgy) used in the church and a priest can exercise freedom in using them but should satisfy the requirement of "joint congregation act/involvement" and permission from the respective diocese head. The six other liturgies are: Canonical hours The Marthomites pray the canonical hours as contained in the Shehimo at seven fixed prayer times while facing the eastward direction. Sacraments of the church The seven sacraments (Koodashas) of Mar Thoma Church are: Places of worship Those who were converted by St. Thomas in the 1st century continued worshiping in synagogues. Then they moved to their homes and by the 2nd century, they began to build their own churches (called ‘'Palli'’) in various places. It is believed that there were such small gatherings at Maliankara, Piravom, Niranam (Nelcynda) and Nilakkal. St. Thomas Christians in Kerala, still construct their churches combining the design of Solomon's temple at Jerusalem, and Indian Vastu Shastra. So from outside it looks like a Hindu temple but inside it is like a Jewish temple. It is divided into Sanctuary (Madbaha) and Nave (Haickala). Mar Thoma Churches are built east–west with the Sanctuary (Madbaha) to the east. East is the place of the rising suns that is the symbol of the Risen Christ and His Second coming. East also symbolizes the Garden of Eden that was situated in the east. The Sanctuary is separated from the rest of the place by a veil with the sign of a cross. The worship of the Eastern churches symbolizes heavenly worship. Madbaha symbolically represents Heaven and Haickala, the earth, and veil the sky. The Madbaha is demarcated from the bema with an open arch and a veil. At the beginning of Holy Qurbana Service, the veil is drawn from the right side to left. Mar Thoma Syrians have abandoned the West syriac tradition of erecting more than one Altar and Madhbaha in Church and also forbade dedication of Altar/Thronos in name of a Saint or a Holy church father and conducting Holy Qurbana at Altar simultaneously or separate. The pulpit and lectern are also usually found at the extension of the bema. Bema is demarcated from the nave and transept (widely uses a vestibule space before the nave) with altar rails. The Choir is seated at one end of the transepts in the same level of the nave. Now there is a tendency to follow western architectural designs and introducing ciboriums, semi-domes, etc. Cross used in Mar Thoma Church Chancel particularly at the center of the Altar is the Easter Cross. In Mar Thoma worship practice the visual Sign of the Cross is used many times. When the Priest gives the blessing he performs the sign of the cross; the worshipers, as a sign of accepting the blessing also reciprocates blessing oneself. The same is done at the time of the declaration of the Trinity and also at the time of indication of the Cross. Generally iconostases, pictures or statues of saints are not kept in Mar Thoma churches. Until the middle of the 20th century, all worshipers were seated on a mat spread on the floor. Children occupy the first rows and behind them on right side females and towards left males are seated. A narrow space between left and right is demarcated with a red carpet starting from the main door signifying that the church is sharing the worship space of heaven and joining the communion. Now many churches provide chairs or benches. During the Passion week services, chairs are removed, to facilitate worshiping according to their ancient custom, which includes prostrating a number of times. Everyone including clergy and the laity, who take part in the worship, faces east for the service. Fasts and Festivals of Mar Thoma Church Mar Thoma Church's evolution from a reformation base only strengthened it to follow best practices of its Syriac traditions. Lents (Nombu) and other church festivals are church's structural and liturgical base. Feasts and fasts are an integral part of the traditions of a Christian community. However, the way believers follow these fasts and feasts differ from church to church. Mar Thoma church being a part of Antiochian tradition churches, follows all the canonical feasts and fasts which are related to important events in the life of Jesus Christ. The constitution of the church states that the feasts, fasts or lents are not to be removed or altered from the church at any time. It Includes Observance of the Sunday as the day of the lord and other fast and feast days in the church calendar. Each Sunday is dedicated to meditating on subjects prescribed in church lectionary. Fasts of the Church The church mainly observes the fifty days before the period of Easter and twenty-five days before Christmas as fast days. Mar Thoma church doesn't have a canonical instruction on how a believer should follow the Lents. However, as a matter of practice believers follow certain dietary restrictions with the right spiritual diet as followed over generations. A person committed to lent, is in a spiritual training with introspection and renewal of their commitment to be an imitation of set principles by Jesus Christ. With the will for fellowship, each person anchors bio-psycho-spiritually with Jesus Christ through prayer. Lent is often considered as a refreshful practice for thoughts and soul for cultivating seven gifts of the Holy Spirit (Book of Isaiah ). An amount of money that is saved by giving up certain types of luxuries during the lent period is typically deposited in the offertory on Good Friday for Church's social services for the afflicted and hungry (Book of Isaiah ). Post-modernistic view about lent is as an empowering practice that transforms a person for making social and interpersonal impact. Every weekday in Great Lent there are specific liturgical services which include prostration or profound bows a number of times. The lents of the church are: Great Fast: consists of 40 days from the second week of February (Petrutha:Reconciliation) ending with 40th Friday, this symbolizes the forty days fast of Jesus Christ in the desert and extends with a ten days fast, that signifies the betrayal, passion, and crucifixion of Jesus Christ (Passion week-Hasha) as per oriental tradition. It spreads to 7 weeks with a total of 50 days (Ambathu Nombu). Ash Wednesday is the first Wednesday of the lent, it is not observed with significance. Nativity Fast (Yeldo lent): 25 days prior to Christmas which includes annunciation to Zechariah and to Joseph. Dormition of Mary (Shunoyo Lent): 15 days, in August. (This is not observed widely but some may fulfill this fast along with the reformation day celebration without the doctrinal underpinnings.) Fast of Nineveh (Lent of Yonah): 3 days in January. Apostles' Fast (Lent of Sleeha's): 13 specific days from the second week of June. Feasts of the Church The main feast or festival days of the church are Feast of Nativity, Baptism of Jesus, Feast of Annunciation, Palm Sunday, Easter, Feast of the Ascension, Day of Pentecost, and Feast of the Transfiguration. The most important festivals of the church are that of in Holy Week (Hasha) and Christmas. The festivals of Mar Thoma Church can be divided into 4 categories, they are: Maranaya Festivals- Festivals that are based on events in the life of Jesus Chris: Mainly they are Danaha (Baptism of Christ/Epiphany), Mayaltho (Presentation of Jesus at the Temple), Suboro (Feast of the Annunciation), Hosanna (Palm Sunday), Easter (Resurrection Sunday or Kyomtho), Christmas (Feast of Nativity or Yaldo). Roohanaya Festivals- Festivals related to Holy Spirit. Mainly they are Suloko (Feast of the Ascension), Sunday of Pentecost or Trinity Sunday- It is fifty days after Easter Day (at times it is observed separately), it commemorates the descent of the holy spirit on to the Church, Day of Transfiguration- 10th week after the day of Pentecost, this is when traditionally low abv vinification is started at homes for Christmas. Ethanaya Festivals- Festivals related to the church like Kudos Etho: The sanctification of the church and beginning of liturgical year, Hudos Etho - The dedication or renewal of the church, Reformation Day (August), Mar Thoma Church Day (In relation to Thomas the Apostle on 21 December). Dukrano Festivals: Church day separated for meditation on Martyrdom of Apostles without intercession (This is not observed widely except St. Stephen's Day). The Ethanaya Feasts Kudos Etho and Hudos Etho is in the second and third Sundays of November, it is also considered as the beginning of a liturgical year. The Holy week or passion week (Hasha) is the week before Easter and the last week of Great Lent, this includes Palm Sunday (Hosanna- Commemorating princely entry of Christ into Jerusalem), Maundy Thursday (Pesach- Commemorating last meal or passover of Jesus Christ with his disciples and the Holy Communion was instituted on this day), Good Friday (Holy Friday - Commemorating crucifixion of Christ at Golgotha), Joyous Saturday, and Easter (Resurrection Sunday - Commemorating Resurrection of Christ). Christmas is celebrated by all members of the Church, to commemorate the birth of Jesus Christ. During this time, parishes will be involved in Christmas carols and the celebration of Christmas Day church services with Christmas cakes. Before the 1850s, Mar Thoma church celebrated Christmas on 6 January, the day of Epiphany. By the end of last century, Christmas trees, Christmas Stars-an illuminative paper decoration made in the form of star or sunburst, Christmas lights, Sky lanterns, Nativity crib, Santa Claus' and other related festive traditions have appeared in the church. Ordination of Women and Transgender people The Mar Thoma Syrian Church has always remained open to new areas and dimensions that Christianity can adopt. The Mar Thoma Church has always discussed ideas and aspects which could have been the result of cultural and historical elements. One such area is the ordination of women. However the church hasn't ordained women yet, as it is not in accordance with Eastern Christian traditions. Female Archbishop Kay Goldsworthy of the Anglican Church of Australia, was one of the main speakers at the 2020 Maramon Convention, organized by the Mar Thoma Church. On the question of women's ordination, the Mar Thoma church's official response to the Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry document of the World Council of Churches reads, Howsoever it is to be noted that the Mar Thoma Church has provided caution that the BEM Document should not be considered as a confession of faith and order, rather it should be seen as a document that closes that gap between Churches across the world. The Mar Thoma Church is involved with several movements and projects, aiming at the upliftment and empowerment of the Transgender community. In 2018, two transgender speakers were given the stage, to address the Maramon convention of the Mar Thoma Church. Joseph Mar Thoma, a former head of the Mar Thoma Church, made it clear that there are no biblical grounds to deny priesthood and baptism for transgender individuals. It is also noteworthy that Joseph Mar Thoma, the former head of the Mar Thoma Church took the example of "Philip and the Eunuch", and how the Eunuch played an important role in development of Ethiopian Christianity. Theodosius Mar Thoma the current head of the Mar Thoma Church, has said that the time will come, when transgender people would be ordained as priests in the church. He said, Organizations Auxiliary organizations Development Department; Christian Agency for Rural Development (CARD); Mar Thoma Medical Mission; Mar Thoma Sabha Mandiram Fellowship; Social Welfare Institutions; Theological Institutions; Educational Institutions; Technical Institutions; Study Centres; Church Animation Centre; and Camp Centres are other empowerment organizations of the church. Educational institutions Nine colleges, six higher secondary schools, one vocational higher secondary school, eight high schools, one training school, five technical institutions plus other educational institutions owned and managed by individuals and by parishes. Other institutions There are 38 social welfare institutions, 14 destitute homes, and ten hospitals. The Mar Thoma Theological Seminary, Kottayam (established 1926) & Karukachal (Annex), Dharmajyoti Vidyapeedom, Haryana, E.J. Institute of Evangelism, and 4 other institutes cater to the theological education of both the clergy and the laity. Three study centres at Managanam, Kottayam and Trivandrum for arranging regular study programs and to provide opportunities for creative dialogue between Church and society on various ethical, moral, social and religious issues. The religious education of children is looked after by the Sunday School Samajam (organized in 1905) and the work among youth is carried on by the Youth Department, (the Yuvajana Sakhyam organized in 1933). The Church has a Women's Department (the Mar Thoma Suvisesha Sevika Sanghom organized in 1919). Maramon Convention The Mar Thoma Evangelistic Association, the missionary wing of the Mar Thoma Church, is in charge of organising the Maramon Convention, One of the largest annual Christian gathering in Asia. It takes place in Maramon, near Kozhencherry, during February on the vast sand-bed of the Pampa River next to the Kozhencherry Bridge. The first convention was held in March 1895 for 10 days. The Maramon Convention is principally an assembly of Christians who go there once a year to listen to the gospel as read and expounded by Christian leaders from all over India as well as abroad. This provides a revived ideological and experiential faith in accordance to the need of the laity and period of time. It is in tune with Mathew 6:5. Attendees sit on the sand bed, Old and invalid people are given chairs with separate sponsored or paid seating arrangements. Generally, one session is for ecumenical messages by invited leaders of other churches. Ecumenical relations The church actively participates in the programs of the World Council of Churches, the Christian Conference of Asia, the National Council of Churches and the Kerala Christian Council. Mar Thoma Church was attending meetings of World Council of Churches from its first meeting in 1948 at Amsterdam. At the WCC meetings held in Evanston, Juhanon Mar Thoma Metropolitan was elected as one of its presidents. Since then the Church representatives attended all the General meetings. Relationship with the Anglican Communion Due to the historic links of the Malankara reformation to the Anglican missionary enterprise in colonial India and the resultant formative influence, the Mar Thoma Church maintain close relations with the Anglican Church. The Church's theology and doctrines are closest to that of Anglicans; hence Mar Thoma as well as some Anglican Churches commemorate each other's bishops, in their respective Eucharists. The Mar Thoma church is in full communion with all the churches of the Anglican Communion. The two denominations fully accept each other's ministry and Mar Thoma bishops have participated in the consecration of Anglican bishops. Mar Thoma bishops also take part in the Lambeth Conferences. Pastoral care and episcopal oversight for Mar Thoma congregations and dioceses in the Western world, comes from territorial Anglican provinces, on an as-needed basis. In the UK, such a partnership exists with the Church of England, in the US with the Episcopal Church, in Canada with the Anglican Church of Canada and in Australia with the Anglican Church of Australia. In India, their communion partners are the Church of South India and the Church of North India. These three churches work together on various issues as the Communion of Churches in India. One such issue is focusing on transgender rights. Relationship with Malabar Independent Syrian church There is a historic relationship between Mar Thoma Syrian Church and Malabar Independent Syrian Church, although the doctrinal positions are not mutually accepted in full. Church of Thozhiyoor (Anjoor) and its primates have come in rescue of Malankara church many times. After the demise of Pulikkottil Joseph Dionysious (Mar Thoma X) and Punnathra Geevarghese Dionysious, Kidangan Geevarghese Philoxinos of Thozhiyoor Church reigned as Malankara Metropolitan as per the Royal Proclamation and returned the title back to Malankara Church without any claim after consecrating Punnathra Geevarghese Dionysious and Cheppad Geevarghese mar Dionysious for Malankara church. Similarly in 1863 Malankara Metropolitan Mathews Athanasious defended Thozhiyoor Church as an Independent Syrian Church in Madras High Court against Euyakim Koorilos Design to subordinate the Thozhiyoor Church under Antioch. From that verdict onwards Church of Thozhiyoor came to be known as Malabar Independent Syrian Church. When the Metropolitan Thomas Athanasius died without consecrating a successor in 1893, it was the Metropolitan of the Thozhiyoor Church who consecrated Metropolitan Titus I Mar Thoma, and helped the Mar Thoma Church in a serious crisis. Mar Thoma Metropolitans have since then helped in consecrating the Metropolitans of Thozhiyoor Church and vice versa. According to the constitution of the Thozhiyoor Church, when difficulties arise the Thozhiyoor Church should seek the advice and guidance of the Mar Thoma Metropolitan despite the fact that either Church has no authority over the other. Thus the relation between the Thozhiyoor Church and Mar Thoma Church is unique. The centenary of the fraternal relationship between the two Churches was celebrated in the Sabha Mandalam on 14 September 1994. Relationship with Syrian Church and the Patriarch of Antioch Mar Thoma Church has special regards and respect to Syriac Orthodox Church. The Apostolic succession of Mar Thoma Episcopacy, St James liturgy, Ecclesiastical tradition, and order are all from West Syriac Tradition of Antioch. The First Reforming Metropolitan of Malankara Mathews Athanasious was ordained to ecclesiastical orders by Patriarch Elias of Antioch in 1842. After Demise of Mathews Athanasious, the ecclesiastical robe and other insignia were sent to the Patriarch of Antioch as per tradition. It was later returned to Mar Thoma Church during the time of Patriarch Zakka I. Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I and Patriarch Ignatius Aphrem II have visited Maraman Convention and blessed its faithful. Mar Thoma Church has made a convention or practice that it will never consecrate a bishop with the name "Ignatius" the Ecclesiastical Title of Patriarch. Other Malankara churches started consecrating their own Holy Muron, Mar Thoma church still have not done that. Mar Thoma church hitherto has been increasing and using the holy muron Consecrated by Patriarch Elias and brought to Malankara by Mathews Athanasious in 1842. Mar Thoma church maintains good relations with Jacobite Syrian Christian Church. There is an active ecumenical dialogue between the Syrian orthodox church and Mar Thoma Church for mutual acceptance and wider communion. Relationship with Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church and Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church have the same Malankara antiquity and heritage that dates back to Saint Thomas' mission in Kerala, as well as West Syriac St James liturgical traditions dating back to the Puthenkoor faction. These churches are often referred as Swadeshi Churches as both have their spiritual and temporal leaders based within Kerala, India unlike many other Christian Churches of Kerala. However, there is no official Holy communion relationship between both the churches. At the same time, both clergy and laity come together in matters of social and public concern. Ecumenical worship services during Christmas season is common outside Kerala among the diaspora, and also at many places within Kerala. Marriages between the members of the two Churches are very common given the mutual historical privileged caste status of Kerala Syrian Christian community, although ecclesiastical authorities like to discourage such alliances and may not grant proper documents. Leaders of both churches have held ecumenical dialogues to discuss their differences in theology, traditions or practices that still remain pending clarification for mutual recognition, joint theological education and research, and communion; such efforts remain ongoing. There are many church leaders in both the churches who are widely respected across the larger Syrian Christian community, irrespective of their individual affiliation. Mar Thoma church has established an internal tradition that it will never consecrate an Episcopal or Metropolitan with the Greek name Baselios The ecclesiastical title of Catholicos of Edessa, which is now being used for primates of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church( holding the ecclesiastical title of Catholicos of the East) and Jacobite Syrian Christian Church (holding ecclesiastical title of Catholicos of India). Both Mar Thoma Church and Malankara Orthodox Church believes that their Primates are occupying the Ecclesiastical Throne of St Thomas. Both churches share church buildings to conduct their worship services at several places such as Chengannur, Koorthamala, Bahrain, Hyderabad etc. with peace and mutual love. These serve as examples of Christian Unity and brotherhood that many other churches can learn from and replicate. Relationship with STECI, Old Catholic and Lutheran churches The Mar Thoma Church has concluded its ecumenical dialogue with the Old Catholic Churches of the Union of Utrecht in 2014. This dialogue is in the process of reception. There is an ecumenical dialogue of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church with the Lutheran churches. Relationship with Eastern Catholic Churches in India The church maintains friendly relations with the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church; but the Catholic doctrines are not accepted by Mar Thoma church in their fullness. The Mar Thoma Church keeps a multifaceted approach in these relationships by adapting to the spiritual and cultural environment of the communions yet strongly abiding with the Mar Thoma Syrian identity. The Mar Thoma Church also keeps good ecumenical relations with other Christian churches around the world. Vestments in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church The Mar Thoma Syrian Church is an autonomous Reformed Oriental Church which is based in the state of Kerala in India is spread all across the world. The Mar Thoma Syrian Church has the Liturgical Orders of Deacons or Shemshono's, Priests or Kasheesho's, Monastics and Bishops. Deacons/Shemshono's The first order of priesthood in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church of Malabar is the Order of Diaconate. In most of the other Syrian Churches, there are six official orders of the diaconate, however, in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, there is only one orders of Diaconate. Deacons are given the mission of assisting the priest or bishop during the Holy Qurbana and is allowed to give the Holy Blood of Jesus Christ from the Casa. Kuroyo/ Readers/ Altar Boys The Mar Thoma Syrian Church is a democratic Church and being a Church that upholds the royal priesthood of all believers. Laymen are designated to assist the priest in worship. These laymen belong to the order of Kuroyo's or reader who has the duty of reading from the Holy Scriptures. These laymen wear a Kutino which is also known as the Shishroosha Kuppayam to symbolise the sanctity of worship. This dress code was a lost practice in the Mar thoma Church which is gaining popularity over the past few years. However, this is not an official order. Full Deacons Full deacons in the Mar Thoma Church are permitted to officially serve in liturgical ceremonies. They assist the priest with the needs of the priest and have the privilege to read the Holy Evengelion, give Qurbana to the faithful, and lead in the Kukyilions. In the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, there are no official liturgical vestments, instead, they wear a white cassock or a Kammees (traditional dress of Malankara Priests). Priests/Kasheesho's Priests wearing the traditional Kammees and white cassock. Daily Dress. Mar Thoma priests are allowed to wear two kinds of casual dress after their ordination. The first one is called a 'Kammees' which is the traditional attire worn by priests of Kerala. The 'Kammes' is a white robe and its length stops above the feet. The Kammees also has a small cape-like cloth which emerges from the back of the Kammees and stops right above the Chest. The Kammees is shaped similar to a cross symbolising that the person wearing the Kammees are Cross bearers for Christ. The second kind of dress which is a long white cassock which was introduced in the Mar Thoma Church in the late 1930s. A black Girdle (a narrow belt) is tied in the middle after wearing cassock symbolizing the steadfastness of their servanthood. There are Mar Thoma Priest who live as monastics called the Dayaraya Samooham. They wear a Khadi colored cassock which shows the Indian roots and also has a cross around their neck. Liturgical Vestments The Liturgical vestments of the priests in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church are very similar to that of the Church in Antioch. These Liturgical vestments are only worn during the performance of a sacrament and is worn after praying different prayers during the Preparatory Service (Thooyaba). The Liturgical Vestments of the Celebrant priest are as follows. Msone: These are ceremonial shoes which are worn during the celebration of the Holy Qurbono. Upon wearing the left shoe, the priest recites, "May my feet, O Lord God, be shod with the preparation of the Gospel of peace so that I may tread underfoot serpents and scorpions and all the power of the enemy, forever". Upon wearing the right shoe, he recites, "Cast down under my foot, Lord God, all false pride that is exalted against Thy knowledge, and grant that by Thy help I may bring the lusts of the flesh into subjection, forever." Kutino: Kutino or 'alb', a white surplice whose color is an indication of the priest's purity. The priest signs the cross over it three times saying, "Clothe me, O Lord, with the robe of incorruption through the strength of Thy Holy Spirit, and make me worthy to keep the true faith and walk in the paths of purity and righteousness all the days of my life." Hamnikho: The Hamnikho or'necklace', is the stole which symbolizes the priest being armed with the fear of the Lord. He signs the cross over it twice, reciting Psalm 18:39, 40: "Gird me with strength unto the battle and subdue under me them that rise up against me, defeat my enemies and silence those who hate me." Mar Thoma Priest wearing a Black Cassok during a sacramental function. Zenoro: Zenoro is a 'girdle' which speaks of the priest's control over all bodily desires. He signs the cross over it once reciting Psalm 45:3: "Gird thy sword upon thy thigh, O thou most mighty with thy splendor and glory. Thy glory triumphs." Zendo: Zendo are 'sleeves' which symbolize the priest's readiness to keep God's Law and do works of righteousness. He signs the cross twice over the left sleeve and recites Psalm 18:34 while wearing it: "He trains my hands to war; and he strengthens my arms like a bow of brass". He then signs the cross once over the right sleeve and recites Psalm 18:35 while wearing it: "Let Thy right hand help me up, and let Thy loving discipline raise me." Phayno: Phanyno a cope which symbolizes Aaron's robe of many colors and the Savior's seamless robe. He signs the cross over it thrice reciting Psalm 132:9-10: "Let Thy priests be clothed with righteousness and Thy righteous with glory. For Thy servant David's sake, turn not away the face of thine anointed". Then he puts it on reciting Psalm 132:9: "Clothe Thy priests with salvation and Thy saints with glory." The priests who act as the co celebrants in the Holy Qurbana or any other sacramental function wears a loose black cassock over his casual cassock symbolizing the purity of the sacramental function he is a part of. Bishops/Episcopa's Bishops of the Mar Syrian Church belongs to the Monastic Order. They take a particular pledge or an oath before being consecrated as a monk in the Church. The vestments of the Prelate/Episcopa's are very similar to that of priests along with a few additions, Daily Dress The bishops have long colored cassocks for their daily matters of the Church, Bishops of the Mar Thoma Church wear an 'Eskimo' or a Hood which symbolizes that they are monks. The color of the Cassocks should be either a light Yellow color which is similar to what monks wear in the Indian subcontinent or should be a dark red which upholds the Syrian Tradition. Liturgical Vestments The Episocpa's of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church has very similar vestments to that of the priest along with a few additional vestments. The bishops who are the co-celebrants of the Holy Qurbana or celebrants of all other Sacraments wear a loose black cassock over their casual cassock to symbolise the sanctity of the sacrament being performed. If the Bishops are the celebrants of the Holy Qurbana Service, they wear the following vestments along with that of a priest: Masnamptho: Before wearing the Phayno (Cope), Bishops also puts on the masnaphto or a 'turban', a head-cover which symbolizes the cloth with which the Lord's head was bound for His burial. He makes the sign of the cross twice on it and wears it reciting Psalm 4:6-7: "Who can show me He who is good? May the light of Thy countenance shine upon us, O Lord, Thou hast given gladness to my heart." Bathrashil: This vestment is used by the Bishops which is similar to a Hamnikho that priests wear. This is worn after the bishop wears the Phayno. He puts on batrashil 'Pallium' which is similar to the Hamnikho but extends both front and back. It reminds the prelate of the Cross which the Savior carried. He crosses it once reciting Psalm 27:5: "In the day of trouble, he protects me in the shadow of his tabernacle. He exalts me upon a rock; and now he shall lift up my head above mine enemies." Cross Necklace: Bishops wear a Cross, around the neck. While wearing the cross he recites Psalm 34:5: "Turn your eyes to him and hope in him and you shall not be disappointed." Hand Cross and Crosier: Finally bishop takes the crosier (mooroneetho) in his left hand, which symbolizes the bishop's authority and reminds us of the shepherd's staff, reciting Psalm 110:2: "The Lord will send forth the sceptre of Thy power out of Zion: thou shalt rule in the midst of thine enemies". He also takes a hand Cross in his right hand, from which a cloth called mqablonitho 'veil' is hung reciting Psalm 44:5: "For Thy cause we shall combat our enemies and for the cause of Thy name we shall trample those who hate us." Liturgical Vestments as per the Malankara Tradition. Mar Thoma Syrian Church is among the couple Churches in Malankara which also upholds the ancient Malankara Tradition of the Church. These vestments are mostly worn during the consecration of a new Church or during an Ordination service. These vestments appear very similar to Roman Catholic vestments probably for the reason that the Malankara Church was under Rome for over 150 years from the 1500s to 1653. The vestments include Mitre, Surplice, and Amice See also Saint Thomas Christians Malankara Church Eastern Protestant Christianity West Syriac Rite List of Marthoma Syrian Christians Saint Thomas Christians Malankara Syrian Metropolitans South India Reformed Churches Notes References Sources In English: Constitution of Mar Thoma Syrian Church. (2008) Juhanon Mar Thoma Metropolitan, The Most Rev. Dr. (1952). Christianity in India and a Brief History of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church. Pub: K.M. Cherian. K. V. Mathew (1985) The Faith and Practice of The Mar Thoma Church. George Menachery (1973) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India Vol. II. Mathew N.M. (2003). St. Thomas Christians of Malabar Through Ages, C.S.S. Tiruvalla. and CN 80303 Pothen, S.G. (1963). The Syrian Christians of Kerala. Asia Publishing House, London. Zac Varghese Dr. & Mathew A. Kallumpram. (2003). Glimpses of Mar Thoma Church History. London, England. Koshy Mathew Karinjapally (2005). Roots and Wings Bangalore, India. Cheriyan, Dr. C.V. Orthodox Christianity in India Kottayam2003. In Malayalam: Chacko, T.C. (1936) Malankara Marthoma Sabha Charithra Samgraham. (Concise History of Mar Thoma Church), Pub: E.J. Institute, Kompady, Tiruvalla. Daniel, K.N. (1924) Malankara Sabha Charitravum Upadesangalum, (History and Doctrines of Malankara Church). M.C.Chacko, R.V.Press, Tiruvalla. Daniel, K.N. (1952). Udayamperoor Sunnahadosinte Canonukal. (Canons of Synod of Diamper) Pub: C.S.S., Tiruvalla. Eapen, Prof. Dr. K.V. (2001). Malankara Marthoma Suryani Sabha Charitram. (History of Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church). Pub: Kallettu, Muttambalam, Kottayam. George Alexander, Rev. (Ed). Maramon Convention Sathapdhi Valum-'95.George Kassessa, Rev. M.C. (1919). Palakunnathu Abraham Malpan. (Biography in Malaylam), CLS, Tiruvalla. Mathews Mar Athanasius Metropolitan. (1857). Mar Thoma Sleehayude Idavakayakunna Malankara Suryani Sabhaudai Canon. (Canon of the Malankara Syrian Church of Saint Thomas). Printed at Kottayam Syrian Seminary. Mathew, N.M. (2007). Malankara Marthoma Sabha Charitram, (History of the Mar Thoma Church), Volume 1 (2006), Volume II (2007). Volume III (2008) Pub. E.J.Institute, Thiruvalla Varughese, Rev. K.C., (1972). Malabar Swathantra Suryani Sabhyude Charitram (History of the Malankar Independednt Suryani Church)Mar Thoma Sabha Directory. (1999) Pub. The Publication Board of The Mar Thoma Church, Tiruvalla, Kerala, India. P. V. Mathew. Nazrani Christians of Kerala (Malayalam) Vol.2 Kochi, 1993. Joseph Cheeran, Rev. Dr. Adv. P.C. Mathew (Pulikottil) and K.V. Mammen (Kottackal). Indian Orthodox Church History and Culture''. (Malayalam) Kottackal Publishers, Kottayam. 2002. External links Official Site of the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church Directory of Mar Thoma Churches Worldwide Holy Communion Preparatory Notes for First-timers Projector Slides for Mar Thoma Church Holy Communion Projector Slides for Holy Communion - Prepared by Sehion Mar Thoma Church, Dallas Mar Thoma TV Heritage and history of the Mar Thoma Church Mar Thoma Church Order of "Marriage Service" Mar Thoma Church-Episcopal Church Agreement Marthoma Congregation Germany Vestments in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, We Believe, by Rev Sajeev Koshy (2019). St.Thomas Mar Thoma Parish. Vestments in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Clergy Directory of the Mar Thoma Syrian Church. Vestments in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Kalpana By Titus the Second. Vestments in the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, http://marthoma.in/ http://misc.co.in/what-each-rite-ritual-symbol-means/ Meaning of Ritual Signs and Symbols (misc.co.in) 1852 establishments in British India Christian denominations in India Members of the National Council of Churches Members of the World Council of Churches Saint Thomas Christians Affiliated institutions of the National Council of Churches in India Reformed denominations in Asia Anglicanism in India
1123606	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland%20Police%20Service	Queensland Police Service	The Queensland Police Service (QPS) is the principal law enforcement agency responsible for policing the Australian state of Queensland. In 1990, the Queensland Police Force was officially renamed the Queensland Police Service and the old motto of "Firmness with Courtesy" was changed to "With Honour We Serve". The headquarters of the Queensland Police Service is located at 200 Roma Street, Brisbane. The current Commissioner is Katarina Carroll . The Commissioner reports to the Minister for Police, presently the Hon. Mark Ryan . History Queensland came into existence as a colony of the British Empire on 1 December 1859. The region was previously under the jurisdiction of the New South Wales governance with towns policed by small forces controlled by the local magistracy.The Police Act of 1838 (2 Vic. no. 2) which officially codified a variety of common behaviours as criminal and regulated the police response to them, continued as the template for policing. On 13 January 1860, Edric Norfolk Vaux Morisset was appointed the Inspector-General of the Queensland Police. Queensland was divided into 17 districts, each with its own police force headed by a Chief Constable under authority of a local magistrate. The position of Inspector-General was abolished soon after it was established, in July 1860, and most of the operations of the police until 1863 reverted to the control of local police magistrates and justices. The Queensland Police underwent a major reform in 1864 and the newly re-organised force commenced operations with approximately 143 employees under the command the first Commissioner of Police, David Thompson Seymour. The service had four divisions: Metropolitan Police, Rural Police, Water Police, and Native Police. At the turn of the century there were 845 men and 135 Aboriginal trackers at 256 stations in Queensland. 1900s In 1904 the Queensland Police started to use fingerprinting in investigations. In the 1912 Brisbane general strike the Queensland Police were used to suppress striking workers. The first female police officers, Ellen O'Donnell and Zara Dare, were inducted in March 1931 to assist in inquiries involving female suspects and prisoners. Following World War II a number of technological innovations were adopted including radio for communication within Queensland and between state departments. By 1950 the Service had a staff of 2,030 police officers, 10 women police and 30 trackers. In February 1951, a central communication room was established at the Criminal Investigation Branch in Brisbane. 1960s and 1970s On 14 May 1963, the Juvenile Aid Bureau was established. In 1965 female officers were given the same powers as male officers. The Queensland Police Academy at Oxley, Brisbane, was completed in 1972. Bicycles were phased out in 1975 and more cars and motorcycles were put into service. The Air Wing also became operational in 1975 following the purchase of two single-engine aircraft. 1980s The decade was a turbulent period in Queensland's political history. Allegations of high-level corruption in both the Queensland Police and State Government led to a judicial inquiry presided over by Tony Fitzgerald. The Fitzgerald Inquiry which ran from July 1987 to July 1989 led to charges being laid against many long-serving police, including Jack Herbert, Licensing Branch Sergeant Harry Burgess, Assistant Commissioner Graeme Parker and Commissioner Terry Lewis. Lewis was jailed and served ten and a half years. The Fitzgerald Inquiry also led to a perjury trial against former Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen, which ended with a hung jury. The Director of Public Prosecutions elected not to pursue a retrial due to Bjelke-Petersen's age and health. It was later revealed that the jury foreman for the trial was a member of the Young Nationals and identified with the "friends of Joh" movement. The Criminal Justice Commission was established in 1989 by the Queensland Criminal Justice Act 1989, following widespread corruption amongst high-level Queensland politicians and police officers being uncovered in the Fitzgerald Inquiry. It has since merged in 2002 with the Queensland Crime Commission to form the Crime and Misconduct Commission. The Criminal Justice Commission was responsible for significant research into the Queensland Police Service. A new computerised message switching system was put into use throughout Queensland in 1980. At the time it was one of the most effective police communication systems in Australia. 1990s The Police Powers and Procedures Act 1997 was passed by the Queensland Government on 1 July 1997 and took effect 6 April 1998. Law enforcement equipment introduced in the 1990s include oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray, the Smith & Wesson revolver firearm and later the Glock semi-automatic pistol, the long 26" baton to the 21" extendable baton, and linked to hinged handcuffs in 1998, and Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) laser-based detection devices and an Integrated Traffic Camera System in 1999 to enforce traffic speed limits. 2000s The Police Powers and Responsibilities Act 2000 came into force in July 2000 which consolidated the majority of police powers into one Act. The Queensland Police contributed to the national CrimTrac system and the National Automated Fingerprint Identification System (NAFIS), established in 2000. The Crime and Misconduct Act 2001 commenced 1 January 2002 and redefined the responsibilities of the Service and the Crime and Misconduct Commission (CMC) with respect to the management of complaints. The CMC also has a witness protection function. The CMC has investigative powers, not ordinarily available to the Queensland Police, for the purposes of enabling the commission to effectively investigate particular cases of major crime. The CMC also has the power to investigate cases of misconduct in the Queensland public sector, particularly the more serious cases of misconduct. In 2013, the CMC became the Crime and Corruption Commission. In 2002 there were 8,367 police officers (20.2% female) and 2,925 staff members at 321 stations, 40 Police Beat shopfronts and 21 Neighbourhood Police Beats throughout the state. By 2004 the Service had grown to 9,003 police officers (21.8% female) and 2,994 other staff members. As at 30 June 2016 there were 11,971 police officers (26.3% female) and 2,794 other staff members. The Taser conducted electrical weapon (CEW) was trialled by some officers in 2006 and was eventually issued in 2009. In mid-2007, approximately 5,000 officers participated in the Pride in Policing march through Brisbane. 2010s In 2013 following a change in government, another government department named the Public Safety Business Agency was created. This was following a recommendation of the Keelty review into police and community safety operations. Human resources, information technology and other divisions were transferred from the Service and other departments to the new agency. In mid-2016, some services were moved back to the Service. Eight geographic regions (Far Northern, Northern, Central, North Coast, Metropolitan North, Metropolitan South, Southern, and South Eastern) was reduced to five (Northern, Central, Southern, Brisbane, South Eastern). Some statewide functions and administrative divisions were also adjusted. Following the G20 political forum, the Service created its third unit citation. The other two Queensland Honours citations were the 'flood and cyclone' (2011) and the 'QP150' (2014) for the Service's sesquicentennial year. The Queensland Police marked 150 years of service to the State of Queensland on 1 January 2014. In 2015 the Commissioner approved officers and staff members to march in the Brisbane Pride Festival as part of showing organisational diversity, and accessibility of policing services to the LGBTI communities. Criticisms The Queensland Police Special Bureau was formed on 30 July 1940 and renamed Special Branch on 7 April 1948. It was criticised for being used for political purposes by the Bjelke-Petersen government in the 1970s and 1980s, such as enforcing laws against protests (sometimes outnumbering the protesters or using provocateurs to incite violence so the protesters could be arrested) and investigating and harassing political opponents. It was disbanded in 1989 following a recommendation by the Fitzgerald Inquiry into police corruption. Special Branch records were shredded. In 1991, an arrest was recorded by journalist Chris Reason on live TV. In the video, a plain clothes officer and other officers are seen restraining a man and putting him in the back of a car. The man was reportedly an international criminal from Europe but it was later found to be some one else. This was an embarrassment for the QPS and it came to be known as "Democracy Manifest". In 1994 six police officers, becoming known as the "Pinkenba Six", took three Aboriginal boys from Fortitude Valley and left them at Pinkenba as an unofficial way to punish the boys for suspected offences. The police officers were charged with abduction but were subsequently acquitted in court; the police service put them on twelve months probation for their errors of judgement. The Service has been accused of institutional racism after its fierce support of Senior Sergeant Chris Hurley who stood trial for the 2004 assault and manslaughter of Mulrunji Doomadgee. Senior Sergeant Hurley was initially subject of a Coronial Inquest by Coroner Christine Clements where he was found to have a case to answer despite conflicting medical evidence. The Director of Public Prosecutions Leanne Clare refused to place Senior Sergeant Hurley on trial for lack of evidence. After reviewing the evidence the Crime and Misconduct Commission (CMC) also found that there was insufficient evidence to prosecute for wrongdoing. The Queensland Attorney General Kerry Shine ordered a review despite advice from the State Solicitor-General Walter Sofronoff QC highlighting the lack of evidence. A review by New South Wales Former Chief Justice Sir Laurence Street found there was a case to answer. Senior Sergeant Hurley was found not guilty by a jury in the Townsville Supreme Court and the findings of the Coronial Inquest were subsequently overturned by the Queensland District Court. The District Court ruled that Coroner's finding "...was against the weight of the evidence". Also in 2006 and 2008 footage was caught of police beating homeless men after they were pinned to the ground. It came a year after a report by organisations including the Queensland Council of Social Service (QCOSS) and community groups such as the Red Cross, which detailed widespread harassment by police of the socially vulnerable. Approximately 75% of interviewees made such claims, but the report was ignored by the government. Police Minister Judy Spence said of the report "At a cursory glance, it looks like a compendium of views from nameless, homeless people,". In 2008, the CMC investigated an officer after he used a Taser on a teenage girl at South Bank, but recommended the officer only receive "managerial guidance". The incident was also against police policy to use tasers on minors. Police later charged the girl with breaching a move on order, but the case was thrown out with the magistrate criticising police's over-reaction. A subsequent inquiry by the CMC into the use of the TASER by the Queensland Police Service found there was no systemic abuse of the device by officers, despite the chairman saying the incident "showed a concerning pattern within QPS towards the handling of policing incidents". CCTV video footage was released, delayed by possible civil action, showing the girl lashing out and kicking the officer, knocking the Taser out of his holster before he used it as she was held on the ground by two security guards. In June 2009 a man died after allegedly being tasered by Queensland police 28 times. The policeman in question claimed the deceased was tasered a much lower number of times, suggesting the device was making erroneous readings. The coronial inquest later found this not to be the case, and that the officer tasered the man 28 times for up to five seconds at a time. In early 2010, searches were made by the CMC (Crime and Misconduct Commission) on police stations in Queensland. The results of the searches and interrogations of police officers are being kept confidential, but come less than a year after a CMC report claiming: the evidence revealed an attitude on the part of a not insignificant number of police officers, and their supervisors, that it was acceptable to act in ways that ignored legislative and QPS policy requirements, that were improper, and in some cases were dishonest and unlawful. Based on past experiences, the CMC had no confidence that the attitudes of those police officers would change without the pressure of public exposure. The CMC report focused on police corruption, and not police brutality that accounted for ten times as many complaints in Surfers Paradise - 130 reports to 13 in the 18 months to March 2010. Regions Between 1991 and 2013 there were eight geographic regions (Far Northern, Northern, Central, North Coast, Metropolitan North, Metropolitan South, Southern, and South Eastern), three commands (State Crime Operations, Operations Support, and Ethical Standards), and four divisions (Human Resources, Finance, Administration, and Information Management). As of 2017, there are five police regions and eight commands in the State of Queensland, each under command of an assistant commissioner: Regional Operations Northern Region Central Region Brisbane Region Southern Region South Eastern Region Specialist Operations Community Contact Command Intelligence, Counter-Terrorism and Major Events Command Operations Support Command State Crime Command Road Policing Command Commonwealth Games Group Strategy, Policy and Performance Crime and Corruption Commission Police Group Ethical Standards Command Legal Division Organisational Capability Command People Capability Command These regions are further divided into districts and further still into divisions. Separately, a new government department, Public Safety Business Agency took over the portfolios of human resources, finance, administration, education and training, and information technology). Ranks and structure The Queensland Police Service has two classes of uniformed personnel: police officers ('sworn' and 'unsworn'), and staff members (public servants or 'civilian': police liaison officers, watchhouse officers, and pipes and drums musicians). Both classes wear the same blue uniform with shoulder patches, however: pipes and drums musicians have hard board epaulettes and with pipes and drums wording; police liaison officers (PLOs) are distinguished by a yellow chequered band and a 'Police Liaison Officer' badge; and watchhouse officer have grey epaulettes stating 'watchhouse officer'. As of 2015 all rank insignia changed to an 'ink blue' background with insignia embroidered in white. There has been the addition of a 'recognition of service' horizontal bar between rank insignia and the words 'Queensland Police' for officers who have been on rank for a particular length of time. This 'recognition of service' is only for the ranks from senior constable to senior sergeant. Ranks of the Queensland Police Service are as follows: Staff members Torres Strait Island Police Support Officer (green/white/blue epaulette with embroidered 'TORRES STRAIT ISLAND POLICE SUPPORT OFFICER' and rank) Police Liaison Officer (yellow or blue/green (Torres Strait) epaulette with embroidered 'POLICE LIAISON OFFICER') Recruit (light blue epaulette with embroidered 'POLICE RECRUIT') Constable ranks Constable (Plain blue) Constable (5 years) (one embroidered chevron) - not commonly used Senior constable (two embroidered chevrons) Non-commissioned ranks Sergeant (three embroidered chevrons) Senior sergeant (embroidered crown with laurels) Commissioned ranks Inspector (three pips) Superintendent (one crown and one pip) Chief superintendent (one crown and two pips) Assistant commissioner (crossed tipstaves with laurels) Deputy commissioner (one pip and crossed tipstaves with laurels) Commissioner (one crown and crossed tipstaves with laurels) Rank insignia is worn only by uniformed officers. Prior to mid-2009, only officers at the rank of inspector and above (commissioned officers) had the words 'Queensland Police' embroidered on their epaulettes, however new uniform mandates saw the introduction of the words 'Queensland Police' on all epaulettes issued to police officers after this date. The epaulettes of commissioned officers are significantly larger than the epaulettes of lesser ranks. Different paypoints apply within the same rank relative to years of service. Officers relieving at a higher rank temporarily wear the epaulettes of the higher rank. Police officers and other members may be eligible to wear Queensland and Australian honours. Specialist areas Officers must serve a minimum of three years in general duties before being permitted to serve in specialist areas such as: Child Protection and Investigation Unit (CPIU), formerly the Juvenile Aid Bureau (JAB) Criminal Investigation Branch (CIB) Dog Squad Forensic Crash Unit, formerly the Accident Investigation Squad (AIS), and before that, the Traffic Accident Investigation Squad (TAIS) Forensic Services Branch Mounted Unit Police Prosecutions Corps (PPC) Railway Squad Scenes of Crime Special Emergency Response Team (SERT) Major and Organised Crime (Rural) (MOCS), formerly Stock and Regional Crime Investigation Squad (SARCIS), formerly the Stock Squad Taskforce Maxima (investigating, disrupting and dismantling outlaw motorcycle gangs) Road Policing Units (RPU), formerly Traffic Branch Intelligence analyst Water Police Public Safety Response Team (PSRT), including the Mobile Response Capability (MRC) District Education and Training Office (DETO) Police Citizens Youth Club (PCYC) Tactical Crime Squad (TCS) Rapid Action and Patrol (RAP) Polair, relating to helicopters and remote pilotless aircraft, separate to a police airwing which are fixed wing transport aircraft. Commissioners The following list chronologically records those who have held the post of Commissioner of the Queensland Police Service. Equipment Standard equipment issued and worn on duty belt or load bearing vest by a uniformed police officer: Glock 22 pistol .40-calibre 3 x magazines plus 90 rounds of ammunition Extendable baton (21") concealed within pouch Saflok Mark 5 hinged handcuffs Motorola APX 8000 radio and radio pouch OC (oleoresin capsicum) spray within pouch X26 Taser Axon Enterprise Body 2 body worn camera (BWC) Apple iPads and iPhones to access the operational computer QPRIME, given the name 'QLiTE'. Load bearing vest Officers, if necessary, can access the Remington Patrolman R4 carbine service rifle if qualified. Supplier of belt and pouches is TripleB Leathercraft and Tote Systems. Other equipment provided to officers include: Maglite light weight medic gloves and voice recording devices Officers around the state now have an option of an equipment vest (Load bearing vest) which is designed to transfer the weight from the hips to the torso. The vest holds the radio, handcuffs and OC spray. Originally this was a general accoutrement vest (GAV) which were extremely unpopular and rarely used, and in the 2010s, the load bearing vest (LBV) which is worn by most operational officers. Body worn video technology was introduced following a trial in 2015. Fleet In the 1980s to 2010s, the Holden Commodore, Ford Falcon and Toyota Aurion made up most of the fleet of both general duties and highway patrol operations. In more recent years however, with the ceasing of production of these locally produced models, makes such as the Hyundai Sonata have been used as general duties vehicles, while the Subaru Levorg and Kia Stinger have been employed for use as highway patrol vehicles. Hyundai iLoads and modified Isuzu D-Maxs are used as transport vehicles. The Toyota Camry Hybrid and Toyota RAV4 Hybrid has become the primary general duties vehicles in metropolitan areas, replacing the remaining Holden Commodores, as well as older Hyundai Sonatas. Gallery The SERT (Special Emergency Response Team) unit also has two specialised armoured vehicles, Lenco BearCats, at its disposal for use in riot control and other potentially dangerous situations throughout the Brisbane/South Eastern and Northern police regions, with one vehicle stationed in Brisbane and Cairns each. From 1996 to 2015, nominated vehicles were fitted with other 200 in-car computers supplied by the state transport department, the Mobile Integrated Network Data Access (MINDA) units. From April 2012, automatic number plate recognition technology was fitted to road policing unit vehicles, follow earlier trials. Queensland Police has received its first police helicopter, based on the Gold Coast in 2012. The helicopter was used for a six-month trial period. The highly anticipated $1.6 million Bell 206 Long Ranger has already been hailed a success, assisting police in 24 different dispatches in its first three days of operation, and will be used extensively during major events such as Schoolies Week and the Gold Coast 600. The helicopter is fitted out with state-of-the-art equipment such as infrared and thermal imaging cameras, and other equipment based on the NSW Police Force helicopters. A second helicopter a BO 105 was introduced by July 2014 in time for the G20 summit in November, responsible for patrolling Brisbane and the Sunshine Coast. The helicopters have Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) and Searchlight (TRAKKA beam) capabilities. In a first for an Australian police department, Queensland Police have purchased numerous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs; i.e. drones) which have already been used for surveillance purposes in numerous situations where sending in officers is deemed too risky such as during sieges or hostage rescue operations. They can also be used to aerially examine crime scenes. Queensland Water Police operate three purpose-designed 23 m patrol vessels and numerous smaller rigid-hulled inflatable boats. Queensland police killed in the line of duty 26 June 2021: Senior Constable David Masters, 53, was struck and killed by a stolen vehicle on the Bruce Highway in Burpengary, north of Brisbane. 29 May 2017: Senior Constable Brett Forte was shot and killed at Adare, north of Gatton, after attempting to apprehend a suspected offender. The gunman, Rick Maddison, was shot and killed the next day by police while trying to escape after a siege in a farmhouse at Ringwood, north-west of Gatton. On 8 June 2018, the police helicopter Polair 2 was named Brett A. Forte in his honour. Polair 2 had provided air support during the siege. 29 May 2011: Detective Senior Constable Damien Leeding (CIB) was shot when he confronted an armed offender at the Pacific Pines Tavern on the Gold Coast. Leeding died in hospital on 1 June three days after being shot. 18 July 2007: Constable Brett Irwin, 33, was shot while executing an arrest warrant for breach of bail at Keperra, in northwest Brisbane. 22 August 2003: Senior Sergeant Perry Irwin, 42, was shot while investigating reports of gunfire in bushland at Caboolture, north of Brisbane. 21 July 2000: Senior Constable Norman Watt, 33, was shot during an armed stand-off at Alton Downs near Rockhampton, Central Queensland. 21 May 1996: Constable Shayne Gill, Struck by a motor vehicle while on radar duty on the Bruce Highway near Glasshouse Mountains. 29 June 1989: Constable Brett Handran was shot attending a domestic dispute in Wynnum, in east Brisbane. 29 July 1987: Senior Constable Peter Kidd was shot in a raid at Virginia, in north Brisbane. 29 February 1984: Constable Michael Low was shot attending a domestic dispute at North Rockhampton, central Queensland. 2 November 1975: Senior Constable Lyle Hoey was deliberately run down by a car near Mount Molloy in North Queensland. 9 April 1969: Senior Constable Colin Brown was shot while investigating the behaviour of a farm employee on a property near Dayboro, north of Brisbane. 27 March 1968: Constable Douglas Gordon was shot attending a domestic disturbance at Inala, in south Brisbane. 26 October 1964: Senior Constable Desmond Trannore was shot attending a domestic disturbance near Gordonvale, North Queensland. 14 February 1963: Senior Constable Cecil Bagley was electrocuted when he tried to rescue a neighbour being electrocuted in his car at Mount Gravatt, south Brisbane. Although at home, his death was deemed to have occurred while on duty because, as a police officer, he was always expected to respond in an emergency situation. 16 August 1962: Constable Douglas Wrembeck stopped to question a motorist in South Brisbane and was killed when he was struck by a car driven by a hit-and-run driver. 19 February 1962: Constable Gregory Olive was shot in the chest at close range when he knocked on a front door to make inquiries at Kelvin Grove, Brisbane. 1 April 1956: Constable First Class Roy Doyle died in hospital at Mackay from head injuries sustained when he hit a submerged block of concrete while attempting a rescue in the flooded Pioneer River at Mackay on 29 March 1956. 28 November 1938: Constable George Robert Young of the water police was one of four men on a RAAF amphibious aircraft which crashed killing all on board. They were searching for the body of missing woman Marjorie Norval in the estuaries of Moreton Bay when the aircraft hit high tension wires. 6 August 1930: Constable Ernest James Dawson was on traffic duty on the Yungaburra Road near Lake Barrine when he lost control of his motorcycle. Despite emergency surgery which appeared initially successful, complications arose and he died in Brisbane General Hospital on 18 January 1931. 27 September 1906: Sergeant Thomas Heaney died at South Brisbane from head fractures sustained when he was hit multiple times over the head with a metal bar during an arrest on 7 June 1905 at Woolloongabba, Brisbane. 23 December 1905: Constable Albert Price was stabbed while making an arrest at Mackay. 16 September 1904: Constable First Class Charles O'Kearney was knocked down by a horse being deliberately ridden towards him in retaliation for an arrest in Laidley. 29 March 1903: Acting Sergeant David Johnston was killed by being hit on the head with an axe by a prisoner in the watchhouse at Mackay. 30 March 1902: Constable George Doyle was shot while attempting to capture the Kenniff brothers, who had a long history of stealing cattle and horses, in Upper Warrego. 2 July 1895: Senior Constable William Conroy was stabbed several times trying to prevent a man from stabbing the man's wife on Thursday Island. 6 September 1894: Constable Edward Lanigan was shot in the chest while trying to prevent another policeman from being shot during an arrest at Montalbion (a mining town near Irvinebank). 10 May 1894: Constable Benjamin Ebbitt died at South Brisbane having never recovered from an assault during an arrest on 9 November 1890 at Croydon. 4 February 1893: Constable James Sangster, 25, drowned while attempting a rescue of two members of the Jackson family during the 1893 flood of the Bremer River at North Ipswich. He is commemorated by the James Sangster Memorial at North Ipswich, which was initiated by the Jackson family and funded by public subscription. 27 October 1889: Senior Constable Alfred Wavell was shot at Corinda (southwest of Burketown) by a man who had escaped from the Normanton lock-up. 26 January 1883: Constable William Dwyer was struck on the head by a tomahawk by an Aboriginal near Juandah Station via Taroom. 24 January 1883: Cadet Sub-Inspector Mark Beresford was speared in the thigh and hit on the head by Aboriginals in the Selwyn Ranges to the south of Cloncurry. 24 September 1881: Sub-Inspector Henry Kaye was speared through the chest by Aboriginals at Woolgar gold fields (100 km north of Richmond). 24 January 1881: Sub-Inspector George Dyas was found buried after being speared in the back by Aboriginals while he camped near the 40 Mile Waterhole near Normanton. 6 November 1867: Constable Patrick Cahill and Constable John Power were poisoned and shot in the head at the Mackenzie River Crossing while escorting a consignment of bank notes and bullion from Rockhampton to Clermont. See also Crime in Brisbane Crime in Australia Lucas Inquiry Queensland Council for Civil Liberties History of the Queensland Police Notes References Attribution This article was originally based on material from Queensland Police Commissioners, © State of Queensland (Queensland Police Service) 2019, released under CC-BY-4.0 licence, accessed on 23 April 2019. External links Queensland Police Service Public Safety Business Agency Dangerous Liaisons - CMC investigation, July 2009 G.E. Fitzgerald (1989) "Report of a Commission of Inquiry Pursuant to Orders in Council" Commission of Inquiry into Possible Illegal Activities and Associated Police Misconduct Queensland Government Printer. Two books about crime and corruption in the Queensland police—Gold Coast Writers Association, 2014. Queensland Police Service: Disaster management and social media: a case study 1864 establishments in Australia Emergency services in Queensland Law enforcement agencies of Queensland
1127977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Territory%20Police%20Force	Northern Territory Police Force	The Northern Territory Police Force is the police body that has legal jurisdiction over the Northern Territory of Australia. This police service has 1,537 police members (as at 31 July 2019) made up of 79 senior sergeants, 228 sergeants, 839 constables, 208 auxiliaries, and 73 Aboriginal Community Police Officers. The rest of the positions are members of commissioned rank and inoperative positions (as of 31 July 2019). It also has a civilian staff working across the NT Police, Fire and Emergency Services. Police in the Northern Territory are part of a tri-service: the Northern Territory Police, Fire and Emergency Services with the Commissioner of Police as the CEO of the tri-service. Sworn police officers can be required to serve anywhere where a police presence is required in the Northern Territory including remote Aboriginal communities in Arnhem Land and outback Northern Territory. History The Northern Territory Police traces its roots back to the South Australian Mounted Police from 1870 when Inspector Paul Foelsche and six other police officers arrived in the Territory. A small rural constabulary (part-time force) had existed earlier but was disbanded. The Native Police Corps was formed in 1884. Their role was mostly as a security force to protect the early inhabitants of the Northern Territory than as a police force. The current NTP came into existence in 1911. In 1931, the two Territories Central and Northern became the Northern Territory of Australia and the authority of the Commissioner of Police was established in the Administrator of the Northern Territory, in Darwin. In December 1869, the governor commissioned Paul Foelsche, a Corporal in the SA Mounted Police stationed at Strathalbyn, to be the first sub-inspector of police at Palmerston. He sailed for Darwin soon afterwards. The police uniform then worn in the Territory was the same as that worn in South Australia. It consisted of a short cut-away blue serge tunic with nine regulation buttons, silver twisted cord shoulder knots, black braid on the sleeves and silver chevrons for non-commissioned officers. The riding breeches were dark blue corkscrew serge with a white stripe. The first firearms were a Schneider rifle or carbine, calibre .577. These were the first breech loaded rifles used in the British Army, and the original cartridges had a cardboard case. Later Martini-Henry rifles were used, and Webley revolvers were issued. Like their predecessors, the Rural Constabulary at Escape Cliffs, the first detachment of police at Palmerston had as their first responsibility the maintenance of law and order in the community. With the discovery of gold near Pine Creek in 1872 the police found themselves with never a dull moment. Stations were established at Adelaide River, Yam Creek, Pine Creek, Roper River and later at Daly River. The first police fatality occurred in 1872 when Mounted Constable Davis, a noted swimmer, disobeyed a local Standing Order and had a dip in the sea. He was killed by a crocodile. Darwin's first police station was constructed of poles and plaster measuring by . The inspector lived nearby in three rooms. A small stone building with two cells was the accommodation for those in custody. These are now incorporated in the Administrator's offices on the Esplanade. In Central Australia the police were part of the South Australian Mounted Police. Mounted Constable Shirley was the first mounted trooper in charge at Alice Springs (first called Stuart). At one time there were two Commissioners of Police in the Northern Territory: one for the Territory of North Australia and one for the Territory of Central Australia. In 1931, the two Territories became the Northern Territory of Australia and the authority of the Commissioner of Police was vested in the Administrator of the Northern Territory, in Darwin. On 1 July 1964, Clive William Graham, a police officer of long standing in the Territory, was appointed as Commissioner and the force as a whole was administered as part of the Public Service of the Northern Territory. In recent years, various cases have made national and international headlines: the end of the Petrov Affair occurred in Darwin; the 1968 month-long bush search for Larry-Boy who murdered his wife and seriously injured a stockman at Elsey Station; and the 1971 attempted hijack of a plane at Alice Springs airport in which a Territory police officer, who was badly wounded, displayed great heroism. Events connected with search and rescue operations at sea, in swamps and the desert have also made the news. Auxiliaries and Aboriginal Community Police Officers. The Joint Emergency Services Communications Centre in Darwin has instant contact with all stations, vehicles, aircraft and vessels and provides for the Police, Fire, Emergency Services and St John Ambulance Service. Female officers Females were accepted as officers prior or from 1960. In 1962, both male and female candidates had to be unmarried, male applicants aged 21 to 30 years of age, up to 35 years with previous police experience; yet female applicants had to be between 25 and 35 (unless previous police experience). By 1970, only female candidates had to be unmarried. Believed-to-be Australia's first female police motorcyclist, in April 1980, Constable Kate Vanderlaan rode a Honda 750 cc police special around Darwin. She later rose to be a deputy commissioner of the force. Recent history In 1955, there were 80 police officers. As of June 2011, the number of sworn Police, Auxiliaries and Aboriginal Community Police Officers in the service was 1,381. In 1989, the Northern Territory Police, Fire and Emergency Services were joined to become a Tri-Service. The Commissioner of Police also becoming the Chief Executive Officer for the Fire and Rescue Service and the Emergency Services. In July 2019, Commissioner Reece Kershaw was appointed Commissioner of the Australian Federal Police, after being at the helm of NT Police for five years. Organisational structure Commissioner: Jamie Chalker Deputy Commissioner, Operations: Michael Murphy Deputy Commissioner, Investigations and Capability: Michael White (Acting) Assistant Commissioner, Crime and Integrity: Nick Anticich Assistant Commissioner, Darwin and Support: Vacant Assistant Commissioner, Regional Operations: Narelle Beer Chief Fire Officer – NT Fire and Rescue Service: Mark Spain Chief Officer – NT Emergency Service: Fleur O’Connor Executive Director – NT Fire, Rescue and Emergency Services: David Willing Chief of Staff: James J O'Brien Commissioners Organisation The headquarters of the Northern Territory Police is located at NAB House on Smith Street, . The Department of Police, Fire and Emergency Services is administered from the Peter McAulay Centre in . The Northern Territory Police maintains 63 local police stations and 5 police shopfronts coordinated by their respective Local Area Commands. A number of specialist units have been established, including the Territory Response Group, Accident Investigation Unit, Computer Crime Unit, Drug Intelligence Unit, Substance Abuse Intelligence Desk (SAID), Indigenous Development Unit, Highway Patrol Unit, Missing Persons Unit, Remote Area Traffic Patrol Unit and Air Support Unit. Air Wing The NT Police Air Wing was formed in 1979 with bases in Darwin and Alice Springs, operating two fixed wing aircraft. The area of operation covers , being some north to the south and east to the west. This around one sixth of the Australian landmass, but is very remote, having less than 200,000 residents (1% of the national population). The commonwealth government funded an extra two planes to be based in Darwin. The planes were later handed back due to lack of money. CitySafe The CitySafe and Licensing Patrol Unit was forged during New Year's Eve celebrations in 2008/2009. CitySafe was officially launched by the NT Chief Minister Paul Henderson on 25 February 2009. After this was deemed a success, NT police were looking at establishing a specialist licensing enforcement unit in 2010. Bottle Shop Security Police Auxiliaries now guard bottle shops in Katherine, Tennant Creek and Alice Springs. They are called liquor inspectors. Firearms and equipment Officers now carry the Glock 22 or the Glock 27 .40-calibre pistol for plain clothes members. Other weapons used in the Northern Territory Police include the AR-15 semi-automatic rifle which is used by specialist groups and specifically trained members in rural areas. Officers also carry Remington model 870 pump action shotgun and Remington model 700 (.308) bolt-action rifle, which is gradually replacing the older BRNO model 601 bolt-action rifles in the same calibre. The NT Police introduced the Model X-26 Advanced TASER into operational service for General Duties members in February 2008, distributing 74 units. The X26 Taser has now been replaced with the Taser X-2. as a less-lethal force option available to each frontline patrol. Restraints used are ADI Saf-Lok Mark-IV and V handcuffs and Flexi-cuffs. Mk-6 and Mk-9 First Defense oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray are also general issue. Vehicles The Northern Territory Police mostly use LAC response vehicles include Ford Falcon sedans, Holden VE Commodore and Toyota Hilux dual cab utes as caged vehicles (4x4 and 2WD) Turbo diesel. Specialist vehicles include the Toyota Land Cruiser 4WD. Highway Patrol vehicles usually consist of a combination of marked and unmarked Holden VY SS Commodores and Ford Falcon XR6II. Other specialist sections and units use a variety of police vehicles including Isuzu trucks, and fixed wing Pilatus PC-12 aeroplanes. The Northern Territory police recently acquired Kia stingers to add to their Road Policing Command fleet. Officers killed on duty 7 November 1883, Mounted Constable John Shirley, aged 27 years from dehydration while searching for men who had murdered a man at Lawson's Creek. 1 August 1933, mounted constable Albert Stewart McColl was speared to death at Woodah Island in Arnhem Land. 17 August 1948, Constable Maxwell Gilbert, aged 27 years when the vehicle he was driving overturned just north of Wauchope. He was escorting a prisoner to Alice Springs. 9 June 1952, constable William Bryan Condon was shot twice after confronting a gunman. 16 June 1967, inspector Louis Hook died from extensive injuries from a rollover near Pine Creek. 9 June 1970, sergeant Colin Eckert was killed in a head-on collision in Katherine. 11 December 1981, senior constable Allen Price aged 44 years died of a heart attack while attempting to stop a disturbance in Mataranka. 29 January 1984, detective sergeant Ian Bradford died when the police vehicle he was a passenger in went over the edge of the wharf in Darwin. 3 August 1999, Brevet sergeant Glen Huitson was killed in a gun battle with bushman Rodney Ansell on the Stuart Highway. Ranks Controversies In 1928, the Coniston massacre took place. A number of police officers shot dead dozens of Aboriginal Australians in Coniston. No one was ever charged for the murders. On 17 August 1980, an infant Azaria Chamberlain and her family members were camping near Ayers Rock. It was alleged the girl was snatched away by a dingo, but for a number of reasons, the parents were extradited to the Northern Territory and their vehicle seized. The parents Michael and Lindy Chamberlain were criminally charged and convicted; later overturned in 1988. A review of the forensic science section, a royal commission, and several inquests were held into the police investigation and cause of Azaria's death. See also Crime in the Northern Territory John William Stokes James Joseph Mannion Mark Turner References External links Further reading Debnam, Lawrie.(1990) Men of the Northern Territory Police 1870–1914 : who they were and where they were Elizabeth, S. Aust. L. Debnam. 1911 establishments in Australia Government agencies established in 1911 Law enforcement agencies of the Northern Territory
1134100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell%20Divers	Hell Divers	Hell Divers is a 1932 American pre-Code black-and-white film from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer starring Wallace Beery and Clark Gable as a pair of competing chief petty officers in early naval aviation. The film, made with the cooperation of the United States Navy, features considerable footage of flight operations aboard the Navy's second aircraft carrier, the , including dramatic shots of takeoffs and landings filmed from the Curtiss F8C-4 Helldiver dive bombers after which the movie was named. Hell Divers was officially Gable's first "starring" role and filmed before he grew his trademark mustache. Gable had appeared in a minor supporting role in another Beery film, The Secret Six, earlier the same year. For Gable, Hell Divers was not a pleasant experience since he was again billed beneath Beery, an actor he personally disliked. Four years later, Gable would be billed over Beery in the lavish epic China Seas, one of only four films during the sound era in which Beery did not receive top billing. Other actors appearing include Conrad Nagel, Dorothy Jordan, Marjorie Rambeau, and Marie Prevost. An uncredited Robert Young appears near the end of the film in a speaking role as Graham, a pilot. Plot Leading Chief Petty Officer "Windy" Riker is a veteran aerial gunner of a Navy Helldiver dive bomber and the leading chief of Fighting Squadron One, about to go to Panama aboard the aircraft carrier. He loses his five-year title of "champion machine gunner" after young C.P.O. Steve Nelson joins the squadron. Windy, notorious for using his fists to enforce discipline, is charged by local police with wrecking a Turkish bath. Windy is saved from arrest, however, when Lieutenant Commander Jack Griffin, skipper of the squadron, intervenes on his behalf. Griffin and his second-in-command, Lieutenant "Duke" Johnson, agree that Nelson is the best candidate to replace Windy as he ponders retirement. The chiefs engage in friendly rivalry until the squadron practices a new dive-bombing technique and Steve becomes a hero, saving the base from being accidentally bombed by climbing out on the wing of his dive bomber to hold in place a bomb that failed to release. Feelings turn bitter when Steve contradicts Windy's explanation of the accident and Windy punches him in resentment. Windy is dressed down by Duke when the officer sees the punch. When Steve's sweetheart, Ann Mitchell, visits him, he proposes marriage to her, but Windy uses a practical joke to get even with Steve. Unaware that Ann is Steve's fiancée and not simply a girl he is trying to impress, Windy bribes an old acquaintance, Lulu, to pretend to be Steve's outraged lover. Ann leaves upset and will not listen to Steve's denials. Griffin loses an arm following a mid-air collision at night. The accident occurs when the aircraft are returning from delivering the admiral to his flagship the Saratoga before the squadron embarks. Griffin is retired and replaced in command of Fighting One by Duke Johnson. Windy becomes Johnson's gunner when the squadron flies to the ship. During a bombing exercise off Panama, Windy misplaces his code book and delays the takeoff of the squadron. As punishment, he is assigned to supervise a work party when the ship docks, missing liberty and keeping him from seeing Mame Kelsey (Rambeau), the woman in Panama he wants to settle down with after retirement. Steve, who knows Mame, encounters her on the dock and shares her carriage, but Windy hears about it and sneaks into town. Mame tries to convince Steve to patch up his differences with Windy, then promotes peace between them when Windy shows up at her hotel. Having a drink together in the bar, however, Windy starts a brawl. Steve tries to help him avoid the local police but Windy is thrown in jail. As the Saratoga passes through the Panama Canal, Mame bails Windy out of jail and he catches up to it by stealing a boat. For his transgressions, the captain of the Saratoga reduces Windy one rate from chief. Windy is disciplined at "Captain's Mast" and reduced to Aviation Machinist's Mate 1st Class for leaving his post without authorization, absent without leave, and missing ship. Steve reluctantly becomes leading chief. During a mock battle, Steve's aircraft crashes near a rocky island, killing the pilot and leaving Steve with a broken leg. Duke and Windy land to rescue Steve, but Duke suffers a head injury and Windy has to save both. They have only a radio receiver and cannot be found in the fog. Steve and Windy become friends while waiting for rescue. Windy writes Ann a note confessing what he did with Lulu. After four days, Duke's condition worsens, Steve develops blood poisoning, and they hear on the radio that the Saratoga is leaving. Windy tries to save them by flying them out in Duke's dive bomber, with Duke in the rear cockpit and Steve riding on the wing. Despite the fog, they find the aircraft carrier, but crash on landing and Windy is fatally injured. By his last request, Windy is buried at sea as a missing man formation flies overhead. Cast Production Based loosely on the earlier war epic, What Price Glory? (1926), "Lt. Comdr. Frank Wead, U.S.N. (Ret.)" is credited for the film's story. Wead was himself later portrayed by John Wayne in John Ford's movie biography The Wings of Eagles, in which footage of Hell Divers appears. Ford regular Jack Pennick has a small role in both, appearing uncredited in Hell Divers as a recruit sailor. Principal aerial photography under the helm of cinematographer Charles A. Marshall took place in 1931 at North Island Naval Air Station in San Diego, California. The aircraft used in the film were the Curtiss F8C-4 variant, the first production variant to bear the nickname "Helldiver". A total of 25 F8C-4 aircraft were transferred to the U.S. Marine Corps shortly after the release of Hell Divers. The production received full cooperation from the US Navy Department, not only featuring the song (uncredited but considered the unofficial song of the US Navy), "Anchors Aweigh" (1906) (written by Charles A. Zimmerman, lyrics by Alfred Hart Miles and R. Lovell) in the opening credits but also a dedication to the naval aviators who made the film possible. While a small number of miniatures stood in for the real aircraft, as well in a mock battle by airships attacking the Saratoga, the majority of the aerial scenes directed by Marshall, featured the actual Helldivers of VF-1B. Real events were woven into the film; footage of the historic 1928 landing of the airship USS Los Angeles aboard the carrier was also incorporated into the story. In addition to sequences filmed aboard the Saratoga at sea and in the Panama Canal, Hell Divers was filmed at the NAS North Island, as one of the first of a series of naval epics filmed there. Release The film had a sneak preview in San Bernardino on October 29, 1931, but was not released until January 16, 1932. Reception Hell Divers was received well both critically and with audiences. Reviews focused on the exciting aerial sequences. Mordaunt Hall, in The New York Times, effused over the "magnificently photographed production, one that includes naval air stunts and impressive 'landing' feats", while dismissing the plot as "inconsequential". Much later reviews note the "boisterous" interplay between notorious scene-stealer Beery and Gable; while, for aircraft enthusiasts, the film is considered an aviation classic. Box-office According to MGM records, Hell Divers earned $1,244,000 in the U.S. and Canada and $917,000 elsewhere, resulting in a profit of $458,000. References Notes Citations Bibliography Dolan, Edward F. Jr. Hollywood Goes to War. London: Bison Books, 1985. . Donald, David, ed. Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Etobicoke, Ontario: Prospero Books, 1997. . Farmer, Jim. "Hollywood goes to North Island NAS." The Making of the Great Aviation Films, General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989. Hardwick, Jack and Ed Schnepf. "A Viewer's Guide to Aviation Movies". The Making of the Great Aviation Films, General Aviation Series, Volume 2, 1989. Maltin, Leonard. Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide 2009. New York: New American Library, 2009 (originally published as TV Movies, then Leonard Maltin’s Movie & Video Guide), First edition 1969, published annually since 1988. . Orriss, Bruce. When Hollywood Ruled the Skies: The Aviation Film Classics of World War II. Hawthorne, California: Aero Associates Inc., 1984. . External links 1932 films 1930s adventure drama films 1932 drama films American aviation films American black-and-white films American adventure drama films American films English-language films Films directed by George Hill Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films Films about the United States Navy
