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Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature is a multi-volume English language encyclopedia of Indian literature published by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters. The idea for the project emerged in the mid-1970s, and three volumes were planned to cover all Indian literature, including that in native vernaculars. The scope of the project expanded as several editors-in-chief succeeded one anothe; six volumes were published between 1987 and 1993. The work received a positive reception, though a number of critics noted occasional inaccuracies in entries regarding a few of the subjects surveyed in what was otherwise hailed as a landmark in Indian scholarship. History. At the 1975 annual meeting of the General Council of the Sahitya Akademi, E.M.J. Venniyoor and K.M. George proposed that the Akademi should plan and publish an encyclopaedia of Indian literature. The proposal was approved and the Executive Board set up a committee to examine the proposal, consisting of Suniti Kumar Chatterji as president, K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar as vice-president, and K.M. George, V. Y. Kantak, Amrit Rai and Vasant Bapat. The encyclopaedia was intended to be a single source of information about all significant Indian literary movements, writers and works in Indian history. It was envisaged that 12,000 entries would be necessary to cover this and that the finished work would be published in two volumes, each of approximately 1,000 pages. The topics and writers to be covered were to be determined by consultation with an advisory board. The committee asked K.M. George to be editor-in-chief; his role would be supervising the overall planning for, and execution of, the project. An editorial unit was set up at Trivandrum, Kerala. The editors estimated that the encyclopaedia would take five years to complete. The entire Executive Board of the Akademi, which consisted of representatives of all the languages it recognised, was to act as the editorial board, and a small steering committee was also to be established. Once these recommendations were approved, the project was launched. While the compilation of lists of topics was in progress, dissatisfaction with the General Council emerged, and the location of the encyclopaedia unit at Trivandrum was questioned. To resolve the issues, a special meeting of the Executive Board was convened in 1976 to re-examine the project, and the board decided to relocate the encyclopaedia unit to Delhi. George resigned as editor-in chief after this move and Sitanshu Yashaschandra was appointed to replace him in 1977. Yashaschandra wanted an encyclopaedia with a broader coverage and a length over 3,000 pages, in three volumes. In 1978, the Executive Board discontinued its editorial function, and set up a steering committee consisting of Umashankar Joshi as president, Vinayaka Krishna Gokak as vice-president, with K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar, V. Y. Kantak, Vasant Bapat and Vidya Niwas Misra. Iyengar felt that the Encyclopaedia was "the most ambitious project" undertaken by the Akademi and that it might take years to complete. Yasaschandra was more optimistic, being certain that all three volumes could be published by 1982. By the time he withdrew from the project and the Akademi in 1982 the first volume had yet to be published. Amaresh Datta joined the project as the new editor-in-chief in 1984. Members of the editorial staff were recruited on an "ad hoc" basis for specific languages or zones and the work was expedited. The encyclopaedia as published ran to six volumes, and over five thousand demi-quarto-sized pages. Publication. The first volume in the series was published in 1987, under the auspices of the then prime minister Rajiv Gandhi. In his editorial, Datta outlined the ambitions of the project, stating that it was designed to provide comprehensive coverage, with the matter arranged according to theme or author in alphabetical order, of how literature developed, from its Vedic/Sanskrit origins down to contemporary works in English by Indian authors. It would range over the literary heritage of each of India's 22 major languages, 25 if one regards Pali, Prakrit and Apabhramsa as distinct categories. Datta also edited volumes 2 and 3, published in 1988 and 1989 respectively. He retired from the Akademi on reaching seventy in 1990. Mohan Lal succeeded him as the editor-in-chief and it was under his direction that the fourth and fifth volumes, respectively published in 1991 and 1992, came out. After Lal's death in an accident, the sixth and final volume, edited by Param Abichandani and K. C. Dutt, was published in 1994. K. Ayyappa Paniker was appointed editor-in-chief of revisions. Reception. The first volume, published in 1987, was widely acclaimed. "The Hindu" newspaper, in its 21 July edition, greeted the first book by praising it for exemplary editorial expertise and massive, wide-ranging scholarship. "The Hindustan Times", on 25 October, hailed the encyclopedia as a landmark for reference books on Indian culture. "The Times of India", on 10 April 1988, considered the volume a first step in advancing towards a more extensive overview of Indian literature, and expressed hope that realizing such an end would eventually lead to academic courses and the issuing of a library of Indian masterpieces and a fresh wave of new critical studies. "The Indian Book Industry", commended the volume in July 1987, "Lovers of Indian literature, both at home and abroad, owe a deep debt of gratitude to the Sahitya Akademi for bringing out this Encyclopaedia, a work of pioneering nature indeed". The reviewer of "The Statesman", published on 2 July 1988, thought otherwise: In 1990, Vinayak Purohit of the Indian Institute of Social Research, Bombay, appealed to Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap Singh "to stop the publication of further volumes of this shameful Encyclopaedia"; he cited numerous instances of error of fact, repetition, balance, and other lapses. He wrote to the new editor-in-chief Mohan Lal: "Please do not work at the futile break-neck pace of one volume per year. Encyclopaedias are never produced with such bureaucratic targets." Defamation suit. Ujjalkumar Majumdar's article on Bengali poet Shakti Chatterjee in the "Encyclopaedia" angered Chatterjee, and he filed a defamation suit against the Akademi. "The Indian Post" subsequently headlined a seven column article: "A Poet Fights for his Reputation" and went on to report "Bengal's most popular poet, Sakti Chattopadhyay, smarting under the inference in the Sahitya Akademi's Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature that his work has been influenced by his alcoholic excesses and sexual escapades, has in an unprecedented move sued the Akademi". "The Illustrated Weekly of India" titled its article on the controvosy "The Angry Muse" and reported "Shakti Chattolpadhyay is angry and hurt. The celebrated Bengali poet is livid that the Sahitya Akademi, the nation's highest literary body, has cast aspersions on his character...". "The Telegraph" wrote of "A controversial critique and a raging poet". "The Sunday Mail" reported "A poet defends his habits". After a year, the controversy died down and the matter was eventually settled in 1989.

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Concise Literary Encyclopedia The Concise Literary Encyclopedia () was a Soviet encyclopedia of literature published in nine volumes between 1962 and 1978. The main 8 volumes were published in 1962-1975, the additional 9th volume in 1978. In the encyclopaedia more than 12 thousand author articles (personalities of writers, reviews of periods, characteristics of literary terms, trends, literary groups, literary criticism and the press, etc.); The alphabetical index contains about 35,000 names, titles and terms. Edition - 100 000 copies. The editor-in-chief of the USSR SS was Alexey Surkov,; in fact, the publication was managed by deputy editor-in-chief Vladimir Zhdanov, and since 1969, by A.F. Yermakov. Russian scholar John Glad wrote, "For the specialist in Russian literature, this is undoubtedly the most basic an important reference tool to appear from the Soviet Union. Scholars Barry Lewis and Michael Ulman wrote, "despite its shortcomings, must be considered an achievement comparable to the best Western productions of its type." The preface to the first volume says that the encyclopaedia is called brief encyclopaedia since “it is not an exhaustive body of literary knowledge” and that the creation of a fundamental literary encyclopaedia is “a matter of the future”, but the more complete literary encyclopaedia has not been subsequently published. In general, it is a “carefully prepared and highly professional publication.” Volumes. The ninth volume was famous for the fact that it included articles about writers originally excluded from the glossary by ideological reasons, first of all about representatives of unrealistic trends in Soviet literature (Konstantin Vaginov, Alexander Vvedensky) and the first emigration (Georgy Adamovich, Don-Aminado, Nikolai Evreinov). The subject heading does not contain the names of the emigrants of the 1970s, even those to whom the separate articles in the previous volumes of the encyclopaedia are devoted (Alexander Galich, Vladimir Maksimov, Viktor Nekrasov).

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The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (SFE) is an English language reference work on science fiction, first published in 1979. In October 2011, the third edition was made available for free online. History. The first edition, edited by Peter Nicholls with John Clute, was published by Granada in 1979. It was retitled "The Science Fiction Encyclopedia" when published by Doubleday in the United States. Accompanying its text were numerous black and white photographs illustrating authors, book and magazine covers, film and TV stills, and examples of artists' work. A second edition, jointly edited by Nicholls and Clute, was published in 1993 by Orbit in the UK and St. Martin's Press in the US. The second edition contained 1.3 million words, almost twice the 700,000 words of the 1979 edition. The 1995 paperback edition included a sixteen-page addendum (dated "7 August 1995"). Unlike the first edition, the print versions did not contain illustrations. There was also a CD-ROM version in 1995, styled variously as "The Multimedia Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" and "Grolier Science Fiction". This contained text updates through 1995, hundreds of book covers and author photos, a small number of old film trailers, and author video clips taken from the TVOntario series "Prisoners of Gravity". The companion volume, published after the second print edition and following its format closely, is "The Encyclopedia of Fantasy" edited by John Clute and John Grant. All print and CD-ROM editions are currently out of print. In July 2011, Orion Publishing Group announced that the third edition of "The Science Fiction Encyclopedia" would be released online later that year by SFE Ltd in association with Victor Gollancz, Orion's science fiction imprint. The "beta text" of the third edition launched online on 2 October 2011, with editors John Clute, David Langford, Peter Nicholls (as editor emeritus until his death in 2018) and Graham Sleight. The encyclopedia is updated regularly (usually several times a week) by the editorial team with material written by themselves and contributed by science fiction academics and experts. It received the Hugo Award for Best Related Work in 2012. Though the "SFE" is a composite work with a considerable number of contributors, the three main editors (Clute, Langford and Nicholls) have themselves written almost two-thirds of the 5.2 million words to date (September 2016), giving a sense of unity to the whole. Contents. "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" contains entries under the categories of authors, themes, terminology, science fiction in various countries, films, filmmakers, television, magazines, fanzines, comics, illustrators, book publishers, original anthologies, awards, and miscellaneous. The online edition of "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" was released in October 2011 with 12,230 entries, totaling 3,200,000 words. The editors predicted that it would contain 4,000,000 words upon completion of the first round of updates at the end of 2012; this figure was actually reached in January 2013, and 5,000,000 words in November 2015.

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The Literary Encyclopedia (English) The Literary Encyclopedia is an online reference work first published in October 2000. It was founded as an innovative project designed to bring the benefits of information technology to what at the time was still a largely conservative literary field. From its inception it was developed as a not-for-profit publication aimed to ensure that those who contribute to it are properly rewarded for the time and knowledge they invest - as such, its authors and editors are also shareholders in the Company. "The Literary Encyclopedia" offers both freely available content and content and services for subscribers (individual and institutional, consisting mainly of higher education institutions and higher level secondary schools). Articles are solicited by invitation from specialist scholars, then refereed and approved by subject editors, which makes the "LE" both authoritative and reliable. It contains general profiles of literary writers, but also of major cultural, historical and scientific figures; articles on individual works of literature from all over the world (often containing succinct critical commentary and sections on critical reception); entries on hundreds of literary terms, concepts and movements, as well as extended essays on topics of historical and cultural importance. "The Literary Encyclopedia" offers free access, upon request, to its entire database to all educational institutions in countries where the GDP is below the world average. It also offers a number of research grants to young and emerging scholars in its subscribing institutions, funded by royalties donated by the publication's contributors and editors. The encyclopedia's founding editors were Robert Clark (University of East Anglia), Emory Elliott (University of California at Riverside) and Janet Todd (University of Cambridge), and its current editorial board numbers over 100 distinguished scholars from higher education institutions all over the world. Written and owned by a global network of scholars and researchers, "The Literary Encyclopedia" is an ongoing project. So far, it has published over 8000 articles in 16.8 million words, on a wide range of authors, works and topics in world literature, from the classical to the postcolonial. It continues to publish an average of 20-40 new articles every month, and subscribers benefit from considerable cross-referencing possibilities to its articles under the form of lists of recommended critical bibliographies, course-specific bookshelves, and clusters of related articles.

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The Oxford Companion to English Literature The Oxford Companion to English Literature first published in 1932, edited by the retired diplomat Sir Paul Harvey (1869–1948), was the earliest of the Oxford Companions to appear. It is currently in its seventh edition (2009), edited by Dinah Birch. The work, which has been periodically updated, includes biographies of prominent historical and leading contemporary writers in the English language, entries on major works, "allusions which may be encountered", significant (serial) publications and literary clubs. Writers in other languages are included when they have affected the anglophone world. The "Companion" achieved "classic status" with the expanded fifth edition edited by novelist and scholar Margaret Drabble, and the book was often referred to as "The Drabble". Harvey's entries concerning Sir Walter Scott, much admired by Drabble in the introduction to the fifth edition, had to be reduced for reasons of space, in the sixth edition. Modern technology has meant that the two most recent editions have been updated at intervals of about five years before more radical changes are made; a revised printing of the sixth edition was published in 2006. The revised 2000 edition is now available in the Oxford Reference Online series by subscription only.

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Anime Classics Zettai! Anime Classics Zettai!: 100 Must-See Japanese Animation Masterpieces is a 2007 encyclopedia written by Brian Camp and Julie Davis and published by Stone Bridge Press which provides basic details and short reviews of 100 Japanese anime titles, most of which have been translated and licensed for release in English in North America. Stone Bridge Press published the printed version on September 15, 2007, with the e-book version published on August 1, 2007. Reception. Harford County Public Library's Jamie Watson commends the books as "indispensable for anyone with an interest in anime", with further comments about the book's "interest to teens and also serve as a great reference for collection development as all of the movies are considered classics by the authors." Ain't It Cool News's Scott Green comments that the book is "written with a more objective voice than ' or '. It is possible to suss out some vague sense of preference, but while a given person is unlikely to truly enjoy every work of anime discussed; every anime is described and evaluated in an even manner."

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The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction is an illustrated collection of bibliographic essays on the history and subject matter of science fiction. It was edited by Brian Ash and published in 1977 by Pan Books in the UK and Harmony/Crown Books in the US. Summary. The book starts with a parallel chronology of significant events in the fields of science fiction stories, magazines, novels, movies/TV/radio, and fandom, from 1805 to 1976. The book's thematic sections contain introductions by science fiction authors, and extensive bibliographies of science fiction works featuring each theme. It includes extended essays on science fiction, called "Deep Probes". The chapters are numbered in the style of a technical manual. Illustrations are primarily book and magazine covers, and interior illustrations from magazines, including a number of illustrations by Virgil Finlay, among others. Reception. The book received positive reviews within the field of children's literature, including the American Library Association. Reviews from the field of science fiction were less enthusiastic:

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Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (1978 book) Encyclopedia of Science Fiction is a 1978 book of essays about the science fiction genre, largely as a literary form but also covering cinema, TV and illustration. Articles and Content. The articles were written by a number of well known writers, critics, and editors, covering a number of topics, including the history of the genre, alien encounters, technology, and sci-fi art and cinema. The consultant editor was fantasy and science fiction author Robert Holdstock who also contributed a chapter on modern perceptions of science fiction. The foreword was written by Isaac Asimov. Other notable contributors include novelists Brian Stableford, Harry Harrison, and Christopher Priest, the editor and publisher Malcolm Edwards, and the astronomer Patrick Moore. The book also contained a number of lavish full colour illustrations, often featuring magazine and novel cover art by artists such as Melvyn Grant, Kelly Freas, Joe Petagno and Chris Foss. The cover art was by the artist Tony Roberts. Legacy. In a 1995 article in "Utopian Studies", critic Nicholas Ruddick, comparing the book to its contemporary, The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (1977), described both books as having "both stood up well as multi-authored "visual" encyclopedias - that it is they both contain striking pictorial spreads." The book has also been cited in other academic publications such as "The" "Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians"", Modern Fiction Studies""," and "American Studies International".

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Anatomy of Wonder Anatomy of Wonder — A Critical Guide to Science Fiction is a reference book by Neil Barron, which covers hundreds of works of science fiction. The review of "Anatomy of Wonder" by Dave Langford says that it is a unique reference book that lists hundreds of major SF works from antiquity to 1980, with plot summaries and recommendations for building up a collection of SF. The book was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Related Work for 1982, but lost to Danse Macabre.

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Handbook of Texas The Handbook of Texas is a comprehensive encyclopedia of Texas geography, history, and historical persons published by the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA). History. The original "Handbook" was the brainchild of TSHA President Walter Prescott Webb of The University of Texas history department. It was published as a two-volume set in 1952, with a supplemental volume published in 1976. In 1996, the New Handbook of Texas was published, expanding the encyclopedia to six volumes and over 23,000 articles. In 1999, the Handbook of Texas Online went live with the complete text of the print edition, all corrections incorporated into the handbook's second printing, and about 400 articles not included in the print edition due to space limitations. The handbook continues to be updated online, and contains over 25,000 articles. The online version includes entries on general topics, such as "Texas Since World War II", biographies such as notable Texans Samuel Houston and W. D. Twichell, ranches such as the Matador, and geographical entries such as "Waco, Texas".

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The Dante Encyclopedia The Dante Encyclopedia, edited by Richard Lansing, is a reference book for the life and works of Dante, especially the "Divine Comedy". Originally published in hardback in 2000, the book appeared in paperback in 2010. Reviews. The "Dante Encyclopedia" was published to positive reviews. "Library Journal" recommended the book highly, calling it "an indispensable reference work for most libraries, ... an excellent point of entry" for any student of Dante.

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A Basket of Leaves A Basket of Leaves is a collection of 54 essays by Geoff Wisner, each of which examines one or more books about a different African country. The collection was published by Jacana Media in 2007. The authors of the selected books are (variously) African, American, West Indian, and European. Some of the authors are black, and others are white. Some of the books are fiction, and others are non-fiction; 28 of them were authored or co-authored by women. The selected works were originally published in Arabic, English, French, German, Polish, Portuguese, and other languages.

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Seven Deadly Sins Four Deadly Sinners Seven Deadly Sins Four Deadly Sinners is an anthology-style play compiled and written by "Carry On..." writer Norman Hudis and producer Marc Sinden, who is also the director. It was originally devised by Sinden as a female rival to the RSC's "The Hollow Crown" and was the first anthology to have a permanent 'pool' of actresses from which four appear for the performance. It has toured in the UK since 15 June 2003 (premiering at the Princess Theatre, Hunstanton, Norfolk) and is produced all over Europe and throughout the rest of the world by Marc Sinden Productions. Internationally, it has been performed at the British Theatre Season, Monaco; the Holder's Festival, Barbados; on Guernsey (one of the Channel Islands) and is currently on an 18-month tour of Australia and New Zealand. It is billed as: "An anthology evening of Wicked Comedy, Heavenly Drama, Devilishly Tall Tales, Enchanting Poetry and Seductive Stories starring Four Deadly Beautiful Temptresses, who will enlighten you on how to survive, or even live by, the Seven Deadly Sins!" Cast. Compiled from the works of nearly everyone with a sense of humour (sometimes unintentional) - from Chaucer to Victoria Wood, from Woody Allen to Oscar Wilde via Flanders & Swann, Joyce Grenfell, Steven Berkoff and Noël Coward, it stars four from the following alphabetically listed, interchangeable cast:

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List of metafictional works This is a partial list of works that use metafictional ideas. Metafiction is intentional allusion or reference to a work's fictional nature. It is commonly used for humorous or parodic effect, and has appeared in a wide range of mediums, including writing, film, theatre, and video gaming.

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Sardinian Literary Spring Sardinian Literary Spring is a definition of the whole body of the literature produced in Sardinia from around the 1980s onwards. History. About the denomination. Sardinian Literary Spring, also known as Sardinian Literary Nouvelle Vague, is a denomination normally used to describe the literary works written by Sardinians from around the 1980s. It is described as being formed of novels and other written texts (and sometimes also of cinema, theatre and other works of art), which often share stylistic and thematic constants. They form a kind of fiction with features that derive mainly, but not only, from the Sardinian, Italian, and European context and history. The Sardinian Literary Spring is considered to be one of the most remarkable regional literatures in Italian, but sometimes also written in one of the island's minority languages (the most prominent of which being the Sardinian language, in addition to the other Romance varieties spoken in Sardinia, namely Corsican, Catalan, and Genoese). The definition of 'spring' or 'nouvelle vague' or plainly 'new Sardinian literature' is due to the new quality, quantity, and international success of many works published by these Sardinian authors, translated in many world languages. Initiators, predecessors and followers. The Sardinian Literary Spring was started, according to a mostly shared canonical opinion, by a trio formed of Giulio Angioni, Sergio Atzeni and Salvatore Mannuzzu, and then continued by authors such as Salvatore Niffoi, Alberto Capitta, Giorgio Todde, Michela Murgia, Flavio Soriga, Milena Agus, Francesco Abate, and many others. The Sardinian Literary Spring is considered to be also the contemporary result, in the European arena, of the works of Sardinian individual prominent figures such as Grazia Deledda, Nobel Prize winner for literature in 1926, Emilio Lussu, Giuseppe Dessì, Gavino Ledda, Salvatore Satta, and others. Sergio Atzeni (1952 - 1995) worked for some of the most important Sardinian newspapers. Member of the Italian Communist Party, but later disillusioned with politics, he left Sardinia and travelled across Europe. All of Atzeni's works are set in Sardinia. He used a very original language that fused elegant literary Italian and the "patter" used by the working-class in Cagliari and Sardinia. In some of his novels (e.g. "Il quinto passo è l'addio" and "Bellas mariposas") he also used techniques akin to the magic realism style of many Southern American authors, and he has been followed by other Sardinian authors, such as Alberto Capitta, Giorgio Todde, and Salvatore Niffoi, who in 2006, with the novel "La vedova scalza" ("The barefoot widow"), won the popular Premio Campiello. Giulio Angioni (born 1939) is a leading Italian anthropologist. He is also well known as the author of about twenty books of fiction and poetry. Angioni writes mostly in Italian, but also in Sardinian. He has inaugurated a linguistic style which switches from the standard Italian to the regional (Sardinian) Italian and other linguistic varieties, in an original mixture of his own, but also followed by other Sardinian authors. Angioni's best novels are considered to be "Le fiamme di Toledo" ("Flames of Toledo"), "Assandira", "La pelle intera", "Doppio cielo" ("Double sky"), "L'oro di Fraus". ("The gold of Fraus"). Salvatore Mannuzzu’s (born 1930) most successful novel is "Procedura" (1988, "Einaudi"), winner of Italy’s Premio Viareggio in 1989. In 2000 the director Antonello Grimaldi has made the film "Un delitto impossibile" from this novel, which is also considered (with the coeval "L'oro di Fraus" by Giulio Angioni) the origin of a genre of Sardinian detective stories (called "giallo sardo"). with authors such as Marcello Fois and Giorgio Todde, who gave birth to the Literary Festival of Gavoi, L'isola delle storie, with Giulio Angioni, Flavio Soriga, and other authors.