1151618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Domain%2C%20Sydney	The Domain, Sydney	The Domain is a heritage-listed area of open space located on the eastern fringe of the Sydney central business district, in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. Separating the central business district from Woolloomooloo, The Domain adjoins the Royal Botanic Gardens and is managed by the Royal Botanic Gardens Trust, a division of the NSW Office of Environment and Heritage, an agency of the Government of New South Wales. The Domain is a popular venue for outdoor concerts, open-air events, large political gatherings and rallies and is used daily by the people of Sydney for exercise and relaxation. Along with the Royal Botanic Gardens, The Domain was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. History Establishment By July 1788, six months after the First Fleet had landed in Sydney Cove, Governor Arthur Phillip had established "a farm of of corn" by a stream which still flows through the present palm grove into appropriately named Farm Cove. Phillip set the land aside for the Crown but did not determine what its purpose would be. He said it should be free of leaseholds but then allowed people to use it anyway, as did subsequent Acting Government and Governors. The site received the first plants and seeds brought by Phillip from Rio de Janeiro and the Cape of Good Hope. Further up the valley of the stream that flowed into Farm Cove, Governor Phillip set aside an open area for the Governor's exclusive use known as the 'Phillip Domain'. It covered the area east of the Tank Stream to the head of Woolloomooloo (Walla Mulla) Bay. By September 1788 were cleared for crops. By 1789 agricultural activity had been mainly relocated to Rose Hill (Parramatta) due to much greater crop success there, and poor soil/results at Farm Cove. The Farm Cove (Woccanmagully) area was then leased out for private farming for the next twenty years. Between 1800 and 1807 grants of land were made under Governors Paterson and others to private farmers in Farm Cove's east (Anson's Point). The main botanic garden function was transferred to Rose Hill (Parramatta) between 1800 and 1810 under Governor King. Despite a ditch being dug to define its boundary in 1792, the Domain was gradually encroached upon by others in subsequent years. Governor Bligh determined it should be the Governor's Domain in 1807 and the boundaries, especially the southern boundary, were changed. From 1807 Bligh resumed as The Domain, cancelled and converted former private farm grants on the eastern side of Farm Cove to public land incorporated back into the Governor's Domain. Farming activity decreased, buildings were demolished near (present) Government House and carriage roads around Bennelong Point and Farm Cove were constructed, along with the planting of a shrubbery and laying out of walks. Bligh's attempts to reclaim The Domain was among the many causes of the 'Rum Rebellion' of 26 January 1808. The southern part of The Domain was not set aside as a public park until 1810. As soon as he arrived in 1810, Bligh's successor Governor Macquarie built stone walls around the Government House garden and the Government Domain, separating them from Hyde Park. The traditional foundation date of the Botanic Gardens is taken as the date of completion of Mrs Macquarie's Road, on 13 June 1816. By 1817 the Domain was completely enclosed and the road system completed including several gates to regulate horse-drawn traffic. The Domain itself was cleared of trees and opened as a public area in the 1830s. Eventually, the Inner Domain, the area closest to Government House, was entirely consumed by the Government Gardens while the area now known as the Domain was then the Outer Domain. Macquarie improved the garden, building a protecting wall on the harbour side and constructing and landscaping a road running around The Domain, north of the Government gardens/nursery at some distance from the shore, and bridging over Farm Cove Creek to Mrs Macquarie's Chair on Mrs Macquarie's Point in the east. Swamp mahogany (Eucalyptus robusta) trees were planted to line this road, perhaps the earliest "Street trees" planted in the colony. Another 1813-1816 planting was of the black booyong (Heritiera actinophylla) west of the palm grove, which remains. On the completion of these works the area was officially inaugurated as a Botanic Garden in 1816. In 1821 the Government House stables (now the Conservatorium of Music), designed by Government Architect Francis Greenway, was completed in The Domain's north near Macquarie and Bridge Streets. Despite the Domain being whittled away in subsequent years it remained an important buffer to the Gardens. The native vegetation was cleared and the gullies of Phillip Precinct filled. During the 1830s the expansive green space of the Domain was now opened to the public, who strolled and picnicked there. The Domain west of Macquarie Street was then sold to pay for the construction of new Government House and Circular Quay. Throughout the 19th century, the south-western part of the Domain was gradually taken up by government and public buildings, including the Hyde Park Barracks, the Sydney Mint, Sydney Hospital, Parliament House, the State Library of New South Wales and the Land Registry Office. The Art Gallery of New South Wales was built on the eastern side of The Domain. In 1831 the public use of The Domain was formally invited by Governor Darling, and became accepted policy (very controlled before that). In the 1830s the Lower Garden area at the head of Farm cove was developed and the shoreline laid out in an ornamental fashion with serpentine paths. Between 1837 and 1845 Government House built in The Domain's north (north of the current extent of the Botanic Gardens). The Domain Cricket Ground Cricket matches, which had been played in Hyde Park since the early 19th century, moved to the Domain in the 1850s. New South Wales had beaten Victoria by three wickets in their first inter-colonial match held in Melbourne in 1856. The return match was played in the Domain from 14 to 16 January 1857 and New South Wales won again, this time by 65 runs. Although used for cricket for the next 14 years, the Domain was not a high quality ground even by the standards of the day. It was a rough, uneven, open paddock and cricketers clashed with the public who insisted it was public parkland. It was also still used to graze cattle and cow pats often had to be removed before a game could begin. Despite the fact that a game of cricket was a major occasion, often attended by the Governor, and the leading players promenaded with their ladies, the ground was not enclosed and spectators could not be charged an entrance fee. These continuing problems were well known to those who attended a public meeting in the Domain on 13 December 1859 when the New South Wales Cricket Association was formed. The search began for a more suitable ground and was still going on when the first England side toured Australia in 1862. In the absence of another venue they played a NSW XXII at the Domain. A solution of sorts to the venue problem was found when the Albert Ground opened in Redfern on 29 October 1864. Although it featured good facilities for players and crowd alike, the cost to the NSWCA of staging matches there was so high that it continued to use the Domain until the early 1870s. In all, six first-class matches were played in the Domain between the 1856–57 and 1868–69 seasons. Developments in the twentieth century The Domain was subsequently used for military and ceremonial events and evolved as a venue for soap box oratory and political meetings. From 1860 the Domain was opened up at night to pedestrians, allowing people to use this valuable recreational space on summer evenings. It became known as the Park where the Gates Never Close. Carriage traffic however remained restricted after dusk for many years. In The Domain gate lodge and gates were built at the junction of Hospital Road and Prince Albert Road, and the Victoria Lodge gate house and gates were built at east of Gardens near Mrs Macquarie's Point. The growing city of Sydney put great pressure on the Domain. A major encroachment was the construction of the Garden Palace for the Sydney International Exhibition (1879). Only its gates and some statues remain after a fire in 1882. The site of the Garden Palace was later absorbed into the Royal Botanic Gardens. In 1883 of Outer Domain was incorporated into the Lower Garden, completing the ring of waterfront along Farm Cove. In the 1880s the Tarpeian Rock is a prominent, dramatic and significant sandstone cliff landscape feature on the north west boundary of The Domain facing Bennelong Point and the Sydney Opera House, cut for the extension of Macquarie Street. It derives its name from the famous rock on the Capitoline Hill in Rome from where prisoners were hurled to their deaths in ancient times. A stairway gives access from close to the Sydney Opera House to the top of the rock and The Domain. An early carving in the sandstone cliff is located about above the fifth step from the base of the cliff. The carving reads "The Tarpeian Way". It possibly dates from the time of construction in the 1880s. Between 1908 and 1916 the Conservatorium of Music was created in adapted former Governor's Stables in the Western Domain. By 1916 there were of gardens/Domain. During the 1920s, cut and cover tunnelling impacted the Western Domain to create City Circle underground rail line. Between 1956 and 1959 Outer Domain land was taken by Sydney City Council to construct a car park (now the Domain Car Parking station), with the resultant loss of 47 relatively rare trees, and land. The parking station can be accessed via a moving footway from College Street, near St Mary's and other surrounding roads. A number of significant political rallies and meetings have occurred in the Domain, including Palm Sunday rallies, May Day demonstrations, and anti-war and anti-conscription protests. On 17 February 1935, the Czech journalist Egon Kisch addressed a crowd of 18,000 in the Domain warning of the dangers of Hitler's Nazi regime. His visit was organised by the Movement Against War and Fascism and vehemently opposed by the Lyons Government. Kisch polarized Australian politics in 1935 when he denounced Hitler's Nazi government and warned of war and concentration camps. During the bitter election campaign following the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 the Australian Labor Party and its leader Gough Whitlam (who had recently been dismissed as Prime Minister by the Governor-General) held their policy launch in 'the Domain' on 24 November 1975 before a huge crowd. 30,000 attended the gathering, overspilling the Domain. In more recent years, major transport projects have affected the Domain. The most significant of these was the building of the Cahill Expressway in 1952. As part of this project to build an eastern tributary to the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the small roads to the north and east of the Domain were widened into expressways. After the completion of the project, traffic moving south from the Bridge could pass through a tunnel built into the western part of the Royal Botanic Tunnels, after which it became a sunken road built into the northern edge of The Domain. The road crosses the eastern part of The Domain in a tunnel, exiting through the slope on the east side of The Domain, after which it continues south along the eastern edge of the Domain as the Eastern Distributor. The Cahill Expressway emphatically separated The Domain from the Royal Botanic Gardens, and destroyed the close spatial relationship between the Gardens and The Domain. Between 1958 and the 1960s, the Cahill Expressway resumption and construction work began, dissecting The Domain and Gardens, partly destroying Fig Tree Avenue (first entrance, planted 1847) and loss of 24 palm trees and 12 other trees lost. The Domain and the Botanic Gardens were sewered for the first time since 1792. Then in the 1970s, the rail tunnel for the Eastern Suburbs Line was built under the southern part of the Domain: the railway exits the tunnel on the eastern slopes of The Domain, after which (owing to the large change in ground elevation) it becomes a viaduct. In 1992, the Sydney Harbour Tunnel was built, with its southern section under the northwestern part of The Domain. Developments in the twenty-first century In 2000 the toilet block in the Palm Grove was adapted and extended to become the Gardens Shop, renamed the Palm Grove Centre. In 2000-01 a new police memorial wall was erected in outer Domain to the south of the Art Gallery of NSW. The Conservatorium of Music was redeveloped with new underground extensions, demolition of trial grass beds and incorporation of new roof garden areas to gardens over the new conservatorium. A new land bridge was built (completed in 2005) over the Cahill Expressway/Eastern Distributor redevelopment, linking the Art Gallery of NSW, Mrs Macquarie's Road, Domain and Gardens, small additional land area and new native plantings to the Domain. In 2002 the Andrew "Boy" Charlton Pool was redeveloped by the Sydney City Council in the outer Domain on Woolloomooloo Bay. In 2004 new sound walls were built (and their inside face planted) facing the Cahill Expressway to mitigate increased noise from the Cross City Tunnel and expressway into the Phillip Precinct of The Domain. Also that year in that precinct of the Domain, the tree plantation in the Phillip Precinct of the Domain facing Hospital Road was replaced in some public controversy, removing ten previously-existing trees and planting 30 replacements (hoop pines, white figs and Washingtonia robusta fan palms) in a triple avenue arrangement. In its present configuration, The Domain covers and is still a popular venue for Sydney residents and visitors to relax and enjoy views of the City and Sydney Harbour. On any weekday lunchtime, its roads are filled with joggers and its grass used for corporate soccer and touch football competitions. Description and features The Domain today begins in the south on St Mary's Road, to the north of St Mary's Cathedral and the northeast of Hyde Park, and ends in the north at Mrs Macquarie's Point, a headland on Sydney Harbour. It is roughly divided into three sections by a road running north–south (Art Gallery Road in the south, Mrs Macquarie's Road in the north), and the east-west Cahill Expressway: the Domain occupies roughly the south-west, south-east and north-east quadrants formed by these roads, while the Royal Botanic Gardens is to the north-west. From the north-west corner of the south-west quadrant, a small band of parkland extends north along the western edge of the Royal Botanic Gardens, leading to an elevated open area overlooking the Sydney Opera House, which is also part of the Domain. South-west: Phillip Precinct The part of the Domain to the west of Art Gallery Road and to the south of Cahill Expressway consists of a large open grassed area surrounded by groups of mature trees to the east and south. It is named "Phillip Precinct" after Arthur Phillip. This area is crossed by several walkways, and has a restaurant called "Pavilion on the Park" in the north-east corner. The public institutions of Macquarie Street, such as Sydney Hospital, Parliament House and the State Library, back onto the park. Being easily accessible from Sydney's financial district via walkways through these public buildings, this part of the park is a popular area for city workers to relax, exercise and play sports. This open area frequently hosts meetings and events. During the summer months, a temporary stage is erected in the south of this area, and concerts and other events are held, with the remainder of the open grass area used for seating. The north side of this area is marked by an open-air section of the Cahill Expressway, sunken below the ground level of the park. Speakers Corner (an area for public speaking) is located in the northeastern part of this part of the Domain, close to the Art Gallery of New South Wales. Officially established in 1878, this area was historically an important gathering place where any person may turn up unannounced and talk on any subject they wish, although they were likely to be heckled by people holding opposing views. This has historically been the focal point of free speech in Sydney. Although now largely disused, the corner's role is enshrined in legislation, and a steel platform with engravings commemorating notable speakers still occasionally attracts speakers on Sunday afternoons. South-east: The Crescent Precinct The part of the Domain to the east of Art Gallery Road and to the south and west of Cahill Expressway falls in the east via a sharp slope towards the much lower-lying Woolloomooloo. It is named the "Crescent Precinct" after the Sir John Young Crescent that marks its eastern boundary. This part of the Domain is dominated by the Art Gallery of New South Wales, with a neo-classical façade facing Art Gallery Road and a modern extension built onto the eastern slope. near the southern end of Art Gallery Road is the main entrance to the Domain from the junction of Prince Albert Road, College Street and St Mary's Road, which features a historical gatehouse. Playing fields occupy the south-east of this area, built above the Domain Parking Station. The Domain Parking Station is a 1,130 space car park that caters predominantly for The Art Gallery of NSW patrons, The Domain event attendees, and inner city workers, now known as "Domain Car Park". The Domain Car Park also houses a moving walkway which takes parkers from the car park to the top of Hyde Park. The walkway, or travelator, is an impressive 207 metres in length. The Express Walkway features a painted mural, "Tunnel Vision - Sydney" created by internationally known Sydney born artist Tim Guider in 1996. The mural includes one of the world's earliest light sculpture installations at the Hyde Park entrance. The mural is painted along both walls for the entire length of the walkway and features Aboriginal and local scenes. The Walkway is most likely the longest continuous moving walkway in the Southern Hemisphere and reportedly the third longest in the world. North-east: Mrs Macquarie's Point North of the Art Gallery of New South Wales, Art Gallery Road passes over the Cahill Expressway, with a narrow section of parkland built over the expressway connecting the Crescent Precinct with the "Yurong Precinct" at Mrs Macquaries Point. In this section, the Domain is a narrow section of greenery bounded by the Royal Botanic Gardens to the west of the roadway and the waters of Woolloomooloo Bay to the east. To the north, the Domain occupies the entirety of the peninsula of Mrs Macquarie's Point, with Farm Cove to the west and Woolloomooloo Bay to the east. Offering the iconic view of the Sydney Opera House alongside the Sydney Harbour Bridge, Mrs Macquarie's Point is a popular destination for tourists and photographers. Mrs Macquarie's Chair was carved out of the rock for Governor Lachlan Macquarie's wife, so she could sit and observe the passing ships. Above the chair is an inscription recording the completion of Mrs Macquaries Road on 13 June 1816. The Fleet Steps link Farm Cove to Mrs Macquarie Road. It is named after the Great White Fleet of the US Navy, and was built for the visit of that fleet to Sydney in 1908. It is the point where Queen Elizabeth II first set foot on Australian soil, and a commemorative wall plaque marks the event. The site is often used for large marquee functions with stunning views of the Opera House and Harbour Bridge. The Andrew "Boy" Charlton Pool is an outdoor swimming facility beside Wolloomooloo Bay. Veil of Trees is a sculpture of glass panels installed between the pool and the "Lion Gate Lodge" of the Royal Botanic Gardens in 1999. North-west: Tarpeian Precinct Cut off from the rest of the Domain by the Cahill Expressway, a narrow strip of open parkland runs alongside the eastern side of Macquarie Street and the western boundary of the Royal Botanic Gardens, rising towards the north to encompass the elevated area near Bennelong Point, which overlooks the forecourt of the Sydney Opera House via a rocky escarpment. This area is named the "Tarpeian Precinct", after the resemblance of the escarpment to the Tarpeian Rock. This relatively small elevated green space dotted with large trees has views from above to parts of Circular Quay, the Harbour Bridge and the Opera House. Government House is immediately to the south-east of this area. The historical sightlines from the Tarpeian Precinct to Circular Quay and beyond were significantly disrupted by the construction of the Toaster Building. Events A number of major events are hosted every year in the Domain, mostly during the Summer holiday months of December and January and many as part of the Sydney Festival. These large events occur in the Phillip precinct where a temporary covered stage is erected every November for the summer festival season. Some of the more popular and long-running annual events that have become Sydney 'traditions' include the nationally televised Carols in the Domain (held on the evening of the last Saturday before Christmas) and the Sydney Festival trio of Symphony in The Domain (featuring the Sydney Symphony Orchestra), Jazz in the Domain and Opera in The Domain (featuring Opera Australia), held on consecutive Saturday evenings in January. The Tropfest short film festival was held in the Domain each February from 1999 until 2013, when it outgrew the Domain and moved four kilometres south-east to the much larger Centennial Park. An 'Open Air Cinema' operates in the summer months near the Fleet Steps. The movie screen sits on pylons in the water at Farm Cove with the audience seated along the foreshore, facing directly towards the Opera House and Harbour Bridge. The screen lies horizontally above the water of Farm Cove to allow patrons to enjoy the views before the movie begins and then lifts to the vertical position for the movie screening. The Fleet Steps are used since 2012 for annual outdoor opera stagings at the Handa Opera on Sydney Harbour, during the months of March and April. Heritage listing The Royal Botanic Gardens and The Domain were listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. As at 22 September 1998, The Royal Botanic Gardens and The Domain collectively are of exceptional national, state and local significance as: General values It is one of the earliest surviving colonial botanic gardens in the world and one of the oldest, richest and most extensive early public cultural landscapes in Australia with a substantially intact area and major precincts that are nationally rare from a historic, scientific, aesthetic and social perspective, and which continue to fulfil diverse use expectations by remaining freely accessible and in high demand from a broad community spectrum; As it contains three of the most important collections for botanical science in Australia notable for their rarity, diversity, size and scientific value - its living collection which is distinguished by many rare and unusual cultivated plants, the extensive preserved collections of the Herbarium and comprehensive botanical library (scientific/technical and research values); Additionally The Domain is of historical and aesthetic value on a national level for its ability to demonstrate its dual role as the prime example of a pleasure ground attached to Government House and as a leading example of a public park developed from the mid 19th century as an early designated landscape for public use (1831) the site was at the forefront of international concerns for the integration of public parks within city planning and development. Primary values As an important and integral part of the boundaries - from 1792 - of the first permanent European settlement in Australia. It is also an integral part of a large group of early Australian colonial sites located along, and linked by, Macquarie Street, including the largest surviving group of Governor Macquarie-era places in Australia. Individually and collectively these sites have considerable potential to reveal much about the formative town planning, settlement and development pattern of the City of Sydney (historic and technical/research values); It contains one of the earliest established botanic gardens in the southern hemisphere (1816); the whole site comprises a broad and idiosyncratic collection of native and exotic plants (8000 taxa and 45,000 accessions) acquired over a period of 190 years for the purpose of scientific study including research for agriculture, ornamental horticulture and industry (scientific/technical/research and historic values); It contains three of the most valuable assets to botanical science in Australia - its living collection which is distinguished by many rare and unusual cultivated plants, the preserved collections of the herbarium and the RBG library archives (scientific/technical/research and historic values); It continues, uninterrupted, a close and direct link with the study, classification and cultivation of the indigenous vegetation of NSW from the time of Charles Fraser (1817) and remaining a core function of the institution and landscape (scientific/technical/research and historic values); The place has strong and direct associations with many notable early botanical explorers and collectors such as William Paterson, John Carne Bidwill, Ludwig Leichhardt and John Richardson; and with their important plant acquisitions still extant in the living and preserved collections (scientific/technical/research and historic values); It has strong and direct associations with various prominent early directors such as Charles Fraser, Richard and Allan Cunningham, Charles Moore and Joseph Maiden - who were largely responsible for the present overall form of the landscape as well as the content and organisation of the plant collections (scientific/technical/research and historic values); It has strong and direct associations with many distinguished 20th century scientists - such as Dr Darnell-Smith, Knowles Mair, Robert Anderson and Dr Lawrence Johnson - whose research, using the living and preserved collections of the place and building on the work of the 19th century RBG botanists, forms the basis of contemporary knowledge and understanding of Australian plants. The collections remain an important basis for contemporary research in systematic and horticultural botany and plant ecology by various Australian and international scientists (scientific/technical/research and historic values); It is closely associated with the history and development of the principal government residences - as well as the Governors - of New South Wales; and it remains an integral part of the historical and visual landscape of Government House and of the archaeological remains of the First Government House (scientific/technical/research and historic values); It is a nationally important representative example of a largely intact high-Victorian/Edwardian subtropical Gardenesque landscape design - retaining elements of the earlier Macquarie-era "estate park" - with the capacity to indicate evolving landscape design styles in Australia over the past 200 years (historic & aesthetic values); It retains many important components of the various phases of its layout - including paths, fences, bedding areas, plantations, views, monuments, statuary, fountains, walling, steps, other landscape furnishings and gate houses - that give the landscape its distinctive visual and botanical character (historic, aesthetic & technical/research values); Both the overall place as well as particular areas within it are highly valued by the community - for strong personal associations and memories, and for providing a sense of identity and continuity of use. The place has been, and continues to be, the focus of important historic events in the cultural and political life of New South Wales (social & historic values); It fulfils an important role as a part of the quintessential setting for nearby architectural landmarks such as the Sydney Opera House, St. Mary's Cathedral and Aurora Place - all having, individually, exceptional aesthetic value. The Tarpeian Rock is a prominent, dramatic and significant sandstone cliff landscape feature of the Domain facing Bennelong Point and the Sydney Opera House, cut for the extension of Macquarie Street and an example of 19th century romanticism (aesthetic value); It is an integral part of Sydney's scenic harbour landscape (aesthetic value); It remains a potent source of inspiration for artists and writers since the inception of the colony; and as a setting for public art (historic, aesthetic & social values); Despite various interventions over the last 200 years it is still possible to appreciate the basic form of the pre-European landscape - the two ridged promontories enclosing the central gully (aesthetic value); The place demonstrates changing fashions in horticulture, garden design and ornament, and the practice of botany through its landscape and architectural design and art as it has continued to be developed, reshaped and embellished by successive directors and overseers (historic & aesthetic values); The trialling of various plant species - for example Canary Island date palms (Phoenix canariensis), brush box (Lophostemon confertus) and Hill's fig (Ficus microcarpa var. Hillii) - within the place has subsequently influenced their popularity and use throughout Sydney and beyond (scientific/technical/research and aesthetic values); As a landscape it has also been the setting for earlier important structures such as the Exhibition Palace, Fort Macquarie, the Crimean War period fortifications, the temporary Federation pavilion and for which some archaeological evidence may remain (scientific/technical/research values); and From an early date the place developed, and continues to develop, a didactic role of increasing knowledge and understanding about plants through displays, public lectures, tours and social events based on the living collections and the landscape setting (social value). The Domain The Domain is individually of exceptional value to Australia, NSW and Sydney: As an important and integral part of the boundaries, from 1792, of the first permanent European settlement in Australia. It is also an integral part of a large group of early Australian colonial sites located along, and linked by, Macquarie Street including the largest surviving group of Governor Macquarie-era places in Australia. Individually and collectively these sites have considerable potential to reveal much about the formative town planning, settlement and development pattern of the City of Sydney (historic value); For its close association with the development of the Royal Botanic Gardens and of botanical study in Australia, as the location of early (1788) agricultural, botanical and horticultural enterprise and, since 1848, through the joint management of the Domain and Gardens under one directorship (historic value); As a notable venue in the landscape of public protest, both collective and individual, as a place of assembly for the demonstration of concern, opposition and disquiet and in particular, to challenge Government policy and authority (historic and social value); As the home, from the 1870s, of the Domain orators - synonymous with free speech, a platform for a vibrant tradition of public speaking of all creeds, beliefs, life styles and political persuasions in the tradition of London's Hyde Park corner (historic & social value); As evidence of the erosion and alienation of public space under pressure of urban development and of dominance of transport issues in the history of planning in Sydney and a focus for debate concerning the value of public space and the rights of citizens; and For its association with sporting history in Australia, as a venue for a wide range of sporting activities including the provision of sports facilities for city workers and firms' teams, the home of first class cricket in NSW from 1857 to 1871 and, in 1846, as the venue for the first swimming championship known to have been held in Australia. It is also known as the site of the first swimming championship known to have been held in Australia. It is also known as the site of the first formalised swimming in Sydney - an activity that continues at the site - and of the first public playground (gymnasium) (historic & social value). Historical significance The Royal Botanic Gardens and The Domain also have exceptional historical significance as: The second oldest Botanic gardens in the southern hemisphere (officially established in 1816), Rio de Janeiro being the oldest; The site of the first attempts at agriculture in the colony in 1788 and a rare example on a world scale where a modern nation's first attempts at feeding itself can be traced and seen; The site of Governor Phillip's farm within the middle garden, still evident in the way the axes of the current beds and paths follow the original furrows; A core remnant of Governor Phillip's original Government/Governor's Domain (1792); An important part of Governor Macquarie's plan for Sydney; The first extensive open space designated in Sydney, and representative of a small group of early 19th century public spaces in Sydney; A site of early public recreation since 1831, in continuous public use since; Evidence of remnant native vegetation remaining from the time of white settlement of the Sydney area. Retention of many important structures and memorials from early Colonial times when the gardens formed part of the original Governor's Domain (such as the c.1812 Macquarie wall and gateway, Mrs Macquarie's Road, fountains, statues, gates, a varied collection of buildings both public (e.g.: herbarium) and private (e.g.; Victoria Lodge gate house, Superintendent's residence/Cunningham Building, Old Herbarium/Anderson Building)); A beautiful and varied collection of plants, statuary, fountains, monuments, and structures representative of Victorian cultural attainments and garden embellishments; Demonstrating a very early example of providing public access to open space or parkland (1831 cf 1850s in England); Their being the site of the first zoo in Australia; Their being the site of the 1878 International Exhibition, and Garden Palace, a major event for Sydney and the first such exhibition in Australia, featuring works of art and industry. Associations The Gardens and The Domain demonstrate strong or special associations with the life and works of persons, groups of persons of importance in NSW's cultural and natural history, including: Their association with the work and influence of key figures in the European scientific world such as Sir Joseph Banks, Sir William Hooker and Joseph Dalton Hooker at Kew Gardens, London; Their association with the life and works of past Domain overseers, including David Wilson, August Kloster and James Jones, many of whom made significant contributions to the development of the Domain and other public areas in Sydney designed by the Directors of the Botanic Gardens and their staff; For their rich heritage of memorials as elements of urban design, including The Domain's Henry Kendall memorial seat, the Palace Garden Gates and wall, the Cunningham memorial island and obelisk, the monument to the forces of the Desert Mounted Corps wall, the Captain Arthur Phillip fountain monument and the sunken garden memorial to the Pioneers. Aesthetic significance The Gardens and The Domain have aesthetic significance for the following reasons: As a palimpsest of one hundred and fifty years of Colonial and Victorian garden design with some very fine late 19th century landscaping; For demonstrating a mixture of early 19th century garden design styles with Colonial style geometric beds in the middle garden and picturesque romantic style features such as serpentine paths and island beds in the other areas; Their design as a public pleasure garden, containing many enclosed scenes enhanced with decorative foliage and water forms and providing many enframed views across the harbour; For the public role key Directors such as Moore and Maiden played in propagating and promoting rainforest tree and palm species and good design in garden making in the planting of public streets, parks and institutional grounds around NSW; Their continuing educational role in demonstrating high standards of ornamental horticulture to the public; As an important major defining landscape and recreational asset of Sydney; For The Domain's role as a contributing and defining element providing continuity in the series of public parklands extending from Hyde Park to the Royal Botanic Gardens, important in the open space network of the City of Sydney; Because of the reciprocal visual relationship between the Gardens and Domain and the historic buildings group along Macquarie Street, Hospital Road and St. Mary's Cathedral. These buildings are part of the setting of the Gardens and Domain, and the Gardens and Domain in turn form a parkland backdrop setting for these buildings, which is appreciated by their users and the public; For including a number of individually significant structures of high aesthetic value such as the Art Gallery of NSW, the Domain Lodge and a group of statues and memorials including the Robert Burns statue; For their rich tradition of gently curving walls, including the two Macquarie walls, the Farm Cove sea wall, the Woolloomooloo gates and wall, the Government House western terrace walls and the walls that originally contained The Domain. Scientific significance The Gardens and The Domain have scientific significance as: Australia's oldest scientific institution (1816); Continuing centre for scientific research, particularly in systematic taxonomic botany; Historic centre for economic botany and experimental horticulture, being a key place for exportation of Australian native plants (most active period of exporting to Europe was up until 1820), and for the importation, acclimatisation, propagation and dispersal of plants establishing many of Australia's horticultural and agricultural industries, such as the wine and olive industries and experimenting with many others (opium poppies, eucalypt oil distillation); Their demonstration of the extensive international colonial exchange network of botanic gardens in promoting plant exploration, discovery, taxonomy, propagation, dispersal and cultivation; Their association with the work and influence of key figures in the European scientific world such as Sir Joseph Banks, Sir William Hooker and Joseph Dalton Hooker at Kew Gardens, London; Their association with the work and influence of key figures in Australian botany such as Alan Cunningham, Charles Fraser, John Carne Bidwill, Charles Moore, Joseph Maiden; Their rich (c110 species) and early (1860s) collection of temperate and subtropical climate palms, considered one of the finest in the world; Their fine collection of trees from the South Pacific and other Pacific regions, including of the family Araucariaceae (e.g.: the genera Araucaria and Agathis) and figs (the genus Ficus). Social significance The Gardens and The Domain have social significance for the following reasons: They demonstrate a very early example of providing public access to open space or parkland (1831 cf 1850s in England); Their long and continuing role in providing pleasure, edification and interest to the public while at the same time representing key social values such as law, order and social status; Their recreational use by the community over a long period and the domain which has traditionally been the centre for political and religious discussion and meetings and continues to provide venues for large public gatherings and entertainment; Their being the site of the first zoo in Australia (1860 aviary); Their being the site of the 1878 International Exhibition, and Garden Palace, a major event for Sydney and the first such exhibition in Australia, featuring works of art and industry; Their continuing role in public education through lectures, demonstration plantings etc. on the value and diversity of plants, their beauty, range, uses and cultivation, and more recently on nature conservation and biodiversity issues; Their continuing educational role in demonstrating high standards of ornamental horticulture to the public; As a significant site for political and religious discussion and meetings, democratic debate and the expression of dissent, in the Domain; As demonstration of the importance placed upon accessible and inalienable public space in Sydney, which dates back to the 1830s; As a habitat to a threatened fauna species, the grey headed flying fox (bat). Archaeological significance The Gardens and The Domain are identified in the Archaeological Zoning Plan for Central Sydney as an Area of Archaeological Potential, with the potential to yield information that will contribute to an understanding of NSW's cultural or natural history. It is an area potentially rich in archaeological remains, dating from Aboriginal occupation and the earliest years of the establishment of the colony. The Domain Oil Tanks The Domain oil tanks are: a relic of the various construction activities associated with the war effort and with the operation of Garden Island as the headquarters of the Australian Navy (criterion (a) historic); associated with the Department of Defence and its operations during World War 2 (criterion (b) association); demonstrative of mass and reinforced concrete construction methods developed by the Metropolitan Water & Sewerage & Drainage Board (MWS & DB) for water (and other liquid) storage purposes in the early 20th century (criterion (e) technical/research); the only example in Sydney of underground wartime fuel storage tanks (criterion (f) rarity); and representative of tanks constructed by the MWS & DB for the storage of fluids in the early 20th century and reflect the then latest development of a construction design dating from the mid 19th century (criterion (g) representative). The Tarpeian Way The Tarpeian Way is of State significance for its prominence as a quarried, weathered sandstone cliff face, with stone steps and iron railing, which defines the northern boundary of the Royal Botanic Gardens and the southern boundary of the Sydney Opera House. The drama, scale and simplicity of the quarried sandstone face of theTarpeian Wall plays a crucial role in supporting the entry point and setting of the Sydney Opera House, where it provides an enclosing "backstage wall" to the open forecourt space. It is considered a "crucial element in [the World Heritage] Buffer Zone . . . including its steps and upper perimeter fence. Although not legally on the Sydney Opera House site, it immediately borders and defines its southern edge and the open space of the forecourt. Because of its scale, location and configuration, it plays a crucial role in the approach and entry experience, setting, and definition, of the Sydney Opera House site." A substantial rock cutting of the Bennelong headland, undertaken in 1880 at a cost of , it enabled the extension of Macquarie Street. 'Its vertical quarried sandstone face, with its steps and fence, is an historic artefact in its own right and retains the only visible evidence of activities on the Sydney Opera House site predating the Opera House itself.' Its traces of anti-Vietnam War graffiti dating from the 1970s are of State significance as a remnant of an important Australian social movement in a major public space. The Tarpeian Way is of local significance for its associations with politicians and bureaucrats who authorised and undertook the cutting in 1880 including Sydney Alderman C. Moore, J. S. Farnell, then Minister for Lands, E. Bradridge, City Surveyor and Mr. Moriarty, the Engineer for Harbours and Rivers. The Tarpeian Way has an unusually dramatic, classical association through its name with the famous rock in Rome from which prisoners were hurled to their deaths in ancient times. The Tarpeian Way is of State social significance for the high regard in which it is held as a dramatic backdrop to the forecourt space of the Sydney Opera House, and as an access point between the Sydney Opera House and the royal Botanic Gardens. It is often used by members of the public enjoying its marvellous views of the Sydney Opera House and harbour setting. See also Parks in Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney Centennial Park Geography of Sydney References Bibliography Attribution External links Royal Botanic Gardens Sydney website - manager of The Domain The Domain Car Park Website [CC-By-SA] Parks in Sydney Sydney localities Cricket grounds in New South Wales World's fair sites in Australia Sydney central business district New South Wales State Heritage Register Gardens in New South Wales Event venues in New South Wales Articles incorporating text from the New South Wales State Heritage Register 1830s establishments in Australia
1153709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Colombo	Joseph Colombo	Joseph Anthony Colombo Sr. (; June 16, 1923 – May 22, 1978) was the boss of the Colombo crime family, one of the Five Families of the American Mafia in New York City. Colombo was born in New York City, where his father was an early member of what was then the Profaci crime family. In 1961, the First Colombo War unfolded, instigated by the kidnapping of four high-ranking members in the Profaci family by Joe Gallo. Later that year, Gallo was imprisoned, and in 1962, family leader Joe Profaci died of cancer. In 1963, Bonanno crime family boss, Joseph Bonanno made plans with Joseph Magliocco to assassinate several rivals on The Commission. When Magliocco gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Colombo, he revealed the plot to its targets. The Commission spared Magliocco's life but forced him into retirement, while Bonanno fled to Canada. As a reward for turning on his boss, Colombo was awarded the Profaci family. His only jail term would come in 1966, when Colombo was sentenced to 30 days in jail for contempt by refusing to answer questions from a grand jury about his financial affairs. In 1970, Colombo created the Italian-American Civil Rights League. Later that year, the first Italian Unity Day rally was held in Columbus Circle to protest the federal persecution of all Italians everywhere. In 1971, Gallo was released from prison, and Colombo invited Gallo to a peace meeting with an offering of $1,000, to which Gallo refused, instigating the Second Colombo War. On June 28, 1971, Colombo was shot three times by Jerome A. Johnson, once in the head, at the second Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle sponsored by the Italian-American Civil Rights League; Johnson was immediately killed by Colombo's bodyguards. Colombo was paralyzed from the shooting. On May 22, 1978, Colombo died of cardiac arrest. Early life Joseph Colombo Sr. was born into an Italian American family on June 16, 1923, in Brooklyn. His father, Anthony Colombo, was an early member of the Profaci crime family, which would eventually be renamed after his son. In 1938, he was found strangled in a car with his mistress. Joe Colombo attended New Utrecht High School in Brooklyn for two years, then dropped out to join the U.S. Coast Guard. In 1945, he was diagnosed with neurosis and discharged from the service. His legitimate jobs included ten years as a longshoreman and six years as a salesman for a meat company. His final job was that of a real estate salesman. Colombo owned a modest home in Dyker Heights, Brooklyn and a five-acre estate in Blooming Grove, New York. He married Lucille Faiello in 1944, and had five children including sons Christopher Colombo, Joseph Colombo Jr. (1946–2014) and Anthony Colombo (1945–2017). First Colombo War Colombo followed his father into the Profaci family. He became one of the family's top enforcers, and soon became a capo. On February 27, 1961, the Gallos kidnapped four of Profaci's top men: underboss Magliocco, Frank Profaci (Joe Profaci's brother), capo Salvatore Musacchia and soldier John Scimone. Profaci himself eluded capture and flew to sanctuary in Florida. While holding the hostages, Larry and Albert Gallo sent Joe Gallo to California. The Gallos demanded a more favorable financial scheme for the hostages' release. Gallo wanted to kill one hostage and demand $100,000 before negotiations, but his brother Larry overruled him. After a few weeks of negotiation, Profaci made a deal with the Gallos. Profaci's consigliere Charles "the Sidge" LoCicero negotiated with the Gallos and all the hostages were released peacefully. However, Profaci had no intention of honoring this peace agreement. On August 20, 1961 Joseph Profaci ordered the murder of Gallo members Joseph "Joe Jelly" Gioielli and Larry Gallo. Gunmen allegedly murdered Gioilli after inviting him to go fishing. Larry Gallo survived a strangulation attempt in the Sahara club of East Flatbush by Carmine Persico and Salvatore "Sally" D'Ambrosio after a police officer intervened. The Gallo brothers had been previously aligned with Persico against Profaci and his loyalists; The Gallos then began calling Persico "The Snake" after he had betrayed them. the war continued on resulting in nine murders and three disappearances. With the start of the gang war, the Gallo crew retreated to the Dormitory. In late November 1961, Joe Gallo was sentenced to seven-to-fourteen years in prison for murder. On June 6, 1962, Profaci died and was succeeded by longtime underboss Joseph Magliocco. In 1963, Joseph Bonanno, the head of the Bonanno crime family, made plans to assassinate several rivals on the Mafia Commission—bosses Tommy Lucchese, Carlo Gambino, and Stefano Magaddino, as well as Frank DeSimone. Bonanno sought Magliocco's support, and Magliocco readily agreed. Not only was he bitter from being denied a seat on the Commission, but Bonanno and Profaci had been close allies for over 30 years prior to Profaci's death. Bonanno's audacious goal was to take over the Commission and make Magliocco his right-hand man. Magliocco was assigned the task of killing Lucchese and Gambino, and gave the contract to one of his top hit men, Colombo. However, the opportunistic Colombo revealed the plot to its targets. The other bosses quickly realized that Magliocco could not have planned this himself. Remembering how close Bonanno was with Magliocco (and before him, Profaci), as well as their close ties through marriages, the other bosses concluded Bonanno was the real mastermind. The Commission summoned Bonanno and Magliocco to explain themselves. Fearing for his life, Bonanno went into hiding in Montreal, leaving Magliocco to deal with the Commission. Badly shaken and in failing health, Magliocco confessed his role in the plot. The Commission spared Magliocco's life, but forced him to retire as Profaci family boss and pay a $50,000 fine. As a reward for turning on his boss, Colombo was awarded the Profaci family. At the age of 41, Colombo was one of the youngest crime bosses in the country. He was also the first American-born boss of a New York crime family. When NYPD detective Albert Seedman (later the NYPD chief of detectives) called Colombo in for questioning about the death of one of his soldiers, Colombo came to the meeting without a lawyer. He told Seedman, "I am an American citizen, first class. I don't have a badge that makes me an official good guy like you, but I work just as honest for a living." On May 9, 1966, Colombo was sentenced to 30 days in jail for contempt by refusing to answer questions from a grand jury about his financial affairs. Italian-American Civil Rights League In April 1970, Colombo created the Italian-American Civil Rights League, the month his son Joseph Colombo Jr. was charged with melting down coins for resale as silver ingots. In response, Joseph Colombo Sr. claimed FBI harassment of Italian-Americans and, on April 30, 1970, sent 30 picketers outside FBI headquarters at Third Avenue and 69th Street to protest the federal persecution of all Italians everywhere; this went on for weeks. On June 29, 1970, 50,000 people attended the first Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle in New York City. In February 1971, Colombo Jr. was acquitted of the charge after the chief witness in the trial had been arrested on perjury charges. Under Colombo's guidance, the League grew quickly and achieved national attention. Unlike other mob leaders who shunned the spotlight, Colombo appeared on television interviews, fundraisers and speaking engagements for the League. In 1971, Colombo aligned the League with Rabbi and political activist Meir Kahane's Jewish Defense League, claiming that both groups were being harassed by the federal government. At one point, Colombo posted bail for 11 jailed JDL members. The Godfather movie In the spring of 1971, Paramount Pictures started filming The Godfather with the assistance of Colombo and the League. Due to its subject matter, the film originally faced great opposition from Italian-Americans to filming in New York. However, after producer Albert Ruddy met with Colombo and agreed to excise the terms "Mafia" and "Cosa Nostra" from the film, the League cooperated fully. Shooting In early 1971, Joe Gallo was released from prison. As a supposedly conciliatory gesture, Colombo invited Gallo to a peace meeting with an offering of $1,000. Gallo refused the invitation, wanting $100,000 to stop the conflict, which Colombo refused to pay. At that point, acting boss Vincenzo Aloi issued a new order to kill Gallo. On March 11, 1971, after being convicted of perjury for lying on his application to become a real estate broker, Colombo was sentenced to two and half years in state prison. The sentence, however, was delayed pending an appeal. On June 28, 1971, Colombo was shot three times by Jerome A. Johnson, with one bullet hitting him in the head, at the second Italian Unity Day rally in Columbus Circle sponsored by the Italian-American Civil Rights League; Johnson was immediately killed by Colombo's bodyguards. Death and aftermath Colombo was paralyzed from the shooting. On August 28, 1971, after two months at Roosevelt Hospital in Manhattan, Colombo was moved to his estate at Blooming Grove. In 1975, a court-ordered examination showed that Colombo could move his thumb and forefinger on his right hand. In 1976, there were reports that he could recognize people and utter several words. On May 22, 1978, Colombo died of cardiac arrest at St. Luke's Hospital (later St. Luke's Cornwall Hospital) in Newburgh, New York. Colombo's funeral was held at St Bernadette's Catholic Church in Bensonhurst and he was buried in Saint John Cemetery in the Middle Village section of Queens. Although many in the Colombo family blamed Joe Gallo for the shooting, the police eventually concluded that Johnson was a lone gunman after they had questioned Gallo. Since Johnson had spent time a few days earlier at a Gambino club, one theory was that Carlo Gambino organized the shooting. Colombo refused to listen to Gambino's complaints about the League, and allegedly spat in Gambino's face during one argument. However, the Colombo family leadership was convinced that Joe Gallo ordered the murder after his falling out with the family. Gallo was murdered on April 7, 1972. After the Colombo shooting, Joseph Yacovelli became the acting boss for one year before Carmine Persico took over. In popular culture Colombo features in the first episode of UK history TV channel Yesterday's documentary series Mafia's Greatest Hits In "Christopher", an episode of The Sopranos, Silvio Dante claims that Colombo was the founder of the first Italian-American anti-defamation organization. However, the American Italian Anti-Defamation League was founded before Colombo's Italian-American Civil Rights League In 2015, Joe Colombo's oldest son, Anthony Colombo, authored Colombo: The Unsolved Murder a biography/memoir with co-author Don Capria Colombo's assassination attempt is featured in the 2019 Martin Scorsese film The Irishman. References Further reading Capria, Don and Anthony Colombo. Colombo: The Unsolved Murder. New York: Unity Press, 2015, Reppetto, Thomas. Bringing Down the Mob. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2006. Moore, Robin and Barbara Fuca. Mafia Wife. New York: MacMillan, 1977, 1923 births 1978 deaths American crime bosses Bosses of the Colombo crime family Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens) Colombo crime family Murdered American gangsters of Italian descent People from Dyker Heights, Brooklyn People murdered by the Colombo crime family People murdered in New York (state) People from Blooming Grove, New York Burials in New York (state) New Utrecht High School alumni
1163586	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester%20Himes	Chester Himes	Chester Bomar Himes (July 29, 1909 – November 12, 1984) was an American writer. His works, some of which have been filmed, include If He Hollers Let Him Go, published in 1945, and the Harlem Detective series of novels for which he is best known, set in the 1950s and early 1960s and featuring two black policemen called Grave Digger Jones and Coffin Ed Johnson. In 1958 Himes won France's Grand Prix de Littérature Policière. Life Early life Chester Himes was born in Jefferson City, Missouri, on July 29, 1909, to Joseph Sandy Himes and Estelle Bomar Himes; his father was a professor of industrial trades at a black college, and his mother, prior to getting married, was a teacher at Scotia Seminary. Chester Himes grew up in a middle-class home in Missouri. When he was about 12 years old, his father took a teaching job in the Arkansas Delta at Branch Normal College (now University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff), and soon a tragedy took place that would profoundly shape Himes's view of race relations. He had misbehaved and his mother made him sit out a gunpowder demonstration that he and his brother, Joseph Jr., were supposed to conduct during a school assembly. Working alone, Joseph mixed the chemicals; they exploded in his face. Rushed to the nearest hospital, the blinded boy was refused treatment because of Jim Crow laws. "That one moment in my life hurt me as much as all the others put together," Himes wrote in The Quality of Hurt. The family later settled in Cleveland, Ohio. His parents' marriage was unhappy and eventually ended in divorce. Prison and literary beginnings In 1925, Himes's family left Pine Bluff and relocated to Cleveland, Ohio, where he attended East High School. He attended Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio, where he became a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, but was expelled for playing a prank. In late 1928 he was arrested and sentenced to jail and hard labor for 20 to 25 years for armed robbery and sent to Ohio Penitentiary. In prison, he wrote short stories and had them published in national magazines. He stated that writing in prison and being published was a way to earn respect from guards and fellow inmates, as well as to avoid violence. His first stories appeared in 1931 in The Bronzeman and, starting in 1934, in Esquire magazine. His story "To What Red Hell" (published in Esquire in 1934) as well as to his novel Cast the First Stone – only much later republished unabridged as Yesterday Will Make You Cry (1998) – dealt with the catastrophic prison fire Himes witnessed at Ohio Penitentiary in 1930. In 1934 Himes was transferred to London Prison Farm and in April 1936 was released on parole into his mother's custody. Following his release he worked at part-time jobs while continuing to write. During this period he came into contact with Langston Hughes, who facilitated Himes's contacts with the world of literature and publishing. In 1937 Himes married Jean Johnson. First books In the 1940s Himes spent time in Los Angeles, working as a screenwriter but also producing two novels, If He Hollers Let Him Go (1945) and The Lonely Crusade (1947), which charted the experiences of the great migration, drawn by the city's defense industries, and their dealings with the established black community, fellow workers, unions and management. He also provided an analysis of the Zoot Suit Riots for The Crisis, the magazine of the NAACP. Mike Davis in City of Quartz: Excavating the Future of Los Angeles, describing the prevalence of racism in Hollywood in the 1940s and '50s, cites Himes' brief career as a screenwriter for Warner Brothers, terminated when Jack L. Warner heard about him and said: "I don't want no niggers on this lot." Himes later wrote in his autobiography: Back on the East Coast Himes received a scholarship at the Yaddo artists' community, where he stayed and worked in May and June 1948 in a room just across from where Patricia Highsmith resided. Emigration to France Himes separated from his wife Jean in 1952, and the following year he began a period of travels by boarding a ship to France. By the 1950s he had decided to settle permanently in France, a country he liked in part due to his popularity in literary circles. In Paris, Himes was the contemporary of the political cartoonist Oliver Harrington and fellow expatriate writers Richard Wright, James Baldwin, and William Gardner Smith. It was in Paris in the late 1950s that Chester met his second wife Lesley Himes (née Packard) when she went to interview him. She was a journalist at the Herald Tribune where she wrote a fashion column, "Monica". He described her as "Irish-English with blue-gray eyes and very good looking"; he also saw her courage and resilience, Chester said to Lesley, "You're the only true color-blind person I've ever met in my life." After he suffered a stroke, in 1959, Lesley quit her job and nursed him back to health. She cared for him for the rest of his life, and worked with him as his informal editor, proofreader, confidante and, as the director Melvin Van Peebles dubbed her, "his watchdog". After a long engagement, they were married in 1978, as Chester Himes was still legally married to his first wife, Jean, and only able to gain a divorce that year. Lesley and Chester faced adversities as a mixed-race couple but they prevailed. Their circle of political colleagues and creative friends included not only such towering figures as Langston Hughes and Richard Wright; it also included figures such as Malcolm X, Carl Van Vechten, Picasso, Jean Miotte, Ollie Harrington, Nikki Giovanni and Ishmael Reed. Bohemian life in Paris would in turn lead them to the South of France and finally on to Spain, where they lived until Chester's death in 1984. Later life and death In 1969 Himes moved to Moraira, Spain, where he died in 1984 from Parkinson's disease. He is buried at Benissa cemetery. Critical reception and biography Some regard Chester Himes as the literary equal of Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler. Ishmael Reed says: "[Himes] taught me the difference between a black detective and Sherlock Holmes" and it would be more than 30 years until another black mystery writer, Walter Mosley and his Easy Rawlins and Mouse series, had even a similar effect. In 1996, his widow Lesley Himes went to New York to work with Ed Margolies on the first biographical treatment of Himes's life, entitled The Several Lives of Chester Himes, by long-time Himes scholars Edward Margolies and Michel Fabre, published in 1997 by University Press of Mississippi. Later, novelist and Himes scholar James Sallis published a more deeply detailed biography of Himes called Chester Himes: A Life (2000). A detailed examination of Himes's writing and writings about him can be found in Chester Himes: An Annotated Primary and Secondary Bibliography compiled by Michel Fabre, Robert E. Skinner, and Lester Sullivan (Greenwood Press, 1992). In 2017, Lawrence P. Jackson published a significant, 600+ page biography of Himes titled Chester B. Himes: A Biography. Works Himes's novels encompassed many genres including the crime novel/mystery and political polemics, exploring racism in the United States. Chester Himes wrote about African Americans in general, especially in two books that are concerned with labor relations and African-American workplace issues. If He Hollers Let Him Go—which contains many autobiographical elements—is about a black shipyard worker in Los Angeles during World War II struggling against racism, as well as his own violent reactions to racism. Lonely Crusade is a longer work that examines some of the same issues. Cast the First Stone (1952) is based on Himes's experiences in prison. It was Himes's first novel but was not published until about ten years after it was written. One reason may have been Himes' unusually candid treatment – for that time – of a homosexual relationship. Originally written in the third person, it was rewritten in the first person in a more "hard-boiled" style. Yesterday Will Make You Cry (1993), published after Himes's death, restored the original manuscript. Himes also wrote a series of Harlem Detective novels featuring Coffin Ed Johnson and Gravedigger Jones, New York City police detectives in Harlem. The novels feature a mordant emotional timbre and a fatalistic approach to street situations. Funeral homes are often part of the story, and funeral director H. Exodus Clay is a recurring character in these books. The titles of the series include A Rage in Harlem, The Real Cool Killers, The Crazy Kill, All Shot Up, The Big Gold Dream, The Heat's On, Cotton Comes to Harlem, and Blind Man with a Pistol; all written between 1957 and 1969. Cotton Comes to Harlem was made into a movie in 1970, which was set in that time period, rather than the earlier period of the original book. A sequel, Come Back, Charleston Blue, was released in 1972, and For Love of Imabelle was made into a film under the title A Rage in Harlem in 1991. In May 2011, and again in 2020 Penguin Modern Classics in London republished five of Himes' detective novels from the Harlem Cycle. The literary estate is overseen by Chester and Lesley's "niece" Sarah Pirozek (daughter of Lesley's best and oldest friend). Novels and stories See The End of a Primitive, 1990. Alternate titles: A Rage in Harlem (1985 Vintage Books, New York), The Five-cornered square. From CIP data: Restores the work in the form the author intended, and includes his introduction, not previously published. With an introduction by Calvin Hernton. Complete and unexpurgated text of Himes' first autobiographical novel, originally published as Cast the First Stone (1953). Autobiography A useful companion to the two volumes of autobiography is Conversations with Chester Himes, edited by Michel Fabre and Robert E. Skinner, published by University Press of Mississippi in 1995. Films based on novels Four of Chester Himes' novels were made into feature films: If He Hollers, Let Him Go! (1968) [uncredited], directed by Charles Martin; Cotton Comes to Harlem, directed by Ossie Davis in 1970; Come Back, Charleston Blue (The Heat's On) (1972), directed by Mark Warren, and A Rage in Harlem (starring Gregory Hines and Danny Glover), directed by Bill Duke in 1991. Two Himes short stories "The Assassin of Saint Nicholas Avenue" and "Tang" have also been filmed as short subjects. See also African-American literature References Further reading Review of Yesterday Will Make You Cry, by Chester Himes. Margolies, Edward, and Michel Fabre. The Several Lives of Chester Himes. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1997. External links Essay on Chester Himes in France Biography Overview and Review of Himes's Work Audiobook (mp3) : Face in the moon, short story translated in French Tadzio Koelb, "Some Thoughts on Chester Himes on the 100th Anniversary of His Birth", The Third Estate, July 27, 2009. Theme issue of Clues: A Journal of Detection on Chester Himes (28.2, 2010) FBI file on Chester Himes Chester Himes Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Christopher Harter, "Lesley Himes papers, 1934–2008", Amistad Research Center. Sarah Pirozek, "Lesley Himes Obituary" 1909 births 1984 deaths 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American novelists African-American novelists American convicts who became writers American crime fiction writers American expatriates in France American expatriates in Spain American male novelists American people convicted of robbery Burials in Spain Deaths from Parkinson's disease Neurological disease deaths in Spain Novelists from Missouri Ohio State University alumni People from Jefferson City, Missouri People of the New Deal arts projects 20th-century African-American writers African-American male writers
1189804	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presumed%20Innocent%20%28film%29	Presumed Innocent (film)	Presumed Innocent is a 1990 American legal thriller film based on the 1987 novel of the same name by Scott Turow. Directed by Alan J. Pakula, and written by Pakula and Frank Pierson, it stars Harrison Ford, Brian Dennehy, Raúl Juliá, Bonnie Bedelia, Paul Winfield and Greta Scacchi. The film follows Rusty Sabich (Ford), a prosecutor who is charged with the murder of his colleague and mistress Carolyn Polhemus (Scacchi). Several studios and producers fought to secure the film rights one year before the novel was published. Producers Sydney Pollack and Mark Rosenberg acquired the rights in December 1986, and hired Pierson to write the script. After an unsuccessful pre-production development at United Artists, the project moved to Warner Bros., and Pakula was brought in to rewrite the script with Pierson before signing on as the film's director in January 1989. Principal photography commenced in July 1989 and concluded in October of that year, with a budget of $20 million. Filming took place on locations in Detroit, Windsor, Ontario, and New Jersey, and on soundstages at Kaufman Astoria Studios in New York. Presumed Innocent premiered at the Fox Bruin Theater in Los Angeles, California on July 25, 1990, before being released in North America on July 27, 1990. The film has an approval rating of 86% at Rotten Tomatoes, with critics praising its directing, acting, and writing. It grossed $221 million worldwide, and became the eighth-highest-grossing film of 1990. The film was followed by a television miniseries, The Burden of Proof, in 1992, and a television film sequel, Innocent, in 2011. Plot Rozat "Rusty" Sabich is a prosecutor and the right-hand man of district attorney Raymond Horgan. When his colleague Carolyn Polhemus is found raped and murdered in her apartment, Raymond insists that Rusty take charge of the investigation. With the election for District Attorney approaching, Tommy Molto, the acting head of the homicide division, has left to join the rival campaign of Nico Della Guardia. Rusty, a married man, faces a conflict of interest since he had a brief sexual affair with Carolyn. As he had shown little ambition and would have therefore been of little use in advancing her career, Carolyn abruptly dumped him. Rusty has since reconciled with his wife Barbara, but is still obsessed with Carolyn. Detective Harold Greer is initially in charge of the murder investigation, but Rusty has him replaced with his friend Detective Dan Lipranzer, whom he persuades to narrow the inquiry so that his relationship with Carolyn is left out. Rusty soon discovers that Molto is making his own inquiries. Aspects of the crime suggest that the killer knew police evidence-gathering procedures and covered up clues accordingly. Semen found in the victim's body contains only dead sperm. The killer's blood is type A, the same as Rusty's. When Della Guardia wins the election, he and Molto accuse Rusty of the murder and push to get evidence against him. Rusty's fingerprints are found on a beer glass from Carolyn's apartment, and fibers from his carpet at home match those found on her body. Lipranzer is removed from the case, and Greer's inquiries uncover the affair. Raymond grows furious with Rusty's handling of the case, but admits that he had also been romantically involved with Carolyn at one time. Rusty calls on Sandy Stern, a top defense attorney. At trial, it is revealed that the beer glass is missing, and Stern persuades Judge Larren Lyttle to keep this from the jury. Raymond testifies and perjures himself, claiming that Rusty insisted on handling the investigation, thus confirming the defense's claim of a frame-up. Rusty discovers that Carolyn had acquired a file for a bribery case involving a man named Leon Wells. Upon being confronted by Rusty and Lipranzer, Wells confesses that he paid Judge Lyttle $1,500 to have criminal charges against him dropped, with Carolyn acting as a facilitator. The thrust of Stern's defense is that Della Guardia and Molto have framed Rusty in order to cover up the bribery case. During the cross-examination of the coroner, it is revealed that Carolyn underwent a tubal ligation, thus having no reason to use the spermicidal contraceptive which was found on her. Stern asserts that the only explanation for this discrepancy is that the fluid sample was not actually taken from Carolyn's body. Based on the disappearance of the beer glass, the lack of motive and the fact that the fluid sample was rendered meaningless, Judge Lyttle dismisses the charges. Rusty confronts Stern for bringing up the bribery file in the case. Stern swears him to secrecy, revealing that Lyttle had a brief sexual encounter with Carolyn. Stern also confesses that he and Raymond knew that Lyttle was taking bribes, and although Lyttle had offered his resignation, Raymond felt that he was a brilliant judge and deserved another chance. Lipranzer meets with Rusty and reveals the missing beer glass, explaining that he never returned it to evidence when the investigation was turned over to Della Guardia and Molto. Rusty throws it into a river. At his home, Rusty discovers a small hatchet covered with Carolyn's blood and hair on it. As he washes the tool, Barbara admits that she murdered Carolyn, her motive being Rusty's adulterous affair. She expresses that she had left enough evidence for Rusty to know that she committed the crime, but did not anticipate him being charged with the murder. In a voice-over, Rusty explains that Carolyn's murder has been written off as unsolved, since trying two people for the same crime is "a practical impossibility" and he cannot leave his son without a mother even if she could be tried. Rusty regrets that it was his own lust that caused his wife to commit murder. Cast Harrison Ford as Rozat K. "Rusty" Sabich Brian Dennehy as Raymond Horgan Raul Julia as Alejandro "Sandy" Stern Bonnie Bedelia as Barbara Sabich Paul Winfield as Judge Larren L. Lyttle Greta Scacchi as Carolyn Polhemus John Spencer as Detective Dan Lipranzer Joe Grifasi as Tommy Molto Tom Mardirosian as Nico Della Guardia Anna Maria Horsford as Eugenia Sab Shimono as Dr. "Painless" Kumagai Bradley Whitford as Quentin "Jamie" Kemp Christine Estabrook as Lydia "Mac" MacDougall Michael Tolan as Mr. Polhemus Jesse Bradford as Nat Sabich Joseph Mazzello as Wendell McGaffen Tucker Smallwood as Detective Harold Greer David Wohl as Morrie Dickerman Jeffrey Wright as Prosecuting Attorney Presumed Innocent is a "preunion" for the television series The West Wing. John Spencer, Bradley Whitford and Jesse Bradford would go on to star together in that series. Production Development Scott Turow's 1987 novel Presumed Innocent had first attracted film producers a year before it was published. The film rights were the subject of a bidding war among a host of established studios and producers. David Brown and Richard D. Zanuck made the first bid of $75,000. Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer initially offered $300,000, financed by Paramount Pictures, but backed down when bids climbed to $750,000. Peter Guber and Jon Peters, and Sydney Pollack and Mark Rosenberg of Mirage Enterprises made $1 million bids of their own money. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Irwin Winkler also made bids, while Universal Pictures passed on the project. After Pollack and Rosenberg acquired the rights in December 1986, United Artists negotiated with the producers to finance and distribute the film. In May 1987, Pollack hired Frank Pierson to write the script. Shortly after, United Artists backed out as a distributor. Roger Birnbaum, head of worldwide production for United Artists, claimed that the studio found the project "just too expensive". In July 1988, the project moved to Warner Bros. Pollack and Rosenberg sent the script to Alan J. Pakula, who felt that it needed improvement and spent a year rewriting it with Pierson. Regarding the screenwriting process, Turow said, "There were three large narrative problems to solve. Point of view; getting around the first person narrative; time sequence; it's all flashback and Hollywood doesn't like that; and then just an awful lot of plot." Pierson originally envisioned the film adaptation as being "a movie full of sex and blood". Pakula felt that the concept of justice was more central to the story. He also wanted to present the film in a visual style that echoed the novel's narrative. In making various changes from the novel, Pakula and Pierson added new dialogue and rewrote the ending. Pakula signed on to direct the film in January 1989. Casting Several established actors were considered for the leading role of Rusty Sabich. Kevin Costner turned down the role, and Robert Redford was vetoed by Pollack due to his age. When he was hired to direct the film, Pakula only offered the role to Harrison Ford, believing that the actor possessed an "Everyman quality" that best suited the character. Ford's casting was confirmed in March 1989. He received a $7 million salary for the role. Turow was initially uncertain of Ford portraying Rusty but relented after seeing a few of the actor's films. Ford said, "Friends warned me this was a tough role because Rusty is such a passive, interior character. Though Rusty's in every scene, all the action takes place around him. Things happen to him." Upon being cast, Ford read the novel to avoid arguments over events and details that were left out in the book. Ford also suggested to Pakula that Rusty have a buzz cut. He explained, "There are many things I found I could express with that short haircut. Simplest of all, I wanted to tell the audience to leave their baggage at home — not to expect the Harrison Ford they've seen before." In preparing for their roles, the actors were granted access to lawyers who would act as advisors. Ford observed murder trials with Pakula at the Recorder's Court in Detroit and viewed training footage from the Michigan Prosecutors' Association. Greta Scacchi, who plays Carolyn Polhemus, observed Linda Fairstein, head of the Manhattan District Attorney's sex crimes unit. Raúl Juliá, who plays Sandy Stern, researched his role by meeting with criminal lawyer Michael Kennedy. Paul Winfield lobbied for the role of Judge Larren Lyttle upon reading the novel and learning that the adaptation was to be directed by Pakula. Winfield met with New York Supreme Court judge Bruce M. Wright, who insisted that he wear a judiciary robe and observe several cases. Filming Pakula spent three weeks rehearsing with the actors before principal photography commenced on July 31, 1989 with a budget of $20 million. Filming began in Detroit, where the production first filmed exterior scenes. Locations included the Renaissance Center's Westin Hotel, Philip A. Hart Plaza, the Woodbridge Tavern, Eastern Market, Jackie's Bar and Restaurant, St. Aubin Marina, and the International Plaza garage rooftop. On August 3, 1989, the production moved to Reaume Park in Windsor, Ontario for a 13-hour shoot. After filming in Detroit ended on August 9, 1989, the production moved to Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens, New York. The filmmakers constructed a courtroom modeled after one in Cleveland, Ohio that was unavailable for filming. The production then moved to Newark. For two days, the North Reformed Church was used to depict the funeral of Carolyn Polhemus. From August 14 to August 15, the filmmakers shot scenes at Newark City Hall. The Essex County Courthouse was used for a brief courtroom sequence, and Newark's city morgue was used to depict the medical office of Dr. Kumagai. A housing project scheduled for demolition was used for a scene depicting Rusty and Detective Lipranzer's interrogation of a suspect. In late August, the crew relocated to Allendale, New Jersey. A suburban house on East Orchard Street was used to film exterior and interior scenes set in the Sabich family home. The house's cellar was used to film a scene involving Rusty and his wife. The cast and crew then returned to Kaufman Astoria Studios to film the trial scenes. Principal photography concluded on October 24, 1989. Release Presumed Innocent held its world premiere at the Fox Bruin Theater in Los Angeles, California on July 25, 1990, with an afterparty held at Chasen's restaurant. The film was released on July 27, 1990, distributed by Warner Bros. A soundtrack album featuring the score by John Williams was released by the record label Varèse Sarabande on August 7, 1990. Box office Released to a total of 1,349 theaters in the United States and Canada, the film grossed $11,718,981 on its first weekend, securing the number one position at the box office. It saw a significant drop in attendance during its second weekend of release. The film earned an additional $10,176,663—a 13.2% overall decrease from the previous weekend— and moved to second place behind Ghost. In its third weekend, the film grossed an additional $7,901,866, for an overall domestic gross of $42,012,238. It grossed an additional $6,101,374 on its fourth weekend. The film returned to fourth place on its fifth week, grossing an additional $4,646,004, and returned to third place for the following two weeks. Presumed Innocent grossed $86,303,188 during its North American theatrical run. Coupled with its international take of $135 million, it accumulated $221,303,188 in worldwide box office totals. In North America, it was the twelfth highest-grossing film of 1990, and the fourth highest-grossing R-rated film released that year. Worldwide, it was the eighth highest-grossing film of 1990, as well as Warner Bros.' highest-grossing film that year. Home media The film was released on VHS and LaserDisc on March 27, 1991, by Warner Home Video. It was released on DVD on December 17, 1997. On February 23, 2010, the film was released on Blu-ray as a "Thriller Double Feature" alongside Frantic (1988). Reception Critical response The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 87% based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 7.40/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Thanks to an outstanding script, focused direction by Alan Pakula, and a riveting performance from Harrison Ford, Presumed Innocent is the kind of effective courtroom thriller most others aspire to be." On Metacritic it has a score of 72% based on reviews from 26 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale. Warner Bros. requested in press releases that critics not discuss the film's ending. Jay Boyar of the Orlando Sentinel surmised, "It's not that Warner Bros. is actually concerned that reviewers will tip the solution to the murder mystery. It's that the studio wants to further the impression that the movie is full of surprises." Richard Schickel of Time magazine disregarded the request and revealed Rusty's innocence in his review. He wrote, "Carolyn's murderer has an excellent motive both for killing her... But it is hard to accept the possibility that the real perpetrator would leave his escape from the trap entirely to chance." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times stated, "Even if you think you know what the solution is, the performances are so clever and the screenplay ... is so subtle that it could well turn out that your expectations are wrong." Sheila Benson, writing for the Los Angeles Times, stated, "Intelligent, complex and enthralling, Presumed Innocent ... is one of those rare films where all the players seem to be in a state of grace, where the working of the machinery never shows and after it's over, one runs and reruns its intricacies with a profound sense of satisfaction." Peter Travers, writing for Rolling Stone, called the film "a smart, passionate, steadily engrossing thriller". Janet Maslin of The New York Times praised Pakula's direction, writing, "Pakula has directed an intense, enveloping, gratifyingly thorough screen adaptation of Mr. Turow's story." Film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum wrote that film was "a top-notch courtroom drama that will keep you guessing if you haven't read the book; even if you have, it is still a very well crafted story." Variety magazine praised the performances, writing, "Ford, in a very mature, subtle, lowkey performance, pulls off the difficult feat of making it impossible to be sure. Bedelia is wondrously controlled, and Scacchi, sans any hint of a European accent, is convincing and seductive." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune praised the supporting cast, writing, "Raul Julia is excellent as Ford's sinister defense attorney. John Spencer, Joe Grifasi, Tom Mardirosian and Sab Shimono are each compelling as investigator, political lackey, prosecutor and coroner." Owen Gleiberman, writing for Entertainment Weekly, criticized Pakula's direction, stating, "Pakula is good at laying out an intricate, almost mathematical series of events (his best film remains All the President's Men), but he's not big on atmosphere. The movie could have used some of the bowels-of-the-city grit Sidney Lumet brought to Q&A." Dave Kehr, also writing for the Chicago Tribune, stated, "Though it's a handsome film, carefully staged and courageously low-key, the transition to the screen only exaggerates the disposable nature of the material while depriving it of the novel's one stylistic strength, its unreliable narrator." Accolades Presumed Innocent received several nominations, with particular recognition for its screenplay by Alan J. Pakula and Frank Pierson. The film received an Edgar Allan Poe Award nomination for Best Motion Picture, and a USC Scripter Award nomination for Pakula, Pierson and the novel by Turow. Sequels The Burden of Proof Presumed Innocent was followed by a two-part television miniseries, The Burden of Proof (1992). Based on Turow's 1990 novel, the miniseries focuses on defense attorney Sandy Stern (played by Héctor Elizondo), who investigates his wife's past following her apparent suicide. Presumed Innocent co-star Brian Dennehy appeared in a separate role as Stern's brother-in-law. The first chapter of the miniseries aired on the ABC network on February 9, 1992, with the second part airing the following night on February 10. Innocent A television sequel, Innocent (2011), was based on Turow's 2010 sequel novel to Presumed Innocent. Set twenty years after the events of the 1990 film, the story follows Rusty Sabich (Bill Pullman), who is charged with the murder of his wife Barbara (Marcia Gay Harden). Innocent aired on TNT on November 30, 2011, as part of the network's "Mystery Movie Night", a collection of six made-for-television films based on best-selling novels. References Notes Books External links 1990 films 1990s crime drama films 1990s legal films 1990s thriller films American films American crime drama films American legal films American thriller drama films English-language films American courtroom films Films about lawyers Films about miscarriage of justice Films based on American novels Films based on crime novels Films directed by Alan J. Pakula Films shot in Michigan Films shot in New Jersey Films shot in Newark, New Jersey Films shot in New York (state) Warner Bros. films Works by Scott Turow Anthony Award-winning works Films shot in Detroit Films produced by Sydney Pollack Legal thriller films Films scored by John Williams 1990 drama films
1192370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Marsden	Samuel Marsden	Samuel Marsden (25 June 1765 – 12 May 1838) was an English-born priest of the Church of England in Australia and a prominent member of the Church Missionary Society, believed to have introduced Christianity to New Zealand. Marsden was a prominent figure in early New South Wales and Australian history, partly through his ecclesiastical offices as the colony's senior Church of England cleric and as a pioneer of the Australian wool industry, but also for his employment of convicts for farming and his actions as a magistrate at Parramatta, both of which attracted contemporary criticism. Early life Born in Farsley, near Pudsey, Yorkshire in England as the son of a Wesleyan blacksmith turned farmer, Marsden attended the village school and spent some years assisting his father on the farm. In his early twenties his reputation as a lay preacher drew the attention of the evangelical Elland Society, which sought to train poor men for the ministry of the Church of England. With a scholarship from the Elland Society Marsden attended Hull Grammar School, where he became associated with Joseph Milner and the reformist William Wilberforce, and after two years, he matriculated, at the age of 25, at Magdalene College, Cambridge. He abandoned his degree studies to respond to the call of the evangelical leader Charles Simeon for service in overseas missions. Marsden was offered the position of second chaplain to the Reverend Richard Johnson's ministry to the Colony of New South Wales on 1 January 1793. Marsden married Elizabeth Fristan at Holy Trinity, Hull on 21 April 1793. The following month William Buller, the Bishop of Exeter, ordained him as a priest. In Australia Marsden travelled by convict ship, William to Australia, his first child Anne being born en route. He arrived in the colony on 2 March 1794, and set up house in Parramatta, outside the main Port Jackson settlement. In 1800 Marsden succeeded Johnson and became the senior Church of England chaplain in New South Wales; he would keep this post until his death. Marsden was given grants of land by the colonial government and bought more of his own, which were worked with convict labour, a common practice in Australia at the time. By 1807 he owned of land. Successful farming ventures provided him with a secure financial base, although they also formed a plank of contemporary criticism of Marsden for alleged over-involvement in non-church affairs. In 1807 he returned to England to report on the state of the colony to the government, and to solicit further assistance of clergy and schoolmasters. He concentrated on the development of strong heavy-framed sheep such as the Suffolk sheep breed, which had a more immediate value in the colony than the fine-fleeced Spanish merinos imported by John Macarthur. In 1809, Marsden was the first to ship wool to England from Australia for commercial use; this was made into cloth by Messrs W. & J. Thompson, at Rawdon, West Yorkshire, and so impressed George III that he was given a present of Merino sheep from the Windsor stud. Four years later more than 4000 lbs (1814 kg) of his wool was sold in England. Marsden was an important promoter of the wool staple, even though his contribution to technology, breeding and marketing was far eclipsed by that of Macarthur. He is believed to have later introduced sheep to New Zealand, where he would develop a somewhat gentler reputation than in Australia. In 1795, Governor John Hunter made the chaplains magistrates. Marsden's role as magistrate at Parramatta, attracted criticism in his lifetime. History has remembered Marsden as the "Flogging Parson", with contemporaries claiming that he inflicted severe punishments (notably extended floggings), even by the standards of his day. This view of Marsden is disputed in some circles as part of an anti-clerical writing of history, in turn attributed to a dislike of Roman Catholics and the Irish. Joseph Holt, who was transported to Sydney following his negotiated surrender after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, gave vivid account in his memoirs of the search for Irish plotters in which he was arrested. Marsden was held to be involved in this secret action by the authorities. Holt himself was released but witnessed the fate of others. He related: "I have witnessed many horrible scenes; but this was the most appalling sight I had ever seen. The day was windy and I protest, that although I was at least fifteen yards to the leeward, from the sufferers, the blood, skin, and flesh blew in my face", as floggers "shook it off from their cats" (referring to the cat-of-nine-tails scourging lash). He continued "The next prisoner who was tied up was Paddy Galvin, a young lad about twenty years of age; he was also sentenced to receive three hundred lashes. The first hundred were given on his shoulders, and he was cut to the bone between the shoulder-blades, which were both bare. The doctor then directed the next hundred to be inflicted lower down, which reduced his flesh to such a jelly that the doctor ordered him to have the remaining hundred on the calves of his legs .... 'you shall have no music out of my mouth to make others dance upon nothing'. Some have written that Marsden ordered such treatment but Holt's memoirs do not explicitly link Marsden to the floggings at Toongabbie on that day. Holt's memoirs express his impression of Marsden, as "a busy meddling man, of shallow understanding" who thought himself "a great lawyer". Holt believed that Marsden tried to intimate to Holt that his wife and children were free, but he was not. Holt considered that he had surrendered back in Ireland under terms of free exile. But when the Holt family arrived in Parramatta, Marsden, Aitkins and Dr Thomson called on them and asked Holt to accompany them to Toongabbie, where Captain Johnstone tried to assign him to the overseer Michael Fitzgerald. The next day the Governor was to come to Parramatta and Holt determined to ask the Governor, determined to "have the highest authority, even the Governor himself, and not submit to the whims of understrappers, who always assume tenfold the airs that their superiors might be supposed to have" (his opinion of Marsden). The Governor confirmed he was free. Marsden's attitudes to Irish Roman Catholic convicts were illustrated in a memorandum which he sent to his church superiors during his time at Parramatta: Despite Marsden's opposition to Catholicism being practised in Australia, Governor Philip Gidley King permitted monthly Catholic Masses in Sydney from May 1803, although these were to take place under police surveillance. In 1806, Marsden was the originator of the New South Wales "Female Register" which classed all women in the colony (excepting some widows) as either "married" or "concubine". Only marriages within the Church of England were recognised as legitimate on this list; women who married in Roman Catholic or Jewish ceremonies were automatically classed as concubines. The document eventually circulated within influential circles in London, and is believed to have influenced contemporary views of the Australian colony as a land of sexual immorality, some of which survived into 20th century historiography. In 1809, Marsden was in England. There he befriended the Maori chief Ruatara who had gone to Britain in the whaling ship Santa Anna and been stranded there. Marsden and Ruatara returned together on the convict transport Ann (or Anne), which was under the command of Captain Charles Clarke and which carried some 198 male convicts. They arrived in Sydney on 17 or 27 February 1810. Ruatara stayed with Marsden at Parramatta for some time, and again in 1811 after a failed attempt to reach New Zealand. Ruatara eventually reached New Zealand where he did more to facilitate Marsden's mission to the Maori than any other native. In 1822, Marsden was dismissed from his civil post as a Parramatta magistrate (along with several other officials) on charges of exceeding his jurisdiction. During his time at Parramatta, Marsden befriended many Māori visitors and sailors from New Zealand. He cared for them on his farm, providing accommodation, food, drink, work and an education for up to three years. He gave one Māori chief some land on which he could grow his own crops and taught other Māori to read and write English. He learnt Māori, beginning an English-Māori translation sheet of common words and expressions. Marsden described himself as first and foremost a preacher. His sermons therefore are important primary documentation in Marsden studies. There are approximately 135 sermons written by Marsden in various collections around the world. The largest collection is in the Moore Theological College Library in Sydney, Australia. These sermons reveal Marsden's attitudes to some of the controversial issues he faced, including magistrates, the aboriginal people and wealth. A transcription of the Moore College collection can be found online. Of Aboriginal People he declared that "The Aborigines (sic) are the most degraded of the human race … The time has not yet arrived for them to receive the blessings of civilisation and the knowledge of Christianity". Cited in Harris, J. 1990. 'One Blood: 200 years of Aboriginal encounter with Christianity: A story of Hope.' Albatross Books. p. 22 Mission to New Zealand Background Marsden was a member of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) (founded in 1799) and remained formally based in New South Wales, but developed an interest in evangelising New Zealand from the early 1800s onwards. Europeans had known of New Zealand since the 1640s and by the early 19th century there had been increasing contact between Māori and Europeans, mainly by the many whalers and sealers around the coast of New Zealand and especially in the Bay of Islands. A small community of Europeans had formed in the Bay of Islands, made up of explorers, flax traders, timber merchants, seamen, and ex-convicts who had served their sentences in Australia (as well as some who had escaped the Australian penal system). Marsden was concerned that they were corrupting the Māori way of life, and lobbied the Church Missionary Society to send a mission to New Zealand. In June 1813, Marsden wrote to the Secretary of the CMS seeking £500 per annum to form an Auxiliary CMS Society in New South Wales, with a view of assisting engaging in missionary work among the Māori people in New Zealand. At a meeting in the Colony of New South Wales, held at Sydney, on 20 December 1813, Marsden formed the New South Wales Society for affording Protection to the Natives of the South Sea Islands, and promoting their Civilization, for the protection of South Sea Islanders who may be brought to Port Jackson, and to defend their claims on the masters and owners of the vessels who mistreat those islanders. First trip to New Zealand Thomas Kendall and William Hall sailed on the Earl Spencer, departing on 31 May 1813 to the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, on a voyage of investigation, and returned to Sydney on 10 October. In 1814, at his own risk, he purchased a brig, the Active, for £1,400, after the Church Missionary Society refused to provide funds for a ship. Lay missionaries Thomas Kendall, John King and William Hall were chosen for the New Zealand mission and departed on the Active from Sydney on 14 November 1814. The missionaries, Kendall, King and Hall, together with free settler Thomas Hansen, arrived in Rangihoua Bay on 22 December 1814. With them were the first horses in New Zealand, a stallion and two mares, brought from Australia by Marsden. Marsden met Māori rangatira (chiefs) from the Ngāpuhi iwi (tribe), who controlled the region around the Bay of Islands, including the chief Ruatara who had lived with him in Australia, and a junior war leader, Hongi Hika, who had helped pioneer the introduction of the musket to Māori warfare in the previous decade. Hongi Hika returned with them to Australia on 22 August. The first known Christian sermon on land in New Zealand was preached by Marsden at Oihi Bay (a small cove in the north-east of Rangihoua Bay) on Christmas Day, 1814. The service from the Church of England Book of Common Prayer was read in English but it is likely that, having learnt the language from Ruatara, Marsden preached his sermon in the Māori language. Ruatara was prevailed upon to explain those parts of the sermon the 400-strong Māori congregation did not understand. On 24 February 1815 Marsden purchased land at Rangihoua for the first Christian mission in New Zealand. The death of Ruatara on 15 March 1815 and the loss of his protection for the mission may have contributed to a lack of growth of European settlement in the area and its displacement, in the 1820s, by the Kerikeri as the senior mission in New Zealand. By the 1830s the houses of the mission at Oihi had deteriorated and the mission moved to Te Puna, further to the west in Rangihoua Bay. The mission finally closed in the 1850s. Establishment of the mission At the end of the year Kendall, Hall and King returned to start a mission to the Ngāpuhi under Ruatara's (and, later, Hongi Hika's) protection in the Bay of Islands. Hongi Hika returned with them, bringing a large number of firearms from Australia for his warriors. A mission station was founded with a base at Rangihoua Bay, later moved to Kerikeri, (where the mission house and stone store can still be seen), and ultimately a model farming village at Te Waimate. The mission would struggle on for a decade before attracting converts, in competition with Wesleyan and Catholic missions. Thomas Kendall abandoned his wife for the daughter of a Māori tohunga (priest), and also flirted with Maori traditional religion. In 1815 the Ngāpuhi chief Tītore went to Sydney and spent two years with Marsden. In 1817 Tītore and Tui (also known as Tuhi or Tupaea (1797?-1824)) sailed to England in the brig, Kangaroo. They visited Professor Samuel Lee at Cambridge University and assisted him in the preparation of a grammar and vocabulary of Māori which, following a visit to Lee by the Ngāpuhi chiefs Hongi Hika and Waikato, was published in 1820 as First Grammar and Vocabulary of the New Zealand Language. Marsden was in the Bay of Islands in May 1820 when HMS Coromandel, under the command of Captain James Downie, arrived at the Bay of Islands from England for the purpose of procuring a cargo of timber in the Firth of Thames. When Coromandel sailed for the Thames a few days later, Marsden accompanied them on their voyage. Downie reported that while at the Bay of Islands whalers were in the practice of trading muskets and ammunition for pork and potatoes. In 1820 Hongi Hika and Thomas Kendall travelled to England on the whaling ship . Hongi Hika met George IV, who gifted him a suit of armour; he also obtained further muskets when passing through Sydney on his return to New Zealand. On his return to the Bay of Islands, Ngāpuhi demanded the Church Missionary Society missionaries trade muskets for food, which under Kendall became an important means of support for the Kerikeri mission station. The trade was opposed by Marsden, largely because of its impact on the wide-ranging intertribal warfare occurring among Māori at the time. For refusing to stop trading arms, Kendall was dismissed by the Church Missionary Society in 1822. Marsden, who also knew of Kendall's romantic affair, returned to New Zealand in August 1823 to sack him in person. When Marsden and Kendall sailed from the Bay of Islands, their ship the Brampton was wrecked. Marsden later went to some trouble talking to all Australian printers to prevent Kendall from publishing a Māori grammar book, apparently largely out of spite. Legacy Marsden is generally remembered favourably in New Zealand, which he visited seven times (the longest trip lasting seven months). The Anglican school, Samuel Marsden Collegiate School in Karori, Wellington was named after Marsden. Houses at King's College, Auckland, King's School, Auckland and at Corran School for Girls are also named after him. In 1819, Marsden introduced winegrowing to New Zealand with the planting of over 100 different varieties of vine in Kerikeri, Northland. He wrote: Later life Marsden was on a visit to the Reverend Henry Stiles at St Matthew's Church at Windsor, New South Wales when he succumbed to an incipient chill and died at the rectory on 12 May 1838. Marsden is buried in the cemetery near his old church at Parramatta, St John's. In fiction and popular culture The Australian poet Kenneth Slessor wrote a satirical poem criticising the parson, Vesper-Song of the Reverend Samuel Marsden. A portrait of Marsden based on Robert Hughes' The Fatal Shore appears in Patrick O'Brian's book The Nutmeg of Consolation. In the 1978 Australian television series Against the Wind, Marsden was portrayed by David Ravenswood. Reggae band 1814 took their name from the year that Marsden held the first sermon in the Bay of Islands. See also Thomas Hassall (clergyman) References Sources Hughes, Robert . The Fatal Shore: A History of the Transportation of Convicts to Australia, 1787–1868, Collins Harvill, Great Britain, 1987. Ryder, M. L. (1973) "Samuel Marsden: Australian Pioneer, 1764-1838" History Today (Dec 1973), Vol. 23 Issue 12, pp 864–870 online. External links Marsden Online Archive, University of Otago A Short Account of the Character and Labours of The Rev Samuel Marsden – National Museum of Australia Samuel Marsden's Preaching Bands – National Museum of Australia 1764 births 1838 deaths 19th-century English Anglican priests Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge Australian Anglican priests Evangelical Anglican clergy Evangelical Anglican theologians People from Pudsey Musket Wars People from Parramatta English emigrants to colonial Australia English chaplains Clergy from Leeds
1204618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fictional%20journalists	List of fictional journalists	Attributing the profession of journalist to a fictional character allows many possibilities for the author: reporters may travel extensively and face adventures (like Tintin), are among the first to have news of disasters and crimes (like Clark "Superman" Kent and Peter "Spider-Man" Parker), and are supposed to be good at establishing communication. Some journalist may also be recognized as heroes (like Ulala from Space Channel 5), and fix the mixed and negative reception of the profession from their respective fictional universe. By country Australia Martin "Marty" Di Stasio, senior reporter on the fictional TV current affairs show Frontline Libby Kennedy, from Australian soap opera Neighbours Susan Kennedy, from Australian soap opera Neighbours Mike Moore, anchor of Frontline Riley Parker, from Neighbours Brooke Vandenberg, reporter on Frontline Alex Burchill, reporter on Lowdown Austria Brüno Gehard, fashion reporter featured in the mockumentary comedy film Brüno Belgium Tintin, in Hergé's bande dessinée albums The Adventures of Tintin (French: Les Aventures de Tintin) Spirou and Fantasio, from the same comic series Canada Louis Ciccone, from Seeing Things Caitlin Ryan, from the Degrassi series Germany Karla Kolumna, reporter appearing in two German children series: Bibi Blocksberg and Benjamin the Elephant Chile Tulio Triviño, from Chilean puppet TV show 31 minutos Juan Carlos Bodoque, Mario Hugo, Balon Von Bola, Mico Micofono, Juanin Juan Harry, Patana Tufillo from 31 minutos France Georges Duroy, Bel Amis main character Ulysse Mérou, journalist from Planet of the Apes Raymond Rambert, journalist from The Plague Joseph Rouletabille, in Gaston Leroux's novels Hong Kong Lily Wong from comic strips Italy Paparazzo, from Federico Fellini's film La Dolce Vita, origin of the term paparazzi Marcello Rubini, from La Dolce Vita Japan Ulala, a reporter for Channel 5, the protagonist of the Space Channel 5 video games Pudding, a rival reporter for Channel 42 who enjoys the limelight and fame, from the Space Channel 5 video games Meiko Kurita, Washington correspondent for Hakura News Network, in Stephen Mertz's novel The Korean Intercept (2005) Evila, a robotic replica of Ulala created to keep the truth from leaking and dubbed "The Ultimate Reporter", from the Space Channel 5 series Spark Brushel, a freelance journalist that is a witness in Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney of the Ace Attorney series of video games Kazakhstan Borat Sagdiyev, from the mockumentary comedy film Borat Mexico Vicente Chambón, from the TV series Chespirito Sweden Annika Bengtzon, in novels by Liza Marklund Mikael Blomkvist, from the Millennium series by Stieg Larsson United Kingdom Individual journalists Becky Burdock, from Jack Staff comics George Cragge, from In the Red and sequels by Mark Tavener Froud, from the novel Stowaway to Mars by John Wyndham Bridget Jones, from Helen Fielding's columns, novels and films Jack Parlabane, from the novels of Christopher Brookmyre Ford Prefect, from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series Katie Reed, from Kim Newman's Anno Dracula series Vivian Rook, from the Doctor Who episode "The Sound of Drums" Rita Skeeter, from the Harry Potter series Sarah Jane Smith, from the television series Doctor Who Jim Stevens, from the Inspector Rebus novels by Ian Rankin. Mattie Storin, House of Cards Jasmine Thomas, Emmerdale Polly Becker, EastEnders Tony Hills, EastEnders Groups of U.K. journalists Ankh-Morpork Times staff in the Discworld novels: William de Worde, Sacharissa Cripslock, Otto Chriek and others Various staff from Broken News; Josh Cashman, Richard Pritchard, Katie Tate, Adam Lockwood, Frances Walsh, Anthony Markovitz and others GlobeLink News staff in Drop the Dead Donkey; Gus Hedges, George Dent, Helen Cooper, Sally Smedley, Henry Davenport, Damien Day and others United States Individual journalists Chick Adams, reporter in New York City played by Jack Weston, on the CBS sitcom My Sister Eileen (1960–1961) Ichabod Adams, former newspaper owner played by George Chandler on CBS's sitcom Ichabod and Me (1961–1962) Nick Alexander, reporter played by Nick Adams, on NBC's Saints and Sinners (1962) Amy Amanda "Triple A" Allen, reporter who covered The A-Team in the TV series by the same name Celeste Anders, reporter for the New York Express, played by Celeste Holm in the CBS sitcom Honestly, Celeste! (1954) Matt Anders, freelance anti-communist journalist at the height of the Cold War, played by Brian Keith in the 1955-1956 CBS adventure/drama Crusader Ben Andrews, police reporter in syndicated Manhunt, played from 1959 to 1961 by Patrick McVey Larry Appleton from Perfect Strangers Tally Atwater, broadcast journalist in the 1996 film Up Close & Personal Matt Bai, with Yahoo! News in the political thriller series House of Cards Billy Batson, radio news reporter and the secret identity of the comic book superhero Captain Marvel Ted Baxter, talking head from The Mary Tyler Moore Show Howard Beale, TV news anchor of the UBS Evening News, played by Peter Finch in the film Network D.X. Beaumont, magazine editor played by Raymond Bailey, on My Sister Eileen Paul Beltzer, magazine publisher played by James Philbrook, on CBS's The New Loretta Young Show Cy Bennett, editor of Today's World magazine, played by John Dehner on CBS's The Doris Day Show Maddy Bowen, reporter played by Jennifer Connelly in Blood Diamond Tom Bradford, editor and columnist of fictional Sacramento Register, modeled on novel by Tom Braden, played by Dick Van Patten on ABC's Eight Is Enough Carrie Bradshaw from Sex and the City TV series Kent Brockman from The Simpsons TV series Murphy Brown from the show of the same name, along with FYI staffers Jim Dial, Frank Fontana, Corky Sherwood, and Miles Silverberg Anson Bryson, Washington reporter, in William C. Heine's novel The Last Canadian (1974) Clint Buchanan from One Life to Live soap opera Walter Burns, reporter played by Cary Grant in His Girl Friday Michelle Capra, columnist from Northern Exposure Snapper Carr, television news reporter in comic books and animated series featuring the Justice League Tess Mercer, executive editor and managing director of The Daily Planet played by Cassidy Freeman on TV series Smallville Ben Caxton, an investigative journalist in Robert Heinlein's novel Stranger in a Strange Land Miles Clarkson, music journalist from The Mephisto Waltz Harris Claibourne, editor of The Tombstone Epitaph, played by Richard Eastham on ABC series Tombstone Territory (1957–1960) Stephen Colbert, played by Stephen Colbert in The Colbert Report Emily Cowles, advice columnist, played by Ruth McDevitt on ABC's Kolchak: The Night Stalker Jefferson Crowley, newspaper editor played by Edmond O'Brien in "Gallegher" segments of NBC's Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color Chloe Sullivan, former reporter for The Daily Planet, played by Allison Mack on TV series Smallville Pepper Dennis, in the show of the same name Bryan Denton, reporter for the New York Sun in Disney's musical Newsies Art Donovan, assistant city editor played by Jack Bannon, on Lou Grant Jefferson Drum, crusading frontier journalist played on the 1958 NBC series of the same name by Jeff Richards Brooke English, from All My Children soap opera George Faber, a Rome-based television journalist played by David Janssen in The Shoes of the Fisherman Vernon Fenwick, anchorwoman and cameraman for Channel 6 News in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles universe I. M. Fletcher, investigative journalist from the Fletch series of novels by Gregory Mcdonald Jack Flood, newspaper researcher played by Robert Harland, on ABC's Target: The Corruptors! Mr. Fosdick, newspaper boss played by Charles Lane on the NBC series Dear Phoebe (1954–1955) Kermit the Frog from Sesame Street Grant Gabriel, former assistant editor of The Daily Planet, played by Michael Cassidy on TV series Smallville Gallegher, teenage cub reporter played by Roger Mobley, on NBC's Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color (1964–1965) Walter 'Wichita' Garrett from The Return of Doctor X, 1939 film Pat Garrison, reporter for New York Record, played by Donald May on The Roaring 20's (1960–1962) Rory Gilmore, from Gilmore Girls Mark Grainger, editor played by John Larkin on NBC's Saints and Sinners Lou Grant, newspaperman on series also called Lou Grant and on the earlier The Mary Tyler Moore Show Ben Gregory, magazine writer played by Barry Coe, on ABC's Follow the Sun (1961–1962) Tom Grunick, TV news anchor played by William Hurt in the film Broadcast News Jackie Harvey, from The Onion Bill Hastings, writer of the advice-to-the-lovelorn column of the fictitious Los Angeles Daily Star, played by Peter Lawford, on NBC's Dear Phoebe (1954–1955) Nancy Hicks-Gribble, voiced by Ashley Gardner, a weather girl, and later anchor on Channel 84 in Arlen, Texas on King of the Hill Chris Higby, copy-boy of New York Record, played by Gary Vinson on The Roaring 20's Jennifer Horton, from Days of Our Lives soap opera J. Jonah Jameson, newspaperman played by Robert F. Simon on The Amazing Spider-Man Rick Jason, magazine researcher played by Gary Lockwood on Follow the Sun Sierra Jennings, from the All About Us franchise Spider Jerusalem, the gonzo journalist of the future from the graphic novel Transmetropolitan Hildy Johnson, reporter played by Rosalind Russell in His Girl Friday Tom Jumbo-Grumbo, voiced by Keith Olberman, blue whale anchor on BoJack Horseman Charles Foster Kane, newspaperman played by Orson Welles, in the film Citizen Kane Clark Kent, reporter for The Daily Planet by day and Superman off-duty, played by George Reeves in Adventures of Superman, Tom Welling on TV series Smallville and Henry Cavill in Man of Steel John King, TV reporter for CNN, on the US TV series House of Cards Kit Kittredge, amateur journalist from the American Girl series of books Klugie, photographer played by Richard Erdman, on Saints and Sinners Alexander Knox, reporter for the Gotham Globe in the 1989 film Batman Carl Kolchak, played by Darren McGavin on ABC's Kolchak: The Night Stalker Lois Lane, reporter for The Daily Planet, played first by Phyllis Coates and then Noel Neill, on Adventures of Superman; played by Erica Durance on Smallville John Larsen, owner of a comic book company, played by Jerome Cowan on The Tab Hunter Show Adam MacLean, editor of Yellowstone Sentinel newspaper, played by Rex Reason on syndicated television series Man Without a Gun Robert "Bob" Major, newspaper owner played by Robert Sterling on CBS series Ichabod and Me Paul Marino, newspaper reporter played by Stephen McNally on Target: The Corruptors! Mark Markin, INN/CNN reporter in Lash-Up (2001 novella/2015 novel by Larry Bond) Monique Marmelstein, intern reporter, played by Carol Ann Susi on ABC's Kolchak: The Night Stalker Doris Martin, journalist for magazine Today's World, played by Doris Day on CBS's The Doris Day Show Steve Martin, reporter for United World News, played by Raymond Burr in the films Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956) and Godzilla 1985 (1985) Christine Massey, magazine writer played by Loretta Young on The New Loretta Young Show Willie Maxwell, reporter in Center City, Iowa, played by Eddie Applegate on NBC's Nancy (1970) Jack McEvoy in Michael Connelly's 1996 mystery novel The Poet Will McAvoy, anchor and managing editor of "News Night", played by Jeff Daniels on HBO's The Newsroom Jack McGee, reporter for The National Register on The Incredible Hulk Percy "P.C.M." Mercy, editor of View magazine, in Allen Drury's novel The Throne of Saturn (1971) Sam Miller, publisher of the Wilcox Clarion of Wilcox, Arizona, in five episodes of the western series 26 Men (1957–1959) William Miller, teenage aspiring rock journalist, played by Patrick Fugit in Almost Famous Trudy Monk, San Francisco journalist and late wife of Adrian Monk in the TV series Monk Morbo the Annihilator, voiced by Maurice LaMarche, the belligerent alien co-anchor of The News on Futurama Paul Morgan, cartoonist played by Tab Hunter on NBC's The Tab Hunter Show (1960–1961) Les Nessman, from WKRP in Cincinnati Billie Newman, reporter played by Linda Kelsey, on Lou Grant Trevor Newsworthy from The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air TV series Tyra Nordbo from the Man-Kzin Wars Scott Norris, reporter of New York Record, played by Rex Reason on ABC's The Roaring 20's Bill Norton, New York Herald reporter in Eric Frank Russell's novel, Dreadful Sanctuary (1948) Jimmy Olsen, photographer for The Daily Planet, played by Jack Larson on Adventures of Superman and by Aaron Ashmore on TV series Smallville Kelly O'Donnell, non-fictional anchor/reporter for NBC News, making guest appearance on US House of Cards April O'Neil, anchorwoman for Channel 6 News in the 1987-1996 animated Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles series Nic Pappas, in Peter J. Gallanis's 2014 mystery novel The Reporter, Part I - Rise and Fall Dion Patrick, Irish American newspaperman played by Adam Kennedy, on NBC's The Californians (1957–1958) Dick Preston, radio host in Arizona, played by Dick Van Dyke on CBS's The New Dick Van Dyke Show Miranda Priestly, fashion magazine editor, played by Meryl Streep in The Devil Wears Prada Sweet Polly Purebred, reporter for TTV in the television series Underdog; her boss was O.J. Skweez Margaret Pynchon, elitist publisher played by Nancy Marchand on Lou Grant Lloyd Ramsey, small-town newspaper editor played by Ford Rainey, in Robert Young's CBS sitcom Window on Main Street Mickey Riley, sports writer at the fictitious Los Angeles Daily Star, played by Marcia Henderson, on NBC's Dear Phoebe, 1954–1955 Jack Ryder, journalist and alter-ego of the Creeper, superhero and occasional ally of Batman Andrea Sachs, aspiring journalist, played by Anne Hathaway in The Devil Wears Prada Vic Sage in The Question series from the DC Universe superhero comics Murray Scarvi, columnist and radio commentator opposed to the Apollo program, in William R. Shelton's novel Stowaway to the Moon: The Camelot Odyssey (1973) Robin Scherbatsky, news anchor for New York cable news channel Metro News 1 in the sitcom How I Met Your Mother; famous for her use of the filler words "but, um" in that order, and falling in horse manure on live television Lou Sheldon, city editor of New York Globe, played by Gary Merrill on CBS's The Reporter (1964) Ruth Sherwood, magazine writer played by Elaine Stritch on My Sister Eileen Diane Simmons, anchor on the TV show Family Guy Sabrina Spellman in the TV show Sabrina the Teenage Witch Brenda Starr, reporter for the Chicago newspaper The Flash from the Brenda Starr comic strip and movies Dave Tabak, copy editor played by Robert F. Simon on NBC's Saints and Sinners Tricia Takanawa, reporter on Family Guy Chloe Talbot, on The Simpsons, Marge's high school chum who goes on to be a famous journalist Danny Taylor, reporter for New York Globe, played by Harry Guardino on The Reporter Paul Templin, magazine writer played by Brett Halsey on Follow the Sun Tom Tucker, news anchor on Family Guy Hal Towne, newspaper columnist on CBS's The Dennis O'Keefe Show, with Dennis O'Keefe in the featured role Abby Townsend, press secretary to the First Lady of the United States, played by Celeste Holm on NBC's Nancy Frankly Unctuous, TV newscaster, in The Throne of Saturn (1971) Ron Updyke, disdainful reporter, played by Jack Grinnage on ABC's Kolchak: The Night Stalker Vicki Vale in the Batman series from the DC Universe superhero comics and the 1989 film Linda van Schoonhoven, voiced by Tress MacNeille, is the perky human blonde co-anchor of The News on Futurama Dan Vasser, reporter on Journeyman Tony Vincenzo, newspaper editor, played by Simon Oakland on ABC's Kolchak: The Night Stalker Bob Wallace, son of the newspaper editor, played by Scott McKay on CBS's Honestly, Celeste! Mr. Wallace, newspaper editor, played by Geoffrey Lumb (1905–1990) on CBS's Honestly, Celeste! Nicole Walker, from Days of Our Lives soap opera John Boy Walton, modeled on Earl Hamner, Jr., played by Richard Thomas and Robert Wightman on CBS's The Waltons Herb Welch, veteran reporter on Saturday Night Live, played by Bill Hader Trinity Wells in the television series Doctor Who and The Sarah Jane Adventures Perry White, editor-in-chief of the Daily Planet, played by John Hamilton on Adventures of Superman Francis Wilde, photographer played by Randy Boone on CBS's western Cimarron Strip Cameron "Buck" Williams, played by Kirk Cameron in the original film Left Behind and by Chad Michael Murray in the 2014 version of Left Behind Duke William, journalist with New York Record, played by John Dehner on The Roaring 20's Steve Wilson, in CBS' Big Town, managing editor of The Illustrated Press in a large American city, played from 1950 to 1954 by Patrick McVey Jamie Campbell in the television series ZooJack Deveraux played by Mathew Ashford, on Days of our Lives, Soap Opera. Sarah Jane Smith, played by Elizabeth Sladen, on Doctor Who/The Sarah Jane Adventures. Kara Zor'El / Kara Danvers (By day) Super Girl by night, in the television series "Supergirl". "Kat Grant, editor of Catco Media, played by Calista Flockhart, Kara Danver's first boss, in season one of Supergirl." Kate Ripperton, voiced by Asta Parry, in several stories and editions of the Dark Shadows Audio drama series by Big Finish Productions. Groups of U.S. journalists Daily Bugle staff in the Spider-Man series: J. Jonah Jameson, Peter Parker, Betty Brant Leeds, Ned Leeds, Frederick Foswell, Robbie Robertson, Ben Urich, Lance Bannon and others from the Marvel Universe superhero comics, then passed onto comic strips, TV series and films Daily Planet and Galaxy Broadcasting staff in the Superman series: Clark Kent, Lois Lane, Jimmy Olsen, Perry White, Lana Lang, Morgan Edge and others from DC Comics US superhero comics, then passed onto comic strips, television series, and films The Lone Gunmen, aka Melvin Frohike, Richard "Ringo" Langly and John Fitzgerald Byers, who cover conspiracies in their self-titled magazine and The Magic Bullet on The X-Files and their own spinoff series, The Lone Gunmen San Diego Channel Four News Team in the movie Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy : Ron Burgundy, anchorman, alongside co-anchor Veronica Corningstone, weatherman Brick Tamland, sportscaster Champ Kind, and field reporter Brian Fantana; Burgundy's rival from Channel Two is Wes Mantooth Fictional newspaper Lush For Life''s entire staff The Palatine Star, located in the fictional city of Palatine, Ill. Series: Reporter, by Peter J. Gallanis Notes References External links Information on the image of the journalist in popular culture, at ijpc.org Fictional journalists, List of Journalists, List of fictional
1209852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20families	List of political families	This is an incomplete list of prominent political families. Monarchical dynasties are not included, unless certain descendants have played political roles in a republican structure (e.g. Arslan family of Lebanon and Cakobau family of Fiji). Albania The Hoxha family Hysen Hoxha (Albanian independence leader; uncle of Enver Hoxha) Enver Hoxha (First Secretary of the Albanian Labour Party, 1944–1985) Nexhmije Hoxha (member of the Central Committee of the Albanian Labour Party; wife of Enver Hoxha) Peristeri family Manush Myftiu (Chairman of the Assembly of the Republic) Pilo Peristeri (member of the Central Committee of the Albanian Labour Party) The Nano family (father-son) Thanas Nano (government broadcaster under Hoxha) Fatos Nano (Prime Minister of Albania) The Pashko family (spouses) Josif Pashko (member of the Central Committee of the Albanian Labour Party) Eleni Terezi (member of the Central Committee of the Albanian Labour Party) The Shehu family Mehmet Shehu (Prime Minister of Albania, 1953–1981) Fiqrete Shehu (member of the Central Committee of the Albanian Labour Party) Kadri Hazbiu (member of the Central Committee of the Albanian Labour Party); brother-in-law of Mehmet Shehu) Fecor Shehu (nephew of Mehmet Shehu) Angola The dos Santos–Van-Dúnem-Vieira Dias family José Eduardo dos Santos (President of Angola, 1979–2017) Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos 'Nandó' (cousin of José Eduardo dos Santos; Vice-President of Angola, 2010–2012; Speaker of the National Assembly 2008–2010; Prime Minister 2002–2008) Cândido Pereira dos Santos Van-Dúnem (cousin of the President and Kopelipa and Jose Vieira Dias Van-Dunem; Defense Minister). José Vieira Dias Van-Dúnem (cousin of Kopelipa; Health Minister) Gen. Manuel Hélder Vieira Dias 'Kopelipa' (Minister of State and Chief of the Military Bureau of the President) Carlo Alberto Lopes (Finance Minister, brother-in-law of the President) Luzia Inglês Van-Dúnem Secretary-General of "OMA", the women's mass movement of the ruling party MPLA Afonso Van-Dúnem M'Binda (husband of Luzia Inglês Van-Dúnem; Minister of External Relations 1985–1988) Fernando José de França Dias Van-Dúnem (cousin of Kopelipa; Prime Minister 1991–1992; 1996–1999) Pedro de Castro van Dúnem, 1942–1997 (Minister of External Relations of Angola 1989–1992; Minister of Public Works and Urban Affairs 1992–1997) Antigua and Barbuda The Bird family Sir Vere Cornwall Bird (Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda, 1981–1994) Lester Bird (son of Sir Vere Cornwall Bird; Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda, 1994–2004) Vere Bird, Jr. (son of Sir Vere Cornwall Bird; Member of Parliament) Maria Bird-Browne (niece of Lester Bird; Member of Parliament) Gaston Browne (husband of Maria, Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda, 2014–present) The Frank family (uncle-nephew) Sir Hilbourne Frank (Chairman of the Barbuda Council) Mackenzie Frank (Senator) Argentina Armenia The Demirchyan family (father-son) Karen Demirchyan (First Secretary of the Armenian Communist Party, 1974–1988; National Assembly speaker, 1999) Stepan Demirchyan (leader of the People's Party of Armenia, opposition candidate during the 2003 presidential election) The Sargsyan brothers Vazgen Sargsyan (Defense Minister of Armenia 1991–1992, 1995–1999; Prime Minister of Armenia, 1999) Aram Sargsyan (Prime Minister of Armenia, 1999–2000) The Margaryan family (father-son) Andranik Margaryan (Prime Minister of Armenia, 2000–2007) Taron Margaryan (Mayor of Yerevan, 2011–2018) Australia Austria The Habsburg family of Austria (grandfather–father–children) Charles I (Karl I) (Emperor of Austria 1916–1918, King of Hungary 1916–1918) Otto von Habsburg (German Member of the European Parliament), son of Charles I Karl Habsburg-Lothringen (former Austrian Member of the European Parliament), son of Otto Georg von Habsburg (György) (Hungarian Ambassador), son of Otto Archduchess Walburga of Austria, Member of the Swedish Parliament, daughter of Otto Azerbaijan The Aliyev family (father-son) Heydar Aliyev (President of Azerbaijan, 1993–2003) Ilham Aliyev (President of Azerbaijan, 2003–) The Bahamas The Butler family Sir Milo Butler (Governor-General of the Bahamas, 1973–1979) Loretta Butler-Turner The Pindling family Sir Lynden Pindling (Prime Minister of the Bahamas, 1967–1992) Dame Marguerite Pindling (Governor-General of the Bahamas, 2014–present) – the widow of Sir Lynden Pindling Michelle Pindling-Sands The Symonette family Sir Roland Symonette (Premier of the Bahamas, 1964–1967) Robert Symonette (Speaker of the House of Assembly; son of Roland Symonette) Brent Symonette (Deputy Prime Minister; son of Roland Symonette) The Turnquest family (father-son) Sir Orville Turnquest (Governor-General of the Bahamas, 1995–2001) Tommy Turnquest (National security minister) The Foulkes family (father-son) Sir Arthur Foulkes (Governor-General of the Bahamas, 2010–2014) Dion Foulkes (Minister of Labour and Social Services) Bangladesh Sheikh-Wazed family Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (first President of Bangladesh, 1971; Prime Minister of Bangladesh, 1972–1975) Sheikh Kamal - eldest son of Sheikh Mujib, was widely expected to be the successor of his father until he was killed alongside him Sheikh Hasina Wazed (eldest daughter of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman; Prime Minister of Bangladesh, 1996–2001 and 2009–) Sajeeb Wazed – son of Sheikh Hasina, on 25 February 2009, Wazed officially joined the Awami League as a primary member of the Rangpur District Sheikh Rehana, youngest daughter of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Sheikh Shahidul Islam, nephew of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman The Chowdhury Dynasty Forefathers from Gour Iqbal Ali Chowdhury – former MNA, British Empire Khan Bahadur Abdul Jabbar Chowdhury Fazlul Kabir Chowdhury – former opposition leader, Pakistan National Assembly, founding President of Chittagong Chamber of Commerce A.B.M. Fazle Karim Chowdhury- MP from Chittagong-6, Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on the ministry of Railways and Australia-Bangladesh Parliamentary association, President of the Committee on the Human Rights of Parliamentarians in the Inter Parliamentary Union, Member of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on the Ministry of Chittagong Hill Tracts, President of Chittagong Awami League (North) Professor Masuda M Rashid Chowdhury, MP, Presidium Member, Jatiya Party Fazlul Quader Chowdhury – former Speaker of Pakistan National Assembly, former acting President of Pakistan, President of Muslim League, Leader of Al Badr, Razakars and Al Shams during the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971 Salahuddin Quader Chowdhury – former Cabinet Minister, former adviser to the Prime Minister, Member of BNP standing committee, MP Bangladesh Nationalist Party parliamentarian from Chittagong – 2 Giasuddin Quader Chowdhury – former MP, President of Chittagong BNP (South) of Bangladesh Nationalist Party Saber Hossain Chowdhury, MP, Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee on the Ministry of Environment, President of the Inter Parliamentary Union, former Deputy Minister, former Political Secretary to the Prime Minister Khurrum Khan Choudhury- former Member of Parliament, from Nandail and Ishwarganj, Founder Member Bangladesh Nationalist Party, President of Mymensingh (North) Bangladesh Nationalist Party, former member of Dhaka University Senate Ashiqur Rahman Chowdhury, MP, Chairman of the Parliamentary Special Committee on Public Accounts, former State Minister A.B.M. Mohiuddin Chowdhury, former Mayor of the Chittagong City Corporation Manzur Ahmed Chowdhury – MLA (Independent) M.A Haque – former Cabinet Minister (Jatiya Party) Advocate A.B.M. Fazle Rashid Chowdhury, former Presidium Member, Jatiya Party Closely linked to Khan Choudhury family): Morshed Khan (former Minister), Saifur Rahman (former Minister), Amir Khosru Mahmud Chowdhury (former Minister), Jafrul Islam Chowdhury (former State Minister), Abdullah Al Noman (former Minister) and other elites. Political in-laws and reputed businessmen are not mentioned in this list. Termed as one of the seven families of Bangladesh. The Dhaka Nawab family Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin (former Governor General of Pakistan, former Prime Minister of Pakistan) Khan Saheb Syed Khwaja Khairuddin Khwaja Nooruddin (founder of first Muslim English daily in India i.e. Star of India which later became The Morning News). Khwaja Shahabuddin Lt. Gen (retd) Khwaja Wasiuddin Farhat Banu (first Muslim woman elected to undivided Bengal Assembly). Syed Shahib-e-Alam Begum Shamsunnahar Khwaja Ahsanullah (wife of Nawabzada Ahsanullah, former leader of the BNP, former BNP MP from 1991 to 1996, 1996, & 2001–2006) The Zaman family of Gopalganj Wahiduzzaman (former Commerce Minister of undivided Pakistan) Fayekuzzaman (former member of National Assembly, Pakistan) Dr. Wasim Alimuz Zaman (Senior UN Official, Member of the Civil Service of Pakistan and Bangladesh, PhD, Harvard University) F.E. Sharfuzzaman (former Member of Parliament) Borhanuzzaman Omar (former councilor/chairman of Dhaka City Corporation) The Siddikys of Baliadi* Nawab Shah Kutubuddin Ahmed Siddiky Koka (First Subedar of Bengal under the Mughal Empire) Khan Bahadur Chowdhury Kazemuddin Ahmed Siddiky (Zamindar of Baliadi, Co-founder of the University of Dhaka, founder President of the *East Bengal and Assam Provincial Muslim League)[1] Khan Bahadur Chowdhury Fariduddin Ahmed Siddiky (Founder, Salimullah Muslim Orphanage) Khan Bahadur Chowdhury Labibuddin Ahmed Siddiky (First Elected Chairman, Dhaka Education Board; Court Member, Dhaka University) Justice Badruddin Ahmed Siddiky (last Chief Justice of East Pakistan, Permanent Representative of Bangladesh to the United Nations) Chowdhury Abraruddin Ahmed Siddiky (former Mayor of Dhaka) Chowdhury Tanbir Ahmed Siddiky (former Commerce Minister of Bangladesh) Chowdhury Dabir Ahmed Siddiky (former President of Dhaka Club) The Zia family Ziaur Rahman – (President of Bangladesh, 1979–1981; freedom fighter, military administrator and statesman) Begum Khaleda Zia, (wife of Ziaur Rahman; Prime Minister of Bangladesh, 1991–1996 and 2001–2006) Tarique Rahman- eldest son of Ziaur Rahman and Khaleda Zia; Senior Vice-Chairman of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party The Mansur Ali family Captain Mansur Ali (Prime minister of Bangladesh 1975) Eldest son of Dr Mohammad Selim (Presidium member of Awami league, Chairman of Foreign affairs standing committee, Member of Bangladesh Parliament 1995–2001) Second son of Mohammad Nasim (Minister for Home and Telecommunications 1996–-2001, Member of Bangladesh Parliament 1991–2006) Health Minister and Presidium Member for Awami league 2014. The Ahmad family Tajuddin Ahmad, (first Prime Minister of Bangladesh, 1971) Begum Zohra Tajuddin, (President of the Awami League, 1975–1979) Tanjim Ahmad, (Minister of State for Home Affairs, 2009) Simeen Hussain, (Member of Parliament, 2012–present) The Chowdhury family A. Q. M. Badruddoza Chowdhury, (President of Bangladesh, 2001–2003; founder of Bikalpa Dhara Bangladesh) Mahi B. Chowdhury, eldest son of Badruddoza Chowdhury; former Member of Parliament, 2003–2006) The Huq family Sher-e-Bangla A. K. Fazlul Huq, (Prime Minister of Bengal in British India and Governor and Chief Minister of East Pakistan) A. K. Faezul Huq, (Cabinet Minister, 1996–2001) The Abdullah al Mahmood family of Sirajganj Abdullah al Mahmood (former MLA of British India, 1937; former Deputy High Commissioner, 1947; and former Industrial & Natural Resources Minister of Pakistan, 1964) Iqbal Hassan Mahmood Tuku (former Member of Parliament 1986–1990, and former State minister for Power of Bangladesh 2001–2006) Manzur Hassan Mahmood Khushi (former Chairman, Sirajganj Pourashava 1984–1993) Rumana Mahmood (daughter-in-law of Abdullah al Mahmood; Member of Parliament 2009–2013) Dr. M.A Matin (son-in-law of Abdullah al Mahmood) former Deputy Prime Minister of Bangladesh, former Parliament Member 1979–2006, Founder Secretary General of Jatiya Party. Barbados The Adams family (father-son) Sir Grantley Herbert Adams (Premier of Barbados, 1954–1958) Tom Adams (Prime Minister of Barbados, 1976–1985) The Barrow family (brother-sister) Errol Barrow (Prime Minister of Barbados, 1961–1976 and 1986–1987) Dame Nita Barrow (Governor-General of Barbados, 1990–1995) Belgium Anciaux family (father and sons) Vic Anciaux (1931–) (VU party leader, Brussels State Secretary) Jan Anciaux (1958–) N-VA (Schepen in Vilvoorde) Bert Anciaux (1959–) sp.a (VU party leader, Flemish Minister, Belgian Senator) Koen Anciaux (1961–) Open Vld (Schepen in Mechelen) Roel Anciaux (1971–) sp.a (member of Flemish Brabant Provincial Council) de Brouckère brothers Henri de Brouckère (1801–91) (Prime Minister of Belgium) Charles de Brouckère (1796–1860) (Minister of Finance, Interior and War) De Croo family (father-son) Herman De Croo (1937–) Open Vld (Minister, Speaker of the Chamber, Minister of State) Alexander De Croo (1975–) Open Vld (VLD party leader; Deputy PM and Minister of Pensions, Prime Minister of Belgium 2020-incumbent) De Gucht family (father-son) Karel De Gucht (1954–) Open Vld (Minister of Foreign Affairs, European Commissioner) Jean-Jacques De Gucht (1983–) Open Vld (Senator) Dehousse family (father-son) Fernand Dehousse (1906–76) (Minister of Education) Jean-Maurice Dehousse (1936–) (Minister-President of Wallonia) Eyskens family (father-son) Gaston Eyskens (1905–88) CVP (Prime Minister of Belgium) Mark Eyskens (1933–) CD&V (Prime Minister of Belgium) Spaak family Paul Janson (1840–1913) Lib. (Senator) Paul-Emile Janson (1872–1944) Lib. (Prime Minister of Belgium, son of Paul Janson) Marie Janson (1873–1960) PSB (Senator; daughter of Paul Janson) Paul-Henri Spaak (1899–1972) PSB (Prime Minister of Belgium, Secretary General of NATO; son of Marie Janson) Antoinette Spaak (1928–2020) FDF (Member of the European Parliament; daughter of Paul-Henri Spaak) Simonet family (father-son) Henri Simonet (1931–96) (Minister of Economy and Foreign Affairs) Jacques Simonet (1963–2007) (Minister-President of the Brussels-Capital Region) Vanderpoorten family Arthur Vanderpoorten (1884–1945) Lib. (Minister of Interior) Herman Vanderpoorten (1922–84) PVV (Minister of Interior and Justice; son of Arthur Vanderpoorten) Marleen Vanderpoorten (1954–;) Open Vld (Minister of Education, Speaker of the Flemish Parliament; daughter of Herman Vanderpoorten) Patrick Dewael (1955–;) Open Vld (Minister-President of Flanders, President of the Chamber of Representatives; nephew of Herman Vanderpoorten) Van Rompuy family Herman Van Rompuy (1947–;) CD&V (President of the Chamber of Representatives, Prime Minister, President of the European Council) Peter Van Rompuy (1980–;) CD&V (Senator, son of Herman Van Rompuy) Eric Van Rompuy (1949–;) CD&V (Minister of Agriculture and Economy, brother of Herman Van Rompuy) Tine Van Rompuy (1955–;) PVDA+ (Candidate for the Workers Party of Belgium, prominent unionist, sister of Herman Van Rompuy)) Benin The Soglo family Christophe Soglo (President of Benin, 1963–64 and 1965–67) Nicéphore Soglo (nephew; President of Benin, 1991–96) Saturnin Soglo (brother of Nicéphore Soglo; Foreign Minister) The Zinsou family Émile Derlin Zinsou (President of Benin, formerly Dahomey, 1968–69) Lionel Zinsou (nephew; Prime Minister of Benin, 2015–2016) Bhutan Dorji family Sonam Topgay Dorji (Chief Minister of Bhutan, 1917–52) Jigme Palden Dorji (Prime Minister of Bhutan, 1952–64; son of Sonam Topgay Dorji) Lhendup Dorji (Prime Minister of Bhutan, 1964; son of Sonam Topgay Dorji) Bolivia The Ballivián family (father-son) José Ballivián (1805–1852) (President of Bolivia, 1841–47) Adolfo Ballivián (1831–1874) (President of Bolivia, 1873–74) The Fernandez Saucedo family Max Jhonny Fernandez Saucedo (1964-) (Mayor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 1996–2002 and 2021–present) Paola Andrea Fernandez Rea (1992-) (Senator for Santa Cruz, 2020–present; daughter of Jhonny Fernandez Saucedo) Roberto Fernandez Saucedo (1968-) (Deputy for Santa Cruz, 1997-1998; Mayor of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 2002–05) The Morales Ayma family Juan Evo Morales Ayma (1959-) (President of Bolivia, 2006–2019) Esther Morales Ayma de Wilcarani (1949-2020) (First Lady of Bolivia, 2006-2019) Adhemar Wilcarani Morales (1978-) (Mayor of Oruro, 2021–present; son of Esther Morales Ayma) The Paz family Luis Paz Arce (1854-1928) (President of the Supreme Court of Bolivia, 1926–30) (1910–1984) (Bolivian Army General; son of Luis Paz Arce) Jaime Paz Zamora (1939-) (President of Bolivia, 1989–93; son of Domingo Paz Rojas) Jaime Paz Pereira (?-) (Deputy for Tarija, 2002–05; son of Jaime Paz Zamora) Rodrigo Paz Pereira (1967-) (Senator for Tarija, 2020–present; Mayor of Tarija, 2015-2020; son of Jaime Paz Zamora) Domingo Paz Arce (1855-1910) (Prefect and Commander General of Tarija, 1892–96) Domingo Paz Rojas (1879-1930) (Senator for Tarija; son of Domingo Paz Arce) Ángel Victor Paz Estenssoro (1907-2001) President of Bolivia, 1952–56, 1960–64 and 1985–89; son of Domingo Paz Rojas) Moira Paz Estenssoro Cortez (?-) (Minister of Sustainable Development, 2003; Senator for Tarija, 2002; daughter of Victor Paz Estenssoro) The Siles family Hernando Siles Reyes (1882–1942) (President of Bolivia, 1926–30) Hernán Siles Zuazo (1914–1996) (President of Bolivia, 1950–60 and 1982–85; son of Hernando Siles Reyes) Luis Adolfo Siles Salinas (1925–2005) (President of Bolivia, 1969; son of Hernando Siles Reyes) Bosnia and Herzegovina The Izetbegović family (husband-wife-son) Bakir Izetbegović (President of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2010–2018) Alija Izetbegović (first President of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina 1990–2000) The Pozderac family Agha Murat Pozderac (1862–1930), was the last leader of Cazin, Bosnia and Herzegovina during Ottoman rule. Nurija Pozderac (1892–1943), son of Murat, member of Kingdom of Yugoslavia Parliament, Vice President of the Executive Board of the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia. Hakija Pozderac (1919–1994), son of Nurija Pozderac, Yugoslav politician: Republic Prosecutor for War Crimes committed in Districts Banja Luka and Bihać (Jan. 1947-1948), National Representative of Cazin to Republic Parliament (1948-1949), General Secretary of the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1949-1952), State Secretary for Economic Relations of National Republic of BiH (1953-1954), Head of State Secretariat for Budgeting and Economy of National Republic of BiH (1954-1956), Director of BiH National Bank (1956-1960), Head of Economic Relations Department in National Republic of BiH (1960-1962), Federal Secretary for Economy (1962-1965), Federal Secretary for Industry and Trade (1965-1967), Representative in Federal Executive Council (1967-1971), Representative in Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia (1971-1982), Representative in the Council of Federation (1982-1983). Hamdija Pozderac (1924–1988), nephew of Nurija Pozderac. communist politician and the president of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1971 to 1974. He was a vice president of the former Yugoslavia in the late 1980s, and was in line to become the president of Yugoslavia just before he was forced to resign from politics in 1987. Vuk Jeremić (born 1975), Serbian politician, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Serbia from 2007 until 2012. President of the 67th session of the United Nations General Assembly between September 2012 and September 2013. Great-grandson of Nurija Pozderac. Hamdija Lipovača (born 1976), Bosnian politician: Prime Minister of Una-Sana Canton (2011-2015), Minister of the Interior (2013-2014), Mayor of Bihać (2004-2010), Member of the House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2010-2014). Great-grandson of Nurija Pozderac. Botswana The Khama family (husband-wife-son) Sir Seretse Khama (President, 1966–80) Ruth Williams Khama (politically active First Lady) Ian Khama (President, 2008–18) Brazil The Assed-Matheus family (spouses and daughter) Anthony Matheus (presidential candidate and Governor of Rio de Janeiro State) Rosângela Assed Matheus (Governor of Rio de Janeiro State) Clarissa Assed Matheus (Deputy for Rio de Janeiro State; daughter of Antonhy and Rosângela) The Bolsonaro family (father and sons) Jair Bolsonaro (President of Brazil) Flávio Bolsonaro (Senator for Rio de Janeiro, son of Jair Bolsonaro) Eduardo Bolsonaro (Federal Deputy of São Paulo, son of Jair Bolsonaro) Carlos Bolsonaro (Councillor of Rio de Janeiro, son of Jair Bolsonaro) The Brás-Moreira family (cousins) Venceslau Brás (President of Brazil, 1914–18) Delfim Moreira (President of Brazil, 1918–19) The Cardoso family Leônidas Cardoso (Federal Deputy for São Paulo) Fernando Henrique Cardoso (President of Brazil, 1995–2003; son of Leônidas Cardoso) The Coimbra-Luz family Cesário Cecílio de Assis Coimbra (mayor of Cabo Verde, Minas Gerais) Carlos Luz (President of Brazil (1955); grandson of Cesário Cecílio) Joaquim Delfino Ribeiro da Luz (Minister; paternal uncle of Carlos) Américo Gomes Ribeiro da Luz (Federal Deputy; paternal uncle of Carlos) Leovigildo Leal da Paixão (Minas Gerais Regional Electoral Justice; son-in-law of Américo) Alberto Gomes Ribeiro da Luz (Minas Gerais Court Justice: father of Carlos) The Collor-Mello family Lindolfo Collor (Minister of Labor) Arnon Farias de Mello (Governor of Alagoas; son-in-law of Lindolfo Collor) Fernando Collor de Mello (President of Brazil, 1990–92; son of Arnon Farias de Mello) Euclides Vieira Malta (Governor of Alagoas; uncle-in-law of Fernando; see The Malta-Ribeiro family for details) The Costa family João José Teodoro da Costa (State Deputy in Santa Catarina) Otacílio Vieira da Costa (State Deputy in Santa Catarina; son of João José) Belisário Ramos da Costa (Judge in Santa Catarina; son of Otacílio) The Figueirado family Euclides Figueiredo (Federal Deputy for Rio de Janeiro) João Figueiredo (President of Brazil, 1979–85; son of Euclides) The Fonseca family Deodoro da Fonseca (President of Brazil, 1889–91) Hermes da Fonseca (President of Brazil, 1910–14; nephew of Deodoro da Fonseca) Nair de Tefé (influential First Lady and political cartoonist; wife of Hermes da Fonseca) The Geisel-Markus family Augusto Frederico Markus (Mayor of Estrela, Rio Grande do Sul) Ernesto Geisel (President of Brazil, 1974–79; son-in-law of Augusto) The Genro family Adelmo Genro (Vice-Mayor of Santa Maria) Tarso Genro (Governor of Rio Grande do Sul; son of Adelmo) Luciana Genro (Presidential candidate and Deputy for Rio Grande do Sul; daughter of Tarso) The Goulart-Brizola family (brothers-in-law) João Goulart (President of Brazil, 1961–64) João Goulart Filho (State Deputy for Rio Grande do Sul) Leonel Brizola (Governor of Rio Grande do Sul and Rio de Janeiro State; brother-in-law of João) José Vicente Goulart Brizola (Deputy for Rio Grande do Sul; son of Leonel and Neusa Goulart) Carlos Daudt Brizola (Minister of Labour and Deputy for Rio Grande do Sul; grandson of Leonel) Juliana Brizola (Deputy for Rio Grande do Sul; granddaughter of Leonel) Leonel Brizola Neto (Deputy for Rio de Janeiro; grandson of Leonel and twin brother of Juliana) The Kleinubing family Waldemar Kleinübing, mayor of Videira, Santa Catarina 1966–70. Vilson Pedro Kleinübing, Federal Deputy 1983–87, Mayor of Blumenau 1989–90, Governor of Santa Catarina 1991–94, Federal Senator 1995–98. Son of Waldemar. João Paulo Kleinübing, State Deputy for Santa Catarina 2003–04, Mayor of Blumenau 2005–13, Secretary of Health of Santa Catarina 2015–16, Federal Deputy for Santa Catarina 2015–19. Son of Vilson. The Kubitschek family João Nepumuceno Kubitschek (Lieutenant Governor [vice-governor] of Minas Gerais) Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira (President of Brazil, 1956–61) Márcia Kubitschek (Lieutenant Governor of the Brazilian Federal District; daughter of Juscelino) Maria Estela Kubitschek (candidate for Deputy Governor of Rio de Janeiro in 2006; daughter of Juscelino) Jaime Gomes de Sousa Lemos (Federal Deputy; father-in-law of Juscelino) Gabriel Passos (Federal Deputy; father-in-law of Juscelino) Negrão de Lima (Governor of Guanabara; uncle of Juscelino's wife Sarah) Octacílio Negrão de Lima (Cabinet member and Mayor of Belo Horizonte; uncle of Juscelino's wife Sarah) João Antônio de Lemos (Deputy of the Empire; distant great-niece of Sarah) The Lula da Silva family Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (President of Brazil, 2003–10) Marcos Claudio Lula da Silva (São Bernardo do Campo city councilor; step-son of Lula) The Magalhães family Francisco Peixoto de Magalhães (Deputy for Bahia) Ângelo Magalhães (Deputy for Bahia; son of Francisco) Paulo Magalhães (Deputy for Bahia; son of Ângelo) Antônio Carlos Magalhães (Governor of Bahia; son of Francisco) Antônio Carlos Magalhães Júnior (Senator for Bahia) Antônio Carlos Magalhães Neto (Mayor of Salvador) Luís Eduardo Magalhães (Deputy for Bahia; son of Francisco) The Malta-Ribeiro family Manuel Gomes Ribeiro (Governor of Alagoas) Euclides Vieira Malta (Governor of Alagoas; son-in-law of Manuel) The Matarazzo-Suplicy family Francesco Matarazzo (Count) Ciccillo Matarazzo (Mayor of Ubatuba; nephew of Francesco) Andrea Matarazzo (Alderman for São Paulo; grandson of Ciccillo) Eduardo Matarazzo Suplicy (Senator for São Paulo state; great-grandson of Francesco) Marta Suplicy (Mayor of São Paulo and Senator for São Paulo state; former wife of Eduardo) Francisco Matarazzo (Deputy for São Paulo State) The Neves-Cunha family Tancredo Neves (President-elect of Brazil) Tristão Ferreira da Cunha (Congressional Deputy from Minas Gerais) Aécio Cunha (Congressional Deputy from Minas Gerais) Aécio Neves da Cunha (Governor of Minas Gerais) The Quadros family Jânio Quadros (President of Brazil 1961) Dirce Tutu Quadros (Federal Deputy for São Paulo; son of Jânio) The Ramos family Vidal José de Oliveira Ramos Júnior (Senator and Governor of Santa Catarina) Nereu Ramos (President of Brazil; son of Vidal) Hugo de Oliveira Ramos (State Deputy; son of Vidal) Celso Ramos (Governor of Santa Catarina; son of Vidal) Mauro de Oliveira Ramos (Mayor of Florianópolis; son of Vidal) Vidal Ramos Junior (Mayor of Lages; son of Vidal) Belisário Ramos (Provincial Deputy; brother of Vidal) Aristiliano Ramos (governor; Belisário's son) Aristides Batista Ramos (Mayor of Florianópolis; Belisário's son) Otacílio Vieira da Costa (State Deputy in Santa Catarina; Belisário's son-in-law; see the Costa family for details) Cândido Ramos (governor; Vidal's nephew) Saulo Ramos (senator; Vidal's nephew) The Sarney family Sarney de Araújo Costa (justice of the Court of Justice of Maranhão) José Sarney (President of Brazil, 1985–90; son of Sarney) Roseana Sarney (former Governor and Senator from Maranhão; daughter of José) Sarney Filho (State and Federal Deputy from Maranhão; son of José) Roberto Macieira (Mayor of São Luís, Maranhão; brother-in-law of Jose) The Vargas-Peixoto family Getúlio Vargas (President of Brazil, 1930–45 and 1951–54) Lutero Vargas (Congressional Deputy from Rio de Janeiro) Alzira Vargas do Amaral Peixoto (lawyer, Presidential advisor and author) Ernani do Amaral Peixoto (Governor of Rio de Janeiro State) Ivete Vargas Tatsch (Congressional Deputy from São Paulo State) Bulgaria The Bogoridi family Sophronius of Vratsa (one of the leading figures of the Bulgarian National Revival) Stefan Bogoridi (Governor of the island of Samos, Caimacam of Moldavia) Nicola Bogoridi (Caimacam of Moldavia) Alexander Bogoridi (Governor-General of Eastern Rumelia) The Bokov family Georgi Bokov (former Communist leader, former media boss) Filip Bokov (former Socialist leader, Member of Parliament, Presidential advisor) Georgi Bokov (1972–2001), son of Filip Bokov, auto thief and criminal, http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=131190 Biliana Bokova (d. 2001), daughter of Filip Bokov Irina Bokova (former Foreign Minister, ran for vice-president, Member of Parliament, Ambassador to France) The Mihaylovski family Ilarion Makariopolski (one of the leaders of the struggle for an autonomous Bulgarian church) Nikola Mihaylovski (one of the leaders of the struggle for an autonomous Bulgarian church) Stoyan Mihaylovski (Member of Parliament) Hristo Mihaylovski (former Deputy Minister) The Shishmanov family Alexander Shishmanov (Mayor of Svishtov) Asen Shishmanov (Member of Parliament) Ivan Shishmanov (former Minister, Ambassador to Ukraine) Dimitar Shishmanov (former Foreign Minister) The Slaveykov family Petko Slaveykov (Chairman of the Parliament) Ivan Slaveykov (Member of Parliament, Minister, Mayor of Sofia) Hristo Slaveykov (Chairman of the Parliament) The Staliyski family Aleksandar Tsankov Staliyski (former Justice minister) Aleksandar Aleksandrov Staliyski (former Defence minister) The Stanishev family (father-son) Dimitar Stanishev (member of the Politburo of the Bulgarian Communist Party) Sergei Stanishev (Prime Minister of Bulgaria, 2005–09) The Zhivkov family Todor Zhivkov (General Secretary of the Bulgarian Communist Party, 1954–89) Lyudmila Zhivkova (former Culture minister; daughter of Todor Zhivkov) Jenny Zhivkova (Member of Parliament; granddaughter of Todor Zhivkov) Burkina Faso The Compaoré family Blaise Compaoré (President of Burkina Faso, 1987–present) François Compaoré (economic advisor; brother of Blaise Compaoré) Simon Compaoré (Mayor of Ouagadougou) Jean-Marie Compaoré (Archbishop of Burkina Faso) Jean-Baptiste Compaoré (Finance minister) Franck Compaoré Chantal Compaoré (First Lady; wife of Blaise Compaoré) Félix Houphouët-Boigny (former President of Côte d'Ivoire; father of Chantal Compaoré) The Yaméogo family (father-son) Maurice Yaméogo (President of Burkina Faso, 1959–66) Hermann Yaméogo (Presidential candidate) The Zerbo-Yonli family Saye Zerbo (President of Burkina Faso, 1980–82) Paramanga Ernest Yonli (Prime Minister of Burkina Faso, 2000–07; son-in-law) Burma The Aung San family (parents-daughter) Aung San (pre-independence prime minister) Khin Kyi (ambassador) Aung San Suu Kyi (democracy activist, Minister of Foreign Affairs, State of Counsellor) The Win family (father-daughter) Ne Win, military dictator Sandar Win, politician Burundi The Bagaza-Buyoya family Jean-Baptiste Bagaza (President, 1976–87) Pierre Buyoya (President, 1987–93 and 1996–2003) Cambodia The Hun family Hun Sen, Prime Minister of Cambodia Hun Manet, Lieutenant-general in the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces Hun Manith, Brigadier-general in the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces Hun Many, Member of Parliament for Kampong Speu Province Canada Central African Republic The Boganda family–Dacko family–Domitien family and Bokassa family (distant relatives) Barthélemy Boganda, "founding father" David Dacko, first leader of independent CAR Elisabeth Domitien, prime minister and cousin of Bokassa Jean-Bédel Bokassa, Cold War-era despot and erstwhile "emperor" Jean-Serge Bokassa, Minister of Youth, Sports, Arts, and Culture (2011–13), Minister of the Interior (2016– ) The Kolingba family André Kolingba (President of the Central African Republic, 1981–93) Désiré Kolingba (presidential candidate) Mireille Kolingba (wife of André Kolingba; Member of Parliament) Chile The Alessandri family Jose Pedro Alessandri Palma Senator Gustavo Alessandri Valdés four times Deputy, Mayor of Santiago and La Florida, council man. Gustavo Alessandri Balmaceda Deputy 1990–94 Gustavo Alessandri Bascuñan council man 2012–16, Mayor of Zapallar 2016– Felipe Alessandri Vergara council man 2004–08, 2012–16, Mayor of Santiago 2016– Arturo Alessandri Palma, President of Chile, 1920–24, 1925, 1932–38 Jorge Alessandri, President of Chile, 1958–64 Fernando Alessandri, President of the Senate of Chile, 1950–58 Arturo Alessandri Besa Deputy, Senator The Allende family Salvador Allende Gossens, President of Chile 1970–73 Isabel Allende Bussi, Deputy 1993–2007, Senator 2010– Laura Allende Gossens, Deputy 1965–73 The Aylwin family Patricio Aylwin – President of Chile, 1990–94 Mariana Aylwin – Minister of Education, 2000–03 The Errázuriz family Federico Errázuriz Zañartu, President of Chile Federico Errázuriz Echaurren, President of Chile Francisco Javier Errázuriz Talavera, Senator 1994–2002 Hernán Felipe Errázuriz Correa, Foreign Minister of Chile The Frei family Eduardo Frei Montalva – President of Chile, 1964–70 Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle – President of Chile, 1994–2000 (son of Eduardo Frei Montalva) Carmen Frei Ruiz-Tagle – Senator, 1990–2006 Arturo Frei Bolivar – Deputy, 1969–73, Senator, 1989–98 The Girardi family Treviso Girardi – Mayor of Quinta Normal Guido Girardi Brière – Deputy, 2006–2010 Guido Girardi – Deputy 1994–2006, Senator 2006–present Cristina Girardi – Mayor of Cerro Navia, 1996–2008, Deputy 2010–present Dino Girardi – Councillor of Lo Prado The Lagos family Ricardo Lagos Escobar, President of Chile, 2000–06 Ricardo Lagos Weber, Minister Secretary General of Government of Chile, 2006–07 The Letelier family Orlando Letelier del Solar, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Interior and Defence, 1973 Juan Pablo Letelier, Deputy 1990–2006, Senator 2006–07 The Montt family Manuel Montt Torres, President of Chile Jorge Montt Alvarez, President of Chile Pedro Montt Montt, President of Chile The Piñera family Sebastián Piñera, President of Chile José Piñera, minister of Labor and Social Security, minister of Mining Pablo Piñera, Chilean ambassador to Argentina Andrés Chadwick, Minister of Interior and Public Security The Pinochet family Augusto Pinochet, President of Chile Lucía Pinochet, congresswoman of Vitacura The Pinto family Francisco Antonio Pinto Díaz, President of Chile Aníbal Pinto Garmendia, President of Chile Republic of China (Taiwan) The Chang family (Yunlin County Magistrate, 1999–2005) (legislator, 2008–2016) (daughter) Chang Li-shan (legislator, 2005–2008, 2016–2018; Yunlin County Magistrate, 2018–) (sister) The Chiang family (father-sons-grandson-great-grandson) Chiang Kai-shek (President of the Republic of China, 1928–32; 1943–49; 1950–75; Premier of the Republic of China, 1930–31; 1935–38; 1939–45; 1947; Leader of the Kuomintang, 1926–75) Chiang Ching-kuo (Premier of the Republic of China, 1972–78; President of the Republic of China, 1978–88; Chairman of the Kuomintang, 1975–88) Chiang Hsiao-wu (ROC Representative to Japan, 1990–91) Chiang Hsiao-yung (former member of the Kuomintang Central Committee) John Chiang (foreign minister, 1996–97; vice premier of the ROC, 1997; secretary-general; legislator, 2002–2012) Chiang Wan-an (legislator, 2016–) Chiang Wei-kuo (Secretary-General of Kuomintang) The Chen family (Chen Hsin-an) (father-son) Kaohsiung County magistrate (1954–57) Chen Chien-jen (son): Minister of the Department of Health (2003–05), Minister of the National Science Council (2006–08), Vice President of the Republic of China (2016–20)The Chen family (Chen Qimei)Chen Qimei Chen Guofu (nephew) Chen Lifu (nephew)The Chen family (Chen Shui-bian)Chen Shui-bian: Member of Taipei City Council (1981–85); Legislative Yuan member (1990–94); Mayor of Taipei (1994–98); President of the Republic of China (2000–08) Wu Shu-chen (wife): Legislative Yuan member (1987–90) Chen Chih-chung (son): Kaohsiung city councilor (2010–11, 2018–)The Chiu family (from Pingtung County) Chiou Lien-hui: Pingtung County Councilor (1968–71), Taiwan Provincial Councilor (1973–81), Pingtung County Magistrate (1981–85), member of the Legislative Yuan (1987–1996) Chiu Feng-kuang (nephew): Director of the National Immigration Agency (2018–2021) Chiu Ching-te Pingtung County Assemblyman and Mayor of Pingtung City (son): Pingtung County Councilor (1968–77) Taiwan Provincial Councilor (1989–98) Chiu Yi-ying (granddaughter): Member of the National Assembly (1996–2000), Legislative Yuan (2002–05; 2008–) Lee Yung-te (husband): Minister of the Hakka Affairs Council (2005–08; 2016–) (grandson): Pingtung County Councilor (2006–14)The Hau familyHau Pei-tsun: Commander-in-Chief of the Republic of China Army (1978–81); Chief of the General Staff of the Republic of China Armed Forces (1981–89); Ministry of National Defense (1989–90); Premier (1990–93) Hau Lung-pin (son): Legislative Yuan member (1996–2001); Minister of the Environmental Protection Administration of the Executive Yuan (2001–03); Mayor of Taipei (2006–14); Vice Chairman of Kuomintang (2014–)The Hsu family (mother–daughters of Chiayi) Hsu Shih-hsien: Taiwan Provincial councilor (1957–68); Legislative Yuan member (1973–81); Mayor of Chiayi City (1968–72, 1982–83) (daughter): National Assembly member (1987–93); Mayor of Chiayi City (1989–97) Chang Po-ya (daughter): Mayor of Chiayi City (1983–89, 1997–2000); Minister of the Department of Health (1990–97); Legislative Yuan member (1990); Minister of the Interior (2000–02); Chairwoman, Taiwan Provincial Government (2000–02); President of the Control Yuan (2014–)The Hsu family (brothers of Taoyuan) Hsu Hsin-liang, Taoyuan County Magistrate (1977–79) Hsu Chung Pi-hsia (wife), member of the Legislative Yuan (1999–2002) Hsu Kuo-tai, member of the Legislative Yuan (1990–1996)The Kao familyKao Tsu-min, member of the Legislative Yuan (1990–1993) Yang Fu-mei (wife), member of the Legislative Yuan (2002–2005)The Ku family (brothers) : military leadership Ku Cheng-kang: Minister of the Interior (1950) Ku Cheng-ting: Legislative Yuan member (elected 1948) Pi Yi-shu (wife): Legislative Yuan member (elected 1948)The Lee familyLee Huan Premier of the Republic of China (1989–90) Lee Ching-hua (son): Member of the Legislative Yuan (1993–2016) Diane Lee (daughter): Member of the Legislative Yuan (1999–2009)The Lien familyLien Chen-tung: Acting Taipei County magistrate (1946–47); National Assembly member (1947–86); Taiwan Provincial Government secretary general (1957); Minister of the Interior (1960–66) Lien Chan (son): Minister of Transportation and Communications (1981–87); Minister of Foreign Affairs (1988–90); Vice Premier (1987–88); Chairman, Taiwan Provincial Government (1990–93); Premier (1993–97); Vice President (1996–2000); Chairman, Kuomintang (2000–05) Sean Lien (grandson): Candidate for Mayor of TaipeiNi–Kuo Liu family (blended) Ni Wen-ya, Member of the National Assembly (1946–1948), Legislative Yuan (1948–1991) Vice President of the Legislative Yuan (1961–1972), President of the Legislative Yuan (1972–1988) Shirley Kuo (wife), Minister of Finance (1988–1990) and the Council for Economic Planning and Development (1990–1993) Christina Liu (biological daughter of Kuo), member of the Legislative Yuan (2002–2007), minister of the Council for Economic Planning and Development (2010–2012) and Finance (2012)The Soong family (father-son-3 daughters) Charlie Soong: anti-Qing dynasty activist; financier of Sun Yat-sen T. V. Soong: Governor of the Bank of China; Minister of Finance; Minister of Foreign Affairs; legislator; Premier Soong Ai-ling (a.k.a. Madame H. H. Kung): secretary to President Sun Yat-sen Soong Ching-ling (a.k.a. Madame Sun Yat-sen): Vice President of the People's Republic of China; Honorary President of the People's Republic of China Soong Mei-ling (a.k.a. Madame Chiang Kai-shek): legislator, Cabinet Minister (Air Force)The Su family (Su Jia-chyuan) Su Jia-chyuan: Pingtung County magistrate (1997-2004); Minister of the Interior (2004–06); Minister of the Council of Agriculture (2006–08); President of the Legislative Yuan (2016-20) Su Chen-ching (nephew): Legislative Yuan member (2008–)The Su family (Su Tong-chi) Su Tong-chi: Yunlin County councilor Su Hong Yueh-chiao (wife): Yunlin County councilor; Taiwan Provincial councillor Su Chih-yang (daughter): Taiwan Provincial councilor; National Assembly member Su Chih-fen (daughter): National Assembly member (1996–2000); Legislative Yuan member (2002–2005, 2016–), Yunlin County Magistrate (2005–14)The Su family (Su Tseng-chang) Su Tseng-chang: Pingtung County magistrate (1989–93); Taipei County magistrate (1997-2004); Premier (2006–07), (2019-) Su Chiao-hui (daughter): Legislative Yuan member (2016–)The Tan–Chen family (Chen Cheng)Tan Zhonglin, Qing dynasty minister Tan Yankai (son) Premier of the Republic of China (1928–30) (granddaughter), Second Lady of the Republic of China (1954–65, while married to Chen Cheng) Chen Cheng: Chief of the General Staff of the Republic of China Armed Forces (1946–48); Chairman of Taiwan Provincial Government (1949);Premier (1950–54；1958–63); Vice President of the Republic of China (1954–65) Chen Li-an (son): Minister of Economic Affairs (1988–90); Ministry of National Defense (1990–93)；President of Control Yuan (1993–1995)The Wu familyWu Hung-sen (elder brother): Taiwan Provincial Senate member (1946–51) Wu Hung-lin (younger brother): Taoyuan County councilor (1953–60, speaker: 1953–55); Taoyuan County Magistrate (1960–64) Wu Po-hsiung (son): Taoyuan County Magistrate (1973–76); Mayor of Taipei (1988–90); Minister of the Interior (1984–88, 1991–94); Secretary General, Office of the President (1994–96); Secretary General, Kuomintang (1996–97); Chairman, Kuomintang (2007–09) John Wu (grandson): Legislative Yuan member (2005–09, 2016–); Taoyuan County Magistrate (2009–14); Commissioner, Chinese Professional Baseball League (2015–) Wu Chih-kang (grandson): Taipei City Council member (2006–)The Yu family (Kaohsiung County Black Faction) Yu Teng-fa: Mayor, Ch'iao-t'ou Township; National Assembly member (1947–73); Kaohsiung County magistrate (1960–63) Yu Chen Yueh-ying (daughter-in-law): Taiwan Provincial councilor (1972–81); Legislative Yuan member (1984–85); Kaohsiung County magistrate (1985–93) Yu Lin-ya (granddaughter): Taiwan Provincial councilor (1982–93); Legislative Yuan member (1993–99) Yu Cheng-hsien (grandson): Legislative Yuan member (1987–93); Kaohsiung County magistrate (1993–2001); Minister of the Interior (2002–04) Cheng Kuei-lien (granddaughter-in-law): National Assembly member (1996–2000, 05); Legislative Yuan member (2002–05) Yu Jane-daw (grandson): Taiwan provincial councilor (1994–99); Legislative Yuan member (1999–2012) Huang Yu Hsiu-luan (daughter): Legislative Yuan member (1981–84) Huang Yu-jen (son-in-law): Kaohsiung County magistrate (1977–81)MongolianGungsangnorbu (father), prince of the Right Harqin Banner, director of the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission for the Beiyang Government Wu Jingbin (daughter) Legislative Yuan member (1948–1963), secretary-general of the Xinjiang Uiygur Autonomous Region Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference People's Republic of ChinaThe Bo familyBo Yibo: Minister of Finance of China 1949–53, Vice Premier of China 1956–75, Vice Chairman of the Central Advisory Commission 1982–92 Bo Xilai (son): Governor of Liaoning 2003–04, Minister of Commerce of the PRC 2004–07, Chongqing Party Committee Secretary 2007–12The Deng familyDeng Xiaoping: Paramount leader of China and Communist Party 1978–89 Zhuo Lin (wife): Consultant to the General Office of the Central Military Committee Deng Pufang (son): Vice Chairperson of the CPPCC and Chairman of the China Disabled Persons Federation Deng Nan (daughter): Vice Minister of the State Science and Technology Commission 1998–2004 Deng Rong (daughter): Deputy President of the China Association for International Friendly Contact 1990–present Deng Zhuodi (grandson): Sub-prefect of Pingguo County, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous RegionThe Hu familyHu Jintao: Chinese paramount leader and General Secretary of the Communist Party of China 2002–12 Hu Haifeng (son): Party Committee Secretary of LishuiThe Li familyLi Xiannian: President of the People's Republic of China 1983–88, Chairperson of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference 1988–92 Lin Jiamei (wife): President of the Chinese Association for Female Doctors 2015–present Li Xiaolin (daughter): Chairperson of the Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries 2011–present Liu Yazhou (son-in-law): General of the People's Liberation Army Air ForceThe Liu familyLiu Shaoqi: Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress 1954–59; President of the People's Republic of China 1959–68 Wang Guangmei (wife): Member of the National Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Liu Yuan (son): Vice mayor of Zhengzhou and Political commissar of the General Logistics Department and Political commissar of the PLA Academy of Military Science and member of the 17th and the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China Liu Ting (daughter): Chairperson and President of the Asia Link Group, consultants in corporate financeThe Mao familyMao Zedong: Paramount leader of China and Chairman of the Communist Party of China 1949–76 Jiang Qing (Madame Mao): deputy leader of the Central Cultural Revolution Group and member of Politburo of the Communist Party of China Mao Anqing (son): researcher at the Academy of Military Sciences and the Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China Shao Hua (daughter-in-law): member of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Li Min (daughter): member of the 10th National Congress of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Li Na (daughter of Mao Zedong): member of the 10th National Congress of the Communist Party of China in 1973, and the Party Chief of CPC Pinggu County Committee and Deputy Secretary of CPC Beijing Committee 1974–75 Mao Xinyu (grandson): member of the Chinese National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference Mao Yuanxin (nephew): member of Central Committee, party secretary of Liaoning and political commissar of Shenyang Military RegionThe Xi familyXi Zhongxun: First Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress 1988–93Xi Jinping (son): General Secretary of the Communist Party of China 2012–present, President of the People's Republic of China) 2013–presentThe Zeng familyZeng Shan: Interior Minister of China, Minister of Commerce of China Zeng Qinghong (son): Politburo Standing Committee member 2002–07, Vice President of China 2003–08The Zhou familyZhou Enlai: Premier of the People's Republic of China 1949–76 and Vice Chairman of the Communist Party of China and Foreign Minister of the PRC Deng Yingchao (wife): Chairwoman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference and Second Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection ColombiaThe Araújo familyConsuelo Araújo: Culture minister Hernando Molina Araújo: Governor of Cesar Department, son of Consuelo Araujo Álvaro Araújo Castro; senator, nephew of Consuelo Araujo María Consuelo Araújo: Foreign minister, sister of Alvaro AraujoThe Barco family (father-daughter) Virgilio Barco Vargas: President Carolina Barco: Foreign MinisterThe Lleras-Restrepo familyLorenzo María Lleras: Foreign minister Sergio Camargo: President of Colombia Alberto Lleras Camargo: President of Colombia, grandson of Lorenzo María Lleras Carlos Lleras Restrepo: President of Colombia, great grandson of Lorenzo María Lleras Carlos Lleras de la Fuente: Ambassador to the US, son of Carlos Lleras Restrepo Germán Vargas Lleras: President of the Senate, grandson of Carlos Lleras RestrepoThe López familyAmbrosio López: popular leader during the middle of s. XIX Pedro A. López: entrepreneur and Minister, son of Ambrosio López Alfonso López Pumarejo: son of Pedro, President of Colombia (1934–38 and 1942–45). Alfonso López Michelsen: son of Alfonso, President of Colombia (1974–78) Alfonso López Caballero: son of López Michelsen, Ambassador, Minister of the Interior. María Mercedes Cuéllar López: cousin of López Caballero, Minister of Economic Development. Clara López Obregón: cousin of María Mercedes, President of the Alternative Democratic Pole Party.The Pastrana family (father-son) Misael Pastrana Borrero: President of Colombia Andrés Pastrana Arango, President of ColombiaThe Santos familyMaría Antonia Santos Plata: Martyr of the Colombian Independence. Eduardo Santos Montejo: President of Colombia (1938–42), grandnephew of Antonia. Francisco Santos Calderón: Vice President of Colombia (2002–10), grandnephew of Eduardo. Juan Manuel Santos Calderón: President of Colombia (2010–present), Minister of Defense (2006–10), former Minister of Foreign Trade (1991–94), and of Finance (2000–02), grandnephew of Eduardo, first cousin on both sides to Francisco. ComorosThe Ahmed family (grandfather-grandson) Hashimu bin Ahmed Said Hassane Said HachimThe Said familySaid Mohamed Jaffar Said Atthoumani Said Mohamed Cheikh Athoumane Said Ahmed Saidi Ali bin Saidi Omar Said Ibrahim Ben Ali Said Ali KemalThe Soilih family (half-brothers) Ali Soilih, President of Comoros Said Mohamed Djohar, President of Comoros Democratic Republic of the CongoKabila family (father-children) Laurent-Désiré Kabila (President, 1997–2001) Joseph Kabila (President, 2001–) Jaynet Kabila (Member of the National Assembly, 2011–)Kanza family (father-children) Daniel Kanza (Bourgmestre of Léopoldville, 1960–62, and Vice-President of the ABAKO) Sophie Lihau-Kanza (Secretary of State for Social Affairs, 1966–67, Minister of Social Affairs, 1967–68, Minister of State for Social Affairs, 1969–70) Thomas Kanza (Ambassador of the Republic of the Congo to the United Kingdom, 1962–63, Minister of International Cooperation, 1997, Minister of Labour, 1998, Ambassador of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to Scandinavian Countries, 1999–2004) Philippe Kanza (editor of the newspaper Congo)Mobutu family (father-son) Mobutu Sese Seko (President, 1965–97) Nzanga Mobutu (Deputy Prime Minister, 2008–11, leader of the Union of Mobutist Democrats)Tshombe-Nguza family (uncle-nephew) Moise Tshombe (Prime Minister, 1964–65) Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond (Prime Minister, 1980–81, 1991–92) Cook IslandsThe Henry familyAlbert Henry, Chief Minister Sir Geoffrey Henry, Chief Minister Costa RicaThe Arias-Sánchez brothersÓscar Arias Sánchez (President of Costa Rica, 1986–90, 2006–10) Rodrigo Arias Sánchez (Presidential Chief of Staff)The Calderón familyRafael Ángel Calderón Muñoz (Vice President of Costa Rica) Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (son of Rafael Ángel Calderón Muñoz; President of Costa Rica, 1940–44) Rafael Ángel Calderón Fournier (son of Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia; President of Costa Rica, 1990–94) Francisco Calderón Guardia (son of Rafael Ángel Calderón Muñoz; Vice President of Costa Rica)The Figueres family (father-son)José Figueres Ferrer (President of Costa Rica, 1953–58 and 1970–74) José María Figueres Olsen (President of Costa Rica, 1994–98)The Jiménez family (father-son) Jesús Jiménez Zamora (President of Costa Rica, 1863–66 and 1868–70) Ricardo Jiménez Oreamuno (President of Costa Rica, 1910–14, 1924–28 and 1932–36)The Monge family (uncle-nephew) Luis Alberto Monge (President of Costa Rica, 1982–86) Rolando Araya Monge (Transportation minister) CroatiaThe Tuđman familyFranjo Tuđman (President of Croatia, 1991–99) Miroslav Tuđman (son of Franjo Tuđman; leader of Croatian True Revival) CubaThe Castro familyFidel Castro (Prime Minister of Cuba, 1959–2008; President of Cuba, 1976–2008; First Secretary, 1965–2011) Raúl Castro (brother of Fidel Castro; second secretary, Communist Party of Cuba, 1965–2011; First Secretary, Communist Party of Cuba, 2011–present) Vilma Espín Guillois wife of Raúl Castro and member of the Council of State of Cuba. Mariela Castro daughter of Raúl Castro and Vilma Espín. Director of the Cuban National Center for Sex Education. Alejandro Castro Espín son of Raúl Castro and Vilma Espín. Colonel of the Ministry of Interior of Cuba. CyprusClerides family (father-daughter) Glafcos Clerides (President of Cyprus, 1974, 1993–2003) Katherine Clerides (Member of the Parliament of Cyprus, 2006–)Kyprianou family (father-son) Spyros Kyprianou (President of Cyprus, 1977–88) Markos Kyprianou (Foreign Minister, 2008–11)Papadopoulos family (father-son) Tassos Papadopoulos (President of Cyprus, 2003–08) Nicolas Papadopoulos (Member of the Parliament of Cyprus, 2006–)Vasiliou family (husband-wife) George Vasiliou (President of Cyprus, 1988–93) Androulla Vassiliou (European commissioner, 2008–) Czechoslovakia/CzechiaThe Benda familyVáclav Benda (Member of the Federal Assembly, 1989–92; Senator, 1996–99) Marek Benda (son of Václav Benda; Member of the Czech National Council, 1990–92; Member of the Chamber of Deputies, 1993–2002, 2004–)The Dienstbier familyJiří Dienstbier (Minister of Foreign Affairs 1989–92; Senator 2008–11) Jiří Dienstbier Jr. (son of Jiří Dienstbier, Minister for Human Rights and Equal Opportunities, 2014–16, Member of the Chamber of Deputies, 2011; Senator, 2011–)The Klaus familyVáclav Klaus (President of the Czech Republic, 2003–13) Václav Klaus Jr. (son of Václav Klaus; Member of the Chamber of Deputies, 2017–)The Masaryk familyTomáš Masaryk (President of Czechoslovakia, 1918–35) Jan Masaryk (son of Tomáš Masaryk; Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1940–48) DenmarkThe Auken familySvend Auken (Member of The Folketing (The Danish Parliament) 1971–2009, Minister of Labor 1977–82 and Minister of Environment 1993–2001) Gunvor Auken (Deputy Mayor of Frederiksberg 1998–2002) Margrete Auken (Member of The Folketing (The Danish Parliament) 1979–90 and again from 1994 to 2004, Member of the European Parliament from 2004–) Ida Auken (daughter of Margrethe Auken; Member of The Folketing (The Danish Parliament) 2007–)The Ellemann-Jensen familyJens Peter Jensen (Member of The Folketing 1964–73, 1975–81, 1984–87 and 1988–90 and Deputy County Mayor of Fyn 1970–79) Uffe Ellemann-Jensen (son of Jens Peter Jensen; Member of The Folketing 1977–2001, Foreign Minister 1982–93) Karen Ellemann (daughter of Uffe Ellemann-Jensen; City Council Member of Rudersdal 2005–07, Member of The Folketing 2007–, Minister of the Interior 2009–10, Minister for the Environment 2010–11) Jakob Ellemann-Jensen (son of Uffe Ellemann-Jensen; Member of The Folketing 2011–, Minister for Environment and Food 2018–19)The Helveg Petersen familyKristen Helveg Petersen (Minister of Education 1961–64, Member of The Folketing 1964–75 and Member of the European Parliament 1973–75) Lilly Helveg Petersen (wife of Kristen HP; Deputy Mayor of Copenhagen) Niels Helveg Petersen (son of Kristen and Lilly Helveg Petersen; Member of The Folketing 1966–74 and 1977–, Minister of Trade 1988–1990 and Foreign Minister 1993–2000) Kirsten Lee (wife of Niels Helveg Petersen; Member of The Folketing 1987–90, and Regional Council Member 2005–) Morten Helveg Petersen (son of Niels Helveg Petersen; Member of The Folketing 1998–2009) Rasmus Helveg Petersen (son of Niels Helveg Petersen; Member of The Folketing 2011–, Minister for Development Cooperation 2013–)The Hækkerup familyHans Kristen Hækkerup (Member of The Folketing (The Danish Parliament), 1920–29, and Mayor of Ringsted, 1927–29) Hans Erling Hækkerup (son of Hans Kristen Hækkerup; Minister of Justice and later Minister of the Interior, 1953–68, Member of the Folketinget 1945–47 and 1948–71) Per Hækkerup (son of Hans Kristen Hækkerup; Foreign Minister, Minister of Trade and Industry 1962–79) Karen Margrete Hækkerup (wife of Per Hækkerup, Member of The Folketing 1964–66 and 1970–81) Hans Hækkerup (son of Per Hækkerup, Minister of Defence 1993–2000, Member of The Folketing) Lise Ingeborg Hækkerup (ex-wife of Hans Hækkerup, Member of The Folketing 1990–94, 1998–2001 and a bit of 2004) Klaus Hækkerup (son of Per Hækkerup, Mayor of Frederiksværk 1978–88, Member of The Folketing 1988–) Nick Hækkerup (son of Klaus Hækkerup, Mayor of Hillerød 2000–07, Member of the Folketing 2007–) Ole Hækkerup (son of Klaus Hækkerup, Member of The Folketing 1998–2001) Karen Angelo Hækkerup (wife of Ole Hækkerup, Member of The Folketing 2005–) DjiboutiThe Aptidon-Guelleh familyHassan Gouled Aptidon (President of Djibouti, 1977–99) Ismail Omar Guelleh (nephew of Hassan Gouled Aptidon; President of Djibouti, 1999– ) DominicaThe Boyd familyPhilip Ivor Boyd (first Mayor of Roseau) Cynthia Boyd Butler (Mayor of Roseau and daughter of Philip Ivor Boyd) Jacob Allison Stewart- Boyd (Member of Legislative Council and Minister of Works under the F. Baron administration) Alix Boyd Knight (Longest running and current Speaker of the House) Dr.Phillip Irving Boyd Public Health figure and first Head of the Cari-com Health Desk Stanley Boyd Activist and conservationist (1948–2003), Writer, Inter isle Tennis Champ, editor of The Dominica Chronicle Newspaper (after Stewart) The Douglas familyR. B. D. Douglas (Member of Parliament for Portsmouth) Adenauer "Washway" Douglas (son of R. B. D. Douglas; Mayor of Portsmouth) Michael Douglas (son of R. B. D. Douglas; Member of Parliament for Portsmouth) Ian Douglas (son of Michael Douglas; Member of Parliament for Portsmouth)Rosie Douglas (son of R. B. D. Douglas; Prime Minister of Dominica, 2000) Dominican Republic The Báez familyPablo Altagracia Báez (Mayor of Azua) Buenaventura Báez (President of the Dominican Republic, 1849–53, 1856–58, 1865–66, 1868–74, 1876–78) Altagracia Amelia Báez José María Cabral y Báez Auristela Cabral Bermúdez Donald Reid Cabral (President of the Dominican Republic, 1963–65) Mario Fermín Cabral y Báez (President of the Senate of the Dominican Republic, 1914–16, 1930–38, 1955) Manuel del Cabral Peggy Cabral (vice-mayor of Distrito Nacional, 1998–2002; Head of Dominican Revolutionary Party, 2013–) Ramón Báez (President of the Dominican Republic, 1914)The Bosch family Juan Bosch (President of the Dominican Republic, 1963) Milagros Ortiz Bosch (niece of Juan Bosch; Vice President of the Dominican Republic, 2000–04)The Cabral family José María Cabral (President of the Dominican Republic, 1865, 1866–68) Marcos Antonio Cabral José María Cabral y Báez Auristela Cabral Bermúdez Donald Reid Cabral (President of the Dominican Republic, 1963–65) Mario Fermín Cabral y Báez (President of the Senate of the Dominican Republic, 1914–16, 1930–1938, 1955) Manuel del Cabral Peggy Cabral (vice-mayor of Distrito Nacional, 1998–2002; Head of Dominican Revolutionary Party, 2013–)The Fernández family Leonel Fernández Reyna (President of the Dominican Republic, 1996–2000 and 2004–12) Margarita Cedeño de Fernández (wife of