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Authoritarian literature Authoritarian literature is a term used by John Gardner to designate the body of literature written by persons living under an authoritarian governmental regime. Literary works produced in these regimes share common characteristics that make the designation useful. Authoritarian regimes revere their leaders, who historically were typically referred to as kings, along with advisors to the king. These leaders were considered innately better than ordinary people. The authoritarian leader, and his approved circle, if not directly writing about a subject themselves, were the only ones who could designate, approve, and sanction writers as acceptable authorities. Government authorities also financially supported writers under a patronage system. The writers in such a system therefore must necessarily be careful to ensure the composition of their work met (or would meet) the approval of authorities. Failure to comply risked official warnings, loss of governmental sanction, and sometimes even imprisonment or loss of life. Fiction produced under authoritarian regimes tends to be didactic. Subject matter can vary in terms of plot, but the didactic point of the work is almost always to illustrate what authorities would consider the proper comportment of individuals within the authoritarian society. This didactic point is conveyed to readers in order to idealize the existing social structure and thus, hopefully, perpetuate it. Authoritarian fiction is considered to be demonstrative in purpose rather than explorative. The author's narrative voice is also usually authoritarian in order to impart something known by the author that is presumably not known by the reader. Since most people don't enjoy and resist being spoken to as an inferior, the more successful (or popular) authors of such literature are the ones who best disguise, or sugarcoat, their didactic purpose. One common way to achieve such indirectness is through the use of the form allegory. Examples. Good examples of authoritarian literature include "Beowulf", "Pilgrim's Progress", and in English literature we see vestiges as late as Charles Dickens. While didacticism forms a significant component of Shaw's, Orwell's and C. S. Lewis' fiction as well, their works can not strictly be considered as authoritarian literature because they were not writing at the whim of political leaders. Dickens was not writing for the British government either, but he used the same forms of his predecessors, who did write for the court, particularly in his earlier novels, such as "A Tale of Two Cities" and "David Copperfield", where we most easily observe a certain preachiness. Dickens constructed his plots for the sake of demonstration rather than the purpose of exploration. However, Charles Dickens is a transitional figure, and in his later novels, such as "Great Expectations", we can "feel the two impulses warring in the writer's mind". Contemporary Works. Authoritarian literature is, of course, not a purely historical phenomenon. It persists as the dominant form of everyday literature of Middle Eastern countries (Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and arguably Palestine and Iran's literature excepted), and, until recently, Chinese literature. To understand the nature of authoritarian literature's purpose is to better understand the reason for the forms in which we see literature currently being produced in these countries. The antithesis to Authoritarian literature is Anti-Authoritarian literature. Practitioners of this genre in the aforementioned countries are routinely subjected to harsh sanctions, and many choose to go into exile in order to write freely. Still other writers suffer censorship and imprisonment at their government's hands (e.g. Sunallah Ibrahim and Abdul Rahman Munif). Authoritarian literature authors, however, who write works of fiction that support or praise governments, as expected, often see promotion to positions of authority within their respective country's governing cultural body

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Metafiction A metafiction is a form of fiction which emphasizes its own constructedness in a way that continually reminds readers to be aware that they are reading or viewing a fictional work. Metafiction is self-conscious about language, literary form, and story-telling, and works of metafiction directly or indirectly draw attention to their status as artifacts. Metafiction is frequently used as a form of parody or a tool to undermine literary conventions and explore the relationship between literature and reality, life, and art. Although metafiction is most commonly associated with postmodern literature that developed in the mid-20th century, its use can be traced back to much earlier works of fiction, such as Geoffrey Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" (1387), Miguel de Cervantes's "Don Quixote" (1605), Laurence Sterne's "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman" (1759), William Makepeace Thackeray's "Vanity Fair" (1847), as well as more recent works such as Douglas Adams' "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" (1979) and Mark Z. Danielewski's "House of Leaves" (2000). Metafiction, however, became particularly prominent in the 1960s, with authors and works such as John Barth's "Lost in the Funhouse", Robert Coover's "The Babysitter" and "The Magic Poker", Kurt Vonnegut's "Slaughterhouse-Five", John Fowles' "The French Lieutenant's Woman", Thomas Pynchon's "The Crying of Lot 49" and William H. Gass's "Willie Master's Lonesome Wife". Since the 1980s, contemporary Latino literature has an abundance of self-reflexive, metafictional works, including novels and short stories by Junot Díaz ("The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao"), Sandra Cisneros ("Caramelo"), Salvador Plascencia ("The People of Paper"), Carmen Maria Machado ("Her Body"), Rita Indiana ("Tentacle"), and Valeria Luiselli ("Lost Children Archive"). History of the term. The term 'metafiction' was coined in 1970 by William H. Gass in his book "Fiction and the Figures of Life". Gass describes the increasing use of metafiction at the time as a result of authors developing a better understanding of the medium. This new understanding of the medium led to a major change in the approach toward fiction. Theoretical issues became more prominent aspects, resulting in an increased self-reflexivity and formal uncertainty. Robert Scholes expands upon Gass' theory and identifies four forms of criticism on fiction, which he refers to as formal, behavioural, structural, and philosophical criticism. Metafiction assimilates these perspectives into the fictional process, putting emphasis on one or more of these aspects. These developments were part of a larger movement (arguably a 'metareferential turn') which, approximately from the 1960s onwards, was the consequence of an increasing social and cultural self-consciousness, stemming from, as Patricia Waugh puts it, "a more general cultural interest in the problem of how human beings reflect, construct and mediate their experience in the world." Due to this development, an increasing number of novelists rejected the notion of rendering the world through fiction. The new principle became to create through the medium of language a world that does not reflect the real world. Language was considered an "independent, self-contained system which generates its own 'meanings.'" and a means of mediating knowledge of the world. Thus, literary fiction, which constructs worlds through language, became a model for the construction of 'reality' rather than a reflection of it. Reality itself became regarded as a construct instead of an objective truth. Through its formal self-exploration, metafiction thus became the device that explores the question of how human beings construct their experience of the world. Robert Scholes identifies the time around 1970 as the peak of experimental fiction (of which metafiction is an instrumental part) and names a lack of commercial and critical success as reasons for its subsequent decline. The development toward metafictional writing in postmodernism generated mixed responses. Some critics argued that it signified the decadence of the novel and an exhaustion of the artistic capabilities of the medium, with some going as far as to call it the 'death of the novel'. Others see the self-consciousness of fictional writing as a way to gain deeper understanding of the medium and a path that leads to innovation that resulted in the emergence of new forms of literature, such as the historiographic novel by Linda Hutcheon. Forms. According to Werner Wolf, metafiction can be differentiated into four pairs of forms that can be combined with each other. Explicit/implicit metafiction. Explicit metafiction is identifiable through its use of clear metafictional elements on the surface of a text. It comments on its own artificiality and is quotable. Explicit metafiction is described as a mode of telling. An example would be a narrator explaining the process of creating the story they are telling. Rather than commenting on the text, implicit metafiction foregrounds the medium or its status as an artefact through various, for example disruptive, techniques such as metalepsis. It relies more than other forms of metafiction on the reader's ability to recognize these devices in order to evoke a metafictional reading. Implicit metafiction is described as a mode of showing. Direct/indirect metafiction. Direct metafiction establishes a reference within the text one is just reading. In contrast to this, indirect metafiction consists in metareferences external to this text, such as reflections on other specific literary works or genres (as in parodies) and general discussions of aesthetic issue. Since there is always a relationship between the text in which indirect metafiction occurs and the referenced external texts or issues, indirect metafiction always impacts the text one is reading, albeit in an indirect way. Critical/non-critical metafiction. Critical metafiction aims to find the artificiality or fictionality of a text in some critical way, which is frequently done in postmodernist fiction. Non-critical metafiction does not criticize or undermine the artificiality or fictionality of a text and can, for example, be used to "suggest that the story one is reading is authentic". Generally media-centred/truth- or fiction-centred metafiction. While all metafiction somehow deals with the medial quality of fiction or narrative and is thus generally media-centred, in some cases there is an additional focus on the truthfulness or inventedness (fictionality) of a text, which merits mention as a specific form. The suggestion of a story being authentic (a device frequently used in realistic fiction) would be an example of (non-critical) truth-centred metafiction. Examples. Laurence Sterne, "The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman". In this scene Tristram Shandy, the eponymous character and narrator of the novel, foregrounds the process of creating literature as he interrupts his previous thought and begins to talk about the beginnings of books. The scene evokes an explicitly metafictional response to the problem (and by addressing a problem of the novel one is just reading but also a general problem the excerpt is thus an example of both direct and indirect metafiction, which may additionally be classified as generally media-centred, non-critical metafiction). Through the lack of context to this sudden change of topic (writing a book is not a plot point, nor does this scene take place at the beginning of the novel, where such a scene might be more willingly accepted by the reader) the metafictional reflection is foregrounded. Additionally, the narrator addresses readers directly, thereby confronting readers with the fact that they are reading a constructed text. David Lodge, "The British Museum is Falling Down". This scene from "The British Museum is Falling Down" (1965) features several instances of metafiction. First, the speaker, Adam Appleby (the protagonist of the novel) discusses the change the rise of the novel brought upon the literary landscape, specifically with regards to thematic changes that occurred. Second, he talks about the mimetic aspect of realist novels. Third, he alludes to the notion that the capabilities of literature have been exhausted, and thus to the idea of the death of the novel (all of this is explicit, critical indirect metafiction). Fourth, he covertly foregrounds that fact that the characters in the novel are fictional characters, rather than masking this aspect, as would be the case in non-metafictional writing. Therefore, this scene features metafictional elements with reference to the medium (the novel), the form of art (literature), a genre (realism), and arguably also lays bare the fictionality of the characters and thus of the novel itself (which could be classified as critical, direct, fiction-centred metafiction). Jasper Fforde, "The Eyre Affair". "The Eyre Affair" (2001) is set in an alternative history in which it is possible to enter the world of a work of literature through the use of a machine. In the novel, literary detective Thursday Next chases a criminal through the world of Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre". This paradoxical transgression of narrative boundaries is called metalepsis, an implicitly metafictional device when used in literature. Metalepsis has a high inherent potential to disrupt aesthetic illusion and confronts the reader with the fictionality of the text. However, as metalepsis is used as a plot device that has been introduced as part of the world of "The Eyre Affair" it can, in this instance, have the opposite effect and is compatible with immersion. It can thus be seen as an example of metafiction that does not (necessarily) break aesthetic illusion.

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The Sense of Style The Sense of Style: The Thinking Person's Guide to Writing in the 21st Century is a 2014 English style guide written by cognitive scientist, linguist and popular science author Steven Pinker. Building upon earlier guides, such as Strunk & White's "The Elements of Style" and Fowler's "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage", it applies science to the process of writing, and explains its prescriptions by citing studies in related fields – e.g., grammatical phenomena, mental dynamics, and memory load – as well as history and criticism, to "distinguish the rules that enhance clarity, grace, and emotional resonance from those that are based on myths and misunderstandings". Pinker's prescriptions combine data from ballots given to the Usage Panel of the "American Heritage Dictionary", the usage notes of several dictionaries and style guides, the historical analyses in "Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage", the meta-analysis in Roy Copperud's "American Usage and Style: The Consensus", and views from modern linguistics represented in "The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language" and the blog Language Log. Contents. Prologue. "Style" is the effective use of words to engage the human mind. Style manuals that are innocent of linguistics are crippled in dealing with the aspect of writing that evokes the most emotion: correct and incorrect usage. Orthodox stylebooks are ill-equipped to deal with a fundamental fact about language: it changes over time. Language is not a protocol legislated by an authority but rather an evolving set of tacit standards from the contributions of millions of writers and speakers. Good writing. "Reverse-engineering good prose as the key to developing a writerly ear" – The starting point for becoming a good writer is to be a good reader. Good writers are avid readers. They have absorbed a vast inventory of words, idioms, constructions, tropes, and rhetorical tricks, and with them a sensitivity to how they mesh and how they clash. This is the elusive "ear" of a skilled writer – the tacit sense of style which cannot be explicitly taught. A window onto the world. "Classic style as an antidote for academese, bureaucratese, corporatese, legalese, officialese, and other kinds of stuffy prose" – The key to good style, far more than obeying any list of commandments, is to have a clear conception of the make-believe world in which you're pretending to communicate. A writer of classic prose must simulate two experiences: showing the reader something in the world, and engaging the reader in conversation. Classic style is an ideal. Not all prose should be classic, and not all writers can carry off the pretense. But knowing the hallmarks of classic style will make anyone a better writer, and it is "the strongest cure for the disease that enfeebles academic, bureaucratic, corporate, legal, and official prose". The curse of knowledge. The main cause of incomprehensible prose is the curse of knowledge – the difficulty of imagining what it is like for someone else not to know something that you know. Be aware of specific pitfalls that it sets in your path, e.g., the use of jargon, abbreviations, and technical vocabulary. Show a draft to some people who are similar to your intended audience, and find out whether they can follow it. Show a draft to yourself, after enough time has passed that the text is no longer familiar. Rework and revise. The web, the tree, and the string. "Understanding syntax can help a writer avoid ungrammatical, convoluted, and misleading prose" – Learning how to bring the units of language into consciousness can allow writers to reason their way to grammatically consistent sentences, and to diagnose problems. Grammar is a fascinating subject in its own right, when it is properly explained. Arcs of coherence. "How to ensure that readers will grasp the topic, get the point, keep track of the players, and see how one idea follows from another" – Even if every sentence in a text is crisp, lucid, and well formed, a succession of them can feel choppy, disjointed, unfocused, incoherent. A coherent text is a designed object: an ordered tree of sections within sections, crisscrossed by arcs that track topics, points, actors, and themes, and held together by connectors that tie one proposition to the next. Like other designed objects, it comes about not by accident but by drafting a blueprint, attending to details, and maintaining a sense of harmony and balance. Telling right from wrong. "How to make sense of the rules of correct grammar, word choice, and punctuation" – The idea that there are exactly two approaches to usage – all the traditional rules must be followed, or else anything goes – is a myth. The first step in mastering usage is to understand why the myth is wrong. There is no such thing as a "language war" between prescriptivists and descriptivists. "The alleged controversy is as bogus as other catchy dichotomies such as "nature versus nurture" and "America: Love It or Leave It"." The key is to recognize that the rules of usage are "tacit conventions". A convention is an agreement among the members of a community to abide by a single way of doing things. Linguists capture their regularities in "descriptive rules" – that is, rules that describe how people speak and understand. A subset of these conventions is less widespread and natural, but has become accepted by a smaller community of literate speakers for use in public forums such as government, journalism, literature, business, and academia. These conventions are "prescriptive rules" – rules that prescribe how one ought to speak and write in these forums. Unlike the descriptive rules, many of the prescriptive rules have to be stated explicitly, because they are not second nature to most writers: the rules may not apply in the spoken vernacular, or they may be difficult to implement in complicated sentences which tax the writer's memory. This raises the question of how a careful writer can distinguish a legitimate rule of usage from a tall tale. The answer: look it up. Pinker includes a short guide to a hundred of the most commonly raised issues of grammar, word usage, and punctuation. (For Pinker's Top 10 list, see .) Reception. "The Sense of Style" won Plain English Campaign's International Award for 2014, and was ranked among the best books of 2014 by "The Economist", "The Sunday Times", and Amazon. It received mainly positive reviews from several major publications, including "The New York Times", "Scientific American", and "The Washington Post", and a negative review from "The New Yorker". "The Telegraph" states Pinker "doesn't have anything new to say" and criticizes Pinker for allegedly "logrolling" in his choice of which authors to quote.

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The Reader Over Your Shoulder The Reader Over Your Shoulder: A Handbook for Writers of English Prose (1943) is a style guide by the poet and novelist Robert Graves and the historian and journalist Alan Hodge. It takes the form of a study of the principles and history of writing in English, followed by a series of passages by well-known writers subjected to a critical analysis by Graves and Hodge. It was favourably reviewed on first publication, and has since received enthusiastic praise. Composition. The book's authors, Robert Graves and Alan Hodge, had been friends since they had met in Mallorca in 1935, when Hodge was still an undergraduate. They collaborated on a social history of Britain between the two world wars, "The Long Week-End". By August 1940 the two were working together on what Graves called a "new book about English prose...for the general reader, and also for intelligent colleges and VI-forms". Originally intended to help Graves's daughter Jenny Nicholson, it was eventually published as "The Reader Over Your Shoulder: A Handbook for Writers of English Prose". Its plan, which owes something to Laura Riding's 1938 work "The World and Ourselves", is as follows: first come chapters entitled "The Peculiar Qualities of English", "The Present Confusion of English Prose", "Where Is Good English to Be Found?", and "The Use and Abuse of Official English"; then a history of English prose, quoting many examples; then chapters on "The Principles of Clear Statement" and "The Graces of Prose"; finally, taking up the greater part of the book, the authors present under the title "Examinations and Fair Copies" fifty-four stylistically aberrant passages by well-known writers, analyze their faults, and rewrite them in better English. This last section, according to the academic Denis Donoghue, "accounted for much of the fame and nearly all of the delight that the book has given its readers". Getting copyright waivers from each of the 54 writers made demands on the co-authors' time, and since this section was, in Graves's words, "dynamite under so many chairs", also on their diplomacy. Their private nickname for the book was "A Short Cut to Unpopularity". The publishers Faber and Faber initially accepted the book while it was still in progress, but later took fright and dropped it; it was finally published in May 1943 by Jonathan Cape. There have been several later editions, some at full length and some drastically abridged. Reception. G. W. Stonier, reviewing "The Reader Over Your Shoulder" in the "New Statesman and Nation", regretted that "a book, whose general aims are admirable, should be spoilt so often by its pedantry", but most other contemporary reviews were favourable: "it might seem that "The Reader Over Your Shoulder" would be unavoidably dry on questions of punctuation and grammar, but even here it is witty and stimulating — a desk-book for the writer that should never fail to key him up", "a stimulating and stirring book, which meets a great and genuine need of our times", "instructive and entertaining book", "highly pleasurable and in some degree profitable", "any editor of [this journal] would mortgage the office filing cabinet to place this book before the eyes of every contributor". "The Spectator" wryly noted that "this book, with its high standards, its scholarship and its brilliance, is exactly calculated to suit the contemporary taste for spiced and potted knowledge which it deplores". Evelyn Waugh wrote in "The Tablet", "This is the century of the common man; let him write as he speaks and let him speak as he pleases. This the deleterious opinion to which "The Reader Over Your Shoulder" provides a welcome corrective"; he ended, "as a result of having read [it]...I have taken about three times as long to write this review as is normal, and still dread committing it to print". It has been highly praised in the years since. For the sociologist C. Wright Mills it was "the best book I know" on writing, for the academic Greg Myers, "relentlessly prescriptive and hilarious", for the journalist Mark Halperin "one of the three or four books on usage that deserve a place on the same shelf as Fowler". The biographer Miranda Seymour said that "as a handbook to style, it has never been bettered", and the literary critic Denis Donoghue wrote, "I don't know any other book in which expository prose is read so seriously, carefully, helpfully. For this reason the book is just as important as I. A. Richards' "Practical Criticism"". He went on, "there is no point in being scandalized by the assumption in "The Reader Over Your Shoulder" that good English is the sort of English written by Graves and Hodge. In my opinion, that claim is justified."

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Enquire Within upon Everything Enquire Within upon Everything is a how-to book, akin to a short encyclopedia for domestic life, first published in 1856 by Houlston and Sons of Paternoster Square in London. The editor was Robert Kemp Philp. It was then continuously reprinted in many new and updated editions as additional information and articles were added (and obsolete material sometimes removed). Topics. The book was created with the intention of providing encyclopedic information on topics as diverse as etiquette, parlour games, cake recipes, laundry tips, holiday preparation, and first aid: To quote from the editor's introduction: Though not rich in such material, "Enquire Within" also provided the basics of an English-usage style guide, and also preserved examples of regional dialect usage (which it tended to mock as faulty). Several editions between the 1880s and 1910s provide one of the only surviving records of the rules of the English version of trucco, a somewhat croquet-like form of ground billiards. Though some attempt was made to group related topics, in general the organization was chaotic, and required looking up topics in an index, then find their numbered sections in the main text. History. The early editions of this book contained 3,000 short pithy descriptions and was one of a set of 20 books. The book was a popular addition to the Victorian (and later post-Victorian) home. By 1862, the book was sold 196,000 times; by the 89th edition, some 1,180,000 copies had been published. With the release of the 113th edition, this number had risen to over 1,500,000 and by 1976 was in its 126th edition. Modernised versions were still in print as late as 1994. Unauthorized reproductions of the first and some subsequent editions, without credit to the original editor and publisher, were made in United States by the New York publisher Garret, Dick & Fitzgerald, under the title "Inquire Within for Anything You Want to Know". Later official editions (some time after 1894) were published by Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton Kent & Co., also of London. Agatha Christie used "Enquire Within upon Everything" as an important clue in the Hercule Poirot detective novel, "Hallowe'en Party". In 1980 Tim Berners-Lee named his precursor of the World Wide Web ENQUIRE after this work. A "Forbes" article quoted Berners-Lee as saying:

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A Dictionary of Modern English Usage A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926), by Henry Watson Fowler (1858–1933), is a style guide to British English usage, pronunciation, and writing. Covering topics such as plurals and literary technique, distinctions among like words (homonyms and synonyms), and the use of foreign terms, the dictionary became the standard for other style guides to writing in English. Hence, the 1926 first edition remains in print, along with the 1965 second edition, edited by Ernest Gowers, which was reprinted in 1983 and 1987. The 1996 third edition was re-titled as "The New Fowler's Modern English Usage", and revised in 2004, was mostly rewritten by Robert W. Burchfield, as a usage dictionary that incorporated corpus linguistics data; and the 2015 fourth edition, revised and re-titled "Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage", was edited by Jeremy Butterfield, as a usage dictionary. Informally, users refer to the style guide and dictionary as Fowler's Modern English Usage, Fowler, and Fowler's. Linguistic approach. In "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage", Henry W. Fowler's general approach encourages a direct, vigorous writing style, and opposes all artificiality, by firmly advising against convoluted sentence construction, the use of foreign words and phrases, and the use of archaisms. He opposed pedantry, and ridiculed artificial grammar rules unwarranted by natural English usage, such as bans on ending a sentence with a preposition; rules on the placement of the word "only"; and rules distinguishing between "which" and "that". He classified and condemned every cliché, in the course of which he coined and popularised the terms "battered ornament", "vogue words", and "worn-out humour", while defending useful distinctions between words whose meanings were coalescing in practice, thereby guiding the speaker and the writer away from illogical sentence construction, and the misuse of words. In the entries "Pedantic Humour" and "Polysyllabic Humour" Fowler mocked the use of arcane words (archaisms) and the use of unnecessarily long words. Quotations. Widely and often cited, "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage" is renowned for its witty passages, such as: Editions. Before writing "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage", Henry W. Fowler and his younger brother, Francis George Fowler (1871–1918), wrote and revised "The King's English" (1906), a grammar and usage guide. Assisted in the research by Francis, who died in 1918 of tuberculosis contracted (1915–16) whilst serving with the British Expeditionary Force in the First World War (1914–1918), Henry dedicated the first edition of the "Dictionary" to his late brother: I think of it as it should have been, with its prolixities docked, its dullnesses enlivened, its fads eliminated, its truths multiplied. He had a nimbler wit, a better sense of proportion, and a more open mind, than his twelve-year-older partner; and it is a matter of regret that we had not, at a certain point, arranged our undertakings otherwise than we did. . . . This present book accordingly contains none of his actual writing; but, having been designed in consultation with him, it is the last fruit of a partnership that began in 1903 with our translation of Lucian. The first edition of "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage" was published in 1926, and then was reprinted with corrections in 1930, 1937, 1954, and in 2009, with an introduction and commentary by the linguist David Crystal. The second edition, titled "Fowler's Modern English Usage", was published in 1965, revised and edited by Ernest Gowers. The third edition, "The New Fowler's Modern English Usage", was published in 1996, edited by Robert Burchfield; and in 2004, Burchfield's revision of the 1996 edition was published as "Fowler's Modern English Usage". The fourth edition, "Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage", was published in 2015, edited by Jeremy Butterfield. The modernisation of "A Dictionary of English Usage" (1926) yielded the "Pocket Fowler's Modern English Usage" (1999), edited by the lexicographer Robert Allen, which is based upon Burchfield's 1996 edition; the modernised edition is a forty per cent abridgement realised with reduced-length entries and the omission of about half the entries of the 1996 edition. A second edition of Allen's "Pocket Fowler" was published in 2008, the content of which the publisher said "harks back to the original 1926 edition".

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MHRA Style Guide The "MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses"—formerly the "MHRA Style Book"—is an academic style guide published by the Modern Humanities Research Association. It is most widely used in the arts and humanities in the United Kingdom, where the MHRA is based. Initially, the Book and Guide were only available for sale in the UK and in the United States. As of 2015, 50,000 copies of all editions, published between 1971 and 2013, have been sold worldwide. Availability. The 3rd edition of the Style Guide (reprinted with corrections in 2015) can be downloaded free of charge, as a PDF formatted document, from the MHRA's official website. Since 2017, an online version is available, in full and in a condensed Quick Guide format. Both online versions are also free of charge. Print versions of the most current edition continue to be offered.

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The Complete Plain Words The Complete Plain Words, titled simply Plain Words in its 2014 revision, is a style guide written by Sir Ernest Gowers, published in 1954. It has never been out of print. It comprises expanded and revised versions of two pamphlets that he wrote at the request of HM Treasury, "Plain Words" (1948) and "ABC of Plain Words" (1951). The aim of the book is to help officials in their use of English as a tool of their trade. To keep the work relevant for readers in subsequent decades it has been revised by Sir Bruce Fraser in 1973, by Sidney Greenbaum and Janet Whitcut in 1986, and by the original author's great-granddaughter Rebecca Gowers in 2014. All the editions until that of 2014 were published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO). The most recent is issued by an imprint of Penguin Books. Background. The association of wordiness with bureaucracy has a long history. In the 14th century Geoffrey Chaucer, a prominent civil servant as well as a poet, urged the use of straightforward writing. Reviewing "Plain Words" in 1948, "The Manchester Guardian" quoted the French revolutionary Martial Herman writing in 1794: The British civil service of the 19th and early 20th centuries had a reputation for pomposity and long-windedness in its written communications. In "Little Dorrit" in the mid-1850s, Charles Dickens caricatured officialdom as the "Circumlocution Office", where for even the most urgent matter nothing could be done without "half a score of boards, half a bushel of minutes, several sacks of official memoranda, and a family-vault full of ungrammatical correspondence." By the 1880s the term "officialese" was in use, defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as, "The formal and typically verbose language considered characteristic of officials or official documents". Sir Ernest Gowers, a senior civil servant, was among those who wished to see officialese replaced by normal English. In 1929 he remarked in a speech about the civil service, "It is said... that we revel in jargon and obscurity". During the Second World War, with the role of government greatly expanded, official communications proliferated, and in Gowers's view were full of "mistiness and grandiloquence". He called for a new style of official writing, friendly in tone and easy to understand. His views came to the notice of the head of the civil service, Sir Edward Bridges, permanent secretary to the Treasury. After Gowers retired from the civil service at the end of the war, Bridges asked him to write a short pamphlet on good writing, for the benefit of the new generation of officials. Bridges called on his senior colleagues throughout the civil service to cooperate; some had already made efforts in the same cause, including the Inland Revenue, whose advice to staff included "one golden rule to bear in mind always: that we should try to put ourselves in the position of our correspondent, to imagine his feelings as he writes his letters, and to gauge his reaction as he receives ours." Government departments sent Gowers many examples of officialese so extreme as to be amusing; a small committee of senior officials formed to help him and comment on his proposals. The colleague on whom Gowers most relied was Llewelyn Wyn Griffith of the Inland Revenue, whose contribution Gowers acknowledged in the prefaces to "Plain Words" and its two successors. "Plain Words", 1948. The result of Gowers's work was "Plain Words", a 94-page booklet. It was judged successful by the civil service, and the Treasury considered that it should be made publicly available. Had Gowers written it as part of his duties while still a civil servant it would have automatically been Crown Copyright, but as he had not begun it until after his retirement he owned the rights. The Treasury offered a flat fee of £500, but he successfully held out for a royalty on every copy sold. The government publisher, His Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO), issued the booklet for sale in April 1948. It was priced at two shillings (10 pence in British decimal currency); between April and Christmas 1948 it sold more than 150,000 copies and had to be reprinted seven times. Reviewers responded favourably. "The Times Literary Supplement", praised the book and engaged in a little mock-officialese of its own: "It deserves to be a 'best seller' (or perhaps we should say that in all the circumstances it may reasonably be anticipated that it will be found to evoke a relatively considerable demand on the part of the general public)." "The Times" devoted a leader to the work, and concluded, "for all its cool urbanity "Plain Words" is written with missionary zeal". "The Manchester Guardian" considered that by commissioning "Plain Words" from Gowers "the Treasury has put us all in its debt." "The Economist" commented, "The Stationery Office must have enjoyed publishing this book. It is great fun to read". Occasionally Gowers's humour misled literal-minded reviewers. "The Daily Mail", Harold Nicolson and the grammarian G H Vallins objected to the conspicuously un-plain words of Gowers's opening sentences: When revising the text in preparation for "The Complete Plain Words", Gowers abandoned the joke, and rewrote the second sentence as, "I suspect that this project may be received by many of them without any marked enthusiasm or gratitude." A substantive objection by Vallins to "the cult of 'plain English'" was his view that verbose phrases lose important nuances when reduced to plain words. He gave as an example "evacuated to alternative accommodation", which in his opinion has overtones that Gowers's "taken to other houses" lacks. "ABC of Plain Words", 1951. The Treasury invited Gowers to build on the success of "Plain Words" by producing a second volume of advice on good, clear writing. As with its predecessor, he "had many helpers to thank", including Griffith and other civil service colleagues. He also drew on the works of well-known writers on English usage, including H W Fowler, A P Herbert and Eric Partridge. "The ABC of Plain Words" had 160 pages, and was priced at three shillings (15p). Gowers explained the purpose of the new book in his preface, "We must have something that can be kept on the desk and consulted on points of difficulty as they arise. "Plain Words" is of little use for that: it has not even an index". The new work consisted of articles, mostly brief, on points of vocabulary, grammar, construction, punctuation and style, set out in alphabetical order, beginning with "Abstract words" and ending with "Write". The former was one of the longer entries, explaining the dangers of overuse of abstract words, and recommending concrete terms where possible. Thus, "Was this the realisation of an anticipated liability?" would be better as, "Did you expect to have to do this?" The entry on "Write" was an example of one of the short articles on particular words; it pointed out that "I wrote to you about it" needs the "to" but "I wrote you a letter" does not. Gowers and his successors revised their advice as usage changed over the years. Two consecutive entries in "The ABC" illustrate how some comments have become dated and others have not: Gowers warned in 1951 that the word "backlog" meaning "arrears" would be unintelligible to British readers, and in the next entry he advised that the construction "on a ... basis" should be avoided. The latter remains a frequent feature of loose writing and all the editions of the "Plain Words" books retain and expand Gowers's advice, whereas within three years of writing "The ABC", Gowers noted in "The Complete Plain Words" that "backlog" was rapidly and usefully establishing itself in British usage. Neither the Treasury nor HMSO expected the second book to rival the popularity of its predecessor, but it sold nearly 80,000 copies in its first year. Gowers was nevertheless not wholly happy with it. He thought the A–Z layout had two disadvantages. The first was that it gave the wrong impression that all the topics were of equal importance; the second was that the people most in need of advice would not think to look up the relevant entry: "There is no reason why anyone addicted to abstract nouns, unconscious of any offence, should ever be prompted to read that article; nor can I think of any other title for it that would be more likely to throw it in his way." "The Complete Plain Words", 1954. By 1954 both books were still selling well. Almost 300,000 copies of "Plain Words" and more than 130,000 of "The ABC" had been sold. The Treasury, HMSO and Gowers agreed that the obvious and best course would be to combine the two booklets into a single volume. This Gowers did, with help from his colleagues, as before; he made many revisions as a result of "the many correspondents from all parts of the English-speaking world who have been good enough … to send me suggestions, criticisms and specimens". An example of his revisions is in the entry on "bottleneck", of which in 1951 he had written four brief sentences warning against overuse: in 1954 he felt it necessary to write 270 words, so ubiquitous had the term become. (By the time of the 1973 revision the fad for the word had declined, and Fraser's entry is very much shorter.) "The Complete Plain Words" contained 226 pages, including seven pages of index. It was a hardback, in green cloth binding with dust-jacket, in HMSO's preferred size, used for the two earlier Plain Words books, 8.4in x 5.25in (21.3 cm x 13.3 cm). It was published in September 1954 at what "The Manchester Guardian" called the remarkably cheap price of five shillings (25p). "The Times Literary Supplement" greeted the publication: "It may be hoped that in this more durable form the book's good influence will continue to spread: Civil Servants have not been alone in profiting from it in the past, nor should they be in the future." The book has remained in print, in its original and revised editions, ever since. Between Gowers's prologue and epilogue there is a Digression on Legal English followed by chapters on The Elements, Correctness, Avoiding the Superfluous Word, Choosing the Familiar Word, Choosing the Precise Word, The Handling of Words, and Punctuation. 1973 revision by Bruce Fraser. The 1954 text was reprinted seven times during Gowers's lifetime, and he made a number of amendments in the various impressions. Changing times in the 1960s meant that a substantial revision was needed if the book was to continue to fulfil its purpose. Gowers, fully occupied for a decade in making the first revision of Fowler's "Modern English Usage", was unable to carry out the task; he died in 1966, a few months after the publication of the revised Fowler. Another retired senior civil servant, Bruce Fraser, was asked to revise "The Complete Plain Words". The new edition, 250 pages long, was published by HMSO at £1, in hardback with black cloth binding and dust-jacket, in the same format as the first edition. Fraser preserved Gowers's structure, and added three new chapters, the most important of which was titled "Some recent trends"; it covered the increasing prevalence of informality, and the influences of America, science, technology, economics, business, and personnel management. The final sections of the chapter were on "vogue words" and "modish writing". Fraser noted that though Gowers had said approvingly in 1954 that the use of the subjunctive was dying out, it was now, under the influence of American writing, making an unwelcome reappearance in English usage. Reviewing the new edition in "The Times Literary Supplement", David Hunt commented of Fraser, "his wit, perhaps a little drier and more Scottish, is equally acute, diverting and instructive". In "The Times", Dennis Potter said that the book remained "the happiest thing to come out of the Treasury". He praised Fraser for replacing Gowers's dated examples of officialese with modern specimens and updating the text to reflect current trends, but concluded: The Fraser edition was reprinted in hardback three times between 1973 and 1983. Penguin published a paperback version in the UK in 1973, and in the US in 1975. 1986 revision by Sidney Greenbaum and Janet Whitcut. The third edition was commissioned not by the Treasury but by Her Majesty's Stationery Office, to mark its bicentenary. The revision was made not by an experienced public servant but by an academic and a lexicographer, Sidney Greenbaum, Quain Professor of English Language and Literature at University College, London and Janet Whitcut, formerly senior research editor of the Longman Dictionary. They chose to revise Fraser's 1973 version rather than starting from Gowers's original. Having two authors made it necessary to abandon Gowers's frequent use of the first person; Fraser had retained it, stating "...the reader may take it that 'I' means either 'Gowers agreed with by Fraser' or 'Fraser, confident that Gowers would agree with him'". With joint authors for the new edition, this could not be sustained, and the change from first person to impersonal removed some of the book's previous character. An example is in the section on punctuation, where Gowers wrote, "The author of the style-book of the Oxford University Press... says 'If you take hyphens seriously you will surely go mad'. I have no intention of taking hyphens seriously." In the new edition the second sentence read, "You should not take hyphens seriously". Rebecca Gowers objects that this approach "systematically depersonalise[s] the writing". The new edition, in the same format as its two predecessors, is in blue cloth, with dust-jacket, and has 298 pages. A paperback version was issued by Penguin Books in 1987, and an American hardback edition was published in 1988 by Godine Publishing, Boston. 2014 revision by Rebecca Gowers. The last direct link between "Plain Words" and the public service was broken in 1996, when HMSO was dismembered under governmental privatisation policy. The 2014 edition of the book was published by Particular Books, an imprint of Penguin Books. It was printed on lower-weight paper and in a smaller format than its predecessors. The reviser was Rebecca Gowers, Ernest's great-granddaughter, a novelist and author of a non-fiction book about a Victorian murder. She begins the new edition with a twenty-page preface that includes a biographical sketch of Ernest Gowers and a history of the revisions after his death. Unlike the three earlier revisers, Rebecca Gowers generally avoids merging her own comments with the original text. Her practice is to retain Ernest Gowers's remarks and append updated observations in a separate note. An example is the entry on the use of the noun "issue". The original words were: To which the reviser has added: Although Fraser, Greenbaum and Whitcut remained broadly faithful to Gowers's original structure and chapter headings, with some minor changes, Rebecca Gowers reverts to the original almost exclusively. The modernisations she introduces, such as the consideration of gender-neutral language, are incorporated into the chapters of the 1954 book.

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Jacques Barzun Jacques Martin Barzun (; November 30, 1907 – October 25, 2012) was a French-American historian known for his studies of the history of ideas and cultural history. He wrote about a wide range of subjects, including baseball, mystery novels, and classical music, and was also known as a philosopher of education. In the book "Teacher in America" (1945), Barzun influenced the training of schoolteachers in the United States. He published more than forty books, was awarded the American Presidential Medal of Freedom, and was designated a knight of the French Legion of Honor. The historical retrospective "" (2000), widely considered his "magnum opus", was published when he was 93 years old. Life. Jacques Martin Barzun was born in Créteil, France, to Henri-Martin and Anna-Rose Barzun, and spent his childhood in Paris and Grenoble. His father was a member of the Abbaye de Créteil group of artists and writers, and also worked in the French Ministry of Labor. His parents' Paris home was frequented by many modernist artists of "Belle Époque" France, such as the poet Guillaume Apollinaire, the Cubist painters Albert Gleizes and Marcel Duchamp, the composer Edgard Varèse, and the writers Richard Aldington and Stefan Zweig. While on a diplomatic mission to the United States during the First World War (1914–1918), Barzun's father so liked the country he decided that his son should receive an American university education; thus, the twelve-year-old Jacques Martin attended a university-preparatory school and then Columbia University, where he obtained a liberal arts education. As an undergraduate at Columbia College, Barzun was drama critic for the "Columbia Daily Spectator", a prize-winning president of the Philolexian Society, the Columbia literary and debate club, and valedictorian of the class of 1927. He obtained his Ph.D. from Columbia in 1932 and taught history there from 1928 to 1955, becoming the Seth Low Professor of History and a founder of the discipline of cultural history. For years, he and literary critic Lionel Trilling conducted Columbia's famous Great Books course. He was elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1954. From 1955 to 1968, he served as Dean of the Graduate School, Dean of Faculties, and Provost, while also being an Extraordinary Fellow of Churchill College at the University of Cambridge. From 1968 until his 1975 retirement, he was University Professor at Columbia. From 1951 to 1963 Barzun was one of the managing editors of The Readers' Subscription Book Club, and its successor the Mid-Century Book Society (the other managing editors being W. H. Auden and Lionel Trilling), and afterwards was Literary Adviser to Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975 to 1993. In 1936, Barzun married Mariana Lowell, a violinist from a prominent Boston family. They had three children: James, Roger, and Isabel. Mariana died in 1979. In 1980, Barzun married Marguerite Lee Davenport. From 1996 the Barzuns lived in her hometown, San Antonio, Texas. His granddaughter Lucy Barzun Donnelly was a producer of the award-winning HBO film "Grey Gardens". His grandson, Matthew Barzun, is a businessman who served from 2009-2011 as the U.S. Ambassador to Sweden, and from 2013-2017 as Ambassador to the United Kingdom. On May 14, 2012 Jacques Barzun attended a symphony performance in his honor at which works by his favorite composer, Hector Berlioz, were performed. He attended in a wheelchair and delivered a brief address to the crowd. Barzun died at his home in San Antonio, Texas on October 25, 2012, aged 104. "The New York Times", which compared him with such scholars as Sidney Hook, Daniel Bell, and Lionel Trilling, called him a "distinguished historian, essayist, cultural gadfly and educator who helped establish the modern discipline of cultural history". Naming Edward Gibbon, Jacob Burckhardt and Thomas Babington Macaulay as his intellectual ancestors, and calling him "one of the West's most eminent historians of culture" and "a champion of the liberal arts tradition in higher education," who "deplored what he called the 'gangrene of specialism'", "The Daily Telegraph" remarked, "The sheer scope of his knowledge was extraordinary. Barzun's eye roamed over the full spectrum of Western music, art, literature and philosophy." Essayist Joseph Epstein, remembering him in the "Wall Street Journal" as a "flawless and magisterial" writer who tackled "Darwin, Marx, Wagner, Berlioz, William James, French verse, English prose composition, university teaching, detective fiction, [and] the state of intellectual life", described Barzun as a tall, handsome man with an understated elegance, thoroughly Americanized, but retaining an air of old-world culture, cosmopolitan in an elegant way rare for intellectuals". Career. Over seven decades, Barzun wrote and edited more than forty books touching on an unusually broad range of subjects, including science and medicine, psychiatry from Robert Burton through William James to modern methods, and art, and classical music; he was one of the all-time authorities on Hector Berlioz. Some of his books—particularly "Teacher in America" and "The House of Intellect"—enjoyed a substantial lay readership and influenced debate about culture and education far beyond the realm of academic history. Barzun had a strong interest in the tools and mechanics of writing and research. He undertook the task of completing, from a manuscript almost two-thirds of which was in first draft at the author's death, and editing (with the help of six other people), the first edition (published 1966) of "Follett's Modern American Usage". Barzun was also the author of books on literary style ("Simple and Direct", 1975), on the crafts of editing and publishing ("On Writing, Editing, and Publishing", 1971), and on research methods in history and the other humanities ("The Modern Researcher", which has seen at least six editions, and is one of the thousand most widely held library items according to the OCLC). Barzun did not disdain popular culture: his varied interests included detective fiction and baseball. His widely quoted statement, "Whoever wants to know the heart and mind of America had better learn baseball." was inscribed on a plaque at the Baseball Hall of Fame. He edited and wrote the introduction to the 1961 anthology, "The Delights of Detection", which included stories by G. K. Chesterton, Dorothy L. Sayers, Rex Stout, and others. In 1971, Barzun co-authored (with Wendell Hertig Taylor), "A Catalogue of Crime: Being a Reader's Guide to the Literature of Mystery, Detection, & Related Genres", for which he and his co-author received a Special Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America the following year. Barzun was also an advocate of supernatural fiction, and wrote the introduction to "The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural". Barzun was a proponent of the theatre critic and diarist James Agate, whom he compared in stature to Samuel Pepys. Barzun edited Agate's last two diaries into a new edition in 1951 and wrote an informative introductory essay, "Agate and His Nine Egos". Jacques Barzun continued to write on education and cultural history after retiring from Columbia. At 84 years of age, he began writing his swan song, to which he devoted the better part of the 1990s. The resulting book of more than 800 pages, "From Dawn to Decadence: 500 Years of Western Cultural Life, 1500 to the Present", revealed a vast erudition and brilliance undimmed by advanced age. Historians, literary critics, and popular reviewers all lauded "From Dawn to Decadence" as a sweeping and powerful survey of modern Western history, and it became a "New York Times" bestseller. With this work he gained an international reputation. Reviewing it in the "New York Times", historian William Everdell called the book "a great achievement" by a scholar "undiminished in his scholarship, research and polymathic interests," while also scrutinizing Barzun's scant treatment of figures like Walt Whitman and Karl Marx. The book introduces several novel typographic devices that aid an unusually rich system of cross-referencing and help keep many strands of thought in the book under organized control. Most pages feature a sidebar containing a pithy quotation, usually little known, and often surprising or humorous, from some author or historical figure. In 2007, Barzun commented that "Old age is like learning a new profession. And not one of your own choosing." As late as October 2011, one month before his 104th birthday, he reviewed Adam Kirsch's "Why Trilling Matters" for the "Wall Street Journal". In his philosophy of writing history, Barzun emphasized the role of storytelling over the use of academic jargon and detached analysis. He concluded in "From Dawn to Decadence" that "history cannot be a science; it is the very opposite, in that its interest resides in the particulars". Recognition. In 1968, Barzun received the St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates. Barzun was appointed a Chevalier of the National Order of the Legion of Honour. In 2003, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush. In 1993, his book "An Essay on French Verse: For Readers of English Poetry" won the Poetry Society of America's Melville Cane Poetry Award. On October 18, 2007, he received the 59th Great Teacher Award of the Society of Columbia Graduates "in absentia". On March 2, 2011, Barzun was awarded the 2010 National Humanities Medal by President Barack Obama, although he was not expected to be in attendance. On April 16, 2011, he received the Philolexian Award for Distinguished Literary Achievement "in absentia". The American Philosophical Society honors Barzun with its Jacques Barzun Prize in Cultural History, awarded annually since 1993 to the author of a recent distinguished work of cultural history. He also received the Gold Medal for Criticism from the American Academy of Arts and Letters, of which he was twice president.

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Ernest Gowers Sir Ernest Arthur Gowers (2 June 1880 – 16 April 1966) is best remembered for his book "Plain Words," first published in 1948, and his revision of Fowler's classic "Modern English Usage". Before making his name as an author, he had a long career in the Civil Service, which he entered in 1903. His final full-time appointment was as Senior Regional Commissioner for Civil Defence, London Region (1940–45). After the Second World War, he was appointed chairman of numerous government inquiries, including the 1949 Royal Commission into Capital Punishment. He was also chairman of the Harlow New Town Development Corporation. Education and early life. Gowers was born in London, the younger son of the neurologist Sir William Gowers and his wife, Mary, (daughter of Frederick Baines, one of the proprietors of the" Leeds Mercury"). The family lived in Queen Anne Street, W1. Ernest followed his elder brother, William Frederick Gowers (1875–1954), to Rugby School, where he excelled academically and in sport. At Rugby, Ernest was also noted as an outstanding organist, an accomplishment that became a lifelong hobby. Both boys won scholarships to read Classics at Cambridge--(William to Trinity College, Cambridge and Ernest to Clare College, Cambridge). Their sisters, Edith and Evelyn, mainly schooled at home, both lost their sight after developing Retinitis pigmentosa in early adult life. In 1905 Gowers married Constance Greer, daughter of Thomas Macgregor Greer (member of the Senate of Northern Ireland, and a Deputy-Lieutenant for Co. Antrim). They had two daughters and one son. While Gowers's elder brother went to Africa, Gowers joined the colonial civil service and rose to become Governor of Uganda (1925–32) and Senior Crown Agent for the Colonies (1932–38). Career. Civil service career. In 1902 Gowers graduated from Cambridge with a First in the Classical Tripos and attended Wren's, a civil service crammer in London, to study for the highly competitive Civil Service Examination. He also sat for the Inner Temple Bar exam, which he passed in 1906. In December 1903 he passed the Civil Service Examination, and embarked on the career that led to the claim that he "may be regarded as one of the greatest public servants of his day." Gowers entered the home civil service as an upper division clerk in the Department of Inland Revenue. He moved to the India Office in September 1904, and from March 1907 to October 1911, he was private secretary to successive Parliamentary Under-Secretaries for India, most notably Edwin Montagu. In October 1911 he was promoted to HM Treasury as private secretary to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, at a time when Lloyd George was introducing his controversial National Insurance Bill. In November 1912 Lloyd George appointed him to the National Health Insurance Commission, as one of a team of promising young civil servants (including John Anderson, Warren Fisher, Arthur Salter, and Claud Schuster) nicknamed the "Loan Collection" as they had been hand-picked from across the civil service. Gowers wrote later, "This gigantic task of bringing the National Health and Unemployment Insurance Acts into operation taught the Service what it could do, and the control of the whole of the social and economic life of the nation during the war drove home the lesson." The members of the loan collection were deployed to other departments during the First World War. While nominally continuing to hold his post, Gowers was attached to the Foreign Office working under Charles Masterman MP at Wellington House, Britain's top-secret wartime propaganda unit. Grappling with the coal industry. In 1917 Gowers was appointed secretary of the Conciliation and Arbitration Board for government employees. In 1919 he began a 25-year involvement with the coal industry, joining the Board of Trade as director of production in the mines department. The following year he was promoted to head the department as permanent under-secretary for mines, a position he retained throughout the Miners' Strike. In 1927 he became chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue. In 1930 Gowers was appointed chair of the newly established Coal Mines Reorganisation Commission, set up under the Coal Mines Act of 1930, in an attempt to improve the efficiency of British coal mines, but deficiencies in the Act soon became evident. "The Times" commented, "Sir Ernest Gowers and his colleagues struggled manfully with their difficulties, but Parliament had inadvertently tied their hands behind their backs." A new and more powerful body, the Coal Commission, was set up in 1938, with Gowers as chairman. In July 1942 all unmined coal in Britain ceased to be the property of the colliery owners and was vested in the Coal Commission. Senior Regional Commissioner for Civil Defence, London Region. Throughout the 1930s Gowers and his colleagues had also been involved in preparing for possible war, and invasion. From 1935 onwards he combined his frustrating work with the coal industry with civil defence planning, attached to the Department for the Co-ordination of Defence. John Anderson was given control of civil defence planning in 1938 and set up a network of civil defence regions. Euan Wallace MP was appointed head of London Region, but ill-health forced him to retire in 1940. Gowers, his deputy, became Senior Regional Commissioner for Civil Defence in London, running civil defence through the Blitz from a concrete bunker underneath the Natural History Museum, with Harold Scott and Edward "Teddy" Evans as his deputies. The prime minister, Winston Churchill, told Gowers, "If communication with the Government becomes very difficult or impossible, it may be necessary for you to act on behalf of the Government… without consultation with ministers." Churchill promised that in such an event Gowers would have the Government's backing. In a biographical sketch of Gowers, his great-granddaughter Rebecca Gowers comments that this potentially gave him direct responsibility for governing seven million people, though at the time he wrote of himself as "but a transient and embarrassed phantom flitting across the stage of history." "The Times" wrote of Gowers, "In this post he showed his full powers as an administrator, and indeed as a leader. Energetic, forceful, always cheerful, with an unfailing eye for the essential, he gave the impression of being master of every unexpected development and, as a result, infused confidence into all who came in contact with him." His wife became a member of the Women's Voluntary Service and ran the Gordon Services Club, a hostel for soldiers on leave in London. Post-war reconstruction. After the war Gowers was appointed chairman of the Harlow New Town Development Corporation, one of several new towns being built to provide housing for people displaced by wartime bombing, but he fell foul of the bureaucracy in the Ministry for Town and Country Planning and his three-year contract was not renewed. He was told that he was too old. This did not prevent his being invited to chair a series of committees of inquiry on Women in the Foreign Service (1945); Closing Hours of Shops (1946); Houses of Outstanding Historic or Architectural Interest (1948); and Foot-and-mouth Disease (1952). In 1949 Gowers was appointed chairman of the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment (1949–53), set up by the Attlee government in an attempt to defuse the long-term political debate over capital punishment, but the terms of reference did not include provision for recommending its abolition. He was profoundly affected by the evidence presented to the commission and said later that what he learned as chairman of the commission converted him from vague support of capital punishment to strong opposition. As a result, he wrote "A Life for a Life? The Problem of Capital Punishment" (1956), of which H L A Hart wrote, "Certainly the publication of this report in England introduced altogether new standards of clarity and relevance into discussions of a subject which had too often been obscured by ignorance and prejudice." The political debate dragged on and it was not until 1965 that capital punishment was effectively abolished in England. "Plain Words" and "Modern English Usage". Gowers first went into print on the subject of bureaucratic English usage, in 1929. in an article entitled "Mainly About the King's English", and he continued this crusade throughout his career. After the WW II, Sir Edward Bridges, head of the home civil service, invited him to write a pamphlet on English usage for use in civil service training courses. The resulting "Plain Words", a work 94 pages long, became an instant success, not only within the civil service but internationally. It was published in April 1948 and by Christmas of that year, it was in its eighth impression, with more than 150,000 copies sold. It was followed by the "ABC of Plain Words" (1951), and the two books were combined in 1954 and published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office as "The Complete Plain Words." This was revised in 1973 by Sir Bruce Fraser, and then in 1986 by Sidney Greenbaum and Janet Whitcut. In March 2014, a new revision, by Gowers's great-granddaughter Rebecca Gowers, was published by Penguin Books. In 1956, at the age of 76, Gowers accepted a commission from the Oxford University Press to undertake the first revision of HWFowler's "Modern English Usage", which had been in print since 1926 with only very minor changes. It took Gowers nine years to complete the task. In 1996, Gowers' edition was succeeded by a more radical revision, edited by Robert Burchfield. Gowers bought a house in Sussex in the 1930s and lived permanently after the war, writing books and managing a small farm. He became chairman of the board of the hospital where his father had worked, the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases (now the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery), Queen Square, London, and was on the board of Le Court Cheshire Home near Petersfield. Gowers died in April 1966, at King Edward VII Hospital, Midhurst, Sussex, age 85, nine months after his revision of Fowler's "Modern English Usage" was published. Honours and awards. Gowers was created CB in 1917, Chevalier of the Order of the Crown of Belgium in 1918, KBE in 1926, KCB in 1928, GBE in 1945, and GCB in 1953. He was Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod of the Order of the British Empire, 1952–60. He was a Freeman of Royal Borough of the Kingston-on-Thames. Gowers received an honorary doctorate from Manchester University, was an honorary fellow of Clare College, Cambridge, and an honorary Associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and was elected president of the English Association (1956–57). Personal life. Ernest Gowers and Constance (Kit) had three children and six grandchildren, for whom they always offered an open house in the school holidays. When Kit died in 1952, one of their daughters, the oboist Peggy Shiffner, gave up her career and moved in to look after him, also working as a volunteer at Le Court. The composer Patrick Gowers was his grandson, and the mathematician Sir Timothy Gowers is his great-grandson.