Leonel Fernandez; Vice President of the Dominican Republic, 2012–present)The Guillermo family Pedro Guillermo y Guerrero (President of the Dominican Republic, 1865) Cesáreo Guillermo y Bastardo (President of the Dominican Republic, 1878 and 1879)The Jimenes family Manuel Jimenes (President of the Dominican Republic, 1848–49) Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra (son of Manuel Jimenes; President of the Dominican Republic, 1899–1902 and 1914–16)The Medina family Danilo Medina (President of the Chamber of Deputies, 1994–95; President of the Dominican Republic, 2012–present) Lucía Medina (Vice President of the Chamber of Deputies, 2006–16; President of the Chamber of Deputies, 2016–present)The Trujillo family Rafael Leónidas Trujillo (President of the Dominican Republic, 1930–38 and 1942–52) Rafael "Ramfis" Trujillo (son of Rafael Trujillo) Angelita Trujillo (daughter of Rafael Trujillo) Ramfis Domínguez-Trujillo (grandson of Rafael Trujillo, son of Angelita Trujillo) Héctor Trujillo (brother of Rafael Trujillo; President of the Dominican Republic, 1952–60) EcuadorThe Arosemena familyCarlos Julio Arosemena Tola (President of Ecuador, 1947–48) Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy (son; President of Ecuador, 1961–63) Otto Arosemena (nephew of Carlos Julio Arosemena Tola; President of Ecuador, 1966–68)The Bucaram familyAssad Bucaram (Mayor of Guayaquil and President of the National Congress of Ecuador) Abdalá Bucaram (nephew; President of Ecuador, 1996–97) Abdalá Bucaram, Jr. (son of Abdalá senior; Member of the National Assembly) Jaime Roldos Aguilera (nephew by marriage of Assad Bucaram; President of Ecuador, 1979–81)The Plaza family (father-son) Leonidas Plaza (President of Ecuador, 1901–1905 and 1912–1916) Galo Plaza (President of Ecuador, 1948–1952) EgyptThe Ghali familyBoutros Ghali Pasha (Prime Minister of Egypt, 1908–1910)Boutros Boutros-Ghali (grandson of Boutros Ghali Pasha) Minister for Foreign Affairs Secretary-General of the United Nations, 1992–1996Youssef Boutros Ghali (nephew of Boutros Boutros-Ghali) Minister for Economic Affairs (1999–2001) Minister for Foreign Trade (2001–2004) Minister for Finance and Insurance (2004– )The Mubarak family (father-son) Hosni Mubarak (President of Egypt, 1981–2011) Gamal Mubarak (former General Secretary of the Policy Committee of the National Democratic Party)The Abaza familyEl SalvadorThe Meléndez-Quiñónez familyCarlos Meléndez (President of El Salvador, 1915–18) Jorge Meléndez (brother of Carlos Meléndez; President of El Salvador, 1919–23) Alfonso Quiñónez Molina (brother-in-law of Jorge Meléndez; President of El Salvador, 1923–27) Equatorial GuineaThe Nguema family (close relatives) Francisco Macías Nguema (President, 1968–79) Ela Nguema (Presidential Aide) Eyegue Ntutumu (governor of Río Muni) Ángel Masié Ntutumu (minister of interior) Bonifacio Nguema Esono Nchama (Vice President) Oyono Ayingono (finance minister) Maye Ela (head of the navy) Feliciano Oyono (leader of Macías' PUNT party) Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (President, 1979–) Teodorín Nguema Obiang (forestry minister) Constancia Mangue de Obiang (first lady) Teodoro Nguema Obiang Mangue (infrastructure minister) Armengol Ondo Nguema (director of security) Antonio Mba Nguema (police chief) Agustín Ndong Ona (military inspector-general) Gabriel Mbaga Obiang Lima (mining minister) Demetrio Elo Ndong Nsefumu (first deputy prime minister) Alejandro Evuna Owono Asangono (chief of the presidency) Marcelino Oyono Ntutumu (transport minister) Lucas Nguema Evono Mbang (sports minister) Jaime Obama Owono Nchama (minister-delegate for infrastructure) Manuel Nguema Mba (minister-delegate for the interior) Pastor Micha Ondo Bile (foreign affairs minister)[happy] Rubén Maye Nsue Mangue (ambassador to the US) Clemente Engonga Nguema Onguéné (interior minister) Baltasár Engonga Edjo (economy minister) Cristóbal Menana Ela (energy minister) Teresa Efua Asangono (women's affairs minister) Francisco Edu Ngua Okomo (secretary of state for foreign affairs) Victoriana Nchama Nsue Okomo (secretary of state for foreign affairs) Francisco Mabale Nseng (secretary of state for energy) Melchor Esono Edjo (secretary of state for the treasury) EstoniaThe Grünthal familyTimotheus Grünthal Ivar Grünthal (son of Timotheus Grünthal)The Helme familyMart Helme Martin Helme (son of Mart Helme, nephew of Rein Helme) Helle-Moonika Helme (wife of Mart Helme) Rein Helme brother of Mart HelmeThe Jürgenson familyKalle Jürgenson Toivo Jürgenson (brother of Kalle Jürgenson)The Kallas familySiim Kallas Kaja Kallas (daughter of Siim Kallas)The Lauristin-Allik familyJohannes Lauristin (first husband of Olga Lauristin, father of Marju Lauristin) Olga Lauristin (wife of Johannes Lauristin and later Hendrik Allik, mother of Marju Lauristin and Jaak Allik) Marju Lauristin (daughter of Johannes and Olga Lauristin) Hendrik Allik (second husband of Olga Lauristin, father of Jaak Allik) Jaak Allik (son of Hendrik Allik and Olga Lauristin, half brother of Marju Lauristin)The Mathiesen familyMihkel Mathiesen Mait Mihkel Mathiesen (son of Mihkel Mathiesen)The Lenk familyHeimar Lenk Marika Tuus (sister of Heimar Lenk)The Lotman familyMihhail Lotman (son of Juri Lotman, brother of Aleksei Lotman) Aleksei Lotman (son of Juri Lotman, brother of Mihhail Lotman)The Must familyAadu Must Kadri Simson (daughter of Aadu Must)The Oviir familySiiri Oviir Mihkel Oviir (husband of Siiri Oviir)The Päts familyKonstantin Päts Viktor Päts (son of Konstantin Päts) Matti Päts (grandson of Konstantin Päts) Leo Päts (son of Konstantin Päts; :et:Leo Päts) Peeter Päts (brother of Konstantin Päts) Voldemar Päts (brother of Konstantin Päts)The Ratas familyRein Ratas Jüri Ratas (son of Rein Ratas)The Reiljan familyVillu Reiljan Janno Reiljan (brother of Villu Reiljan)The Sarapuu familyArvo Sarapuu Kersti Sarapuu (wife of Arvo Sarapuu)The Savisaar familyEdgar Savisaar Vilja Savisaar (former wife of Edgar Savisaar)The Tarand familyAndres Tarand Indrek Tarand (son of Andres Tarand) Kaarel Tarand (son of Andres Tarand)The Tõnisson familyJaan Tõnisson Ilmar Tõnisson (son of Jaan Tõnisson)The Tsahkna familyAnders Tsahkna (:et:Anders Tsahkna) Margus TsahknaThe Uluots familyJaan Uluots Jüri Uluots (son of Jaan Uluots) Ülo Uluots (nephew of Jüri Uluots)The Veidemann familyAndra Veidemann Rein Veidemann (husband of Andra Veidemann) Fiji FinlandThe Heinäluoma familyEero Heinäluoma (MEP) Eveliina Heinäluoma (daughter, MP)The Kalli familyTimo Kalli (MP) Eeva Kalli (daughter, MP)The Kuusinen familyOtto Ville Kuusinen (communist leader, fled to the Soviet Union and became a prominent politician there) Hertta Kuusinen (daughter, MP for the Finnish People's Democratic League 1945–1971)The Paasio family (father-son-granddaughter) Rafael Paasio (social democratic party leader) Pertti Paasio (son, social democratic party leader) Heli Paasio (daughter of Pertti Paasio, MP)The Tuomioja–Wuolijoki familyWalto Tuomioja (MP) Sakari Tuomioja (son Prime Minister) Erkki Tuomioja (son Foreign Minister) Juho Wuolijoki (MP) Wäinö Wuolijoki (son Speaker of Parliament) Sulo Wuolijoki (son MP) Hella Wuolijoki (spouse MP)The Vennamo family (father-son) Veikko Vennamo (Cabinet minister) Pekka Vennamo (Cabinet minister)The Aura family (father-son-grandson) Jalo Aura (Cabinet minister) Teuvo Aura (Cabinet minister) Matti Aura (Cabinet minister)The Häkämies family (father-son-son) Erkki Häkämies (MP) Jyri Häkämies (Cabinet minister) Kari Häkämies (Cabinet minister) FranceThe Bardoux-Giscard d'Estaing familyAgénor Bardoux, (Minister of State Education) Jacques Bardoux, (French senator 1938–1940, Deputy 1945–1955), son of Agénor Bardoux Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, (President of the Republic 1974–1981), grandson of Jacques Bardoux Louis Giscard d'Estaing, (Member of Parliament 2002–2012), son of Valéry Giscard d'EstaingThe Debré family Michel Debré, Prime Minister of France under de Gaulle; Jean-Louis Debré, son of Michel, President Speaker of the French National Assembly from 2002 to 2007, President of the Constitutional Council (France) from 2007 to 2016; Bernard Debré, son of Michel and brother of Jean-Louis, former minister, member of the French National Assembly, professor of medicine.The De Gaulle familyPierre de Gaulle – Senator 1948–1951, then Member of Parliament 1951–1956; younger brother of Charles Charles de Gaulle – President of the Republic 1959–1969 Philippe de Gaulle – French senator; son of Charles de Gaulle Charles de Gaulle, Jr. – Member of the European Parliament for the right-wing National Rally; grandson of Charles de GaulleThe Hollande familyFrançois Hollande – President of the French Republic, former husband of Segolène Royal – French politician, former minister, and unsuccessful candidate for the presidency of the French Republic (2007)The François-Poncet-Missoffe-Panafieu family André François-Poncet – French politician, former secretary of state, father of Jean François-Poncet, brother-in-law of Helène Missoffe – French politician, former senator, former ambassador, brother-in-law of Hélène Missoffe, French politician, former minister, former member of French Parliament, wife of François Missoffe, French politician, former minister, former ambassador, father of Françoise de Panafieu – French politician, former minister, former member of French ParliamentThe Le Pen familyJean-Marie Le Pen – founder of the right-wing National Rally Marine Le Pen – President of the National Rally Marion Maréchal-Le Pen – Member of Parliament since 2012, granddaughter of Jean-Marie Le Pen and niece of Marine Le Pen.The Mitterrand family (uncle-nephew) François Mitterrand – President of the Republic 1981–95 Frédéric Mitterrand – Minister of Culture and Communication 2009–12The Casimir-Perier familyCasimir Perier, Prime Minister Auguste Casimir-Perier, Interior Minister, son of Casimir Perier Jean Casimir-Perier, President, son of Auguste Casimir-PerierThe Sarkozy familyNicolas Sarkozy, President of the Republic 2007–12 Jean Sarkozy, French UMP politician, son of Nicolas SarkozyThe Villepin family (father-son) Xavier de Villepin – Senator Dominique de Villepin (Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Secretary of State for the Interior, Prime Minister of France), son of Xavier de Villepin GabonThe M'ba-Eyeghe Ndong familyLéon M'ba (President) Jean Eyeghe Ndong (nephew, Prime Minister)The Sassou-Nguesso family and Bongo familyEmmanuel Yoka (Congolese cabinet chief; uncle of Sassou-Nguesso) Denis Sassou-Nguesso (President of the Republic of Congo) Jean-Dominique Okemba (leader of national Security Council; nephew of Sassou-Nguesso) Edgar Nguesso (nephew of Sassou-Nguesso; director of estate) Hilaire Moko (director of government security; nephew of Sassou-Nguesso) Denis Christel Nguesso (nephew of Sassou-Nguesso; senior state oil company official) Wilfrid Nguesso (brother of Edgar; senior parastatal director) Gabriel Oba-Apounou (Vice-President of National Assembly of Gabon; cousin of Sassou-Nguesso) Claudia Lemboumba-Nguesso (Sassou's daughter; wife of M. Leboumba; communications director) Martin Lemboumba (husband of Lemboumba-Nguesso; son of J. Lemboumba) Jean-Pierre Lemboumba (Finance Minister; father of M. Leboumba) Sandrine Nguesso (Sassou's daughter; married to Kabila) Joseph Kabila (President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo) Antoinette Sassou-Nguesso (First Lady of the Republic of Congo; married to Sassou-Nguesso) Edith Nguesso-Bongo (Sassou-Nguesso's daughter) Omar Bongo (President of Gabon and husband of Edith Sassou-Nguesso) Ali Bongo Ondimba (President of Gabon and son of Omar) Pascaline Bongo Ondimba (Foreign Minister of Gabon, current Presidential Cabinet Director, and daughter of Omar) Paul Toungui (Foreign Minister of Gabon, husband of Pascaline) Martin Bongo (Foreign Minister of Gabon, nephew of Omar) GermanyThe Adenauer familyKonrad Adenauer, Chancellor of Germany Max Adenauer, Oberstadtdirektor and Councillor in Cologne, son of Konrad Sven-Georg Adenauer, Landrat (District Director) in the Landkreis (district) of Gütersloh, grandson of KonradThe Albrecht family (father–daughter) Ernst Albrecht, (Minister-President of Lower Saxony) Ursula von der Leyen, (Federal Minister of Labour and Social Affairs), daughter of ErnstThe Bismarck familyOtto von Bismarck, Chancellor (Minister-President) of the German Empire, 1871–90 Herbert von Bismarck, (Minister from 1888 to 1890, Member of the Reichstag from 1893), son of Otto Otto von Bismarck, Jr., (1897–1975, Member of the Reichstag 1924–28, Member of the Bundestag 1953–65), son of Herbert Carl-Eduard von Bismarck, (Member of the Bundestag 2005-07), grandson of Otto Jr. Gottfried von Bismarck, (1901–49, Member of the Reichstag 1933–44), son of HerbertThe Bülow familyBernhard Ernst von Bülow (1815–79), German Minister of the Exterior Bernhard von Bülow (1849–1929), Minister of the Exterior, Chancellor, son of the former Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, vice Minister of the Exterior, nephew of the former The Bülows are an old Mecklenburg aristocratic dynasty with many members active in politics, in church or in the military.The de Maizière familyUlrich de Maizière, inspector general of the West German Army Lothar de Maizière, (Minister-President of the German Democratic Republic March–October 1990), nephew of Ulrich Thomas de Maizière, (Federal Minister of the Interior and Defense from 2009–18), son of Ulrich and cousin of LotharThe Ebert family (father-son) Friedrich Ebert, President of Germany Friedrich Ebert Jr., Mayor of East BerlinThe Goppel familyAlfons Goppel, (Minister-President of the state of Bavaria) Thomas Goppel, (Minister of Science, Research and the Arts of the state of Bavaria), son of AlfonsThe Guttenberg familyKarl Ludwig von Guttenberg, Member of the resistance against Hitler (d. 1945) Georg Enoch, Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg, (Hereditary Peer in Bavaria), brother of Karl Ludwig Karl Theodor Freiherr von und zu Guttenberg, (co-founder of a Bavarian party, Member of the German Parliament), son of Georg Enoch Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg, Federal Minister of Defence between 2009 and 2011, grandson of Karl TheodorThe Gysi family (father and son) Klaus Gysi, (GDR Minister of Culture, Ambassador to Italy, State Secretary for Church Affairs) (d 1999) Gregor Gysi, (Human rights lawyer, chair of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS, now Die Linke), leader of PDS fraction in the Bundestag, Economics Senator in Berlin city government), son of KlausThe Koch familyKarl-Heinz Koch, (Justice Minister in Hesse) Roland Koch, (former Minister-President of Hesse), son of Karl-HeinzThe Lambsdorff familyOtto Graf Lambsdorff, Minister of Economics (1977–1982, 1982–1984) Alexander Graf Lambsdorff, MEP (since 2004), nephew of Otto Graf LambsdorffThe Niklas / Ertl familyWilhelm Niklas, (Minister for Agriculture) (d. 1957) Josef Ertl, (Minister for Agriculture) (d. 2000), son-in-law of WilhelmThe Schäuble familyKarl Schäuble, Member of Parliament, Baden (1947–1952) Thomas Schäuble, Minister for Transport, Justice and the Interior of Baden-Württemberg, son of Karl Wolfgang Schäuble, Federal Minister of the Interior and of Finance and incumbent President of the Bundestag, son of Karl Thomas Strobl, former member of the Bundestag and current Deputy Prime Minister of Baden-Württemberg, son-in-law of WolfgangThe Speer family (father–daughter) Albert Speer, (Nazi Minister of Armaments and War Production) Hildegard Schramm (Vice-President of the Berlin House of Deputies), daughter of AlbertThe Strauss family (father–daughter) Franz Josef Strauss, (Minister-President of the state of Bavaria) Monika Hohlmeier, (Minister of Education and the Arts of the state of Bavaria), daughter of Franz JosefThe Vogel brothersBernhard Vogel, (Minister-President of Rheinland-Pfalz and Minister-President of Thuringia), CDU Hans-Jochen Vogel, (Mayor of Munich, Mayor of Berlin, Minister of Justice), SPDThe Weizsäcker family (grandfather-father-son-nephew) Karl Hugo von Weizsäcker (Minister-President of Württemberg) Ernst von Weizsäcker (Diplomat, Head of the Political Department of the Foreign Office); son of Karl Hugo Richard von Weizsäcker (President of Germany); son of Ernst Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker (German Member of Parliament); nephew of Richard Jakob von Weizsäcker (Member of the European Parliament); son of Ernst Ulrich GhanaThe Agyarko family (brothers and sister) Boakye Agyarko (Minister) Emmanuel Kwabena Kyeremateng Agyarko (M.P.) Dedo Difie Agyarko-Kusi Parliamentary aspirant, ambassadorThe Ahwoi family (brothers) Kwamena Ahwoi (Minister) Kwesi Ahwoi (Minister) Ato AhwoiThe Akufo-Addo family (father-son) Edward Akufo-Addo (President, 1970–1972) Nana Akufo-Addo (Foreign Minister, 2003–2007) Nana Akufo-Addo (President, 2017–present)The Atta Mills family (brothers) John Atta Mills (President, 2009–2012, Vice President, 1997–2000) Samuel Atta Mills (MP)The Ayariga family (father, sons) Frank Abdulai Ayariga (MP 1979–1981) Hassan Ayariga (son) (presidential candidate) Mahama Ayariga (son) (MP, 2005–2009, 2013–present, Minister, Deputy Minister, Presidential Spokesman)The Bawumia family (father, son, daughter-in-law) Mumuni Bawumia (former member of Council of State) Mahamudu Bawumia (son) (Vice President) Samira Bawumia (daughter-in-law, née Ramadan (wife of Vice President Bawumia. See Ramadan family)The Jinapor family (brothers) Samuel Abu Jinapor (Deputy Chief of staff) John Jinapor (MP, Deputy Minister)The Kufuor family (brothers, brother-in-law) John Kufuor (President, 2001–2008) Kwame Addo-Kufuor (MP, Minister of Defence, presidential candidate) J. H. Mensah (brother-in-law of John Kufuor MP, Minister)The Marfo family (brothers) Yaw Osafo-Marfo (MP Minister) Isaac K. Adjei-Marfo (former Secretary for Agriculture and later for Cocoa Affairs)The Mahama family (father-son) Emmanuel Adama Mahama (father) (MP and Minister, 1st Republic, Presidential adviser, 3rd Republic) John Dramani Mahama son, President, 2012–2017, Vice President, 2009–2012, MP, Minister)The Nkrumah family (father- daughter-son) Kwame Nkrumah (father) (leader of government business, first Prime Minister, first President MP) Samia Nkrumah daughter)(MP, 2008–2012, Chairman of political party) Sekou Nkrumah sonThe Obetsebi-Lamptey family (father, son) Emmanuel Obetsebi-Lamptey Jacob Otanka Obetsebi-Lamptey (son) (Party Chairman, chief of staff, Minister, Presidential candidate)The Ocquaye family (father, son) Aaron Mike Oquaye (Minister, Speaker of parliament, MP) Mike Ocquaye Junior (Ambassador, Parliamentary aspirant)The Ofori Atta family J. B. Danquah (former political party chairman) Aaron Ofori-Atta (former Speaker of Parliament, Minister) Adeline Akufo-Addo (former First Lady) Nana Akufo-Addo (President, 2017–present) See Akufo Addo family William Ofori Atta (former Minister and presidential candidate) Akwasi Amoako-Atta (former bank governor and Minister) Jones Ofori Atta (Deputy Minister) Ken Ofori-Atta (Finance Minister, 2017-Date)The Okudzeto family (father, nephews) Sam Okudzeto (MP, Member of Council of State) Samuel Okudzeto Ablakwa (nephew) (Deputy Minister, MP) Perry Curtis Kwabla Okudzeto (nephew) (Deputy Minister)The Ramadan family (father, son, daughter) Ahmed Ramadan (former political party chairman) Mohammed Adamu Ramadan (MP aspirant, presidential staffer) Abu Ramadan (political party youth organiser, deputy head of National Disaster Management Authority) Samira Bawumia née Ramadan (wife of Vice President Bawumia. See Bawumia family)The Rawlings family (father-wife-daughter) Jerry Rawlings (Soldier, Head of State and President, 1979, 1981–2000 founder of political party) Nana Konadu Agyeman Rawlings (wife)(Vice Chair of a political party, founder of political party, presidential candidate, leader of women's movement) Zanetor Agyeman-Rawlings (daughter)(MP, 2016–Present)The Smith family (brothers) Joseph Henry Smith (Minister, Ambassador) Emmanuel Victor Smith (Spokesperson for ex president, Ambassador) Greece GuatemalaThe Cerezo familyMarco Vinicio Cerezo Sierra (Supreme Court judge) Vinicio Cerezo (President of Guatemala) Celso Cerezo (legislative deputy)The Rios familyEfraín Rios Montt (former de facto Head of State and Congressman) Zury Ríos Sosa (Legislative deputy and presidential current candidate) GuyanaThe Burnham familyForbes Burnham (President of Guyana, 1980–85; Prime Minister of Guyana, 1966–80) Viola Burnham (wife of Forbes Burnham; Vice President, 1985–91)The Jagan familyCheddi Jagan (President of Guyana, 1992–97) Janet Jagan (wife of Cheddi Jagan; President of Guyana, 1997–99) Cheddi "Joey" Jagan Jr., son of Cheddi and Janet Derek Chunilall Jagan (brother of Cheddi Jagan; Speaker of the National Assembly of Guyana) HaitiThe Duvalier family (father-son) François Duvalier (President of Haiti, 1957–71) Jean-Claude Duvalier (son of François Duvalier; President of Haiti, 1971–86) HondurasThe Azcona family (father-sons) José Azcona del Hoyo President of Honduras (1986–-90) Jose Simon Azcona Bocock, Tegucigalpa Regidor (2002–-06) and Francisco Morazán Department Deputy (2006–2010) Elizabeth Azcona Bocock or Lizi Azcona, Secretary of Industry and Commerce of Honduras (2006)The Flores family (father-daughter) Carlos Roberto Flores President of Honduras (1998–2002) Mary Elizabeth Flores Flake or Lizzie Flores daughter of Carlos Roberto Flores, Deputy of the Francisco Morazán Department and First Vice-President of the Congress (2002-2008)The Melgar family (spouses) Juan Alberto Melgar Castro, President of Honduras (1975–78) Nora Gúnera de Melgar (Mayor and Presidential candidate) and deputy candidate in the Primary Elections in 2008The Reina brothersCarlos Roberto Reina, President of Honduras (1994–98) Jorge Arturo Reina Idiáquez, Interior Minister (2006–07) HungaryThe Antall family (grandfather–father–son) József Antall (Government Commissioner for Refugees in the Second World War, Minister for Reconstruction after 1945) József Antall (Prime Minister 1990–93), son of József Antall Péter Antall (Director of the Democratic Forum [MDF]'s Political Foundation), son of József Antall jr.The Göncz family (father–daughter)Árpád Göncz (President) Kinga Göncz (foreign minister), daughter of Árpád India Indonesia IranThe Khamenei family (grand children (1st cousins) and great grand children (2md cousins) are married to each other) Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran Gholam Ali Haddad-Adel, Speaker of the ParliamentThe Mosaddegh family (father-in-law, son-in-law) Mohammad Mosaddegh, Prime Minister (1951–53) Ahmad Matin-Daftari, Prime Minister (1939–40)The Mansur family (father-son) Ali Mansur, Prime Minister (1940–41, 1950) Hassan Ali Mansur, Prime Minister (1964–65)The Zahedi family (father-son) Fazlollah Zahedi, Prime Minister (1953–1955) Ardeshir Zahedi, Foreign Minister (1966–1973)The Larijani family (father-son, groom) Mirza Hashem Amoli Mohammad-Javad Larijani Ali Larijani Sadeq Larijani Bagher Larijani Fazel Larijani Mostafa Mohaghegh Damad (family groom) IraqThe Allawi-Chalabi familyAbdul Majid Allawi OBE (Minister of Transport, Lord at the House of Lords before 1958) Abdul Amir Allawi (Minister of Health, before 1958) Jaffar Allawi (Minister of Housing) Iyad Allawi (Prime Minister) Mohammad Allawi (Minister of Telecommunications) Ali Allawi (Defense Minister and Minister of Trade), cousin of Iyad Allawi Nouri al-Badran (interior minister), brother-in-law of Iyad Allawi Ahmed Chalabi (former Iraqi Governing Council President), uncle of Ali Allawi Salem Chalabi (head of judicial panel to try Saddam Hussein), nephew of Ahmed ChalabiThe Arif familyAbdul Salam Arif (President) Abdul Rahman Arif (President), brother of Abdul Salam ArifThe Barzani familyMustafa Barzani (leader of the Kurdistan Democratic Party) Massoud Barzani (President of Iraqi Kurdistan), son of Mustafa Barzani Nechervan Idris Barzani (Prime Minister of Iraqi Kurdistan), nephew of Mustafa Barzani Masrour Barzani Head of the Kurdistan Region Security Council The Hussein familySaddam Hussein (former President) Uday Hussein, son of Saddam Hussein Qusay Hussein, son of Saddam Hussein Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti Sabawi Ibrahim al-Tikriti Watban Ibrahim al-Tikriti Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr IrelandThe Ahern familyBertie Ahern (Fianna Fáil Leader 1994–2008, Taoiseach 1997–2008, TD Dublin Central 1977–2011) his brother Maurice Ahern (born 1938): Fianna Fáil Councillor and former Lord Mayor of Dublin 1999–2009 his brother Noel Ahern (born 1944): Fianna Fáil Minister of State (Housing & Drug Strategy) TD Dublin North West 1992–2011The Blaney familyNeal Blaney (Fianna Fáil TD 1927–38 and 1943–48, Fianna Fáil Senator 1938–43) Neil Blaney (son of Neal Blaney; Fianna Fáil/IFF TD 1948–1995, IFF MEP Connacht–Ulster 1979–84, 1989–94) Harry Blaney (son of Neal Blaney; IFF TD 1997–2002) Niall Blaney (son of Harry Blaney; IFF/Fianna Fáil TD 2002–11)The Cosgrave familyW. T. Cosgrave (member of the first Dáil Éireann, President of the Executive Council 1922–32, Cumann na nGaedheal leader 1922–34, Fine Gael leader 1934–44) Liam Cosgrave (son of W. T. Cosgrave; Fine Gael TD 1944–81, Fine Gael leader 1965–77, Taoiseach 1973–77) Liam T. Cosgrave (son of Liam Cosgrave, grandson of W. T. Cosgrave; Fine Gael TD 1981–87, Senator 1993–2002)The De Valera familyÉamon de Valera (President of Dáil Éireann 1919–22, President of the Executive Council 1927–32, Taoiseach 1932–48, 1951–54, 1957–59 and President of Ireland 1959–73) Vivion de Valera (son of Éamon de Valera; Fianna Fáil TD 1945–81) Síle de Valera (granddaughter of Éamon de Valera; Clare Fianna Fáil TD 1977–2007, Minister for Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands 1997–2002) Éamon Ó Cuív (grandson of Éamon de Valera; former member of Seanad Éireann, Galway West Fianna Fáil TD 1992–present, Minister for Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs 2002–11)The Kitt-Brady familyMichael F. Kitt (Fianna Fáil TD at intervals, 1948–75) Michael P. Kitt (son of Michael F. Kitt; TD and Senator, 1975–2016) Tom Kitt (son of Michael F. Kitt; TD 1989–2011) Áine Brady (daughter of Michael F. Kitt; TD 2007–11) Gerry Brady (Áine Brady's husband; former TD)The Lemass/Haughey familySeán Lemass (Fianna Fáil TD 1924–69; Fianna Fáil Leader and Taoiseach 1959–66) Noel Lemass (son of Seán Lemass; Fianna Fáil TD 1956–76) Eileen Lemass (daughter-in-law of Seán Lemass; Fianna Fáil TD 1977–81) Charles Haughey (son-in-law of Seán Lemass; Fianna Fáil TD 1957–92; Fianna Fáil Leader 1979–92 and Taoiseach 1979–81, 1982, 1987–92) Seán Haughey (son of Charles Haughey; Fianna Fáil TD 1992–2011)The Lenihan familyPatrick Lenihan (Fianna Fáil TD 1965–70) Brian Lenihan Snr (son of Patrick Lenihan; Fianna Fáil TD 1961–96) Mary O'Rourke (née Lenihan) (daughter of Patrick Lenihan; Fianna Fáil TD 1982–02, 2007–11) Brian Lenihan Jnr (son of Brian Lenihan; Fianna Fáil TD 1996–2011) Conor Lenihan (son of Brian Lenihan; Fianna Fáil TD 2002–11)The O'Malley familyDonogh O'Malley (Fianna Fáil TD 1954–68) Desmond O'Malley (nephew of Donogh O'Malley; TD 1968–2002, Fianna Fáil Cabinet Minister and first leader of the Progressive Democrats) Fiona O'Malley (daughter of Desmond O'Malley; Progressive Democrats TD 2002–07, Senator 2007–11) Tim O'Malley (cousin of Desmond O'Malley; Progressive Democrats TD 2002–07)The Andrews familyDavid Andrews (Fianna Fáil TD 1965–2000) Niall Andrews (brother of David Andrews; Fianna Fáil TD 1977–87) Barry Andrews (son of David Andrews; Fianna Fáil TD 2002–11) Chris Andrews (son of Niall Andrews; Fianna Fáil TD 2002–11)The Bruton familyJohn Bruton (Fine Gael Taoiseach 1994–1997, TD 1969–2004) Richard Bruton (brother of John Bruton; Fine Gael TD 1982–present, Minister for Communications, Climate Action and Environment 2018–2020, Minister for Education and Skills 2016–2018, Minister for Jobs, Enterprise and Innovation 2011–2016, Deputy Leader of Fine Gael 2002–2010)The Coveney familyHugh Coveney (Fine Gael TD 1981–1982, 1982–1987, 1994–1998, Minister for Defense and Minister for the Marine 1994–1995) Simon Coveney (son of Hugh Coveney; Fine Gael TD 1998–present, Deputy Leader of Fine Gael 2017–present, Minister for Defense 2014–2016, Minister for Housing, Planning, Community and Local Government 2016–2017, Minister for Foreign Affairs 2017–present) IsraelThe Begin familyMenachem Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, 1977–83 Benny Begin, nationalist politician, son of Menachem BeginThe Burg familyYosef Burg, party leader, National Religious Party; cabinet minister Avraham Burg, Speaker of the Knesset, 1999–2003, son of Josef BurgThe Dayan familyShmuel Dayan, Zionist activist and member of the Knesset 1949–59.Moshe Dayan, IDF Chief of the General Staff; cabinet minister, son of Shmuel Dayan Yael Dayan, Member of the Knesset 1992–2003, daughter of Moshe Dayan.The Herzog familyYitzhak HaLevi Herzog, Ashkenazi chief rabbiChaim Herzog, President of Israel, 1983–93, son of Yitzhak HerzogIsaac Herzog, Member of the Knesset 2003-2018, President of Israel, 2021- , son of Chaim HerzogThe Lau family Yisrael Meir Lau, Chief Rabbi, 1993-2003 David Lau, Chief Rabbi, 2013–present, son of Yisrael MeirThe Rabin familyYitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel, 1974–77 and 1992–95 Dalia Rabin-Pelossof, Member of the Knesset 1999–2003, daughter of Yitzhak RabinThe Sharon familyAriel Sharon, Prime Minister of Israel, 2001–06 Omri Sharon, Member of the Knesset, 2003–06, son of Ariel SharonThe Weizman familyHaim Weizman, President of Israel, 1949–52Ezer Weizman, President of Israel, 1993–2000, nephew of Haim WeizmanThe Yosef familyOvadia Yosef, Chief Rabbi, 1973–83Yitzhak Yosef, Chief Rabbi, 2013–present, son of OvadiaShlomo Amar, Chief Rabbi, 2003–13, chief rabbi of Jerusalem, 2014–present, daughter married the son of Yitzchak Yosef Yehuda Deri, Chief rabbi of Be'er Sheva, 1997–present, son is married to the daughter of Yitzhak Yosef ItalyThe Berlinguer familyMario Berlinguer (father of Enrico Berlinguer, Sr.; Member of the Italian Camera dei deputati)Enrico Berlinguer (son of Mario Berlinguer; leader, Italian Communist Party) Giovanni Berlinguer (son of Mario Berlinguer; Member of the European Parliament) Luigi Berlinguer (cousin of Enrico and Giovanni Berlinguer; Italian Minister of University and Education) Francesco Cossiga (cousin of Enrico and Giovanni Berlinguer; President of the Italian Republic, 1985–92; Prime Minister of Italy, 1979–80) Antonio Segni (distant relative; President of the Italian Republic, 1962–64; Prime Minister of Italy, 1955–57 and 1959–60) Mariotto Segni (son of Antonio Segni; Member of the Italian Camera dei deputati)The Craxi familyBettino Craxi (Prime Minister of Italy, 1983–87) Bobo Craxi (son of Bettino Craxi; former leader of the New Italian Socialist Party, then leader of The Italian Socialists now merged in the Socialist Party) Stefania Craxi (daughter of Bettino Craxi; Member of the Italian Camera dei deputati for the People of Freedom)The Mussolini familyBenito Mussolini (Prime Minister of Italy, 1922–43) Alessandra Mussolini (granddaughter of Benito Mussolini; former Member of the European Parliament, Member of the Italian Camera dei deputati) Galeazzo Ciano (son-in-law of Benito Mussolini; Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1936-1943) JamaicaThe Manley familyNorman Manley (Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1959–62) Edna Manley (wife of Norman Manley; political activist and writer) Douglas Manley (son of Norman and Edna Manley; Member of Parliament) Michael Manley (son of Norman and Edna Manley; Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1972–80 and 1989–92) Sir Alexander Bustamante (cousin of Norman Manley; Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1962–67) Hugh Shearer (cousin of Michael Manley; Prime Minister of Jamaica, 1967–72) JapanThe Fukuda family Takeo Fukuda, Prime Minister (1976–78) Yasuo Fukuda, Prime Minister (2007–08)The Hatoyama family Hatoyama Kazuo (Speaker of the House of Representatives: 1896–97) Ichiro Hatoyama (Prime Minister: 1954–56) Iichiro Hatoyama, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1976–77) Yukio Hatoyama, Prime Minister (2009–10) Kunio Hatoyama, Minister of Education (1991–92), Minister of Justice (2007–08)The Okawa-Miyazawa family Okawa Heikichi (Minister of Justice: 1925; Minister of Railways: 1927–29) Okawa, m. Miyazawa Hiroshi (Member of the House of Representatives: 1928–52) Miyazawa Kiichi (Prime Minister: 1991–93; Deputy Prime Minister: 1987–88; Minister of Finance: 1986–88, 1998–2001; Minister of Foreign Affairs: 1974–76; Minister of Trade and Industry: 1970–73) Hiroshi Miyazawa (Governor of Hiroshima: 1973–1981; Minister of Justice: 1995–96) Yoichi Miyazawa (Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry: 2014–15)The Ōkubo-Yoshida-Suzuki-Asō familyŌkubo Toshimichi. One of the Three Great Founders of Meiji Japan. Minister of Finance 1871–73, Home Minister 1874–78 Makino Nobuaki (born Ōkubo Nobuaki), Minister of Foreign Affairs 1913–14, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan 1925–1935), m. Mishima Mineko, daughter of Mishima Michitsune (Governor of Yamaguchi (1879–1882), Fukushima (1882–1884) and Tochigi (1883–1885) prefectures) Yukiko, m. Shigeru Yoshida (Minister of Foreign Affairs 1945–47, 1948–52; Prime Minister: 1946–47. 1948–54) Kazuko, m. Takakichi Asō Tarō Asō (Minister of Foreign Affairs 2005–07; Prime Minister 2008–09; Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance 2012– ), m. Suzuki Chikako, daughter of Zenkō Suzuki (Minister of Agriculture and Forestry 1976–77; Prime Minister: 1980–82) Yoshiko, m. Ijuin Hikokichi (Minister of Foreign Affairs 1923–24)The Satō–Kishi–Abe family Satō Hidesuke Nobusuke Kishi (born Nobusuke Satō), (Prime Minister: 1957–60, Minister of Foreign Affairs: 1956–1957) Yoko, m. Shintaro Abe (Minister of Foreign Affairs 1982–86), son of Kan Abe (Member of the House of Representatives 1937–1946) Shinzō Abe, Prime Minister (2006–07, 2012–2020) Nobuo Kishi, (Member of the House of Councillors 2004–2012; Member of the House of Representatives 2012-; Minister of Defense 2020-) Sato Eisaku, Prime Minister (1964–72)The Koizumi family Matajiro Koizumi, (Minister of Posts and Telecommunications 1929–1931) Yoshie, m. Junya Koizumi (born Samejima), Director General of the Japan Defense Agency Junichiro Koizumi, Prime Minister (2001–06) Shinjirō Koizumi (Minister of Environment (2019); Member of the House of Representatives)The Konoe-Hosokawa family Konoe Atsumaro (President of the House of Peers: 1896–1903) Fumimaro Konoe (President of the House of Peers 1933–37, Minister of Foreign Affairs 1938, Prime Minister: 1937–39, 1940–41) Yoshiko, m. Morisada Hosokawa Morihiro Hosokawa, Prime Minister of Japan (1993–94)The Nakasone family (father-son) Yasuhiro Nakasone, Prime Minister (1982–87) Hirofumi Nakasone, Minister of Foreign Affairs (2008–09)The Saigō-Ōyama familySaigō Takamitsu Ōyama Tsunamasa (born Saigō), m. Ōyama Keiko Ōyama Iwao (Genrō: 1912–1916; Superintendent-General of the National Police: 1879–80; Army Minister: 1885–91, 1892–96; Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal: 1915–16) Ōyama Kashiwa (Member of the House of Peers: 1916–47) Saigō Kichibe Saigō Takamori (One of the Three Great Founders of Meiji Japan; Minister-Councillor: 1870–1873; acting Head of Government: 1871–1873) Saigō Toratarō (Member of the House of Peers: 1902–1919) Saigō Kichinosuke (Minister of Justice: 1968–70; Member of the House of Councillors: 1947–73; Member of the House of Peers: 1936–1947) Saigō Jūdō (Tsugumichi) (Genrō: 1892–1902; Home Minister: 1890–91, 1898–1900; Navy Minister: 1885–90, 1893–98; Minister of Agriculture and Commerce: 1881–84; War Minister: 1878–80; Minister of Education: 1878) Saigō Jūtoku (Member of the House of Peers: 1902–1946)The Tanaka family Kakuei Tanaka, Prime Minister of Japan (1972–74) Makiko Tanaka, Minister of Foreign Affairs (2001–02): Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2012)The Obuchi familyKeizō Obuchi, Prime Minister of Japan (1998–2000) Yūko Obuchi, Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry (2014) JordanThe Al-Fayez family H.G Mithqal Al-Fayez H.E Trad Al-Fayez (Minister of Agriculture, Ambassador, Senator) H.E Akef Al-Fayez (Served as Minister in 10 different governments, Speaker of the Jordanian Parliament, Senator) H.E Faisal Al-Fayez (Prime Minister of Jordan, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President of the Senate) H.E Amer Al-Fayez (Chief of Royal Protocol, Ministerial rank) H.E Eid Al-Fayez (Served as minister in 5 different governments) H.E Nayef Al-Fayez (Minister of Tourism, Environment) H.E Nayef Hayel Al-Fayez (Minister of Health, MP)The Majali familyPremier Hazza' al-Majali (1916–1960), Prime Minister of Jordan H.E Ayman Hazza' Al-Majali (21st Century), Deputy Prime Minister of Jordan H.E Hussein Hazza' Al-Majali (2010–present), Minister of Internal affairs Ex-Commandant of Jordanian Public Security Forces Field Marshal Habis Al-Majali (1914–2001), Jordanian Chief of Staff Premier Abdelsalam al-Majali (20th century), Prime Minister of Jordan Abdul Hadi Al-Majali (1997–2009), Speaker of the Jordanian Parliament.(1996), Minister of Public Works and Housing. Sahel Al-Majali (2007–2009), Minister of Public Works and Housing.(2009), Minister of Transport.The Al-Rifai familySamir al-Rifai (Prime Minister, 1944–45, 1947, 1950–51, 1956, 1958–59, 1963) Zaid al-Rifai (son; Prime Minister, 1973–76, 1985–89) Samir Rifai (son of Zaid al-Rifai; Prime Minister, 2009–11)The Badran brothersMudar Badran (Prime Minister of Jordan, 1976–79, 1980–84, and 1989–91) Adnan Badran (Prime Minister of Jordan, 2005–06)The Lawzi family (father-son) Ahmed Al-Lawzi Prime Minister Nasir Al-Lawzi (Minister of Transportation, Minister of Information) KazakhstanThe Jandosov family (founder-son-nephew) Uraz Kikimovitch Jandosov Sanjar Urazovitch Jandosov Ali Urazovitch Jandosov Oraz JandosovThe Nazarbayev family (father-daughter) Nursultan Nazarbayev (President of Kazakhstan from 1990–present) Dariga Nazarbayeva (Kazakhstan's ambassador to Russia, business oligarch, wife of Deputy Foreign Minister Rakhat Aliyev and possible successor to her father) KosovoThe Sejdiu familyFatmir Sejdiu (President, 2006–2010) Pleurat Sejdiu (Minister of Health, Secretary of Health) Shefki Sejdiu (Member of Parliament) Korab Sejdiu (Member of Parliament)The Rugova familyIbrahim Rugova (President, 2000–2006) Uke Rugova (Member of Parliament) Naser Rugova (Member of Parliament) Teuta Rugova (Member of Parliament)The Haradinaj familyRamush Haradinaj (Prime-minister, 2006) (Member of Parliament) Daut Haradinaj (Member of Parliament) KenyaThe Kenyatta familyJomo Kenyatta (President, 1964–78) Margaret Kenyatta (daughter of Jomo Kenyatta; Mayor of Nairobi) Uhuru Kenyatta (son of Jomo Kenyatta; Finance Minister, President (2013–present)The Moi familyDaniel arap Moi (President, 1978–2002) Gideon Moi (son of Daniel arap Moi; Member of Parliament)The Odinga familyOginga Odinga (Vice President of Kenya) Raila Odinga (son of Oginga Odinga; Prime Minister) Oburu Odinga (son of Oginga Odinga, Member of Parliament) Gor Sunguh (Odinga's relative through marriage to Raila Odinga's niece)The Nyagah familyJeremiah Nyagah (long-time serving cabinet minister 1963o93 and Member of Parliament 1958–92) Norman Nyagah (son of Jeremiah Nyagah Government Chief Whip and Member of Parliament) Jeremiah Jerry Mwaniki Nyagah son of Norman Nyagah, and President of the Kenya Youth Coalition Network International KYCNI, based in Atlanta Georgia USA. Joseph Nyagah (son of Jeremiah Nyagah and also Member of Parliament) Nahashon Nyagah (son of Jeremiah Nyagah and former Governor of the Central Bank of Kenya) Mary Khimulu (daughter of Jeremiah Nyagah and ambassador UNEP to France)The Awori family (Kenya and Uganda) Moody Awori former vice president. Aggrey Awori, formerly Member of Parliament and Minister in Uganda. KiribatiThe Tong familyAnote Tong (President of Kiribati, 2003–2016) Harry Tong (brother of Anote Tong; leader, National Progressive Party) Korea, NorthThe Kim family (1948–present) Kim Il-sung (Leader of North Korea, 1948–1994), founder of North Korea Kim Jong-il (Leader of North Korea, 1994–2011), son of Kim Il-sung Kim Jong-un (Leader of North Korea, 2011–present), grandson of Kim Il-sungOther members of Kim familyKim Jong-nam (first son of Kim Jong-il) Kim Jong-chul (second son of Kim Jong-il)Other non-bloodline members of Kim familyKo Yong-hui (first lady of Kim Jong-il) Ri Sol-ju (first lady of Kim Jong-un) Jang Song-thaek (brother-in-law of Kim Jong-il; "number-two-man in North Korea" ) Korea, SouthThe Park family (father-daughter) Park Chung-hee (President of the Republic of Korea, 1963–1979) Park Geun-hye (President of the Republic of Korea, 2013–2017), daughter of Park Chung-hee KyrgyzstanThe Akayev family (father-daughter) Askar Akayev (President) 1990–2005 Mariam Akayeva (politician)The Bakiyev brothersKurmanbek Bakiyev (President of Kyrgyzstan) Janysh Bakiyev (former First Deputy Chairman of the National Security Service) Marat Bakiyev (Kyrgyzstan's Ambassador to Germany) Adil Bakiyev (Kyrgyz government official within the Kyrgyz embassy in China) Akhmat Bakiyev (Kyrgyz politician and business oligarch) Kanybek Bakiev (Head of a village council) Jusupbek Bakiev (former Deputy Director of Kyrgyzstan's Agency for Community Development and Investment) LatviaThe Ulmanis familyKārlis Ulmanis (President of Latvia, 1936–40) Guntis Ulmanis (great-nephew of Kārlis Ulmanis; President of Latvia, 1993–99) LebanonEl Assaad familyNasif Al Nassar - ruler of Jabal Amel from the Al-Saghir Dynasty. Ali Al Saghir - a powerful leader of Jabal Amel. Khalil Bek El Assaad - appointed Ottoman Governor of Nablus, Al Balqa, Marjayoun, Tyre and Homs. Shbib Pasha El Assaad - minister of the Ottoman Empire, army leader. Ali Nasrat El Assaad - advisor of the Court and a Superior in the Ministry of Foreign affairs in the Ottoman Empire. Kamil Bey (Esad) El-Assaad - representative of the Ottoman Empire in Beyrut. Ahmed El Assaad - 3rd Legislative Speaker of Lebanon. Kamel Bek El Assaad- 5th Legislative Speaker of Lebanon, Minister of Education, Minister of Water and Electricity, founder of Democratic Socialist Party (Lebanon). Ahmad Kamel El Assaad - Lebanese Option Party founder, political candidate. Moustafa Nassar Bek El Assaad - Supreme Court President. Nael El Assaad - envoy for HM King Abdullah of Jordan and former husband of late Saudi magnate Adnan Khashoggi’s sister Soheir. Said El Assaad - former Lebanese Ambassador of Switzerland, France and Belgium and a former Member of Parliament. Bahija Al Solh El Assaad - wife of Said El Assaad, daughter of Prime Minister Riad Al Solh, aunt of Waleed Bin Talal. Nasrat El Assaad - ambassador of Lebanon to numerous countries. Haidar El Assaad - historian and among the first official delegates to visit the new People’s Republic of China in the 1960s following Ministerial civil service – later serving as a director at the FAO of the United Nations and consultant to TRW and the World Bank.Abou Fadel familyMounir Abou Fadel – Deputy Speaker of the Parliament Marwan Abou Fadel – Co-founder of the Lebanese Democratic Party, son of MounirArslan familyEmir Majid Arslan II – Lebanese independence hero and Druze leader. Emir Faysal Arslan – son of Emir Majid and Head of the House of Arslan from 1983 until 1989 (In conjunction with Emirah Khawla Majid Arslan). Emir Talal Arslan – son of Emir Majid, Druze leader and current Head of the House of Arslan. Emir Shakib Arslan – Influential Arab politician, writer, poet and historian.Chamoun family (father-sons-granddaughter) Camille Chamoun – President, 1952–58 Dany Chamoun – Militia leader and political party leader; son of Camille Tracy Chamoun – Author and human rights activist; daughter of Dany Dory Chamoun – Political party leader; son of CamilleEddé familyÉmile Eddé – President during the French Mandate Raymond Eddé – political party leader; son of Émile Carlos Eddé – opposition politician; nephew of Raymond Michel Eddé – MinisterKaram familyYoussef Bey Karam – Lebanese Maronite notable who fought in the 1860 civil war and led a rebellion in 1866–1867 against the Ottoman Empire rule in Mount Lebanon Youssef Salim Karam – former MP from Zgharta Salim Bey Karam – Current MP and former minister, son of Youssef Salim KaramEl Khazen familyWadih Nemr El Khazen – Lebanese Minister Wadih Nemr El Khazen – President of the Central Maronite Council Farid Elias El Khazen – Lebanese Member of Parliament Farid Haikal El Khazen – Lebanese Minister Joseph Dergham El Khazen – Maronite Patriarch Joseph Ragi El Khazen – Maronite Patriarch Tobias El Khazen – Maronite PatriarchGemayel family (father-sons-grandsons) Pierre Gemayel – Kataeb Party founder Bachir Gemayel – President-elect, 1982; son of Pierre (assassinated before taking office) Nadim Gemayel – Political activist; son of Bachir Amine Gemayel – President, 1982–88; son of Pierre Pierre Amine Gemayel – legislator; son of Amine Sami Gemayel – Political activist; legislator; son of AmineHariri familyRafic Hariri – 30th Prime Minister Saad Hariri – 33rd Prime Minister; son of Rafic Hariri Bahaa Hariri – Political Activist; Parliament Candidate Bahia Hariri – legislator; sister of RaficAl Solh Family (Married into the House of Saud) Sami al Solh – 3rd Prime Minister Adel Al Solh – Politician; Cousin of Sami al Solh Riad Al Solh – 1st Prime Minister; Grandfather of Al Waleed bin Talal Al Saud Leila Al Solh – Minister of Industry; Daughter of Riad al Solh Takieddine Solh – 15th Prime Minister; Brother of Kazem Solh Kazem Al Solh – Diplomat; Member of Parliament Kamel Ahmad Basha el Solh – High judge in the Ottoman Imperial Court Afif al Solh – Parliament memeber of Syria Rachid Al Solh – 16th Prime Minister of Lebanon Waheed Al Solh – Activist; Politician; First cousin and husband of Mounira Al solh Mounira Al Solh – Political Activist; Parliament Candidate; First cousin and wife of Mounira Al solh Sana Al Solh – Political Activist Helou familyCharles Helou – President (1964–70) Nina Helou – First Lady Pierre Helou – Cabinet Minister; Henry Helou – legislator; son of PierreJumblatt family (father-son) Kamal Jumblatt – founder, Progressive Socialist Party, Cabinet Minister Walid Jumblatt – Civil War militia leader; Cabinet Minister; son of Kamal Taymour Jumblatt – Member of Parliament; son of WalidKarami family (father-sons) Abdul Hamid Karami (Prime Minister of Lebanon) Rashid Karami – Prime Minister older son of Abdul Hamid Omar Karami – Prime Minister younger son of Abdul Hamid. Faisal Karami – Member of Parliament; son of OmarLahoud familySalim Lahoud – Member of Parliament (1952, 1956, 1960, 1968), Minister (Defense, Foreign affairs). Nassib Lahoud – Member of Parliament (1991, 1992, 1996, 2000), Cabinet Minister (State, 2008), President of the Democratic Renewal Movement (son of Salim). Fouad Lahoud – Member of Parliament (1972) (cousin of Jamil, brother of Salim). Jamil Lahoud – Member of Parliament (1964) and Chief of the Army (cousin of Salim, Fouad). Émile Lahoud – President of Lebanon and Chief of the Army (son of Jamil). Emile Emile Lahoud- Minister (Youth and Sports) and Member of Parliament 2000 (elder son of Emile Jamil). Nasri Lahoud – Head of the High Legal Magistrate, Military Judge (son of Jamil).Moawad family (husband-wife) René Moawad – President (1989) Nayla Moawad – legislator; widow of RenéFrangieh familySuleiman Frangieh – President (1970–76) Tony Frangieh – Cabinet Minister, Civil War militia leader; son of Suleiman Suleiman Frangieh, Jr. – legislator and ) Minister; son of Tony LiberiaThe Barclay-Tubman familyArthur Barclay (President, 1904–12) Edwin Barclay (nephew, President, 1930–44) William Tubman (son-in-law, President, 1944–71) Winston Tubman (nephew, Justice Minister)Skivring Smith family (father-son) James Skivring Smith (President, 1871–72) James Skivring Smith, Jr. (Vice President, 1930–44)The Taylor familyCharles Taylor (President, 1997–2003)Jewel Taylor (Ex-wife, Senator 2006–present, Vice President 2018–present) Lithuania Landsbergis / Jablonskis Maldeikis Paleckis MadagascarThe Ratsiraka family (uncle-nephew)Didier Ratsiraka (President of Madagascar) Roland Ratsiraka (Mayor of Toamasina)The Sylla family (father-son)Albert Sylla (Foreign Minister) Jacques Sylla (Prime Minister)The Tsiranana family (father-son) Philibert Tsiranana (President of Madagascar) Pierre Tsiranana (Governor of Mahajanga) MalawiThe Chirwa familyOrton Chirwa (founder, Malawi Congress Party; political prisoner) Vera Chirwa (wife of Orton Chirwa; human rights advocate and former presidential candidate)The Mutharika familyBingu wa Mutharika (President of Malawi) Peter Mutharika (young brother of Bingu wa Mutharika; President of Malawi) MalaysiaThe Abdul Razak–Hussein Onn familyTun Abdul Razak, second Prime Minister of Malaysia (1970–76) Rahah Noah, daughter of Mohamed Noah Omar, sister of Suhailah Noah and spouse of Tun Abdul Razak Dato' Sri Mohd Najib Tun Abdul Razak, sixth Prime Minister (2009–18) Jaafar Haji Muhammad, first Menteri Besar of Johor Onn Jaafar, founder of United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) and seventh Menteri Besar of Johor Tun Hussein Onn (Prime Minister, 1976–81) Mohamed Noah Omar father in law of Hussein Onn and 1st Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat Suhailah Noah, daughter of Mohamed Noah Omar, spouse of Tun Hussein Onn and sister of Rahah Noah Hishammuddin Hussein, Senior Minister of Defence, former Senior Minister (Security) and former Minister of Foreign Affairs, son of Hussein Onn Tengku Marsilla Tengku Abdullah, spouse of Hishammuddin Hussein and princess of Pahang Onn Hafiz Ghazi, nephew of Hishammuddin Hussein Abdul Rahman Mohamed Yassin, brother-in-law of Onn Jaafar and first President of the Dewan Negara Ungku Abdul Aziz, nephew of Onn Jaafar, 3rd Vice-Chancellor of the University of Malaya and 1st Director of Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Syed Hussein Alatas, nephew of Onn Jaafar and 4th Vice-Chancellor of the University of Malaya Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, nephew of Onn Jaafar and founder of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation (ISTAC) Abdullah Jaafar, third Menteri Besar of Johor Mustapha Jaafar, fourth Menteri Besar of Johor MaldivesThe Gayoom family (husband-wife and their close relatives) Maumoon Abdul Gayoom (President of the Maldives 1978–2008) Nasreena Ibrahim (First Lady) Abdulla Hameed (Speaker of Parliament and Atoll Administrator) Hamdhoon Hameed (Minister of Planning) Midhath Hilmy (Minister of Science and Communications) Ilyas Ibrahim (Minister of Transportation and Aviation) Abdullahi Majeed (Deputy Minister for the Environment) Ibrahim Hussain Maniku (Minister of Information) Abdulla Yameen (Minister of Trade) MaliThe Sidibé brothersMandé Sidibé (Prime Minister, 2000–02) Modibo Sidibé (Prime Minister, 2007–11) MaltaThe Abela family George Abela, (President of Malta 2009–14) Robert Abela (son), (Prime Minister of Malta 2020–)The Mifsud Bonnici familyKarmenu Mifsud Bonnici (Prime Minister of Malta, 1984–87 leader of Labour Party, 1984–1992) Ugo Mifsud Bonnici (cousin Carmelo Mifsud Bonnici; of President of Malta, 1994–99) Carmelo Mifsud Bonnici (son of Ugo Mifsud Bonnici; Home Affairs Minister, 2008–2012)The Mintoff familyDom Mintoff (Prime Minister of Malta, 1955–1958, 1971–1984 leader of Labour Party, 1949–1984) Yana Mintoff (daughter of Dom Maltese politician) Wenzu Mintoff (nephew of Dom, former Labour MP and founder of Alternattiva Demokratika)The Fenech Adami familyEddie Fenech Adami (Prime Minister of Malta, 1987–1996, 1998–2004 President of Malta, 2004–2009 Nationalist Party leader 1977–2004) Beppe Fenech Adami (son of Eddie Nationalist Party deputy leader 2013–) Micheal Fenech Adami (son of Eddie, former Mayor of Birkirkara)The De Marco familyGuido de Marco (President of Malta, 1999–2004) Mario de Marco (son of Guido, Minister for Environment, Tourism and Culture, 2012–2013 Nationalist Party deputy leader 2013–)The Mizzi family (father-son) Fortunato Mizzi (leader, Nationalist Party) Enrico Mizzi (Prime Minister of Malta, 1950) Marshall IslandsThe Kabua familyAmata Kabua (President of the Marshall Islands, 1979–96) David Kabua (President of the Marshall Islands, 2020) Imata Kabua (cousin of Amata Kabua; President of the Marshall Islands, 1997–2000)The Note familyNathan Note (anti-nuclear lobbyist in Bikini Atoll)Kessai Note (nephew of Nathan Note; President of the Marshall Islands, 2000–08) Tomaki Juda (cousin of Kessai Note; Member of Parliament 2000–, Vice Speaker of Parliament, 2012–)The Alik familyAlee Alik (Member of Parliament, 1979–1987) Evlynn Konou (first cousin of Alee Alik; Member of Parliament, 1979–95) Alik J. Alik (brother of Alee Alik; Member of Parliament 1991–2012, Vice Speaker of Parliament, 2008–12)Jurelang Zedkaia (nephew of Alee Alik; President of the Marshall Islands, 2009–2012) Rien J. Morris (nephew of Alee Alik; Member of Parliament, 1995–) MauritiusThe Bérenger familyPaul Bérenger (MP, former Prime Minister of Mauritius) Joanna Bérenger (MP)The Duval familySir Gaëtan Duval (Foreign Minister, 1969–1973) Xavier Luc Duval (son of Gaëtan Duval; Vice Prime Minister of Mauritius 2005, leader of the Mauritian Social Democratic Party) Richard Duval (step-son of Gaëtan Duval; MP) Hervé Duval (brother of Gaetan Duval; retired civil servant and former minister) Ghislaine Henry (sister of Gaetan Duval; former Member of Parliament (MP) and former ambassador) Thierry Henry (son of Ghislaine Henry; former MP)The Jugnauth familySir Anerood Jugnauth(former President of Mauritius, and former Prime Minister of Mauritius) Pravind Jugnauth (son of Anerood Jugnauth), Prime Minister of Mauritius, Leader of Militant Socialist Movement Ashok Jugnauth (brother of Anerood Jugnauth, former minister) Maya Hanoomanjee (niece of Anerood Jugnauth), former MP and former Speaker of the parliamentThe Ramgoolam familySir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam (former Prime Minister of Mauritius) Navin Ramgoolam (son of Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam; former Prime Minister of Mauritius)The Boolell family Sir Satcam Boolell (former minister) Arvin Boolell (son of Satcam Boolell; former minister) Satyajit Boolell (younger son of Satcam Boolell; Director of Public Prosecution) Satish Boolell (nephew of Satcam Boolell; former Police Chief Medical Officer and former MP) Anil Gayan (nephew of Satcam Boolell; former minister) Sushil Kushiram (son-in-law of Satcam Boolell; former minister)The Mohamed family Sir [[Abdool Razack Mohamed, former minister Yousuf Mohamed (son of Abdool Razack Mohamed; former minister and lawyer) Shakeel Mohamed (grandson of Abdool Razack Mohamed and son of Yousuf Mohamed; lawyer and former minister)The Uteem family Cassam Uteem (former President of the Republic; former minister) Reza Uteem (son of Cassam Uteem; MP)The Virahsawmy familySimadree Virahsamy (former MP) Deva Virahsawmy (former MP)The Jeetah familyRamnath Jeetah (former MP) Rajesh Jeetah (former minister)The Seetaram familyIswurdeo Seetaram (former MP and former Speaker) Jangbahadoorsing Iswurdeo Mola Roopchand Seetaram (former MP)The Guttee familyRajnarain Guttee (former MP) Rohitnarain Singh Guttee (former MP, younger brother of Rajnarain Guttee) MexicoThe Abascal family (father, son) Salvador Abascal, Leader of the National Synarchist Union Carlos María Abascal Carranza, Secretary of the Interior 2005–06The Ávila Camacho family (brothers) Manuel Ávila Camacho (President of Mexico, 1940–46) Maximino Ávila Camacho (Governor of Puebla, 1937–41) Rafael Ávila Camacho (Governor of Puebla, 1951–57)The Calderón Hinojosa family (father, children, daughter-in-law) Luis Calderón Vega, founder of the National Action Party (PAN). Felipe Calderón Hinojosa, President of Mexico 2006–2012, son of Calderón Vega. Margarita Zavala de Calderón, former PAN deputy, wife of Calderón Hinojosa. Luisa María Calderón Hinojosa, former PAN senator, daughter of Calderón Vega. Juan Luis Calderón Hinojosa, public servant in Michoacán, son of Calderón Vega. Carmen de Fátima Calderón Hinojosa, public servant in Michoacán, daughter of Calderón Vega.The Cárdenas family (grandfather, father, son) Lázaro Cárdenas (President of Mexico, 1934–40) Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (Head of Government of the Federal District, 1997–1999) Lázaro Cárdenas Batel (Governor of Michoacán, 2002–2008)The del Mazo family (grandfather, father, nephew, son) Alfredo del Mazo Vélez (Governor of the State of Mexico 1945–1951) Alfredo del Mazo González (Governor of the State of Mexico 1981–1986) Enrique Peña Nieto (Governor of the State of Mexico 2005–2011, President of Mexico 2012–present; also nephew of Arturo Montiel, Governor of the State of Mexico 1999–2005) Alfredo del Mazo Maza (Governor of the State of Mexico 2017–present)The Madero family (father, sons) Evaristo Madero (Governor of Coahuila) Francisco I. Madero (President of Mexico, 1911–1913) Gustavo A. Madero (parliamentarian and revolutionary, Head of Government of the Federal District)The Obregón family (father, son) Alvaro Obregón (President of Mexico, 1920–24) Alvaro Obregon Tapia (Governor of Sonora, 1955–61) MontserratThe Bramble familyWilliam Henry Bramble (Chief Minister of Montserrat, 1960–70) Percival Austin Bramble (son of William Henry Bramble; Chief Minister of Montserrat, 1970–78) MozambiqueThe Mandela family (South Africa) and Machel familySamora Machel – President of Mozambique (1975–83); first husband of Graça Machel Graça Machel – First Lady of Mozambique (1975–83) and South Africa (1998–99); widow of Samoa Machel; 3rd wife of Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela – President of South Africa (1994–1999) Winnie Madikizela-Mandela – political activist; 2nd wife of Nelson MandelaThe Guebuza-Dai family (brothers-in-law) Armando Guebuza, President (2005–15) Tobias Joaquim Dai, Defense Minister (2000–08) NamibiaThe Nujoma family (father-son) Sam Nujoma (President of Namibia, 1990–2005) Utoni Nujoma (Foreign minister) NauruThe Adeang familyKennan Adeang (President of Nauru, 1986 and 1996) David Adeang (son of Kennan Adeang; Finance Minister, 2004–07 and 2011–)The Detudamo familyTimothy Detudamo Head Chief of Nauru Buraro Detudamo (son of Timothy Detudamo, Chief and Island Councilor, Member of Parliament, 1968–92)The Dowiyogo familyBernard Dowiyogo (President of Nauru, 1976–78, 1989–95, 1996, 1998–99, 2000–01 and 2003) Valdon Dowiyogo (son of Bernard Dowiyogo; Member of Parliament, Speaker of Parliament)The Keke-Stephen familyLudwig Adowong Keke (Member of Parliament, 1968–73, 1989–92) Leo Adepagadogi Keke (brother of Ludwig Keke; Member of Parliament, 1976–80) Kieren Keke (son of Ludwig Keke; Member of Parliament, Minister for Health) Lawrence Stephen (brother-in-law to Ludwig and Leo Keke Member of Parliament, 1971–77, 1980–1986) Marcus Stephen (son of Lawrence Stephen; Member of Parliament, 2003–07, President of Nauru, 2007–)The Kun familyRuben James Tullen Kun (Member of Parliament, 1971–92) Roland Kun (son of Ruben Kun; Member of Parliament, 2003–, Minister for Justice) Russell Kun (cousin of Roland Kun; Member of Parliament, 2003–2004) NepalThe Thapa dynasty Bir Bhadra Thapa (Kaji) Amar Singh Thapa (Sardar) (Sanukaji) Bhimsen Thapa (Mukhtiyar) Nain Singh Thapa (General Kaji) Queen Tripurasundari of Nepal Ujir Singh Thapa (Colonel Kaji) Mathabar Singh Thapa (PM C-in-C) Bhaktabar Singh Thapa (Colonel Kaji) Ranabir Singh Thapa (General Kaji)The Pande dynasty Ganesh Pandey (Kaji of Gorkha) Kalu Pande (Kaji of Gorkha), descendant of Ganesh Pande Bamsa Raj Pandey (Dewankaji) Damodar Pande (Mulkaji) Rana Jang Pande (Mukhtiyar) Bhim Bahadur Pande, seventh descendant of Kalu Pande Prithvi Bahadur Pande, son of Bhim BahadurThe Basnyat dynasty Shivaram Singh Basnyat (Senapati Badabir) Naahar Singh Basnyat (Kaji) Kehar Singh Basnyat (Kaji) married Chitrawati Devi, daughter of Kalu Pande. Kirtiman Singh Basnyat (Mulkaji) Bakhtawar Singh Basnyat (Mulkaji) Abhiman Singh Basnyat (Mulkaji) Dhokal Singh Basnyat (Governor)The Rana dynastyRam Krishna Kunwar Bal Narsingh Kunwar, grandson of Ram Krishna Jung Bahadur Rana Bam Bahadur Kunwar Ranodip Singh Kunwar Bir Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana, nephew of Jung Bahadur Rana Dev Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana, nephew of Jung Bahadur Rana Chandra Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana Mohan Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana Pashupati Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana, grandson of Mohan Shamsher Baber Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana Udaya Shumsher Rana, great-grandson of Baber Kaiser Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana Bhim Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana Padma Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana Subarna Shamsher Rana, nephew of Padma Shamsher Juddha Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana Kiran Shamsher RanaThe Koirala familyKrishna Prasad Koirala Matrika Prasad Koirala (brother of Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala; Prime Minister of Nepal, 1951–52 and 1953–55) Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala (Prime Minister of Nepal, 1959–60) Girija Prasad Koirala (brother of Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala; Prime Minister of Nepal, 1991–94, 1998–99, and 2000–01) Sujata Koirala (daughter of Girija Prasad Koirala; vice Prime Minister of Nepal 2009–10) Connected Member Sushil Koirala (Prime Minister of Nepal, 2014–15; cousin of B.P., Girija) Shailaja Acharya (former Deputy Prime Minister of Nepal; niece of Matrika, B.P. and Girija) The NetherlandsThe Donner family Johannes Hendricus Donner (1824–1903, member of House of Representatives from 1880 to 1901) Jan Donner (1891–1981, Minister of Justice 1926–33), grandson of Johannes Hendricus Donner André Donner (1918–92, member of the state committee on revising the Constitution 1950–54, chairman of the state committee on revising the Constitution 1967–71), son of Jan Donner Piet Hein Donner (born 1948, Member of the Council of State 1997–2002, minister from 2002 to 2012, current Vice-President of the Council of State), son of André DonnerThe Regout family Petrus Dominicus Regout (1801–78, member of Senate 1849–59) Hubert Gérard Louis Regout (1832–1905, member of Senate 1881–1904), son of Petrus Dominicus Regout Louis Hubert Willem Regout (1861–1915, member of Senate 1904–09 and 1909–13, Minister of Water 1909–13, Dutch delegate to the Holy See from July 1915 to his death in October 1915), son of Hubert Gérard Louis Regout, brother of Robert Regout Ludovicus Franciscus Hubertus Regout (1891–1966, member of Senate 1948–63), son of Louis Hubert Willem Regout Robert Regout (1863–1913, member of House of Representatives 1905–10, Minister of Justice 1910–13), son of Hubert Gérard Louis Regout New ZealandThe Allen family (grandfather-grandson) William Shepherd Allen – Member of Parliament 1890–91 for Te Aroha. John Manchester Allen – Member of Parliament 1938–41 for Hauraki. Grandson of William.The Ardern family (cousins) Shane Ardern – Member of Parliament (1998–2014) for Taranaki–King Country. Jacinda Ardern – Member of Parliament (2008–present), Prime Minister (2017–present), cousin of ShaneThe Armstrong family (father-son) Tim Armstrong – Christchurch City Councilor 1919–25, 1927–29, Member of Parliament 1922–1939 Tommy Armstrong – Member of Parliament 1943–1951, Christchurch City Councilor 1929–35, 1962–65, son of TimThe Atmore–Baigent family (brothers-in-law) Harry Atmore – Member of Parliament for Nelson 1911–46 and Minister of Education 1928–31. Member of Nelson City Council 1905. Harry Atmore was the son-in-law of James Corrigan Member of Parliament for Patea 1922–25. Brother-in-law of Henry Henry Baigent – Mayor of Nelson 1901–04 and 1905–06 and Nelson City Councilor 1893–1901The Barclay family (father-son-cousin) Jim Barclay – Member of Parliament 1935–43 for Marsden and Minister of Agriculture 1941–43 Bruce Barclay – Member of Parliament 1969–79 for Christchurch Central Ron Barclay – Member of Parliament 1966–75 for New Plymouth. Deputy Mayor of New Plymouth District CouncilThe Bell family (father-son-grandsons) Sir Dillon Bell – Speaker 1871–75. Son-in-law Scobie Mackenzie Member of Parliament for Mt. Ida 1884–93 and Dunedin 1896–99 Sir Francis Bell – Prime Minister 1925, son of Sir Dillon William Bell – Member of Parliament 1911–14, son of Sir Francis Cheviot Bell – Member of Legislative Council 1950, son of Sir Francis and brother of WilliamThe Brandon family (father-son) Alfred Brandon, Sr. – Member of Parliament for Wellington Country 1858–81 and Legislative Council 1883–86 Alfred Brandon, Jr. – Mayor of Wellington 1893–94 and Wellington City Councilor 1886–91The Bridges–O'Connor family (brothers-in-law) Simon Bridges – Member of Parliament (2008–present), Leader of the Opposition (2018–2020), Cabinet Minister Simon O'Connor – Member of Parliament (2011–present), married to Bridges' sister RachelThe Brown–Garrick–Peacock–Webb family (brothers-in-law) John Thomas Peacock, MP 1868–1873, MLC 1873–1905 John Evans Brown, MP 1871–1879 and 1881–1884, married Peacock's sister Theresa Australia Francis James Garrick, MP 1884–1887, married Peacock's sister Elizabeth Henry Richard Webb, MP 1873–1875, married Peacock's sister Augusta AnnThe Carter–Doocey family (father-son-nephew/grandson) Maurice Carter – Christchurch City Councilor (1956–89), Canterbury Regional Councilor (1989–95) David Carter – Member of Parliament (1994–2020), Cabinet Minister, Speaker (2013–17), son of Maurice Matt Doocey - Member of Parliament (2014–present), grandson of Maurice and nephew of DavidThe Connelly family (father-son) Michael Connelly – Member of Legislative Council 1936–1950 Mick Connelly – Member of Parliament 1956–84 and Cabinet Minister, son of MichaelThe Courtney–Williams family (great-grandfather and great-grandson) Thomas Williams – Christchurch City Councilor and Gore Borough Councilor 19th Century Mel Courtney – Nelson City Councilor and Member of Parliament for Nelson 1976–81The Douglas family (father-sons) Norman Douglas – Member of Parliament 1960–75 and son-in-law of Member of Parliament Bill Anderton Sir Roger Douglas – Member of Parliament 1969–90, 2008–11, Minister of Finance (1984–88) and founder of the ACT Party 1995, son of Norman Malcolm Douglas – Member of Parliament 1978–79, son of Norman and brother of Sir RogerThe Field family (brothers-cousin) Henry Field – Member of Parliament for Otaki 1896–99 William Field – Member of Parliament for Otaki 1900–1935, brother of Henry Tom Field – Member of Parliament for Nelson 1914–19, cousin to Henry and WilliamThe Fisher family (father-son) George Fisher – Member of Parliament for Wellington 1884–90 and Mayor of Wellington Frank Fisher – Member of Parliament for Wellington 1905–14, son of GeorgeThe Fraser family (husband-wife) Peter Fraser – Member of Parliament 1918–50, Prime Minister 1940–49. Janet Fraser – Member of the Wellington Hospital Board 1925–35, wife of PeterThe Fraser family (husband-wife) Bill Fraser – Member of Parliament 1957–81 Dorothy Fraser – Chair of the Otago Hospital Board 1974–86, wife of Bill Both were members of the Dunedin City CouncilThe Fraser–Cullen family (wife-husband) Anne Fraser – Member of Parliament for East Cape 1984–90 Michael Cullen – Member of Parliament (1981-2009), Deputy Prime Minister, husband of AnneThe Gerard family (father-son) Geoff Gerard – Member of Parliament 1943–69 for Mid-Canterbury and Ashburton Jim Gerard – Member of Parliament 1984–97 for Rangiora. Mayor of Waimakariri 2001–07 and Waimakariri District Councillor 2010–The Gill–Mitchell family (grandfather-grandson) Frank Gill – Member of Parliament (1969–80), Cabinet Minister, Ambassador to the United States (1980–82) Mark Mitchell – Member of Parliament (2011–present), Cabinet Minister, grandson of FrankThe Graham family (great-grandfather-great-grandsons/brothers) Robert Graham – Member of Parliament 1855–68 Doug Graham – Member of Parliament 1984–1999 for Remuera and Cabinet Minister Kennedy Graham – List Member of Parliament 2008–2017, brother of DougThe Grigg family (husband-wife-husband-great-granddaughter) Arthur Grigg – Member of Parliament 1938–41 for Mid-Canterbury Mary Grigg – Member of Parliament 1942–43 for his seat after he was killed in World War II. Her grandfathers were Premier Sir John Hall, MP 1855–60 and 1866–93, and John Cracroft Wilson, MP 1866–70 and 1872–75. She married William Polson (Member of Parliament 1928–46) in 1943. Nicola Grigg – Member of Parliament 2020–present for Selwyn, great-granddaughter of Arthur and MaryThe Hamilton brothersAdam Hamilton – Member of Parliament for Wallace 1919–22 and 1925–46. Leader of the Opposition 1936–40 John Hamilton – Member of Parliament for Awarua 1919–22 and 1925–28, brother of AdamThe Hanan family (uncle-nephew) Josiah Hanan – Member of Parliament for Invercargill 1899–1925 and Cabinet Minister. Mayor of Invercargill 1896–1897 Ralph Hanan – Member of Parliament for Invercargill 1946–69 and Cabinet Minister, Mayor of Invercargill 1938–1941, nephew of JosiahThe Hay family (father-son) Sir James Hay – Christchurch City Councilor 1944–53 Sir Hamish Hay – Mayor of Christchurch 1974–89, son of Sir JamesThe Henare family (great-grandfather/great-grandsons) Tau Henare – Member of Parliament (1914–38) Tau Henare, Jr. – Member of Parliament (1993–99 & 2005–2014) and Cabinet Minister (1996–99), great-grandson of Tau Henare Peeni Henare - Member of Parliament (2014–present) and Cabinet Minister, great-grandson of Tau Henare and cousin of Tau Jr.The Hislop family (father-son) Thomas Hislop, Sr. – Member of Parliament and Cabinet Minister. Mayor of Wellington 1905–1908 Thomas Hislop, Jr. – Mayor of Wellington 1931–44 and High Commissioner to Canada 1950–57The Holland family (father-son-grandson) Henry Holland – Member of Parliament 1925–35 for Christchurch North and Mayor of Christchurch Sir Sidney Holland – Leader of the New Zealand National Party and Prime Minister of New Zealand (1949–57) Eric Holland – Cabinet Minister (1975–78), son of Sir Sidney.The Holyoake family (father/son-in-law) Keith Holyoake – Member of Parliament 1932–38 (Motueka) and 1943–77 (Pahiatua) and Prime Minister Ken Comber – Member of Parliament 1972–81, married Diane Holyoake daughter of KeithThe Howard family (father-daughter) Ted Howard – Member of Parliament (1919–39) Mabel Howard – Member of Parliament (1943–69) and Cabinet Minister. Member of Christchurch City Council. Daughter of TedThe Hutchison family (father-son) William Hutchison Member of Parliament 1879–84 and 1890–96. Mayor of Wellington George Hutchison – Member of Parliament 1887–1901, son of WilliamThe Izard family (father-son) Charles Beard Izard – Member of Parliament from 1887 to 1890 Charles Hayward Izard – Member of Parliament from 1905 to 1908, son of Charles BeardThe Jeffries brothersJohn Jeffries – Wellington City Councillor 1962–74, Deputy Mayor 1971–74 Bill Jeffries – Wellington City Councillor 1974–80, Member of Parliament for Heretaunga 1981–90, brother of JohnThe Kirk family (father-son-great-niece) Norman Kirk – Member of Parliament (1957–1974) and Prime Minister John Kirk – Member of Parliament (1974–84), son of Norman Jo Luxton – Member of Parliament (2017–present), great-niece of NormanThe Lange–Bassett family (Bassett was a cousin of Lange) David Lange – Prime Minister of New Zealand (1984–89) Michael Bassett – Member of Parliament (1972–75, 1978–90) and Cabinet Minister (1984–90), cousin of DavidThe Lee family (father-daughter) Graeme Lee – Member of Parliament (1981–96) and Cabinet Minister Denise Lee – Member of Parliament (2017–20), Auckland Councilor (2013–17), daughter of GraemeThe Levin family (father-son) Nathaniel Levin – Member of Legislative Council 1869–71 William Levin – Member of Parliament for Wellington 1879–84, son of NathanielThe Luxton family (father-son) Jack Luxton – Member of Parliament for Piako (seat renamed Matamata) 1966–87 John Luxton – Member of Parliament for Matamata 1987–99 and Cabinet Minister 1990–99, son of JackThe McCombs family (husband-wife-son) James McCombs – Member of Parliament (1913–1933) Elizabeth McCombs – first woman Member of Parliament (1933–1935) Terry McCombs – Member of Parliament (1935–51) and Cabinet Minister, son of James and Elizabeth All three were members of Christchurch City Council.The MacIntyre family (father-son) Duncan MacIntyre – Deputy Prime Minister Hamish MacIntyre – Member of Parliament 1990–93, son of DuncanThe Mackenzie family (father-son) Sir Thomas Mackenzie – Prime Minister 1912. Member of Parliament 1887 to 1896 and 1900 to 1912 and Cabinet Minister. High Commissioner in London 1912–20. Sir Clutha Mackenzie – Member of Parliament 1921–22 for Auckland East. Became blind at the age of 20 as a result of action at Gallipoli 1915. Sir Clutha was the son-in-law of Rt. Hon. George Forbes. Son of Sir ThomasThe Mackey family (mother-daughter) Janet Mackey – Member of Parliament for East Coast (1996–2005) Moana Mackey – List Member of Parliament (2003–14), daughter of JanetThe Maher–McCready family (father/son-in-law) Jimmy Maher – Member of Parliament (1946–60) Allan McCready – Member of Parliament (1960–78), Cabinet Minister, husband of Maher's daughter GraceThe Mason–Wilford family (grandfather-grandson) Thomas Mason – Member of Parliament for Hutt 1879–84 Thomas Wilford – Member of Parliament for Hutt 1896–1929, grandson of Thomas and son-in-law of Sir George McLean, Member of Parliament for Waikouaiti 1871–81The Massey family (father-two sons) Bill Massey – Member of Parliament 1894–1925 and Prime Minister 1912–25 Walter Massey – Member of Parliament for Hauraki 1931–35, son of Bill Jack Massey – Member of Parliament for Franklin 1928–35 and 1938–57, son of Bill and brother of WalterThe McClay family (father-son) Roger McClay – Member of Parliament 1981–96 and Cabinet Minister Todd McClay – Member of Parliament 2008–present, Cabinet Minister, son of RogerThe McMillan family (husband-wife) Dr Gervan McMillan – Member of Parliament 1935–43 for Dunedin West and Cabinet Minister. Member of Dunedin City Council Ethel McMillan – Member of Parliament 1953–75 for Dunedin North, wife of GervanThe Montgomery family (father-son) William Montgomery Sr. – Member of Parliament for Akaroa 1874–87 and Minister of Education William Montgomery Jr. – Member of Parliament for Ellesmere 1893–99The Moss family (father-son) Frederick Moss – Member of Parliament for Parnell 1876–90 Edward Moss – Member of Parliament for Ohinemuri 1902–05, son of FrederickThe Myers–Baume family (cousins) Frederick Baume – Member of Parliament for Auckland East Arthur Myers – elected Member of Parliament for Auckland East after Baume died. Mayor of AucklandThe Nash family (great-grandfather-great-grandson) Sir Walter Nash – Member of Parliament 1929–68 and Prime Minister Stuart Nash – Member of Parliament 2008–11, 2014–present and Cabinet MinisterThe Nordmeyer family (father-in-law & son-in-law) Sir Arnold Nordmeyer – Member of Parliament 1935–69 and Cabinet Minister. Leader of the Opposition 1963–65 Jim Edwards – Member of Parliament for Napier 1954–66, husband of Alison Nordmeyer and son-in-law of Sir ArnoldThe O'Connor family (cousins) Damien O'Connor – Member of Parliament (1993–2008, 2009–present), Cabinet Minister Greg O'Connor – Member of Parliament (2017–present), cousin of DamienThe O'Flynn family (father-son) Francis Edward O'Flynn Member of the New Zealand Legislative Council 1937–42 Frank O'Flynn Member of Parliament 1972–75, and 1978–87The Ormond–Wilson family (grandfathers-grandsons) James Wilson – Member of Parliament 1881–96 John Ormond – Member of Parliament 1861–90 Ormond Wilson – Member of Parliament 1935–38 and 1946–49, grandson of James and John Tiaki Omana – Member of Parliament for Eastern Maori 1943–63, grandson of JohnThe Paikea family (father-son) Paraire Paikea – Member of Parliament for Northern Maori 1938–43 Tapihana Paikea – Member of Parliament for Northern Maori 1943–63, son of ParaireThe Parata family (father-son-descendant) Tame Parata – Member of Parliament for Southern Maori 1885–1911 Taare Parata – Member of Parliament for Southern Maori 1911–18, son of Tame Hekia Parata – Member of Parliament 2008–17 and Cabinet Minister, descendant of Tame and TaareThe Peters family (brothers) Ian Peters – National Party Member of Parliament for Tongariro (1990–1993) Jim Peters – New Zealand First Member of Parliament (2002–2005) Winston Peters – Leader of New Zealand First; Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand (1996–98, 2017–20)The Pharazyn family (father-son) Charles Johnson Pharazyn – Member of Legislative Council (1869–85) Robert Pharazyn – Member of Parliament for Rangitikei (1865–66) and Legislative Council (1885–96)The Ratana–Rurawhe family (brothers, wife, grandson) Toko Ratana – Member of Parliament 1935–1944, succeeded by his younger brother Matiu Ratana – Member of Parliament 1944–1949, succeeded by his wife Iriaka Rātana – Member of Parliament 1949–69 (all for Western Maori) Adrian Rurawhe – Member of Parliament for Te Tai Hauauru (successor electorate to Western Maori) 2014–present, grandson of Matiu and IriakaThe Reeves brothersCharles Reeves – Mayor of Dunedin 1876–77 and Dunedin City Councillor 1873–76 Richard Reeves – Member of Parliament for Grey Valley and Inangahua 1878–1893 and Legislative Council 1895–1910 (Speaker 1895), brother of CharlesThe Reeves family (father-son) William Reeves – Member of Parliament 1867–1868 & 1871–1875 William Pember Reeves – Member of Parliament 1887–1896 and Minister of Labour 1891–1896, son of WilliamThe Rhodes family (brothers, father-son-cousin) William Barnard Rhodes – Member of Parliament 1853–55 & 1858–66 Robert Heaton Rhodes – Member of Parliament 1871–74, William's brother Sir Heaton Rhodes – Member of Parliament 1899–1925 and a Cabinet Minister Arthur Rhodes – Member of Parliament and Mayor of ChristchurchThe Richardson–Pearce family (Richardson was Pearce's great-granddaughter) George Pearce – Member of Parliament for Patea 1908–19 Ruth Richardson – Member of Parliament for Selwyn 1981–1994 and Minister of FinanceThe Richmond–Atkinson family (brothers, relation by marriage) James Richmond – Member of Parliament 1860–1870 and a Cabinet Minister, and his brother William Richmond – Member of Parliament 1855–62 and a Cabinet Minister Harry Atkinson – Member of Parliament 1861–91 and Premier several times, related by marriage Arthur Atkinson – Member of Parliament 1899–1902, nephew of HarryThe Rolleston family (father-sons) William Rolleston – Provincial Superintendent, Member of Parliament and Cabinet Minister Frank Rolleston – Member of Parliament for Timaru 1922–28 and Cabinet Minister, son of William John Rolleston – Member of Parliament for Waitomo 1922–28, son of William and brother of FrankThe Seddon family (father-son-daughter) Richard Seddon – Prime Minister of New Zealand (1893–1906) Tom Seddon – Member of Parliament for Westland 1906–22 and 1925–28, son of Richard Elizabeth Gilmer – Wellington City Councilor 1941–53, daughter of RichardThe Semple family (husband-wife) Bob Semple – Member of Parliament 1918–19, 1928–54 and Cabinet Minister. Margaret Semple – Wellington City Councilor 1938–41, wife of BobThe Sidey family (father-son) Sir Thomas Sidey – Member of Parliament for Caversham and Dunedin South 1901–28, Cabinet Minister and Member of Legislative Council 1928–33 Sir Stuart Sidey – Mayor of Dunedin 1959–65 and Dunedin City Councilor 1947–83The Smith family (father-son) Edward Smith – Member of Parliament 1890–96 and 1899–1907 Sydney Smith – Member of Parliament 1918–25 and 1928–38 and Cabinet Minister, son of EdwardThe Smith family (father-son) J. Valentine Smith – Member of Parliament 1855–1858 Harold Smith – Member of Parliament 1916–1919, son of J. ValentineThe Stewart family (father-son) William Downie Stewart Sr – Member of Parliament Dunedin West 19th Century William Downie Stewart Jr – Member of Parliament 1914–1935 Dunedin West, Minister of Finance 1931–1933 and Mayor of Dunedin 1913–1914The Sutton family (brothers) Jim Sutton – Member of Parliament (1984–90, 1993–2006) and Cabinet Minister (1990, 1999–2006) Bill Sutton – Member of Parliament (1984–90), brother of JimThe Tamihere–Waititi family (father/son-in-law) John Tamihere – Labour Member of Parliament (1999–2005), Cabinet Minister, Māori Party Co-leader (2020) Rawiri Waititi – Māori Party Member of Parliament and Co-leader (2020–present), married to Tamihere's daughter KiriThe Taylor family (father-son) Tommy Taylor – Member of Parliament and Mayor of Christchurch 1911 Ted Taylor – Christchurch City Councilor 1968–71, son of TommyThe Tirikatene family (father-daughter-nephew/grandson) Sir Eruera Tirikatene – Member of Parliament (1932–67) and Cabinet Minister (1943–49, 1957–60) Whetu Tirikatene-Sullivan – Member of Parliament (1967–96) and Cabinet Minister (1972–75), daughter of Sir Eruera Rino Tirikatene – Member of Parliament 2011–present, grandson of Sir Eruera and nephew of WhetuThe Tizard family (husband-wife; parents-daughter) Bob Tizard – Member of Parliament (1957–60 and 1963–90), Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance (1974–75) Dame Catherine Tizard – Mayor of Auckland (1983–90) and Governor-General of New Zealand (1990–95), ex-wife of Bob Judith Tizard – Member of Parliament (1993–2008) and Minister, daughter of Bob and Dame CatherineThe Uru brothersHopere Uru – Member of Parliament for Southern Maori 1918–21 Henare Uru – Member of Parliament for Southern Maori 1922–28, brother of HopereThe Wakefield family (father-son-nephew) Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1796–1862) – Member of Parliament Jerningham Wakefield (1820–79) – Member of Parliament Edward Wakefield (1845–1924) – nephew, son of brother Felix Wakefield, Member of Parliament Edward Stafford (1819–1901) Member of Parliament and Premier, married niece Emily, daughter of brother William WakefieldThe Walls family (grandfather-grandson) Robert Walls – MP for Dunedin North 1945-53 Richard Walls – MP for Dunedin North 1975–78, Mayor of Dunedin 1989–95, grandson of RobertThe Ward family (father-son) Sir Joseph Ward – (1887–1930) Member of Parliament and Premier/Prime Minister Vincent Ward – (1930–31) Member of Parliament, son of Sir JosephThe Wetere–Mahuta family (uncle-niece) Koro Wētere – Member of Parliament 1969–96 and Cabinet Minister Nanaia Mahuta – Member of Parliament 1996–present and Cabinet Minister, niece of KoroThe Wilkinson–McLay family (half-brothers) Peter Wilkinson – Member of Parliament (1969–84), Cabinet Minister Jim McLay – Member of Parliament (1975–87), Leader of the Opposition (1984–86), Cabinet Minister, half-brother of PeterThe Young–Bradford family (father-daughter-son/brother-in-law) Bill Young – Member of Parliament 1966–81 and Cabinet Minister Annabel Young – Member of Parliament 1997–2002, daughter of Bill Max Bradford – Member of Parliament 1990–2002 and Cabinet Minister, married to Bill's daughter RosemaryThe Young family (father-son) Venn Young – Member of Parliament 1966 to 1990 and Cabinet Minister Jonathan Young – Member of Parliament for New Plymouth 2008–20, son of Venn NicaraguaThe Argüello family Juan Argüello del Castillo y Guzmán, (1778–1830), Deputy Head of State 1826–7; Head of State 1827–9, son of Narciso Jose Argüello y Monsivais (Cadiz, Spain, 1714-Granada, Nicaragua 1771). Narciso Jose, with his older brother Diego Nicolas Argüello y Monsivais (1706–1770), are the founders of the Argüello family in Nicaragua. Jose Argüello Arce (1821–1897), President of Congress, 1865–6, 1877–79, great grandson of Diego Nicolas Argüello y Monsivais. Angélica Balladares de Argüello,(1872–1973). 1st Lady of the Liberal Party, 1925–1973; Pres.of the Nicaraguan Feminist League 1931–1937; UAW's "Woman of the Americas, Nicaragua Chapter",1959; Congressional Gold Medal 1969 laureate, wife of Guillermo Argüello Vargas. Leonardo Argüello Barreto,(1875–1947) Interior, Education and Foreign Minister; President of Nicaragua, 1947, direct descendant of Narciso Jose Argüello y Monsivais. Guillermo Argüello Vargas, grandson of José Argüello Arce; Minister of Education, 1924–26, Minister of Finance 1928–32; spouse of Angelica Balladares de Argüello Mariano Argüello Vargas (1890–1970) grandson of José Argüello Arce; President of Congress 1937, 1950, 1965; Foreign Minister 1939–41, and 1943–46; Vice-President, 1947 Alejandro Argüello Montiel, (1917-1997) Deputy Head of Congress (1946-8), Signatary of Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty, TIAR. 1947) first cousin of Alejandro Montiel Arguello and direct descendant of Diego Nicolas Arguello y Monsivais. Alejandro Montiel Argüello (1917–2012), Foreign Minister, 1959–63 and 1971–78, nephew of Mariano Argüello Vargas and direct descendant of both Narciso Jose and Diego Nicolas Argüello y Monsivais. Guillermo Argüello Poessy Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs, 2000, Pres. GAO, Comptroller, 2001–2014; nephew of Guillermo Argüello Vargas and great-grandson of José Argüello Arce; Carlos Argüello Gómez (born 1946) Justice Minister 1979–83, Chief Nicaraguan Negotiator and Ambassador to the UN World Court in the Hague, Netherlands, from 1983 to present and direct descendant of both Narciso Jose and Diego Nicolas Argüello y Monsivais. Bertha Marina Argüello Roman (de Rizo), Vice Minister of Family (2000) and of Foreign Affairs (2002), daughter of Guillermo Argüello Poessy. Silvio Argüello Cardenal, Vice-President, 1963–67, direct descendant of Narciso Jose Argüello y Monsivais. Mariángeles Argüello Robelo, Health Minister, 2000–02 direct descendant of Narciso Jose Argüello y Monsivais. Alejandro Argüello Choisell, Minister of Public Works, Industry & Commerce, 2005–2007. direct descendant of Narciso Jose Argüello y Monsivais. Noel Vidaurre Arguello, (1955–) Vice Minister of Finance and Economy 1990–1992, direct descendant of Narciso Jose Argüello y Monsivais.The Chamorro familyThe Sacasa familyRoberto Sacasa Sarria, President of Nicaragua, 1889–91 and 1891–93 Juan Bautista Sacasa Sacasa, son of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria, President of Nicaragua, 1933–36 Crisanto Sacasa Sacasa, nephew of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria, Education Minister, 1933 and 1955 Oscar Sevilla-Sacasa, grandson of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria, Foreign Minister Guillermo Sevilla-Sacasa, grandson of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria, Acting President of Nicaragua, 1936 Benjamín Lacayo Sacasa, Pres. of Nicaragua, 1947 Ramiro Sacasa Guerrero, Secretary of the Presidency, Labour Minister, 1953–5; Education Minister, 1966–8 Noel Sacasa Cruz, great-grandson of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria, Economy, Industry & Commerce Minister, 1999–2001 Esteban Duque-Estrada Sacasa, great-grandson of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria, Minister of Finance, 1999–2001 Francisco Xavier Aguirre Sacasa, great-grandson of Roberto Sacasa Sarria, Foreign Minister, 2000–2002The Ortega-Murillo familyDaniel Ortega, President of Nicaragua (1979–90; 2007–) Rosario Murillo, First Lady and Vice President of Nicaragua (2017–)The Somoza familyAnastasio Somoza García President of Nicaragua, Head of State, 1934–56 Luis Somoza Debayle, son of Pres. Anastasio Somoza García, grandson of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria (see Sacasa family); President of Nicaragua, 1956–63 Anastasio Somoza Debayle, son of Pres. Anastasio Somoza García, grandson of Pres. Roberto Sacasa Sarria (see Sacasa family); President of Nicaragua, 1967–72 and 1974–79 NigerThe Diori family (cousins) Diori Hamani (President) Djibo Bakary (independence leader)The Kountché family (cousins) Seyni Kountché (former military President) Ali Saibou (former military President) NigeriaThe Abubakar Olusola Saraki family (father, son, daughter) Abubakar Olusola Saraki 1979–1983: Senate Leader in Nigerian Senate Abubakar Olubukola Saraki 2003–2007 and 2007–2011: Governor of Kwara State, 2011–2019 : Senator in Nigerian Senate, 2015–2019: Senate President, under trial at code of conduct tribunal over no-disclosure of assets Gbemisola Ruqayyah Saraki 1999–2003: Member of Nigerian House of Representatives, 2003–2007: Senator in Nigerian Senate, 2007–2011: Senator in Nigerian Senate, 2011The Awolowo family and the Osibanjo family (grandfather-in-law, grandson-in-law) Obafemi Awolowo, political activist and politician, premier of the Western Region, Leader of the Opposition in the Federal Parliament Yemi Osibanjo, lawyer and politician, Vice-PresidentThe Ironsi family (father, son) Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi January–July 1966: Nigerian military head of state Thomas Aguiyi Ironsi 2004–2007: Minister of Defense, 2001–2004: Nigerian Ambassador to TogoThe Onyeama family (father, son) Charles Dadi Onyeama 1964–1967: Justice of the Supreme Court of Nigeria Geoffrey Jideofor Kwusike Onyeama 2015–2019: Nigeria's Minister for Foreign Affairs, 2019 (incumbent): Nigeria's Minister for Foreign Affairs. North Macedonia The Crvenkovski family (father-son) Krste Crvenkovski (Secretary of the League of Communists of Macedonia) Stevo Crvenkovski (Foreign minister) NorwayThe Stoltenberg familyAll members of the family are associated with the Norwegian Labour Party Thorvald Stoltenberg (1998–2008: President of the Norwegian Red Cross, 1996–99: Ambassador to Denmark, 1987–89 and 1990–93: Minister of Foreign Affairs), 1990: UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 1979–1981: Minister of Defense. Karin Stoltenberg (wife of Thorvald Stoltenberg) 1986–1987 Junior minister of Trade and Shipping, 1987–88 Junior minister of Business Affairs. Jens Stoltenberg (son of Thorvald Stoltenberg and Karin Stoltenberg) (2000–01, 2005–13 Prime Minister 1993–96 Minister of Trade and Energy 1996–97 Minister Finance and Customs) Leader of the Labour Party 2002–2014, 13th Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 2014–present Ingrid Schulerud (married to Jens Stoltenberg) (has a high-profile diplomatic position in the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs) (21st Norwegian Ambassador to Belgium 2015–present) Johan Jørgen Holst (Thorvald Stoltenberg's brother-in-law, [married to Karin's sister]) (1993–94 Minister of Foreign Affairs and known for leading peace negotiations in the Middle East. 1987–89 and 1991–93 Minister of Defense.) Anne-Catharina Vestly (Ingrid Schulerud aunt) (Writer of literature for children with a left wing and feministic political message, and political advocate for less secrecy toward children about sex)The Gerhardsen familyAll members of the family are associated with the Norwegian Labour Party Einar Gerhardsen (1945–51, 1955–63 and 1963–65 Prime Minister) Rune Gerhardsen (son of Einar Gerhardsen) (1991–96 Leader of the city government in Oslo) Tove Strand (divorced from Rune Gerhardsen and mother of Mina Gerhardsen) (1986–89 Minister of Social Affairs 1990–92 Minister of Employment and Administration) Mina Gerhardsen (daughter of Rune Gerhardsen and Tove Strand and granddaughter of Einar Gerhardsen) (2005–2013 Political advisor for Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg) Eirik Øwre Thorshaug (married to Mina Gerhardsen) (2007–present political advisor for Minister of Justice Knut Storberget)The Harlem familyAll members of the family are associated with the Norwegian Labor Party Gudmund Harlem. Minister of Social Affairs 1955–61 and Minister of Defense, 1961–63 and 1963–65. Gro Harlem Brundtland. Daughter of Gudmund Harlem. Minister of Environmental Affairs 1974–79. Prime Minister three times: February 1981 – October 1981, 1986–89, and 1990–96. Director-General of the World Health Organization, 1998–2003. Hanne Harlem. Daughter of Gudmund Harlem, sister of Gro Harlem Brundtland. Minister of Justice 2000–2001.The Bondevik familyAll members of the family is associated with the Norwegian Christian Democratic Party Kjell Bondevik (uncle of Kjell Magne Bondevik) (1963 Minister of Social Affairs, 1965–71 Minister of Education and Church Affairs) Kjell Magne Bondevik (nephew of Kjell Bondevik) (1997–2000 and 2000–05 Prime Minister, 1989–1990 Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1983–86 Minister of Education and Church Affairs) PakistanBhutto familyZulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Civil Administrator, Prime Minister 1971-1977. Benazir Bhutto, 11th Prime Minister 1988–1990, 13th Prime Minister 1993-1996, Leader of the Opposition, Chairman of the Pakistan Peoples Party. Bilawal Bhutto,Chairman of Pakistan People's Party, Chairperson of the National Assembly Standing Committee for Human Rights.Sharif familyNawaz Sharif, Quaid of Pakistan, Muslim League Leader (Nawaz) , Prime Minister 1990–1993, again Prime Minister 1996–1999, third term 2013-2017. Mian Muhammad Shehbaz Sharif, Chief minister Punjab 1996–199, again chief minister 2008–2013, again chief minister 2013–2018, Opposition leader in National Assembly 2018–present. Maryam Nawaz, Vice President of Muslim League (Nawaz), Chairperson of Prime Minister's Youth Programme. Hamza Shahbaz Sharif Opposition leader in Punjab, Vice President of Muslim League (Nawaz), Member of Provincial Assembly of Punjab, Member of the National Assembly of Pakistan. PalauThe Remengesau family (father-son) Thomas Remengesau, Sr. (President, 1988–89 & 1985, Vice President, 1986–88) Tommy Remengesau (President, 2013–2021 & 2001–09, Vice President 1993–2001, Senator 1989–93 & 2009–13) TJ Imrur Remengesau (Senator 2021–Present)The Tmetuchl-Toriboing familyRoman Tmetuchl (Presidential candidate 1980, 1984 & 1988, Governor of Airai State 1981-1990), Senator of First Congress of Micronesia for the TTPI 1971 - 1979), member of Council of Chiefs as Ngiraked of Tmeleu Clan of Airai State 1979-1999) Mlib Tmetuchl (son, Vice Presidential Candidate (2016) Senator 2009-2017) Johnson Toribiong (nephew, President, 2009–2013, member of Council of Chiefs as Ngiraked of Tmeleu Clan of Airai State 1999-2008) Joel Toribiong (nephew, Senator 2009–2017) Lucius (Lakius) Malsol (nephew, Senator 2003-2005 & 1997-2001)The Whipps family (father-son) Surangel S. Whipps (Presidential candidate (2008), President of the Senate (2001–2009), former Speaker of the House of Delegates (1985–2001), member of Council of Chiefs as Rekemesik of Inglai Clan of Ngatpang State (1997–present)) Surangel S. Whipps, Jr. (son, President 2021–present, Presidential Candidate 2016, Governor of Ngatpang State, Senator (2009–2017), Honorary Consul of South Korea to Palau (2000-2021)) Mason Ngirchechebangel Whipps (son, Senator (2013–present), Speaker of the Airai State Legislature (2008–12), Governor of Ngatpang State) Eric Ksau Whipps (son, Philippine Honorary Consul to Palau (2013–present))The Nakamura family (Brothers-sons) Kuniwo Nakamura (President, Vice President) Aric Nakamura (Senator (2017-2021)) Daiziro Nakamura (Senator) Mamoru Nakamura (Chief Justice) Toshiwo Nakamura (Legislator) PanamaThe Arias familyArnulfo Arias Madrid (President of Panama, 1940–41, 1949–51, and 1968) Mireya Moscoso (wife of Arnulfo Arias Madrid; President of Panama, 1999–2004) Harmodio Arias Madrid (brother of Arnulfo Arias Madrid; President of Panama, 1932–36)The Arosemena family (brothers-in-law) Juan Demóstenes Arosemena (President of Panama, 1936–39) Alcibíades Arosemena (President of Panama, 1951–52)The Boyd family (father-son) Federico Boyd (President of Panama, 1910) Augusto Samuel Boyd (President of Panama, 1939–40)The Chiari-Robles familyRodolfo Chiari (President of Panama, 1924–28) Roberto Francisco Chiari Remón (son of Rodolfo Chiari; President of Panama, 1960–64) Marco Aurelio Robles (nephew of Rodolfo Chiari; President of Panama, 1964–68)The Delvalle family (uncle-nephew) Max Delvalle (Vice President, 1964-48) Eric Arturo Delvalle (President of Panama, 1985–88)The Lewis family (father-son) Gabriel Lewis Galindo (Foreign Minister, 1994–96) Samuel Lewis Navarro (Foreign Minister, 2004–09)The Torrijos family (father-son)Omar Torrijos (Panamanian leader, 1968–81) Martín Torrijos (President of Panama, 2004–09) Papua New GuineaThe Chan family (father-son) Sir Julius Chan, Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea, 1980–1982 and 1994–97 Byron Chan, member of the National Parliament, 2002–presentThe Somare family (father-son) Sir Michael Somare, Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea, 1975–80, 1982–85 and 2002–present Arthur Somare, member of the National Parliament, 1997–present ParaguayThe Argaña familyLuis María Argaña (Vice President, 1998–99) Félix Argaña (son of Luis María Argaña; vice presidential candidate) Nelson Argaña (son of Luis María Argaña; cabinet minister)The Cubas familyRaúl Cubas Grau (President of Paraguay, 1998–99) Carlos Cubas Grau (brother of Raúl Cubas Grau; cabinet minister)The López familyCarlos Antonio López (President of Paraguay, 1844–62) Francisco Solano López (son of Carlos Antonio López; President of Paraguay, 1862–69) PeruThe Acuña family Virgilio Acuña Peralta, Congressman (2011–16) Humberto Acuña Peralta, Governor of Lambayeque (2010–18) César Acuña Peralta, Congressman (2000–06), Mayor of Trujillo (2007–14) and Governor of La Libertad (2015) Carmen Rosa Núñez Campos, Congresswoman (2014–16), former wife of César Acuña Richard Acuña Núñez, Congressman (2011–16), son of César Acuña and Carmen Rosa Núñez.The Andrade family Alberto Andrade, Mayor of Miraflores (1990–96), Mayor of Lima (1996–2002) and Congressman (2006–09) Fernando Andrade, Mayor of Miraflores (1996–99 and 2003–06) and Congressman (2011–16)The Bedoya family Luis Bedoya Reyes, Minister of Justice (1963), Mayor of Lima (1964–1969) and Member of the Constitutional Assembly (1978–79). Luis Bedoya de Vivanco (Mayor of Miraflores (1984–89 and 1999–2011) and Constituent Congressman (1992–1995)), son of Luis Bedoya Reyes Javier Bedoya de Vivanco (Deputy (1985–92) and Congressman (2006–16)), son of Luis Bedoya Reyes Javier Bedoya Denegri (Vice-Mayor of San Isidro (2015–2018)), son of Javier Bedoya de Vivanco and grandson of Luis Bedoya ReyesThe Belaúnde/Diez Canseco family Pedro Diez Canseco (President of Peru, 1863, 1865, and 1868) Víctor Andrés Belaúnde y Diez Canseco (Foreign Minister 1958; Pres. of the United Nations General Assembly, 1959), grandson of Pres. Pedro Diez Canseco Rafael Belaúnde y Diez Canseco (Pres. of the Council of Ministers, 1945–46), grandson of Pres. Pedro Diez Canseco Fernando Belaúnde Terry (President of Peru, 1963–68 and 1980–85), son of Rafael Belaúnde y Diez Canseco, nephew of Victor Andrés Belaunde y Diez Canseco José Antonio García Belaúnde (Foreign Minister, 2006–2011), nephew of Pres. Fernando Beláunde Terry Víctor Andrés García Belaúnde (Deputy, 1980–92, and Congressman, 2006–16), nephew of Pres. Fernando Belaúnde Terry Francisco Diez Canseco (President of Peru, 1872), brother of Pres. Pedro Diez Canseco Manuel Yrigoyen Diez Canseco (Mayor of Lima 1919–20), grandnephew of Pres. Pedro Diez Canseco and Pres. Francisco Diez Canseco Raul Diez Canseco Terry (First Vice President of Peru; resigned in 2004), great-great-grandnephew of Pres. Pedro Diez Canseco and Pres. Francisco Diez Canseco, first cousins twice removed of Manuel Yrigoyen Diez Canseco Javier Diez Canseco (former congressman), great-great-grandnephew of Pres. Pedro Diez Canseco and Pres. Francisco Diez Canseco, first cousins twice removed of Manuel Yrigoyen Diez Canseco, first cousin of Raul Diez Canseco TerryThe Castañeda family Carlos Castañeda Iparraguirre, Mayor of Chiclayo Luis Castañeda Lossio, (Mayor of Lima 2003–10 and 2015–18), son of Carlos CastañedaThe de la Riva-Agüero family José de la Riva Agüero (President of Peru, 1823) José de la Riva-Agüero y Looz Corswaren (Foreign Minister, 1972–1975, Pres. of the Council of Ministers, 1873–74 and Pres. of the Senate, 1878), son of José de la Riva-Agüero Enrique de la Riva-Agüero y Looz Corswaren (Pres. of the Council of Ministers, 1899–1900 and 1915–1917) José de la Riva-Agüero y Osma (Pres. of the Council of Ministers and Justice Minister, 1933–34)The Fujimori family Alberto Fujimori (President of Peru, 1990–2000) Susana Higuchi (First Lady 1990–94, Congresswoman 1995–2006), former wife of President Alberto Fujimori Keiko Fujimori (First Lady 1994–2000, Congresswoman 2006–2011), daughter of President Alberto Fujimori and Susana Higuchi Kenji Fujimori (Congressman 2011–2016), son of President Alberto Fujimori and Susana Higuchi Santiago Fujimori (Congressman 2006–11), brother of President Alberto FujimoriThe García family Carlos García Ronceros, Secretary General of the APRA Nytha Pérez of García, Founding member of the APRA Alan García Pérez, President of Peru (1985–90 and 2006–11), Pres. of Constitutional Assembly (1978–1980), Deputy-President (1980–85) and member of Congress (1990–92)The Morales-Bermúdez family Remigio Morales Bermúdez (President of Peru, 1890–94) Francisco Morales Bermúdez (President of Peru, 1975–80), grandson of Pres. Remigio Morales BermúdezThe Pardo family Manuel Pardo Ribadeneyra (Regent for King Fernando VII's, Cuzco, 1816–19) Felipe Pardo y Aliaga (Foreign Minister, 1855), son of Manuel Pardo Ribadeneyra Manuel Pardo y Lavalle, President of Peru, (1872–76), son of Felipe Pardo y Aliaga José Pardo y Barreda, President of Peru, (1904–08 and 1915–19), Foreign Minister, son of Pres. Manuel Pardo y Lavalle Juan Pardo Heeren (Finance Minister, 1963), son of Pres. Jose Pardo y Barreda José Antonio de Lavalle y Pardo (Foreign Minister, 1882–83), nephew of Pres. Manuel Pardo y Lavalle and grandson of Felipe Pardo y Aliaga Felipe de Osma y Pardo (Foreign Minister, 1891), nephew of Pres. Manuel Pardo y Lavalle and grandson of Felipe Pardo y AliagaThe Prado family Mariano Ignacio Prado Ochoa (President of Peru, 1865, 1865–68 and 1876–79) Javier Prado y Ugarteche (Prime Minister of Peru, 1910; son of Mariano Ignacio Prado) Jorge Prado y Ugarteche (Prime Minister of Peru, 1933; son of Mariano Ignacio Prado) Manuel Prado y Ugarteche (President of Peru, 1939–45 and 1956–62; son of Mariano Ignacio Prado)The Schreiber/Arias Schreiber/Arias Stella family Germán Schreiber Waddington, Prime Minister of Peru (1910, 1914–1915) Diómedes Arias Schreiber, Minister of Justice (1936, 1937–1939), Minister of the Interior (1939), nephew of Germán Schreiber Waddington Ricardo Rivera Schreiber, Minister of Foreign Affairs (1952–1954), Ambassador of Peru to Spain (1943), Italy, and the United Kingdom (1949–1952), nephew of Germán Schreiber Waddington Max Arias-Schreiber Pezet, Minister of Justice (1984), nephew of Diómedes Arias Schreiber and Ricardo Rivera Schreiber, and great-nephew of Germán Schreiber Waddington Javier Arias Stella, Minister of Health (1963–1965, 1967–1968), Minister of Foreign Affairs (1980–1983), President of the United Nations Security Council (1984, 1985), cousin of Diómedes Arias Schreiber and Ricardo Rivera Schreiber, and great-nephew of Germán Schreiber WaddingtonThe Townsend family Andrés Townsend Ezcurra, Deputy (1963–68 and 80–85), Member of the Constitutional Assembly (1978–79) and Senator (1985–90). Anel Townsend Diez Canseco (Congresswoman (1995–2006) and Minister of Woman's Affairs (2003)), daughter of Andrés Townsend Philippines Pitcairn IslandsThe Christian family Fletcher Christian – founding "chief" (1789–93) Steve Christian – Mayor (1999–2004); 7th generation descendant of Fletcher Christian; brother of Brenda Christian. Brenda Christian – Mayor (2004); 7th generation descendant of Fletcher Christian; sister of Steve Christian. Poland Poland is probably the only country in the world where identical twins were head of the government (Prime Minister) and head of state (President) at the same time.The Gierek family (father-son) Edward Gierek – First Secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party (ruling party) 1970–80 Adam Gierek – Member of the European Parliament, former SenatorThe Giertych family (father-son-grandson) Jędrzej Giertych – political leader before WW2 Maciej Giertych – Member of the European Parliament, earlier deputy to Sejm Roman Giertych – Deputy Prime Minister (2006–07), former leader of League of Polish Families (coalition party) 2006–07The Grabski brothers Stanisław Grabski – politician leader before and after WW2 Władysław Grabski – nationalist politician before WW2, Prime Minister of Poland (1920 and 1923–1925)The Kaczyński family (identical twins) Jarosław Kaczyński – Prime Minister of Poland 2006–07, leader of Law and Justice (ruling party) Lech Kaczyński – President of Poland 2005–10, former President of Warsaw (capital city)The Morawiecki family (father-son) Kornel Morawiecki- Was the founder and leader of Fighting Solidarity Mateusz Morawiecki- Prime Minister of PolandThe Wałęsa family (father-son) Lech Wałęsa – President of Poland 1990–95 Jarosław Wałęsa – deputy to Sejm since 2005, former candidate for EP seatThe Wojciechowski family Stanisław Wojciechowski – President of Poland 1922–26 (overthrown by the Piłsudski's coup) Zofia Wojciechowska-Grabska – artist PortugalThe Carmona and Carmona Rodrigues family (granduncle-grandnephew) Óscar Carmona – Head of State António Carmona Rodrigues – Minister of the Public Works, Transportation, and Habitation (2003–04); Mayor of Lisbon (interim) (2004–05); Mayor of Lisbon (2005–07)The Soares family (father-son) Mário Soares – Prime Minister (1976–78; 1983–85) João Soares – Mayor of Lisbon (1995–2001)The Portas family (father-brothers) Nuno Portas – Minister (1970s) Paulo Portas – Minister of State and National Defense (2002–05); former President of Popular Party (1998–2005); Minister of State and Foreign Affairs (2011–2013); Deputy Prime-Minister (2013–2015) Miguel Portas – European Parliament Member, elected by the Left Bloc (2004–12)The Menezes family (father-son) Luís Filipe Menezes – Mayor of Gaia (1997–2013) Luís Menezes – Member of Parliament (2009–2014)The Vieira da Silva family (father-daughter) José António Vieira da Silva - Minister of Economy, Innovation and Development (2009-2011); Minister of Labour, Solidarity and Social Security (2005-2009, 2015-2019) Mariana Vieira da Silva - Minister of Presidency and Administrative Modernization (2018-2019);Minister of State and Presidency (2019-)The Cabrita-Vitorino family (husband-wife) Eduardo Cabrita - Deputy Minister (2015-2017); Minister of Internal Administration (2017-2019, 2019-) Ana Paula Vitorino - Minister of Sea (2015-2019); Member of Parliament (2019-) Puerto RicoThe Calderón familySila María Calderón Serra (Governor, 2001–05) Sila María González Calderón, member of the Puerto Rican SenateThe Hernandez familyJosé Alfredo Hernández Mayoral (former governor candidate) Juan Eugenio Hernández Mayoral (member of Puerto Rico's Senate) Rafael Hernández Colón (Governor, 1973–77, 1985–93)The Muñoz familyLuis Muñoz Rivera (Resident Commissioner, 4 March 1911 – 15 November 1916) Luis Muñoz Marín (Governor, 1948–64) Victoria Muñoz Mendoza (former governor candidate)The Rivera familyRamón Luis Rivera Jr. (mayor of Bayamón) Ramón Luis Rivera Sr. (former mayor of Bayamón)The Pesquera familyLic. Rafael A Pesquera Reguero (former municipal assembly member of Bayamón, former member of Puerto Rico's Senate) Dr.Carlos Ignacio Pesquera Morales (former Secretary of Transportation And Public Works, former governor candidate) Farrique Pesquera Morales (former Vice President of a Puerto Rican Independence Party municipal party committee) Lic.José Lorenzo Pesquera (Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico) Santiago Mari Pesquera (a assassinated pro independence activist) Paquita Pesquera Cantellops (activist, mother of Santiago Mari and founder of Puerto Rican Independence Party) Carlos Pesquera (former Ombudsman) Lic. José Feliú Pesquera (Founder of "Renovación Cristiana" Party) Jorge Pesquera (former Secretary of Tourism) Dr. Héctor Luis Pesquera Sevillano (Co-President of Hostosian National Independence Movement) Hector Pesquera (Police Chief)The Romero familyMelinda Romero Donnelly (ex member of Puerto Rico's Senate) Carlos Romero Barceló (Governor)The Roselló family Pedro Rosselló (Governor, 4 January 2005 – 2 January 2009) Ricky Rosselló (Governor, 2 January 2017 – 2 August 2019) Romania The Brătianu family Dimitrie Brătianu (Prime Minister, 1881) Ion Brătianu (Prime Minister, 1876–81, 1881–88) (brother) Ionel Brătianu (Prime Minister, 1909–11, 1914–18, 1918–19, 1922–26, 1927) (son of Ion Brătianu) Gheorghe I. Brătianu (Leader of the National Liberal Party-Brătianu, 1930–1938) (son of Ionel Brătianu) Vintilă Brătianu (Prime Minister 1927–28) (son of Ion Brătianu) Dinu Brătianu (Finance Minister, 1933–34) (son of Ion Brătianu)The Băsescu family (father, daughter, brother) Traian Băsescu (President, 2004–2014) Elena Băsescu (member of European Parliament, 2009–2014), daughter of Traian, elected by her father's party while he was President Mircea Băsescu, brother of Traian, in jail for corruption (extorsion of money from a mobster chief for promises of justice abuse by his brother's power)The Ponta-Sârbu family (husband, wife, father-in-law) Victor Ponta (Prime Minister, 2012–2015) Daciana Sârbu (Member of European Parliament) Ilie Sârbu (Senator, President of the Senate, Minister of Agriculture) Russia / Soviet Union The Artyukhov family Andrey Artyukhov (b. 1958) Senator from Tyumen Oblast (2002–05), Member of the Tyumen Oblast Duma (since 2007) Dmitry Artyukhov (b. 1988) Governor of Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, son of Andrey ArtyukhovThe Brezhnev-Churbanov family Leonid Brezhnev (1906–82) Leader of the Soviet Union (1964–82) Yuri Brezhnev (1933–2013) First Deputy Minister of Foreign Trade of the USSR, son of Leonid Brezhnev Andrey Brezhnev (1961–2018) First Secretary of the Communist Party of Social Justice (2014–16), son of Yuri Brezhnev Yuri Churbanov (1936–2013) Deputy of Ministers of Interior of the USSR, son-in-law of Leonid BrezhnevThe Budyonny-Peskov family Semyon Budyonny Dmitry Peskov, granddaughter's husbandThe Glazyev-Sinelin-Vityazeva family (brothers-in-law, alumni, co-partisans) Sergei Glazyev Mikhail Sinelin, Head of the Secretariat of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation Yuliya Glazyeva-Sinelina, prime Russian sociology of religion guru (1972–2013) Yuliya Lozanova-Vityazeva, Ukrainian-Russian propagandist (1981-) Oxana Gomzik-Glazyeva, Russian politician (1972-)The Gorbachev family Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931) (Communist Party General Secretary, Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and President of the Soviet Union) Raisa Gorbacheva (1932–99) (First Lady of the Soviet Union who took on a large political and public role, unlike her virtually invisible predecessors), wife of Mikhail GorbachevThe Kadyrov family Akhmad Kadyrov (1951–2004) 1st President of the Chechen Republic (2003–2004) Ramzan Kadyrov (b. 1976) 3rd Head of the Chechen Republic (since 2007), son of Akhmad KadyrovThe Khristenko-Golikova family Viktor Khristenko (b. 1957) Minister of Industry and Trade of Russian Federation, husband of Tatyana Golikova Tatyana Golikova (b. 1966) Minister of Health and Social Development of Russian Federation, wife of Viktor KhristenkoThe Kokov family Valery Kokov (1941–2005) 1st President of Kabardino-Balkaria (1992–2005) Kazbek Kokov (b. 1973) Acting Head of Kabardino-Balkaria since 2018, son of Valery KokovThe Kondratenko family Nikolai Kondratenko (1940–2013) Governor of Krasnodar Krai (1997–2001) Alexey Kondratenko (b. 1969) Senator from Krasnodar Krai (since 2015), Member of the Legislative Assembly of Krasnodar Krai (2007–2015), son of Nikolai KondratenkoThe Kosygin-Primakov family (somebodies-in-law via two marriages) Alexei Kosygin (1904–80) (Premier of the Soviet Union) Germen Gvishiani (1928–2003) (Professor), son of a former NKVD Lieutenant General, son-in-law of Alexei Kosygin Yevgeny Primakov (1929–2015) (Foreign Minister in 1996–98 and Prime Minister of Russia in 1998–99), brother-in-law of Germen Gvishiani Yevgeny Primakov Jr. (b. 1976) (Member of the State Duma since 2018), grandson of Yevgeny PrimakovThe Lebed family Alexander Lebed (1950–2002) 1996 Russian presidential candidate, Secretary of the Security Council (1996), Governor of Krasnoyarsk Krai (1998–2002), brother of Aleksey Lebed Aleksey Lebed (b. 1955) Head of Khakassia (1997–2009), brother of Alexander LebedThe Magomedov family Magomedali Magomedov (b. 1930) 1st President of Dagestan (1994–2006) Magomedsalam Magomedov (b. 1964) 3rd Head of Dagestan (2010–2013), son of Magomedali MagomedovThe Patrushev family Nikolai Patrushev (b. 1951) Secretary of the Security Council of Russia (since 2008), Director of the Federal Security Service (1999–2008) Dmitry Patrushev (b. 1977) Minister of Agriculture (since 2018), son of Nikolai PatrushevThe Sobchak-Narusova family Anatoly Sobchak (1937–2000) (mayor of Saint Petersburg) Lyudmila Narusova (b. 1951) (senator and MP), widow of Anatoly Sobchak Ksenia Sobchak (b. 1981), 2018 Russian presidential candidate, daughter of Anatoly Sobchak and Lyudmila NarusovaThe Shoygu family Kuzhuget Shoygu (1921–2010) First Deputy Prime Minister of Tuvan ASSR Sergey Shoygu (b. 1955) Russian Minister of Defense (since 2012), Governor of Moscow Oblast (2012) and Minister of Emergency Situations, son of Kuzhuget Shoygu Yulia Shoygu (b. 1977) Director of Center of Emergency Psychological Aid of EMERCOM of Russia (since 2002), daughter of Sergey Shoygu Larisa Shoygu (1953–2021) Member of the State Duma between 2007 and 2021, daughter of Kuzhuget ShoyguThe Stalin-Zhdanov family (fathers of spouses) Joseph Stalin (1878–1953) (Soviet leader) Andrey Zhdanov (1896–1948) (member of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) Svetlana Alliluyeva (b. 1926), daughter of Joseph Stalin, daughter-in-law of Andrey ZhdanovThe Tkachov family Alexey Tkachov (b. 1957) Member of the State Duma (since 2003), brother of Alexander Tkachov Alexander Tkachov (b. 1960) Minister of Agriculture (2015–18), Governor of Krasnodar Krai (2001–15), brother of Alexey Tkachov Roman Batalov (b. 1985) Member of the Legislative Assembly of Krasnodar Krai (2007–2017), son-in-law of Alexander TkachovThe Trotsky-Kamenev family (brothers-in-law) Leon Trotsky (1879–1940) (People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs, People's Commissar for Army and Navy Affairs) Lev Kamenev (1883–1936) (Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets), brother-in-law of TrotskyThe Udaltsov family Ivan Udaltsov (1918–95) Soviet Ambassador to Greece (1976–79) Alexander Udaltsov (b. 1951) Russian Ambassador to Lithuania (since 2013), Slovakia (2005–10) and Latvia (1996–2001), son of Ivan Udaltsov Sergey Udaltsov (b. 1977) leader of Left Front, grandson of Ivan Udaltsov and nephew of Alexander UdaltsovThe Vorobyov family Yury Vorobyov (b. 1948) Senator from Vologda Oblast (since 2007) Andrey Vorobyov (b. 1970) Governor of Moscow Oblast (since 2012), son of Yury VorobyovThe Yeltsin family (father-in-law and son-in-law) Boris Yeltsin, President of Russia (1991–99) Tatyana Yeltsin-Yumashev (b. 1960), daughter of Boris Yeltsin Valentin Yumashev (b. 1957), chief of the Presidential administration of Russia, husband of Tatyana Oleg Deripaska (b. 1968) (one of the richest Russian citizens), son-in-law of Valentin Yumashev (by the former marriage)The Zhirinovsky-Lebedev family Vladimir Zhirinovsky (b. 1946) Leader of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (since 1992), Member of the State Duma since 1993, 6 times Russian presidential candidate Igor Lebedev (b. 1972) Member of the State Duma since 1999, son of Vladimir ZhirinovskyThe Zubkov-Serdyukov family (father-in-law and son-in-law) Viktor Zubkov (b. 1941) (Prime Minister of Russia September 2007 – May 2008) Anatoliy Serdyukov (b. 1962) (Defence Minister of the Russian Federation from February 2007), son-in-law of Viktor Zubkov Zhukov daughter and vasilevski son spouses Lebed brothersThe Zyuganov family Gennady Zyuganov (b. 1944) Leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (since 1993), Member of the State Duma since 1993, four times Russian presidential candidate Leonid Zyuganov (b. 1988) Member of the Moscow City Duma since 2014, grandson of Gennady Zyuganov RwandaThe Habyarimana family and Kayibanda familyGrégoire Kayibanda (former President) Juvénal Habyarimana (Godfather of Kayibanda's son; former President) Agathe Habyarimana (wife of Juvénal Habyarimana and partner-in-power) Saint LuciaThe Cenac family (brother) Winston Cenac (Prime Minister of Saint Lucia, 1981–82) Neville Cenac (Foreign Minister, 1987–92)The Lewis family (father-son) Sir Allen Lewis (Governor-General of Saint Lucia, 1979–80 and 1982–87) Vaughan Lewis (Prime Minister of Saint Lucia, 1996–97) São Tomé and PríncipeThe Costa Alegre familyNorberto Costa Alegre (Prime Minister, 1992–94) Alda Bandeira (wife of Norberto Costa Alegre; Foreign Minister, 1991–93 and 2002)The Trovoada family (father-son)Miguel Trovoada (President, 1991–2001) Patrice Trovoada (Prime Minister, 2008 and 2010–present) SenegalThe Wade family (father-son) Abdoulaye Wade (President of Senegal, 2000–12) Karim Wade (Energy minister) SeychellesThe Ferrari familyMaxime Ferrari (opposition leader) Jean-François Ferrari (son of Maxime Ferrari; Seychelles National Party activist) Pauline Ferrari (daughter of Maxime Ferrari) Sierra LeoneThe Margai brothersMilton Margai (Prime Minister, 1961–64) Albert Margai (Prime Minister, 1964–67) SingaporeThe Lee family (Singapore)Lee Kuan Yew (Prime Minister of Singapore, 1959–1990) Lee Hsien Loong (son of Lee Kuan Yew; Prime Minister of Singapore, 2004– ) Slovenia The Kardelj-Maček family Edvard Kardelj (1910–1979) Member of Presidency of Yugoslavia (1974–1979), President of the Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia (1963–1967), Deputy Prime Minister of Yugoslavia (1946–1963), Minister of Foreign Affairs of Yugoslavia (1948–1953) Igor Šoltes (1964–, grandson of Edvard Kardelj) President of the Court of Auditors (2004–2013), Member of the European Parliament (2014–2019) Pepca Kardelj (1914–1990, wife of Edvard Kardelj) Ivan Maček – Matija (1908–1993, brother Pepca Kardelj, brother-in-law of Edvard Kardelj) President of the People's Assembly of SR Slovenia (1963–1967), Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Interior of SR Slovenia (1945–1953), Member of Federal Yugoslav Government (1953–1963)The Oman-Podobnik family Ivan Oman (1929–2019) Member of the Presidency of Slovenia (1990–1992), Member of the National Assembly of Slovenia (1992–1996) Marjan Podobnik (1960–, son-in-law of Ivan Oman) Deputy Prime Minister of Slovenia (1996–2000), Member of the National Assembly of Slovenia (1990–1996) Janez Podobnik (1959–, brother of Marjan Podobnik) Speaker of the National Assembly (1996–2000), Minister of Environment and Spatial Planning (2004–2008), Member of the National Assembly (1992–2000), Mayor of idrija (1990–1994), Mayor of Cerkno (1994–1998) Solomon IslandsThe Chan family (father–son) Tommy Chan (Member of Parliament and businessman) Laurie Chan Foreign Minister, 2002–2006)The Kemakeza family (siblings)Sir Allan Kemakeza (Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands, 2001–2006, Member of Parliament 1989–2010) Ataban Tonezepo (brother of Sir Allan Kemakeza; Premier of Central province)The Kenilorea family (father–son) Peter Kenilorea, Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands (1978–1981, 1984–1986) Peter Kenilorea Jr. (son), Member of Parliament (since 2019) SomaliaSharmarke family (father-son) Abdirashid Ali Shermarke (President, 1967–69) Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke (Prime Minister, 2009–10)Barre family (brothers) Muhammad Siad Barre (President, 1969–91) Abdirahman Jama Barre (Foreign Minister, 1977–87) South AfricaThe De Klerk familyJohannes de Klerk (Minister of Home Affairs 1961–1966) Frederik Willem de Klerk (State President 1989–1994) The Mandela family and Machel familyNelson Mandela – President (1994–99) Winnie Madikizela-Mandela – political activist; 2nd wife of Nelson Mandela Graça Machel – First Lady of Mozambique (1975–83) and South Africa (1998–99); widow of Samora Machel; 3rd wife of Nelson Mandela Samora Machel – President of Mozambique (1975–83); first husband of Graça MachelThe Marte family Otto-Carl Marte Laura-Marie Marte Eric Marte Matthew MarteThe Matthews family and the Pandor family ZK Matthews, political activist and educator in South Africa, Motswana ambassador to the United States Joe Matthews, political activist and politician in South Africa, Motswana deputy attorney-general Naledi Pandor, South African political activist and politician, minister of international relations and cooperation, chairperson of the National Council of ProvincesThe Mbeki familyGovan Mbeki Epainette Mbeki (mother) Thabo Mbeki (son) Moeletsi Mbeki (son)The Ngcuka family (husband-wife) Bulelani Ngcuka Phumzile Mlambo-NgcukaThe Sisulu family Walter Sisulu Albertina Sisulu Zwelakhe Sisulu (son) Lindiwe Sisulu (daughter) Max Sisulu (son) Elinor Sisulu (daughter-in-law)The Slovo family and First families (husband-wife) Joe Slovo – Communist leader Ruth FirstThe Tambo family Oliver Tambo Adelaide Tambo Dali TamboThe Zuma family (ex-spouses) Jacob Zuma, President of South Africa (2009–2018) Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, former Foreign Minister of South Africa Spain The Primo de Rivera family – is a Spanish military family prominent in politics of the 19th and 20th centuries: Joaquín Primo de Rivera y Pérez de Acal (1734–†1800), serviceman and Spanish Colonial Governor of Maracaibo (Venezuela), father of: Joaquín Primo de Rivera y Ortiz de Pinedo (1786–†1819), Spanish Colonel, fought in the Peninsular War against the French and in the Spanish American wars of independence against the Army of the Andes in Chile; José Primo de Rivera y Ortiz de Pinedo (1777–†1853), Serviceman and Congressmen, father of: Fernando Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte (1831–†1921), Serviceman and Politician; Miguel Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte (1826–†1898), Serviceman, father of: Fernando Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja (1879–†1921), Serviceman; Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja (1870–†1930), Serviceman, Politician and Dictator of Spain. Father of: José Antonio Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia (1903–†1936), polítician during the Spanish Second Republic, founded the fascist Falange Española party; Pilar Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia (1907–†1991), Leader of the women's section of the Falange Española; Miguel Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia (1904–†1964), Minister during the regime of Francisco Franco; Fernando Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia (1908–†1936), father of: Miguel Primo de Rivera y Urquijo (1934–†2018), Mayor of Jerez de la Frontera (1965–71) during the regime of Francisco Franco The Aznar family Manuel Aznar Zubigaray (Echalar, Navarra, 1894 – Madrid, 1975) Basque nationalist journalist, joined the Nationalist military revolt during the Spanish Civil War and joined Falange Española, father of: Manuel (Imanol) Aznar Acedo (1916–2001), Falangist journalist, father of: José María Aznar, fourth Prime Minister of Spain from 1996 to 2004 relative of: Ana Botella (wife) mayor of Madrid The Suarez family Adolfo Suarez, first Prime minister of Spain (1975–81) Adolfo Suarez Yllana, Politician Sri Lanka SyriaThe Assad familyHafez al-Assad (President of Syria, 1971–2000) Bashar al-Assad (son of Hafez al-Assad; President of Syria, 2000– ) Basil al-Assad (son of Hafez al-Assad) Rifaat al-Assad (brother of Hafez al-Assad)The Atassi familyHashim al-Atassi Nureddin al-AtassiThe al-Azm familyKhalid al-Azm Haqqi al-Azm SwedenHouse of BernadotteFolke Bernadotte diplomat and politician and he is noted for his negotiation for the release of prisoners from the German concentration camps in World War II, grandson of King Oscar II and nephew of King Gustaf V.Bildt familyGillis Bildt (1820–94), Swedish independent Conservative politician, Prime Minister of Sweden 1888–89.Knut Gillis Bildt, Swedish Army general, member of parliament for eight years.Carl Bildt, leader of the Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party 1986–99, Prime Minister of Sweden 1991–94, European Union Special Envoy to Former Yugoslavia 1995 and Minister for Foreign Affairs 2006–14, former son-in-law of Gösta Bohman, great-great-grandson of Gillis Bildt.Anna Maria Corazza Bildt, Italian-Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party politician, Member of the European Parliament since 2009, wife of Carl BildtBodström familyLennart Bodström, social democratic Minister for Foreign Affairs 1982–85 and Minister for Education 1985–89.Thomas Bodström, social democratic Minister for Justice 2000–06, son of Lennart BodströmBohman familyGösta Bohman, leader of the Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party from 1970 to 1981, Minister for the Economy 1976–78 and 1979–81Mia Bohman, Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party politician, former wife of Carl Bildt, daughter of Gösta BohmanCederschiöld familyCarl Cederschiöld, Conservative Mayor of Stockholm 1991–94 and 1998–2002Charlotte Cederschiöld, Conservative Member of Parliament 1988–95 and Member of the European Parliament 1995–2009, married to Carl CederschiöldSebastian Cederschiöld, Conservative Member of Parliament 2006, son of Charlotte and Carl CederschiöldDe Geer familyLouis De Geer the elder (1818–96), Justice Prime Minister 1858–70, Prime Minister of Sweden 1876–80Louis De Geer the younger (1854–1935), Prime Minister of Sweden 1920–1921, son of Louis De Geer the elderGerard De Geer (1858–1943), Member of Parliament 1900–05, son of Louis De Geer the olderGerard De Geer (1889–1980), liberal Member of Parliament 1937–43 and 1951–58, grandson of a brother to Louis De Geer the elderLars De Geer (1922–2002), liberal Minister of Defence 1978–79, son of Gerard De Geer (1889–1980)Douglas familyGustaf Douglas, member of the board of Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party 2002–14. Walburga Habsburg Douglas, Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party Member of Parliament 2006–14.Hammarskjöld familyHjalmar Hammarskjöld, Prime Minister of Sweden 1914–17Dag Hammarskjöld, cabinet minister without portfolio 1951–53, UN Secretary General 1953–61, son of Hjalmar HammarskjöldHeckscher familyGunnar Heckscher, Conservative Party leader 1961–65Sten Heckscher, social democratic Minister of Industry and Employment 1994–96, son of Gunnar HeckscherLeijon familyAnna-Greta Leijon, Social Democratic cabinet minister 1973–76 and 1982–88Britta Lejon, Social Democratic cabinet minister 1998–2002, Member of Parliament 2002–06, daughter of Anna-Greta LeijonMyrdal familyGunnar Myrdal, Social Democratic cabinet minister 1945–47Alva Myrdal, Social Democratic cabinet minister 1966–73, wife of Gunnar MyrdalJan Myrdal, author and independent communist political writer and columnist, son of Alva and Gunnar MyrdalOhlin familyBertil Ohlin, party leader of the liberal Folkpartiet 1944–67, minister of commerce in the wartime government 1944–45.Anne Wibble, representing the same party, Minister of Finance in 1991–94, daughter of Bertil Ohlin.Reinfeldt familyFredrik Reinfeldt, leader of the Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party since 2003, Prime Minister of Sweden 2006-2014.Filippa Reinfeldt, Swedish Liberal Conservative Moderate Party politician, former Mayor of Täby, and since 2006 Health Service Commissioner of the Stockholm County, former wife of Fredrik Reinfeldt (1992–2012)Wallenberg familyKnut Wallenberg (1853–1938), banker, Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs 1914–17Raoul Wallenberg (1912–47?) businessman and diplomat, he helped many Hungarian Jews during the later stages of World War II, by issuing temporary Swedish "protective passports", grandnephew of Knut Wallenberg. ThailandVejjajiva family Long Vejjajiva, Minister for Health Affairs (1959–1969) Athasit Vejjajiva, Deputy Minister for Health Affairs (1991–1992) Abhisit Vejjajiva, Leader of Democrat Party (Thailand), Prime Minister of Thailand (2008–2011) Suranand Vejjajiva (cousin of Abhisit), former exco member for Thai Rak Thai, former Member of Parliament Nitsai Vejjajiva, former Thai ambassador to MalaysiaShinawatra family Thaksin Shinawatra, former Prime Minister of Thailand (2001–2006), since he was overthrown in 2006, he has lived in exile. Brother to Yingluck Shinawatra. Panthongtae Shinawatra, Thai politician and businessman. Son to Thaksin Shinawatra. Yingluck Shinawatra, former Prime Minister of Thailand (2011–2014), leader of Pheu Thai Party. Sister to Thaksin Shinawatra Somchai Wongsawat, Thai politician, former Prime Minister of Thailand (2008). Brother-in-law to Thaksin and Yingluck Shinawatra. TogoThe Gnassingbé familyGnassingbé Eyadema (President of Togo, 1967–2005) Fauré Gnassingbé (son of Gnassingbé Eyadema; President of Togo, 2005–) Kpatcha Gnassingbé (son of Gnassingbé Eyadema; minister of defence)The Olympio familySylvanus Olympio (President of Togo, 1960–63) Gilchrist Olympio (son of Sylvanus Olympio; leader, Union of Forces for Change) Harry Olympio (distant cousin of Gilchrist Olympio; opposition party leader) Trinidad and TobagoThe Capildeo familySimbhoonath Capildeo (1914–90) Rudranath Capildeo (1920–70) Surendranath CapildeoThe Fitzpatrick familyGeorge F. Fitzpatrick (1875–1920) Hon. George Fitzpatrick IIThe Sinanan familyAshford Sastri Sinanan (1923–1994) Mitra Sinanan The Panday familyBasdeo Panday (1933–present) Subhas Panday Mickela PandayThe Maraj/Maharaj familyBhadase Sagan Maraj Satnarayan Maharaj TunisiaThe Bourguiba familyHabib Bourguiba (President of Tunisia, 1957–87) Habib Bourguiba, Jr. (son of Habib Bourguiba; Foreign Minister, 1964–70) TurkeyThe Ağaoğlu family Ahmet Ağaoğlu (1869–1939) (Member of Parliament, 1923–31) Tezer Taşkıran (1907–1979) (Member of Parliament, 1943–54) Samet Ağaoğlu (1909–1982) (Son of Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Deputy Prime Minister, 1950–52) Neriman Ağaoğlu (1912–1984) (Wife of Samet Ağaoğlu, Member of Parliament, 1961–69)The Ağar family (father-son) Mehmet Ağar (born 1951) (Minister of Justice, 1996; Minister of Interior, 1996) Tolga Ağar (born 1975) (Member of Parliament, 2018–present)The Akçal family Yusuf İzzet Akçal (1906–1987) (Member of Parliament, 1950–60, 1977–80) Erol Yılmaz Akçal (1931–2016) (Son of Yusuf İzzet Akçal; Minister of Culture and Tourism, 1971–73) Mesut Yılmaz (1944–2020) (Nephew of Yusuf İzzet Akçal; Prime Minister, 1991, 1996, 1997–99)The Albayrak familySadık Albayrak (born 1942) (Candidate for Parliament in 1977, 1991 and 1995 general elections) Berat Albayrak (born 1978) (Son of Sadık Albayrak, Son-in-law of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan; Minister of Finance and Treasury, 2018–20) Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (born 1954) (Prime Minister, 2003–14; President, 2014–present)The Arıburun family Naci Eldeniz (1875–1948) (Member of Parliament, 1927–46) Perihan Arıburun (1913–2001) (Daughter of Naci Eldeniz; Member of Parliament, 1957–60) Tekin Arıburun (1903–1993) (Husband of Perihan Arıburun; Chairman of the Senate, 1970–77; Acting President, 1973) Hikmet Bayur (1891–1980) (Cousin of Perihan Arıburun; Minister of National Education, 1933–34)The Bayar family Celal Bayar (1883–1986) (Prime Minister, 1937–39; President, 1950–60) Ahmet İhsan Gürsoy (1913–2008) (Son-in-law of Celal Bayar; Member of Parliament, 1946–60) Nilüfer Gürsoy (born 1921) (Daughter of Celal Bayar; Member of Parliament, 1965–69, 1973–80) The Bölükbaşı family (father-son) Osman Bölükbaşı (1913–2002) (Member of Parliament, 1950–73) Deniz Bölükbaşı (1949–2018) (Member of Parliament, 2007–11)The Bucak family (uncle-nephew) Mehmet Celal Bucak (1936–1983) (Member of Parliament, 1973–80) Sedat Bucak (born 1960) (Member of Parliament, 1991–2002)The Çiçek family (cousins) Cemil Çiçek (born 1946) (Speaker of the Grand National Assembly, 2011–2015) Mehmet Çiçek (born 1946) (Member of Parliament, 1999–2011)The Demirtaş family (brothers) Nurettin Demirtaş (born 1972) (Leader of the Democratic Society Party, 2007–2008) Selahattin Demirtaş (born 1973) (Candidate for presidency in 2014 and 2018)The Ecevit family (spouses) Bülent Ecevit (1925–2006) (Prime Minister, 1974, 1977, 1978–79 and 1999–2002) Rahşan Ecevit (1923–2020) (Leader of the Democratic Leftist Party, 1985–87)The Erbakan family (father-son) Necmettin Erbakan (1926–2011) (Prime Minister, 1996–97) Fatih Erbakan (born 1979) (Leader of New Welfare Party 2018–present)The Gülek family (father-daughter) Kasım Gülek (1905–1996) (Secretary General of the Republican People's Party, 1950–59) Tayyibe Gülek (born 1969) (Minister of State, 2002)The İslam–Kavakçı family Nadir Latif İslam (born 1930) (Member of Parliament, 1973–77) Ayşenur İslam (born 1958) (Daughter-in-law of Nadir Latif İslam; Minister of Family and Social Policy 2013–15) Nazır Cihangir İslam (born 1959) (Son of Nadir Latif İslam; Member of Parliament, 2018–present) Merve Kavakçı (born 1968) (Former husband of Nazır Cihangir İslam; Member-elect of Parliament, 1999) Ravza Kavakçı Kan (born 1972) (Sister of Merve Kavakçı; Member of Parliament, 2015–present)The İnönü family İsmet İnönü (1884–1973) (President, 1938–50; Prime Minister, 1923–24, 1925–37 and 1961–65) Erdal İnönü (1926–2007) (Son of İsmet İnönü; Deputy Prime Minister, 1991–93; Acting Prime Minister, 1993) Ayşe Gülsün Bilgehan (born 1957) (Granddaughter of İsmet İnönü; Member of Parliament, 2002–07, 2011–18) Hayri İnönü (born 1954) (Grandson of İsmet İnönü; Mayor of Şişli, 2014–19)The Melen family (father-son) Ferit Melen (1906–1988) (Prime Minister, 1972–73) Mithat Melen (1947–2020) (Member of Parliament, 2007–11)The Menderes family (father-sons) Adnan Menderes (1899–1961) (Prime Minister, 1950–60) Yüksel Menderes (1930–1972) (Member of Parliament, 1965–72) Mutlu Menderes (1937–1978) (Member of Parliament, 1973–78) Aydın Menderes (1946–2011) (Member of Parliament, 1977–80, 1995–2002)The Öcalan familyDilek Öcalan (born 1987) (Member of Parliament, 2015–2018) Ömer Öcalan (born 1987) (Member of Parliament, 2018–present)The Özal family Turgut Özal (1927–1993) (Prime Minister, 1983–89; President, 1989–93) Semra Özal (born 1934) (Wife of Turgut Özal; Head of the Provincial Organization of ANAP in Istanbul, 1991–92) Korkut Özal (1929–2016) (Brother of Turgut Özal; Minister of Agriculture and Forestry, 1974, 1975–77; Minister of the Interior, 1977–78) Yusuf Bozkurt Özal (1940–2001) (Brother of Turgut Özal; Member of Parliament, 1987–95) Ahmet Özal (born 1955) (Son of Turgut Özal; Member of Parliament, 1999–2002) İbrahim Reyhan Özal (born 1965) (Son of Yusuf Bozkurt Özal; Member of Parliament, 2002–07) Hüsnü Doğan (born 1944) (Nephew of Turgut Özal; Minister of National Defense, 1990–91)The Öztrak family Mehmet Faik Öztrak (1882–1951) (Minister of the Interior, 1939–42) Orhan Öztrak (1914–1995) (Son of Mehmet Faik Öztrak; Minister of the Interior, 1963–65) İlhan Öztrak (1925–1992) (Son of Mehmet Faik Öztrak; Minister of State, 1971–74, 1980–83; Secretary General of the Turkish Presidency, 1980) Faik Öztrak (born 1954) (Grandson of Mehmet Faik Öztrak and Son of Orhan Öztrak; Member of Parliament, 2007–present)The Pakdemirli family (father-son) Ekrem Pakdemirli (1939–2015) (Deputy Prime Minister, 1991) Bekir Pakdemirli (born 1973) (Minister of Agriculture and Forestry, 2018–present)The Perinçek family (father-son) Sadık Perinçek (1915–2000) (Member of Parliament, 1954–57, 1961–73) Doğu Perinçek (born 1942) (Leader of Patriotic Party, 1991–present, perennial candidate)The Sazak family Emin Sazak (1982–1960) (Member of Parliament, 1920–50) Gün Sazak (1932–1980) (Son of Emin Sazak; Minister of Customs and Monopolies, 1977–78) Süleyman Servet Sazak (born 1955) (Son of Gün Sazak; Member of Parliament, 1999–2002) Cem Boyner (born 1955) (Son-in-law of Gün Sazak; Leader of New Democracy Movement, 1994–96)The Türkeş family Alparslan Türkeş (1917–1997) (Deputy Prime Minister, 1975–77, 1977–78) Tuğrul Türkeş (born 1954) (Son of Alparslan Türkeş; Member of Parliament, 2007–present; Deputy Prime Minister, 2015–17) Ahmet Kutalmış Türkeş (born 1978) (Son of Alparslan Türkeş; Member of Parliament, 2011–15) Hamza Hamit Homriş (1944–2016) (Son-in-law of Alparslan Türkeş; Member of Parliament, 2007–11) TuvaluThe Latasi family Sir Kamuta Latasi (Prime Minister of Tuvalu, 1993–96) Lady Naama Maheu Latasi (wife of Kamuta Latasi; Member of Parliament) UgandaThe Obote family Milton Obote (1924–2005), Prime Minister (1962–67), President (1967–71, 1981–85). Miria Obote (President of the Uganda People's Congress 2005–10), wife of Milton Obote. Jimmy Akena (Member of Parliament), son of Milton and Miria Obote. Betty Amongi Ongom (Member of Parliament and Cabinet Minister of Lands, Housing and Urban Development), wife of Jimmy Akena and daughter-in-law of Milton and Miria Obote. Akbar Adoko Nekyon (former Member of Parliament and Minister), cousin of Milton Obote.The Museveni family Yoweri Museveni, President of Uganda, Chairman of the National Resistance Movement. Janet Museveni (Member of Parliament, Minister for Karamoja Affairs), wife of Yoweri Museveni. Major General Muhoozi Kainerugaba (Commander of Special Forces Group of Uganda People's Defence Force), son of Yoweri and Janet Museveni. General Caleb Akandwanaho (Presidential Advisor, former Army Commander, Minister and Member of Parliament), brother of Yoweri Museveni. Sam Kutesa (Minister of Foreign Affairs, Member of Parliament), brother-in-law of Yoweri Museveni.The Kiwanuka family Benedicto Kiwanuka, first Prime Minister of Uganda (1961–62), Chief Justice (1971–72), President of the Democratic Party. Maurice Kagimu Kiwanuka (Diplomat, formerly a Minister and Member of Parliament), son of Benedicto Kiwanuka.The Kakonge family Edward Kakonge, Current Chairman of Uganda Peoples Congress UPC (2011–present), Minister of Local Government and Minister of Youth Culture and Sports (1986–89), Chairman of Uganda Debt Network (2007–present) John Kakonge (First Secretary General of Uganda Peoples Congress, formerly a Minister in Obote I Government as Minister of Cooperatives and Agriculture. He disappeared on 16 November 1972 during the Idi Amin regime. He was also a brother of Edward Kakonge. Festus Kambarage Kakonge (Current Commissioner for National Guidance at the Information and National Guidance ministry, formerly Resident District Commissioner in Kotido and Kabarole districts in the Museveni Government. He is a brother to both John and Edward Kakonge. Mugisha Muntu (Retired) Major General (Current Forum for Democratic Change Party President – 22 November 2012 to present, formerly FDC Secretary for Mobilization, former EALA MP from 2001 to 2011, former Army Commander from 1989– 1998. Son-in-law of the late John Kakonge.The Lutwa Okello family General Tito Okello, former Army Commander and President of Uganda. Henry Oryem Okello (Member of Parliament and Minister), son of Tito Okello.The Lule family Yusuf Lule, President (April–June 1980), Chairman of the Uganda National Liberation Front, first Chairman of the National Resistance Movement. Wasswa Lule (former Member of Parliament, former Deputy Inspector General of Government), son of Yusuf Lule.The Awori family (Kenya and Uganda) Aggrey Awori, formerly Member of Parliament and Minister. Moody Awori former Vice President of Kenya. UkraineThe Kuchma-Pinchuk family (father-in-law and son-in-law) Leonid Kuchma (b. 1938), President of Ukraine, from 1994 to 2005. Victor Pinchuk (b. 1960), member of the Ukrainian Parliament, Verkhovna Rada, for two consecutive terms from 1998 to 2006, son-in-law to Leonid Kuchma. United Kingdom United States UruguayThe Arismendi family (father and daughter) Rodney Arismendi (leader of Communist Party of Uruguay) Marina Arismendi (leader of Communist Party of Uruguay), daughter of Rodney ArismendiThe Batlle family (grandfather, son, grandsons and great-grandson) Lorenzo Batlle y Grau (President of Uruguay, 1868–72) José Batlle y Ordóñez (President of Uruguay, 1899, 1903–07 and 1911–15), son of Lorenzo Batlle y Grau César Batlle Pacheco (Deputy and Senator), son of José Batlle y Ordóñez, grandnephew of Duncan Stewart Lorenzo Batlle Pacheco (Deputy and Senator), son of José Batlle y Ordóñez, grandnephew of Duncan Stewart Rafael Batlle Pacheco (political journalist), son of José Batlle y Ordóñez, grandnephew of Duncan Stewart Luis Batlle Berres (President of Uruguay, 1947–51), nephew of José Batlle y Ordóñez, cousin of César, Rafael, and Lorenzo Batlle Pacheco Jorge Batlle Ibáñez (President of Uruguay, 2000–05), son of Luis Batlle Berres and grandnephew of José Batlle y OrdóñezThe Bauzá family (father and son) Rufino Bauzá (Uruguayan independence fighter and military figure) Francisco Bauzá (Political figure and historian), son of Rufino BauzáThe Beltrán family (father and son) Washington Beltrán Barbat (Blanco Party Deputy, killed by José Batlle y Ordóñez) Washington Beltrán (President of Uruguay, 1965–66), son of Washington Beltrán BarbatThe Blanco family (grandfather, sons and grandson) Juan Carlos Blanco Fernández (Foreign Minister of Uruguay) Juan Carlos Blanco Acevedo (Foreign Minister of Uruguay), son of Juan Carlos Blanco Fernández Daniel Blanco Acevedo (Deputy for Montevideo), son of Juan Carlos Blanco Fernández brother of Juan Carlos Blanco Acevedo Juan Carlos Blanco Estradé (Foreign Minister of Uruguay, UN Ambassador, and Senator), son of Daniel Blanco AcevedoThe Bordaberry family (grandfather, son and grandsons) Domingo Bordaberry (Senator, and Ruralist leader) Juan María Bordaberry (President of Uruguay, 1972–76), son of Domingo Bordaberry Pedro Bordaberry (former Industry and Tourism Minister), son of Juan María Bordaberry Santiago Bordaberry (Rural Affairs Activist), son of Juan María Bordaberry, brother of Pedro BordaberryThe Brum brothers Baltasar Brum (President of Uruguay, 1919–1923) Alfeo Brum (Vice President of Uruguay, 1947–1955), brother of Baltasar BrumThe Cuestas family (father and son) Juan Lindolfo Cuestas (President of Uruguay, 1897–99 and 1899–1903) Juan Cuestas (Diplomat and political activist), son of Juan Lindolfo CuestasThe Demicheli family (spouses) Alberto Demicheli (President of Uruguay, 1976) Sofía Álvarez Vignoli de Demicheli (Senator and diplomat), wife of Alberto DemicheliThe Ellauri family (father, son and great grandson) José Longinos Ellauri Fernández (President of the Constituent Assembly of 1830; Foreign Minister of Uruguay, 1830 and 1839; Deputy, 1834–37;Attorney General of the Republic, 1839 and 1856–57, Plenipotentiary Ministry, 1839–55; Government Ministry, 1856) José Eugenio Ellauri y Obes (President of Uruguay, 1873–75), son of José Longinos Ellauri Fernández Oscar Secco Ellauri (Education and Culture Minister, 1948–51 and Foreign Affairs Minister, 1957–59) grandnephew of José Eugenio Ellauri y Obes and great grandson of José Longinos Ellauri FernándezThe Fernández family (father and son) Hugo Fernández Artucio (former Socialist leader; subsequent Colorado trade union organizer) Hugo Fernández Faingold (Vice President of Uruguay, 1998–2000), son of Hugo Fernández ArtucioThe Forteza family (father and son) Francisco Forteza (Deputy, Senator; Defence Minister 1947–51) Francisco Forteza (son) (Deputy, Senator, Economy Minister 1972), son of Francisco FortezaThe Grauert brothers Julio César Grauert (Deputy) Héctor Grauert (Senator), brother of Julio César GrauertThe Héber family (brothers and son of one of them) Alberto Héber Usher (President of Uruguay, 1966–67) Mario Héber Usher (Deputy and Senator), brother of Alberto Héber Usher Luis Alberto Héber (Deputy and Senator), son of Mario Héber UsherThe Herrera family (great-grandfather, father and son) Luis Alberto de Herrera (In 1925–27 he presided over the National Council of Administration) Luis Alberto Lacalle de Herrera (President of Uruguay, 1990–95) and grandson of political leader Luis Alberto de Herrera Luis Alberto Lacalle Pou (President of Uruguay since 2020), son of Luis Alberto LacalleThe Hierro family (grandfather, son and grandson) Luis Hierro (Deputy) Luis Hierro Gambardella (Minister, Deputy and Senator), son of Luis Hierro Luis Antonio Hierro López (Vice President of Uruguay 2000–05), son of Luis Hierro GambardellaThe Jude family (father and son) Raúl Jude (Deputy, Justice and Interior Minister, and Senator) Raumar Jude, (Deputy and Senator), son of Raúl JudeThe Michelini family (father and sons) Zelmar Michelini (Senator, Minister of the Industry and he participated in the foundation of the Frente Amplio Rafael Michelini (Senator and founder of Nuevo Espacio) Felipe Michelini (Deputy and Subsecretary of the Ministry of Education and Culture)The Mujica-Topolansky family (spouses) José Mujica (President of Uruguay 2010-2015, former Senator, former Agriculture Minister) Lucía Topolansky (Vice President of Uruguay, 2017-2020, Senator, former Deputy), wife of José MujicaThe Nin brothers Rodolfo Nin Novoa (Vice President of Uruguay, 2005–) Gonzalo Nin Novoa (Vice Presidential administrator), brother of Rodolfo Nin NovoaThe Pacheco family Manuel Pacheco (Legislator of Uruguay) Jorge Pacheco Areco (President of Uruguay, 1967–1972) grandson of Manuel Pacheco Jorge Pacheco Klein (Colorado Party deputy), son of Jorge Pacheco ArecoThe Ramírez family Juan Andrés Ramírez Chain (Blanco leader), had two notable grandchildren: Juan Andrés Ramírez (former Interior Minister) Gonzalo Aguirre Ramírez (Vice President of Uruguay, 1990–95), cousin of the formerThe Saravia family (brothers and descendant of one of them) Gumercindo Saravia (Civil War leader in Rio Grande, Brazil) Aparicio Saravia (National (Blanco) Party and Uruguayan Civil War Leader, killed 1904), younger brother of Gumercindo Saravia Villanueva Saravia, (National (Blanco) Party Regional Government Leader), great-great-grandson of Aparicio SaraviaThe Sanguinetti family (cousins) Julio María Sanguinetti (President of Uruguay, 1985–90 and 1995–2000) Jorge Sanguinetti (former Minister of Transport and Works), cousin of Julio María Sanguinetti Carmen Sanguinetti (Senator since 2020), niece of Jorge SanguinettiThe Sendic family (father and son) Raúl Sendic (leader of Tupamaros) Raúl Fernando Sendic Rodríguez (former Industry Minister, son of Raúl SendicThe Stewart family (descendant) Duncan Stewart (President of Uruguay, 1894) Matilde Pacheco Stewart de Batlle y Ordóñez (First Lady of Uruguay, 1899, 1903–07, 1911–15), niece of Duncan Stewart, wife of José Batlle y Ordóñez César Batlle Pacheco (Deputy and Senator), son of José Batlle y Ordóñez, grandnephew of Duncan Stewart Lorenzo Batlle Pacheco (Deputy and Senator), son of José Batlle y Ordóñez, grandnephew of Duncan Stewart Jorge Pacheco Areco (President of Uruguay, 1967–72), grandnephew of Duncan Stewart Jorge Pacheco Klein (Colorado Party deputy), son of Jorge Pacheco ArecoThe Stirling family (grandfather and grandson) Manuel Stirling (Deputy and Senator) Guillermo Stirling (former Interior Minister), grandson of Manuel StirlingThe Terra-Baldomir family Gabriel Terra (President of Uruguay, 1931–38) Horacio Terra Arocena (Senator), nephew of Gabriel Terra Juan Pablo Terra (Deputy and Senator), son of Horacio Terra Arocena Alfredo Baldomir (President of Uruguay, 1938–43), brother-in-law of Gabriel TerraThe Tourné family (uncle and niece) Uruguay Tourné (former Deputy and Senator) Daisy Tourné (former Interior Minister), niece of Uruguay TournéThe Wílliman family (grandfather and grandson) Claudio Wílliman (President of Uruguay 1907–1911) José Claudio Wílliman (Served in Uruguayan Senate 1985–90), grandson of Claudio WíllimanThe Végh family (father and son) Carlos Végh Garzón (Economy Minister 1967) Alejandro Végh Villegas (Economy Minister, 1970s and 1980s), son of Carlos Végh GarzónThe Zorrilla de San Martín family (grandfather and grandson) Juan Zorrilla de San Martín (Poet and Deputy) Alejandro Zorrilla de San Martín, (Deputy, Foreign Affairs Minister, and Senator), grandson of Juan Zorrilla de San Martín UzbekistanThe Karimov familyIslam Karimov (President of Uzbekistan, 1991–2016) Tatyana Karimova (wife of Islam Karimov; First Lady, 1991–2016) Gulnora Karimova (eldest daughter of Islam Karimov; businesswoman and politician) Lola Karimova-Tillyaeva (youngest daughter of Islam Karimov; diplomat and philanthropist) VanuatuThe Lini familyWalter Lini (Prime Minister of Vanuatu, 1980–91) Ham Lini (brother; Prime Minister of Vanuatu, 2004–08) Hilda Lini (sister; Member of Parliament) Kalkot Mataskelekele (brother-in-law; President of Vanuatu, 2004–09)The Sokomanu-Sopé familyAti George Sokomanu (President of Vanuatu, 1980–1989) Barak Sopé (nephew of Ati George Sokomanu; Prime Minister of Vanuatu, 1999–2001) VenezuelaThe Chávez familyHugo de los Reyes Chávez (father of Adán & Hugo Chávez; Politician) Adán Chávez (Governor of Barinas) Hugo Chávez (61st President of Venezuela) Marisabel Rodríguez de Chávez (ex-wife of Hugo Chávez; First Lady 1999–2002)The Sucre familyAntonio José de Sucre (President of Bolivia, South American Independence War Hero) Juan Manuel Sucre (Commander-in-Chief of Army 1974) Leopoldo Sucre (Public Works Minister; Senator) José Francisco Sucre (Ambassador; Senator) VietnamThe Ngô family Ngô Đình Diệm (1901–1963) Ngô Đình Nhu Madame Ngô Đình Nhu YemenThe Iryani family (uncle-nephew) Abdul Rahman al-Iryani (President of North Yemen, 1967–74) Abdul Karim al-Iryani (Prime Minister of Yemen, 1998–2001)The Saleh family (father-son) Ali Abdullah Saleh (President of North Yemen, 1978–90 and President of Yemen, 1990–present) Ahmad Ali Abdullah Saleh (Member of Parliament)The Al-Shaabi family (brothers-in-law) Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi (President of South Yemen, 1967–69) Faysal al-Shaabi (Prime Minister of South Yemen, 1969) ZambiaThe Chiluba familyFrederick Chiluba (President of Zambia, 1991–2002) Benjamin Mwila (cousin of Frederick Chiluba; leader of Zambia Republican Party)The Kaunda familyKenneth Kaunda (President of Zambia, 1964–91) Tilyenji Kaunda (son of Kenneth Kaunda; secretary-general, United National Independence Party) ZimbabweThe Mujuru family Gen. Solomon 'Rex Nhongo' Mujuru Vice President Joyce "Teurai Ropa" MujuruThe Mugabe-Chiyangwa familyRobert Mugabe''' (President of Zimbabwe, 1987–2017; Prime Minister of Zimbabwe, 1980–87) Sabina Mugabe (sister of Robert Mugabe; Member of Parliament) Innocent Mugabe (son of Sabina Mugabe; Director of the Central Intelligence Organisation) Leo Mugabe (son of Sabina Mugabe; businessman and Member of Parliament) Patrick Zhuwawo (son of Sabina Mugabe; businessman and Member of Parliament) Philip Chiyangwa (cousin of Robert Mugabe; businessman and ZANU-PF regional leader) See also Family dictatorship Hereditary politicians Dynasty List of dynasties References Political families
1215815	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Profaci	Joe Profaci	Giuseppe "Joe" Profaci (; October 2, 1897 – June 6, 1962) was an Italian-born New York City La Cosa Nostra boss who was the founder of what became the Colombo crime family. Established in 1928, this was the last of the Five Families to be organized. He was the family's boss for over three decades. Biography Early life Giuseppe Profaci was born in Villabate, in the Province of Palermo, Sicily, on October 2, 1897. In 1920, Profaci spent one year in prison in Palermo on theft charges. Family ties Profaci's sons were Frank Profaci and John Profaci Sr. Frank eventually joined the Profaci crime family while John Sr. followed legitimate pursuits. Two of Profaci's daughters married the sons of Detroit Partnership mobsters William Tocco and Joseph Zerilli. Profaci's brother was Salvatore Profaci, who served as his consigliere for years, and is known to have been heavily into dealing of pornographic materials. One of Profaci's brothers-in-law was Joseph Magliocco, who would eventually become Profaci's underboss. Profaci's niece Rosalie Profaci was married to Salvatore Bonanno, the son of Bonanno crime family boss Joseph Bonanno. Profaci was the uncle of Salvatore Profaci Jr., also a member of the Profaci crime family. Rosalie Profaci offered the following description of her uncle: He was a flamboyant man who smoked big cigars, drove big black Cadillacs, and did things like buy tickets to a Broadway play for us cousins. But he didn't buy two or three or even four seats, he bought a whole row. Released from prison in 1921, Profaci emigrated to the United States, arriving in New York City on September 4. Profaci settled in Chicago, where he opened a grocery store and bakery. However, the business was unsuccessful, and in 1925, Profaci relocated to New York, where he entered the olive oil import business. On September 27, 1927, Profaci became a United States citizen. At some point after his move to Brooklyn, Profaci became involved with local gangs. Rise to family boss On December 5, 1928, Profaci attended a mob meeting in Cleveland, Ohio that would make him an organized crime boss in Brooklyn. In October 1928, Brooklyn boss Salvatore D'Aquila had been murdered. An important part of the Cleveland meeting, attended by mobsters from Tampa, Florida, Chicago, and Brooklyn, was to appoint Profaci as Aquila's replacement so as to maintain calm among the Brooklyn gangs. Magliocco was named as Profaci's second-in-command. Given Profaci's lack of experience in organized crime, it is unclear why the New York gangs gave him power in Brooklyn. Some speculated that Profaci received this position due to his family's status in Sicily, where they may have belonged to the Villabate Mafia. Profaci may have also benefited from contacts made through his olive oil business. Cleveland police eventually raided the meeting and expelled the mobsters from Cleveland, but Profaci's business was accomplished. By 1930, Profaci was controlling numbers, prostitution, loansharking, and narcotics trafficking in Brooklyn. In 1930, the Castellammarese War broke out in New York City. Some sources say that Profaci remained neutral, while others say that Profaci was firmly aligned with Castellammarese boss Salvatore Maranzano. When the war finally ended in 1931, top mobster Charles "Lucky" Luciano reorganized the New York gangs into five organized crime families. At this point, Profaci was recognized as boss of what was now the Profaci crime family, with Magliocco as underboss and Salvatore Profaci as consigliere. When Luciano created the National Crime Syndicate, also known as the Mafia Commission, he gave Profaci a seat on the governing board. Profaci's closest ally on the board was Bonanno, who would cooperate with Profaci over the next 30 years. Profaci was also allied with Stefano Magaddino, the boss of the Buffalo crime family. Business and faith Profaci obtained most of his wealth through traditional illegal enterprises such as protection rackets and extortion. However, to protect himself from federal tax evasion charges, Profaci still maintained his original olive oil business, known as Mamma Mia Importing Company, leading to his nickname as "Olive Oil King". As the demand for olive oil skyrocketed after World War II, his business thrived. Profaci owned 20 other businesses that employed hundreds of workers in New York. Profaci owned a large house in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, a home in Miami Beach, Florida, and an estate near Hightstown, New Jersey, which previously belonged to President Theodore Roosevelt. Profaci's estate had its own airstrip and a chapel with an altar that replicated one in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Profaci was a devout Catholic who made generous cash donations to Catholic charities. A member of the Knights of Columbus, Profaci would invite priests to his estate to celebrate Mass. In May 1952, a thief stole valuable jeweled crowns from the Regina Pacis Votive shrine in Brooklyn. Profaci sent his men to recover the crowns and reportedly kill the thief. However, accounts of the thief being strangled with a rosary are unfounded. In 1949, the Vatican received a petition from a group of New York Catholics to confer a knighthood on Profaci. However, when the Brooklyn District Attorney complained about the move, the Vatican denied the petition. Legal problems In 1953, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service sued Profaci for over $1.5 million in unpaid income taxes. The taxes were still unpaid when Profaci died nine years later. In 1954, the US Department of Justice moved to revoke Profaci's citizenship. The government claimed that when Profaci entered the United States in 1921, he lied to immigration officials about having no arrest record in Italy. In 1960, a U.S. Court of Appeals reversed Profaci's deportation order, ending the legal action. In 1956, law enforcement recorded a phone conversation between Profaci and Antonio Cottone, a Sicilian mafioso, about exporting Sicilian oranges to the United States. In 1959, US Customs agents intercepted one of those orange crates in New York. The crate contained 90 wax oranges containing a total of pure heroin. Smugglers in Sicily had filled the hollow oranges with heroin until they weighed as much as real oranges, then packed them in the crate. Profaci was never prosecuted for this crime. In 1957, Profaci attended the Apalachin Conference, a national mob meeting, at the farm of mobster Joseph Barbara in Apalachin, New York. While the conference was in progress, New York State Troopers surrounded the farm and raided it. Profaci was one of over 60 mobsters arrested that day. On January 13, 1960, Profaci and 21 others were convicted of conspiracy and he was sentenced to five years in prison. However, on November 28, 1960, a United States Court of Appeals overturned the verdicts. First Colombo war In contrast to Profaci's generosity to his relatives and the church, many of his men considered him miserly and mean with money. One reason for their rancor was that Profaci required each family member to pay him a $25 a month tithe, an old Sicilian gang custom. The money, which amounted to approximately $50,000 a month, was meant to support the families of mobsters in prison. However, most of this money stayed with Profaci. In addition, Profaci did not tolerate any dissent from his policies, and people who expressed discontent were murdered. On February 27, 1961, the Gallos, led by Joe Gallo, kidnapped four of Profaci's top men: underboss Magliocco, Frank Profaci (Joe Profaci's brother), capo Salvatore Musacchia and soldier John Scimone. Profaci himself eluded capture and flew to sanctuary in Florida. While holding the hostages, Larry and Albert Gallo sent Joe Gallo to California. The Gallos demanded a more favorable financial scheme for the hostages' release. Gallo wanted to kill one hostage and demand $100,000 before negotiations, but his brother Larry overruled him. After a few weeks of negotiation, Profaci made a deal with the Gallos. Profaci's consigliere Charles "the Sidge" LoCicero negotiated with the Gallos and all the hostages were released peacefully. However, Profaci had no intention of honoring this peace agreement. On August 20, 1961 Joseph Profaci ordered the murder of Gallo members Joseph "Joe Jelly" Gioielli and Larry Gallo. Gunmen allegedly murdered Gioielli after inviting him to go fishing. Larry Gallo survived a strangulation attempt in the Sahara club of East Flatbush by Carmine Persico and Salvatore "Sally" D'Ambrosio after a police officer intervened. The Gallo brothers had been previously aligned with Persico against Profaci and his loyalists; The Gallos then began calling Persico "The Snake" after he had betrayed them. the war continued on resulting in nine murders and three disappearances. With the start of the gang war, the Gallo crew retreated to the Dormitory. Mob standoff By 1962, Profaci's health was failing. In early 1962, Carlo Gambino and Lucchese crime family boss Tommy Lucchese tried to convince Profaci to resign to end the gang war. However, Profaci strongly suspected that the two bosses were secretly supporting the Gallo brothers and wanted to take control of his family. Profaci vehemently refused to resign; furthermore, he warned that any attempt to remove him would spark a wider gang war. Gambino and Lucchese did not pursue their efforts. Death On June 6, 1962, Profaci died in South Side Hospital in Bay Shore, New York of liver cancer. He is buried at Saint John Cemetery in the Middle Village section of Queens, in one of the largest mausoleums in the cemetery. After Profaci's death, Magliocco succeeded him as head of the family. In late 1963, the Mafia Commission forced Magliocco out of office and installed Joseph Colombo as family boss. At this point, the Profaci crime family became the Colombo crime family. References Further reading External links Seize the Night: Joseph Profaci 1897 births 1962 deaths People from Villabate American drug traffickers American crime bosses American gangsters of Sicilian descent American gangsters of Italian descent American Roman Catholics Bosses of the Colombo crime family Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens) Deaths from cancer in New York (state) Colombo crime family Deaths from liver cancer Italian drug traffickers Italian emigrants to the United States Italian crime bosses Gangsters from the Province of Palermo Italian Roman Catholics Prohibition-era gangsters
1215906	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmine%20Galante	Carmine Galante	Carmine Galante (; February 21, 1910 – July 12, 1979) was an American mobster. Galante was rarely seen without a cigar, leading to the nickname "The Cigar" and "Lilo" (a Sicilian term for cigar). Galante had a long career in organized crime and rose to acting boss (unofficial) of the Bonanno crime family. He was assassinated in 1979 while dining in a restaurant. Biography Background Camillo Carmine Galante was born on February 21, 1910, in a tenement building in the East Harlem section of Manhattan. His parents, Vincenzo "James" Galante and Vincenza Russo, had emigrated from Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, to New York City in 1906, where Vincenzo was a fisherman. Carmine Galante had two brothers, Samuel and Peter Galante, and two sisters, Josephine and Angelina Galante. On February 10, 1945, Galante married Helen Marulli, by whom he had three children; James Galante, Camille Galante, and Angela Galante. For the last 20 years of his life, Carmine Galante lived with Ann Acquavella; the couple had two children together. He was the uncle to Bonanno crime family capo James Carmine Galante. While in prison in 1931, doctors diagnosed Galante as having a psychopathic personality. Galante owned the Rosina Costume Company in Brooklyn, New York and was associated with the Abco Vending Company of West New York, New Jersey. Early years At the age of 10, Galante was sent to reform school due to his criminal activities. He soon formed a juvenile street gang on New York's Lower East Side. By the age of 15, Galante had dropped out of seventh grade. As a teenager, Galante became a Mafia associate during the Prohibition era, becoming a leading enforcer by the end of the decade. During this period, Galante also worked as a fish sorter and at an artificial flower shop. On December 12, 1925, the 15-year-old Galante pleaded guilty to assault charges. On December 22, 1926, Galante was sentenced to at least two and a half years in state prison. In August 1930, Galante was arrested for the murder of police officer Walter DeCastilla during a payroll robbery. However, Galante was never indicted. Also in 1930, New York Police Department (NYPD) officer Joseph Meenahan caught Galante and other gang members attempting to hijack a truck in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. In the ensuing gun battle, Galante wounded Meenahan and a six-year-old bystander, both survived. On February 8, 1931, after pleading guilty to attempted robbery Galante was sentenced to 12 and a half years in state prison. On May 1, 1939, Galante was released from prison on parole. By 1940, Galante was carrying out "hits" for Vito Genovese, the official underboss of the Luciano crime family. Galante had an underworld reputation for viciousness and was suspected by the NYPD of involvement in over eighty murders. Galante reportedly had a cold, dead-eyed stare with eyes that betrayed an utter indifference to human life, scaring both law enforcement officers and other Mafia members. Ralph Salerno, a former NYPD detective, once said, "Of all the gangsters that I've met personally, and I've met dozens of them in all of my years, there were only two who, when I looked them straight in the eye, I decided I wouldn't want them to be really personally mad at me. Aniello Dellacroce was one and Carmine Galante was the other. They had bad eyes, I mean, they had the eyes of killers. You could see how frightening they were, the frigid glare of a killer." In 1943, Galante allegedly murdered Carlo Tresca, the publisher of an anti-fascist newspaper in New York. Genovese, living in exile in Italy, offered to kill Tresca as a favor to Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. Genovese allegedly gave the murder contract to Galante. On January 11, 1943, Galante allegedly shot and killed Tresca as he stepped outside his newspaper office in Manhattan, and then got in a car and drove away. Although Galante was arrested as a suspect, no one was ever charged in the murder. After the Tresca murder, Galante was sent back to prison on a parole violation. On December 21, 1944, Galante was released from prison. Later years In 1953, boss Joseph Bonanno sent Galante to Montreal, Quebec to supervise the family drug business there. He worked with Vincenzo Cotroni of the Cotroni crime family in the French Connection. The Bonannos were importing huge amounts of heroin by ship into Montreal and then sending it into the United States. Police also estimated that Galante was collecting gambling profits in Montreal worth about $50 million per year. In April 1956, due to Galante's strong-arm extortion tactics, the Canadian Government deported him back to the United States. In October 1957, Bonanno and Galante, now a consigliere, held a hotel meeting in Palermo, Sicily on plans to import heroin into the United States. Attendees included Lucky Luciano and other American mobsters, with a Sicilian Mafia delegation led by Giuseppe Genco Russo. As part of the agreement, Sicilian mobsters would come to the U.S. to distribute the narcotics. Galante brought many young men, known as Zips, from his family home of Castellammare del Golfo, Trapani, to work as bodyguards, contract killers and drug traffickers. In 1958, after being indicted on drug conspiracy charges, Galante went into hiding. On June 3, 1959, New Jersey State Police officers arrested Galante after stopping his car on the Garden State Parkway close to New York City. Federal agents had recently discovered that Galante was hiding in a house on Pelican Island off the South Jersey shore. After posting $100,000 bail, he was released. On May 18, 1960, Galante was indicted on a second set of narcotics charges; he surrendered voluntarily. Galante's first narcotics trial started on November 21, 1960; one of his co-defendants was William Bentvena. From the beginning, the first trial was characterized by jurors and alternates dropping out and coercive courtroom displays by the defendants. On May 15, 1961, the judge declared a mistrial. The jury foreman fell down some stairs at an abandoned building in the middle of the night and was unable to continue the trial due to injury. Galante was sentenced to 20 days in jail for contempt of court. On July 10, 1962, after being convicted in his second narcotics trial, Galante was sentenced to 20 years in federal prison. Power grab In January 1974, Galante was released from prison on parole. Following his release from prison, Galante allegedly ordered the bombing of the doors to the private mausoleum of his enemy Frank Costello in St. Michael's Cemetery, who had died in 1973. On February 23, 1974, at a meeting at the Americana Hotel in Manhattan, the Commission named Philip "Rusty" Rastelli as boss. When Rastelli was sent to prison in 1976, Galante seized control of the Bonannos as unofficial acting boss. During the late 1970s, Galante allegedly organized the murders of at least eight members of the Gambino family, with whom he had an intense rivalry, in order to take over a massive drug-trafficking operation. On March 3, 1978, Galante's parole was revoked by the United States Parole Commission for allegedly associating with other Bonanno mobsters, and he was sent back to prison. However, on February 27, 1979, a judge ruled that the government had illegally revoked Galante's parole and ordered his immediate release. Death The New York crime families were alarmed at Galante's brazen attempt to take over the narcotics market. Genovese crime family boss Frank Tieri began contacting Cosa Nostra leaders to build a consensus for Galante's murder, even obtaining approval from the retired Joseph Bonanno. In 1979, they received a boost when the official boss, Rastelli, sought Commission approval to kill Galante. Joseph Massino, a Bonanno soldier loyal to Rastelli, relayed the request to the Commission, which swiftly approved a contract on Galante. On July 12, 1979, Galante was killed just as he finished eating lunch on an open patio at Joe and Mary's Italian-American Restaurant at 205 Knickerbocker Avenue in Bushwick, Brooklyn. He was dining with Leonard Coppola, a Bonanno capo and staunch Galante loyalist, and restaurant owner/cousin Giuseppe Turano, a Bonanno soldier. Also sitting at the table were Galante's Sicilian bodyguards, Baldassare Amato and Cesare Bonventre. At 2:45 pm, three ski-masked men entered the restaurant, walked into the patio, and opened fire with shotguns and handguns. Galante, Turano, and Coppola were killed instantly. A picture of the murdered Galante showed a cigar still in his mouth. Amato and Bonventre, who had done nothing to protect Galante, were left unharmed. The gunmen then ran out of the restaurant. Aftermath The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York refused to allow a funeral mass for Galante due to his notoriety. Galante was buried at Saint John's Cemetery in Middle Village, Queens. In 1984, Bonventre was found murdered in a New Jersey warehouse, allegedly to guarantee his silence in the Galante murder. On January 13, 1987, Anthony Indelicato was sentenced to 40 years in prison, as a defendant in the Commission trial, for the Galante, Coppola, and Turano murders. Galante is depicted in the first episode of the UK history TV channel Yesterday's documentary series Mafia's Greatest Hits. References Books Pistone, Joseph D.; & Woodley, Richard (1999) Donnie Brasco: My Undercover Life in the Mafia, Hodder & Stoughton. . Pistone, Joseph D.; & Brandt, Charles (2007). Donnie Brasco: Unfinished Business, Running Press. . DeStefano, Anthony. The Last Godfather: Joey Massino & the Fall of the Bonanno Crime Family. California: Citadel, 2006. External links "FBI Files Carmine Galante 1 through 12" Seize the Night: Carmine Galante Carmine "Lilo" Galante at Find A Grave 1910 births 1979 deaths 1979 murders in the United States American drug traffickers American crime bosses American people convicted of murder Bonanno crime family Bosses of the Bonanno crime family Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens) Catholics from New York (state) Deaths by firearm in Brooklyn Fugitives Mafia hitmen Male murder victims Murdered American gangsters of Sicilian descent People from East Harlem People murdered by the Bonanno crime family People murdered in New York City People with antisocial personality disorder