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William Zinsser William Knowlton Zinsser (October 7, 1922 – May 12, 2015) was an American writer, editor, literary critic, and teacher. He began his career as a journalist for the "New York Herald Tribune", where he worked as a feature writer, drama editor, film critic and editorial writer. He was a longtime contributor to leading magazines. Early life and family. Zinsser attended Buckley Country Day School, Deerfield Academy and graduated from Princeton University. He married Carolyn Fraser Zinsser, with whom he had two children, including John Zinsser, a painter. The Zinssers lived in New York City and in Niantic, Connecticut. One of his cousins married Konrad Adenauer; another was the spouse of John J. McCloy; Zinsser wrote, "So it happened that the two men who collaborated most closely on the creation of the new Germany were Zinsser relatives." Professional background. Zinsser taught writing at Yale University, where he was the fifth master of Branford College (1973–1979). He served as executive editor of the Book-of-the-Month Club from 1979 to 1987. He retired from teaching at The New School and the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism because of advancing glaucoma. His 18 books include "On Writing Well", which is in the 30th edition; "Writing to Learn"; "Writing with a Word Processor"; "Mitchell & Ruff" (originally published as "Willie and Dwike"); "Spring Training"; "American Places"; "Easy to Remember: The Great American Songwriters and Their Songs"; "Writing About Your Life"; and most recently, "Writing Places", an autobiography. "The American Scholar" ran William Zinsser's weekly web posting, "Zinsser on Friday," featuring his short essays on writing, the arts, and popular culture. In his books, Zinsser emphasizes the word "economy". Author James J. Kilpatrick, in his book "The Writer's Art", says that if he were limited to just one book on how to write, it would be William Zinsser's "On Writing Well". He adds, "Zinsser's sound theory is that 'writing improves in direct ratio to the number of things we can keep out of it." Zinsser encouraged memoir writers to believe in their own uniqueness and defined success as "doing what you want to do and doing it well". Zinsser interviewed Woody Allen in 1963 for the "Saturday Evening Post". After a chance encounter in 1980, Allen cast Zinsser, a Protestant, in a small role as a Catholic priest in his film "Stardust Memories". Death. Zinsser died at the age of 92 in Manhattan on May 12, 2015.

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Gary Provost Gary Provost (November 14, 1944 – May 10, 1995) was an American writer and writing instructor, author of works including "Make every word count: a guide to writing that works—for fiction and nonfiction" (1980) and "100 Ways to Improve Your Writing: Proven Professional Techniques for Writing with Style and Power" (1985). Life and career. Provost grew up in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Upon leaving school in 1962, Provost hitchhiked across the United States. A children's book that Provost wrote with his wife, Gail, titled "David and Max," won the 2007 "Skipping Stones Honor Award." His sudden death in 1995 interrupted his then-ongoing projects, including a book about Humphrey Bogart. Complete work. Writing instructions. Make Every Word Count (1990) 100 Ways To Improve Your Writing (1985) How to Tell a Story: The Secrets of Writing Captivating Tales (1998) (with Peter Rubie) Beyond Style: Mastering the Finer Points of Writing (1988) The Freelance Writer's Handbook (1982) How to Write and Sell True Crime (1991) Make Your Words Work (1991) True crime. Perfect Husband: The True Story of the Trusting Bride Who Discovered Her Husband Was a Coldblooded Killer (1992) Finder: The True Story of a Private Investigator (1988) (with Maryilin Greene) Fatal Dosage: The True Story of a Nurse on Trial for Murder (1985) Across The Border: The True Story of the Satanic Cult Killings in Matamoros, Mexico (1989) Without Mercy: Obsession and Murder Under The Influence (1990) Into Their Own Hands (1994) Biography. High Stakes: Inside the New Las Vegas (1994) Bogart: In Search of My Father (1995) (by Stephen Bogart) Finder: The True Story of a Private Investigator (1988) (with Marilyn Greene) Mystery. Baffled In Boston (2001) Satire. The Dorchester Gas Tank (2016) Romance. Share The Dream (1983) Pre-teen novel. Popcorn (1985) (with Gail Provost Stockwell) David and Max (1988, winner of the 2007 Skipping Stones Book Award) (with Gail Provost Stockwell) Good If It Goes (1984,winner of the 1985 National Jewish Book Award for Children's Literature) (with Gail Provost Stockwell) The Pork Chop War (1982)

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Henry Watson Fowler Henry Watson Fowler (10 March 1858 – 26 December 1933) was an English schoolmaster, lexicographer and commentator on the usage of the English language. He is notable for both "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage" and his work on the "Concise Oxford Dictionary", and was described by "The Times" as "a lexicographical genius". After an Oxford education, Fowler was a schoolmaster until his middle age and then worked in London as a freelance writer and journalist, but was not very successful. In partnership with his brother Francis, beginning in 1906, he began publishing seminal grammar, style and lexicography books. After his brother's death in 1918, he completed the works on which they had collaborated and edited additional works. Biography. Youth and studies. Fowler was born on 10 March 1858 in Tonbridge, Kent. His parents, the Rev. Robert Fowler and his wife Caroline, "née" Watson, were originally from Devon. Robert Fowler was a Cambridge graduate, clergyman and schoolmaster. At the time of Henry's birth he was teaching mathematics at Tonbridge School, but the family soon moved to nearby Tunbridge Wells. Henry was the eldest child of eight, and his father's early death in 1879 left him to assume a leading role in caring for his younger brothers and sister (Charles, Alexander, [Edward] Seymour, Edith, Arthur, Francis and [Herbert] Samuel). Henry Fowler spent some time at a boarding school in Germany before enrolling at Rugby School in 1871. He concentrated on Latin and Greek, winning a school prize for his translation into Greek verse of part of Percy Bysshe Shelley's play "Prometheus Unbound". He also took part in drama and debating and in his final year served as head of his house, School House. He was greatly inspired by one of his classics teachers, Robert Whitelaw, with whom he kept up a correspondence later in life. In 1877 Fowler began attending Balliol College, Oxford. He did not excel at Oxford as he had at Rugby, earning only second-class honours in both Moderations and Literae Humaniores. Although he participated little in Oxford sport, he did begin a practice that he was to continue for the rest of his life: a daily morning run followed by a swim in the nearest body of water. He left Oxford in 1881, but was not awarded a degree until 1886, because he failed to pass his Divinity examination. Teaching. Trusting in the judgement of the Balliol College master that he had "a natural aptitude for the profession of Schoolmaster", Fowler took up a temporary teaching position at Fettes College in Edinburgh. After spending two terms there, he moved south again to Yorkshire (present-day Cumbria) to begin a mastership at Sedbergh School in 1882. There he taught Latin, Greek and English, starting with the first form, but soon switching to the sixth form. He was a respected but uninspiring teacher, earning the nickname "Joey Stinker" owing to his propensity for tobacco smoking. Several of the Fowler brothers were reunited at Sedbergh. Charles Fowler taught temporarily at the school during the illness of one of the house masters. Arthur Fowler had transferred from Rugby to Sedbergh for his last eighteen months at school and later became a master there. Samuel, the troublesome youngest brother, was sent to Sedbergh, probably to be taken care of by Henry and Arthur, but he stayed only a year before leaving the school, and of him nothing further is known. Henry Fowler made several lifelong friends at Sedbergh, who often accompanied him on holiday to the Alps. These included Ralph St John Ainslie, a music teacher and caricaturist; E. P. Lemarchand, whose sister eventually married Arthur Fowler; Bernard Tower, who went on to become headmaster at Lancing; and George Coulton, who was to write the first biography of Henry Fowler. Despite being the son of a clergyman, Fowler had been an atheist for quite some time, though he rarely spoke of his beliefs in public. He had the chance of becoming a housemaster at Sedbergh on three occasions. The third offer was accompanied by a long discussion with the headmaster, Henry Hart, about the religious requirements for the post, which included preparing the boys for confirmation in the Church of England. This was against Fowler's principles, and when it became clear that no compromise on this matter was possible, he resigned. London. In the summer of 1899 Fowler moved to a house at 14 Paultons Square, Chelsea, London (where there is now a blue plaque in his honour), and sought work as a freelance writer and journalist, surviving on his meagre writer's earnings and a small inheritance from his father. In his first published article, "Books We Think We Have Read" (1900), he first discusses the habit among Englishmen of pretending a familiarity with certain books—such as the works of Shakespeare or books considered "juvenile"—then proceeds to recommend that the savouring of these books should be "no tossing off of ardent spirits, but the connoisseur's deliberate rolling in the mouth of some old vintage". In "Outdoor London", published a year later in the short-lived "Anglo-Saxon Review", Fowler describes the sights and sounds of his new home, praising its plants, its Cockney inhabitants, and its magical night scenes. Writing partnership. In 1903, he moved to the island of Guernsey, where he worked with his brother Francis George Fowler. Their first joint project was a translation of the works of Lucian of Samosata. The translation, described by "The Times" as of "remarkable quality", was taken up by the Oxford University Press and published in four volumes in 1905. Their next work was "The King's English" (1906), a book meant to encourage writers to be stylistically simple and direct and not to misuse words. This book "took the world by storm". Fowler collected some of his journalistic articles into volumes and published them pseudonymously, including "More Popular Fallacies" (1904) by "Quillet", and "Si mihi —!" (1907) by "Egomet". In 1908, on his fiftieth birthday, he married Jessie Marian Wills (1862–1930). It was an exceptionally happy, but childless, marriage. The Oxford University Press commissioned from the Fowler brothers a single-volume abridgement of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), which was published as the "Concise Oxford Dictionary" in 1911. The Concise Oxford has remained in print ever since, being regularly revised. The next commission for the brothers was a much smaller, pocket-sized abridgement of the OED at the same time they were working on "Modern English Usage"; work on both began in 1911, with Henry Fowler concentrating on "Modern English Usage" and Francis on the pocket dictionary. Neither work was complete at the start of World War I. In 1914, Fowler and his younger brother volunteered for service in the British army. To gain acceptance, the 56-year-old Henry lied about his age. Both he and Francis were invalided out of the army in 1916 and resumed work on "Modern English Usage". In 1918, Francis died aged 47 of tuberculosis, contracted during service with the BEF. After his brother's death, Henry Fowler and his wife moved to Hinton St George in Somerset, where he worked on the Pocket Oxford Dictionary and "Modern English Usage", which he dedicated to his brother. Later years. "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage", published in 1926, considered by many to be the definitive style guide to the English language, "made the name of Fowler a household word in all English-speaking countries". "The Times" described it as a "fascinating, formidable book". Winston Churchill directed his officials to read it. The success of the book was such that the publishers had to reprint it three times in the first year of publication, and there were twelve further reprints before a second edition was finally commissioned in the 1960s. On the death of its original editor in 1922, Fowler helped complete the first edition of the "Shorter Oxford English Dictionary", under the editorship of C.T. Onions. In 1929 Fowler republished "Si mihi—!" under his own name as "If Wishes were Horses", and another volume of old journalistic articles under the title "Some Comparative Values." On 26 December 1933, Fowler died at his home, "Sunnyside", Hinton St George, England, aged 75. Legacy. Currently, "The King's English" and "Modern English Usage" remain in print. The latter was updated by Sir Ernest Gowers for the second edition (1965) and largely rewritten by Robert Burchfield for the third (1996). A "Pocket edition" () edited by Robert Allen, based on Burchfield's edition, is available online to subscribers of the Oxford Reference On-line Premium collection. A biography of Fowler was published in 2001 called "The Warden of English." The author was Jenny McMorris (1946–2002), archivist to the "Oxford English Dictionary" at the Oxford University Press. "The Times" described the book as "an acclaimed and meticulously researched biography". "The Word Man", a play about Fowler's life and career by the writer Chris Harrald, was broadcast on BBC Radio 4's "Afternoon Play" on 17 January 2008. External links. [[Category:1858 births]] [[Category:1933 deaths]] [[Category:English lexicographers]] [[Category:Schoolteachers from Kent]] [[Category:English male journalists]] [[Category:People from Tonbridge]] [[Category:Guernsey people]] [[Category:People educated at Rugby School]] [[Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford]] [[Category:20th-century deaths from tuberculosis]] [[Category:Writers of style guides]] [[Category:Tuberculosis deaths in England]]

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Roy Peter Clark Roy Peter Clark (born 1948) is an American writer, editor, and teacher of writing who has become a writing coach to an international community of students, journalists, and writers. He is also senior scholar and vice president of the Poynter Institute for Media Studies, a journalism think-tank in St. Petersburg, Florida, and is the founder of the National Writers Workshop. Clark has appeared on several radio and television talk shows, speaking about ethics in journalism and other writing issues. Life and career. Clark is a native of the Lower East Side of New York City, and was raised on Long Island. His mother was of half-Italian and half-Jewish ancestry (Clark was raised Catholic). Clark earned a degree in English (1970) from Providence College, Rhode Island, where he was editor of "The Alembic", a literary journal, and managing editor of the student-run newspaper, "The Cowl". From there, Clark earned a Ph.D. in English, specializing in medieval literature, from the State University of New York at Stony Brook. In 1974, Clark accepted a position teaching English at Auburn University at Montgomery, Alabama. Newspaper columns he wrote during that time attracted the attention of Eugene Patterson, editor of the "St. Petersburg Times". Patterson hired Clark in 1977 as a reporter and to work with the newspaper’s staff as a writing coach. In 1979, Clark became a faculty member at, and has spent more than thirty years working in various positions with the Poynter Institute, the non-profit organization that now owns Times Publishing Company, which publishes the "St. Petersburg Times". Clark is listed as one of the Directors and Officers of The Poynter Institute Andrea Pitzer, writing for the Nieman Foundation for Journalism at Harvard University, has called Clark “one of narrative journalism’s hardest working midwives.” The publication of his three most recent books, "Writing Tools: 50 Essential Strategies for Every Writer" (Little, Brown and Company, 2006) and "The Glamour of Grammar: A Guide to the Magic and Mystery of Practical English" (Little, Brown and Company, 2010), and "Help! For Writers: 210 Solutions to the Problems Every Writer Faces" (Little, Brown and Company, 2011) brings Clark’s work into the mainstream audience of readers, writers, and lovers of language. Clark and his wife, Karen, have three daughters. Works. Academic Works. Clark, a product of Catholic schools and the Dominican-run Providence College, wrote several articles based on Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, some of which were published in The Chaucer Review and in which he discusses Chaucer's parodying of Church teachings and rituals. His Ph.D. dissertation was titled "Chaucer and Medieval Scatology." Journalism. Clark's journalistic writings include works written as a journalist and works written about journalism. As a journalist, Clark revitalized the serial article form when, in 1996, he wrote a 29-part serial narrative piece called Three Little Words which chronicled the story of one family's experience with AIDS. The article generated more than 8,000 phone calls to the newspaper. Clark writes about journalism through his online articles written for the Poynter Institute. In an updated look at serial reporting, for instance, Clark discussed how tweeting, social media, and other forms of 21st century culture are being used to write mini serial narratives. Clark has also written and edited a number of books about journalism, some of which are used as textbooks in college journalism courses, including "Coaching Writers: Editors and Reporters Working Together" (St. Martin's Press,1991, with Don Fry), the second edition of which was titled "Coaching Writers: Editors and Reporters Working Together across Media Platforms" (Bedford-St. Martin's, 2003, with Don Fry), and "Journalism: The Democratic Craft" (Oxford University Press, 2005, with G. Stuart Adam). On Writing. Clark has taught writing to professional journalists, scholastic journalists (generally speaking, the student producers of high school and other student-run newspapers), and elementary school students. In his book, "Free to Write: A Journalist Teaches Young Writers" (Heinemann, 1987/1995), and in other writing, Clark advocates putting the responsibility for correcting written work on the student rather than on the teacher. Clark's more recent books are useful to writers of all genres and of all ages and discuss the power of language as well as how to wield that power. "Writing Tools: 50 Essential Strategies for Every Writer" (Little, Brown and Company, 2006) grew out of a series of columns written for Poynter. Clark discusses the 50 tools, including the "clarity and narrative energy" (p. 12) that comes with using right-branching sentences, in podcasts, which, according to Poynter, have been "downloaded more than a million times." In "The Glamour of Grammar: A Guide to the Magic and Mystery of Practical English" (Little, Brown and Company, 2010), Clark traces the words 'glamour' and 'grammar' back to their common roots. Clark also reports on how other writers write, as he did in a 2002 Poynter column about radio script writing, which he wrote after listening to a lecture by NPR reporter John Burnett. Radio and Television Appearances. Clark has been a guest on several radio and television programs. Most notably, Clark participated in a discussion on the January 26, 2006, episode of "The Oprah Winfrey Show", "Journalists Speak Out." Clark, along with then "New York Times" columnist Frank Rich and "Washington Post" columnist Richard Cohen discussed the veracity of James Frey's memoir, "A Million Little Pieces", which had been exposed by The Smoking Gun as being at least partially fictionalized. Clark appeared on the October 12, 2006, episode of Oprah, "Truth in America;" on the October 15, 2006, episode, "Developing Critical Literacy," Oprah referred to Clark's seven ways to develop a healthy skepticism, which included suggestions about reading political blogs from various perspectives, understanding the difference between "vigorous discussion" and shouting matches, valuing middle ground, experiencing life directly and not indirectly through TV and other media, and which concluded with this distinction between skepticism and cynicism: "Be a skeptic, but not a cynic. A skeptic doubts knowledge. A cynic doubts moral goodness. The cynic says, "All politicians are liars," or "all journalists have a secret bias." The skeptic says, "That doesn't sound right to me. Show me the evidence." The list above is a shorter version of another list Clark discussed in his Poynter.org post "Skepticism: The Antidote to 'Truthiness' in American Government and Media." Clark appeared on The Creative Nonfiction Podcast with Brendan O'Meara for two episodes, one abridged (Episode 48—Roy Peter Clark Redux), and one longer (Episode 42—Roy Peter Clark, America’s Writing Coach on Living Inside the Language, Lowering Standards, and the Meaning of Literacy).

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Herbert Read Sir Herbert Edward Read, (; 4 December 1893 – 12 June 1968) was an English art historian, poet, literary critic and philosopher, best known for numerous books on art, which included influential volumes on the role of art in education. Read was co-founder of the Institute of Contemporary Arts. As well as being a prominent English anarchist, he was one of the earliest English writers to take notice of existentialism. He was co-editor with Michael Fordham of the British edition in English of "The Collected Works of C. G. Jung". Early life. The eldest of four children of tenant farmer Herbert Edward Read (1868-1903), and his wife Eliza (née Strickland), Read was born at Muscoates Grange, near Nunnington, about four miles south of Kirkbymoorside in the North Riding of Yorkshire. George Woodcock, in "Herbert Read- The Stream and the Source" (1972), wrote: "rural memories are long... nearly sixty years after Read's father... had died and the family had left Muscoates, I heard it said that 'the Reads were snobs'. They employed a governess (and) rode to hounds..." After his father's death, the family, being tenants rather than owners, had to leave the farm; Read was sent to a school for orphans at Halifax, West Yorkshire, and his mother took a job managing a laundry in Leeds, where Read later joined her. Read's studies at the University of Leeds were interrupted by the outbreak of the First World War, during which he served with the Green Howards in France. He was commissioned in January 1915, received the Military Cross in 1917 and the Distinguished Service Order in 1918, He reached the rank of captain. During the war, Read founded the journal "Arts & Letters" with Frank Rutter, one of the first literary periodicals to publish work by T. S. Eliot. Early work. Read's first volume of poetry was "Songs of Chaos", self-published in 1915. His second collection, published in 1919, was called "Naked Warriors", and drew on his experiences fighting in the trenches of the First World War. His work, which shows the influence of Imagism and of the Metaphysical poets, was mainly in free verse. His "Collected Poems" appeared in 1946. As a critic of literature, Read mainly concerned himself with the English Romantic poets (for example, "The True Voice of Feeling: Studies in English Romantic Poetry", 1953) but was also a close observer of imagism. He published a novel, "The Green Child". He contributed to the "Criterion" (1922–39) and he was for many years a regular art critic for "The Listener". While W. B. Yeats chose many poets of the Great War generation for "The Oxford Book of Modern Verse" (1936), Read arguably stood out among his peers by virtue of the 17-page excerpt (nearly half of the entire work) of his "The End of a War" (Faber & Faber, 1933). Read was also interested in the art of writing. He cared deeply about style and structure and summarized his views in "English Prose Style" (1928), a primer on, and a philosophy of, good writing. The book is considered one of the best on the foundations of the English language, and how those foundations can be and have been used to write English with elegance and distinction. Art criticism. Read was a champion of modern British artists such as Paul Nash, Ben Nicholson, Henry Moore and Barbara Hepworth. He became associated with Nash's contemporary arts group Unit One. Read was professor of fine arts at the University of Edinburgh (1931–33) and editor of the trend-setting "The Burlington Magazine" (1933–38). He was one of the organisers of the London International Surrealist Exhibition in 1936 and editor of the book "Surrealism", published in 1936, which included contributions from André Breton, Hugh Sykes Davies, Paul Éluard, and Georges Hugnet. He also served as a trustee of the Tate Gallery and as a curator at the Victoria & Albert Museum (1922–39), as well as co-founding the Institute of Contemporary Arts with Roland Penrose in 1947. He was one of the earliest English writers to take notice of existentialism, and was strongly influenced by proto-existentialist thinker Max Stirner. From 1953 to 1954 Read served as the Norton Professor at Harvard University. For the academic year 1964–65 and again in 1965, he was a Fellow on the faculty at the Center for Advanced Studies of Wesleyan University. Poetry. Read's conception of poetry was influenced by his mentors T. E. Hulme, F. S. Flint, Marianne Moore, W. C. Williams, believing 'true poetry was never speech but always a song', quoted with the rest of his definition 'What is a Poem ' in his 1926 essay of that name (in his Endword to his Collected Poems of 1966). Read's 'Phases of English Poetry ' was an evolutionary study seeking to answer metaphysical rather than pragmatic questions. Read's definitive guide to poetry however, was his ' Form in Modern Poetry' which he published in 1932. In 1951 A. S. Collins the literary critic said of Read: "In his poetry he burnt the white ecstasy of intellect, terse poetry of austere beauty retaining much of his earliest Imagist style." A style much evident in Read's earliest collection "Eclogues" 1914-18. Anarchism and philosophical outlook. Politically, Read considered himself an anarchist, albeit in the English quietist tradition of Edward Carpenter and William Morris. Nevertheless, in 1953 he accepted a knighthood for "services to literature"; this caused Read to be ostracized by most of the anarchist movement. Read was actively opposed to the Franco regime in Spain, and often campaigned on behalf of political prisoners in Spain. Dividing Read's writings on politics from those on art and culture is difficult, because he saw art, culture and politics as a single congruent expression on human consciousness. His total work amounts to over 1,000 published titles. Read's book "To Hell With Culture" deals specifically with his disdain for the term "culture" and expands on his anarchist view of the artist as artisan, as well as presenting a major analysis of the work of Eric Gill. It was republished by Routledge in 2002. In his philosophical outlook, Read was close to the European idealist traditions represented by Friedrich Schelling, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, believing that reality as it is experienced by the human mind was as much a product of the human mind as any external or objective actuality. In other words, the mind is not a camera recording the reality it perceives through the eyes; it is also a projector throwing out its own reality. This meant that art was not, as many Marxists believed, simply a product of a bourgeois society, but a psychological process that had evolved simultaneously to the evolution of consciousness. Art was, therefore, a biological phenomenon, a view that frequently pitted Read against Marxist critics such as Anthony Blunt in the 1930s. Read, in this respect, was influenced by developments in German art psychology. His Idealist background also led Read towards an interest in psychoanalysis. Read became a pioneer in the English-speaking world in the use of psychoanalysis as a tool for art and literary criticism. Originally a Freudian, Read came to transfer his allegiance to the analytical psychology of Carl Jung, eventually becoming both publisher and editor-in-chief of Jung's collected works in English. As early as 1949, Read took an interest in the writings of the French Existentialists, particularly those of Jean-Paul Sartre. Although Read never described himself as an existentialist, he did acknowledge that his theories often found support among those who did. Read perhaps was the closest England came to an existentialist theorist of the European tradition. Views on education. Read developed a strong interest in the subject of education and particularly in art education. Read's anarchism was influenced by William Godwin, Peter Kropotkin and Max Stirner. Read "became deeply interested in children’s drawings and paintings after having been invited to collect works for an exhibition of British art that would tour allied and neutral countries during the Second World War. As it was considered too risky to transport across the Atlantic works of established importance to the national heritage, it was proposed that children’s drawings and paintings should be sent instead. Read, in making his collection, was unexpectedly moved by the expressive power and emotional content of some of the younger artist’s works. The experience prompted his special attention to their cultural value, and his engagement of the theory of children’s creativity with seriousness matching his devotion to the avant-garde. This work both changed fundamentally his own life’s work throughout his remaining 25 years and provided art education with a rationale of unprecedented lucidity and persuasiveness. Key books and pamphlets resulted: "Education through Art" (Read, 1943); "The Education of Free Men" (Read, 1944); "Culture and Education in a World Order" (Read, 1948); "The Grass Read", (1955); and "Redemption of the Robot" (1966)". Read "elaborated a socio-cultural dimension of creative education, offering the notion of greater international understanding and cohesiveness rooted in principles of developing the fully balanced personality through art education. Read argued in Education through Art that "every child, is said to be a potential neurotic capable of being saved from this prospect, if early, largely inborn, creative abilities were not repressed by conventional Education. Everyone is an artist of some kind whose special abilities, even if almost insignificant, must be encouraged as contributing to an infinite richness of collective life. Read’s newly expressed view of an essential "continuity" of child and adult creativity in everyone represented a synthesis' the two opposed models of twentieth-century art education that had predominated until this point...Read did not offer a curriculum but a theoretical defence of the genuine and true. His claims for genuineness and truth were based on the overwhelming evidence of characteristics revealed in his study of child art...From 1946 until his death in 1968 he was president of the Society for Education in Art (SEA), the renamed ATG, in which capacity he had a platform for addressing UNESCO...On the basis of such representation Read, with others, succeeded in establishing the International Society for Education through Art (INSEA) as an executive arm of UNESCO in 1954." Death and legacy. Following his death in 1968, Read was probably neglected due to the increasing predominance in academia of theories of art, including Marxism, which discounted his ideas. Yet his work continued to have influence. It was through Read's writings on anarchism that Murray Bookchin was inspired in the mid-1960s to explore the connections between anarchism and ecology. In 1971, a collection of his writings on anarchism and politics was republished, "Anarchy and Order," with an introduction by Howard Zinn. In the 1990s, there was a revival of interest in him following a major exhibition in 1993 at Leeds City Art Gallery and the publication of a collection of his anarchist writings, "A One-Man Manifesto and other writings for Freedom Press", edited by David Goodway. Since then, more of his work has been republished and there was a "Herbert Read Conference", at Tate Britain in June 2004. The library at the Cyprus College of Art is named after him, as is the art gallery at the University for the Creative Arts at Canterbury. Until the 1990s the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London staged an annual Herbert Read Lecture, which included well-known speakers such as Salman Rushdie. On 11 November 1985, Read was among 16 Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poet's Corner. The inscription on the stone was written by a fellow Great War poet, Wilfred Owen. It reads: "My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity." A 1937 reading by Read lasting seven minutes and titled "The Surrealist Object" can be heard on the audiobook CD "Surrealism Reviewed", published in 2002. He was the father of the well-known writer Piers Paul Read, the BBC documentary maker John Read, and the art historian Ben Read.