1217566	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg%20Cathedral	Strasbourg Cathedral	Strasbourg Cathedral or the Cathedral of Our Lady of Strasbourg (, or Cathédrale de Strasbourg, or Straßburger Münster), also known as Strasbourg Minster, is a Catholic cathedral in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. Although considerable parts of it are still in Romanesque architecture, it is widely considered to be among the finest examples of Rayonnant Gothic architecture. Architect Erwin von Steinbach is credited for major contributions from 1277 to his death in 1318, and beyond through his son Johannes von Steinbach, and his grandson Gerlach von Steinbach, who succeeded him as chief architects. The Steinbachs's plans for the completion of the cathedral were not followed through by the chief architects who took over after them, and instead of the originally envisioned two spires, a single, octagonal tower with an elongated, octagonal crowning was built on the northern side of the west facade by master Ulrich von Ensingen and his successor, Johannes Hültz. The construction of the cathedral, which had started in the year 1015 and had been relaunched in 1190, was finished in 1439. At 142 metres (466 feet), Strasbourg Cathedral was the world's tallest building from 1647 to 1874 (227 years), when it was surpassed by St. Nikolai's Church, Hamburg. Today it is the sixth-tallest church in the world and the highest still standing extant structure built entirely in the Middle Ages. Described by Victor Hugo as a "gigantic and delicate marvel", and by Goethe as a "sublimely towering, wide-spreading tree of God", the cathedral is visible far across the plains of Alsace and can be seen from as far off as the Vosges Mountains or the Black Forest on the other side of the Rhine. The reddish-brown sandstone from the Vosges mountains gives the cathedral its distinctive colour. The construction, and later maintenance, of the cathedral is supervised by the Fondation de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame ("Foundation of Our Lady") since at least 1224. The Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame, a municipal museum located in the Foundation's buildings, displays original works of art from the cathedral, such as sculptures and stained-glass, but also the surviving original medieval buildings plans. In 1988, the Strasbourg Cathedral was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List along with the historic centre of the city (called the "Grande Île") because of its outstanding Gothic architecture. History The history of Strasbourg's cathedral is well documented thanks to the archives of the Notre-Dame Foundation, the city of Strasbourg, and of the diocese. Archaeological excavations below and around the cathedral have been conducted in 1896–1897, 1907, 1923–1924, 1947–1948, between 1966 and 1972, and finally between 2012 and 2014. Previous buildings on the site A Roman settlement called Argentoratum, twenty hectares in size, existed on the site since about 12 B.C., at a strategic point where bridges crossed the Rhine and two of its tributaries. It became a major trading center for wine, grain, and later for textiles and luxury products. Christianity was first imposed in 313 by the Edict of Constantine. The first recorded bishop, Amand, participated in the Councils of Cologne and Sardique in 346 and 347. A paleochristian church or cathedral is believed to have been founded by an edict of Clovis I, but its exact location and appearance is unknown. The first cathedral built on the present site was erected by the bishop Saint Arbogast in about 550–575. Under Charlemagne, the Bishop Remi consecrated the altar and built a funeral crypt in about 778. This Carolingian church is believed to have had an apse flanked by two chapels and a nave covered with a wooden beamed roof, but no trace remains today. The Romanesque Cathedral In 1002, following the death of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III, a battle broke out between his potential successors. When Bishop Werner I supported the winning candidate, Henry II of Germany, one of his Henry's rivals, Hermann of Germany, raided Strasbourg and burned down the cathedral. The Bishop appealed to the new Emperor, who granted one eighth of his revenues in the province toward the construction of a new Cathedral. In 1015, bishop Werner laid the first stone of a new cathedral on the foundations of the Carolingian church. The new church was exceptionally large, just ten meters shorter than the present cathedral, and just ten meters narrower on its west front. The west front was also exceptional because it was flanked by two towers, the "harmonic" style which became common in Gothic cathedrals during the following century. The chevet, or east end, probably also had a tower, and was flanked by two chapels. The transept of the cathedral was 55 meters long, the same length as the nave and choir. The nave and choir were composed of three vessels, each with two traverses. The central vessel was higher than the two collaterals. The new building, with its wooden roof beams, was unfortunately prone to fire; it suffered from fires in 1136, 1140,1150, and 1176. The church was repaired after each fire, and reconstructions and modifications made, but it retained its essentially Romanesque form, with thick walls, small windows and massive columns. Work on the church was frequently interrupted by wars and political crises. The Romanesque-Gothic Cathedral Bishop Heinrich I von Hasenburg (1181 – March 25, 1190) decided to construct a new cathedral, to be more beautiful than that of Basel Munster, which was just being finished. Construction of the new cathedral began on the foundations of the preceding structures. The original Romanesque crypt was kept and expanded westwards. The architects of the rebuilding began to include Gothic elements, following the style that had appeared in northern France in the 12th century, while still preserving the existing Romanesque features. Between 1200 and 1228, the Romanesque vaults of the north transept were replaced by the pointed Gothic rib vault, which were stronger and shifted the thrust of the weight outwards, reducing the need for massive pillars in the interior. This was then carried out in the south transept. The next major step toward Gothic took place with the raising of the vaults of the south transept, creating thinner walls and more space for high windows. The Gothic style also appeared in the statuary, particularly the Pillar of the Angels, and in the tympanums over the double portals on the south transept, which showed the influence of the sculpture in French Gothic cathedrals. The next major step was the reconstruction of the nave into the Gothic style, which took place between 1240 and 1274. Thanks to the installation of rib vaults, the nave was raised in height to 27 meters, and the upper walls were filled with stained glass windows. The first traverses were made in what was known as the Lorraine style, with two levels of quadripartite windows, traversed by a narrow passageway. However, between 1250 and 1255 they decided to become more ambitious, and used what was called the "Parisian style"; this created three levels with a total height of 32 meters from the floor to the vaults. The Gothic pillars of the new section were copied exactly from those of the Basilica of Saint Denis. Rayonant additions (1277–1439) The next major project was the rebuilding of the west front, or facade, in the Gothic style. The first stone was placed on May 25, 1277, by Bishop Conrad of Lichtenberg. The new plan was inspired in part by French cathedrals, particularly the Basilica of Saint-Urbain of Troyes. The design called for a west front taller and wider than the nave behind it. By the use of buttresses and a double wall, the outer wall decorative with wide spaces, and the inner wall bearing the weight and having large windows, the interior of the cathedral could have more light. At the same time, the planned two spires on either side of the facade would reach an extraordinary height of 122 meters. Erwin von Steinbach's son Johannes von Steinbach served as magister operis, or Werkmeister (chief architect) from (at least) 1332 until his death in 1341. From 1341 until 1372 (or according to other sources: 1339–1371), the post of chief architect was held by a Master Gerlach (not to be confused with Erwin's other son, Gerlach von Steinbach, architect of the Niederhaslach Church), who has been identified as Erwin's grandson Johannes Gerlach von Steinbach. He completed the installation of the rose window, and above it twelve statues of the apostles. In 1372 the work was taken over a master Conrad, also known as Kuntze, about whom little is known, until 1382. He was followed by a Michael von Freiburg (also known as Michael von Gmünd, or Michael Parler, from the Parler family of architects), recorded as magister operis in 1383–1387, who was then succeeded by Claus von Lohre (1388−1399). The three men completed the bell tower over the central part of the façade, in a design that moved away from Gerlach von Steinbach's initial idea of a central tower and whose precise authorship is unknown. The octagonal north tower was the combined work of architects Ulrich Ensingen (shaft) and Johannes Hültz of Cologne (top). Ensingen worked on the cathedral from 1399 to 1419, taking over from Claus von Lohre, and Hültz from 1419 to 1439, completing the building at last. The building of the second tower was often discussed, and was seriously proposed when Alsace became part of Germany after the 1871 French-German War in 1871, but was coldly received by the population of Strasbourg, who considered it would be a symbol of German occupation. The north tower was the world's tallest building from 1647 (when the taller spire of St. Mary's Church, Stralsund burnt down) until 1874 (when the tower of St. Nikolai's Church in Hamburg was completed). The planned south tower was never built and as a result, with its characteristic asymmetrical form, the cathedral is now the premier landmark of Alsace. One can see 30 kilometers from the observation level, which provides a view of the Rhine banks from the Vosges all the way to the Black Forest. In 1505, architect Jakob von Landshut and sculptor Hans von Aachen finished rebuilding the Saint-Lawrence portal (Portail Saint-Laurent) outside the northern transept in a markedly post-Gothic, early-Renaissance style. As with the other portals of the cathedral, most of the statues now to be seen in situ are copies, the originals having been moved to the Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame. Like the city of Strasbourg, the cathedral connects German and French cultural influences, while the eastern structures, e.g. the choir and south portal, still have very Romanesque features, with more emphasis placed on walls than on windows. The tower is one of the first to rely substantially on craftsmanship, with the final appearance being one with a high degree of linearity captured in stone. While previous façades were certainly drawn prior to construction, Strasbourg has one of the earliest façades whose construction is inconceivable without prior drawing. Strasbourg and Cologne Cathedral together represent some of the earliest uses of architectural drawing. The work of Professor Robert O. Bork of the University of Iowa suggests that the design of the Strasbourg façade, while seeming almost random in its complexity, can be constructed using a series of rotated octagons. Later history In the late Middle Ages, the city of Strasbourg had managed to liberate itself from the domination of the bishop and to rise to the status of Free Imperial City. The outgoing 15th century was marked by the sermons of Johann Geiler von Kaisersberg and by the emerging Protestant Reformation, represented in Strasbourg by figures such as John Calvin, Martin Bucer and Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck. In 1524, the city council assigned the cathedral to the Protestant faith, while the building suffered some damage from iconoclastic assaults. After the annexation of the city by Louis XIV of France, on 30 September 1681, and a mass celebrated in the cathedral on 23 October 1681 in presence of the king and prince-bishop Franz Egon of Fürstenberg, the cathedral was returned to the Catholics and its inside redesigned according to the Catholic liturgy of the Counter-Reformation. In 1682, the choir screen (built in 1252) was broken out to expand the choir towards the nave. Remains of the choir screen are displayed in the Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame and in The Cloisters. The main or high altar, a major work of early Renaissance sculpture, was also demolished that year. Fragments can be seen in the Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame. A round, Baroque sacristy of modest proportions was added north-east of the northern transept in 1744 by the city's chief architect Joseph Massol according to plans by Robert de Cotte and between 1772 and 1778 architect Jean-Laurent Goetz surrounded the cathedral by a gallery in early Gothic Revival style in order to reorganise the merchants' shops that used to settle around the building (and would do so until 1843). The French Revolution and 19th century Following the outbreak of the French Revolution, on 2 November 1789, all church property was seized by the French state and was soon vandalised by the most ardent revolutionaries, the Enragés. The Director of public works of Strasbourg, Gérold, quickly took down and protected the statues of the portal, but 215 statues of the voussures over the portals were smashed with hammers, as were the angels atop the gables on the facade, and the crowns and sceptres of the statues of the kings. The sculpture over the central tympanum and over the south portal of the transept was saved because it was covered with wooden planks with the revolutionary motto "Liberté-Egalité-Fraternité," In April 1794, the Enragés started planning to tear the spire down, on the grounds that it hurt the principle of equality. The tower was saved, however, when in May of the same year citizens of Strasbourg crowned it with a giant tin Phrygian cap of the kind the Enragés themselves wore. This artifact was later kept in the historical collections of the city until they were all destroyed during the Siege of Strasbourg in a massive fire in August 1870. Seven church bells were removed and melted down to made into cannon, and gold and other precious objects in the interior confiscated and taken away, and in November 1793 the cathedral was formally proclaimed a "Temple of Reason." The cathedral was not returned to church control until July 15, 1801, along with confiscated property that had not been destroyed. The sculpture of the portals was returned to its places or restored between 1811 and 1827. However, the official ownership of the structure was given, and belongs today, to the French state, and it is administered by the Mayor of Strasbourg. A series of major reconstructions and restorations were carried out in the second of the century from 1837 to 1888. This included rebuilding the crypt and the addition of new stained-glass windows. The choir was given its multicolour painted decoration, by Édouard Steinlé and Charles Auguste Steinheil, finished in 1879. Construction of the Neo-Romanessque dome over the transept was begun, and new bronze doors were installed in 1879. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, city was under siege. The roof was set afire and the cross at the top of the spire was bent by a German artillery shell. After the French defeat, Alsace was ceded to the new German Empire until 1918. Following the war, Klotz took German nationality so he could continue his work. He reconstructed the dome over the transept in a grander, Romanesque Revival style. 20th-21st century In 1903, the architect Johann Knauth discovered cracks on the first pillar of the northern side of the nave. In 1905 he began taking measures to consolidate and strengthen the north side of the west facade, which supports the spire. After trying several temporary measures, in 1915, during the First World War, he launched a large-scale project to replace the entire foundation of the cathedral with concrete. This project was completed in 1926, after the end of the war. In 1918 Alsace and Strasbourg and Alscace were once again attached to France. During World War II, the cathedral was seen as a symbol for both warring parties. Adolf Hitler, who visited it on 28 June 1940, intended to transform the church into a "national sanctuary of the German people", or into a monument to the Unknown German Soldier. On 1 March 1941, General Leclerc made the "Oath of Kufra" (serment de Koufra), stating he would "rest the weapons only when our beautiful colours fly again on Strasbourg's cathedral". During that same war, the stained glass was removed in 74 cases. and stored in a salt mine near Heilbronn, Germany. After the war, it was returned to the cathedral by the Monuments, Fine Arts and Archives section of the United States military. The cathedral was hit by British and American bombs during air raids on the centre of Strasbourg on 11 August 1944, which also heavily damaged the Palais Rohan and the Sainte-Madeleine Church. In 1956, the Council of Europe donated the famous choir window by Max Ingrand, the "Strasbourg Madonna" (see also Flag of Europe Biblical interpretation). Repairs to war damage were completed only in the early 1990s. In October 1988, when the city celebrated its 2,000th anniversary (as the first official mention of Argentoratum dates from 12 BC), pope John Paul II visited and celebrated mass in the cathedral. The bishopric of Strasbourg had been elevated to the rank of archbishopric a few months before, in June 1988. In 2000, an Al-Qaeda plot to bomb the adjacent Christmas market was prevented by French and German police. The restoration of the tower was completed in 2006, and in 2014 a new campaign of restoration was begun on the south transept. Exterior The West Front The west front or façade, the main entrance of the cathedral, is a relatively late addition, constructed between 1277 and 1490. The façade is supported and divided vertically by four narrow buttresses, each decorated with sculpture. It rises in three levels; the portals on the ground level; the level of the rose window above them, and the top level, with a balustrade. The rose window, with a rayonnant Gothic design, is fourteen metres in diameter and was finished in 1345. The pointed gable over the central portal, decorated with a sculpture of the Virgin Mary and child, reaches up into the space in front of the rose window. A gallery of statues of the Apostles, each in his own arch, is placed above the rose window. The west front takes its distinctive appearance and sense of verticality from the dense network of lacelike pointed gables, pinnacles and tall, slender columns that cover it. The columns are purely decorative, and are so thin they are compared to the strings of a harp. The visual effect of the façade is enhanced by its unusual darkish red stone. West Portals The cathedral has three portals, corresponding to the three vessels of the nave. Each has a particular theme of decoration; the left portal is dedicated to the infancy of Christ, the central portal to redemption, and the right portal to the Last Judgement. The portals are set forward from the front of the church by the network of slender columns, spires and arches which form an outer decorative wall. The sculpture largely dates to the late 13th century and is similar in theme and style to that of the sculpture of Reims Cathedral made between 1250 and 1260, though the Strasbourg sculpture shows greater realism. The arched tympanum over the doors of the central portal is crowded with sculpture, as are the voussures, the stone arches around the door. The central figures depict the entry of Christ into Jerusalem, and the Crucifixion and Passion of Christ, all with exceptional expression and detail. The portal of the infancy of Christ (left) depicts angels, bishops and saints in the voussures, and figures representing the virtues, carrying spears, prod the figures representing the vices. In the portal of the Last Judgement, (right) Christ sits on his throne sorting the virtuous from the wicked. The wicked attempt, without success, to seduce the noble Virgins, but succeed with the foolish virgins. Unlike the sculpture of earlier cathedrals, the Strasbourg statues clearly show emotions; the prophets look severe, the Virgins appear serene, the Virtues look noble, and the frivolous Virgins appear foolish. The statues in the portals are all standing upon realistically carved capitals decorated with the signs of the zodiac. Portal of Saint Lawrence (North transept) The portal of Saint Lawrence, was added to the north transept between 1495 and 1505 by Jacob von (or Jacques de) Landshut, with sculptures by Hans von Aachen (aka Johan von Ach, or Jean d'Aix-la-Chapelle) and Conrad Sifer. The original statues were replaced by copies in the 20th century and are today kept in the Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame. The tympanum was destroyed in the French Revolution and replaced by a work by the sculptor (1765–1833). It presents a virtual theater of late Gothic flamboyant architecture and decoration, including three interlocking arches over the doors, containing a statue of the Saint during his martyrdom. The supporting buttresses on either side also have very expressive sculpture representing the Virgin Mary and the three Magi on one side, and a group of Saints on the other, both sheltered beneath lacelike flamboyant sculpture and pinnacles. A balustrade crosses the face of the transept, and above is a wall of two bays filled with stained glass. Portal of the Virgin (South transept) The south portal, or Portal of the Virgin, dates to about the 1220s, the same time as the Pillar of the Angels and the Astronomic clock in the interior. Decrees of the Emperor rendering justice were traditionally read out in front of this doorway. The rounded arches of tympanum over the doorway contain sculpture of the Virgin Mary dying, surrounded by the Twelve Apostles and being crowned by Christ. The original statue-columns of the Apostles from the 1220s which supported the tympanum were smashed in 1793 during the French Revolution. The mid-level of the transept over the portal, built in about 1230, has lancet windows and a statue of Virgin, flanked by Saint Peter and Saint Lawrence. Above this is a colourful clock with the signs of the zodiac. Above this is a flamboyant Gothic balustrade with an original sundial from about 1493, and above that are two small rose windows from the same period. Following their destruction during the French Revolution, several of the sculptures have been replaced in the 19th century by works by Philippe Grass, Jean-Étienne Malade, and Jean Vallastre. As with all the other portals, several of the statues have been replaced by copies in situ and are today displayed in the Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame. This is also true for Ecclesia and Synagoga, arguably the most famous statues of the cathedral, if not of Strasbourg. Octagon bell tower and spire The cathedral was originally intended to have two towers on the west front, but only the north one was built. The octagon tower was begun in 1399 by Ulrich von Ensingen (chief architect until 1419), and crowned with a spire by his successor Johannes Hültz. The work was completed in 1439. The eight-sided tower is three times higher than wide, more elongated than other Gothic towers of the 13th century. It is surrounded and supported by four more slender towers containing circular stairways. The walls of the tower have tall lancet openings, which show the bells and bring light into the interior, and are decorated on the exterior with interlocking pointed gables. Between the lower tower and spire there is a balustrade, almost hidden by pinnacles and other architectural decoration. The spire above the tower is composed of eight stages of elaborate octagonal structure, linked together by interlaced arches and pinnacles, which contain a stairway to the lantern at the top. Originally the lantern was topped by a statue of the Virgin Mary, the patron saint of the cathedral, but in 1488 it was replaced by a fleuron, or flower-shaped ornament. This is crowned by the cross, which is surrounded by four smaller crosses and images of the host and chalice, elements of the liturgy of the Eucharist. Crossing dome and chevet The crossing dome is placed over the meeting point of the transept and the choir, and, like the bell tower, has eight sides. It was constructed beginning in about 1330, following the rebuilding of the transept. Its base is topped by a gallery with pointed arches, beneath a level with large arched bays, two on each side, side, divided by clusters of columns. Above this are blind arcades, an ornate cornice, and then a pointed roof with a pair of dormer or skylight windows, a small window above a large one, on each side, which brought light to the choir below. The medieval crossing dome's aspect was altered several times over the centuries. The currently visible, much higher crossing dome was designed in grand Romanesque Revival style by the architect Gustave Klotz, after the original dome had been heavily damaged by Prussian shelling during the Siege of Strasbourg. Klotz's dome was in turn heavily damaged by bombing raids during World War II, and restored between 1988 and 1992. The chevet, at the northeast end of the cathedral, close to the transept, has vestiges that go back to the Romanesque cathedral, particularly at the lower levels. It looks over the former cloister of the canons of the cathedral. It is the least decorated side of the cathedral. A large arched bay occupies the central portion, just below a balustrade. Above that are three narrow windows and then a triangular gable with a small circular oculus window and blind arches. The face is flanked by two cylindrical towers with narrow lancet windows and pointed roofs. The walls are pierced with narrow slits, like a medieval fortress, giving it a very military appearance. Two chapels, devoted to Saint Andrew and Saint John the Baptist, were attached to the two sides of the apse. The Chapel of John the Baptist preserves its thick Romanesque walls and two Romanesque windows. Interior Narthex The narthex is the portion of the cathedral just inside the west front, beneath the tower. It is separated from the nave by two massive pillars, 8.5 by 5 meters, which support the tower above. The primary decorative element is the rose window, added between 1320 and 1340, and substantially restored since. Rays of yellow glass radiate outwards like a sun, surrounded mosaic-like pieces of green and blue and by small oculi with red floral designs. The tracery and decoration of the interior are very much like of that exterior, with blind galleries and delicate parallel vertical lines, like the strings of a harp. A pointed arch frames the window, and a row of blind arches at the lower level completes the decoration. The reverse of the central doors of the portal has a column statue of Saint Peter holding the keys of the kingdom and above it a blind rose, without glass, a miniature version of the large rose window above it. Stained glass of narthex The lower bay on the south has stained glass windows that depict the Last Judgement, while the north bay windows illustrate twelve episodes from the Book of Genesis, including the creation of Adam and Eve, the original sin, the expulsion from Paradise, and Noah's ark. These windows date to about 1345. Nave The nave is the section of the cathedral between the narthex and the choir where ordinary parishioners are seated and worship. At Strasbourg it is long and wide, not counting the two collateral aisles, which are each wide. In height to the vaults it is . It takes its reddish-brown color from the sandstone of the Vosges mountains. The nave is dominated by the two rows of massive pillars Each pillar bundles sixteen smaller columns, of which five reach upward to support the vaults overhead. The meeting points between the columns and the vault ribs is decorated with vegetal sculpture. The elevation has the traditional High Gothic or Rayonnant Gothic three levels; large arcades below, with windows on the collateral aisles; a narrow triforium, or gallery, also with windows, for passing along the walls; and above that, of equal height with the arcades the upper windows which reach up into the vaults. The upper windows at Strasbourg fill the entire space between the triforium and the vaults. An additional element of decoration is given by the small sculpted, painted, and gilded heads on the keystones of the vaults, where the ribs meet. Nave stained glass - The Emperor Windows The five lower bays on the north side contain some of the oldest stained glass of the cathedral, installed in the old Romanesque cathedral in about 1180. When the nave was rebuilt in Gothic style in the 13th century, the old windows were reinstalled in random locations. In 1877, architect Gustave Klotz reconstituted the windows in their original arrangement. The windows are devoted to nine Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. Each holds a sceptre in his right hand and an orb in the left hand, symbols of their responsibility as both sovereigns and religious figures. Some of the windows were assembled with glass from different periods: in the windows devoted to the Emperors Frederick II and Henry II of Bamberg, the heads were made between 1250 and 1275, but in 1522 were remounted onto the bodies of other kings from earlier windows made in about 1180. The small circular windows above the Emperors depict scenes from the life of Christ. The complete Emperor windows are: First Emperor Window: HENRICUS REX (presumably Henry the Fowler), FRIDERICUS REX (Frederick I), HENRICUS BABINBERGENSIS (Henry II of Bamberg); Second Emperor Window: OTTO REX (Otto I), OTTO II REX (Otto II), OTTO III REX (Otto III), CONRADUS II REX (Conrad II), the latter depicted together with an imperial prince who may be Henry III; Third Emperor Window: REX PHILIPPUS (Philip of Swabia), HENRICUS REX (possibly Henry II), REX HENRICUS CLAUDUS (Henry the lame = also possibly Henry II), FRIDERICUS SUBMERSUS (Frederick I); Fourth Emperor Window: KAROLUS MARTEL PATER BIPPINI (Charles Martel), KAROLUS MAGNUS REX (Charlemagne), REX BIPPINUS KAROLI (Pepin the Short), LUDEVICUS REX FILIUS KAROLI (Louis the Pious); Fifth Emperor Window: LOTHARIUS ROMANORUM IMPERATOR (Lothair I), LUDEWICUS FILIUS LOTHARII VIII (identification unclear, may be Louis II of Italy), LUDEWICUS FILIUS LOTHARI VI (identification unclear), KAROLUS REX IUNIOR (identified with Charles of Provence). The upper windows of the nave depict eighty-four saints, added by various artists between 1250 and 1275. On the south side of the nave, the upper walls have windows depicting female saints, including local saints from Alsace or Strasbourg. They wear diadems and have flowers in their hair, and carry twigs of the tree of life, or fruit. On the south side, the upper windows depict soldiers, popes, bishops, and other masculine figures. The windows of the triforium, between the upper and lower window, contain 19th-century reconstitutions of early windows depicting the ancestors of Christ, but little of the original glass remains. Pulpit The pulpit, attached to the fourth pillar of the north side of the nave, was sculpted in 1485 following a design by Hans Hammer. It is reached by a stairway with a curling sculpted design called "butterfly wings". The pulpit itself, in the form of a very ornate corbeille or basket, is entirely covered with colonettes, gables, pinnacles, and niches filled with sculpture, including images of Christ on the cross, a crowned Virgin Mary, Apostles, the Crucifixion, and well as Kings and doctors of the Church. A statue on the west side of the pillar represents a famed preacher contemporary with the cathedral; Johann Geiler von Kaysersberg (d. 1510); a small sculpture along the railing of the stairs depicts Geiler's dog, mourning his master on steps of the pulpit where he once preached. The grand organ The grand organ, located high on the wall of the north side of the nave, is recorded as existing in 1260. It was rebuilt 1298, in 1324–1327, in 1384, 1430, and 1489 and finally in 1716 by André Silbermann. It was hoisted up to its present position in 1327. The ornate and colourful decoration of pinnacle, spires, and sculpture Sculpture also hangs beneath the organ, including a moving figure of Samson opening the jaws of a lion. Other moving figures include a trumpet player carrying a banner and a pretzel vendor being offered flour, water, and salt by the caryatides on the console. The Silbermann organ had three keyboards, thirty-nine jeux, or effects and two thousand, two hundred forty-two pipes. It was electrified after 1807, and was restored and modified several times, most recently in 1934–35 and in 1975–81, giving it the current forty-seven jeux. In addition to the grand organ in nave, the cathedral has two smaller organs: Choir pipe organ, north side of the choir, Joseph Merklin, 1878 Crypt pipe organ, 1998 North Transept The transept and the apse were built atop the Romanesque crypt, making them a little higher than the nave; they are reached by a short stairway, giving the impression that the choir and apse are the stage of a theater. The crossing of the transept and the choir is topped by the central cupola or dome, which is supported by four gigantic pillars, each wrapped in eight columns, which reach up to support the vaults under the cupola. The cupola itself rests upon four squinches, a base made of rounded arches, which make the connection between the Gothic and Romanesque elements. The columns are lavishly decorated with sculpted foliage. Formerly the floor of the crossing was filled with tombs of notable religious figures, but they were moved in later reconstructions. Only the names remain carved on the walls. There are two altars fixed to west pillars of the crossing, both from the 16th century; one devoted to Saint Pancras of Rome and the other to Saint Maurice. The crossing is filled with statues and busts of saints set into niches as well as bas-reliefs of the Nativity and the Adoration of the Magi. Other scenes are painted onto the reverse of the bas-reliefs. The first overhead vault before the cupola features a 19th-century painting of the Last Judgement by Charles Auguste Steinheil, a collaborator of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc and other notable cathedral-restorers. It is in a Neo-Byzantine style, with Christ in a red frame in the center. The other vaults in the crossing were also intended to be painted, but funding was insufficient. The Romanesque north transept has four traverses, which were the first in the cathedral to receive Gothic rib vaults. The vaults are supported by a circular pillar with modest decorative stone rings. The two lower lancet windows were put together in the 19th century out of glass from different centuries. They feature a Tree of Jesse (The Genealogy of Christ) and the judgement of Solomon (right window) and the Virgin Mary with John the Baptist and John the Evangelist) as well as King Solomon, the Queen of Sheba and King David on the left. The two rose windows above are later, from the 14th century, with vegetal designs. On the east wall, the windows depict Christ in Majesty, Saint Lawrence, a Virgin and Child, and John the Baptist. The capitals of the columns are decorated with dragons and other mythical creatures. The north transept also contains the two baptismal fonts, one circular and one octagonal, in their own architectural settings, They were made by Jost Dotzinger in 1453. The octagonal vault is covered with arches and lacelike interlaced sculpture in the late Gothic Flamboyant style. The north transept connects with the Chapel of Saint John, entered through a pointed Gothic arch containing a rounded Romanesque arch. The central art work of the North Transept is a large statue of Christ on the cross, over a sculptural landscape depicting the Mount of Olives, crowded with carved figures in dramatic poses. It was originally made in 1498 by Nicolas Roder for the cemetery of Saint-Thomas, and was based on engravings by Martin Schongauer and Albrecht Dürer. South Transept In the south transept, the lancet and oculus windows in the two large bays on the east, built in 1220–1227, are modelled after those in the lower choir of Chartres Cathedral. A pointed arch, a tribune for singers, and a balustrade were added in the 15th century. A sculpture of a head, wearing the hat of an architect or magistrate, gazes from the balustrade at the pillar of angels. Under the balustrade is a large painting on wood illustrating the Nativity, in a sweeping landscape. It also dates from the 15th century. The South Transept contains the Pillar of Angels, a massive supporting pillar for the ceiling. It is composed of an octagonal pillar surrounded by four engaged columns, which reach upwards to support the vaults, and four slender colonettes. It is decorated with four vertical groups of statue-columns, depicting scenes from Christ and the Last Judgement, as well as four angels carrying the instruments of the Passion, and above that, four more angels sounding trumpets. At the lower level are statues of the four Evangelists. The pillar was created in the middle of the 13th century, most probably by a group of sculptors from France or Burgundy. Other parts of the vaults are upheld by Atlantes, supports in the form of human figures. The rose windows of the west transept facade were made between 1230 and 1235, Above the rose are smaller round oculi from the same period, depicting Biblical symbols; the Alpha and Omega, the Candelabra of the Ancient Alliance, and others which combine floral and geometric designs. Astronomical clock The astronomical clock, located in the south transept, is one of the most famous features of the cathedral. The first astronomical clock was installed in the cathedral from 1352–54 until 1500. It was called the Dreikönigsuhr ("three-king clock"), and was located at the opposite wall from where today's clock is. At noon, a group of three mechanical kings would prostrate themselves before the infant Jesus, while the chimes of the clock sounded the hour. In 1547 a new clock was begun by Christian Herlin and others, but the construction was interrupted when the cathedral was handed over to the Roman Catholic Church. Construction was resumed in 1571 by Conrad Dasypodius and the Habrecht brothers, and this clock was given a more ambitious program of mechanical figures. It was decorated with paintings by the Swiss painter Tobias Stimmer. This clock functioned until 1788, and can be seen today in the Strasbourg Museum of Decorative Arts. The present clock was built by Jean-Baptiste Schwilguẻ between 1837 and 1842. All the parts of the clock together are high. The clock shows much more than the official time; it also indicates solar time, the day of the week (each represented by a god of mythology), the month, the year, the sign of the zodiac, the phase of the moon and the position of several planets. .The lower part of the massive base of the clock has statues of Apollo and the Goddess Diana presenting a circular calendar of the liturgical year, whose revolving face with a globe points to the dates of major religious festivals and events. This part of the clock is surrounded by painted figures representing the ancient empires – Greece, Assyria, Persia, and Rome. The level above displays a group of mechanical chariots, with allegorical figures representing the days of the week, which move daily to bring to the front the current day of the week. Figures of two reclining women hold a cadran (clock face) between them which tells the minutes. Above this level is a celestial globe in a sky of painted stars which makes a complete revolution every 23 hours, fifty-six minutes and four seconds. As it turns, it shows the 1,022 stars identified by Ptolemy, as viewed above the horizon of Strasbourg. The central tower is composed of three levels. On the bottom, figures of the Four Seasons surround a mechanical astrolabe, which indicates the location of the planets according to Copernicus, and is surrounded by the signs of the zodiac. Above this is a globe, with painted figures of the Church and the Antichrist confronting each other. This mechanism displays the phases of the moon. Above this are two levels of animated mechanical figures, above that a figure of Christ and the four Evangelists, under a dome formed by crossed arches. Animated characters launch into movement at different hours of the day. One angel sounds the bell while a second turns over an hourglass. Different characters, representing the ages of life (from a child to an old man) parade in front of Death. On the last level are the Apostles, passing in front of Christ. All these automata are put into operation daily at 12:30 pm except Sundays. Apse The apse of the cathedral, the hemispherical vault behind the altar on the northeast end, features Romanesque and Gothic architecture overlaid with 19th-century Neo-Romanesque decoration, The paintings on the half-dome and walls were made by Édouard Steinlé in 1877–79, in the style of a Byzantine mosaic. The painted figures on the wall represent fathers of the church and founders of religious orders, depicted in Byzantine style. In 2004 the apse and choir received some of its historic furnishings; fifteen choir stalls made by Claude Burdy and Claude Bergerat in 1692, as well as a group of busts of the apostles originally placed there in the 18th century. The stained glass window in the axis of the apse depicts the Virgin of Alscace. The window was a gift to the Cathedral in 1956 from the Council of Europe, which has headquarters in Strasbourg. It replaces the original window which was one of the few windows not put into safe storage before World War II; it was destroyed by Allied bombing in 1944. The main altar, in the form of a tomb, is a recreation of an earlier altar in the rocaille or late baroque style, which had been damaged in a fire in 1759 and then ruined during the French Revolution. The altar was recreated in 1809 by the architect Pierre-Valentin Boudhors, who discovered the old central medallion of the original altar and combined it with white and black marble panels. The sculptor Jacques Zimmer added the heads of cherubs made of bronze. Chapel of Saint John the Baptist The Chapel of Saint John the Baptist is located just to the left of the apse, at the northeast end of the cathedral. It is one of the oldest parts of the cathedral, constructed in about 1170 and then rebuilt in Gothic style in 1230, with the same height as the adjoining nave. The sacristy occupies the upper level over the chapel. The chapel contains the tomb of Bishop Conrad de Lichtenberg, made between 1310 and 1320, and now framed by flamboyant tripe arch. It also contains the tomb of Conrad de Bussnang, a prominent member of the chapter, whose image is portrayed in sculpture praying before the Virgin and child. It dates to the end of the 15th century. A door opens from the chapel to an adjoining cloister behind the cathedral. Chapel of Saint Andrew The Chapel of Saint Andrew is on the southeast side, to the right of the apse. It is also a very early part of the cathedral, built shortly after 1150, with nine crossings and three naves of slightly different sizes, covered by Romanesque groin vaults. The chapel is devoted to memorials to six canons who were entombed there between 1478 and 1681. The central decoration is sculptural work dedicated to the Virgin Mary donated by the de Barby brothers in 1521. A Romanesque portal opens to the cloister outside. Crypt The cathedral has two Romanesque crypts, the oldest parts of the cathedral. The more recent one is under the transept, from about 1150, and the older one, under the apse, was built in about 1110 to 1120. They are covered with Romanesque groin vaults, formed by the intersection of rounded barrel vaults, and supported by massive cruciform pillars and cylindrical columns with palm leaf decoration on their capitals. Some of the capitals also have sculpted monsters and lions on the corners. The larger crypt has three naves, of equal size, divided by slender columns. There are three stairways down to the crypt, the oldest, from the apse, dates to about 1150. The pilasters between the stairways are older, from 1015. Further modifications were made to the crypts in the 12th century. Bells In 1519 Strasbourg Cathedral commissioned Jerg von Speyer to create what was said to be the largest bell in Europe; 2.74 meters in diameter and weighing twenty tons. This enormous bell was installed but cracked shortly afterwards. Its place as the bourdon, or largest and deepest-sounding bell, was taken by an older bell, the "Totenglock", or "Death bell", which was traditionally used for mourning. It weighs 7.5 tons and 2.2 meters in diameter, and was cast in 1447 by Hans Gremp. It is still in place. During the French Revolution nine bells were taken out and melted down to make cannon, but the "Totonglock" and a second bell, the "Zehrnerglock" (1.58 meters, 2.225 tons), made in Mathieu Edel in 1786, were preserved to ring the hours and serve as alarm bells for the city. More recently, a group of six modern bells was cast in Heidelberg between 1974 and 1976; they range from 1.7 meters to 0.9 meters in diameter, and from 3.9 to 5.7 tons in weight. Other two bells are from 1987 and 2006. The four bells in the octagon tower are rung on the hour. These include an old bell made by Jean Rosier and Cesar Bonbon (1691). Another old bell by Mathieu Edel (1787, 2.2 tons) rings on the quarter hours. An even older bell, by Jean Jacques-Miller (1595), repeats the sounding of the hours one minute later. Under the roof of the Klotz tower are the six bells that ring the weekly masses but also the baptisms, marriages and deaths of parishioners. Tapestries The cathedral has a particularly fine group of fourteen tapestries depicting the life of the Virgin Mary. They were commissioned by Cardinal Richelieu for the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, and were made to accompany a painting there, "The Vow of Louis XIII". They were manufactured between 1638 and 1657 in Paris by Pierre Damour. They were purchased by the Chapter of Strasbourg Cathedral in 1739, and were an example of the importation of the French style of that period into Alsace. They are traditionally hung in the arcades of the nave during Advent. Cathedral Art in Strasbourg Museums The Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame, or Museum of the Work of Notre-Dame, is located in a medieval and Renaissance building not far from the cathedral, and displays a collection of some of the most delicate original works of sculpture and art from Cathedral, moved there to protect them from environmental damage. These include some of the original statues from the portals and facade dating from the 13th century, including the statues of "The Church" and "The Synagogue" from the portal of the south transept. The statue of the "Synagogue" is blindfolded, since Jews did not recognise the divinity of Christ. It also preserves the earliest plans of the cathedral, as well as paintings and tapestries and other objects. Other objects and works from the cathedral, including the mechanism of the original astronomical clock, are found in the Musée des arts décoratifs de Strasbourg. Personalities Johann Geiler von Kaysersberg, preacher (1478–1510) Matthäus Zell, preacher (1518–1523) Caspar Hedio, preacher (1523–1550) Johann Conrad Dannhauer, priest (1633–1666) Philipp Jakob Spener, preacher (1663–1666) Franz Xaver Richter, Kapellmeister (1769–1789) Ignaz Pleyel, Kapellmeister (1783–1795) Burials Conrad de Lichtenberg Dimensions The known dimensions of the building are as follows: Total length: Total length inside: Height of spire: Height of observation deck: Height of crossing dome: Exterior height of central nave: Inside height of central nave: Inside width of central nave: Inside height of lateral naves: Inside height of narthex: Exterior width of west façade: Diameter of west façade rose window: Main construction area: Copper-covered roof area: Tile-covered roof area: Slate-covered roof area: Furnishing Protestant and Revolutionary iconoclasm, the war periods of 1681, 1870 and 1940–1944, as well as changes in taste and liturgy, have taken a toll on some of Strasbourg Cathedral's most outstanding features such as the choir screen of 1252 and the successive high altars (ca. 1500 and 1682), but many treasures remain inside the building; others, or fragments of them, being displayed in the Musée de l’Œuvre Notre-Dame. See also Gothic cathedrals and churches French Gothic architecture List of Gothic Cathedrals in Europe Episcopal Palace, Strasbourg Kammerzell House Parable of the Ten Virgins Sabina von Steinbach Saint-Thiébaut Church, Thann St. George's Church, Sélestat St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Wissembourg References Bibliography and further reading Doré, Joseph; Jordan, Benoît; Rapp, Francis; et al.: Strasbourg – La grâce d'une cathédrale, 2007, Bengel, Sabine; Nohlen, Marie-José; Potier, Stéphane: Bâtisseurs de Cathédrales. Strasbourg, mille ans de chantier, 2014, Baumann, Fabien; Muller, Claude: Notre-Dame de Strasbourg, Du génie humain à l’éclat divin, 2014, Recht, Roland; Foessel, Georges; Klein, Jean-Pierre: Connaître Strasbourg, 1988, , pages 47–55 Sauvé, Jean-Sébastien: Notre-Dame de Strasbourg. Les façades gothiques, 2012, External links Cathédrale de Strasbourg Œuvre Notre-Dame Strasbourg Cathedral Exterior of Notre-Dame de Strasbourg and Interior of Notre-Dame de Strasbourg on archi-wiki.org Notre Dame Cathedral (original plans and contemporary photographs) Historical Sketch of the Cathedral of Strasbourg at Project Gutenberg 15th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in France Former world's tallest buildings Gothic architecture in Strasbourg Monuments historiques of Bas-Rhin Roman Catholic churches completed in 1439 Cathedral Roman Catholic cathedrals in France Romanesque architecture in France Church buildings with domes
1220101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Maxwell	Joseph Maxwell	Joseph "Joe" Maxwell, (10 February 1896 – 6 July 1967) was an Australian soldier, writer, and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest decoration for gallantry "in the face of the enemy" that can be awarded to members of British and Commonwealth armed forces. Often described as Australia's second most decorated soldier of the First World War, he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 8 February 1915, and served at Gallipoli before being transferred to the Western Front. In just over twelve months he was commissioned and decorated four times for his bravery. An apprentice boilermaker before the war, Maxwell returned to Australia in 1919 and worked as a gardener. In 1932, he published Hell's Bells and Mademoiselles, a book written in collaboration with Hugh Buggy about his war experiences. Attempting to enlist for service during the Second World War, Maxwell was rejected on the grounds of his age before enlisting under an alias in Queensland; his identity was discovered, and after a short period in a training position, he sought discharge. In 1967, aged 71, he died of a heart attack. Early life Maxwell was born in the Sydney suburb of Forest Lodge, New South Wales, on 10 February 1896 to John Maxwell, a labourer, and his wife Elizabeth, née Stokes. A member of the Senior Australian Army Cadets for three years, he worked as an apprentice boilermaker at an engineering works near Newcastle upon leaving school. For two years, he served as a member of the Citizens Military Forces, and on 6 February 1915, he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force enticed by the prospects of better pay. First World War Training, February 1915 to Western Front, May 1917 Having received his initial training at Liverpool Camp, Maxwell was allotted to "B" Company of the 18th Battalion as a lance corporal, and embarked for Egypt aboard HMAT Ceramic on 25 May 1915. The 18th Battalion trained in Egypt from mid-June until mid-August, before proceeding to Gallipoli, where they landed at Anzac Cove on 22 August. The battalion fought its first battle on the same day, staging an attack on the Turkish-held Hill 60. The engagement lasted until 29 August, with half of the battalion becoming casualties, and Maxwell briefly assuming the duties of a stretcher bearer. Maxwell served at Gallipoli with his unit until 2 December, when he was admitted to 5th Field Ambulance and evacuated from the peninsula suffering from jaundice. Admitted to 3rd Auxiliary Hospital, Heliopolis, he remained there until 11 December, when he was posted to a convalescent camp at Ras el Tin. He rejoined the 18th Battalion on 5 January 1916, which had been evacuated from the Gallipoli Peninsula on 20 December the previous year and posted to Egypt. On 4 February, Maxwell was admitted to the Australian Dermatological Hospital, Abbassia with venereal disease. He returned to his battalion four days before it embarked for France, and the Western Front on 18 March. Arriving in Marseilles, France, Maxwell was admitted to 7th Australian Field Ambulance and then transferred to the 3rd Canadian General Hospital following wounds sustained during battle. He was moved to the 1st Convalescent Depot on 2 May, and then discharged to Base Details eleven days later. He was later found guilty of breaking ranks at the 07:30 parade on the same day and being absent without leave from 08:00 until 13:00 on 24 May; for this transgression, he was reduced to the ranks. Rejoining his battalion on 1 June, he took part in the Battle of Pozières and received a promotion to sergeant in October. Suffering synovitis to his right knee, Maxwell was hospitalised for two days and posted to a training battalion in England on 28 November 1916. He stayed there for five months before embarking for France on 9 May 1917 and rejoining the 18th Battalion five days later. Maxwell was only briefly in France before being selected for officer training. Shortly after arriving in England, he attended a boisterous party with a group of soldiers. The military police raided the party and called the local police for assistance after confronting Maxwell's group. Maxwell was fined £20 and sent back to his unit for his actions. Western Front: May 1917 to August 1918 Maxwell was again selected for officer training, and on 5 July, he was posted to No. 6 Officers' Cadet Battalion. He was promoted to company sergeant major on 7 August, before rejoining the 18th Battalion on 11 September. Nine days later, he was engaged in action near Westhoek during the Third Battle of Ypres when he performed the deeds that earned him the Distinguished Conduct Medal. In the battle, the commander of a platoon was killed; Maxwell took command and led it into attack. Noticing that one of the newly captured positions was under heavy fire, Maxwell dashed to it and led the men to a safer and more tactically secure position, thus minimizing casualties. Commissioned in the field as a second lieutenant on 29 September 1917, Maxwell took part in the engagements around Poelcappelle, Belgium, the following month. He earned promotion to lieutenant on 1 January 1918 and was admitted to the 7th Australian Field Ambulance on 10 January suffering scabies. Having been discharged from the hospital, he rejoined the 18th Battalion on 17 January. On 8 March 1918, Maxwell commanded a scouting patrol that was operating to the east of Ploegsteert. Having obtained the required information, he ordered the patrol to withdraw. He and three of his men were covering the withdrawal of the main body when he noticed about thirty Germans nearby. Recalling the patrol, he led an attack against the party, which had sheltered in an old trench; the Germans quickly withdrew, leaving three dead and one wounded prisoner of war. Maxwell was awarded the Military Cross for his actions during this engagement, news of which was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 13 May 1918. Throughout the spring of 1918, the 18th Battalion was involved in operations to repel the German offensive. Maxwell took part in these actions until he was granted leave and went back to England on 17 July. He returned to France and rejoined the 18th Battalion on 1 August, before taking part in the Battle of Amiens where he was to earn a Bar to his Military Cross. On 9 August, the battalion was preparing to attack near Rainecourt. Maxwell took command of the company after all of its other officers became casualties. Under his leadership, the company was able to attack on time, despite being subjected to heavy fire. A tank that preceded the advance immediately became the object of enemy fire and was knocked out by a 77 mm gun. Maxwell, who was in close proximity, rushed over and opened the hatch, allowing the crew to escape. After escorting the tank commander to safety, Maxwell returned to lead the company in the attack, which succeeded in reaching and consolidating their objective. The award of the bar was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 1 February 1919. Victoria Cross, October 1918 to repatriation, August 1919 On 3 October 1918, the 5th Brigade—of which the 18th Battalion was part—became engaged in its last battle of the First World War when breaching the Hindenburg Line close to Beaurevoir and Montbrehain. While taking part in this battle, Maxwell was a member of the attacking party along the Beaurevoir-Fonsomme line when he performed the acts for which he was awarded the Victoria Cross. Early in the advance, Maxwell's company commander was severely wounded, resulting in Maxwell assuming control. Reaching the German barbwire defences under intense machine-gun fire, the company suffered heavy casualties, including all of the officers except Maxwell. Pushing forward alone through a narrow passageway in the wire, Maxwell captured the most dangerous machine gun, killed three Germans and took another four as prisoners; thereby enabling the company to move through the wire and reach their objective. Shortly afterwards, it was noticed that the company on their left flank was held up and failing to advance. Gathering a party of men, Maxwell led the group in an attempt to attack the German force from the rear. They soon came under heavy machine gun fire, and, single-handedly, Maxwell dashed forward and attacked the foremost gun. Firing his revolver, he managed to shoot five of the crew and silence the gun. Later in the advance, Maxwell learnt from an English-speaking prisoner that a group of Germans in the adjacent post wished to surrender, but were afraid to give themselves up. Accompanied by two privates and the prisoner—who was to act as an interpreter—Maxwell approached the post. The three Australians, however, were immediately surrounded by a group of twenty German soldiers and disarmed. They seemed set to become prisoners themselves, before an artillery barrage fell on the position. Taking advantage of the resulting confusion, Maxwell pulled out a concealed revolver and shot two of the Germans before escaping with his men under heavy rifle fire; one of the privates was subsequently wounded. Organising a party of men, he immediately attacked and captured the post. The full citation for Maxwell's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 6 January 1919, it read: The 18th Battalion was training away from the frontline when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918. On 8 March 1919, Maxwell was invested with his Victoria Cross by King George V in the ballroom of Buckingham Palace. He headed for Australia on 1 May aboard HT China, disembarking at Melbourne on 8 June and proceeding to Sydney, where he was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 20 August. Later life Following demobilisation, Maxwell worked as a gardener in Canberra, Moree and the Maitland district. Having described himself as a reporter, Maxwell married 19-year-old tailoress Mabel Maxwell (unrelated) in a Catholic ceremony at Bellevue Hill, Sydney on 14 February 1921. The marriage produced a daughter, Jean, before being dissolved in 1926 upon Mabel's instigation. On 11 November 1929, Maxwell attended the New South Wales Dinner for recipients of the Victoria Cross in Sydney, and 1932 saw the publication of Hell's Bells and Mademoiselles, a book written in collaboration with Hugh Buggy about his experiences in the war. At the time, Maxwell was working as a gardener with the Department of the Interior in Canberra. The book was a success, but Maxwell soon spent what money he made from it. In the late 1930s, he wrote the manuscript for a second book entitled From the Hindenburg Line to the Breadline. The book was never published and the manuscript was lost when it was lent to someone to read. In 1933, Maxwell acted as a defence witness in the trial of Alfred Jamieson, who was accused of housebreaking. Maxwell was Jamieson's former platoon commander and testified that Jamieson had been of good character but had been strongly affected by the war. After the outbreak of the Second World War, Maxwell made several attempts to enlist, but was unsuccessful due to his age, and deteriorating health. He eventually travelled to Queensland, where he enlisted under the alias of Joseph Wells on 27 June 1940. However, his identity was soon discovered and he was given a training position; dissatisfied, he took his discharge on 9 September 1940. In 1952, Maxwell joined the contingent of Victoria Cross recipients invited to the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. On 6 March 1956, describing himself as a journalist from Bondi, Maxwell married widow Anne Martin, née Burton, in Sydney. Three years later, he attended the Victoria Cross centenary celebrations in London, before later re-visiting the battlefields in France. In 1964, together with his wife, Maxwell attended the opening of the VC Corner in the Australian War Memorial, Canberra. He was determined that his Victoria Cross would not wind up in the collection, believing that the award would be devalued by "lumping" them together. On 6 July 1967, Maxwell collapsed and died of a heart attack in a street in his home town Matraville, New South Wales. He had been an invalid pensioner for some time. His funeral service took place with full military honours at St Mathias Anglican Church, Paddington. Having been cremated, his ashes were interred at the Eastern Suburbs Crematorium in Botany. Anne Maxwell presented her husband's medals to the Army Museum of New South Wales at Victoria Barracks, Paddington, and subsequently the medals, together with a portrait and a brass copy of his VC citation, were unveiled by the Minister of Defence, Allan Fairhall. In 2003, Maxwell's medals were presented to the Australian War Memorial on a permanent loan basis. Notes References Further reading External links 1896 births 1967 deaths Australian Army officers Australian boilermakers Australian Army personnel of World War II 20th-century Australian non-fiction writers Australian recipients of the Distinguished Conduct Medal Australian World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross People from New South Wales Recipients of the Military Cross Burials at Eastern Suburbs Memorial Park
1223254	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ong%27s%20Hat%2C%20New%20Jersey	Ong's Hat, New Jersey	Ong's Hat (also Ong) is a ghost town in Pemberton Township, Burlington County, New Jersey, United States. It is located on Magnolia Road (County Route 644) west of the Four Mile Circle, where New Jersey Route 72 intersects with New Jersey Route 70. It is the northern terminus of the Batona Trail. Although it was never more than one hut ("Ong's Hut") it still appeared on some maps as of 2006. A road in the area is named Ong's Hat Road. It is also called the Buddtown-Ong's Hat Road. It was completed in 1929, replacing an earlier dirt path. Name The name of the place may have originally been Ong's Hut, referring to an overnight shelter built by a farmer of that name; see below. A well-known folk story attributes the name to a local man who was a fixture at local dances, wooing women with his suave attire, especially his silk hat. The surname Ong was common among early Pine Barrens settlers, and one of the earliest settlers was named Jacob Ong. One story of the origin of the name is that at one such dance, a jealous lover stomped on his hat, ruining it, and in frustration Ong tossed it in the air, where it caught on a high branch of a pine tree. The hat remained there for many years, serving as landmark which identified the small village. At least four other versions of this legend circulate. One version simply ends with his hat being stomped on, while the most widely circulated one ends with him throwing it in the tree. The other two hold that Ong was a tavern keeper who either painted a silk hat on his sign or threw his hat into a tree after getting angry with a woman. History The name of the area predates the revolutionary war. The location "Ong's" appears on a 1778 map of Hessian encampments in New Jersey. According to Forgotten Towns of Southern New Jersey by Henry Charlton Beck, Ong's Hat was a real village. According to Beck, around the 1860s, Ong's Hat was a lively town and served as a social center for the surrounding area. It was known for the availability of alcohol and one of the first arrests of a bootlegger occurred at Ong's Hat. Prizefighting was also popular. Beck says that a Polish couple, the Chininiskis, moved to Ong's Hat in the early 20th century. By that time only seven residents remained. The Chininiskis disappeared soon after. Years later, hunters found a female skeleton at Ong's Hat, which police speculated was that of Mrs. Chininiski. Tracking Mr. Chininiski to New York but unable to prove anything, Burlington County Sheriff Ellis Parker kept the skull in his office for many years as a reminder of the unsolved case. By 1936, Ong's Hat was still on maps but nothing was there except a clearing, an abandoned shed, and bits of brick and roofing suggesting houses had once been there. When Beck visited he found only Eli Freed, a 79-year-old farmer who moved to the area from Chicago. In the foreword to the 1961 edition of the book, Beck reports that Freed no longer lived at Ong's Hat and that additional legends concerning the village had emerged. A 1968 letter published in the New York Times, written by an Ong family descendant, claims reports of an actual town are a misnomer. Instead, he says his ancestors lived in Little Egg Harbor in the early 17th century and transported their grain to Burlington, New Jersey for grinding. They built a hut midway through the route where they could rest overnight, and according to the letter the name Ong's Hut was added to maps and gradually corrupted to Ong's Hat. In his 1944 book Jersey Genesis, Beck himself says in reporting on Ong's Hat he fell for "elaborate traps" and that the story he had earlier repeated was a "fairy tale". He then subscribes to the explanation that the name is a corruption of Ong's Hut, a stopover point for a farmer from Little Egg Harbor. Urban legend The town of Ong's Hat was the setting for a series of fictional conspiracy theory themed stories from the 1980s onwards, known as Ong's Hat, in which a group of scientists was able to travel to a parallel dimension from a site in the township. The story originated in Joseph Matheny’s book, The Incunabula Papers: Ong's Hat And Other Gateways To New Dimensions. In his book, written in the first person, he tells the story of an investigative journalist trying to uncover the truth about the mysterious town, detailing everything that is happening there. Matheny intended the book to be entertaining and viewed as a work of fiction, but many regarded the stories as factual evidence of a scientific conspiracy, with Matheny's denials being a result of government persecution. Popular culture Ong's Hat appeared in an episode of Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar. References External links Google Map A Hat, A Hut, or a Tavern: The Tale of Ong's Hat New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve Ghost towns in New Jersey Pemberton Township, New Jersey Populated places in the Pine Barrens (New Jersey) Unincorporated communities in Burlington County, New Jersey Unincorporated communities in New Jersey
1223932	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria%20Constabulary	Cumbria Constabulary	Cumbria Constabulary is the territorial police force in England covering Cumbria. As of September 2017, the force had 1,108 police officers, 535 police staff, 93 police community support officers, and 86 special constables. The force serves a population of 500,000 across an area of . There are significant areas of isolated and rural community, and the county has one of the smallest visible minority ethnic populations in the country at under 3.0%. Each year Cumbria, which incorporates the Lake District National Park, attracts over 23 million visitors from all over the world (46 times the local population). The county has of motorway and some of trunk and primary roads. The Chief Constable is Michelle Skeer. The headquarters of the force are at Carleton Hall, Penrith. History Cumberland and Westmorland Constabulary was formed in 1856. In 1947 this force absorbed Kendal Borough Police. Less than 20 years later this amalgamated force absorbed Carlisle City Police to form a force broadly the same as today's force called the Cumberland, Westmorland and Carlisle Constabulary. In 1965, it had an establishment of 652 and an actual strength of 617. In 1967 the force name was changed to Cumbria Constabulary. In 1974 the force's boundaries were expanded to include the new non-metropolitan county of Cumbria, in particular Furness and Sedbergh Rural District. The Home Secretary proposed on 6 February 2006 to merge it with Lancashire Constabulary. These proposals were accepted by both forces on 25 February and the merger would have taken place on 1 April 2007. However, in July 2006, the Cumbria and Lancashire forces decided not to proceed with the merger because the Government could not remedy issues with the differing council tax precepts. Chief constables Cumbria Constabulary (1967) 19681980 : William Cavey 19801987 : Barry David Keith Price 19911997 : Alan Elliott 19972001 : Colin Phillips 20012007 : Michael Baxter 20072012 : Craig Thomas Mackey 20122013 Stuart Hyde 20142018 Jerry Graham 2018present : Michelle Skeer Officers killed in the line of duty The Police Roll of Honour Trust and Police Memorial Trust list and commemorate all British police officers killed in the line of duty. Since its establishment in 1984, the Police Memorial Trust has erected 50 memorials nationally to some of those officers. Thomas Jardine was unlawfully killed during election riots near the Market Cross in Carlisle. On the night of 29 June 1841 he was struck with a sailor's 'Life Preserver' a lead weighted whalebone and died on the morning of 30th. Two men stood trial for murder, one was convicted of manslaughter and the other acquitted. His assailant was transported to Van Dieman's Land for life. Thomas was buried in Christ Church on Botchergate in the city and lies in an unmarked grave. Constable James Armstrong died on 30 September 1847 making his way back at night from Pooley Bridge to his town of Keswick. He fell over a crag having got disorientated in the dark having lost his way. On 3 July 1915, Reserve Police Constable Andrew Johnstone was on duty near Carlisle railway station when he reported to his sergeant that he was feeling ill. He was told to make his way home, but he never arrived and was found drowned in a dammed river in Dentonholme. The force's first, and to date only, murder of an officer occurred on 10 February 1965. Constable George William Russell, aged 36, was fatally shot when, unarmed and knowing that colleagues had already been fired on, he confronted an armed suspect and called upon him to surrender at a railway station in Kendal. Russell was posthumously awarded the Queen's Police Medal for gallantry and a memorial plaque has been unveiled on a wall at Carlisle Cathedral. PC Keith Easterbrook (died 3 June 1993, aged 36) was fatally injured in a road traffic accident, while assisting in a vehicle pursuit, when a van he was overtaking pulled out and collided with his police motorcycle, on the A595 near Workington. PC William "Bill" Barker was killed whilst on duty on 20 November 2009. At night during severe weather and flooding across the county, the officer was directing motorists to safety off Northside Bridge, Workington, which was in a dangerous condition, when the bridge was destroyed by the flood and he was swept away and killed, his body found on a beach at Allonby that afternoon. Barker had completed 25 years police service and was a traffic officer attached to the Roads Policing Unit based at Workington; he had won a number of awards during his service. PC Nick Dumphreys was killed on duty on 26 January 2020, When his vehicle crashed whilst responding to an emergency call in the Carlisle area. PC Dumphreys was part of Cumbria Constabulary's road policing unit. An investigation into his death is ongoing. Organisation In terms of operational policing the force is divided into two commands - the Territorial Policing Command and the Crime Command, each headed by a Chief Superintendent. Territorial Policing Command This command is further divided into three geographic Territorial Policing Areas (TPAs) to cover the county, an operational support section and a command and control section. Each TPA is led by a Superintendent and is further divided into districts and then teams for the purposes of neighbourhood policing. The major elements of the Territorial Policing Command are as follows: North Territorial Policing Area Responsible for neighbourhood and response policing across the following geographic areas: Carlisle District Eden District South Territorial Policing Area Responsible for neighbourhood and response policing across the following geographic areas: Barrow Borough District South Lakeland District West Territorial Policing Area Responsible for neighbourhood and response policing across the following geographic areas Allerdale District Copeland District Operational Support Within this section are force wide units which support the TPAs or units from the Crime Command, or provide a specialist service: Roads Policing Firearms Dog section PSG Civil Contingencies Collision Investigation Firearms Licensing Safety Camera/CTO Command & Control Within this section is the Command and Control Room (dispatch), including the Force Incident Manager (FIM) and the call taking centre. Crime Command This command is responsible for significant investigations and is predominantly staffed by detectives. The command is divided as follows: Intelligence Force Intelligence Bureau Intelligence Analysis Area Intelligence Units Operations Public Protection Units CID Volume Crimes Force Major Investigations Safeguarding Hub Forensics Collaborations Cumbria Constabulary is a partner in the following collaboration: North West Police Underwater Search & Marine Unit See also Cumbria Police and Crime Commissioner Law enforcement in the United Kingdom List of law enforcement agencies in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and British Overseas Territories PC John Kent - The first black British police officer, who served with the then Carlisle City Police between 1837 and 1844 Footnotes External links Police forces of England Constabulary 1856 establishments in England Organizations established in 1856
1238940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmine%20Persico	Carmine Persico	Carmine John Persico Jr. (; August 8, 1933 – March 7, 2019), also known as "Junior", "The Snake" and "Immortal", was an American mobster and the long-time boss of the Colombo crime family in New York City from 1973 until his death in 2019. He was serving a total of 32 years in federal prison from 1987 until his death on March 7, 2019. Youth and crimes Background Carmine Persico was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Carmine John Persico Sr. and Assunta "Susan" Plantamura. His father was a legal stenographer for several law firms in Manhattan. His brothers Theodore Persico and Alphonse "Allie Boy" Persico (died 1989) also became caporegimes in the Colombo crime family. His son, named Alphonse after the boy's uncle and commonly known as "Little Allie Boy", eventually became a capo as well. He was the uncle of Theodore Persico Jr. The family lived in the Carroll Gardens and Red Hook sections of Brooklyn. Persico dropped out of high school aged 16. By then he was a leader of the Garfield Boys, a Brooklyn street gang. However, one contemporary source says that in 1950 he had actually belonged to the South Brooklyn Boys, a successor gang to the Garfield Boys. In March 1951, 17-year-old Persico was arrested on charges of fatally beating another youth in Brooklyn's Prospect Park. However, all charges were eventually dropped. In the early 1950s, Persico was recruited into the Profaci crime family, the forerunner of the Colombo family, by longtime capo Frank Abbatemarco. At first Persico did bookmaking and loan-sharking, then moved into burglaries and hijackings. During this decade he was arrested over 12 times but spent only a few days in jail. He also started working with Joe Gallo and his brothers, Albert and Lawrence. Anastasia murder In 1957, Persico allegedly participated in the murder of Albert Anastasia, the former leader of Murder, Inc. and the boss of what was then the Anastasia family. Anastasia's underboss Carlo Gambino wanted control of the family and conspired with his allies, Genovese family boss Vito Genovese and Profaci boss Joe Profaci, to kill Anastasia. Profaci allegedly gave the job to Persico and the Gallo brothers. On October 25, 1957, Anastasia entered the barbershop of the Park Sheraton Hotel in Midtown Manhattan. As he relaxed in the barber chair, two men—with scarves covering their faces—rushed in, shoved the barber out of the way and fired at Anastasia. After the first volley of bullets, Anastasia allegedly lunged at his killers. However, the stunned Anastasia had actually attacked the gunmen's reflections in the wall mirror of the barber shop. The gunmen continued firing, finally killing Anastasia. No one was ever charged in the Anastasia killing, and there is an alternative theory that gunmen from the Patriarca crime family of New England performed the hit. Profaci and Magliocco regimes The Gallo faction By the late 1950s, Persico and the Gallos were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with Profaci's leadership. Profaci demanded high tribute payments from family members and was viewed as a wealthy autocrat. The First Colombo War started on November 4, 1959, when Profaci's gunmen murdered Abbatemarco on a Brooklyn street. Abbatemarco had stopped paying tribute to Profaci earlier that year with the support of the Gallo faction. It is speculated that Carlo Gambino and Lucchese family boss Tommy Lucchese were encouraging the Gallos to challenge Profaci, their enemy. When Profaci took Abbatemarco's lucrative rackets away from the Gallos, the warfare began. On February 27, 1961 the Gallos, led by Joe Gallo, kidnapped four of Profaci's top men: underboss Joseph Magliocco, Frank Profaci (Joe Profaci's brother), capo Salvatore Musacchia and soldier John Scimone. Profaci himself eluded capture and flew to sanctuary in Florida. While holding the hostages, Larry and Albert Gallo sent Joe Gallo to California. Profaci's consigliere Charles "the Sidge" LoCicero negotiated with the Gallos and all the hostages were released peacefully. Changing sides However, Profaci had no intention of honoring this peace agreement. On August 20, 1961 Joseph Profaci ordered the murder of Gallo members Joseph "Joe Jelly" Gioielli and Larry Gallo. Gunmen allegedly murdered Gioilli after inviting him to go deep sea fishing. Gallo survived a strangulation attempt in the Sahara club of East Flatbush by Persico and Salvatore "Sally" D'Ambrosio after a police officer intervened. The Gallos then began calling Persico "The Snake"; he had betrayed them, the war continued on resulting in nine murders and three disappearances. He was indicted later that year for the attempted murder of Gallo, but the charges were dropped when Gallo refused to testify. On June 6, 1962, Profaci died of cancer and Magliocco became the new family boss. However, the war with the Gallo faction continued. In early 1963, Persico survived a car bombing and his enforcer Hugh McIntosh was shot in the groin as he attempted to kill Larry Gallo. On May 19, 1963, Gallo gunmen ambushed Persico in the Gowanus section of Brooklyn. A panel truck pulled alongside Persico's car and two men shot him in the face, hand and shoulder. Persico reportedly spat out the bullet that had entered his face. Soon after this attempt on his life, Persico was imprisoned on extortion charges. By the fall of 1963, with Joey Gallo also imprisoned, the shooting war had ended with Magliocco the winner. In late 1963, after an unsuccessful attempt to take over the Commission, Magliocco was forced into retirement. He was replaced by Colombo, who had alerted the Commission to Magliocco's plot. The Profaci crime family was now the Colombo crime family. In turn, Colombo rewarded the imprisoned Persico by naming him a capo. Colombo regime Profitable crew After being promoted to capo, Persico was constantly on the streets. He was involved in labor racketeering, extortion, loan-sharking, hijacking, illegal gambling and especially murder for hire. By the late 1960s, Persico's crew was one of the most profitable in the Colombo family. In 1968, Persico was convicted on federal hijacking charges after five separate trials dating back to 1960. On January 27, 1972, he was finally sent to prison on these charges, where he would spend eight years. The trial was noted for the only appearance of former mobster Joseph Valachi as a prosecution witness. Colombo and Gallo shootings In February 1971, Joey Gallo was released from prison. On June 28, Colombo was shot and severely wounded at the second annual Italian-American Civil Rights League rally in Manhattan. The shooter, a black ex-convict named Jerome Johnson, was immediately shot dead by Colombo's bodyguards. Colombo survived in a paralyzed state until his death on May 22, 1978. Police concluded that Johnson was the sole shooter. Both law enforcement and the Mafia assumed Gallo had organized the hit; he had built ties with black gangsters while in prison and, upon his release, threatened to start another gang war unless he received $100,000 compensation. On November 11, 1971, Persico went on trial in state court on 37 counts of extortion, usury, coercion and conspiracy, all stemming from a loan-sharking operation out of a Manhattan fur shop. On December 8 a jury acquitted him of all charges; all 12 prosecution witnesses said they could not identify Persico. After the Colombo shooting, underboss Joseph Yacovelli assumed the role of acting boss. Looking for revenge, Albert Gallo sent a gunman from Las Vegas to the Neapolitan Noodle restaurant in Manhattan, where Yacovelli, Alphonse Persico, and Gennaro Langella were dining one day. However, the gunman did not recognize the mobsters and shot four innocent diners instead, killing two of them. After this assassination attempt, Yacovelli fled New York, leaving Carmine Persico as the new boss, with Carmine himself coordinating the suppression of the Gallos. On April 7, 1972, Joey Gallo was shot and killed by Persico gunmen as he was celebrating his birthday at Umberto's Clam House in Manhattan's Little Italy. Persico regime Prison In 1973, Persico was imprisoned on hijacking and loan-sharking charges, and sentenced to eight years in prison. His incarceration coincided with the release of his brother Alphonse from 17 years in prison. Persico designated Alphonse as acting boss with support as underboss from Gennaro Langella and Carmine's other brother, Theodore. Langella supervised various labor rackets for the family, including their stake in the "Concrete Club", and exerted control over various labor unions, including Cement and Concrete Workers District Council, Local 6A. In 1979, Persico was released from federal prison. On August 11, 1981, Persico pleaded guilty to a conspiracy charge of attempting to bribe an IRS agent from 1977-78 while in federal custody. The evidence included a recording of Persico offering the agent $250,000 in exchange for getting him an early release from prison. On November 9, 1981, Persico was sentenced to five years in federal prison. Federal fugitive On October 14, 1984, Persico and the rest of the Colombo family leadership were indicted on multiple racketeering charges as part of the "Colombo Trial". After the indictment was published, Persico went into hiding. On October 26, the FBI began a national manhunt for Persico, and soon named him as the 390th fugitive to be added to their Ten Most Wanted list. Persico hid in the home of his cousin, mob associate Fred DeChristopher, in Hempstead, New York. Unbeknownst to Persico, DeChristopher had been relaying information to the FBI for the previous two years after being caught up in a sting operation, and had already told the Bureau of Persico's whereabouts. The FBI concocted the fake "manhunt" to shield DeChristopher, who would later provide damning testimony against Persico as a key witness for the prosecution. Persico was arrested on February 15, 1985. On July 1, Persico pleaded not guilty along with 11 other New York Mafia leaders, after a previous indictment on a second set of racketeering charges as part of the Mafia Commission Trial. Prosecutors aimed to strike at all the crime families at once using their involvement in the Commission. According to Colombo hitman and FBI informant Gregory Scarpa, Persico and Gambino boss John Gotti backed a plan to kill the lead prosecutor, and future New York mayor, Rudy Giuliani in late 1986, but it was rejected by the rest of the Commission. Life imprisonment Colombo and Commission trials At the start of the Commission trial Persico decided to serve as his own lawyer. He believed that his history of convictions gave him sufficient experience to defend himself. His co-defendants vehemently disagreed with this decision, and the judge warned Persico that he would be waiving "incompetent counsel" as the grounds for an appeal. Persico received counsel from lawyers to help guide him when the prosecutors questioned him. He tried to project a friendly image to the jury and urged them to put aside any preconceptions about "the Mafia" or "Cosa Nostra". Many believe that Persico inadvertently sabotaged his own defense by acknowledging criminal activities during his cross-examinations of prosecution witnesses. On June 14, 1986, Persico was convicted of racketeering in the Colombo Trial. On November 17, he was sentenced to 39 years in prison. The sentencing judge, John F. Keenan, nonetheless praised Persico's performance as his own lawyer in the Commission Trial and said, "Mr. Persico, you're a tragedy. You are one of the most intelligent people I have ever seen in my life." On November 19, Persico and the other Commission Trial defendants were convicted on all charges. On January 13, 1987, Keenan sentenced Persico to 100 years in prison, to run consecutively with his 39-year sentence in the Colombo trial, fined $240,000, and given no option for parole. The New York Times organized crime writer Selwyn Raab thought the Colombos were the most damaged by the trial, even though most of the top leaders of New York's Mafia families were sent to prison, with the Luccheses losing their entire hierarchy. In his book Five Families, Raab noted that Persico was only 53 years old at the time of the Commission Trial, making him by far the youngest boss in New York. However, Raab noted, Persico had already led the family for 14 years and was "at the peak of his abilities." He believed Persico would have potentially had a long reign ahead of him had he not been taken off the streets. By comparison, the other bosses were in their 70s, and would have likely passed the reins to men of Persico's generation even without the trial intervening. Persico was sent to United States Penitentiary near Marion, Illinois, to serve his combined 139-year sentence. By 2017, Persico was in the medium-security Federal Correctional Complex in Butner, North Carolina. The facility has medical facilities for elderly inmates. Press reports indicated he had become friends with convicted fraudster Bernie Madoff. Revenge In June 1987, Persico ordered acting boss Joel Cacace to kill lawyer William Aronwald, a retired prosecutor who had allegedly been disrespectful to the Mafia. Cacace delegated the job to two hitmen who mistakenly killed Aronwald's father George. In response to outrage from the other New York families, Cacace recruited two more gunmen to kill the first hit team. After those murders were accomplished, Cacace killed the second set of gunmen. In 2004, Cacace would plead guilty to the Aronwald murder. No charges were filed against Persico. Brooklyn rivalry Persico realized that he would likely die in prison, and would thus never be able to resume active control of the family. He was, however, determined to ensure that his cut of the Colombo rackets continued to flow to his relatives. To that end, soon after he was sentenced, he named his brother, Allie Boy, as acting boss. Allie Boy did not reign long, however; he was arrested for loansharking and averted bail. Persico then named a three-man ruling panel to run the family. In 1988, he dissolved the panel and named Victor "Little Vic" Orena, a loyal capo from Brooklyn, as temporary acting boss. While giving Orena the power to induct members and order murders on his own authority—unusual for an acting boss—Persico made it clear that Orena was merely a placeholder until Persico's son, Little Allie Boy, was released from prison. Indeed, Persico picked Orena in part because he was the capo of Little Allie Boy's old crew. Knowing that Little Allie Boy would be 40 years old by the time he was paroled, Carmine wanted to ensure that his son would be able to inherit the family's riches as soon as he was released. In 1990, the government transferred Persico to what was then the United States Penitentiary in Lompoc, California. There he established an Italian Cultural Club for the inmates. He socialized with people such as Patriarca family consigliere Joseph Russo and Lucchese family associate Anthony Senter. Persico formed the "Lompoc Four", a band in which Russo played guitar and Persico played drums. By 1991, Orena had become disgruntled with the current leadership scheme and was tired of the constant stream of orders that he received from Persico in prison. He also grew to resent that he would have to turn over the family to Little Allie Boy. Gotti encouraged Orena's rebellion, since he and Persico had long been enemies, and went so far as to label Persico a "rat", the worst possible accusation for a Cosa Nostra figure. In the spring of 1991, Orena made a push to become boss in his own right. He requested that consigliere Carmine Sessa quietly poll all the Colombo capos as to whom they wanted as boss. Orena believed that if he had enough support from the capos, it would strengthen his argument that the Commission should recognize Orena, not Persico, as the rightful leader of the family. However, Sessa instead told Persico about Orena's plot. Persico then allegedly ordered Sessa to lead a team to kill Orena. On June 20, Sessa took a five-man hit team and parked on the street close to Orena's residence on Long Island, waiting for his return home. As Orena drove down the street, he recognized the men in the car and quickly sped away. For the next several months, the Persico and Orena factions engaged in peace negotiations brokered by the Commission. Despite Persico's claim as the legitimate boss, the Commission refused to take sides in the Colombo conflict. Third Colombo war On November 18, 1991, the Third Colombo War started when Orena lieutenant William Cutolo sent a hit team to try to kill Scarpa, a Persico loyalist, in Brooklyn. By the end of 1991, the two Colombo factions had traded several successful murder attempts. Responding to public outrage over the carnage, law enforcement threw resources into prosecuting the Colombo mobsters, resulting in 68 indictments, 58 convictions and ten mobsters turning state's evidence. In December 1992, Orena was convicted of racketeering and murder and was sentenced to life in prison, dissolving his belligerent faction and leaving the Persicos in control again. Changing family structure With the end of the war with Orena, Persico had to set up another ruling structure for the family. Since Little Allie Boy was facing prosecution on new charges, Persico installed a ruling committee comprising his brother, Theodore, mobster Joseph Baudanza and Joseph Tomasello. In 1994, when Andrew Russo was released from prison, Persico disbanded the committee and designated Russo as acting boss. In 1996, Russo went to prison and Persico replaced him with his son, Little Allie Boy, who by now had been released from prison. In early 1999, with Alphonse in legal trouble, Persico made Cacace the acting boss. However, later in 1999, either Carmine or Alphonse Persico ordered Cutolo's murder. The recently released Alphonse was facing new federal charges that threatened to send him back to prison, and the Persicos were worried about Cutolo seizing control of the family. On May 26, 1999, Alphonse ordered Cutolo to meet him at a Brooklyn park. Cutolo was then taken to a mob associate's apartment and murdered, and his body was buried in Long Island. Police would not recover the remains until November 2008. Life sentence for Alphonse Persico On December 20, 2001, Alphonse Persico pleaded guilty to the loan-sharking charges, accepted a 13-year prison sentence and agreed to forfeit $1 million. On October 14, 2004, he was indicted on federal racketeering charges, including conspiring to murder Cutolo and Joe Campanella. No charges were filed against Carmine Persico. However, the Cutolo murder trial ended in a mistrial due to juror deadlock. In 2004, with the conversion of Lompoc into a different correctional facility, the government transferred Carmine Persico to the Federal Correctional Complex, Butner, a medium-security correctional facility in North Carolina. On December 28, 2007, in a second trial, Alphonse Persico and DeRoss were convicted of Cutolo's murder. Like his father, Alphonse Persico was sentenced to life in prison. Later leadership In 2011, Carmine Persico was still the official boss of the Colombo crime family. His street boss at the time was Andrew Russo, his official underboss, John Franzese, the acting underboss Benjamin Castellazzo and the consigliere Richard Fusco. In March 2010, the Reuters News Agency reported that Carmine Persico had been socializing in prison with convicted swindler Bernard Madoff. The New York Post further reported that Persico loves to play pinochle and bocce with other mobsters and regale them with stories from his past. Persico's projected release date was March 20, 2050—when he would have been 117 years old. Raab wrote in Five Families that Persico's attempts to protect his own position and ensure that his son succeeded him nearly destroyed the Colombo family. By Raab's estimate, Persico's "deceitful schemes" led directly to 70 of his fellow mobsters and associates being sent to prison, as well as 12 deaths. Death On March 7, 2019, Persico died at Duke University Medical Center in Durham, North Carolina. References External links UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v. CARMINE PERSICO, a/k/a "Junior," UNITED STATES OF AMERICA v. CARMINE PERSICO, a/k/a "The Snake," a/k/a "Junior," American Mafia.com Mob Hits 1991 1933 births 2019 deaths American gangsters of Italian descent American people convicted of murder American people who died in prison custody American prisoners and detainees Bosses of the Colombo crime family Colombo crime family FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives Fugitives Gangsters sentenced to life imprisonment People convicted of racketeering People from Carroll Gardens, Brooklyn People from Red Hook, Brooklyn Prisoners who died in United States federal government detention