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Horace Hart Horace Henry Hart (1840 – 9 October 1916) was an English printer and biographer. He was the author of "Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers", first issued in 1893. Biography. Hart was born in Suffolk in 1840; his father was a shoemaker. He was sent to the printers Woodfall & Kinder in London at the age of fourteen, and was apprenticed to the compositor’s trade two years later. He became the manager of Woodfall & Kinder by the age of twenty-six, but left to take over management of the London branch of the Edinburgh-based Ballantyne Press. He left Ballantyne Press in 1880, when he was appointed manager of the head office and main works of William Clowes & Sons, which was then the biggest printing house in Britain. He left, however, after only three years at Clowes, when vacancy for Controller of the Oxford University Press (OUP) was advertised. Hart thus served as Printer to the University of Oxford and Controller of the University Press between 1883 and 1915. During that time, he convinced the Press to begin using wood-pulp paper, and also introduced collotype and printing by lithography. In 1896, he wrote a monograph on "Charles, Earl Stanhope and the Oxford University Press". In 1900, he wrote "Notes on a Century of Typography at the University Press Oxford 1693–1794". In 1893 he issued the first version of what became known as Hart's Rules as a single broadsheet page for in-house use. Although first issued internally at the Oxford University Press in 1893, these rules had their origins in 1864, when Hart was a member of the London Association of Correctors of the Press, working for Woodfall & Kinder. With a small group of fellow members from the same printing house, he drew up a list of "rules", which was constantly updated and revised during his career at three other printing houses. The last twenty years of Hart's life were plagued by bouts of depression and insomnia. He suffered his first nervous breakdown in 1887, followed by another in 1888. A final, severe breakdown led to his retirement from the OUP in 1915 at the age of seventy-five. The following year, he drowned himself in Youlbury Lake near Oxford, a secluded lake in the grounds of a neighbour's garden. His gloves were folded neatly on the bank.

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Allan M. Siegal Allan M. Siegal is an American journalist who spent nearly all of his long career at "The New York Times". Career. Siegal joined the "Times" in 1960 as a copy boy. He eventually worked his way up to becoming a copy editor. In the 60s Siegal briefly worked at ABC News but later returned to the "Times". In the 70s he went from editor to reporter and realized he enjoyed editing more than writing. He then asked to be reassigned to editing and was granted his request. He first worked on the foreign desk and later as the head of the news desk. Siegal was part of the team that turned the Pentagon Papers into news. In 1986 he became an assistant managing editor. Siegal is the lead editor of the Jayson Blair postmortem. During his time at the "New York Times", Siegal served as the in-house authority on language, style, taste, professional ethics and practical newspapering. He co-authored the "New York Times"' stylebook and its ethics manual along with designing the first computer system in the newsroom. His last post at the "Times" was as standards editor. His responsibilities as a standards editor includes maintaining the newspaper's ethics, accuracy, fairness, and accountability. This position was created in 2003. Prior to working as a standards editor, he was the Times veteran assistant managing editor. He retired on May 12 2006 at the age of 66.

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Robert Hartwell Fiske Robert Hartwell Fiske (March 5, 1948 – April 25, 2016) was a writer, editor, and publisher of "The Vocabula Review", an online journal about the English language, from 1999 until his death in 2016. He wrote several books about grammar and usage, including "To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing" (Norton, 2014), "The Dictionary of Unendurable English" (Scribner, 2011), "The Dimwit's Dictionary" (Marion Street Press, 2011), and "Elegant English" (Vocabula Communications Company, 2014). The purpose of the site, according to Fiske, was to encourage clear English and to discourage careless English. Among the schools which had bought licenses to the site were Columbia University, Princeton University, and Stanford University. After Fiske's death of melanoma in 2016 at the age of 68, essayist Joseph Epstein said that Fiske was "an unknown soldier in that most glorious and hopeless of wars, that against the ignorant and abusive use of language." He stated that Fiske's linguistic prescriptivism was not well-received by contemporary linguists. Reviewing "Vocabula Bound", a collection of essays and poems culled from "The Vocabula Review", linguist Alan Kaye said it is "far too prescriptivist in orientation for a sophisticated linguistic audience". In the Canadian newspaper the "National Post", a book reviewer said Fiske's "Dictionary of Unendurable English" would be enjoyed by "word snobs and copy editors" and would benefit those learning English. A book reviewer in the Canadian newspaper "The Globe and Mail" said that it is "so passionate in the prescriptivist cause of smiting the lax and the uncaring that the book at times resembles a parody of itself".

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William Strunk Jr. William Strunk Jr. (July 1, 1869 – September 26, 1946) was an American professor of English at Cornell University and author of "The Elements of Style" (1918). After revision and enlargement by his former student E. B. White, it became a highly influential guide to English usage during the late 20th century, commonly called Strunk & White. Life and career. Strunk was born and reared in Cincinnati, Ohio, the eldest of the four surviving children of William and Ella Garretson Strunk. He earned a bachelor's degree at the University of Cincinnati in 1890 and a PhD at Cornell University in 1896. He spent the academic year 1898–99 at the Sorbonne and the Collège de France, where he studied morphology and philology. Strunk first taught mathematics at Rose Polytechnical Institute in Terre Haute, Indiana in 1890–91. He then taught English at Cornell for 46 years, and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, disdaining specialization and becoming an expert in both classical and non-English literature. In 1922 he published "English Metres", a study of poetic metrical form, and he compiled critical editions of Cynewulf's "Juliana", several works of Dryden, James Fenimore Cooper's "Last of the Mohicans", and several Shakespearean plays. Strunk was also active in a gathering known as the Manuscript Club, an "informal Saturday-night gathering of students and professors interested in writing," where he met "a sensitive and deeply thoughtful young man named Elwyn Brooks White." In 1935–36, Strunk enjoyed serving as the literary consultant for the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film "Romeo and Juliet" (1936). In the studio he was known as "the professor," in part because, with his three-piece suit and wire-rim spectacles, he "looked as though he'd been delivered to the set from MGM's casting department." In 1918, Strunk privately published "The Elements of Style" for the use of his Cornell students, who gave it its nickname, "the little book." Strunk intended the guide "to lighten the task of instructor and student by concentrating attention ... on a few essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most commonly violated." In 1935, Strunk and Edward A. Tenney revised and published the guide as "The Elements and Practice of Composition" (1935). In his "New Yorker" column of July 27, 1957, E. B. White praised the "little book" as a "forty-three-page summation of the case for cleanliness, accuracy, and brevity in the use of English." Macmillan and Company then commissioned White to revise the 1935 edition for republication under Strunk's original title. His expansion and modernization sold more than two million copies. Since 1959, total sales of three editions in four decades has exceeded ten million copies. In 1900, Strunk married Olivia Emilie Locke, with whom he had three children, including the noted musicologist Oliver Strunk. William Strunk retired from Cornell in 1937. In 1945 he suffered a mental breakdown, diagnosed as "senile psychosis," and died less than a year later at the Hudson River Psychiatric Institute in Poughkeepsie, New York. Strunk's Cornell obituary noted that his friends and former students remembered "his kindness, his helpfulness as a teacher and colleague, [and] his boyish lack of envy and guile."

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James J. Kilpatrick James Jackson Kilpatrick (November 1, 1920 – August 15, 2010) was an American newspaper journalist, columnist, author, writer and grammarian. During the 1950s and early 1960s he was editor of "The Richmond News Leader" in Richmond, Virginia and encouraged the Massive Resistance strategy to oppose the U.S. Supreme Court's decisions in the "Brown v. Board of Education" ruling which outlawed racial segregation in public schools. For three decades beginning in the mid-1960s, Kilpatrick wrote a nationally syndicated column "A Conservative View", and for years also sparred with liberals Nicholas von Hoffman and later Shana Alexander on the television news program "60 Minutes". Early and family life. Kilpatrick was born and raised in Oklahoma City. His father lost the family lumber business during the Great Depression, which led to his parents' divorce. Kilpatrick earned a degree in journalism from the University of Missouri in 1941. Kilpatrick married sculptor Marie Louise Pietri in 1942. She died in 1997. They had three sons, M. Sean Kilpatrick of Atlanta, Christopher Kilpatrick of New Bern, N.C., and Kevin Kilpatrick. In 1998, Kilpatrick married liberal Washington-based syndicated columnist Marianne Means. Career and segregationism. Upon graduation, Kilpatrick moved to Richmond, Virginia and began working for Douglas Southall Freeman, Pulitzer-prize winning author of biographies of General Robert E. Lee and editor of "The Richmond News Leader". In 1950, Kilpatrick succeeded Freeman as the daily newspaper's editor. For several years after World War II, Kilpatrick championed the case of Silas Rogers, a young black shoeshine man wrongfully convicted of killing police officer R. B. Hatchell in 1943, and ultimately pardoned as a result of Kilpatrick's research and advocacy. A decade later, Kilpatrick received a courage and justice award from a black newspaper for his reporting in that case. However, the following year, Kilpatrick aligned himself with the Byrd Organization and became one of the leading advocates of continued racial segregation during the Civil Rights Movement. Kilpatrick opposed federal involvement into state-enforced racial segregation, and later opposed enforcement of civil rights legislation. After the 1954 and 1955 Supreme Court decisions in "Brown v. Board of Education" and related cases, Kilpatrick devised "state's rights" and other rationales which helped convince Virginia's U.S. Senator, Harry Byrd, to advocate the Massive resistance strategy in Virginia and claim leadership of the anti-integration movement throughout the South. In particular, Kilpatrick reformulated the states' rights doctrine of interposition, arguing that individual states had the right to oppose and even nullify federal court rulings. In November 1960, Kilpatrick participated in a television debate about segregation with Martin Luther King Jr. in New York. Kilpatrick was appointed vice-chairman of the Virginia Commission on Constitutional Government led by attorney David J. Mays. In 1963, Kilpatrick published an analysis of the post-Civil War Civil Rights Cases and two pamphlets: "Civil Rights and Legal Wrongs," attacking the Civil Rights Act proposed by President Kennedy, and "Civil Rights and Federal Wrongs," attacking expansion of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. His arguments for segregation were not entirely based on federalism. In 1963, Kilpatrick submitted an article to "The Saturday Evening Post", "The Hell He Is Equal" in which he wrote that the "Negro race, as a race, is in fact an inferior race." (The magazine's editors rejected the article after the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing killed four black schoolgirls.) Kilpatrick eventually changed his position on segregation, though he remained a staunch opponent of federal encroachments on the states. Kilpatrick told a Roanoke newspaper in 1993 that he had intended merely to delay court-mandated integration because "violence was right under the city waiting to break loose. Probably, looking back, I should have had better consciousness of the immorality, the absolute evil of segregation." As editor of "The Richmond News Leader", Kilpatrick also began the Beadle Bumble fund to pay fines for victims of what he termed "despots on the bench." He built the fund with contributions from readers and later used the Beadle Bumble Fund to defend books as well as people. After a school board in suburban Richmond ordered school libraries to dispose of all copies of Harper Lee's "To Kill a Mockingbird", because the board found the book immoral, Kilpatrick wrote, "A more moral novel scarcely could be imagined." With money from the fund, Kilpatrick offered free copies to children who wrote him; by the end of the first week, he had given away 81 copies. Columnist and author. Kilpatrick began writing his syndicated political column, "A Conservative View," in 1964 and left the "News Leader" in 1966. In 1979 Kilpatrick joined the Universal Press Syndicate as a columnist, eventually distributed to more than 180 newspapers around the country. Kilpatrick lived in Rappahannock County, Virginia and made the byline of his columns, "Scrabble, Virginia" as more engaging than his actual postal address in Woodville, Virginia. Kilpatrick entered semi-retirement in 1993, shifting from a three-times-a-week political column to a weekly column on judicial issues, "Covering the Courts," which ended in 2008. For many years, Kilpatrick also wrote a syndicated column dealing with English usage, especially in writing, called "The Writer's Art" (also the title of his 1985 book on writing). In January 2009, the Universal Syndicate announced that Kilpatrick would end this column owing to health reasons. His other books include "The Foxes Union", a recollection of his life in Rappahannock County, Virginia, in the Blue Ridge Mountains; "Fine Print: Reflections on the Writing Art"; and, "A Political Bestiary", which he co-wrote with former U.S. Senator Eugene McCarthy and Pulitzer Prize-winning editorial cartoonist Jeff MacNelly. Television. Kilpatrick became best known for his nine years as a participant on the TV news magazine "60 Minutes". In the 1970s, he appeared in a closing segment called "Point-Counterpoint", opposite Nicholas von Hoffman and, later, Shana Alexander. "If ever I heard an oversimplified fairy tale of the last years in Vietnam, I just heard one from you," Kilpatrick said in one exchange. They peppered their remarks with 'Oh, come on, Jack' and 'Now see here, Shana' and helped make possible even-more combative talk shows, including "Crossfire". The debates between Kilpatrick and Alexander were such a feature of contemporary American culture that they were satirized on "Saturday Night Live", with Dan Aykroyd's version of Kilpatrick ("Jane, you ignorant slut!") taking on Jane Curtin ("Dan, you pompous ass!") on "Weekend Update". The comedy film "Airplane!" also parodies "Point-Counterpoint", as the Kilpatrick-expy (played by William Tregoe) shows a lack of concern for the passengers on the stricken airliner: "Shana, they bought their tickets. They knew what they were getting into. I say, let 'em crash!" Death. Kilpatrick died at George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C., and was survived by his second wife, sons, four stepchildren and many grandchildren. His personal papers, including his editorial files and correspondence, are housed in Special Collections of the University of Virginia Library. Guides and descriptions of Kilpatrick's papers are available through the "Virginia Heritage" database.

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Arthur Quiller-Couch Sir Arthur Thomas Quiller-Couch (; 21 November 186312 May 1944) was a Cornish writer who published using the pseudonym Q. Although a prolific novelist, he is remembered mainly for the monumental publication "The Oxford Book Of English Verse 1250–1900" (later extended to 1918) and for his literary criticism. He influenced many who never met him, including American writer Helene Hanff, author of "84, Charing Cross Road" and its sequel, "Q's Legacy". His "Oxford Book of English Verse" was a favourite of John Mortimer fictional character Horace Rumpole. Life. Arthur Quiller-Couch was born in the town of Bodmin, Cornwall. He was the son of Dr.Thomas Quiller Couch (d.1884), who was a noted physician, folklorist and historian who married Mary Ford and lived at 63, Fore Street, Bodmin, until his death in 1884. Thomas was the product of the union of two ancient local families, the Quiller family and the Couch family. Arthur was the third in a line of intellectuals from the Couch family. His grandfather, Jonathan Couch, was an eminent naturalist, also a physician, historian, classicist, apothecary, and illustrator (particularly of fish). His younger sisters Florence Mabel and Lilian M. were also writers and folklorists. Arthur Quiller-Couch had two children. His son, Bevil Brian Quiller-Couch, was a war hero and poet, whose romantic letters to his fiancée, the poet May Wedderburn Cannan, were published in "Tears of War". Kenneth Grahame inscribed a first edition of his "The Wind in the Willows" to Arthur's daughter, Foy Felicia, attributing Quiller-Couch as the inspiration for the character Ratty. He was educated at Newton Abbot Proprietary College, at Clifton College, and Trinity College, Oxford, where he took a First in Classical Moderations (1884) and a Second in Greats (1886). From 1886 he was for a brief time a classical lecturer at Trinity. After some journalistic experience in London, mainly as a contributor to the "Speaker", he settled in 1891 at Fowey in Cornwall. In Cornwall he was an active political worker for the Liberal Party. He was knighted in 1910, and in 1928 was made a Bard of the Cornish cultural society Gorseth Kernow, adopting the Bardic name "Marghak Cough" ('Red Knight'). He was Commodore of the Royal Fowey Yacht Club from 1911 until his death. He was president of the Village Drama Society which was based at Kelly House in Devon. Quiller-Couch died at home in May 1944, after being slightly injured by a jeep near his home in Cornwall in the preceding March during his daily walk to the Royal Fowey Yacht Club. He is buried in Fowey's parish church of St. Fimbarrus. World War I. Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry 10th Btn. (Cornwall Pioneers). The 10th was an unusual battalion, having been raised in March 1915, not by the War Office, but by the Mayor and citizens of Truro. It initially had only two officers – Colonel Dudley Acland Mills who had retired from the Royal Engineers six years earlier, and Couch, who was devoid of any military experience. Neither of them was paid. Their work in raising and training a battalion for war was remarkable by any standard, but their herculean efforts appears never to have been recognised by the military hierarchy. It must have been an enormous relief to these two gentlemen when the War Office took over the 10th Battalion on 24 August 1915. Literary and academic career. In 1887, while he was attending Oxford, he published "Dead Man's Rock", a romance in the style of Robert Louis Stevenson's "Treasure Island", and later "The astonishing history of Troy Town" (1888), a comic novel set in a fictionalised version of his home town Fowey, and "The Splendid Spur" (1889). Quiller-Couch was well known for his story "The Rollcall of the Reef", based on the wreck of HMS "Primrose" during 1809 on the Cornish coast. He published during 1896 a series of critical articles, "Adventures in Criticism", and in 1898 he published a completion of Robert Louis Stevenson's unfinished novel, "St. Ives". From his Oxford time he was known as a writer of excellent verse. With the exception of the parodies entitled "Green Bays" (1893), his poetical work is contained in "Poems and Ballads" (1896). In 1895 he published an anthology from the 16th- and 17th-century English lyricists, "The Golden Pomp", followed in 1900 by the "Oxford Book of English Verse, 1250–1900". Later editions of this extended the period of concern to 1918 and it remained the leading general anthology of English verse until Helen Gardner's "New Oxford Book of English Verse" appeared in 1972. In 1910 he published "The Sleeping Beauty and other Fairy Tales from the Old French". He was the author of a number of popular novels with Cornish settings (collected edition as 'Tales and Romances', 30 vols. 1928–29). He was appointed King Edward VII Professor of English Literature at the University of Cambridge in 1912, and retained the chair for the rest of his life. Simultaneously he was elected to a Fellowship of Jesus College, which he also held until his death. His inaugural lectures as the professor of English literature were published as the book "On the Art of Writing". His rooms were on staircase C, First Court, and known as the 'Q-bicle'. He supervised the beginnings of the English Faculty there — an academic diplomat in a fractious community. He is sometimes regarded as the epitome of the school of English literary criticism later modified by his pupil F. R. Leavis. Alistair Cooke was a notable student of Quiller-Couch and Nick Clarke's semi-official biography of Cooke features Quiller-Couch prominently, noting that he was regarded by the Cambridge establishment as "rather eccentric" even by the university's standards. Quiller-Couch was a noted literary critic, publishing editions of some of Shakespeare's plays (in the "New Shakespeare", published by Cambridge University Press, with Dover Wilson) and several critical works, including "Studies in Literature" (1918) and "On the Art of Reading" (1920). He edited a companion to his verse anthology: "The Oxford Book of English Prose", which was published in 1923. He left his autobiography, "Memories and Opinions", unfinished; it was nevertheless published in 1945. Legacy. His "Book of English Verse" is often quoted by John Mortimer's fictional character Horace Rumpole. "Castle Dor", a re-telling of the Tristan and Iseult myth in modern circumstances, was left unfinished at Quiller-Couch's death and was completed many years later by Daphne du Maurier. As she wrote in the "Sunday Telegraph" in April 1962, she began the job with considerable trepidation, at the request of Quiller-Couch's daughter and "in memory of happy evenings long ago when 'Q' was host at Sunday supper". He features as a main character, played by Leo McKern, in the 1992 BBC television feature "The Last Romantics". The story focuses on his relationship with his protégé, F. R. Leavis, and the students. His Cambridge inaugural lecture series, published as "On the Art of Writing", is the source of the popular writers' adage "murder your darlings": Works. Fiction. A collected edition of Q's fiction appeared as "Tales and Romances" (30 volumes, 1928–29).

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Richard A. Lanham Richard A. Lanham (born 1936) is probably most widely known for his textbooks on revising prose to improve style and clarify thought. He is also a notable scholar of the history of rhetoric who has published notable books on the subject. Lanham was educated at Sidwell Friends School and Yale University (A.B., M.A., Ph.D.). He is Professor Emeritus at the University of California, Los Angeles, and president of Rhetorica, Inc., a consulting firm. Lanham is a recognized expert in prose stylistics and Classical and Renaissance rhetoric. His "Handlist of Rhetorical Terms" (2nd ed., 1991) is the standard reference in the field, and he recently revised his "Analyzing Prose" (2nd ed., 2003), a benchmark work in stylistic analysis. Some other works are "The Motives of Eloquence: Literary Rhetoric in the Renaissance", "Style: An Anti-Textbook", "Literacy and the Survival of Humanism", and "The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts" (1995). His "Revising Prose" and "Revising Business Prose"—now in revision—remain popular. His latest work, "The Economics of Attention", was published in 2006 by the University of Chicago Press. Long a champion of Sophistic rhetoric as a challenge and counterweight to Aristotle's model of rhetoric, in recent years Lanham has become very interested in, and very knowledgeable about, multimedia and the implications for rhetoric in this age of electronic text. The "Q" Question. In "The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology and the Arts", Lanham engages what he calls the "'Q' question in honor of its most famous nonanswerer" Quintilian (155). The Q question is this: does education in discourse lead to virtue more than vice? Are good rhetors good people? Lanham identifies two defenses of the morality of rhetoric. The so-called weak defense (which Quintilian makes as well as Ramus) suggests that rhetoric is separate from philosophy and one first becomes a good person and then can add good speaking on top (158). More modern (and postmodern) theories contribute to Lanham's "Strong Defense" which "argues that, since truth comes to humankind in so many diverse and disagreeing forms, we cannot base a polity upon it. We must, instead, devise some system by which we can agree on a series of contingent operating premises" (187-8). The Strong Defense opposes the universal rational truth and suggests that "what links virtuosity, the love of form, and virtue, is "virtu." power " (189).