1240654	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Manchin	Joe Manchin	Joseph Manchin III (born August 24, 1947) is an American politician and businessman serving as the senior United States senator from West Virginia, a seat he has held since 2010. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the 34th governor of West Virginia from 2005 to 2010 and the 27th secretary of state of West Virginia from 2001 to 2005. Manchin became the state's senior U.S. senator when Jay Rockefeller retired in 2015. He has called himself a "centrist, moderate, conservative Democrat" and is generally cited as the most conservative Democrat in the Senate. As a member of Congress, Manchin is known for his bipartisanship in working with Republicans on issues such as abortion, immigration, energy policy, and gun control. Manchin won the 2004 West Virginia gubernatorial election by a large margin and was reelected by an even larger margin in 2008. Manchin won the 2010 special election to fill the Senate seat vacated by incumbent Democrat Robert Byrd's death with 54% of the vote. He was elected to a full term in 2012 with 61% of the vote and reelected in 2018 with just under 50% of the vote. Manchin won elections in West Virginia even as the state became heavily Republican, with Manchin being the only Democrat in West Virginia's congressional delegation or holding statewide office in 2021. He opposed the energy policies of President Barack Obama, including reductions and restrictions on coal mining, voted against cloture for the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 (not voting on the bill itself), voted to remove federal funding for Planned Parenthood in 2015, supported President Donald Trump's border wall and immigration policies, and voted to confirm most of his cabinet and judicial appointees, including Associate Justice Brett Kavanaugh. Manchin opposes many progressive priorities, such as Medicare For All, the Green New Deal, abolishing the filibuster, packing the Supreme Court, and defunding the police. Manchin has also repeatedly voted against attempts to repeal the Affordable Care Act, voted to preserve funding for Planned Parenthood in 2017, and voted against the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. In addition, he voted to convict Trump in both of his impeachment trials. He is among the more non-interventionist members of the Democratic caucus, having repeatedly called for the withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan and opposed most military interventions in Syria. After the 2020 elections, Manchin became the "most important swing vote" in the Senate, which is split 50–50 between Democrats and Republicans, but controlled by Democrats because Vice President Kamala Harris is the tiebreaker. Since passing legislation with only Democratic support requires Manchin's vote, he wields a large influence in the 117th Congress. Early life and education Manchin was born in 1947 in Farmington, West Virginia, a small coal mining town, the second of five children of Mary O. (née Gouzd) and John Manchin. The name "Manchin" was derived from the Italian name "Mancini". His father was of Italian descent (from the town of San Giovanni in Fiore, in Calabria) and his maternal grandparents were Czechoslovak immigrants. He is a member of the Friends of Wales Caucus. Manchin's father owned a carpet and furniture store, and his grandfather, Joseph Manchin, owned a grocery store. His father and his grandfather both served as Farmington's mayor. His uncle A.J. Manchin was a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates and later the West Virginia Secretary of State and Treasurer. Manchin graduated from Farmington High School in 1965. He entered West Virginia University on a football scholarship in 1965, but an injury during practice ended his football career. Manchin graduated in 1970 with a degree in business administration and went to work for his family's business. Manchin has been a close friend of Alabama Crimson Tide football coach Nick Saban since childhood. Business interests Enersystems coal brokerage Manchin founded the coal brokerage Enersystems in 1988, and helped run it until he became a full-time politician. When he was elected West Virginia secretary of state in 2000, he gave control of Enersystems to his son Joseph. In Manchin's financial disclosure for 2020, he reported that his non-public shares of Enersystems were worth between $1 million and $5 million and that between 2011 and 2020 he was paid $5,211,154 in dividend income from them. In 2020, he received over $500,000 in dividends. Enersystems is 71% of Manchin's investment income and 30% of his net worth. Other investments Since his election to the U.S. Senate in 2010, Manchin has listed AA Properties as a non-public asset on his annual financial disclosures. AA Property is reportedly 50% controlled by Manchin, and has, among other things, been an investor in Emerald Coast Realty, which owns a La Quinta hotel in Elkview, West Virginia. Early political career Manchin was elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1982 at age 35 and in 1986 was elected to the West Virginia Senate, where he served until 1996. He ran for governor in 1996, losing the Democratic primary election to Charlotte Pritt. He was elected Secretary of State of West Virginia in 2000. Governor of West Virginia In 2003 Manchin announced his intention to challenge incumbent Democratic Governor Bob Wise in the 2004 Democratic primary. Wise decided not to seek reelection after a scandal, and Manchin won the Democratic primary and general election by large margins. His election marked the first time since 1964 that a West Virginia governor was succeeded by another governor from the same party. Manchin was a member of the National Governors Association, the Southern Governors' Association, and the Democratic Governors Association. He was also chairman of the Southern States Energy Board, state's chair of the Appalachian Regional Commission and chairman of the Interstate Mining Compact Commission. In July 2005, Massey Energy CEO Don Blankenship sued Manchin, alleging that Manchin had violated Blankenship's First Amendment rights by threatening increased government scrutiny of his coal operations in retaliation for Blankenship's political activities. Blankenship had donated substantial funds into campaigns to defeat a proposed pension bond amendment and oppose the reelection of state Supreme Court Justice Warren McGraw, and he fought against a proposed increase in the severance tax on extraction of mineral resources. Soon after the bond amendment's defeat, the state Division of Environmental Protection (DEP) revoked a permit approval for controversial new silos near Marsh Fork Elementary School in Raleigh County. While area residents had complained for some time that the coal operation there endangered their children, Blankenship claimed that the DEP acted in response to his opposition to the bond amendment. During the Sago Mine disaster in early January 2006 in Upshur County, West Virginia, Manchin confirmed incorrect reports that 12 miners had survived; in actuality only one survived. Manchin later acknowledged that a miscommunication had occurred with rescue teams in the mine. On February 1, 2006, he ordered a stop to all coal production in West Virginia pending safety checks after two more miners were killed in separate accidents. Sixteen West Virginia coal miners died in mining accidents in early 2006. In November 2006, SurveyUSA ranked Manchin one of the country's most popular governors, with a 74% approval rating. Manchin easily won reelection to a second term as governor in 2008 against Republican Russ Weeks, capturing 69.77% of the vote and winning every county. U.S. Senate Elections 2010 Due to Senator Robert Byrd's declining health, there was speculation about what Manchin would do if Byrd died. Manchin refused to comment on the subject until Byrd's death, except to say that he would not appoint himself to the Senate. Byrd died on June 28, 2010, and Manchin appointed Carte Goodwin, his 36-year-old legal adviser, on July 16. On July 20, 2010, Manchin announced he would seek the Senate seat. In the August 28 Democratic primary, he defeated former Democratic Congressman and former West Virginia Secretary of State Ken Hechler. In the general election, he defeated Republican businessman John Raese with 54% of the vote. 2012 Manchin ran for reelection to a full-term in 2012. According to the Democratic firm Public Policy Polling, early polling found Manchin heavily favored, leading Representative Shelley Moore Capito 50–39, 2010 opponent John Raese 60–31, and Congressman David McKinley 57–28. Manchin did not endorse President Barack Obama for reelection in 2012, saying that he had "some real differences" with the presumptive nominees of both major parties, finding fault with Obama's economic and energy policies and questioning Romney's understanding of the "challenges facing ordinary people." Manchin defeated Raese and Mountain Party candidate Bob Henry Baber, winning 61% of the vote. 2018 In 2018, Manchin ran for reelection. He was challenged in the Democratic primary by Paula Jean Swearengin. Swearengin is an activist and coal miner's daughter who was supported by former members of Bernie Sanders's 2016 presidential campaign. She criticized Manchin for voting with Republicans and supporting Trump's policies. Manchin won the primary with 70% of the vote. On the Republican side, Manchin was challenged by West Virginia Attorney General Patrick Morrisey. In August 2017, Morrisey publicly asked Manchin to resign from the Senate Democratic leadership. Manchin responded, "I don't give a shit, you understand?" to a Charleston Gazette-Mail reporter. "I just don't give a shit. Don't care if I get elected, don't care if I get defeated, how about that?" Manchin won the November 6 general election, defeating Morrisey 49.57%-46.26%. Tenure Obama years (2010–2017) Manchin was first sworn in to the U.S. Senate by Vice President Joe Biden on November 15, 2010, succeeding interim Senator Carte Goodwin. In a 2014 New York Times interview, Manchin said his relationship with Obama was "fairly nonexistent." Trump years (2017–2021) According to FiveThirtyEight, which tracks congressional votes, Manchin voted with Trump's position 50.4% of the time during his presidency. Manchin initially welcomed Trump's presidency, saying, "He'll correct the trading policies, the imbalance in our trade policies, which are horrible." He supported the idea of Trump "calling companies to keep them from moving factories overseas." Manchin voted for most of Trump's cabinet nominees. He was the only Democrat to vote to confirm Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin, one of two Democrats to vote to confirm Scott Pruitt as EPA Administrator, and one of three to vote to confirm Secretary of State Rex Tillerson. Manchin voted for Trump's first two Supreme Court nominees, Neil Gorsuch and Brett Kavanaugh. In the former case, he was one of three Democrats (alongside Joe Donnelly and Heidi Heitkamp) to vote to confirm; in the latter case, he was the only one. He opposed the nomination of Amy Coney Barrett, citing the closeness to the upcoming presidential election. Manchin voted to convict Trump in both impeachment trials, the second taking place shortly after the inauguration of Joe Biden. Biden years (2021–present) According to FiveThirtyEight, Manchin has voted with Biden's position 97.4% of the time . Since the beginning of the Biden administration, the Senate has been evenly divided between Democratic and Republican members; Manchin's ability to deny Democrats a majority has made him very influential. In December 2021, Manchin signaled that he was not likely to vote for the Build Back Better Act, saying, "I cannot vote to continue with this piece of legislation. I just can't. I've tried everything humanly possible. I can’t get there." Manchin cited growing inflation, the national debt, and the Omicron variant as reasons for opposition. The White House responded to his statements with press secretary Jen Psaki saying they "represent a sudden and inexplicable reversal in his position, and a breach of his commitments to the president and the senator's colleagues in the House and Senate." The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA), which represents West Virginia coal miners and endorsed him in the 2018 United States Senate election in West Virginia, urged Manchin to revisit his opposition, noting that the bill includes an extension of a fund that provides benefits to coal miners suffering from black lung disease, which expires at the end of the year. The UMWA also touted tax incentives that encourage manufacturers to build facilities in coalfields that would employ thousands of miners who lost their jobs. Committee assignments Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies Subcommittee on Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (chair) As chair of the full committee, Manchin may serve as an ex officio member of all subcommittees. Committee on Armed Services Subcommittee on Cybersecurity Subcommittee on Strategic Forces Committee on Veterans' Affairs Funding Manchin received the most funding from the oil and gas industry of any senator from May 2020 to May 2021, including $1.6 million in donations from fossil fuel PACs. He also receives funding from individuals and PACs connected to law and real estate, among others. In June 2021, ExxonMobil lobbyist Keith McCoy said that Manchin was one of its key targets for funding and that he participated in weekly meetings with the company. Many senators and journalists have criticized Manchin's opposition to climate-change legislation given his funding by the fossil-fuel industry and his shares in his family-owned coal business. Political positions Manchin is often considered a moderate, or even conservative, Democrat. He has called himself a "centrist, moderate conservative Democrat" and "fiscally responsible and socially compassionate." CBS News has called him "a rifle-brandishing moderate" who is "about as centrist as a senator can get." The American Conservative Union gave him a 25% lifetime conservative rating and the progressive PAC Americans for Democratic Action gave him a 35% liberal quotient in 2016. In February 2018, a Congressional Quarterly study found that Manchin had voted with Trump's position 71% of the time in Trump's first year in office, but by the end of Trump's presidency, Manchin had voted with the president only 50.4% of the time. In 2013, the National Journal gave Manchin an overall score of 55% conservative and 46% liberal. Abortion Manchin identifies as "pro-life." He has mixed ratings from both abortion-rights and anti-abortion movements political action groups. In 2018, Planned Parenthood, which supports access to abortion, gave Manchin a lifetime grade of 57%. National Right to Life (NRLC), which opposes abortion, gave Manchin a 100% score in 2019 and NARAL Pro-Choice America gave him a 72% in 2017. On August 3, 2015, he broke with Democratic leadership by voting in favor of a Republican-sponsored bill to terminate federal funding for Planned Parenthood both in the United States and globally. He has the endorsement of Democrats for Life of America, a Democratic PAC that opposes abortion. On March 30, 2017, Manchin voted against H.J.Res. 43, which allowed states to refuse to give Title X grant money to organizations for reasons unrelated to their ability to provide the services needed. Trump signed the bill. In April 2017, Manchin endorsed the continued funding of Planned Parenthood. Also in 2017, Planned Parenthood gave him a rating of 44%. In January 2018, Manchin joined two other Democrats and most Republicans by voting for a bill to ban abortion after 20 weeks. In June 2018, upon Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy's retirement, Manchin urged Trump not to appoint a judge who would seek to overturn Roe v. Wade but to instead choose a "centrist". In 2019, Manchin was one of three Democrats to join all Republicans in voting for a bill to require that doctors care for infants born alive after a failed abortion. In February 2022, Manchin was the lone Democratic Senator to vote against an abortion proposal that would have included limiting the states' ability to restrict abortion access, among other expansions. Airports After Manchin and Shelley Moore Capito announced $2.7 million from the Department of Transportation's Essential Air Service program for the North Central West Virginia Airport in October 2019, Manchin called air travel critical for both economic growth and the tourism industry in West Virginia and said that reliable air service to North Central West Virginia "opened up the area to more visitors and new economic opportunities, including an aerospace industry that has generated more than $1 billion worth of economic impact in the surrounding region." Bipartisanship In his first year in office, Manchin met one-on-one with all 99 of his Senate colleagues in an effort to get to know them better. On December 13, 2010, Manchin participated in the launch of No Labels, a nonpartisan organization "committed to bringing all sides together to move the nation forward." Manchin is a co-chair of No Labels. Manchin was one of only three Democratic senators to vote against Senate Majority leader Harry Reid's move to implement the nuclear option, which switched the Senate away from operating on a supermajority basis, to requiring only a simple majority for certain decisions, on November 21, 2013. Manchin worked with Senator Pat Toomey (R-PA) to introduce legislation that would require a background check for most gun sales. Manchin opposed the January 2018 government shutdown. The New York Times suggested that Manchin helped end the shutdown by threatening not to run for reelection unless his fellow Democrats ended it. Before his Senate swearing-in in 2010, rumors suggested that the Republican Party was courting Manchin to change parties. Republicans later suggested that Manchin was the source of the rumors, but they attempted to convince him again in 2014 after retaking control of the Senate. He again rejected their overtures. As the 2016 elections approached, reports speculated that Manchin would become a Republican if the Senate were in a 50–50 tie, but he later said he would remain a Democrat at least as long as he remained in the Senate. Manchin criticized Democrats for not standing for President Trump's 2018 State of the Union Address, saying, "I've seen it on both sides when Obama gave speeches, Republicans. That's disrespectful and last night was disrespectful." On January 8, 2019, Manchin was one of four Democrats to vote to advance a bill imposing sanctions against the Syrian government and furthering U.S. support for Israel and Jordan as Democratic members of the chamber employed tactics to end the United States federal government shutdown of 2018–2019. In April 2019, he endorsed Republican Senator Susan Collins in her 2020 reelection campaign. Broadband In December 2018, following the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) announcing a pause on the funding program for wireless broadband during its conduction of an investigation regarding the submission of coverage data by major wireless carriers, Manchin announced his intent to hold the renomination of Brendan Carr in protest of the move. Manchin lifted his hold the following week, after the FCC promised that rolling out funding for wireless broadband in rural areas would be a priority. In March 2019, Manchin was a cosponsor of a bill that would have included consumer-reported data along with data from state and local governments into consideration during mapping of which areas have broadband and that would take into consideration the measures used to challenge broadband services. Manchin called himself "the only member of Congress to formally challenge a federal broadband coverage map through the Mobility Fund Phase II challenge process" and referred to the bill as "a good first step" in implementing public input in provider data. In August 2019, Manchin sent FCC Chairman Ajit Pai eight letters that contained results from speed tests across his state of West Virginia as part of an effort to highlight incorrect broadband coverage maps in the state. Manchin opined that "devastating impacts on the tourism industry" in West Virginia were being caused by a lack of broadband access and that the same things that had attracted people to visit West Virginia such as its tall mountains, forests, hills, and rapids had made "broadband deployment astronomically expensive." China In April 2017, Manchin was one of eight Democratic senators to sign a letter to President Trump noting government-subsidized Chinese steel had been placed into the American market in recent years below cost and had hurt the domestic steel industry and the iron ore industry that fed it, calling on Trump to raise the steel issue with President of the People's Republic of China Xi Jinping in his meeting with him. In July 2017, he urged Trump to block the sale of the Chicago Stock Exchange to Chinese investors, arguing that China's "rejection of fundamental free-market norms and property rights of private citizens makes me strongly doubt whether an Exchange operating under the direct control of a Chinese entity can be trusted to 'self-regulate' now and in the future." He also expressed concern "that the challenges plaguing the Chinese market – lack of transparency, currency manipulation, etc. – will bleed into the Chicago Stock Exchange and adversely impact financial markets across the country." In November 2017, in response to efforts by China to purchase tech companies based in the US, Manchin was one of nine senators to cosponsor a bill that would broaden the federal government's ability to prevent foreign purchases of U.S. firms through increasing the strength of the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States (CFIUS). The scope of the CFIUS would be expanded to allow it to review along with possibly decline smaller investments and add additional national security factors for CFIUS to consider including if information about Americans would be exposed as part of transactions or whether the deal would facilitate fraud. In November 2017, following the West Virginia Commerce Department announcing an agreement with China Energy to invest $83.7 billion in shale gas development and chemical manufacturing projects in West Virginia after state Commerce Secretary Woody Thrasher and China Energy President Ling Wen signed a Memorandum of Understanding, Manchin said that he was thrilled with the signing and that he was satisfied that China Energy recognized West Virginians as the hardest working people in the world. In March 2018, Manchin cited China as responsible for President Trump's imposing of tariffs on steel and aluminum imports, noting that the United States was the largest importer of steel while 50 percent of steel was produced in China, and that he did believe the theory that prices would increase as a result of the tariffs. In May 2019, Manchin was a cosponsor of the South China Sea and East China Sea Sanctions Act, a bipartisan bill reintroduced by Marco Rubio and Ben Cardin that was intended to disrupt China's consolidation or expansion of its claims of jurisdiction over both the sea and air space in disputed zones in the South China Sea. D.C. and Puerto Rico statehood In a November 10, 2020, interview, Manchin said that he did not "see the need for the D.C. statehood with the type of services that we're getting in D.C. right now" and that he was "not convinced that's the way to go." Of Puerto Rico statehood, Manchin said that he opposed it but was open to discussion. In a January 10, 2021 interview, he did not affirm his opposition to statehood for D.C. or Puerto Rico, saying only, "I don't know enough about that yet. I want to see the pros and cons. So I'm waiting to see all the facts. I'm open up to see everything". On April 30, 2021, Manchin came out against the D.C. Statehood bill that had passed the House of Representatives, suggesting that D.C. could instead be given statehood by constitutional amendment. Disaster relief In May 2019, Manchin and John Cornyn introduced the Disaster Recovery Funding Act, a bill that would direct the Office of Management and Budget to release $16 billion for disaster relief funding within 60 days to nine states and two U.S. Territories. Manchin said that West Virginia had been awaiting funding for rebuilding for three years since a series of floods in June 2016 and that he was proud to work with Cornyn on a bipartisan solution; the bill died in committee. In August 2019, as Manchin announced $106 million in disaster relief funding for West Virginia, he said the Trump administration had finally heeded his request by releasing "this desperately needed funding to the people of West Virginia and other areas of the country that are still rebuilding and recovering from horrible natural disasters", and promoted the funding as helping West Virginia "rebuild smarter and stronger and reduce the potential future catastrophic flooding in this area." Dodd-Frank In 2018, Manchin was one of 17 Democrats to break with their party and vote with Republicans to ease the Dodd-Frank banking rules. Drugs In June 2011, Manchin joined Senator Chuck Schumer (D-NY) in seeking a crackdown on Bitcoin currency transactions, saying that they facilitated illegal drug trade transactions. "The transactions leave no traditional bank transfer money trail for investigators to follow, and leave it hard to prove a package recipient knew in advance what was in a shipment," using an "'anonymizing network' known as Tor." One opinion website said the senators wanted "to disrupt the Silk Road drug website." In May 2012, in an effort to reduce prescription drug abuse, Manchin successfully proposed an amendment to the Food and Drug Administration reauthorization bill to reclassify hydrocodone as a Schedule II controlled substance. In March 2017, Manchin was one of 21 senators to sign a letter led by Ed Markey to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell that noted that 12% of adult Medicaid beneficiaries had some form or a substance abuse disorder and that one third of treatment for opioid and other substance use disorders in the United States is financed through Medicaid, and opined that the American Health Care Act could "very literally translate into a death spiral for those with opioid use disorders" due to the insurance coverage lacking adequate funds for care, often resulting in individuals abandoning substance use disorder treatment. Education In February 2019, Manchin said the collapse of an omnibus education reform proposal resulted from state lawmakers not laying groundwork for broad support for the proposal, saying, "You don’t do major reform, policy changes, for the whole education system in a 60-day session without public hearings. There should have been a whole year of going out and speaking to the public." He stated his support for home school and private school as well as his opposition to funding "them with public dollars." In a September 2019 letter to United States Secretary of Education Betsy Devos, Manchin noted that the West Virginia Education Department had identified over 10,000 children as "homeless for the 2018-2019 school year" and argued that West Virginia was receiving insufficient resources through the McKinney-Vento program and a Title I program. Energy and environment Manchin sits on the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee and supports a comprehensive, "all-of-the-above" energy approach that includes coal. Manchin's first bill in the Senate dealt with what he called the EPA's overreach. After the EPA vetoed a previously approved permit for the Spruce Mine in Logan County, West Virginia, he offered the EPA Fair Play Act, which would "clarify and confirm the authority of the Environment Protection Agency to deny or restrict the use of defined areas as disposal sites for the discharge of dredged or filled material." Manchin said the bill would prevent the EPA from "changing its rules on businesses after permits have already been granted." On October 6, 2010, Manchin directed a lawsuit aimed at overturning new federal rules concerning mountaintop removal mining. Filed by the state Department of Environmental Protection, the lawsuit "accuses U.S. EPA of overstepping its authority and asks the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia to throw out the federal agency's new guidelines for issuing Clean Water Act permits for coal mines." In order to qualify for the permits, mining companies need to prove their projects would not cause the concentration of pollutants in the local water to rise five times above the normal level. The New York Times reported that EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson said the new legislation would protect 95% of aquatic life by banning operators from dumping mine waste into streams. Environmentalists have criticized Manchin for his family ties to the coal industry. He served as president of Energysystems in the late 1990s before becoming active in politics. On his financial disclosures in 2009 and 2010, his reported earnings from the company were $1,363,916 and $417,255, respectively. Critics have said his opposition to health regulations that would raise industry expenses are due to his stake in the industry; West Virginia's Sierra Club chapter chair Jim Sconyers said, "he's been nothing but a mouthpiece for the coal industry his whole public life." Opinions on the subject are mixed; The Charleston Gazette wrote, "the prospect that Manchin's $1.7 million-plus in recent Enersystems earnings might tilt him even more strongly pro-coal might seem remote, given the deep economic and cultural connections that the industry maintains in West Virginia." On November 14, 2011, Manchin chaired his first field hearing of that committee in Charleston, West Virginia, to focus on Marcellus Shale natural gas development and production. He said, "We are literally sitting on top of tremendous potential with the Marcellus shale. We need to work together to chart a path forward in a safe and responsible way that lets us produce energy right here in America." Manchin supports building the Keystone XL Pipeline from Canada. He has said, "It makes so much common sense that you want to buy oil off your friends and not your enemies." The pipeline would span over 2,000 miles across the United States. On November 9, 2011, Manchin and Dan Coats introduced the Fair Compliance Act. The bill would "lengthen timelines and establish benchmarks for utilities to comply with two major Environmental Protection Agency air pollution rules. The legislation would extend the compliance deadline for the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule, or CSAPR, by three years and the deadline for the Utility MACT rule by two years—setting both to January 1, 2017." Manchin and John Barrasso introduced the American Alternative Fuels Act on May 10, 2011. The bill would remove restrictions on development of alternative fuels, repeal part of the 2007 energy bill restricting the federal government from buying alternative fuels and encourage the development of algae-based fuels and synthetic natural gas. Of the bill, Manchin said, "Our unacceptably high gas prices are hurting not only West Virginians, but all Americans, and they underscore a critical need: the federal government needs to be a partner, not an obstacle, for businesses that can transform our domestic energy resources into gas." In 2011, Manchin was the only Democratic senator to support the Energy Tax Prevention Act, which sought to prohibit the EPA from regulating greenhouse gas. He was also one of four Democratic senators to vote against the Stream Protection Rule. In 2012, Manchin supported a GOP effort to "scuttle Environmental Protection Agency regulations that mandate cuts in mercury pollution and other toxic emissions from coal-fired power plants", while West Virginia's other senator, Jay Rockefeller, did not. In December 2014, Manchin was one of six Democratic senators to sign a letter to the EPA urging it to give states more time to comply with its rule on power plants because the final rule "must provide adequate time for the design, permitting and construction of such large scale capital intensive infrastructure", and calling for an elimination of the 2020 targets in the final rule, a mandate that states take action by 2020 as part of the EPA's goal to reach a 30% carbon cut by 2030. Manchin criticized Obama's environmental regulations as a "war on coal" and demanded what he called a proper balance between the needs of the environment and the coal business. The Los Angeles Times wrote that while professing environmental concerns, he has consistently stood up for coal, saying "no one is going to stop using fossil fuels for a long time." Manchin "does not deny the existence of man-made climate change", the Times wrote, but "is reluctant to curtail it." In February 2017, he was one of two Democratic senators to vote to confirm Scott Pruitt as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. In June 2017, Manchin supported Trump's withdrawal from the Paris climate accord, saying he supported "a cleaner energy future" but that the Paris deal failed to strike "a balance between our environment and the economy." In June 2017, Manchin introduced the Capitalizing American Storage Potential Act, legislation ensuring a regional storage hub would qualify for the Title XVII innovative technologies loan guarantee program of the Energy Department. He argued the Appalachian Storage Hub would grant West Virginia and its neighboring states the ability "to realize the unique opportunities associated with Appalachia’s abundant natural gas liquids like ethane, naturally occurring geologic storage and expanding energy infrastructure" and that the regional storage hub would "attract manufacturing investment, create jobs and significantly reduce the rejection rate of natural gas liquids." The Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee approved the bill in March 2018. In April 2018, Manchin and Capito introduced the Electricity Reliability and Fuel Security Act, a bill providing a temporary tax credit for existing coal-fired power plants that would help cover a part of both operation and maintenance costs. Manchin said that he knew "coal-fired power" was the engine of the West Virginia economy and that "coal-fired power plants have kept the lights on when other forms of energy could not". In July 2018, along with fellow Democrat Heidi Heitkamp and Republicans James Risch and Lamar Alexander, Manchin introduced the Recovering America's Wildlife Act, a bill that would reallocate $1.3 billion annually from energy development on federal lands and waters to the Wildlife Conservation Restoration Program intended to conserve fish and wildlife. In February 2019, in response to reports that the EPA intended to decide against setting drinking water limits for perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) as part of a national strategy to manage those chemicals, Manchin was one of 20 senators to sign a letter to Acting EPA Administrator Andrew R. Wheeler calling on the EPA "to develop enforceable federal drinking water standards for PFOA and PFOS, as well as institute immediate actions to protect the public from contamination from additional per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)." In April 2019, he was one of three Democratic Senators who voted with Republicans to confirm David Bernhardt, an oil executive, as Secretary of the Interior Department. In February 2019, after Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell called for a vote on the Green New Deal in order to get Democratic members of the Senate on record regarding the legislation, Manchin expressed opposition to the plan: In April 2019, Manchin was one of 12 senators to sign a bipartisan letter to top senators on the Appropriations Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development advocating that the Energy Department be granted maximum funding for carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS), arguing that American job growth could be stimulated through investment in viable options to capture carbon emissions and expressing disagreement with Trump's 2020 budget request to combine the two federal programs that include carbon capture research. In April 2019, Manchin was the only Democrat to cosponsor the Enhancing Fossil Fuel Energy Carbon Technology (EFFECT) Act, legislation intended to increase federal funding for developing carbon capture technology and simultaneously commit to fossil fuel use. In a statement, he cited the need for the United States "to lead in technological innovations designed to reduce carbon emissions" while noting that energy experts who had testified before the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources had concurred on the continued use of fossil fuels through 2040. He called the bill "a critical piece of the solution addressing the climate crisis." In April 2019, Manchin was the lead sponsor the Land and Water Conservation Fund Permanent Funding Act, bipartisan legislation that would provide permanent and dedicated funding for the Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) at a level of $900 million as part of an effort to protect public lands. In May 2019, Manchin, Lisa Murkowski and Martha McSally introduced the American Mineral Security Act, a bill that would codify current methodology that the United States used to list critical minerals and require the list to be updated at least once every three years. McSally's office also said the bill would mandate nationwide resource assessments for every critical mineral. In September 2019, Manchin was one of eight senators to sign a bipartisan letter to congressional leadership requesting full and lasting funding of the Land and Water Conservation Act in order to aid national parks and public lands, benefit the $887 billion American outdoor recreation economy, and "ensure much-needed investment in our public lands and continuity for the state, tribal, and non-federal partners who depend on them." In February 2021, Manchin was one of seven Democratic U.S. Senators to join Republicans in blocking a ban of hydraulic fracturing, commonly known as fracking. In 2021, Manchin opposed the "Clean Electricity Performance Program" in the reconciliation bill, leading to its removal. On September 30, 2021, an MSNBC news reporter asked Manchin about his opposition to H.R.5376 - Build Back Better Act, accusing him of having a conflict of interest with provisions within the bill: "Sir, the company you founded, Enersystems, provides coal to power plants that would be impacted by one of the proposals in the plan. How is that not a conflict of interest?" Manchin replied, "I've been in a blind trust for 20 years. I have no idea what they're doing." Federal budget Manchin has co-sponsored balanced budget amendments put forth by Senators Mike Lee (R-UT), Richard Shelby (R-AL), and Mark Udall (D-CO). He has also voted against raising the federal debt ceiling. Manchin has expressed strong opposition to entitlement reform, describing Mitch McConnell's comments in October 2018 on the need to reform entitlement programs such as Social Security, Medicaid and Medicare as "absolutely ridiculous." In January 2019, Manchin supported both Republican and Democratic bills to end a government shutdown. He was the only Democrat to break from his party and vote in favor of the Republican proposal. On August 1, 2019, the Senate passed a bipartisan budget deal that raised spending over current levels by $320 billon and lifted the debt ceiling for the following two years in addition to forming a course for funding the government without the perceived fiscal brinkmanship of recent years. Manchin joined Tom Carper and Republicans Mitt Romney and Rick Scott in issuing a statement asserting that "as former Governors, we were responsible for setting a budget each year that was fiscally responsible to fund our priorities. That’s why today, we, as U.S. Senators, cannot bring ourselves to vote for this budget deal that does not put our country on a fiscally sustainable path." Foreign policy Manchin is critical of American military intervention overseas, particularly in Afghanistan and Syria. He has repeatedly demanded the withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan and has opposed most military intervention in Syria. On June 21, 2011, Manchin delivered a speech on the Senate floor calling for a "substantial and responsible reduction in the United States' military presence in Afghanistan." He said, "We can no longer afford to rebuild Afghanistan and America. We must choose. And I choose America." Manchin's remarks were criticized by Senator John McCain (R-AZ) as "at least uninformed about history and strategy and the challenges we face from radical Islamic extremism." Manchin made similar remarks in a press conference on January 7, 2014, arguing that "all of the money and all of the military might in the world will not change that part of the world." He said that by the end of the year, the American troops in that country should be at Bagram Airfield alone. After the deaths of three American soldiers in Afghanistan in November 2018, Manchin renewed his calls for the withdraw of American troops from the country, saying that both presidents Obama and Trump had expressed support for taking troops out of the country but had not done so. "They all seem to have the rhetoric, and no one seems to have the follow up. It's time to come out of there," he said. Manchin introduced legislation to reduce the use of overseas service and security contractors. He successfully amended the 2013 National Defense Authorization Act to cap contractors' taxpayer-funded salaries at $230,000. Following the Ghouta chemical attack in August 2013 during the Syrian Civil War, Manchin said, "There is no doubt that an attack occurred and there is no doubt it was produced under the Assad regime. It's not clear cut if Assad gave the order himself. It has not been proven." He opposed any strikes on the Syrian Government in retaliation for the attacks. Instead, he introduced a joint resolution with Senator Heidi Heitkamp (D-ND) requesting that President Obama come up with a long-term strategy on Syria and work diplomatically to ensure the destruction of Syria's chemical weapons. On September 16, 2014, Manchin announced that he would vote against a possible Senate resolution to arm Syrian opposition fighters. "At the end of the day, most of the arms that we give to people are used against us. Most of the people we train turn against us," he said. He referred to plans calling for ground troops in Syria, which had been proposed by some Republican senators, including Lindsey Graham of South Carolina, as "insanity," but supported the 2017 Shayrat missile strike launched by order of President Trump in response to a chemical weapons attack allegedly perpetrated by the Syrian Government. Manchin said that "yesterday's strike was important to send a message to the Syrian regime and their Russian enablers that these horrific actions will not be tolerated." In April 2017, following a North Korea senior official declaring that the U.S. had created "a dangerous situation in which a thermonuclear war may break out at any minute," Manchin stated that North Korea had "to understand that we will retaliate" and that he did not believe the U.S. would not respond if North Korea continued to play "their games." In May 2018, Manchin accused Kim Jong-un of accelerating "the nuclear threat" of North Korea in a manner that would enable him to receive concessions and that Kim Jong-un was "in a serious, serious problem with his country and the people in his country" without China. In June 2017, Manchin was one of five Democrats who, by voting against a Senate resolution disapproving of arms sales to Saudi Arabia, ensured its failure. Potential primary opponent Paula Jean Swearengin charged that because of Manchin's vote, weapons sold to the Saudis "could possibly end up in the hands of terrorists." In June 2017, Manchin co-sponsored the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (S.270), which made it a federal crime, punishable by a maximum sentence of 20 years imprisonment, for Americans to encourage or participate in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories if protesting actions by the Israeli government. In 2019, Manchin and Republican Marco Rubio drafted a Middle East policy bill with provisions that rebuked President Trump over withdrawals of troops from Syria and Afghanistan and a measure authorizing state and municipal governments to punish companies after they oppose Israel via boycott, divestment or sanctions. The measure also reauthorized at least $3.3 billion for Israel's military financing in addition to extending Jordan's security aid, granting new sanctions on individuals giving their support to the Syrian government and ordering the Treasury Department to determine whether the Central Bank of Syria was money laundering. The bill passed in the Senate in a 77 to 23 vote in February 2019. In October 2019, Manchin was one of six senators to sign a bipartisan letter to Trump calling on him to "urge Turkey to end their offensive and find a way to a peaceful resolution while supporting our Kurdish partners to ensure regional stability" and arguing that to leave Syria without installing protections for American allies would endanger both them and the US. Guns In 2012, Manchin's candidacy was endorsed by the National Rifle Association (NRA), which gave him an "A" rating. Following the Sandy Hook shooting, Manchin partnered with Republican senator Pat Toomey to introduce a bill that would have strengthened background checks on gun sales. The Manchin-Toomey bill was defeated on April 17, 2013, by a vote of 54–46; 60 votes would have been required to pass it. Despite the fact that the bill did not pass, the NRA targeted Manchin in an attack ad. Manchin was criticized in 2013 for agreeing to an interview with The Journal in Martinsburg, West Virginia, but demanding that he not be asked any questions about gun control or the Second Amendment. In 2016, referring to the difficulty of keeping guns out of the hands of potential terrorists in the aftermath of the Orlando nightclub shooting, Manchin said, "due process is what's killing us right now." This comment drew the criticism of both the NRA and the Cato Institute, which accused Manchin of attacking a fundamental constitutional principle. "With all respect," commented Ilya Shapiro of Cato, "due process is the essential basis of America." In October 2017, following the Las Vegas shooting, Manchin stated that it was "going to take President Trump, who looks at something from a law-abiding gun owner’s standpoint, that makes common sense and gun sense" for progress to be made on gun legislation and that he would not rule out reviving the Manchin-Toomey bill if the legislation attracted enough Republican cosponsors. In a March 2018 interview, a month after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting and shortly before the March For Our Lives demonstrations, Manchin stated that the Manchin-Toomey bill should serve as the base for a new gun control law and that Trump expressing support for background checks would set his legacy and "give Republicans enough cover to support this in the most reasonable, responsible way." In August 2019, following two more mass shootings in El Paso, Texas, and Dayton, Ohio, Manchin said that Trump had "a golden opportunity to start making America safe again by starting with this basic building block of background checks." Manchin also noted his disagreement with the position of House Minority Whip Steve Scalise that existing gun background check measures were sufficient, adding that even though he was "a law-abiding gun owner," he would not sell a gun through a gun show or online to someone whose history he was unsure of. On September 5 of that year, Manchin and Trump met in the White House for a discussion on gun-control legislation. According to a White House official, Trump told Manchin of his "interest in getting a result" so dialogue could resume "to see if there’s a way to create a reasonable background check proposal, along with other ideas." Health care In 2010, Manchin called for "repairs" of the Affordable Care Act and repeal of the "bad parts of Obamacare." On January 14, 2017, Manchin expressed concern at the strict party-line vote on repealing Obamacare and said he could not, in good conscience, vote to repeal without a new plan in place. He added, however, that he was willing to work with Trump and the GOP to formulate a replacement. In June 2017, Manchin and Bob Casey Jr. of Pennsylvania warned that repealing Obamacare would worsen the opioid crisis. In July 2017, he said that he was one of about ten senators from both parties who had been "working together behind the scenes" to formulate a new health-care program, but that there was otherwise insufficient bipartisanship on the issue. In September 2017, Manchin released a statement expressing that he was skeptical of a single-payer health care system being "the right solution" while noting his support for the Senate considering "all of the options through regular order so that we can fully understand the impacts of these ideas on both our people and our economy." During 2016–17, Manchin read to the Senate several letters from constituents about loved ones' deaths from opioids and urged his colleagues to act to prevent more deaths. Manchin took "an unusual proposal" to President Trump to address the crisis and called for a "war on drugs" that involves not punishment but treatment. He proposed the LifeBOAT Act, which would fund treatment. He also opposes marijuana legalization. In January 2018, Manchin was one of six Democrats who broke with their party to vote to confirm Trump's nominee for Health Secretary, Alex Azar. In his 2018 reelection campaign, Manchin emphasized his support for Obamacare, running an ad where he shot holes in a lawsuit that sought to repeal the Affordable Care Act. In January 2019, Manchin was one of six Democratic senators to introduce the American Miners Act of 2019, a bill that would amend the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 to swap funds in excess of the amounts needed to meet existing obligations under the Abandoned Mine Land fund to the 1974 Pension Plan as part of an effort to prevent its insolvency as a result of coal company bankruptcies and the 2008 financial crisis. It also increased the Black Lung Disability Trust Fund tax and ensured that miners affected by the 2018 coal company bankruptcies would not lose their health care. In a May 2019 letter to Attorney General William Barr, Manchin and Republican Susan Collins wrote that the Affordable Care Act "is quite simply the law of the land, and it is the Administration's and your Department's duty to defend it" and asserted that Congress could "work together to fix legislatively the parts of the law that aren't working" without letting the position of a federal court "stand and devastate millions of seniors, young adults, women, children and working families." In September 2019, amid discussions to prevent a government shutdown, Manchin was one of six Democratic senators to sign a letter to congressional leadership advocating for the passage of legislation that would permanently fund health care and pension benefits for retired coal miners as "families in Virginia, West Virginia, Wyoming, Alabama, Colorado, North Dakota and New Mexico" would start to receive notifications of health care termination by the end of the following month. In October 2019, Manchin was one of 27 senators to sign a letter to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer advocating the passage of the Community Health Investment, Modernization, and Excellence (CHIME) Act, which was set to expire the following month. The senators warned that if the funding for the Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was allowed to expire, it "would cause an estimated 2,400 site closures, 47,000 lost jobs, and threaten the health care of approximately 9 million Americans." Homelessness When Manchin and Capito announced over $3.3 million to combat child homelessness in West Virginia in October 2019, Manchin reported that there were at least 10,500 homeless children and youth in West Virginia and pledged to continue working to get financial aid for West Virginia children in his capacity as a member of the Senate Appropriations Committee. Housing In April 2019, Manchin was one of 41 senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Section 4 Capacity Building program for authorizing "HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget "has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development." The senators wrote of their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020. Immigration Manchin is opposed to the DREAM Act, and was absent from a 2010 vote on the bill. Manchin supports the construction of a wall along the southern border of the United States. He opposed the Obama administration's lawsuit against Arizona over that state's immigration enforcement law. Manchin voted against the McCain-Coons proposal to create a pathway to citizenship for some undocumented immigrants without funding for a border wall and he voted against a comprehensive immigration bill proposed by Susan Collins which gave a pathway to citizenship for Dreamers as well as funding for border security; he voted 'yes' to withholding funding for 'sanctuary cities' and he voted in support of President Trump's proposal to give a pathway to citizenship for Dreamers, build a border wall, and reduce legal immigration. On June 18, 2018, he came out against the Trump administration family separation policy. In September 2019, Manchin was the only Democrat on the Senate Appropriations panel to vote for a $71 billion homeland security measure that granted Trump the $5 billion he had previously requested to build roughly 200 miles of fencing along the U.S.-Mexico border. Manchin has mixed ratings from political action committees opposed to illegal immigration; NumbersUSA, which seeks to reduce illegal and legal immigration, gave Manchin a 55% rating and the Federation for American Immigration Reform, which also seeks to reduce legal immigration, gave him a 25% rating. On February 4, 2021, Manchin voted against providing COVID-19 pandemic financial support to undocumented immigrants. Infrastructure In response to a leaked story that the Biden administration would pursue a $3 trillion infrastructure package, Manchin appeared to support the spending, calling for an "enormous" infrastructure bill. He also expressed openness to paying for the bill by raising taxes on corporations and wealthy people, despite the fact that this would likely eliminate any possible bipartisan support. LGBT rights On December 9, 2010, Manchin was the sole Democrat to vote against cloture for the 2011 National Defense Authorization Act, which contained a provision to repeal Don't Ask, Don't Tell. In an interview with The Associated Press, Manchin cited the advice of retired military chaplains as a basis for his decision to vote against repeal. He also indicated he wanted more time to "hear the full range of viewpoints from the citizens of West Virginia." A day later, he was publicly criticized at a gay rights rally for his position on the bill. On July 26, 2017, he voiced opposition to Trump's proposed ban on transgender service in the United States military. As of 2015, Manchin was the only member of the Senate Democratic Caucus to oppose same-sex marriage. He is the only Democratic senator to not have declared support for same-sex marriage. On February 14, 2018, he cosponsored S.515, a bill that would amend the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 to clarify that all provisions shall apply to legally married same-sex couples in the same manner as other married couples. As of March 18, 2019, he is the only member of the Senate Democratic Caucus who is not a cosponsor of the Equality Act. He has said that he believes "no one should be afraid of losing their job or losing their housing because of their sexual orientation" but does not believe the current version of the Equality Act "provides sufficient guidance to the local officials who will be responsible for implementing it." In March 2021, Manchin was the only Democrat to vote for a failed amendment to rescind funding from public schools that allow transgender youth to participate in the sporting teams of their gender identity. The Human Rights Campaign, the largest LGBT rights group in America, gave Manchin a score of 48% in the 116th Congress. He received a score of 30% in the 115th Congress, 85% in the 114th Congress, and 65% in the 113th Congress. Minimum wage On February 2, 2021, Manchin announced his opposition to an increase from $7.25 to $15 per hour in the federal minimum wage, but said he was open to a smaller increase, perhaps to $11. Along with seven other Democrats, Manchin opposed a 15$ minimum wage proposal by Bernie Sanders as part of the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 and forced Democrats to limit extended unemployment benefits in the same bill. Opioids In December 2017, in a letter to then-Food and Drug Administration Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, Manchin called for changes in the FDA's response to the opioid crisis including mandatory and continuing education for healthcare providers, reviewing every opioid product on the market, and removing an older opioid from the market for every new opioid approved. Manchin cited the over 33,000 deaths in the United States from opioid overdoses in 2015 and over 700 deaths of West Virginians from opioid overdoses in 2016 as his reason for supporting the establishment of the Opioid Policy Steering Committee by the FDA. In 2018, Manchin secured a provision in the Opioid Crisis Response Act that ensured additional opioid funding for West Virginia after the bill had previously granted funding based on states’ overall opioid overdose death counts as opposed to the overdose death rate. Manchin stated that the bill before his intervention was "basically using a blanket before when giving money" and added that the bill was incentivizing "companies to do the research to produce a product that gives the same relief as the opioid does, but is not (addictive)." The bill passed in the Senate in September. In April 2019, Manchin cosponsored the Protecting Jessica Grubb's Legacy Act, legislation that authorized medical records of patients being treated for substance use disorder being shared among healthcare providers in case the patient provided the information. Cosponsor Shelley Moore Capito stated that the bill also prevented medical providers from unintentionally providing opioids to individuals in recovery. In May 2019, when Manchin and Capito announced $600,000 of funding for West Virginia through the Rural Communities Opioid Response Program of the Department of Health and Human Services' Health Resources and Services Administration, Manchin stated that the opioid epidemic had devastated every community in West Virginia and that as a senator "fighting against this horrible epidemic and helping fellow West Virginians have always been my top priorities." In July 2019, Manchin issued a release in which he called for a $1.4 billion settlement from Reckitt Benckiser Group to be used for both programs and resources that would address the opioid epidemic. Senior citizens To help locate missing senior citizens, Manchin introduced the Silver Alert Act in July 2011 to create a nationwide network for locating missing adults and senior citizens modeled after the AMBER Alert. Manchin also sponsored the National Yellow Dot Act to create a voluntary program that would alert emergency services personnel responding to car accidents of the availability of personal and medical information on the car's owner. Manchin said in 2014 that he "would change Social Security completely. I would do it on an inflationary basis, as far as paying into payroll taxes, and change that, to keep us stabilized as far as cash flow. I'd do COLAs—I'd talk about COLA for 250 percent of poverty guidelines." Asked whether this meant he would "cut benefits to old people," Manchin said that "a rich old person... won't get the COLAs." He asked: "Do you want chained CPI? I can live with either one." Taxes Manchin opposed Trump's Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. He called it "a closed process" that "makes little impact in the paychecks of the people in his state." At the same time, he posited the bill contains "some good things... Initially people will benefit," although ultimately voting against it. In turn, NRSC spokesman Bob Salera stated that he had "turned his back and voted with Washington Democrats." In March 2019, Manchin was a cosponsor of a bipartisan bill to undo a drafting error in the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act that mandated stores and restaurants to have to write off the costs of renovations over the course of 39 years via authorizing businesses to immediately deduct the entirety of costs of renovations. Veterans In February 2017, Manchin and Roy Blunt introduced the HIRE Veterans Act, legislation that would recognize qualified employers if they met particular criteria designed to encourage businesses that were friendly toward veterans including calculating what new hire or overall workforce percentages contain veterans, the availability of particular types of training and leadership development opportunities, and other factors that showed commitment on the part of an employer to offer support for veterans after their military careers. The bill passed in the Senate in April, which Manchin applauded in a press release as "tremendous news" given that the bill was "one more step we can take toward making it easier for our service men and women to find opportunities for good-paying jobs." In December 2018, Manchin was one of 21 senators to sign a letter to United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs Robert Wilkie calling it "appalling that the VA is not conducting oversight of its own outreach efforts" in spite of suicide prevention being the VA's highest clinical priority and requesting Wilkie "consult with experts with proven track records of successful public and mental health outreach campaigns with a particular emphasis on how those individuals measure success." In January 2019, Manchin was one of five senators to cosponsor the VA Provider Accountability Act, a bipartisan bill meant to amend Title 38 of the United States Code to authorize the under secretary of health to report "major adverse personnel actions" related to certain health care employees at the National Practitioner Data Bank along with applicable state licensing boards. Manchin said that the VA's efforts were inadequate and called for strict guidelines to be implemented to ensure veterans "are receiving the highest quality of care, and I believe our legislation provides a fix that can be supported by my colleagues on both sides of the aisle". In July 2019, Manchin and Republican Marsha Blackburn introduced the Providing Veterans Access to In-State Tuition Act, a bill that would remove a three-year post-discharge requirement and thereby enable student veterans eligibility to receive in-state tuition rates from public schools in the event they decide to use their Post 9/11 GI Bill benefits. In August 2019, when Manchin and Capito announced a collection of grants that totaled to over $7 million intended to aid homeless veterans under the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’ (VA) Supportive Services for Veteran Families (SSVF) Program, Manchin opined that the funding would "help veterans secure housing, which in turn helps them secure steady jobs and gives them another opportunity to contribute to their communities." Voting rights On June 6, 2021, in an op-ed published in the Charleston Gazette-Mail, Manchin expressed his opposition to the For the People Act due to its lack of bipartisan support. But he has expressed his support for a reinforced version of the John Lewis Voting Rights Act and urged its passage in the Senate. Shortly thereafter, several Democratic lawmakers accused Manchin of supporting Jim Crow laws by opposing the For the People Act, a signature piece of legislation of the Democratic majority, aiming to expand voting rights, among other provisions. The bill has universal Republican opposition, and so would require the filibuster to be eliminated in order to pass. Manchin defended his opposition to it, saying, "I think there's a lot of great things in that piece of legislation, but there's an awful lot of things that basically don't pertain directly to voting." In the op-ed, he also elaborated on his view of eliminating the filibuster: "I cannot explain strictly partisan election reform or blowing up the Senate rules to expedite one party's agenda." Personal life Manchin is a member of the National Rifle Association and a licensed pilot. He married Gayle Heather Conelly on August 5, 1967. Together they have three children: Heather Manchin Bresch (who was chief executive officer (CEO) of Netherlands-based pharmaceutical company Mylan), Joseph IV, and Brooke. He is Catholic. In 2006 and 2010, Manchin delivered commencement addresses at Wheeling Jesuit University and at Davis & Elkins College, receiving honorary degrees from both institutions. In December 2012, Manchin voiced his displeasure with MTV's new reality show Buckwild, set in his home state's capital Charleston, and asked the network's president to cancel the show, which, he argued, depicted West Virginia in a negative, unrealistic fashion. The show ended after its first season. In a lawsuit filed in July 2014, John Manchin II, one of Manchin's brothers, sued Manchin and his other brother, Roch Manchin, over a $1.7 million loan. The lawsuit alleged that Joe and Roch Manchin borrowed the money to keep the doors open at the family-owned carpet business run by Roch, that no part of the loan had yet been repaid, and that the defendants had taken other measures to evade compensating John Manchin II for non-payment. John Manchin II withdrew the suit on June 30, 2015. As of 2018, according to OpenSecrets.org, Manchin's net worth was more than $7.6 million. Manchin drives a Maserati and lives on a houseboat in the Potomac River when in Washington. Electoral history 1982 1986 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2010 2012 2018 Notes References Further reading Senator Governor Profile at the National Governors Association Inaugural Address of Governor Joe Manchin III , January 17, 2005 Inaugural Address of Governor Joe Manchin III , January 19, 2009 External links Senator Joe Manchin official U.S. Senate website Joe Manchin for Senate \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1947 births 20th-century American politicians 21st-century American politicians American people of Czech descent American politicians of Italian descent Aviators from West Virginia American Roman Catholics Democratic Party state governors of the United States Democratic Party United States senators Governors of West Virginia Living people Manchin family Members of the West Virginia House of Delegates People from Farmington, West Virginia Secretaries of State of West Virginia Time 100 United States senators from West Virginia West Virginia Democrats West Virginia Mountaineers football players West Virginia state senators West Virginia University alumni Catholics from West Virginia
1241553	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Jackson%20%28colonial%20administrator%29	Henry Jackson (colonial administrator)	Sir Henry Moore Jackson, (bapt. 13 August 1849 – 29 August 1908) was a British army officer and colonial governor. Biography Jackson was born in Barbados to Walrond Jackson, who became the Anglican Bishop of Antigua, and Mary Shepherd. He received his education in England at Clifton College and the Royal Military Academy. After his education, Jackson went into the military, serving for the Royal Artillery from 1870 to 1885, reaching the rank of captain. In 1880 while still in the Royal Artillery he was also appointed commandant of the Sierra Leone police. It was after his military service that he became involved in the rule of British colonies. Starting with his appointment as commissioner for Turks and Caicos Islands from 1885 to 1890 and later Colonial Secretary of the Bahama Islands from 1890 to 1893. His next appointment came in 1894 when he was appointed as Colonial Secretary of Gibraltar from 1894 to 1901. Here his education in science proved useful in implementing a plan to construct a new harbour. In August 1901 he was appointed Governor of the Leeward Islands, but his tenure there was short as in June the following year he was appointed Governor of Fiji and High Commissioner of the Western Pacific, combined with the position of Consul-General for the Western Pacific Islands. He arrived in Fiji to take up the position in September 1902, and is credited as having promoted the idea of British rule to the natives of Fiji. The last position he held was Governor of Trinidad and Tobago, which he held until his death on 29 August 1908. Jackson received several honours, including: Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in 1899, promoted to Knight Grand Cross in 1908, and member of the Order of St. Gregory the Great in 1904. Family In 1881, Jackson married Emily Shea, daughter of Sir Edward Dalton Shea. He was the father of Basil Jackson, chairman of BP. References \|- 1849 births 1908 deaths People educated at Clifton College Governors of Fiji Royal Artillery officers Governors of Trinidad and Tobago Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Commissioners of the Turks and Caicos Islands British colonial police officers Grenadian people of British descent Grenadian emigrants to England High Commissioners for the Western Pacific Colonial Secretaries of the Bahamas Colonial Secretaries of Gibraltar
1244836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingle%20All%20the%20Way	Jingle All the Way	Jingle All the Way is a 1996 American Christmas family comedy film directed by Brian Levant. It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sinbad as two rival fathers, mattress salesman Howard Langston (Schwarzenegger) and postal worker Myron Larabee (Sinbad), both desperately trying to purchase a Turbo-Man action figure for their respective sons on a last-minute shopping spree on Christmas Eve. The film's title is borrowed from the lyrics of the popular Christmas song "Jingle Bells". Inspired by real-life Christmas toy sell-outs for such items as Cabbage Patch Kids, the film was written by Randy Kornfield. Producer Chris Columbus rewrote the script, adding in elements of satire about the commercialization of Christmas, and the project was picked up by 20th Century Fox. Delays to Fox's reboot of Planet of the Apes allowed Schwarzenegger to come on board the film, while Columbus opted to cast Sinbad instead of Joe Pesci as Myron. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul at a variety of locations, including the Mall of America. After five weeks filming, production moved to California where scenes such as the end parade were shot. The film's swift production meant merchandising was limited to a replica of the Turbo-Man action figure used in the film. Upon release, Jingle All the Way grossed $129 million worldwide and received generally negative reviews from critics. In 2001, Fox was ordered to pay $19 million to Murray Hill Publishing for stealing the idea for the film; the verdict was overturned three years later. Jingle All the Way is the third and final collaboration between Sinbad and Phil Hartman after Coneheads (1993) and Houseguest (1995), and the last film featuring Hartman to be released during his lifetime before his death in 1998. In 2014, the film was followed by a sequel, Jingle All the Way 2, starring Larry the Cable Guy. Plot Workaholic Minneapolis mattress salesman Howard Langston loves his wife, Liz, and nine-year-old son, Jamie, but is unable to find time for his family and often put in a bad light by his neighbor, divorcé Ted Maltin, who harbors unrequited feelings for Liz. After missing Jamie's karate class graduation, Howard resolves to redeem himself by fulfilling Jamie's Christmas wish of an action figure of Turbo-Man, a popular television superhero, despite Liz actually having asked him to buy one two weeks earlier, which Howard forgot about. On Christmas Eve, Howard sets out to buy the toy, but finds that every store has sold out, and in the process develops a rivalry with Myron Larabee, a postal worker father with the same ambition. In desperation, Howard attempts to buy a figure from a counterfeit toy brand run by con men dressed in Santa suits, which results in a massive fight in the warehouse that is broken up when the police arrive. Howard narrowly escapes arrest by posing as an undercover officer. Exhausted at his failure and out of fuel, Howard goes to Mickey's Diner and calls home, intending to tell his wife the truth. Jamie answers the phone but keeps reminding Howard of his promise to be home in time for the annual Holiday Wintertainment Parade. Losing his patience, Howard yells at Jamie, after which he feels guilty and depressed after Jamie scolds him for not keeping his promises. Howard finds Myron at the diner and they share their experiences over coffee, where Myron tells Howard of his resentment towards his own father for failing to get him a Johnny Seven OMA for Christmas. A radio station advertises a competition for a Turbo-Man doll. The ensuing fight between Howard and Myron results in the diner's phone getting damaged, forcing Howard and Myron to race to the radio station on foot, where the DJ tells them that the competition was actually for a Turbo-Man gift certificate. The police are alerted, but Howard and Myron escape after Myron threatens the officers with a seemingly phony letter bomb. Officer Alexander Hummell, whom Howard has run into twice already, investigates the package only to have it detonate much to the men's shock. Upon returning to his Suburban, Howard finds it stripped by car thieves, with "Meri xmAS" spray-painted on the windshield. He returns home in a tow truck only to find Ted putting the star on his Christmas tree. In retaliation, Howard attempts to steal the Turbo-Man doll Ted bought for his son, Johnny, but can't bring himself to steal from a child. Unfortunately, he is caught in the act and left alone while his family goes to the Christmas parade with Ted. After letting Jamie and Johnny out of the car, Ted attempts to seduce Liz, but she violently rejects him by hitting him with a thermos of eggnog that Ted offered to her. Meanwhile, remembering his promise to Jamie to go to the parade, Howard decides to attend as well, but runs into Hummell again. The ensuing chase leads to Howard hiding inside a storage room, where he is mistaken for the actor portraying Turbo-Man and dressed in the highly technological costume. As Turbo-Man, Howard uses his chance to present a limited-edition action figure to Jamie, but they are confronted by Myron, dressed as Turbo-Man's enemy, Dementor having bound and gagged the original actor. Despite Howard's pleas for Myron to stop, a long chase ensues, involving a jetpack flight. Myron acquires the toy from Jamie but is cornered by police officers, while Howard saves his son. Howard reveals himself to his family and apologizes for his shortcomings. The police return the toy to Jamie as Myron is arrested, but Jamie decides to give the toy to Myron for his son, proclaiming his father as his true hero. The crowd carries Howard away in celebration, while Myron, Liz and Jamie look on happily. Later that night, Howard finishes decorating their Christmas tree by putting the star on top. However, when Liz asks Howard what he got for her, he shockingly realizes that he forgot to get her a gift. Cast Production Development The film draws inspiration from the high demand for Christmas toys such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in the late 1980s and early 1990s, which often led to intense searching and occasional violence among shoppers, such as the Cabbage Patch riots, over finding the toys. Randy Kornfield wrote the film's original screenplay after witnessing his in-laws go to a Santa Monica toy store at dawn in order to get his son a Power Ranger. While admitting to missing the clamor for the Cabbage Patch Kids and Power Rangers, producer Chris Columbus experienced a similar situation in 1995 when he attempted to obtain a Buzz Lightyear action figure from the film Toy Story, released that year. As a result, he rewrote Kornfield's script, which was accepted by 20th Century Fox. Columbus was always "attracted to the dark side of the happiest holiday of the year", so wrote elements of the film as a satire of the commercialization of Christmas. Brian Levant was hired to direct the film. Columbus said Levant "underst[ood] the humor in the material" and "was very animated and excited, and he had a vision of what he wanted to do". Levant said "The story that was important to me was between the father and son ... it's a story about love, and a father's journey to deliver it in the form of a Turbo Man doll. The fact that I got to design a toy line and do the commercials and make pajamas and comic books was fun for me as a filmmaker. But at its root, the movie's about something really sweet. It's about love and building a better family. I think that's consistent with everything I've done." Arnold Schwarzenegger was quickly cast. He became available in February 1996 after Fox's remake of Planet of the Apes was held up again; Columbus also exited that project to work on Jingle All the Way. The film marks Schwarzenegger's fourth appearance as the lead in a comedy film, following Twins (1988), Kindergarten Cop (1990) and Junior (1994). Schwarzenegger was paid a reported $20 million for the role. He enjoyed the film, having experienced last-minute Christmas shopping himself, and was attracted to playing an "ordinary" character in a family film. Columbus initially wanted Joe Pesci to play Myron. Comedian Sinbad was chosen instead, partly due to his similar height and size to Schwarzenegger. Sinbad was suggested for the part by Schwarzenegger's agent, but the producers felt he was unsuited to the role of a villain as it could harm his clean, family-oriented comedy act and reputation, although Sinbad felt the character would generate the audience's sympathy rather than hate. Furthermore, he missed the audition due to his appearance with First Lady Hillary Clinton and musician Sheryl Crow on the USO tour of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but Columbus waited for him to return to allow him to audition and, although Sinbad felt he had "messed" it up, he was given the part. He improvised the majority of his lines in the film; Schwarzenegger also improvised many of his responses in his conversations with Sinbad's character. Filming Filming took place in Minnesota for five weeks from April 15, 1996; at the time, it was the largest film production to ever take place in the state. Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota at locations such as Bloomington's Mall of America, Mickey's Diner, downtown Minneapolis, Linden Hills, residential areas of Edina and primarily downtown Saint Paul. Unused shops in the Seventh place Mall area were redecorated to resemble Christmas decorated stores, while the Energy Park Studios were used for much of the filming and the Christmas lights stayed up at Rice Park for use in the film. The Mall of America and the state's "semi-wintry weather" proved attractive for the studio. Although Schwarzenegger stated that the locals were "well-behaved" and "cooperative", Levant often found filming "impossible" due to the scale and noise of the crowds who came to watch production, especially in the Mall of America, but overall found the locals to be "respectful" and "lovely people." Levant spent several months in the area before filming in order to prepare. The film uses artistic license by treating Minneapolis and Saint Paul as one city, as this was logistically easier; the police are labeled "Twin Cities Police" in the film. Additionally, the city's Holidazzle Parade is renamed the Wintertainment Parade and takes place on 2nd Avenue during the day, rather than Nicollet Mall at night. Levant wanted to film the parade at night but was overruled for practical reasons. The parade was filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood in California on the New York Street set, due to safety concerns. The set was designed to resemble 2nd Avenue; the parade was shot from above by helicopters and stitched into matte shots of the real-life street. It took three weeks to film, with 1,500 extras being used in the scene, along with three custom designed floats. Other parts of the film to be shot in Los Angeles, California included store interiors, and the warehouse fight scene between Howard and the criminal Santas, for which a Pasadena furniture warehouse was used. Turbo-Man was created and designed for the film. This meant the commercials and scenes from the Turbo-Man TV series were all shot by Levant, while all of the Turbo-Man merchandise, packaging and props shown in the film were custom made one-offs and designed to look "authentic, as if they all sprang from the same well." Along with Columbus and Levant, production designer Leslie McDonald and character designer Tim Flattery crafted Turbo-Man, Booster and Dementor and helped make the full-size Turbo-Man suit for the film's climax. Principal production finished in August; Columbus "fine-tun[ed] the picture until the last possible minute," using multiple test audiences "to see where the big laughs actually lie." Music Soundtrack TVT Records released the film's soundtrack album on Audio CD on November 26, 1996. It features only two of composer David Newman's pieces from Jingle All the Way, but features many of the songs by other artists included in the film, as well as other Christmas songs and new tracks by the Brian Setzer Orchestra. Intrada Music Group released a Special Collection limited edition of Newman's full 23-track score on November 3, 2008. Release Marketing As Schwarzenegger only signed on for the film in February and the film was shot so quickly, only six and a half months were available for merchandising, instead of the ideal year. As such, merchandising was limited to a 13.5-inch replica $25 Talking Turbo-Man action figure and the West Coast exclusive Turbo-Man Time Racer vehicle, while no tie-in promotions could be secured. Despite this, several critics wrote that the film was only being made in order to sell the toy. Columbus dismissed this notion, stating that with only roughly 200,000 Turbo-Man toys being made, the merchandising was far less than the year's other releases, such as Space Jam and 101 Dalmatians. The film's release coincided with the Tickle Me Elmo craze, in which high demand for the doll during the 1996 Christmas season lead to store mobbing similar to that depicted for Turbo-Man. The world premiere was held on November 16, 1996, at the Mall of America in Bloomington where parts of the film were shot. A day of events was held to celebrate the film's release and Schwarzenegger donated memorabilia from the film to the Mall's Planet Hollywood. Home media The film was released on VHS in October 1997, and in November 1998 it was released on DVD. It was rereleased on DVD in December 2004, followed by an extended director's cut in October 2007, known as the "Family Fun Edition". It contained several minutes of extra footage, as well as other DVD extras such as a behind the scenes featurette. In December of the following year, the Family Fun Edition was released on Blu-ray Disc. Reception Box office Opening on November 22, Jingle All the Way made $12.1 million in its first weekend, opening at #4 behind Star Trek: First Contact, Space Jam and Ransom; it went on to gross $129 million worldwide, recouping its $75 million budget. The film was released in the United Kingdom on December 6, 1996, and topped the country's box office that weekend. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 20% based on 49 reviews and an average rating of 4.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Arnold Schwarzenegger tries his best, but Jingle All the Way suffers from an uneven tone, shifting wildly from a would-be satire on materialism to an antic, slapstick yuk-fest." On Metacritic the film has a score of 34% based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Emanuel Levy felt the film "highly formulaic" and criticized Levant's direction as little more advanced than a television sitcom. Although he felt that the script did not provide sufficient opportunity for Hartman, Wilson and Conrad to give exceptional performances, he opined that "Schwarzenegger has developed a light comic delivery, punctuated occasionally by an ironic one-liner," while "Sinbad has good moments". Neil Jeffries of Empire disagreed, feeling Schwarzenegger to be "wooden" and Sinbad to be "trying desperately to be funnier than his hat" but praised Lloyd as the "saving grace" of the film. The New York Times critic Janet Maslin felt the film lacked any real plot, failed in its attempt at satire, should have included Myron's only mentioned son and "mostly wasted" Hartman, while Levant's direction was "listless". Similarly, the BBC's Neil Smith criticized the film's script, its focus on the commercialization of Christmas, as well as Schwarzenegger's performance which shows "the comic timing of a dead moose," but singled out Hartman for praise. Chicago Tribune critic Michael Wilmington panned the film, wondering why the characters (primarily Howard) acted so illogically: "Howard Langston is supposed to be a successful mattress manufacturer, but the movie paints him as a hot-tempered buffoon without a sensible idea in his head." Jack Garner of USA Today condemned the film, finding it more "cynical" than satirical, stating "this painfully bad movie has been inspired strictly by the potential jingle of cash registers." He wrote of Levant's directorial failure as he "offers no ... sense of comic timing," while "pauses in the midst of much of the dialogue are downright painful." Trevor Johnston suggested that the film "seems to mark a point of decline in the Schwarzenegger career arc" and the anti-consumerism message largely failed, with "Jim Belushi's corrupt mall Santa with his stolen-goods warehouse ... provid[ing] the film's sole flash of dark humour." IGN's Mike Drucker praised its subject matter as "one of the few holiday movies to directly deal with the commercialization of Christmas" although felt the last twenty minutes of the film let it down, as the first hour or so had "some family entertainment" value if taken with a "grain of salt". He concluded the film was "a member of the so-corny-its-good genre," while "Arnold delivers plenty of one-liners ripe for sound board crank callers." Jamie Malanowski of The New York Times praised the film's satirical premise but felt it was "full of unrealized potential" because "the filmmakers [wrongly] equate mayhem with humor." Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half stars, writing that he "liked a lot of the movie", which he thought had "energy" and humor which would have mass audience appeal. He was, though, disappointed by "its relentlessly materialistic view of Christmas, and by the choice to go with action and (mild) violence over dialogue and plot." Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures concluded that while the film is not very good, as a form of family entertainment it is "surprisingly fun." Accolades Lawsuit In 1998, Murray Hill Publishing sued 20th Century Fox for $150,000, claiming that the idea for the film was stolen from a screenplay they had purchased from high school teacher Brian Webster entitled Could This Be Christmas? They said the script had 36 similarities with Jingle All the Way, including the plot, dialogue and character names. Murray Hill President Bob Laurel bought the script from Webster in 1993, and sent it to Fox and other studios in 1994 but received no response and claimed the idea was copied by Kornfield, who was Fox's script reader. In 2001, Fox were found guilty of stealing the idea and ordered to pay $19 million ($15 million in damages and $4 million in legal costs) to Murray Hill, with Webster to receive a portion. Laurel died a few months after the verdict, before receiving any of the money. On appeal, the damages figure was lowered to $1.5 million, before the verdict itself was quashed in 2004 after a judge decided the idea was not stolen, as Fox had bought Kornfield's screenplay before he or anybody else at Fox had read Could This Be Christmas? Sequel Over 18 years after the release of the original film, a stand-alone sequel, Jingle All the Way 2, was released straight-to-DVD in December 2014. Directed by Alex Zamm and produced by WWE Studios and 20th Century Fox, the film has a similar plot to the original, but is otherwise not connected and has none of the original cast or characters. The lead roles were instead played by Larry the Cable Guy and Santino Marella. See also List of Christmas films List of American films of 1996 Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography Jingle All the Way (disambiguation) "Jingle Bells", popular traditional winter holiday song References External links 1996 films 1990s buddy comedy films 1990s children's comedy films American films American buddy comedy films American children's comedy films American Christmas comedy films English-language films Films about toys Films set in Minnesota Films shot in Minnesota Films shot in Los Angeles 20th Century Fox films 1492 Pictures films Films directed by Brian Levant Films involved in plagiarism controversies Films produced by Chris Columbus Films produced by Michael Barnathan Films scored by David Newman 1990s Christmas comedy films American satirical films 1990s satirical films 1996 comedy films American superhero films Father and son films
1250205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Kuklinski	Richard Kuklinski	Richard Leonard Kuklinski (; April 11, 1935 – March 5, 2006) also known as The Iceman, was an American criminal and convicted murderer. Kuklinski was engaged in criminal activities for most of his adult life. He ran a burglary ring and distributed pirated pornography. Kuklinski killed several people he lured with offers of a business deal so that he could rob them of their cash. Law enforcement officials described him as someone who killed for profit. Kuklinski lived with his wife and children in the New Jersey suburb of Dumont. They knew him as a loving father and husband but one who also had a violent temper. They stated that they were unaware of his crimes. He was given the moniker Iceman by authorities after they discovered that he had frozen the body of one of his victims in an attempt to disguise the time of death. Eventually, Kuklinski came to the attention of law enforcement when an investigation into his burglary gang linked him to several murders. An eighteen-month long undercover operation led to his arrest in December 1986. In 1988, he was sentenced to life imprisonment after being convicted of killing two members of his burglary gang and two other associates. In 2003, he received an additional 30-year sentence after confessing to the murder of a mob-connected police officer. After his murder convictions, Kuklinski gave interviews to writers, prosecutors, criminologists and psychiatrists. He claimed to have murdered anywhere from 100 to 200 men, often in gruesome fashion. Most of these additional murders have not been corroborated. He also alleged that he worked as a hitman for the Mafia, and that he was a participant in several famous Mafia killings, including the disappearance and presumed murder of Teamsters president Jimmy Hoffa. Law enforcement and organized crime experts have expressed skepticism about Kuklinski's supposed Mafia ties. He was the subject of three HBO documentaries aired in 1992, 2001 and 2003; several biographies, and a 2012 feature film The Iceman, starring Michael Shannon and Winona Ryder. Early life Richard Kuklinski was born in his family's apartment on 4th Street in Jersey City, New Jersey, to Stanisław "Stanley" Kukliński (1906–1977), a Polish immigrant from Karwacz, Masovian Voivodeship who worked as a brakeman on the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, and Anna McNally (1911–1972) from Harsimus, a daughter of Catholic Irish immigrants from Dublin, who worked in a meat-packing plant during Richard's childhood. He was the second of four children. According to Richard Kuklinski, Stanley Kuklinski was a violent alcoholic who beat his children regularly and sometimes beat his wife. Stanley abandoned the family while Richard was still a child, but returned periodically, usually drunk, and his returns were often followed by more beatings for Richard. Anna was also often abusive. She would beat Richard with broom handles (sometimes breaking the handle on his body during the assaults) and other household objects. He recalled an incident during his pre-teen years when his mother attempted to kill Stanley with a kitchen knife. Anna was a zealous Catholic and believed that stern discipline should be accompanied by a strict religious upbringing, the same way she was raised. She raised her son in the Roman Catholic Church, where he became an altar boy. Kuklinski later rejected Catholicism. Kuklinski regarded his mother as a "cancer" who destroyed everything she touched. Kuklinski had three siblings. Kuklinski's brother Joseph (1944–2003), was convicted in 1970 of raping a 12-year-old girl and murdering her by throwing her off the top of a five-story building (along with her pet dog). When asked about his brother's crimes, Kuklinski replied: "We come from the same father." Criminal life Early crimes In the mid-1960s, Kuklinski worked at a Manhattan film lab. Through the lab, he accessed master copies of popular films, and he made bootleg copies of Disney animated films to sell. Kuklinski also discovered a lucrative market for tapes of pornographic movies; copying and distributing pornography was a regular source of income for him. He was once arrested for passing a bad check, the only crime he was charged with prior to his arrest for murder. He was photographed and fingerprinted, but the charges were dropped after he agreed to pay back the money owed. Several of his known murder victims were men he met through trafficking pornography and drugs. He also headed a burglary group with Gary Smith, Barbara Deppner, Daniel Deppner, and Percy House.He once stole a bicycle. Murder of George Malliband On January 30, 1980, Kuklinski killed George Malliband during a meeting to sell him tapes. Malliband was reportedly carrying $27,000 at the time. After a plea bargain, Kuklinski admitted to shooting him five times, explaining "It was due to business". Malliband's body was discovered a week later, on February 5, 1980. Kuklinski had placed it in a 55-gallon drum and left it near the Chemitex chemical plant in Jersey City. He had to cut the tendons of Malliband's leg in order to fit the corpse into the barrel. This was the first murder linked to Kuklinski; Malliband's brother told police officers Malliband was meeting Kuklinski the day he disappeared. Murder of Paul Hoffman In 1982, Kuklinski met Paul Hoffman, a 51-year-old pharmacist who occasionally browsed "the store" in Paterson, New Jersey, a storefront with a back room holding a wide variety of stolen items for sale and purchase. Hoffman hoped to make a big profit by purchasing stolen Tagamet, a popular drug to treat peptic ulcers, to re-sell through his pharmacy. He believed Kuklinski could supply the drugs, and badgered him to make a deal. Hoffman was last seen on his way to meet Kuklinski with $22,000 to buy prescription drugs from Kuklinski. After a plea bargain, Kuklinski admitted to killing Hoffman on April 29, 1982. He stated that he lured Hoffman into a rented garage and tried to shoot him, but the gun jammed so instead he beat Hoffman to death with a tire iron. He said he then stuffed the body into a 55 gallon drum and left it outside a motel in Little Ferry. One day, Kuklinski noticed that the drum had disappeared, but never learned what had happened to it. Hoffman's body was never recovered. Murder of Gary Smith By the early 1980s, Kuklinski's burglary gang was under investigation by law enforcement. In December 1982, Percy House, a member of the gang, was arrested. House agreed to inform on Kuklinski and was placed in protective custody. Warrants were also issued for the arrest of two other gang members, Gary Smith and Daniel Deppner. Kuklinski urged them to lay low, and rented them a room at the York Motel in North Bergen, New Jersey. Smith left the motel to visit his daughter. Kuklinski feared that Smith, after he discussed going straight, might become an informant. According to the testimony of Barbara Deppner, Kuklinski, Daniel Deppner, and House (in jail at the time) decided that Smith had to be killed. Kuklinski fed Smith a hamburger laced with cyanide, but when this was slow to work, Daniel Deppner also strangled Smith with a lamp cord. According to forensic pathologist Michael Baden, Smith's death would probably have been attributed to something non-homicidal in nature (such as drug overdose) if Kuklinski relied solely on the poison. However, the ligature mark around Smith's neck, and the fact that the body had been deliberately hidden, proved to investigators that he was murdered. After Barbara Deppner did not return with a car to move Smith's body, Kuklinski and Daniel Deppner placed it in between the mattress and box spring. Over the next four days, a number of patrons rented the room, and although they thought the smell in the room was odd, most of them did not think to look under the bed. Finally, on December 27, 1982, after more complaints from guests about the smell, the motel manager investigated and discovered the decomposing corpse. Murder of Daniel Deppner After Smith's murder, Kuklinski moved Deppner to an apartment in Bergenfield, New Jersey, belonging to Rich Patterson, then-fiancé of Kuklinski's daughter Merrick. Patterson was away at the time, but Kuklinski possessed keys to the apartment. Between February and May 1983, Deppner was killed by Kuklinski. Investigators deduced he was murdered in Patterson's apartment after discovering a bloody carpet. Kuklinski enlisted Patterson's help to dispose of Deppner's body, telling Patterson the victim was a friend in trouble with law enforcement and someone had broken in and killed him over the weekend. He added it was best to dump the body to avoid trouble with the police, then forget about the incident. Kuklinski made another mistake when he informed an associate that he had killed Deppner. Deppner's corpse was discovered May 14, 1983, after a bicyclist riding Clinton Road in a wooded area of West Milford, New Jersey, spotted the corpse surrounded by vultures. Kuklinski wrapped the corpse inside green garbage bags before dumping it. Medical examiners listed Deppner's cause of death as "undetermined", although they noted pinkish spots on his skin, a possible sign of cyanide poisoning. Deppner was also strangled. Investigators guessed that Deppner had already been incapacitated, such as by poison, because the partially-eaten corpse had no defensive wounds and healthy adult men are rarely killed by strangulation. The medical examiner found Deppner's stomach full of undigested food, indicating that he had died shortly after (or during) a meal. The beans that Deppner had eaten were burned, so they reasoned the meal was home-cooked, because most restaurants would not get away with serving burned food to customers. Investigating officers discovered the corpse just away from the ranch where Kuklinski's family often went horseback riding. Deppner was the third Kuklinski associate to be found dead. Louis Masgay discovered On September 25, 1983, the body of Louis Masgay was discovered near a town park near Clausland Mountain Road in Orangetown, New York, with a bullet hole in the back of his head. Masgay disappeared over two years earlier, on July 1, 1981, the day he was to meet Kuklinski at a New Jersey diner to purchase a large quantity of blank videocassette recorder tapes, for which Masgay had $95,000 in his van. His body was stored in a freezer, then discovered fifteen months later. After another plea bargain, Kuklinski admitted to shooting Masgay. However, Kuklinski did not thaw the corpse before he dumped it. He also wrapped it in plastic garbage bags, which kept it insulated and partially-frozen. The Rockland County medical examiner found ice crystals inside the body on a warm September day. If the body had thawed before discovery, the medical examiner stated he probably would never have noticed Kuklinski's trickery. Investigators realized Masgay was wearing the clothes his wife and son said he was wearing the day he disappeared. The discovery Kuklinski froze Masgay's corpse encouraged law enforcement officers to nick-name him "Iceman". Newspaper reporters sensationalized the frequently-used Kuklinski's moniker of "Iceman" in headlines. Investigation and arrest Kuklinski came to the attention of Pat Kane, an officer with the New Jersey State Police, when an informant helped Kane connect him to a gang carrying out burglaries in northern New Jersey. He built a file on him. Eventually, five unsolved homicides—Hoffman, Smith, Deppner, Masgay, and Malliband—were linked to Kuklinski because he was the last person to see each of them alive. A joint task force of law enforcement officials titled "Operation Iceman" was created between the New Jersey Attorney General's office and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms dedicated to arresting and convicting Kuklinski. The ATF was involved due to Kuklinski's firearm sales. BATFE Special Agent Dominick Polifrone went undercover for eighteen months to apprehend Kuklinski. Starting in 1985, Kane and Polifrone worked with Phil Solimene, a close long-time friend of Kuklinski, to get Polifrone close to Kuklinski. Posing as a Mafia-connected criminal named Dominic Provenzano, Polifrone purchased a handgun-muffler combination from Kuklinski. In recordings, Kuklinski discussed a corpse he kept in a freezer for two and a half years. He told Polifrone he preferred poison, saying "Why be messy? You do it nice and calm." He asked Polifrone if he could supply him with pure cyanide. Polifrone told Kuklinski he wanted to hire him to murder a wealthy Jewish cocaine dealer, and recorded Kuklinski speaking in detail about how he would do it. Kuklinski was also recorded boasting he killed a man by putting cyanide on his hamburger, and of his plans to kill "a couple of rats" (Barbara Deppner and Percy House). On December 17, 1986, Kuklinski met Polifrone to get cyanide for a planned murder, which was to be an attempt on an undercover police officer. After the recorded conversation with Polifrone, Kuklinski went for a walk. He tested Polifrone's (purported) cyanide on a stray dog, using a hamburger as bait, and saw it was not poison. Suspicious, Kuklinski decided to not go through with the planned murder, and went home instead. He was arrested at a roadblock two hours later. His wife was charged with disorderly conduct while interfering with his arrest. Officers discovered a firearm in the vehicle, and she was charged with possession of a firearm because she was a passenger. Trial Prosecutors charged Kuklinski with five murder counts and six weapons violations, as well as attempted murder, robbery, and attempted robbery. Law enforcement officials said Kuklinski had large sums of money in Swiss bank accounts and a reservation on a flight to that country. Kuklinski was held on a $2million bail bond, and made to surrender his passport. After the arrest, Kuklinski told reporters ″This is unwarranted, unnecessary. These guys watch too many movies.″ At a press conference, New Jersey state Attorney General W. Cary Edwards characterized the motive for the murders as "profit", and said ″He set individuals up for business deals, they disappeared, and the money ended up in his hands.″ At trial, Kuklinski's former associates including Percy House and Barbara Deppner gave evidence against him as did BATFE Special Agent Polifrone. The case was prosecuted by Deputy Attorney General Robert Carrol while Kuklinski was represented by a public defender. Kuklinksi's lawyer argued Kuklinski had no history of violence, and only projected a 'tough image', including his statements to BATFE Special Agent Polifrone. The defense theorized Deppner was responsible for the murder of Smith, and there was no cause of death determined for Deppner. Additionally, he argued the testimony of House and Barbara Deppner was unreliable because they lied to law enforcement officials, and House received immunity from prosecution. In March 1988, jurors found Kuklinski guilty of murdering Smith and Deppner, but found the deaths were not proven to be by Kuklinski's conduct, meaning he would not face the death penalty. He was then sentenced to a minimum 60 years in prison. After the trial, Kuklinski pled guilty to killing Masgay and Malliband. Kuklinski was sentenced to an additional two life sentences to be served consecutively. State prosecutors explained he would spend the rest of his life in prison if he had successful appeals to his previous convictions. Kuklinski also confessed to killing Hoffman, but prosecutors decided to not pursue sentencing, claiming additional life sentences would not impact Kuklinski's prison stay. As part of the plea bargains, the firearm charge against his wife and an unrelated marijuana possession charge against his son were dismissed. Kuklinski was ineligible for parole until he was 111 years old. He was incarcerated at Trenton State Prison. Statements during interviews During his incarceration, Kuklinski granted interviews to prosecutors, psychiatrists, criminologists, and writers. Several television producers also spoke to Kuklinski about his criminal career, upbringing, and personal life. These talks culminated in three televised documentaries known as The Iceman Tapes, broadcast on HBO in 1992, 2001, and 2003. According to his daughter Merrick Kuklinski, her mother convinced Richard to do the interviews and she was paid "handsomely" for them. In the last installment, The Iceman and the Psychiatrist, Kuklinski was interviewed by renowned forensic psychiatrist Dr. Park Dietz in 2002. Dietz stated he believed Kuklinski suffered from anti-social personality disorder plus paranoid personality disorder. Writers Anthony Bruno and Philip Carlo wrote biographies of Kuklinski. Kuklinski's wife received a share of the profits from the Bruno book. Other killings In various interviews, Kuklinski claimed to have murdered over 100 people. He alleged he used multiple ways to kill people, including a crossbow, icepicks, a bomb attached to remote controlled toy, firearms, grenades, as well as cyanide solution spray he considered to be his favorite. He said he committed his first murder at 14, and murdered homeless people for practice. In 2006, Paul Smith, a member of the task force involved in arresting Kuklinski – and later a supervisor of the organized crime division of the New Jersey Attorney General's office – said "I checked every one of the murders Kuklinski said he committed, and not one was true." He added "Authorities throughout the country could not corroborate one case based on the tidbits Kuklinski gave." In 2020, Dominick Polifrone said "I don’t believe he killed two-hundred people. I don’t believe he killed a hundred people. I’ll go as high as 15, maybe." Kuklinski also alleged he was a Mafia contract killer independently working for all the Five Families of New York city, as well as the DeCavalcante family of New Jersey. He claimed he carried out dozens of murders on behalf of Gambino soldier Roy DeMeo. He said he was one of the murderers of Bonanno family boss Carmine Galante in July 1979, and Gambino family boss Paul Castellano in December 1985. For the Castellano murder, Kuklinski said he was personally recruited by John Gotti ally Sammy Gravano, who instructed him to kill Castellano's driver and bodyguard, Thomas Bilotti. He told Philip Carlo he was hired by John Gotti to kidnap, torture, and murder John Favara, the man who accidentally killed Gotti's 12-year-old son Frank after hitting him with his car. After he became a government witness in 1990, Sammy Gravano admitted to planning the murder of Castellano and Bilotti, but said the shooters were all members of John Gotti's crew and were chosen by Gotti; he did not mention Kuklinski. Anthony Bruno felt Kuklinski's participation in the killing of Castellano was "highly unlikely". Bruno noted that in 1986 Anthony Indelicato was convicted of Galante's murder and Kuklinski was not mentioned during the trial. According to Jerry Capeci, "[Philip Carlo] claims the Iceman killed Paul Castellano, Carmine Galante and Jimmy Hoffa, along with Roy DeMeo and about 200 others. C’mon, do you believe that? I don’t know anyone who believes that. No one." Kuklinski claimed he dumped bodies in caves in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, and fed a victim to rats in the caves. However, in 2013, the Philadelphia Inquirer noted the caves have had a lot of visitors since Kuklinski's time, and no human remains have been discovered. Local cave enthusiast Richard Kranzel also queried the idea of flesh-eating rats, saying "The only rats I encountered in caves are 'cave rats,' and they are reclusive and shy creatures, and definitely not fierce as Kuklinski claims." Law enforcement officers also doubt he stored a corpse for two years in a Mister Softee truck. Robert Prongay In interviews and documentaries, Kuklinski says he killed Robert Prongay, a mentor to him. Prongay was murdered in 1984, shot multiple times in the head, and was subsequently discovered in his Mister Softee ice cream truck. Robbery was not considered a motive at the time. Prongay had been about to go on trial for blowing up the front door of his ex-wife's house. Kuklinski says that Prongay taught him to use cyanide and other methods to kill, and it was Prongay who told him to freeze the body of Masgay. However, Kuklinski says he killed Prongay after he threatened his family. Law enforcement officials have considered Kuklinski a prime suspect in the murder since 1986, but the director of the New Jersey Division of Criminal Justice said no charges were sought because Kuklinski was convicted of other crimes. In 1993, in response to his claims, Hudson County Prosecutor said new charges against Kuklinski were possible since the Prongay murder was still an open investigation, and they would assess whether there was enough evidence to prosecute him. Ultimately, no charges were brought against Kuklinski for the Prongay murder. Roy DeMeo Kuklinski claimed he killed Gambino Crime family member Roy DeMeo in an interview for the 1993 book "The Iceman: The True Story of a Cold-Blooded Killer" by Anthony Bruno. He described DeMeo as a mentor of his, but after he fell behind on a loan to distribute pornography, he received a beating. The two later became business partners. Kuklinski says DeMeo taught him how murder for hire could be a way to make money. However, author Jerry Capeci, writing extensively about DeMeo and the mafia, doubts Kuklinski killed DeMeo. Most sources indicate DeMeo was killed by members of his crew, with no suggestion Kuklinski was involved. Kuklinski is not mentioned in Capeci and Gene Mustain's book about the DeMeo crew, Murder Machine, or Albert DeMeo's account of his father's life in the mob, For the Sins of My Father. Philip Carlo, whose biography of Kuklinski includes the claim that he killed DeMeo, acknowledged in the postscript to a later edition that this claim was probably untrue. Murder of Peter Calabro In his 2001 HBO interview, Kuklinski confessed to killing NYPD officer Peter Calabro, who was ambushed and shot dead by an unknown gunman on March 14, 1980. Calabro was rumored to have mob connections, and was investigated for selling confidential information to the Gambino family. His wife Carmella drowned under mysterious circumstances three years earlier and members of her family believed Calabro was responsible. At the time, his murder was thought by law enforcement officials to be revenge either carried out or arranged by his deceased wife's relatives. Her brothers were regarded as "key suspects", but the crime remained unsolved. The Bergen County prosecutor believed Kuklinski's confession to be a fabrication, but his successor decided to proceed with the case. In February 2003, Kuklinski was charged with Calabro's murder, and received another sentence of thirty years. This was considered a waste, because it was during multiple life sentences, plus he would be ineligible for parole until he was over the age of 100. Describing the murder, Kuklinski said he parked his van on the side of a narrow road, forcing other drivers to slow to pass. He lay in a snowbank behind his van until Calabro came by at 2am, then stepped out, and shot him in the head with a sawed-off shotgun, decapitating Calabro. He stated he was unaware that Calabro was a police offcer, but said he probably would have murdered him anyway. Kuklinski claimed he was paid to kill Calabro by Gambino crime family soldier (later underboss) Sammy "The Bull" Gravano, and The Bull provided the murder weapon. Gravano, serving a twenty-year sentence in Arizona for drugs, was also indicted for the murder. Kuklinski was set to testify against him. Gravano denied any involvement in Calabro's death and rejected a plea bargain, under which, he would receive no additional jail time if he confessed to the crime and informed on all his accomplices. The charges against Gravano were dropped after Kuklinski's death in 2006. Jimmy Hoffa In his 2001 HBO interview, Secrets of a Mafia Hitman, Kuklinski said he knew who killed former Teamsters union president Jimmy Hoffa. Kuklinski did not claim any personal involvement in Hoffa's disappearance and presumed murder and did not identify any culprit. However, he later claimed he killed Hoffa. In his account, Kuklinski was part of a four-man kidnap team. They grabbed Hoffa in Detroit. While they were in the car, Kuklinski killed Hoffa by stabbing him with a large hunting knife. He said he drove Hoffa's corpse from Detroit to a New Jersey junkyard. It was placed in a drum and set on fire, then buried in the junkyard. Later, fearing an accomplice might snitch, the drum was disenterred, placed in the trunk of a car, and compacted to a cube. It was sold, along with hundreds of other compacted cars, as scrap metal. It was shipped off to Japan to be used in making new cars. Deputy Chief Bob Buccino, who worked on the Kuklinski case, said "They took a body from Detroit, where they have one of the biggest lakes in the world, and drove it all the way back to New Jersey? Come on." Buccino added: "We didn't believe a lot of things he said." Former FBI Special Agent Robert Garrity stated Kuklinski's admission to killing Hoffa was "a hoax", and that Kuklinski was never a suspect in Hoffa's disappearance, adding "I never heard of him." Anthony Bruno said he investigated Kuklinski's alleged involvement in Hoffa's disappearance, but felt "[his] story didn't check-out". He opined Kuklinski made the confession to "add extra value to his brand", and so, he omitted the story from his biography of Kuklinski. Personal life Kuklinski's first marriage was to a woman nine years his senior named Linda, with whom he had two sons (Richard Jr. and David). While Richard was working for a trucking company he met Barbara Pedrici, who was a secretary at the same firm. Kuklinski and Barbara married in 1961 and had two daughters, Merrick and Christin, and a son, Dwayne. Barbara described his behavior as alternating between "good Richie" and "bad Richie." "Good Richie" was a hard-working provider and an affectionate father and loving husband, who enjoyed time with his family. Barbara remembered that when Merrick became seriously ill soon after she was born, Richard stayed up night after night to care for her. In contrast, "Bad Richie" – who would appear at irregular intervals: sometimes one day after another, other times not appearing for months – was prone to unpredictable fits of rage, smashing furniture and domestic violence. During these periods, he was physically abusive to his wife (one time breaking her nose and giving her a black eye) and emotionally abusive towards his children. Merrick later recalled that he once killed her dog right in front of her to punish her for coming home late. Barbara claimed that she once told Richard she wanted to see other people. He responded by silently jabbing her from behind with a hunting knife so sharp she did not even feel the blade go in. He told her that she belonged to him, and that if she tried to leave he would kill her entire family; when Barbara began screaming at him in anger, he throttled her into unconsciousness. Merrick also remembered a number of road rage incidents involving her father. Kuklinski's family and Dumont, New Jersey neighbors were never aware of his activities, and instead believed he was a successful businessman. Barbara suspected that at least some of his income was from illegal activities, due to their lifestyle and the large amounts of cash he often possessed. However, Barbara never expressed these worries to him, instead maintaining a "don't ask questions" philosophy when it came to his business life or associates. If Richard suddenly left the house in the middle of the night, Barbara would never ask where he was going. The Kuklinskis divorced in 1993, when Richard was in prison. Barbara said the divorce was for "money reasons". She continued to visit him in prison, but only about once a year. On June 6, 1984, Kuklinski filed for personal bankruptcy listing debts of $160,697, and assets of only $300. Death and legacy In October 2005, after nearly 18 years in prison, Kuklinski was diagnosed with Kawasaki disease (an inflammation of the blood vessels). He was transferred to a secure wing at St. Francis Medical Center in Trenton, New Jersey. Although he had asked doctors to make sure they revived him if he developed cardiopulmonary arrest (or risk of heart attack), his then-former wife Barbara had signed a "do not resuscitate" order. A week before his death, the hospital called Barbara to ask if she wished to rescind the instruction, but she declined. Kuklinski died at age 70 on March 5, 2006. At the request of Kuklinski's family, noted forensic pathologist Michael Baden reviewed his autopsy report. Baden confirmed that Kuklinski died of cardiac arrest and had been suffering with heart disease and phlebitis. Michael Shannon played Kuklinski in the 2012 film The Iceman loosely based on Anthony Bruno's book The Iceman: The True Story of a Cold-Blooded Killer. The film was directed by Ariel Vromen and also stars Winona Ryder, Ray Liotta, Stephen Dorff, and Chris Evans. References Further reading External links New Jersey Department of Law & Public Safety - Division of Criminal Justice 1987 Annual Report 1935 births 2006 deaths 20th-century American criminals American gangsters American gangsters of Irish descent American male criminals American murderers American people convicted of murder American people convicted of murdering police officers American people of Polish descent American people who died in prison custody American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment Crime in New Jersey Criminals from New Jersey Mafia hitmen Deaths from vasculitis Gambino crime family Male murderers People convicted of murder by New Jersey People from Dumont, New Jersey People from Jersey City, New Jersey People with antisocial personality disorder People with paranoid personality disorder Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by New Jersey Prisoners who died in New Jersey detention Former Roman Catholics
1253275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogues%20of%20the%20Carmelites	Dialogues of the Carmelites	(Dialogues of the Carmelites) is an opera in three acts, divided into twelve scenes with linking orchestral interludes, with music and libretto by Francis Poulenc, completed in 1956. The composer's second opera, Poulenc wrote the libretto after the work of the same name by Georges Bernanos. The opera tells a fictionalised version of the story of the Martyrs of Compiègne, Carmelite nuns who, in 1794 during the closing days of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution, were guillotined in Paris for refusing to renounce their vocation. The world première of the opera occurred (in Italian translation) on 26 January 1957 at La Scala in Milan. The première of the French-language version took place in Paris on 21 June 1957. The United States première, in English, followed in San Francisco in September 1957. Development Bernanos had been hired in 1947 to write the dialogue for a film screenplay, through Raymond-Léopold Bruckberger and the scenario writer Philippe Agostini, based on the novella (literal translation, The Last on the Scaffold or Song at the Scaffold, the published title of the English translation) by Gertrud von Le Fort. The novella is based on the story of the Martyrs of Compiègne at the monastery of Carmelite nuns in Compiègne, northern France, in the wake of the French Revolution, specifically in 1794 at the time of state seizure of the monastery's assets. It traces a fictional path from 1789 up to these events, when nuns of the Carmelite Order were guillotined. The screenplay was judged unsatisfactory for a film. Bernanos died on 5 July 1948. Subsequently, his literary executor, Albert Béguin, found this manuscript. To assist Bernanos' surviving family, Béguin sought to have the work published, and requested permission from von Le Fort for publication. In January 1949, she agreed, and donated her portion of the royalties due to her, as creator of the original story, over to Bernanos' widow and children. However, von Le Fort requested that the Bernanos work be titled differently from her own novella. Béguin chose Dialogues des Carmélites as the title for the Bernanos work, which was published in 1949. A German translation of the work, (The Blessed Fear), was published in 1951, and Zurich and Munich saw productions of Die begnadete Angst that year. The French stage premiere was by Jacques Hébertot in May 1952 at the Théâtre Hébertot. The genesis of the opera was in 1953. Margarita Wallmann took her husband, president of Ricordi, which was Poulenc's publishing firm, to see the Bernanos play in Vienna. She had asked Poulenc to write an oratorio for her; through the commission from Ricordi, he developed the work as the opera. Wallman was the eventual producer of the La Scala première of Poulenc's opera, and she later supervised the 1983 revival at Covent Garden. About the same time, M. Valcarenghi had approached Poulenc with a commission for a ballet for La Scala in Milan. Separately, Poulenc had seen the Bernanos play, but the suggestion from Ricordi finalised the impetus to adapt the subject as an opera. Poulenc began to adapt the Bernanos text in the spring and summer of 1953, and to compose the music in August 1953. In October 1953, Poulenc learned of a literary rights dispute between Béguin and the American writer Emmet Lavery, who had previously secured all rights to theatrical adaptations of von Le Fort's novel from her in April–May 1949. This was independent of the discussion, concluded in January 1949, between Béguin and von Le Fort. The two-year literary rights dispute between Béguin and Lavery reached arbitration by a jury from La Societé des Auteurs in Paris. On 20 July 1954, this jury ruled unanimously for Lavery, and ordered the Bernanos heirs to pay Lavery 100,000 FF for past contract infringements. In addition, the ruling required the Bernanos heirs to pay Lavery, with respect to all future productions of Dialogues des Carmélites, 15% of the royalties from English-language productions, and 10% from productions in all other languages. Poulenc had curtailed work on his opera in March 1954, in light of his understanding of the Béguin-Lavery dispute. Following the July 1954 decision, separate negotiations occurred between Béguin and Lavery, via his agent Marie Schebeko, on rights and royalties to allow Poulenc to write his opera. The formal agreement was dated 30 March 1955, and acknowledged Bernanos, Lavery, von Le Fort, Bruckberger, and Agostini. The terms stipulated that the Poulenc opera was adapted from Bernanos 'with the authorization of Monsieur Emmet Lavery', with Lavery listed in the credits after Bernanos and before von Le Fort, without any contribution of material by Lavery to the libretto. Poulenc then resumed work on the opera, and completed it October 1955. At this time, Poulenc had recommitted himself to spirituality and Roman Catholicism, although he was openly gay and the church officially opposed homosexuality. Opera critic Alan Rich believes that Poulenc's concerns for the travails of post-World War II France, as it tried to reconcile issues related to the Holocaust, German occupation and the Resistance, was a subtext within the opera. Wallmann worked closely with Poulenc during the composition process and in evolving the structure, as well as later when she re-staged the production in other theatres. The libretto is unusually deep in its psychological study of the contrasting characters of Mother Marie de l'Incarnation and Blanche de la Force. Rodney Milnes describes Bernanos' text as "concise and clear" and that like "all good librettos it suggests far more than it states". Analysis Poulenc set his libretto largely in recitative. His own religious feelings are particularly evident in the a cappella setting of Ave Maria in Act II, Scene II, and the Ave verum corpus in Act II, Scene IV. During the final tableau of the opera, which takes place in the Place de la Nation, the distinct sound of the guillotine's descending blade is heard repeatedly over the orchestra and the singing of the nuns, who are taken one by one, until only Soeur Constance and Blanche de la Force remain. Poulenc acknowledged his debt to Mussorgsky, Monteverdi, Verdi, and Debussy in his dedication of the opera, with the casual remark: "You must forgive my Carmelites. It seems they can only sing tonal music." Music critic Anthony Tommasini has commented on the opera: "Poulenc's subtle and intricate tonal language is by turns hymnal and haunting. Though scored for a large orchestra, the instruments are often used in smaller groups selected for particular effects and colorings. The most distinctive element of the score, though, is its wonderfully natural vocal writing, which captures the rhythms and lyrical flow of the libretto in eloquent music that hardly calls attention to itself yet lingers with you." Opera historian Charles Osborne wrote: "The inexorable dramatic movement of the work is impressive and, in the final scene in which the nuns walk in procession to the guillotine chanting the Salve regina, extremely moving. Poulenc also found an easy and effective style with which to carry forward without monotony the scenes of convent life." Philip Hensher has commented on the unique place of this opera in its depiction of convent life: "...unlike every other opera about nuns, it finds space for a serious discussion about religion and the workings of divine grace that is never saccharine or merely consolatory: how hard it is to be good, how unsure the rewards of virtue." Performance history Poulenc expressed a general wish that the opera be performed in the vernacular of the local audience. Thus the opera was first performed in an Italian translation at La Scala on 26 January 1957, with Romanian soprano Virginia Zeani in the role of Blanche. The original French version premiered on 21 June that year by the Théâtre National de l'Opéra de Paris (the current Opéra National de Paris), where Poulenc had chosen the Paris cast, which included Denise Duval (Blanche de la Force), Régine Crespin (Madame Lidoine), Rita Gorr (Mother Marie), and Liliane Berton (Sister Constance). The United States premiere took place three months later, on 20 September, in English, at San Francisco Opera, which featured the opera stage debut of Leontyne Price (as Madame Lidoine). The opera was first presented in New York City on 3 March 1966, in a staging by New York City Opera. The Metropolitan Opera first staged the opera in 1977, in a production by John Dexter, sung in the English translation of Joseph Machlis. The 1980 revival of this production utilised the original French text. Subsequent performances, until 2013, were generally sung in the English translation. The 2013 revivals of this production used the original French text, with another production undertaken in 2019, included as part of the Live in HD cinema series for that season. The opera is among a comparatively small number of post-Puccini works that has never lost its place in the international repertory. Roles Synopsis Place: Paris and Compiègne, 1789–94 Time: during the French Revolution Act 1 Against the setting of the French Revolution, when crowds stop carriages in the street and aristocrats are attacked, the pathologically timid Blanche de la Force decides to retreat from the world and enter a Carmelite convent. The Mother Superior informs her that the Carmelite Order is not a refuge; it is the duty of the nuns to guard the Order, not the other way around. In the convent, the chatterbox Sister Constance tells Blanche (to her consternation) that she has had a dream that the two of them will die young together. The prioress, who is dying, commits Blanche to the care of Mother Marie. The Mother Superior passes away in great agony, shouting in her delirium that despite her long years of service to God, He has abandoned her. Blanche and Mother Marie, who witness her death, are shaken. Act 2 Sister Constance remarks to Blanche that the prioress' death seemed unworthy of her, and speculates that she had been given the wrong death, as one might be given the wrong coat in a cloakroom. She said that perhaps someone else will find death surprisingly easy. Perhaps we die not for ourselves alone, but for each other. Blanche's brother, the Chevalier de la Force, arrives to announce that their father thinks Blanche should withdraw from the convent, since she is not safe there (being both an aristocrat and the member of a religious community, at a time of anti-aristocracy and anti-clericalism in the rising revolutionary tides). Blanche refuses, saying that she has found happiness in the Carmelite Order. Later she admits to Mother Marie that it is fear (or the fear of fear itself, as the Chevalier expresses it) that keeps her from leaving. The chaplain announces that he has been forbidden to preach (presumably for being a non-juror under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy). The nuns remark on how fear rules the country, and no one has the courage to stand up for the priests. Sister Constance asks, "Are there no men left to come to the aid of the country?" "When priests are lacking, martyrs are superabundant," replies the new Mother Superior. Mother Marie says that the Carmelites can save France by giving their lives, but the Mother Superior corrects her: it is not permitted to choose to become a martyr; God decides who will be martyred. A police officer arrives and announces to the community that the Legislative Assembly has nationalized the convent and its property, and the nuns must give up their religious habits. When Mother Marie acquiesces, the officer taunts her for being eager to dress like everyone else. She replies that the nuns will continue to serve, no matter how they are dressed. "The people have no need of servants," proclaims the officer haughtily. "No, but they have a great need for martyrs," responds Mother Marie. "In times like these, death is nothing," he says. "Life is nothing," she answers, "when it is so debased." Act 3 In the absence of the new prioress, Mother Marie proposes that the nuns take a vow of martyrdom. However, all must agree, or Mother Marie will not insist. A secret vote is held; there is one dissenting voice. Sister Constance declares that she was the dissenter, and that she has changed her mind, so the vow can proceed. Blanche runs away from the convent, and Mother Marie goes to look for her, finding her in her father's library. Her father has been guillotined, and Blanche has been forced to serve her former servants. The nuns are all arrested and condemned to death, but Mother Marie is away at the time of the arrest. Upon receiving the news, the chaplain tells Mother Marie, when they meet again, that since God has chosen to spare her, she cannot voluntarily become a martyr by joining the others in prison. At the place of execution, one nun after another stands and slowly processes toward the guillotine, as all sing the "Salve Regina" ("Hail, Holy Queen"). At the last moment, Blanche appears, to Constance's joy, to join her condemned sisters. Having seen all the other nuns executed, as she mounts the scaffold, Blanche sings the final stanza of the "Veni Creator Spiritus," "Deo Patri sit gloria...", the Catholic hymn traditionally used when taking vows in a religious community and offering one's life to God. Recordings Audio Denise Duval, Régine Crespin, Denise Scharley, Liliane Berton, Rita Gorr, Xavier Depraz, Paul Finel, Michel Forel, Louis Rialland, Janine Fourrier, Gisele Desmoutiers, et al.; Orchestra and Chorus of the Opéra National de Paris; Pierre Dervaux, conductor (HMV/EMI/Warner Classics) Catherine Dubosc, Michel Sénéchal, François le Roux, Rita Gorr, José van Dam, Rachel Yakar, Martine Dupuy, et al.; Orchestra and Chorus of the Opéra de Lyon; Kent Nagano, conductor (Virgin Classics) Catrin Wyn-Davies, Ashley Holland, Peter Wedd, Gary Coward, Felicity Palmer, Josephine Barstow, Orla Boylan, Sarah Tynan, Jane Powell, Anne Marie Gibbons, Ryland Davies, William Berger, James Edwards, Roland Wood, Toby Stafford-Allen, David Stephenson; Orchestra and Chorus of English National Opera; Paul Daniel, conductor (Chandos, titled The Carmelites, sung in English) Sally Matthews, Deborah Polaski, Heidi Brunner, Michelle Breedt, Hendricke van Kerckhove, Yann Beuron, Magdalena Anna Hoffmann, Christa Ratzenböck, Jürgen Sacher, et al.; Vienna Radio Symphony Orchestra and Arnold Schoenberg Choir; Bertrand de Billy, conductor (Oehms Classics) Leyla Gencer, Virginia Zeani, Gianna Pederzini, Gigliola Frazzoni, Scipio Colombo, Nicola Filacuridi, Eugenia Ratti, Vittoria Palombini, et al.; Orchestra and Chorus of the Teatro alla Scala di Milano; Nino Sanzogno, conductor (1957 world premiere recording in italian translation) (Cantus CACD 5.01066 F (2CDs) Video Isobel Buchanan, Heather Begg, Joan Sutherland, Lone Koppel, Anne-Marie McDonald, Richard Greager, Paul Ferris, Geoffrey Chard, et al.; Chorus and Orchestra of Opera Australia; Richard Bonynge, conductor; Elijah Moshinsky, director (Kultur, 1984, sung in English) Maria Ewing, Jessye Norman, Betsy Norden, Régine Crespin, and Florence Quivar; Manuel Rosenthal, conductor; John Dexter, director; Metropolitan Opera (1987) Anne-Sophie Schmidt, Patricia Petibon, Nadine Denize, Laurence Dale, et al.; Chorus of the Opera National du Rhin and the Orchestre Philharmonique de Strasbourg; Jan Latham-Koenig, conductor; Marthe Keller, director (Arthaus, 1998) Dagmar Schellenberger, Anja Silja, Barbara Dever, Laura Aikin, Gwynne Geyer, Gordon Gietz, Christopher Robertson, Mario Bolognesi, et al., Chorus and Orchestra of La Scala, Milan; Riccardo Muti, conductor; Robert Carsen, director (TDK, 2007) Alexia Voulgaridou, Kathryn Harries, Anne Schwanewilms, Gabriele Schnaut, Jana Büchner, Nikolai Schlkoff, Wolfgang Schöne, et al.; Hamburg Philharmonic and Chorus of the Hamburg State Opera; Simone Young, conductor; Nikolaus Lehnhoff, director (Arthaus, 2010) Susan Gritton, Sylvie Brunet, Soile Isokoski, Susanne Resmark, Hélène Guilmette, Bernard Richter, Alain Vernhes, et al., Bavarians State Orchestra and Chorus; Kent Nagano, conductor; Dmitri Tcherniakov, director (Bel Air Classiques, 2011) Véronique Gens, Sophie Koch, Sandrine Piau, Patricia Petibon, Rosalind Plowright, Topi Lehtipuu, et al.; Philharmonia Orchestra and Chorus of the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées; Jérémie Rhorer, conductor; Olivier Py, director (Erato, 2014) References Notes Sources Hell, Henri, Les Dialogues des Carmélites, liner notes to the recording on EMI compact disc no. 7493312. Poulenc, Francis, The Dialogues of the Carmelites – Libretto, original text and English Translation. Ricordi and Belwin Mills Publishing Corp., Melville, NY. 1957, 1959. External links "Synopsis: Dialogues des Carmélites" at metopera.org San Francisco Opera archive page on 1957 US premiere performances of the opera Operas by Francis Poulenc French-language operas 1957 operas Operas Carmelite spirituality Operas set in the French Revolution Opera world premieres at La Scala
1261542	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les%20Mis%C3%A9rables%20%281995%20film%29	Les Misérables (1995 film)	Les Misérables is a 1995 film written, produced and directed by Claude Lelouch. Set in France during the first half of the 20th century, the film concerns a poor and illiterate man named Henri Fortin (Jean-Paul Belmondo) who is introduced to Victor Hugo's classic 1862 novel Les Misérables and begins to see parallels to his own life. The film won the 1995 Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Plot As the film opens, Henri's father, a chauffeur also named Henri, is falsely accused of having murdered his boss. During his trial and imprisonment, Henri's mother finds a job in a tavern on a Normandy beach. There Henri sees a film adaptation of Les Misérables. His father dies attempting to escape from prison, and upon hearing the news Henri's mother commits suicide. Henri grows up an orphan and learns boxing. The film next takes up the story of Elisa, a ballerina, and André Ziman, a young Jewish journalist and law student. They meet following a performance of a ballet based on Les Misérables. Later, during World War II, André and Elisa, now married, and their daughter Salomé attempt to cross the Swiss border to escape the Nazis. They encounter Henri, who owns a moving company, and they discuss the Hugo novel. The Zimans entrust Salomé to Henri and enroll her in a Catholic convent school. André and Elisa are ambushed while trying to cross the frontier. Elisa is arrested and André wounded. Farmers who find him give him shelter. Henri and the members of a local gang join the French Resistance, but the gang members take advantage of their anti-Nazi attacks to steal from local houses. Elisa and other women are forced to entertain the Nazi occupiers. She is sent to a concentration camp for being defiant. After staging an attack on a train transporting funds for the Vichy government, Henri and his mates travel to Normandy to visit the tavern where he lived as a child. The D-Day invasion is launched the next day and Henri supports the Allied forces when they conquer the beach. In the process he saves the life of the tavern owner's son Marius. At the war's end, Henri accepts an offer to run a seaside camp in Normandy. There he receives a letter from Salomé, who has no way of contacting her family. He takes her with him to the resort, which he names Chez Jean Valjean. Elisa, having survived a Nazi concentration camp in German-occupied Poland, joins them later. A former Vichy police agent accuses Henri of abetting the gang's activities during the war and of robbing and burning a train. He is imprisoned to await trial. Meanwhile André's one-time rescuer is holding him captive, hoping to live off his bank account. The farmer has told André that the American D-Day invasion failed and the Nazis now rule the world. With evident reluctance, the farmer's wife supports her husband in these lies until he attempts to poison André. Then she shoots her husband before he can feed André the poisoned soup. As she checks to see if her husband is dead, he grabs her and chokes her to death. André escapes from his cellar prison on a bad leg and emerges to find the farmer couple dead and a liberated Europe. He rejoins his wife and daughter at Chez Jean Valjean and then represents Henri at his trial and wins his acquittal. As the film ends, Henri, now the mayor, presides at the civil marriage of Salomé and Marius in the presence of André and Elisa and the mother superior of the school that sheltered Salomé. André Ziman quotes Victor Hugo: "The best of our lives is yet to come." Cast Jean-Paul Belmondo as Leopold/Henri Fortin/Henri's father (also named Henri Fortin) Michel Boujenah as André Ziman Alessandra Martines as Elisa Ziman Salomé Lelouch as Salomé Ziman, child Margot Abascal as Salomé Ziman, adult Annie Girardot as Madame Thénardier Philippe Léotard as Thénardier Clémentine Célarié as Catherine Philippe Khorsand as Policeman Ticky Holgado as Nice Street Urchin William Leymergie as Toureiffel Jean Marais as Msgr. Myriel Micheline Presle as Mother Superior Sylvie Joly as the Innkeeper Daniel Toscan du Plantier as Count de Villeneuve Michaël Cohen as Marius Jacques Boudet as Doctor Robert Hossein as Ceremony Master Darry Cowl as Bookseller Antoine Duléry as Crazy Street Urchin Jacques Gamblin as Church Attendant Joseph Malerba as The pumpman Pierre Vernier as Prison Director Nicolas Vogel as Le général de Verdun In the film within the film Jean-Paul Belmondo as Jean Valjean Rufus as Monsieur Thénardier Nicole Croisille as Mme. Thénardier Clémentine Célarié as Fantine Philippe Khorsand as Javert Reception The film opened at number one at the French box office with a gross of 8,510,740 Francs ($1.7 million) for the week. The film received positive reviews from critics with a score of 80% on Rotten Tomatoes. Roger Ebert wrote he liked this film's "expansive freedom and (the) energy of its storytelling". The Los Angeles Times called it "a spectacular-looking film" that "eventually becomes needlessly drawn-out", and added: "the cast is staunch...but Belmondo...easily walks away with the picture." Variety said it was the "mightiest of Lelouch’s humanist hymns", and Belmondo "gives one of the finest perfs of his career". Janet Maslin, who reviewed the film for The New York Times, meanwhile complained about "odd variations on Hugo's themes." Accolades The film won the 1995 Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and Annie Girardot won the 1996 César Award for Best Supporting Actress. See also Adaptations of Les Misérables References External links Les Miserables at Le Film Guide Les Misérables (1995) at Films de France 1995 films Films based on Les Misérables French films World War II films Films directed by Claude Lelouch Films scored by Michel Legrand Films scored by Francis Lai Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe winners
1279357	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Geragos	Mark Geragos	Mark John Geragos (born October 5, 1957) is an American criminal defense lawyer and the managing partner of Geragos & Geragos, in Los Angeles. Early life and education Geragos was born in Los Angeles, California, where he attended Flintridge Preparatory School in La Cañada, graduating with honors. He earned his bachelor's degree from Haverford College, in 1979, double-majoring in anthropology and sociology, then his Juris Doctor (J.D.) from Loyola Law School at the Loyola Marymount University in 1982. He was admitted to the State Bar of California in 1983. An Armenian-American, Geragos maintains a close relationship with the Armenian community. He has earned praise from the Armenian National Committee of America, and serves on the Advisory Committee of Birthright Armenia, as the chairman of Armenian Bone Marrow Donor Registry, and also is involved with the Armenian religious community. He has been a member of the Armenia Fund International Board of Trustees since 2006. Career Geragos is the managing partner for the law firm of Geragos & Geragos, where he oversees criminal defense and civil litigation. He was one of the lead lawyers in two groundbreaking federal class action lawsuits against New York Life Insurance and AXA, for insurance policies issued in the early 20th century during the time of the Armenian genocide of more than 1.5 million Armenians. The two cases settled for over $37.5 million, in 2004 and 2005. In 2009, a lawsuit against three German insurance companies was rejected by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, on the basis that the U.S. government does not legally recognize the Armenian Genocide. Office The firm's office is located on Figueroa Street in Downtown Los Angeles in a former Los Angeles Fire Department fire station, Engine Company No. 28, alongside Kabateck LLP. The 1912 building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Los Angeles and is jointly owned by Geragos and his investment partner, attorney Brian S. Kabateck, since 2007, among other joint acquisitions; the partners have litigated together and also, in recent years, against one another over their mutual investments. Notable clients Geragos first garnered national attention after representing convicted Whitewater figure Susan McDougal, the former business partner of former President Bill Clinton. Geragos secured a presidential pardon for McDougal on January 20, 2001. Geragos also represented McDougal in a 12-count embezzlement trial in Los Angeles in which the jury returned a not-guilty verdict. He has since represented many notable clients, including Gary Condit; suspended NASCAR driver Jeremy Mayfield; Scott Peterson, who was later sentenced to death; Peterson, in the summer of 2020 asked the California Supreme Court to overturn his murder conviction and death sentence stating that he was denied a fair trial because of massive publicity and a slew of legal errors made at trial. Scott Barney; Roger Clinton Jr.; Lee Tamahori; Kesha, briefly, in her lawsuit against Dr. Luke, until May 2016; Clare Bronfman; and, as of 2019, Colin Kaepernick. Other notable clients include: Winona Ryder – In December 2002, Geragos defended Academy Award-nominated actress Winona Ryder on charges of stealing more than $5,500 worth of merchandise from a Beverly Hills, California store in 2001. With the help from Geragos, she was sentenced only to three years' probation and ordered to undergo psychological and drug counseling. Michael Jackson – In the early stages of the Michael Jackson molestation case, Geragos simultaneously handled this case and the Scott Peterson's case, two of the best-known U.S. trials at that time. Geragos's "crushingly busy calendar" in the courtroom earned him a rebuke by a judge in an embezzlement case Geragos was also representing. On April 26, 2004, Jackson removed Geragos as his attorney, replacing him with Thomas Mesereau. In a public statement provided by his spokesperson, Raymone Bain, Jackson said, "It is imperative that I have the full attention of those who are representing me. My life is at stake..." suggesting that Geragos may not have had enough time to handle his case because of his workload. Geragos later said that he was dismayed to see Jackson climb atop an SUV to the cheers of his fans after leaving the Santa Barbara County, California courthouse in January 2004, when he was first arraigned on the initial complaint. Geragos's co-counsel, Benjamin Brafman, also expressed disapproval of Jackson's actions. "Although [in January] the lawyers explained the behavior as 'Michael being Michael'," The New York Times reported, "they are said to have privately expressed consternation at the display of frivolity in the face of serious charges." Roger Clinton Jr. – Geragos won dismissal of all alcohol-related charges against former President Clinton's brother. Carradine family – He assisted the family of actor David Carradine in the aftermath of his accidental death. Geragos had previously represented a class of plaintiffs that had included actor Keith Carradine, his spouse, actress , attorney Stephen Kolodny, and designer Donna Dubrow in a class-action lawsuit related to private investigator Anthony Pellicano's illegal wiretapping conspiracy and subsequent conviction. Greg Anderson – In 2006, Geragos represented Anderson, who was most notably the personal trainer of Barry Bonds. On July 5, 2006, Anderson was found in contempt of court by U.S. District Judge William Alsup, who jailed Anderson for refusing to testify before a federal grand jury investigating perjury accusations against Bonds. Geragos announced that he would file an appeal based on his assertion that the subpoena to testify violated Anderson's July 2005 plea bargain agreement in the Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative case. Anderson was to be held until he agreed to testify or until the grand jury's term expired. Geragos insisted that his client would not testify. The grand jury expired on July 20, 2006, and Anderson was released from prison two weeks later. On August 28, 2006, Anderson was again found in contempt of court for refusing to testify before a newly convened grand jury and sentenced to prison. Anderson was freed on October 5, 2006 after an order from the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that the trial judge had committed legal errors. Anderson was later sent back to jail on November 16, 2006. Cameron Brown – Geragos was the attorney for Brown, who was charged with murdering his four-year-old daughter by throwing her off a Rancho Palos Verdes cliff. The twelve-week trial ended in August 2006 without a verdict. The jury deliberated for over nine days but was hopelessly deadlocked and a mistrial was declared by Judge Mark Arnold of the Torrance Superior Court. The case was retried in the fall of 2009 by Pat Harris, an associate at Geragos's firm. The second trial also ended with a hung jury. A third trial saw him convicted. After the second trial resulted in a hung jury, Geragos and his firm turned the case over to attorney Herbert Barrish. While Geragos typically never leaves a client after a hung jury, he and his firm had to leave the case due to economic hardships. Victor Willis – In September 2006, Geragos represented the Village People front man on charges of drug and weapons possession. Facing jail time, Geragos successfully negotiated a sentence of three years probation and treatment for drug addiction at the Betty Ford Clinic. Amphit Dhaliwal and Kulbir Dhaliwal – In December 2007, the two survivors of the tiger attack at the San Francisco Zoo, hired Geragos to represent them against potential criminal charges, and also with the anticipation of filing a lawsuit against the zoo. Despite pressure from city officials, the local police inspector made it clear that there were no grounds for filing criminal charges against the Dhaliwal brothers related to the tiger attack. Geragos filed a federal suit against the Zoo and the City of San Francisco for violation of the Dhaliwal brothers' civil rights, including the Dhaliwals' being subject to search and seizure without probable cause, and for intentional infliction of emotional distress. Geragos settled the civil suit in the early phase of the court process for $900,000. Kazuyoshi Miura – In 2008, Geragos joined the defense of Japanese businessman Miura, who committed suicide before his trial. Chris Brown – Geragos represented Brown, who pleaded guilty to the assault of his then-girlfriend, Rihanna. On February 8, 2009, Geragos brought Chris Brown to surrender to the LAPD. Later, Brown was arrested, and his court date was set to be on March 5, 2009. Geragos and Brown attended the court date, but did not plea and asked for arraignment until the next court date, April 6, 2009. On June 22, 2009, Brown pleaded guilty to one count of felony assault and was sentenced to 5 years' probation and 6 months' community service. However, Brown’s inability to adhere to the rules of his probation ultimately led to his dismissal from rehab and the singer was thrown in jail from March 2014 to June of that year. Under counsel from Geragos, Brown was once again released under probation. Early in 2015, Brown's probation was revoked after he was present in two nightclubs where shootings took place. His probation officer had a problem with the singer traveling to San Jose, to perform at the nightclub where an incident occurred leaving five people shot and injured. Brown was aware his probation could end with the hearing, and before entering the courthouse, he tweeted: "Hopefully this is my last day in court … Pray for me." However, at Brown’s scheduled March 20 court date, with the help of Geragos, Brown’s probation officer reversed course, saying in a positive review that Brown had completed his community service sentence. Los Angeles Superior Court Judge James R. Brandlin concurred, ruling the singer would no longer be under the watchful eye of the judicial system. Geragos said this of his client, “He is in a spot right now and a place right now that I couldn’t be prouder of him,” adding that the end of Brown’s probation is “a monumental feat for him.” Colin Kaepernick – Former 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick first filed a grievance against the NFL in October 2017, claiming that the NFL tried to keep him from playing after he chose to kneel during the national anthem. The quarterback opted out of his contract with the 49ers in March of the same year and was not picked up later in free agency. Kaepernick began kneeling during the 2016 season to protest racial inequality and police brutality. Safety Eric Reid and several other NFL players eventually joined him. Reid, a former teammate of Kaepernick's, was also a member of the grievance Kaepernick filed. After several months of ongoing dialogue with representatives of the NFL, both Kaepernick and Reid withdrew their collusion cases against the National Football League. On February 15, both Geragos and co-counsel Ben Meiselas released a joint statement with the NFL, declaring the resolution of the matter was subject to a confidentiality agreement. Jussie Smollett – Geragos represented Smollett in the 2019 alleged false police report. On March 12, 2019, it was reported that Chicago prosecutors had dropped all 16 criminal charges against EMPIRE star Jussie Smollett as part of a deferred prosecution agreement against him. As part of the conditions of the deal, Smollett did 16 hours of community service and forfeited his $10,000 bond to the city. Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel announced he wanted Jussie Smollett to cover the cost of the Chicago police department’s investigation, which amounted to $130,000. Smollett’s attorneys responded in a statement via NBC News that "Jussie has paid enough". Geragos and his firm also filed a motion to seal the case, which was granted by a judge. On April 23, 2019, Geragos was sued, along with Tina Glandian (another member of Smollett's legal team), under claims of defamation and false light by the Osundairo brothers (originally arrested in connection with an alleged attack on the actor). However, a defamatory quote the Osundairos attributed to Glandian and Geragos in their lawsuit was in fact, said by their own attorney, Gloria Schmidt. The Osundairo brothers also paraphrased statements they claimed Geragos said on the Reasonable Doubt podcast (which Geragos co-hosts with comic Adam Carolla), alleging Geragos dragged their reps through the mud by indicating the brothers had attacked Smollett, committed perjury and conspired to make false statements to clear their names. Geragos submitted transcripts of his podcast during the time of the criminal legal proceedings, noting he never said the brothers' names, nor did he say or indicate what they attributed to him. The case was dismissed by the judge. Partridge v. Benton – In March 2018, Chief U.S. District Judge Brian Miller granted the city of Benton, Arkansas a motion to dismiss a lawsuit that Keagan Schweikle's parents, Piper Partridge and Dominic Schweikle, had filed against the city’s officer, Kyle Ellison, and its police chief at the time, Kirk Lane. However, on July 3, 2019, a federal appeals court reinstated a lawsuit filed in 2017 against Benton police by the parents of the suicidal 17-year-old boy (Keagan) who was shot and killed while complying with an officer's order (Kyle Ellison) to move a gun away from his head. Filed by Geragos and Little Rock attorney Rick Holiman, the lawsuit alleged that Ellison used excessive force when he fired three shots at Schweikle as he stood on a bank facing the river and holding a gun in his right hand after threatening to shoot himself. Miller said that after Ellison ordered Schweikle to drop the gun and the boy moved it away from his head, the intention behind his actions was ambiguous, leaving the officer little choice but to shoot. Miller noted, "Keagan could have quickly pointed the gun at Ellison and opened fire almost instantaneously ... Ellison had a right to protect himself". A three-judge panel of the 8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in St. Louis said Miller ruled on the matter too early in the process. And Holiman and Geragos argued the case. When Schweikle's parents were told the lawsuit was moving forward again, the parents broke down in tears. Holiman added, "We think it's the right decision". Scottie Pippen – In February 2014, Scottie Pippen hired Geragos to file a countersuit against a Malibu man who alleged the former NBA All-Star assaulted him at a restaurant last year. Camran Shafighi filed a $4 million lawsuit against Pippen, accusing him of a “brutal and unjustified physical attack" that allegedly occurred outside upscale Nobu restaurant after Shafighi had sought a picture with the former Chicago Bull. In the cross-complaint filed by Geragos earlier in February, alleged Shafighi cursed at Pippen using racial slurs, spat on him and his children and said, "I’m going to kill you". The cross-complaint also alleged that Shafighi was “extremely aggressive and noticeably intoxicated” and calls for unspecified damages "according to proof". Keagan Schweikle – In 2019, an 8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals reversed a lower court finding that a Benton police officer Kyle Ellison had acted reasonably when he fatally shot a suicidal teen, Keagan Schweikle, in October 2016. In March 2018, Chief U.S. District Judge Brian Miller granted the city's motion to dismiss the lawsuit that Keagan Schweikle's parents, Piper Partridge and Dominic Schweikle, had filed against the city, officer Kyle Ellison and its police chief at the time, Kirk Lane. Filed by Geragos and Little Rock attorney Rick Holiman, the lawsuit alleged that Ellison used excessive force when he fired three shots at Schweikle as he stood on a bank facing the river and holding a gun in his right hand after threatening to shoot himself. A panel of federal judges has restored the lawsuit over the officer-involved shooting death of 17-year-old Keagan Schweikle of Benton. In 2014, Aron Petrosian was driving his Chevrolet Camaro at and crashed into another vehicle in Hacienda Heights, CA, killing Alicia Rosales and severely injuring her 10 and 13 year old sons. Despite being 17, Petrosian was charged in adult criminal court. In August 2020, a Los Angeles Superior Court Judge reversed and remanded his sentence. Represented by Geragos, Cliff Gardner, and Daniel Buffington, after winning the murder case in 2018, he will be re-sentenced for vehicular manslaughter and reckless driving. Jorge Ramirez – Geragos took on this case in Bakersfield, California in 2014. Jorge Ramirez, a 34-year-old man, was working closely with the Bakersfield Police Department as an informant, when he was shot multiple times by officers on September 16 outside the Four Points Sheraton Hotel. Ramirez was unarmed. The fugitive Ramirez was with, Justin Bryan Harger, 32, was also killed after officers confronted them. According to police, Harger first began firing at officers, with one bullet grazing the head of Officer Daniel Brewer, who was hospitalized but released a few hours later. Ramirez’s family and Gergos filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the city of Bakersfield. Travelers Insurance – Mark Geragos and his law firm—along with multiple clients—are suing Travelers Insurance for initially denying coverage of their pandemic-related claims. The firm says that while it's technically an essential business and not subject to a mandated shutdown, access to its downtown L.A. office has been "greatly limited" and the company has "been forced to deal with a substantial loss in business traffic and client/law-related business activities". Alleged involvement in Nike extortion case Geragos was alleged to have participated in a scheme with attorney Michael Avenatti to extort Nike, but was not charged. At the sentencing hearing, lawyers for Avenatti questioned why Geragos had not been charged. The judge's rationale for reducing Avenatti's sentence was that Geragos was “a central figure in the criminal conduct,” but "suffered no consequences as a result", and "was not even charged.” In November 2019, according to a new indictment filed in Manhattan federal court, conspiracy charges against Michael Avenatti were dropped. The new indictment filed also appears to clear Mark Geragos. Media appearances Geragos occasionally appears as both guest and family members legal commentator on TV. He has appeared on the Today show, Good Morning America, 60 Minutes, Anderson Cooper 360°, On the Record w/ Greta Van Susteren, and has appeared a number of times on Larry King Live, including its 20th-anniversary show. Geragos was employed by CNN in a contributor role until March 25, 2019, when he was reportedly implicated in an alleged scheme with attorney Michael Avenatti to extort more than $20 million from Nike, Inc. In addition to his former role as contributor on CNN, Mark Geragos and Sunny Hostin hosted a 2014 legal program entitled Making the Case. Geragos has made multiple appearances on the Adam Carolla Show since 2013, usually giving commentary on whatever is the top legal issue in pop culture. He guest-hosted for Carolla in April 2014 while Carolla was shooting his independent feature film Road Hard. Geragos filled in for Dr. Drew Pinsky and co-hosted with Carolla in March 2015 on The Adam and Dr. Drew Show, another podcast that airs on Carolla's Carolla Digital Network. In June 2015, it was announced that Geragos would co-host a podcast with Carolla that would be a part of Carolla Digital. The show is called Reasonable Doubt and features Carolla and Geragos discussing issues in society including the law, from Geragos's viewpoint as a civil and criminal defense attorney. The show debuted on July 25, 2015, and new episodes debut every Saturday. Geragos was an executive producer for the 2016 ABC network television series Notorious, which was inspired by the working relationship between Geragos and Larry King Live producer Wendy Walker. The show was cancelled after one season. Awards 1999 – Trial Lawyer of the Year by the Los Angeles Criminal Courts Bar Association 1999 – Jerry Giesler Memorial Award for Trial Skills, Judgement & Dedication 2001 – Humanitarian of the Year by the Mexican American Grocers Association 2004 – Professional of the Year by the Armenian Professional Society 2005 – Consumer Attorney of the Year by the Consumer Attorneys of California 2006 – Attorney of the Year by the California Lawyer magazine See also History of the Armenian Americans in Los Angeles References External links Geragos & Geragos firm website 1957 births Living people Lawyers from Los Angeles American people of Armenian descent Haverford College alumni Loyola Law School alumni Criminal defense lawyers
1289700	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleland%2C%20North%20Lanarkshire	Cleland, North Lanarkshire	Cleland is a village near Motherwell and Wishaw in North Lanarkshire, Scotland. As of 2018, it has a population of about 3,000. The village has a strong coal mining heritage, and is a typical example of a working class village in North Lanarkshire and the Glasgow area. Due to its location, despite being at the heart of North Lanarkshire, the village is isolated, geographically and culturally, from surrounding towns such as Motherwell, Shotts and Wishaw. Geography The village is about 30 miles from Edinburgh and 16 miles from Glasgow by train. Geographically, the village of Cleland is roughly bounded by the junction of Cleland Road and Chapleknowe road (B7029) to the west, the junction of Biggar Road and the B7033 Newhouse to the North, the junction of Bellside Road and Carlisle Road (A73) to the East and the junction of Swinstie road and Wishaw high road to the south. Present The modern village consists of three main areas: Centre Parkside: hill area located next to the main area of Cleland. Windyedge is a new housing scheme in Parkside Bellside: from Cleland railway station out towards A73 dual carriageway. New housing developments include Captain's Walk and Bellside Brae Both the Glen Noble and the Calder Mains area more recent housing developments adjacent to the Main Street. Cleland falls under Murdostoun Community Policing Team. The centre of Cleland has a collection of retail shops, presently including branches of Londis and Scotmid. There is also a butcher, barbers and take aways and there is also a library. There are three churches, Saint Mary's Roman Catholic, the Church of Scotland, and Cleland Baptist Church. Kelly's bar is the home of local supporters of Celtic, and there is a further public house in Bellside. Schools Cleland is served by two primary schools. St. Mary's is the larger of the two schools with a roll of around 140 (excluding nursery), compared with Cleland Primary's roll of around 90. St Mary's Primary School also includes the nursery which is non-denominational. The two secondary schools which serve the community are Taylor High School in New Stevenston, and Coltness High School near Wishaw. Transport Cleland is situated in close proximity to the M8 motorway, offering road connections to Glasgow and Edinburgh, between and beyond. It is from the M74 motorway, offering road connections to England and the M6 motorway. Cleland railway station is situated on Bellside Road and is a stop on the Glasgow - Edinburgh via Shotts Line. It is around a 30-minute journey to Glasgow and an hour to Edinburgh. The trains run every day with a limited service on Sundays. Several bus services operate into Glasgow, Wishaw, Motherwell and the surrounding areas. Governance Cleland is in the Scottish parliamentary constituency of Motherwell and Wishaw, in the Scottish Parliament Region of Central Scotland. The current Member of the Scottish Parliament is Clare Adamson of the Scottish National Party. Cleland's is also in the UK Parliament constituency of Motherwell and Wishaw, and is represented by Marion Fellows of the Scottish National Party. Cleland falls under Ward 20 Murdostoun of North Lanarkshire Council. The current representation is 2 Labour, 1 SNP and 1 Independent. History The first Cleland on record is Alexander Cleland of that Ilk who married a cousin of Sir William Wallace. Their son, James Cleland joined William Wallace in battle in 1296 at Loudonhill; at Stirling in 1297; Falkirk in 1298; Glasgow in 1300; and in France in 1301. James Cleland and his son John Cleland fought at Bannockburn in 1314. For his loyalty and good service, Robert the Bruce gave James Cleland the lands of Calder-clere, now East Calder. The Cleland line later extends down to James Cleland, son of William Cleland of that Ilk. James married a daughter of Lord Somerville in 1450, and their line branches out to be the Clelands of Faskin, Monkland and Gartness. The Cleland family lands were therefore a number of areas which included the present day Cleland village. There was no defined village of Cleland as it is known today. Rather there was a Cleland House where the Cleland family lived, and the land where present day Cleland stands was part of the Cleland family's estate. In 1596 Timothy Pont produced a map of Scotland, showing what is now Lanarkshire, with the places of Kneelandtou and Kneelandtounhead. Kneeland is an archaic alternative name for the Cleland family surname. Over time, Kneeland would eventually become Cleland (and Cleland used to be pronounced as Clee-land in the same way as Knee-land). The united Presbytery of Hamilton and Lanarkshire had its first meeting at Cleland on 6 September 1687. In 1702 Alexander Cleland of Cleland found himself in debt and sold the Cleland Estate to William and Archibald Hamilton, who in turn sold to Gavin Hamilton of Inverdovat in 1711. The link between the Cleland families and the Cleland lands was therefore broken. The sale of the Estate was described as follows: General Roy's military map of 1755 shows Cleland. By 1763 the first colliery in what is present day Cleland was in operation at Swinstie, and three years later Alexander Inglis Hamilton of Murdostoun sells Cleland Estate to Captain Hew Dalrymple of Fordal. In 1789 Colonel William Dalrymple (the second son of Sir William Dalrymple, third baronet of Cousland, and the nephew of Captain Hew Dalrymple), distinguishes himself by helping to capture both the Fort of San Fernando de Omoa and the port town of Omoa, in Honduras, Central America. On returning to civilian life Colonel Dalrymple established the Omoa Iron Works on Cleland estate. At first there was only one furnace at Omoa, employing about 40 miners, 40 smelters and other workmen, and 12 horses. The furnace consumed nine tons of calcined ironstone per day, with casts every eighteen hours, yielding about two tons of pig-iron each cast. Omoa claimed to be the second oldest iron works in Scotland (after Wilsontown). The Omoa Waggonway was opened in 1813 from Newarthill collieries to Omoa Iron Works by Colonel Dalrymple. The Omoa Works initially prospered enough to create the new community of Omoa Town. The procurement of ironstone for the Iron Works was reported as follows: Omoa Works changed proprietors several times, the last being to Robert Stewart, Esq., of Murdoston. Stewart reconstructed the works, and acquired a lease to an extensive mineral field, which was found to contain an excellent seam of blackband ironstone, he in the course of a few years acquired a considerable fortune, to which after years of great success were to make great additions. He became a member of Glasgow Town Council in 1842, becoming Lord Provost, 1848–1854, and drove the initiative to supply Glasgow with a freshwater supply from Loch Katrine. In 1856 Mr. Stewart acquired from Mr. Baillie Cochrane, now Lord Lamington, at a cost of £55,000, the estate of Murdostoun, situated in the parish of Shotts, and immediately began to improve it upon an extensive scale. The Omoa Works suffered a downturn through a slump in trade following the outbreak of Civil War in America in 1861. Two years after the death of Robert Stewart in 1866, operations ceased, with the furnaces eventually becoming ruins. Collieries around the present village included Knowenoble, Greenhill, Windyedge, and Spindleside, extracting thick-bedded coals and black-band ironstone The Coltness Iron Company was established in Newmains by Henry Houldsworth in 1837. It was estimated that the site at Newmains could produce 18,000 tons of coal and 1,000 tons of ironstone per acre. Henry Houldsworth had no difficulty, therefore, in attracting experienced labour from the iron works of Yorkshire as well as from Omoa and Wilsontown in Lanarkshire. The Iron Company, needing coal, was also aware of the coal mines in Ireland. When coal was being mined in Shotts, Cleland and the surrounding areas, the Iron Company sent representatives over to Ireland to hire miners for the Scottish mines. This is a primary reason why so many Irish families came to the area. Many came from County Donegal, and the Castlecomer coal fields in what is now north County Kilkenny and south County Laois. The population of Omoa and Cleland was recorded as 1,233 in 1861: Cleland had 190 males and 175 females; Omoa had 509 males and 359 females. In 1869 the Omoa and Midcalder Line (Caledonian Railway) was opened. The Omoa and Midcalder Line (Caledonian Railway) to Addiewell followed in 1882. Cleland was served with two railway stations. The first was Omoa Station (across from what is now Cleland Hospital), and the second was Cleland Station (behind what is now Cleland Cross). After Cleland Station was closed, Omoa Station was then renamed Cleland Station.A list of mines under Holytown in this year includes Cleland Collieries owned by Wm. Dixon, Monkland Iron Co., Trustees of late Robert Stewart; Wyndedge owned by Robert Dick. The Omoa Fireclay Works, a brickworks, opened in 1870. In 1871 the population of Cleland and Omoa had fallen to 819, but by 1881 it was 1,626. The Cleland and Omoa Public School opened in 1876, and in 1877 St Mary's Roman Catholic Church, a Free Church, and a Chapel of Ease were all established. In 1885 the Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland recorded: As the Gazetteer suggests, Omoa and Cleland were separate villages, and parts of Omoa and Cleland villages came under the District of West Shotts, and the remainder came under the District of Bothwell. However, both were within the Parish of Cleland. Further industrial ventures included the Omoa Greenhill Works brickworks (1889-1915), and the Cleland Pottery (1895–1911), the latter across the small gorge from Lithgow Drive. An inspection report for 1896 records the following coal mines in Cleland and Omoa: Beggarford, Omoa owned by Robert Young's Trustees, Greenhill, by Holytown; Brownhill, Cleland owned by Barr and Higgins, 75, Bothwell St., Glasgow; Greenhill, Omoa owned by Robert Young's Trustees, Greenhill, by Holytown; Hareshaw, Omoa owned by Hareshaw Coal Co., Cleland; Knownoble, Cleland owned by Kerr and Mitchell, Glencleland, Wishaw; Knownoblehill, Cleland owned by Robert Dick, Cleland; Murdostoun, Cleland owned by John McAndrew and Co., Cleland; and Sunnyside, Cleland owned by Coltness Iron Co. Ltd., Newmains. Cleland Poorhouse opened in 1905. Cleland streets were named and houses numbered in 1906. When built, Lithgow Drive was named after Dr Lithgow, and Gibb Street was named after the mid-wife Mrs Gibb, who both served Omoa and Cleland. The Annual Report of the County & District Medical Officer for Lanarkshire, 1910, describes Omoa Square: "The Housing Condition of Miners" Report by the Medical Officer of Health, Dr John T. Wilson, 1910, summarises the Square as: {{quote\|Originally built by Omoa Iron and Coal Co, but now privately owned. The houses are occupied by miners employed at Cleland, Howmuir, Westwood, Murdostoun and quarrymen employed at Auchinlea – 114 houses of one apartment, rental, £5 4s. and £6 10s; and 24 houses of two-apartments, rental £7 16s and £10 8s – one story, brick – erected about 70 years ago – no damp - roof course – plastered on solid – brick floors, some floors cement – internal surfaces of walls and ceilings irregular, broken and patched – walls mostly damp – several houses unoccupied. No overcrowding – apartments large. No gardens – one wash house in centre of square – coal cellars recently erected for each house, but many have been broken down by tenants.7 privy midden, in centre of square, in rear and in front, at distances of to ; doors and windows of these have been destroyed. No sinks – drainage by surface channels. Gravitation water from standpipes in centre and back of square, from distant.These houses have been frequently inspected, and sanitary improvements have been carried out with no satisfactory results.Notes on Omoa Square - Closing order made under Section 17 of Housing &c Act, 19. Partly demolished.}} By 1910, the Square's houses were semi-abandoned and considered not properly fit for human habitation, with a recommendation for demolition. In the 1920s, hardship led to many Cleland families leaving for other mining areas or emigrating to America and Canada. In 1930 a police census records a population of 4,274, made up of 2,240 males and 2,030 females, though this shows a reduction of 552 compared with the census taken in 1928. In 1930 the Wishaw and Coltness Railway was closed to freight between Newmains and Cleland Junction, and to passengers between Morningside and Holytown (Cleland Junction). What is now Cleland Station collapsed, due to a local mine running under it caving in. It required major repairs before re-opening. In 1934 Cleland War Memorial was erected after public subscription, to the memory of the men of Cleland and District who fell in the Great War 1914–1918. Electricity was supplied to Cleland in 1934–35. Cleland Public Park opened to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of King George V in May 1935. Further railway closures included the Airdrie and Newhouse Line (Caledonian Railway) Chapelhall to Bellside (1966), and the Cleland (previously Omoa) and Midcalder Line (Caledonian Railway) Polkemmet Colliery line, which was lifted in 1986. People from Cleland Sources "Historic Notices and Domestic History of the Parish of Shotts”, by William Grossart, published by Aird and Coghill in 1880 (copy available in North Lanarkshire Heritage Centre). “Old Newmains and the Villages Around Wishaw”, by Lewis Hutton, published by Stenlake Publishing in 1999 (copy available in North Lanarkshire Heritage Centre). This book also has 11 photographs of Cleland from around 1900, including Omoa Square, Omoa Road (showing horse carriages), Main Street at Cleland Cross and at the Post Office, Bellside Road, Aldersyde/ Biggar Road and Fraser Street in Parkside, and Omoa Poorhouse. "Images of Scotland: Wishaw", Compiled Helen Moir, Published by Tempus Publishing Limited (copy available in North Lanarkshire Heritage Centre). This has one photograph of Cleland - a photograph of Chassels Old Castle Bar (what is now Kelly's Bar) from around 1905. The Wishaw Herald (microfilm available in North Lanarkshire Heritage Centre). The Wishaw Press and Advertiser (microfilm available in North Lanarkshire Heritage Centre). Ordnance Survey Old Maps The Scottish Pottery Society Scottish Mining RailScot Railway History The National Archives of Scotland The National Library of Scotland The Workhouse Statistical Accounts of Scotland: 1791–1799; and 1843-45 "A Musical History of Shotts''" (copy available in North Lanarkshire Heritage Centre). "Lanark's Mining Industry in 1896 - A List of Coal Mines" from Peak District Mines Historical Society Ltd References External links Villages in North Lanarkshire Motherwell Wishaw

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