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Bryan A. Garner Bryan Andrew Garner (born 1958) is an American lawyer, lexicographer, and teacher who has written more than two dozen books about English usage and style such as "Garner's Modern English Usage" for a general audience, and others for legal professionals. He also wrote two books with Justice Antonin Scalia: "Making Your Case: The Art of Persuading Judges" (2008) and "Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts" (2012). The founder and president of LawProse Inc., he serves as Distinguished Research Professor of Law at Southern Methodist University Dedman School of Law. He is also a lecturer at his alma mater, the University of Texas School of Law. Early life and education. Garner was born on November 17, 1958, in Lubbock, Texas, and raised in Canyon, Texas. He attended the University of Texas at Austin, where he published excerpts from his senior thesis, notably "Shakespeare's Latinate Neologisms" and "Latin-Saxon Hybrids in Shakespeare and the Bible". After receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree, Garner entered the University of Texas School of Law, where he served as an associate editor of the "Texas Law Review". Career. After receiving his Juris Doctor degree in 1984, he clerked for Judge Thomas M. Reavley of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit before he joined the Dallas firm of Carrington, Coleman, Sloman & Blumenthal. He then returned to the University of Texas School of Law and was named director of the Texas/Oxford Center for Legal Lexicography. In 1990, he left the university to found LawProse Inc., which provides seminars on clear writing, briefing and editing for lawyers and judges. Garner has taught at the University of Texas School of Law, the University of California at Berkeley (Boalt Hall), Texas Tech University School of Law, and Texas A&M University School of Law. He has been awarded three honorary doctorates (Stetson, La Verne, and Thomas M. Cooley Law School). He serves on the Board of Advisers of "The Green Bag". Author. As a student at the University of Texas School of Law in 1981, Garner began noticing odd usages in lawbooks, many of them dating back to Shakespeare. They became the source material for his first book, "A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage" (1987). Since 1990, his work has focused on teaching the legal profession clear writing techniques. In books, articles, and lectures, Garner has tried to reform the way bibliographic references are "interlarded" (interwoven) in the midst of textual analysis. He argues for putting citations in footnotes and notes that in-text information that is important but non-bibliographic. He opposes references such as "457 U.S. 423, 432, 102 S.Ct. 2515, 2521, 89 L.Ed.2d 744, 747" as interruptions in the middle of a line. However, such interruptions in judges' opinions and in lawyers' briefs have remained the norm. Some courts and advocates around the country have begun adopting Garner's recommended style of footnoted citations, and a surprising degree of internal strife has resulted within some organizations. For example, one appellate judge in Louisiana refused to join in a colleague's opinions written in the new format. Garner says that one of the main reasons for the reform is to make legal writing more comprehensible to readers who lack a legal education. That has attracted opposition, most notably from Judge Richard Posner of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, and from his co-author, Justice Antonin Scalia. Since 1992, Garner has contributed numerous revisions to the field of procedural rules, when he began revising all amendments to the sets of Federal Rules (Civil, Appellate, Evidence, Bankruptcy, and Criminal) for the Judicial Conference of the United States. Garner and Justice Scalia wrote "Making Your Case: The Art of Persuading Judges" (2008). Garner maintains a legal consulting practice, focusing on issues in statutory construction and contractual interpretation. English grammar and usage. Garner's books on English usage include "Garner's Modern English Usage". This dictionary was the subject of David Foster Wallace's essay "Authority and American Usage" in "Consider the Lobster and Other Essays", originally published in the April 2001 issue of "Harper's Magazine". In 2003, Garner contributed a chapter on grammar and usage to the 15th edition of "The Chicago Manual of Style", and later editions have retained it. "Black's Law Dictionary". In 1995, Garner became the editor in chief of "Black's Law Dictionary". He created a panel of international legal experts to improve the specialized vocabulary in the book. Garner and the panel rewrote and expanded the dictionary's lexicographic information. Bibliography. Only current editions are shown.

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E. B. White Elwyn Brooks White (July 11, 1899 – October 1, 1985) was an American writer. He was the author of several highly popular books for children, including "Stuart Little" (1945), "Charlotte's Web" (1952), and "The Trumpet of the Swan" (1970). In a 2012 survey of "School Library Journal" readers, "Charlotte's Web" came in first in their poll of the top one hundred children's novels. In addition, he was a writer and contributing editor to "The New Yorker" magazine, and also a co-author of the English language style guide "The Elements of Style." Life. E.B. White was born in Mount Vernon, New York, the sixth and youngest child of Samuel Tilly White, the president of a piano firm, and Jessie Hart White, the daughter of Scottish-American painter William Hart. Elwyn's older brother Stanley Hart White, known as Stan, a professor of landscape architecture and the inventor of the Vertical Garden, taught E. B. White to read and to explore the natural world. White graduated from Cornell University with a bachelor of arts degree in 1921. He got the nickname "Andy" at Cornell, where tradition confers that moniker on any male student whose surname is White, after Cornell co-founder Andrew Dickson White. While at Cornell, he worked as editor of "The Cornell Daily Sun" with classmate Allison Danzig, who later became a sportswriter for "The New York Times". White was also a member of the Aleph Samach and Quill and Dagger societies and Phi Gamma Delta ("Fiji") fraternity. After graduation, White worked for the United Press (now United Press International) and the American Legion News Service in 1921 and 1922. From September 1922 to June 1923, he was a cub reporter for "The Seattle Times". On one occasion, when White was stuck writing a story, a Times editor said, "Just say the words." He was fired from the "Times" and later wrote for the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" before a stint in Alaska on a fireboat. He then worked for almost two years with the Frank Seaman advertising agency as a production assistant and copywriter before returning to New York City in 1924. When "The New Yorker" was founded in 1925, White submitted manuscripts to it. Katharine Angell, the literary editor, recommended to editor-in-chief and founder Harold Ross that White be hired as a staff writer. However, it took months to convince him to come to a meeting at the office and additional weeks to convince him to work on the premises. Eventually, he agreed to work in the office on Thursdays. White was shy around women, claiming he had "too small a heart, too large a pen." But in 1929, culminating in an affair which led to her divorce, White and Katherine Angell were married. They had a son, Joel White, a naval architect and boat builder, who later owned Brooklin Boat Yard in Brooklin, Maine. Katharine's son from her first marriage, Roger Angell, has spent decades as a fiction editor for "The New Yorker" and is well known as the magazine's baseball writer. In her foreword to "Charlotte's Web", Kate DiCamillo quotes White as saying, "All that I hope to say in books, all that I ever hope to say, is that I love the world." White also loved animals, farms and farming implements, seasons, and weather formats. James Thurber described White as a quiet man who disliked publicity and who, during his time at "The New Yorker", would slip out of his office via the fire escape to a nearby branch of Schrafft's to avoid visitors whom he didn't know. White had Alzheimer's disease and died on October 1, 1985, at his farm home in North Brooklin, Maine. He is buried in the Brooklin Cemetery beside Katharine, who died in 1977. Career. E. B. White published his first article in "The New Yorker" in 1925, then joined the staff in 1927 and continued to contribute for almost six decades. Best recognized for his essays and unsigned "Notes and Comment" pieces, he gradually became the magazine's most important contributor. From the beginning to the end of his career at "The New Yorker," he frequently provided what the magazine calls "Newsbreaks" (short, witty comments on oddly worded printed items from many sources) under various categories such as "Block That Metaphor." He also was a columnist for "Harper's Magazine" from 1938 to 1943. In 1949, White published "Here Is New York", a short book based on an article he had been commissioned to write for "Holiday". Editor Ted Patrick approached White about writing the essay telling him it would be fun. "Writing is never 'fun'", replied White. That article reflects the writer's appreciation of a city that provides its residents with both "the gift of loneliness and the gift of privacy." It concludes with a dark note touching on the forces that could destroy the city that he loved. This prescient "love letter" to the city was re-published in 1999 on his centennial with an introduction by his stepson, Roger Angell. In 1959, White edited and updated "The Elements of Style". This handbook of grammatical and stylistic guidance for writers of American English was first written and published in 1918 by William Strunk Jr., one of White's professors at Cornell. White's reworking of the book was extremely well received, and later editions followed in 1972, 1979, and 1999. Maira Kalman illustrated an edition in 2005. That same year, a New York composer named Nico Muhly premiered a short opera based on the book. The volume is a standard tool for students and writers and remains required reading in many composition classes. The complete history of "The Elements of Style "is detailed in Mark Garvey's "Stylized: A Slightly Obsessive History of Strunk & White's The Elements of Style". In 1978, White won a special Pulitzer Prize citing "his letters, essays and the full body of his work". He also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963 and honorary memberships in a variety of literary societies throughout the United States. The 1973 Oscar-nominated Canadian animated short "The Family That Dwelt Apart" is narrated by White and is based on his short story of the same name. Children's books. In the late 1930s, White turned his hand to children's fiction on behalf of a niece, Janice Hart White. His first children's book, "Stuart Little", was published in 1945, and "Charlotte's Web" followed in 1952. "Stuart Little" initially received a lukewarm welcome from the literary community. However, both books went on to receive high acclaim, and "Charlotte's Web" won a Newbery Honor from the American Library Association, though it lost out on winning the Newbery Medal to "Secret of the Andes" by Ann Nolan Clark. White received the Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal from the U.S. professional children's librarians in 1970. It recognized his "substantial and lasting contributions to children's literature." That year, he was also the U.S. nominee and eventual runner-up for the biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award, as he was again in 1976. Also, in 1970, White's third children's novel was published, "The Trumpet of the Swan". In 1973 it won the Sequoyah Award from Oklahoma and the William Allen White Award from Kansas, both selected by students voting for their favorite book of the year. In 2012, the "School Library Journal" sponsored a survey of readers, which identified "Charlotte's Web" as the best children's novel ("fictional title for readers 9–12" years old). The librarian who conducted it said, "It is impossible to conduct a poll of this sort and expect [White's novel] to be anywhere but #1." Other. The E.B. White Read Aloud Award is given by The Association of Booksellers for Children (ABC) to honor books that its membership feel embodies the universal read-aloud standards that E. B. White's works created.

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Joseph M. Williams Joseph M. Williams (18 August 1933, Cleveland, Ohio – 22 February 2008, South Haven, Michigan) was a professor in the Department of English Language and Literature at the University of Chicago where he promoted clarity in writing for many years. He authored several books on language and writing. Biography. Williams began as a researcher of English language. In "Origins of the English Language: A Social & Linguistic History" he traces the history of the English language from the evolution of man through to Modern English. His interest in studying close connection between grammar and rhetoric was reflected in another earlier book "The New English: Structure, Form, Style" and culminated in "", his noteworthy textbook on writing style. In "Style", based on "The Little Red Schoolhouse" course he taught at Chicago for many years, Williams established and vehemently defended two basic principles that "it is good to write clearly, and anyone can" ("Style: Lessons in Clarity and Grace" (9th Edition) 4). To meet these ends Williams laid out streamlined steps to help writers first make their sentences and paragraphs clear and then graceful. At the story level, writers can make sentences clearer by identifying the main character for the "story" (movable element) in the grammatical subject (fixed position) and expressing actions in grammatical verbs. At the information level, sentences are easier to understand when the beginning connects to the old information prior sentences and the end presents new information. Paragraphs are cohesive when sentences have a sense of flow, and coherent when paragraphs are felt as the whole. Beyond clarity, graceful sentences and paragraphs are concise, shapely (uninterrupted and coordinated), and elegant (balanced in syntax, meaning, sound and rhythm). In later editions, he discussed ethics of writing understood as a social act between writer and reader and offered steps to produce coherent documents. Noting the kinship between "Style" and "The Elements of Style" by William Strunk and E.B. White, Berkeley professor J. Bradford DeLong praised Williams for practicality of his advice. "The Craft of Research", a collaborative textbook written by Williams and his two long-term academic colleagues and friends – Wayne C. Booth and Gregory G. Colomb, – was designed to help students plan, carry out and report on research in any field and at any level – from a term paper to a dissertation, an article, and a book. Authors understood writing a research report as "thinking in writing" and "thinking from the point of view of [the] readers" ("The Craft of Research" 15). Their treatment of research arguments included a refinement of Stephen Toulmin's formal layout of arguments. In another book, "The Craft of Argument", Williams and Colomb looked at written arguments in general. The authors claimed that in argument "questions and answers not only seek truth, but also generate the means of persuasion that rhetoric seeks" ("The Craft of Argument" xix). Together with Gregory G. Colomb, Francis X. Kinahan, and Lawrence D. McEnerney, Williams developed innovative instructional materials for advanced writers in the academy and the professions known as "The Little Red Schoolhouse". From 1980, Williams (together with Colomb and others) ran Clearlines, a consulting firm helping writers in corporations, law firms, and consulting groups to write clearly and concisely.

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F. L. Lucas Frank Laurence Lucas (28 December 1894 – 1 June 1967), usually cited as F. L. Lucas, was an English classical scholar, literary critic, poet, novelist, playwright, political polemicist, Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and intelligence officer at Bletchley Park during World War II. He is now best remembered for his scathing 1923 review of T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land", and for his book "Style" (1955; revised 1962), an acclaimed guide to recognising and writing good prose. His "Tragedy in Relation to Aristotle's 'Poetics"' (1927, substantially revised in 1957) was for over fifty years a standard introduction. His most important contribution to scholarship was his four-volume old-spelling "Complete Works of John Webster" (1927), the first collected edition of the Jacobean dramatist since that of Hazlitt the Younger (1857), itself an inferior copy of Dyce (1830). Eliot called Lucas "the perfect annotator", and subsequent Webster scholars have been indebted to him, notably the editors of the new Cambridge Webster (1995–2007). Lucas is also remembered for his anti-fascist campaign in the 1930s, and for his wartime work at Bletchley Park, for which he received the OBE. Biographical. Early life and the War. F. L. ("Peter") Lucas grew up in Blackheath and was educated at Colfe's, where his father F. W. Lucas (1860–1931) was headmaster, and from 1910 at Rugby, where he was tutored by the Sophocles scholar Robert Whitelaw (1843–1917) in his last year before retirement. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1913 to read for the Classical Tripos, adding the Pitt Scholarship and the Porson Prize in 1914. In January 1914 he was elected Apostle – the last Apostle elected before the War – coming under the influence of G. E. Moore. Believing Cambridge threatened with the fate of Louvain, he volunteered, aged 19, in October 1914 and was commissioned in November, serving from 1915 as second lieutenant in the 7th Battalion The Royal West Kent Regiment in France. From August 1915 he was in the Somme trenches opposite Fricourt and Mametz; he was wounded by shrapnel in May 1916. "One simply gapes at the gigantic capriciousness of things," he wrote to John Maynard Keynes in October of that year, "waiting our own turn to disappear in the Cyclops' maw." He returned to the front as lieutenant in January 1917, went into battle near Grandcourt on 17 February in the Ancre Offensive, was mentioned in despatches on 22 February, and was gassed on 4 March. In all he spent seventeen months in war-hospitals. By September 1917 he felt that the cause of honour and justice had been lost in the lust of Victory ("We were too ready to go on fighting without offering terms" ). Passed fit for garrison duty at Chatham, he sought the help of fellow-Apostle Keynes to return to France, and from August 1918 to the Armistice he was Staff lieutenant in the Intelligence Corps (Third Army HQ), examining German prisoners near Bapaume and Le Quesnoy. His life hung in the balance in November 1918 shortly after the Armistice, when his lung wounds reopened in the influenza pandemic. He returned to Cambridge in January 1919. Fell-walking in the Lake District "on Easter morning [1919] on Kidsty Pike, between Hawes Water and Hayes Water, a blinding spring sun on snowy ridge beyond ridge, from Fairfield to Blucathra, brought a moment of such ecstatic intoxication that, were I a mystic, I should have called it a mystical experience." Career. Resuming his undergraduate studies, Lucas won a Chancellor's Medal for Classics and the Browne Medal (1920), and revived meetings of the Apostles, suspended since 1914, becoming Society Secretary and contributing nineteen papers. He was elected to a Fellowship at King's College in 1920 before he had completed his degree, Keynes paying for him to holiday in Greece with Sebastian Sprott on the eve of his Tripos. He took a starred first and began his career as a Classics lecturer in October 1920. In the spring of 1921 he spent three months in Greece as a student of the British School at Athens, researching the site of the Battle of Pharsalus in Thessaly (see Pharsalus below). Back in Cambridge he switched that year to teaching for the English Tripos (instituted in 1919). He was a member of the Cambridge University English Faculty from 1921–1939 and from 1945–1962, and a University Reader in English from 1947–1962. At the invitation of Desmond MacCarthy, literary editor of the "New Statesman", Lucas reviewed poetry and criticism for that journal from 1922 to 1926, having begun his career as reviewer with the "Athenaeum" in 1920–21, its last year. Early reviews and essays were collected in his "Authors Dead and Living" (1926). Among them was a review of Housman's "Last Poems" (1922) that, unusually, met with the approval of the poet himself. His move from Classics to English and his edition of Webster (1927) were inspired in large part by J. T. Sheppard's March 1920 Marlowe Society production of "The White Devil", which made a powerful impression on him: "What could make the Cambridge production of "The White Devil" in 1920 seem, to at least two who saw it then without preconceptions, the most staggering performance they had ever known?" he asked in the "New Statesman". (The production had been swift-moving, in the Elizabethan manner, with minimal scenery and with emphasis on "beautiful poetry beautifully spoken".) "[Lucas] has been lucky in finding a writer [Webster] who takes his standpoint," T. E. Lawrence remarked, "and sums up life rather in his fashion." Lucas' preference, however, lay with Comparative Literature, and after Webster he turned to his "Studies French and English" (1934; revised 1950) (he was "Membre Correspondant Honoraire de L'Institut Littéraire et Artistique de France" ), and later to studies of Scandinavian literature. He served as committee member for the Cambridge Greek Play (1921–33) and continued to write on Greek and Latin literature. As part-time Librarian at King's (1922–36) he accessioned the donated papers of Rupert Brooke. His students at King's included George Rylands, John Hayward, F. E. Halliday, H. C. A. "Tom" Gaunt, Alan Clutton-Brock, Julian Bell, Winton Dean and Desmond Flower. By Cambridge English students in general he was known as "F. L.". Following the publication of his Webster, scholars turned to him for editorial advice: he helped in the preparation of Hayward's Nonesuch "Donne" (1929), Housman's "More Poems" (1936), Theodore Redpath's "Songs and Sonets of John Donne" (1956), and Ingram and Redpath's "Shakespeare's Sonnets" (1964). He also performed an editorial and advisory role for Christopher Sandford at the Golden Cockerel Press, where he introduced Victor Scholderer's New Hellenic typeface (1937). A number of his verse translations from Greek and Latin, with engravings by John Buckland Wright, were published in collectors' editions by the Golden Cockerel Press and Folio Society. In the middle years of his career he was in demand as an invitation lecturer, giving seven BBC wireless talks in 1930, on Dorothy Osborne and on the Victorian Poets, delivering the 1933 Warton Lecture on English Poetry to the British Academy, lecturing at the Royal Institution on Classicism and Romanticism (1935) and at the Royal Society of Literature on travel writing (1937), and, as part of a British Council drive to counter Soviet propaganda, lecturing in German on European literature to packed halls at the British Information Centre in West Berlin in October 1948 during the Berlin Blockade. In later years Lucas won acclaim for his translations from the classics (see Verse translation below) and for his book "Style" (1955). He also turned encyclopedist, contributing articles on 'Poetry', 'Epic', 'Lyric', 'Ode', 'Elegy' and 'Pastoral' to the 15-volume 1950 Chambers's Encyclopaedia, among others, and serving on the editorial board of the Encyclopædia Britannica's "Great Books of the Western World" series (1952). As he told Nikos Kazantzakis, who visited him in Cambridge after the War, "Je ne lis plus; je relis" [:I no longer read; I reread]. For Lucas's anti-fascist campaign in the Thirties and his wartime service in Intelligence, see Appeasement and Bletchley Park below. Personal life. From February 1921 to 1929 Lucas was married to the novelist E. B. C. Jones (1893–1966), known as "Topsy" to her friends. She was the sister-in-law of his former supervisor at Trinity, Donald Robertson; he got to know her after reading and admiring her first novel, "Quiet Interior" (1920). Jones dedicated two novels to Lucas and based two characters on him – Hugh Sexton, gassed in the War, in "The Singing Captives" (1922), and Oliver in "The Wedgwood Medallion" (1923), a Cambridge classics graduate now studying the Elizabethan drama. Lucas based the character Margaret Osborne in "The River Flows" (1926) on her – a semi-autobiographical first novel that shifts some of his experiences of 1919–1920 to 1913–1915. The character Hugh Fawcett ("the best brain in the Foreign Office" but not much use as a matchmaker) was based on Keynes. Through the Apostles Lucas was associated with the Bloomsbury Group, Virginia Woolf describing him to Ottoline Morrell as "pure Cambridge: clean as a breadknife, and as sharp". To Lucas, interviewed in 1958, Bloomsbury had seemed "a jungle": Jones's admiration for George Rylands undermined the marriage by 1927. After affairs with Dora Carrington (d.1932) and Shelagh Clutton-Brock (d.1936), in December 1932 Lucas married the 21-year-old Girton Classics graduate and sculptor Prudence Wilkinson (1911–1944). His travel writings, accounts of their long walks through landscapes with literary associations, date from the years of his second marriage (1932–1939): "From Olympus to the Styx" (1934), a book on their 1933 walking tour of Greece (one of five journeys he made to that country), 'Iceland', a travelogue on their 1934 journey to the saga sites, included in the original edition of his "The Decline and Fall of the Romantic Ideal" (1936); and journal-entries on their visits to Norway, Ireland, Scotland, and France. In these years they were frequent visitors to the home in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence of Marie Mauron, whose Provençal stories Lucas translated. "From Olympus to the Styx" argues for the return of the Elgin Marbles: Prudence Lucas, as well as sharing these interests, designed the costumes and sets for the first production (1938) of his Icelandic tragedy "The Lovers of Gudrun". Her nervous breakdown in 1938 is touched on in Lucas's "Journal Under the Terror, 1938" (1939); Lucas sought help from, among others, Wilhelm Stekel, whom he met in London in 1939, but the rift proved irreparable. The emphasis on psychology in his post-war books – "Literature and Psychology" (1951), "Style" (1955), "The Search for Good Sense" (1958), "The Art of Living" (1959), the essay on 'Happiness' in "The Greatest Problem" (1960), "The Drama of Ibsen and Strindberg" (1962) – reflects an interest shared with his third wife (1940–1967), the Swedish psychologist Elna Kallenberg (1906-2003), whom he married in 1940 – "the stranger who came to me from beyond the sea when I most needed her" (Elna Kallenberg had flown from Sweden, with special permission from the Home Office, to join him in late 1939). They had two children, Signe and Sigurd. Lucas returned time and again in his books to the theme of happiness, and in 1960 summed up his thoughts on happiness thus: F. L. Lucas lived at 7 Camden Place, Cambridge, from 1921–25; at 20 West Road, Cambridge from 1925–39; at High Mead, Great Brickhill from 1939–45; and again at 20 West Road, Cambridge, from 1945 until his death in 1967. The dissident Czech academic (1895–1974), Lucas's Prague correspondent in 1938-39 (see Appeasement below) and a concentration camp survivor, celebrated his restoration, during the Prague Spring of 1968, to his Chair of English at Prague, by giving a course of lectures on Webster in memory of Lucas, whose support for the Czech cause in 1938–39 had not been forgotten. D. W. Lucas, the classical scholar (1905–85), Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, University Director of Studies in Classics, and Perceval Maitland Laurence Reader in Classics, was F. L. Lucas's brother. Literary criticism. Approach. Except in reviews of work by contemporaries, Lucas adopted the historical and biographical approach to criticism and examined the views of earlier critics, whose dogmatism he was swift to rebut. He increasingly linked his studies to developments in psychology, notably in "Literature and Psychology" (1951). "The real 'unwritten laws'," he observed, "seem to me those of human psychology." Centrally, he discussed the writer's psychology as revealed through style. "Even science," he noted, "has invented no pickle for embalming a man like "style"." The poets to whom he returned most often in publications were Tennyson (1930, 1932, 1947, 1957) and Housman (1926, 1933, 1936, 1960), but he ranged widely over Classical, European and English literature. Conscious that books can influence for good or ill, he admired authors he saw as defenders of sanity and good sense – men like Montaigne and Montesquieu – or as compassionate realists, like Homer in the "Iliad", Euripides, Hardy, Ibsen and Chekhov. "Life is 'indivisible'," he wrote. His criticism, while acknowledging that morality is historically relative, was thus values-based. "Writers can make men "feel", not merely see, the values that endure." Believing that too many modern writers encouraged men and women to flee to unreason, decadence and barbarism, he condemned the "trahisons des clercs" of the twentieth century, and used his lectures and writing to campaign for a responsible use of intellectual freedom. "One may question whether real civilisation is so safely afloat," he wrote in his last published letter (1966), "that we can afford to use our pens for boring holes in the bottom of it." The writer or artist serving up "slapdash nightmares out of his Unconscious", "in an age morbidly avid of uncivilised irreticence", not only exhibited his own neuroses, but fed neurosis in others. Literary critics, too, had to take more responsibility. "Much cant gets talked," he noted of the Structuralists, "by critics who care more for the form and organisation of a work than for its spirit, its content, its supreme moments." The serious note in his criticism was counterbalanced by wit and urbanity, by lively anecdote and quotation, and by a gift for startling imagery and epigram. What Lucas wrote about Housman's "Name and Nature of Poetry" in 1933 (though he contested some of its ideas) sums up what he himself aspired to as a literary critic: "… the kind of critical writing that best justifies itself before the brevity of life; that itself adds new data to our experience as well as arguing about the old; that happily combines, in a word, philosophy with autobiography, psychology with a touch of poetry – of the ‘poetic’ imagination. It can make acceptable even common sense. There are sentences here which recall the clear-cut Doric strength of the "Lives of the Poets" ..." His Cambridge colleague T. R. Henn noted that Lucas's approach and style were influenced by the Strachey of "Books and Characters" (1922). Controversy. Lucas's impatience with the "obscurantism" and coterie-appeal of much modern poetry made him in the interwar years one of the foremost opponents of the new schools. "As for 'profundity'," he wrote, "it is not uncommonly found also in dry wells; which may likewise contain little but obscurity and rubbish." He opposed also what he saw as the narrow dogmatism of the New Critics, those "tight-lipped Calvins of art", as he called them, of "Criterion" and "Scrutiny". Discussions of I. A. Richards's criticism appear in his essay 'English Literature' in the volume "University Studies: Cambridge 1933" and in Chapter 4 of his "Decline and Fall of the Romantic Ideal" (1936), and of Eliot's in the 1929 essay 'Modern Criticism', reprinted in his "Studies French and English" (1934). An anonymous "New Statesman" review (29 December 1928) of Eliot's criticism, however, to which F. R. Leavis replied apparently believing it was by Lucas, and which Leavis's biographer says "was certainly by Lucas", was in fact by Richard Ellis Roberts. Lucas had stopped reviewing for the "New Statesman" in 1926 and never reviewed anonymously. His critique of Q. D. Leavis's "Fiction and the Reading Public" (1932) in "University Studies: Cambridge 1933" was described by F. R. Leavis's biographer as "improper": "senior academics do not use quasi-official publications to attack graduate students". (The volume, though printed by the University Press, was not published there; its editor stressed that the contributions were "unofficial" glimpses into the "intense mental activity" of each Cambridge department; and published theses are not normally considered exempt from criticism.) Lucas and Eliot. Lucas's 1923 review of "The Waste Land", much reprinted in the decades since his death, was omitted from his "Authors Dead and Living" (1926), a collection of "New Statesman" pieces, probably because he had ended by saying the poem should be left to sink. Remarks elsewhere confirm that he had not changed his opinion. Described by F. W. Bateson as "brilliantly wrong-headed", the review is better known today than it was during Lucas's lifetime. His only other comment on the poem occurs in his essay 'English Literature' in the volume "University Studies: Cambridge 1933", where he contested I. A. Richards' view of it in "Science and Poetry" (1926): ""The Waste Land" is praised [by Richards] for its 'complete severence' from "'all" beliefs', when it is really a yearning cry for them, and at its close some sort of faith is so clearly impending that it has been praised by others as a great religious poem (such are the triumphs of obscurity)." "The Letters of T. S. Eliot" includes correspondence between Eliot and Lucas from the mid-1920s but no reference to the review. Historians of "The New Statesman" have regretted that Desmond MacCarthy invited Lucas to review modern poetry, one of them declaring Lucas "a disastrous choice" for a "Waste Land" review. (Disastrous, that is, for the journal's avant-garde image.) After 1923, though attacking obscurantism in general terms, Lucas largely ignored Eliot's poetry, aside from a retrospective dig in 1942 at 'The Hollow Men' ("hollow men whimpering under prickly pear trees, conceited still amid their grovellings because a prickly pear remains an exotic and highly intellectual plant" ) and at 'Sweeney among the Nightingales' ("the nightingales of Aeschylus now exhibit to a ravished public their 'droppings'; for to the sewer all things are sewer" ). On the later Eliot he was silent. He had no time for mystical poetry, regarding religion as an aberration of the human mind. In 1928 Lucas had been stung by Eliot's review in the "Times Literary Supplement" criticising aspects of the Introduction to his "Webster". He replied vigorously in the same journal, only to find Eliot extending his criticisms in another review in "The Criterion". Lucas counter-attacked in his 1929 essay 'Modern Criticism', ridiculing Eliot's literary-critical "obiter dicta" and hieratic tone. In later impressions of his essays, Eliot made minor changes or added clarifications to sentences Lucas had ridiculed, and praised the textual and historical scholarship of the 1927 "Webster". Lucas left the Introduction out of his 1958 revised editions of the two major plays, but demand for the unabridged 1927 "Webster" continued, and it was reprinted on both sides of the Atlantic in 1966. Reputation. Lucas's standing as a literary critic was probably at its highest in the 1930s. "In three respects," wrote the "Times Literary Supplement" in 1934, "Lucas rises pre-eminent from the crowd of contemporary critics: in his care for style, for dignity and grace in his method of presentment: in his learning in the literature of several languages: and in the balance, the sanity of his judgment." Post-war, reviewers were often more hostile. Many post-war reviews amounted to reprisals by the Leavisite camp: "There is an air of breezy Bloomsbury superficiality and cultural omniscience about this book that is distressing," wrote one. "His is the type of over-cultivated fuddy-duddy mind that has done – and is doing – great damage to our whole culture in general and to literary appreciation in particular." Probably because, psychoanalytic literary criticism aside, Lucas scorned most new trends – he described the critical theory of the 1950s as "largely pseudo-scientific bubble-blowing" – his criticism has long been out of fashion and is mostly out of print. "The literary world has passed on," wrote L. P. Wilkinson, "but that does not mean that what supervened was better; and just because of his uncompromising brilliance the whirligig of time may bring in his criticism again. His "Style" (1955) has a permanent value in any case, unaffected by trends." "Style" is now back in print (2012). His two earliest books, "Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy" (1922) (his Fellowship dissertation) and "Euripides and His Influence" (1923), not yet superseded in similar concise form, continue to be reprinted. The editors of the new Cambridge Webster (1995–2007) praise "his customary accuracy and astuteness" in matters of dating, authorship, and textual scholarship. "With its voluminous and marvellously wide-ranging notes," writes D. C. Gunby, "Lucas's four-volume, old-spelling edition remains essential reading for those who love scholarship and, more, love the plays of John Webster". Verse translation. Lucas dedicated much of his time to making classical (mainly Greek) poetry accessible to modern readers through verse translations. His companion volumes "Greek Poetry for Everyman" (1951) and "Greek Drama for Everyman" (1954) contain some 20,000 lines. No single translator had attempted before to bring together in homogeneous volumes so much of the best of Greek poetry from Homer to the 6th century A.D., with the introductions and notes needed by the non-classicist. The translations were praised for their grace and fidelity – "the sense and the imagery are minutely reproduced" ("The Classical Review" ) – and were hailed by the press as Cambridge's single-handed answer to the [collaborative] "Oxford Book of Greek Verse in Translation". Lucas's versions, however, presuppose a taste for a poetic style closer to Morris than to Pound. Reviewers generally preferred his translations of lyric, Alexandrian and later poetry to the 7,000 rhymed lines from Homer, which were omitted from the second edition (Everyman Library, 1966). Of the second volume, "Greek Drama", a reviewer wrote: "Lucas makes the plays deceptively easy to read and appreciate by smoothing away the austerities and complexities of the Greek – qualities which some modernists conscientiously preserve or even exaggerate." The translation of "Hippolytus" remains in print in the Penguin selection, "Eight Great Tragedies", ed. Sylvan Barnet. Original writing. Novels. Of Lucas's novels the best received was "Cécile" (1930), a tale of love, society and politics in the France of 1775–1776. Lucas dedicated the book to T. E. Lawrence, a friend and admirer. He wrote two further historical novels, "Doctor Dido" (1938), set in Cambridge in 1792–1812, and "The English Agent: A Tale of the Peninsular War" (1969), set in Spain in 1808; and a novella, "The Woman Clothed with the Sun" (1937), on the Buchanites of the 1780s–90s. The three novels focus on a love-affair between an Englishman and a Frenchwoman (Lucas was a self-confessed "gallomane"); the Scots novella takes the form of an account, written by a Scottish minister in middle age, of his youthful bewitchment by Elspeth Buchan and of his curious sojourn among the Buchanites. A theme common to all four is the tension between fragile 18th-century rationalism and, in varying forms, Romantic "enthusiasm" and unreason. For his semi-autobiographical first novel, "The River Flows" (1926), see Personal Life above. Poems. As a poet Lucas was a polished ironist. Early collections ("Time and Memory", 1929, "Marionettes", 1930, "Poems, 1935") were mostly personal lyrics or satires, but he came to specialise in dramatic monologues and narrative poems based on historical episodes "that seem lastingly alive" ("Messene Redeemed", 1940; "From Many Times and Lands", 1953). His First World War poems, including "'Morituri" – August 1915, on the road from Morlancourt' (1935) and (below) ' "The Night is Chilly but not Dark" ' (1935), offer a retrospect of his experiences at the front. The inclusion of 'Beleaguered Cities' (1929) in various mid-twentieth century anthologies of English verse made it probably Lucas's best-known poem. Others that have gained currency through anthologies include 'The Destined Hour' (1953), a re-telling in verse of the old 'appointment in Samarra' fable, and 'Spain 1809', the story of a village woman's courage during the French occupation in the Peninsular War. His most ambitious poem was "Ariadne" (1932), an epic re-working of the Labyrinth myth, extracts from which were read on the BBC Home Service in 1934. Plays. Lucas's most successful play was the thriller "Land's End" (1935), set in Cornwall in the mid-1930s (Westminster Theatre, February–March 1938, 29 performances, with Cathleen Nesbitt, Cecil Trouncer and Alan Napier among the cast). One of Paul Scofield's earliest roles was in the Birmingham Rep's revival of the play in March–April 1945. Lucas's radio play "The Siren" was first broadcast on the BBC Third Programme in 1948, with Catherine Lacey, Frith Banbury and Deryck Guyler in the cast; a second production followed on the Home Service in 1949, with Cathleen Nesbitt and Hugh Burden. The play dramatises George Sand's amorous escapades in Paris and Italy with Alfred de Musset and Dr. Pietro Pagello – the subject of the 1999 film "Les Enfants du Siècle". His political drama "The Bear Dances: A Play in Three Acts" was the first dramatisation of the Soviets on London’s West-end stage (Garrick Theatre, 1932, with Elena Miramova, Abraham Sofaer and Olga Lindo). This play, though it closed early in London, was revived by various repertory theatres in the North of England in the later 1930s. It was an attempt at ideological disinfectant, written at a time when Cambridge University (in Lucas's words) "grew full of very green young men going very Red". History, politics and society. Pharsalus. Outside literature, Lucas is remembered for his solution to one of the more contentious problems of ancient topography. His "north-bank" thesis on the location of the Battle of Pharsalus (48 B.C.), based on his 1921 solo field-trip to Thessaly and on a re-examination of the sources, dismissed a dozen previous theories and is now widely accepted by historians. John D. Morgan in his definitive 'Palae-pharsalus – the Battle and the Town' writes: "My reconstruction is similar to Lucas’s, and in fact I borrow one of his alternatives for the line of the Pompeian retreat. Lucas’s theory has been subjected to many criticisms, but has remained essentially unshaken." Appeasement. In the 1930s Lucas was widely known for his political letters to the British Press with their outspoken attacks on the policy that came to be known as appeasement. Following the inaction of the League over Manchuria, he called repeatedly for "a League within the League", of nations pledged to uphold international law and oppose aggression. "Since the War," he wrote in 1933, "British policy has been shuffling, timid, ignoble." Having read "Mein Kampf" in the unexpurgated original and taken its threats as a statement of intent, he urged in September 1933 that Nazi Germany be prevented from re-arming. "Versailles was monstrous", he wrote in "The Week-end Review", This letter struck some readers as "brutal", and marked him as a hard-liner. The pro-appeasement "Times" refused to publish him after 1935 (he described the Editor's office as "an annexe of the German embassy"); and when he condemned the Italian invasion of Abyssinia and the democracies' inadequate response, he received abusive and threatening replies from Fascists, including one from Ezra Pound (he put Pound's letter on display at the Cambridge Anti-Fascist Exhibition). In the years following he varied his arguments, but not their message. A hatred of war, he urged in 1936, "can be no reason for being false to ourselves, in the name of an aimless amiability that cries ‘peace’ where there is none." By 1937 the emphasis was on the dishonesty of British policy: "We have not kept agreements we made; we have made agreements we should not; we have tried to cheat our way to security, and now the security proves a cheat. We have forgotten the wisdom which says that since we cannot foresee where any road will lead in the end, we should stick to the straight and honest one." Despite the prevailing pacifism of the time – and he exchanged views with "passive pacifists" in the correspondence-columns – such sentiments struck a chord. "This is the voice of the England I love," wrote a correspondent from Prague in 1938, "and for whose soul I was trembling when I heard about the welcome given Mr Chamberlain on his return from Munich." As well as letters to the press (some forty in all, most to "The Manchester Guardian" – see Political letters below) his campaign included satires, articles, books, public speaking, fund-raising for the Red Cross, petitions to Parliament, meetings with émigrés like Haile Selassie and Stefan Zweig, and help for refugees. In these activities he was inspired by the example of "that grand old man" H. W. Nevinson, "one of the most striking personalities I have ever known", "whose long life has been given to Liberty". He dedicated his 1938 book "The Delights of Dictatorship" to Nevinson, by then a friend. Believing that future readers would be interested in what it had been like to live through such times, Lucas kept and published in March 1939 a diary for 1938, "Journal Under the Terror, 1938". (The "high source" he refers to in "Journal" was probably Harold Nicolson.) "Journal" is notable for its candid remarks on pro-Nazi and pro-appeasement figures in the British Establishment. Of Chamberlain at Munich he wrote (30 September): The outcome he feared was an Anglo-German peace agreement – an accord between Nazis and the British Establishment: "One day a little note from Berchtesgaden will appoint Lord Londonderry to 10 Downing Street. And that will settle everything." Though he welcomed the Government's about-turn on appeasement in March 1939, he doubted the genuineness of the conversion. "The noble lords of our Fifth Column still go marching on." The Nazis had noted Lucas's letters. In August 1939 he received a reply from Goebbels, advising him to heed public opinion. As a leading anti-fascist campaigner, he was placed by the Nazis on their "Sonderfahndungsliste G.B." [:"Special Search List G.B."] of Britons to be arrested and liquidated. Bletchley Park. A brilliant linguist with infantry and Intelligence Corps experience from 1914–18, proven anti-fascist credentials and a scepticism about the Soviet Union, Lucas was one of the first academics recruited by the Foreign Office – on 3 September 1939 – to Bletchley Park. He was one of the original four members of Hut 3, whose organisation he set up, and from March to July 1942, when the Hut was run by committee, acting head. He remained a central figure there, working throughout the war on the Enigma decodes as translator, intelligence-analyst and (from July 1942) head of the Research Section, "3G" [:Hut 3 General Intelligence], on the busy 4 p.m. to 1 a.m. shift. His main activities in "3G" were cracking Axis covernames and covernumbers in decodes, analysing German "proformas" (supplies and ammunition returns), and writing general intelligence papers. Among the intelligence-reports he produced was a study of Hitler's intentions in the east in May 1941, which contrasted with the Foreign Office view that the Germans were just "building up pressure [on the U.S.S.R.] to extract more raw materials". "It becomes harder than ever to doubt," Lucas wrote, Other Lucas papers ranged from practical suggestions, such as the proposal that the Salonica-Athens railway be cut in the Oeta gorges viaducts (carried out in Operation Harling), to psychological overviews later in the war, like 'Hitler as seen by Source' [:through decodes] and 'German Morale as seen by Source' (his old special subject from 1918 Intelligence Corps days). He also wrote confidential Special Reports for the Bletchley Park Director-General, one on Second Front rumours in German signals, and another, with Peter Calvocoressi, in late 1944 on Ultra and the failure of Allied intelligence to foresee the German counter-offensive through the Ardennes in December 1944. Lucas and Calvocoressi concluded "the costly reverse might have been avoided if Ultra had been more carefully considered". For its part, Hut 3 had grown "shy of going beyond its job of amending and explaining German messages", believing that "drawing broad conclusions was for the intelligence staff at SHAEF, who had information from all sources", including aerial reconnaissance. E. J. N. Rose, head Air Adviser in Hut 3, read the paper at the time and described it in 1998 as "an extremely good report" that "showed the failure of intelligence at SHAEF and at the Air Ministry". The report is not known to have survived. It was probably the "Top Secret [intelligence] digest", a post-mortem on that failure, referred to by General Strong (1968), "both record-copies of which were destroyed". Lucas and Calvocoressi "expected heads to roll at Eisenhower's HQ, but they did no more than wobble". The most "exciting" work he did at Bletchley Park, he recalled, was handling operational signals on Axis convoys to North Africa from July 1941 and deducing convoys' routes using decrypts, maps, pins and pieces of string. The high standards of accuracy and clarity that prevailed in Hut 3, his chief maintained, were "largely due to [Lucas's] being such a stickler" for them. In out-of-hut hours Major Lucas was Officer Commanding the Bletchley Park Home Guard, a "rabble of egg-heads" that he turned, contrary to stereotype, into an efficient unit that outwitted the local regular forces in military exercises. From June 1945 to the end of the War he was head of the Hut 3 History Section, compiling a 'History of Hut 3', now documents HW3/119 and HW3/120 in the National Archives. He was awarded the OBE in 1946 for his wartime work. Demographics. In later years Lucas took up the cause of population-control, "a problem not talked about nearly enough", discussing the dangers of world overpopulation in "The Greatest Problem" (1960). Having laid out the statistics to 1959 and future projections, he argued that the "reckless proliferation" of "homo sapiens", as well as impoverishing the world by environmental damage and species-extinctions, would be damaging to the individual and to society: If population-growth went unchecked, he felt, "the damage to national efficiency might drive governments to act more intelligently"; but better would be "a concentrated drive for population-planning, despite the formidable practical, scientific and psychological obstacles". "Far more, however," he added, "depends on the individual and his power to realise his own plight. Hence the need for constant and frank discussion, instead of leaving the subject, as now, in a conspiracy of uneasy silence; and the need for patient and tireless propaganda against man's reckless propagation." He singled out the Vatican for particular criticism. "Common sense percolates," he had written in 1934, "despite the Roman Church; which with its half-cynical sense of reality will doubtless end by swallowing the inevitable, as with Copernicus and Darwin, and evolve some doctrine of Immaculate Contraception." He later pointed out the illogicality of the doctrine declaring it lawful to juggle with the calendar but otherwise unlawful to practise contraception. He was not optimistic about post-war immigration to the UK, believing that in the modern world overbreeding was not solved by migration, which in turn could bring new social problems. "Persons of liberal principles are shocked if one views this influx with misgiving. But the advantages are far from certain. Principles, however liberal, are no substitute for common sense." In "Literature and Psychology" (1951) he had conjectured that the end of civilisation might come, not from war or famine, but from a decay of man's intelligence and self-control under the strain of a too artificial way of life. His only science-fiction story, 'Last Act' (1937), set in a not-too-distant future, had depicted the beginning of the end for "the desolator, Man", in an overpopulated, over-technological, and rapidly overheating biosphere.

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Kate L. Turabian Kate Larimore Turabian (born Laura Kate Larimore) (February 26, 1893 – October 25, 1987) was an American educator who is best known for her book "A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations". In 2018 the University of Chicago Press published the 9th edition of the book. The University of Chicago Press estimates that the various editions of this book have sold more than 9 million copies since its publication in 1937. A 2016 analysis of over one million college course syllabi found that Turabian was the most commonly assigned female author due to this book. Turabian was the graduate school dissertation secretary at the University of Chicago from 1930 to 1958. The school required her approval for every master's thesis and doctoral dissertation. The various editions of her style guide present and closely follow the University of Chicago Press's "Manual of Style" ("Chicago style"). Her "A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations" and its associated style are referred to as "Turabian".

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William G. Connolly William G. Connolly, is a co-author of "The New York Times style guide" and a member of the executive committee of the American Copy Editors Society. Education. Born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, Connolly attended St. Paul's School. He graduated from the Scranton Preparatory School in 1955 and the University of Scranton in 1959. Following his service in the U.S. Army (1959-1962), in 1963 he earned a master's degree from the Graduate School of Journalism at Columbia University. Career. Connolly is a retired newspaper editor and former copy editor who spent most of his career at The New York Times. He joined the New York Times in 1966, working as a copy editor on the foreign news desk. He later served as copy editor on the New York Times Magazine and assistant real estate editor. In 1975, he joined the national news staff. He retired in 2001. He has also been active in promoting racial and ethnic diversity in journalism and supporting student journalism and mentoring. He is currently a director for the Education Fund where he was also its former president. Throughout his career, he has lectured a number of times at the American Press Institute. From 1981 - 2001, he taught courses at the Maynard Institute's editing program, University of Arizona, and the University of California, Berkeley. Before working for The Times, Connolly worked for The Minneapolis Tribune, The Houston Chronicle, and The Detroit Free Press as a reporter and editor. He was the managing editor of The Virginian-Pilot from 1979 - 1983. Since being retired, he is pursuing a lifelong interest in attending art school. Works. Connolly also wrote "The New York Times Guide to Buying or Building a Home." From 1987 - 1989, he wrote "Winners & Sinners," a critique of a paper that was read by journalists, writers, and educators.

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Wilson Follett Wilson Follett (1887–1963) was an American writer known for writing the draft form of what became "Follett's Modern American Usage", which was unfinished at his death and was completed and edited by his friend Jacques Barzun (in collaboration with six other people who helped with the editing) and published posthumously. He was educated at Harvard and taught at Brown University. In 1921 he was one of the dedicatees of James Branch Cabell's novel "Figures of Earth". He also edited "The Work of Stephen Crane" in twelve volumes (1925–27), the first collected edition of Crane's writings. His novel "No More Sea" came in third in the voting for the 1934 Pulitzer Prize for fiction. He was the father of Barbara Newhall Follett, a child-prodigy author who disappeared in 1939 at the age of 25.

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Lynne Truss Lynne Truss (born 31 May 1955) is an English author, journalist, novelist, and radio broadcaster and dramatist. She is arguably best known for her championing of correctness and aesthetics in the English language, which is the subject of her popular and widely discussed 2003 book, "Eats, Shoots & Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation". The book was inspired by a BBC Radio 4 show about punctuation, "Cutting a Dash", which she presented. Besides her promotion of linguistic prescription and commentary on English grammar, Truss has written many radio plays, both comedic and dramatic. She has also written novels, and grammar guides for children. Early life. Truss was born on 31 May 1955 in Kingston upon Thames. She was educated at the Tiffin Girls' School and University College London, where she was awarded a first class degree in English Language and Literature. Career. Truss began her media career as a literary editor. She then spent six years as a television critic for "The Times", before moving into sports journalism for the same newspaper. She spent four years in the latter field, and in 2009 wrote a book about her experiences with it, "Get Her Off the Pitch: How Sport Took Over My Life". Politics. In August 2014, Truss was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to "The Guardian" expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue. Bibliography. Selected radio series. This list excludes standalone plays.

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Robert Graves Robert von Ranke Graves (24 July 1895 – 7 December 1985) was a British poet, historical novelist, critic, and classicist. His father was Alfred Perceval Graves, a celebrated Irish poet and figure in the Gaelic revival; they were both Celticists and students of Irish mythology. Graves produced more than 140 works in his lifetime. His poems, his translations and innovative analysis of the Greek myths, his memoir of his early life—including his role in World War I—"Good-Bye to All That", and his speculative study of poetic inspiration, "The White Goddess", have never been out of print. He earned his living from writing, particularly popular historical novels such as "I, Claudius"; "King Jesus"; "The Golden Fleece"; and "Count Belisarius". He also was a prominent translator of Classical Latin and Ancient Greek texts; his versions of "The Twelve Caesars" and "The Golden Ass" remain popular for their clarity and entertaining style. Graves was awarded the 1934 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for both "I, Claudius" and "Claudius the God". Early life. Graves was born into a middle-class family in Wimbledon, then part of Surrey, now part of south London. He was the third of five children born to Alfred Perceval Graves (1846–1931), who was the sixth child and second son of Charles Graves, Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert and Aghadoe. His father was an Irish school inspector, Gaelic scholar and the author of the popular song "Father O'Flynn", and his mother was his father's second wife, Amalie Elisabeth Sophie von Ranke (1857–1951), the niece of the historian Leopold von Ranke. At the age of seven, double pneumonia following measles almost took Graves's life, the first of three occasions when he was despaired of by his doctors as a result of afflictions of the lungs, the second being the result of a war wound (see below) and the third when he contracted Spanish influenza in late 1918, immediately before demobilisation. At school, Graves was enrolled as Robert von Ranke Graves, and in Germany his books are published under that name, but before and during the First World War the name caused him difficulties. In August 1916 an officer who disliked him spread the rumour that he was the brother of a captured German spy who had assumed the name "Karl Graves". The problem resurfaced in a minor way in the Second World War, when a suspicious rural policeman blocked his appointment to the Special Constabulary. Graves's eldest half-brother, Philip Perceval Graves, achieved note as a journalist and his younger brother, Charles Patrick Graves, was a writer and journalist. Education. Graves received his early education at a series of six preparatory schools, including King's College School in Wimbledon, Penrallt in Wales, Hillbrow School in Rugby, Rokeby School in Kingston upon Thames and Copthorne in Sussex, from which last in 1909 he won a scholarship to Charterhouse. There he began to write poetry, and took up boxing, in due course becoming school champion at both welter- and middleweight. He claimed that this was in response to persecution because of the German element in his name, his outspokenness, his scholarly and moral seriousness, and his poverty relative to the other boys. He also sang in the choir, meeting there an aristocratic boy three years younger, G. H. "Peter" Johnstone, with whom he began an intense romantic friendship, the scandal of which led ultimately to an interview with the headmaster. However, Graves himself called it "chaste and sentimental" and "proto-homosexual," and though he was clearly in love with "Peter" (disguised by the name "Dick" in "Good-Bye to All That"), he denied that their relationship was ever sexual. He was warned about Peter's morals by other contemporaries. Among the masters his chief influence was George Mallory, who introduced him to contemporary literature and took him mountaineering in the holidays. In his final year at Charterhouse, he won a classical exhibition to St John's College, Oxford but did not take his place there until after the war. First World War. At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Graves enlisted almost immediately, taking a commission in the 3rd Battalion of the Royal Welch Fusiliers as a second lieutenant (on probation) on 12 August. He was confirmed in his rank on 10 March 1915, and received rapid promotion, being promoted to lieutenant on 5 May 1915 and to captain on 26 October. He published his first volume of poems, "Over the Brazier", in 1916. He developed an early reputation as a war poet and was one of the first to write realistic poems about the experience of frontline conflict. In later years, he omitted his war poems from his collections, on the grounds that they were too obviously "part of the war poetry boom." At the Battle of the Somme, he was so badly wounded by a shell-fragment through the lung that he was expected to die and was officially reported as having died of wounds. He gradually recovered and, apart from a brief spell back in France, spent the remainder of the war in England. One of Graves's friends at this time was the poet Siegfried Sassoon, a fellow officer in his regiment. They both convalesced at Somerville College, Oxford, which was used as a hospital for officers. "How unlike you to crib my idea of going to the Ladies' College at Oxford", Sassoon wrote to him in 1917. At Somerville College, Graves met and fell in love with Marjorie, a nurse and professional pianist, but stopped writing to her once he learned she was engaged. About his time at Somerville, he wrote: "I enjoyed my stay at Somerville. The sun shone, and the discipline was easy." In 1917, Sassoon rebelled against the conduct of the war by making a public anti-war statement. Graves feared Sassoon could face a court martial and intervened with the military authorities, persuading them that Sassoon was suffering from shell shock and that they should treat him accordingly. As a result, Sassoon was sent to Craiglockhart, a military hospital in Edinburgh, where he was treated by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers and met fellow patient Wilfred Owen. Graves was treated here as well. Graves also suffered from shell shock, or neurasthenia as it was then called, but he was never hospitalised for it:I thought of going back to France, but realized the absurdity of the notion. Since 1916, the fear of gas obsessed me: any unusual smell, even a sudden strong scent of flowers in a garden, was enough to send me trembling. And I couldn't face the sound of heavy shelling now; the noise of a car back-firing would send me flat on my face, or running for cover. The friendship between Graves and Sassoon is documented in Graves's letters and biographies; the story is fictionalised in Pat Barker's novel "Regeneration". Barker also addresses Graves's experiences with homosexuality in his youth; at the end of the novel Graves asserts that his "affections have been running in more normal channels" after a friend was accused of "soliciting" with another man. The intensity of their early relationship is demonstrated in Graves's collection, "Fairies and Fusiliers" (1917), which contains many poems celebrating their friendship. Sassoon remarked upon a "heavy sexual element" within it, an observation supported by the sentimental nature of much of the surviving correspondence between the two men. Through Sassoon, Graves became a friend of Wilfred Owen, "who often used to send me poems from France." In September 1917, Graves was seconded for duty with a garrison battalion. Graves's army career ended dramatically with an incident which could have led to a charge of desertion. Having been posted to Limerick in late 1918, he "woke up with a sudden chill, which I recognized as the first symptoms of Spanish influenza." "I decided to make a run for it," he wrote, "I should at least have my influenza in an English, and not an Irish, hospital." Arriving at Waterloo with a high fever but without the official papers that would secure his release from the army, he chanced to share a taxi with a demobilisation officer also returning from Ireland, who completed his papers for him with the necessary secret codes. Postwar. Immediately after the war, Graves had a wife, Nancy Nicholson, and a growing family but was financially insecure and weakened physically and mentally: Very thin, very nervous and with about four years' loss of sleep to make up, I was waiting until I got well enough to go to Oxford on the Government educational grant. I knew that it would be years before I could face anything but a quiet country life. My disabilities were many: I could not use a telephone, I felt sick every time I travelled by train, and to see more than two new people in a single day prevented me from sleeping. I felt ashamed of myself as a drag on Nancy, but had sworn on the very day of my demobilization never to be under anyone's orders for the rest of my life. Somehow I must live by writing. In October 1919, he took up his place at the University of Oxford, soon changing course to English Language and Literature, though managing to retain his Classics exhibition. In consideration of his health, he was permitted to live a little outside Oxford, on Boars Hill, where the residents included Robert Bridges, John Masefield (his landlord), Edmund Blunden, Gilbert Murray and Robert Nichols. Later, the family moved to Worlds End Cottage on Collice Street, Islip, Oxfordshire. His most notable Oxford companion was T. E. Lawrence, then a Fellow of All Souls', with whom he discussed contemporary poetry and shared in the planning of elaborate pranks. By this time, he had become an atheist. His work was part of the literature event in the art competition at the 1924 Summer Olympics. While still an undergraduate he established a grocers shop on the outskirts of Oxford but the business soon failed. He also failed his BA degree but was exceptionally permitted to take a B.Litt. by dissertation instead, allowing him to pursue a teaching career. In 1926, he took up a post as a Professor of English Literature at Cairo University, accompanied by his wife, their children and the poet Laura Riding. Graves later claimed that one of his pupils was a young Gamal Abdel Nasser. He returned to London briefly, where he split up with his wife under highly emotional circumstances (at one point Riding attempted suicide) before leaving to live with Riding in Deià, Majorca. There they continued to publish letterpress books under the rubric of the Seizin Press, founded and edited the literary journal, "Epilogue" and wrote two successful academic books together: "A Survey of Modernist Poetry" (1927) and "A Pamphlet Against Anthologies" (1928); both had great influence on modern literary criticism, particularly New Criticism. Literary career. In 1927, he published "Lawrence and the Arabs", a commercially successful biography of T. E. Lawrence. The autobiographical "Good-Bye to All That" (1929, revised by him and republished in 1957) proved a success but cost him many of his friends, notably Siegfried Sassoon. In 1934 he published his most commercially successful work, "I, Claudius". Using classical sources (under the advice of classics scholar Eirlys Roberts) he constructed a complex and compelling tale of the life of the Roman emperor Claudius, a tale extended in the sequel "Claudius the God" (1935). The Claudius books were turned into the very popular television series "I, Claudius" shown in both Britain and United States in the 1970s. Another historical novel by Graves, "Count Belisarius" (1938), recounts the career of the Byzantine general Belisarius. Graves and Riding left Majorca in 1936 at the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War and in 1939, they moved to the United States, taking lodging in New Hope, Pennsylvania. Their volatile relationship and eventual breakup was described by Robert's nephew Richard Perceval Graves in "Robert Graves: 1927–1940: the Years with Laura", and T. S. Matthews's "Jacks or Better" (1977). It was also the basis for Miranda Seymour's novel "The Summer of '39" (1998). After returning to Britain, Graves began a relationship with Beryl Hodge, the wife of Alan Hodge, his collaborator on "The Long Week-End" (1941) and "The Reader Over Your Shoulder" (1943; republished in 1947 as "The Use and Abuse of the English Language" but subsequently republished several times under its original title). In 1946, he and Beryl (they were not to marry until 1950) re-established a home with their three children, in Deià, Majorca. The house is now a museum. The year 1946 also saw the publication of his historical novel, "King Jesus". He published "The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth" in 1948; it is a study of the nature of poetic inspiration, interpreted in terms of the classical and Celtic mythology he knew so well. He turned to science fiction with "Seven Days in New Crete" (1949) and in 1953 he published "The Nazarene Gospel Restored" with Joshua Podro. He also wrote "Hercules, My Shipmate", published under that name in 1945 (but first published as "The Golden Fleece" in 1944). In 1955, he published "The Greek Myths", which retells a large body of Greek myths, each tale followed by extensive commentary drawn from the system of "The White Goddess". His retellings are well respected; many of his unconventional interpretations and etymologies are dismissed by classicists. Graves in turn dismissed the reactions of classical scholars, arguing that they are too specialised and "prose-minded" to interpret "ancient poetic meaning," and that "the few independent thinkers...[are]...the poets, who try to keep civilisation alive." He published a volume of short stories, "Catacrok! Mostly Stories, Mostly Funny", in 1956. In 1961 he became Professor of Poetry at Oxford, a post he held until 1966. In 1967, Robert Graves published, together with Omar Ali-Shah, a new translation of the "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam". The translation quickly became controversial; Graves was attacked for trying to break the spell of famed passages in Edward FitzGerald's Victorian translation, and L.P. Elwell-Sutton, an orientalist at Edinburgh University, maintained that the manuscript used by Ali-Shah and Graves, which Ali-Shah and his brother Idries Shah claimed had been in their family for 800 years, was a forgery. The translation was a critical disaster and Graves's reputation suffered severely due to what the public perceived as his gullibility in falling for the Shah brothers' deception. From the 1960s until his death, Robert Graves frequently exchanged letters with Spike Milligan. Many of their letters to each other are collected in the book, "Dear Robert, Dear Spike". On 11 November 1985, Graves was among sixteen Great War poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poets' Corner. The inscription on the stone was written by friend and fellow Great War poet Wilfred Owen. It reads: "My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity." Of the 16 poets, Graves was the only one still living at the time of the commemoration ceremony. UK government documents released in 2012 indicate that Graves turned down a CBE in 1957. In 2012 the Nobel Records were opened after 50 years, and it was revealed that Graves was among a shortlist of authors considered for the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature, along with John Steinbeck (who was that year's recipient of the prize), Lawrence Durrell, Jean Anouilh and Karen Blixen. Graves was rejected because, even though he had written several historical novels, he was still primarily seen as a poet, and committee member Henry Olsson was reluctant to award any Anglo-Saxon poet the prize before the death of Ezra Pound, believing that other writers did not match his talent. In 2017 Seven Stories Press began its Robert Graves Project. Fourteen of Graves's out-of-print books will be republished over the next three years. "The Reader Over Your Shoulder" was the first adult title in Graves's oeuvre, published 9 January 2018. "Ann at Highwood Hall", a children's book, was published in July 2017. Sexuality. Robert Graves was bisexual, having intense romantic relationships with both men and women, though the word he coined for it was "pseudo-homosexual." Graves was raised to be "...prudishly innocent, as my mother had planned I should be." His mother, Amy, forbade speaking about sex, save in a "gruesome" context, and all skin "must be covered." At his days in Penrallt, he had "innocent crushes" on boys; one in particular was a boy named Ronny, who "climbed trees, killed pigeons with a catapult and broke all the school rules while never seeming to get caught." At Charterhouse, an all-boys school, it was common for boys to develop "...amorous but seldom erotic" relationships, which the headmaster mostly ignored. Graves described boxing with a friend, Raymond Rodakowski, as having a "...a lot of sex feeling..." And although Graves admitted to loving Raymond, he would dismiss it as "...more comradely than amorous." In his fourth year at Charterhouse, Graves would meet "Dick" (George "Peter" Harcourt Johnstone) with whom he would develop "...an even stronger relationship..." Johnstone was an object of adoration in Graves' early poems. Graves' feelings for Johnstone were exploited by bullies, who led Graves to believe that Johnstone was seen kissing the choir-master. Graves, jealous, demanded the choir-master's resignation. During the First World War, Johnstone remained a "solace" to Graves. Despite Graves' own "pure and innocent" view of Johnstone, Graves' cousin Gerald wrote in a letter that Johnstone was: "not at all the innocent fellow I took him for, but as bad as anyone could be..." Johnstone remained a subject for Graves' poems despite this. Communication between them ended when Johnstone's mother found their letters and forbade further contact with Graves. Johnstone would later be arrested for attempting to seduce a Canadian soldier, which removed Graves' denial about Johnstone's infidelity, causing Graves to collapse. In 1917, Graves met Marjorie Machin, an auxiliary nurse from Kent. He admired her "...direct manner and practical approach to life..." Graves did not pursue the relationship when he realised Machin had a fiancé on the Front. This began a period where Graves would begin to take interest in women with more masculine traits. Nancy Nicholson, his future wife, was an ardent feminist: she kept her hair short, wore trousers, and had "boyish directness and youth." Her feminism never conflicted with Graves' own ideas of female superiority. Siegfried Sassoon, who felt as if Graves and he had a relationship of a fashion, felt betrayed by Graves' new relationship and declined to go to the wedding. Graves apparently never loved Sassoon in the same fashion that Sassoon loved Graves. Graves' and Nicholson's marriage was strained, with Graves living with "shell shock" and having an insatiable need for sex that Nicholson did not return. Nancy, by extension forbade any mention of the war, which added to the conflict. In 1926, he would meet Laura Riding, with whom he would run away in 1929 while still married to Nicholson. Prior to this, Graves, Riding and Nicholson would attempt a triadic relationship called "The Trinity." Despite the implications, Riding and Nicholson were most likely straight. This triangle became the "Holy Circle" with the addition of Irish poet, Geoffrey Phibbs. This relationship revolved around the worship and reverence of Riding. Graves and Phibbs were both to sleep with Riding. When Phibbs attempted to leave the relationship, Graves was sent to track him down, even threatening to kill Phibbs if he did not return to the circle. When Phibbs resisted, Laura threw herself out of a window, with Graves following suit to reach her. Graves' commitment to Riding was so strong that he entered, on her word, a period of enforced celibacy, "which he had not enjoyed." By 1938, no longer entranced by Riding, Graves fell in love with the then married Beryl Hodge. In 1950, after much dispute with Nicholson (whom he had not divorced yet,) he married Beryl. Despite having a loving marriage with Beryl, Graves would take on a 17-year-old muse, Judith Bledsoe, in 1950. Although the relationship would be described as "not overtly sexual", Graves would later in 1952 attack Judith's new fiancé, getting the police called on him the process. He would later have three successive female muses, who came to dominate his poetry. Death and legacy. Death. During the early 1970s Graves began to suffer from increasingly severe memory loss. By his 80th birthday in 1975, he had come to the end of his working life. He lived for another decade, in an increasingly dependent condition, until he died from heart failure on 7 December 1985 at the age of 90 years. His body was buried the next morning in the small churchyard on a hill at Deià, at the site of a shrine that had once been sacred to the White Goddess of Pelion. His second wife, Beryl Graves, died on 27 October 2003 and her body was interred in the same grave. Memorials. Three of his former houses have a blue plaque on them: in Wimbledon, Brixham, and Islip. Children. Robert Graves had eight children. With his first wife, Nancy Nicholson, he had Jennie (who married journalist Alexander Clifford), David (who was killed in the Second World War), Catherine (who married nuclear scientist Clifford Dalton at Aldershot), and Sam. With his second wife, Beryl Pritchard (1915–2003), he had William, Lucia (a translator), Juan, and Tomás (a writer and musician).

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List of style guide abbreviations This list of style guide abbreviations provides the meanings of the abbreviations that are commonly used as short ways to refer to major style guides. They are used especially by editors communicating with other editors in manuscript queries, proof queries, marginalia, emails, message boards, and so on.

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Parenthetical referencing Parenthetical referencing, also known as Harvard referencing, is a citation style in which partial citations—for example, "(Smith 2010, p. 1)"—are enclosed within parentheses and embedded in the text, either within or after a sentence. They are accompanied by a full, alphabetized list of citations in an end section, usually titled "references", "reference list", "works cited", or "end-text citations". Parenthetical referencing can be used in lieu of footnote citations (the Vancouver system). There are two styles of parenthetical referencing: Origins and use. The origin of the author–date style is attributed to a paper by Edward Laurens Mark, Hersey professor of anatomy and director of the zoological laboratory at Harvard University, who may have copied it from the cataloguing system used then and now by the library of Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology. In 1881 Mark wrote a paper on the embryogenesis of the garden slug, in which he included an author–date citation in parentheses on page 194, the first known instance of such a reference. Until then, according to Eli Chernin writing in the "British Medical Journal", references had appeared in inconsistent styles in footnotes, referred to in the text using a variety of printers' symbols, including asterisks and daggers. Chernin writes that a 1903 festschrift dedicated to Mark by 140 students, including Theodore Roosevelt, confirms that the author–date system is attributable to Mark. The festschrift pays tribute to Mark's 1881 paper, writing that it "introduced into zoology a proper fullness and accuracy of citation and a convenient and uniform method of referring from text to bibliography." According to an editorial note in the "British Medical Journal" in 1945, an unconfirmed anecdote is that the term "Owen system" was introduced by an English visitor to Harvard University library, who was impressed by the citation system and dubbed it "Harvard system" upon his return to England. Although it originated in biology, it is now more common in humanities, history, and social science. It is favored by a few scientific journals, including the major biology journal "Cell." Author–date. In the author–date method (Harvard referencing), the in-text citation is placed in parentheses after the sentence or part thereof that the citation supports. The citation includes the author's name, year of publication, and page number(s) when a specific part of the source is referred to (Smith 2008, p. 1) or (Smith 2008:1). A full citation is given in the references section: Smith, John (2008). "Name of Book". Name of Publisher. How to cite. The structure of a citation under the author–date method is the author's surname, year of publication, and page number or range, in parentheses, as in "(Smith 2010, p. 1)". Examples. An example of a journal reference: Following is an explanation of the components, where the coloring is for demonstration purposes and is not used in actual formatting: <br> Heilman, J. M. and West, A. G. (2015). "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." "Journal of Medical Internet Research", 17 (3), p.e62. doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Examples of book references are: In giving the city of publication, an internationally well-known city (such as London, The Hague, or New York) is given as the city alone. If the city is not internationally well known, the country (or state and country if in the U.S.) is given. An example of a newspaper reference: Author–title. In the author–title or author–page method, also referred to as MLA style, the in-text citation is placed in parentheses after the sentence or part thereof that the citation supports, and includes the author's name (a short title only is necessary when there is more than one work by the same author) and a page number where appropriate (Smith 1) or (Smith, "Playing" 1). (No "p." or "pp." prefaces the page numbers and main words in titles appear in capital letters, following MLA style guidelines.) A full citation is given in the references section. Content notes. A content note generally contains useful information and explanations that do not fit into the primary text itself. Content notes may be given as footnotes or endnotes or even a combination of both footnotes and endnotes. Such content notes may themselves contain a style of parenthetical referencing, just as the main text does.

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The Cambridge Guide to English Usage The Cambridge Guide to English Usage by Pam Peters is a usage dictionary, giving an up-to-date account of the debatable issues of English usage and written style. It is based on extensive, up-to-date corpus data rather than on the author's personal intuition or prejudice, and differentiates among US, UK, Canadian and Australian usages. British lexicographer Sidney Landau remarked:

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Style (book) F. L. Lucas's Style (1955) is a book about the writing and appreciation of "good prose", expanded for the general reader from lectures originally given to English Literature students at Cambridge University. It sets out to answer the questions, "Why is so much writing wordy, confused, graceless, dull?" and "What are the qualities that endow language, spoken or written, with persuasiveness or power?" It offers "a few principles" and "a number of examples of the effective use of language, especially in prose", and adds "a few warnings". The book is written as a series of eleven essays (with much quotation and anecdote, and without bullet-points or note-form), which themselves illustrate the virtues commended. The work is unified by what Lucas calls "one vital thread, on which the random principles of good writing may be strung, and grasped as a whole". That "vital thread" is "courtesy to readers". It is upon this emphasis on good manners, urbanity, good humour, grace, control, that the book's aspiration to usefulness rests. Discussion tends to circle back to 18th-century masters like Voltaire, Montesquieu, Gibbon, the later Johnson, or their successors like Sainte-Beuve, Anatole France, Lytton Strachey and Desmond MacCarthy. Contents. The book begins with a definition of style in prose, and a discussion of its importance. It questions the extent to which style can be taught, given that it is a reflection of personality ("The problems of style are really problems of personality" ), but concludes that "Writers should write from the best side of their characters, and at their best moments." It goes on to outline the elements of a lucid, varied, pointed prose style; to warn of perils to be avoided (the book is an anthology of weeds as well as flowers); and to explore different methods of planning, composition and revision. Passages quoted for analysis are in a range of styles, taken from letters, essays, criticism, biography, history, novels and plays. There is a chapter on the rhythms of prose and on aural effects. Of figures of speech, Lucas deals with simile and metaphor; of rhetorical tropes, he discusses irony, and syntactical devices such as inversion and antithesis. For points of correct English usage he refers readers to Fowler's "Modern English Usage". Giving a few examples of regrettable change and ignorance, he stresses the importance of "preserving the purity of the English tongue". Languages evolve, but can also degenerate. Background and publishing history. The book was based on one of Lucas's first courses of lectures at Cambridge (1946 to 1953) after his return from Bletchley Park. The decision to lecture on 'Good prose, and the writing of it' (the course was later renamed 'Style') reflected a wish to improve the quality of student essays, adversely affected, Lucas felt, by the New Criticism. The decision to expand the lectures into book form for the general reader was prompted partly by his recent experience as an Intelligence report-writer in Hut 3, and partly by his belief that "on the quality of a nation's language depends to some extent the quality of its life and thought; and on the quality of its life and thought the quality of its language". First published in 1955 by Cassell & Company of London and by the Macmillan Company, New York, "Style" went through seven impressions in the UK between 1955 and 1964. In the second edition, published by Collier Books of New York in 1962 and by Pan Books of London in 1964, Lucas made minor changes and added – in response to some readers' protests – footnote translations (his own) of the book's foreign-language quotations. Cassell reprinted the first edition in 1974, adding a Foreword by Sir Bruce Fraser; this reissue Cassell mistakenly called the "second edition". After being out-of-print for four decades, the real second edition, with Lucas's translations, checked against the first edition, was reprinted in 2012 by Harriman House Publishing, of Petersfield, who added their own sub-title, 'The Art of Writing Well'. "Though one cannot teach people to write well," Lucas had observed, "one can sometimes teach them to write rather better." Harriman House brought out a fourth edition in 2020, correcting minor errors in the third and adding a Foreword by Joseph Epstein. Reception. "Style" was generally well received. "A delightful book," wrote "Time and Tide", "exemplifying brilliantly all that it seeks to instill – enjoyment of reading and mastery of writing." It was Lucas's most successful book. He had long had a reputation as a stylist, "one whose pen possesses the sparkle and fascination which made the essay, in the hands of writers such as Bacon and Montaigne, a thing of beauty and interest". Raymond Mortimer in "The Sunday Times", however, found the author "sometimes laboured in his anxiety to be debonair". Some reviewers expressed the view that "The book's most obvious merit lies in its quotations" (Rayner Heppenstall in the "New Statesman"). "There are almost as many in French as in English, and their range and aptness are remarkable." Others, however, felt that there should have been fewer examples from poetry and more from contemporary prose. "The Listener" approved "the entertaining relevance of anecdote". Sir Bruce Fraser praised Lucas's close analysis of faulty style: "The passage in which he dissects a great hunk of Swinburne's prose, reduces it by more than half, recognizes that it could be made shorter still, and ends by suggesting that it need not have been written at all, is in itself worth the whole price of the book". Philip Toynbee of "The Observer" disliked the work and dismissed its author as "middlebrow": "There have been wonderful styles which illustrate the virtues of clarity, brevity, simplicity and vitality. Other styles, no less wonderful, have exhibited obscurity, amplitude, complexity and decadence. Good writers have been urbane, gay and healthy: other good writers have been boorish, melancholic and diseased... Mr Lucas pays lip-service to the recalcitrant disorder of the scene" but "writes far too briefly of variety". More recently, Joseph Epstein in "The New Criterion" (2011) considered the book "filled with fine things ... F. L. Lucas wrote the best book on prose composition, for the not-so-simple reason that, in the modern era, he was the smartest, most cultivated man to turn his energies to the task". The 2011 article "brought attention to this neglected classic and helped set in train its reissue". 'On the Fascination of Style' (1960). Lucas returned to the subject in a 4000-word essay, 'On the Fascination of Style', published in the March 1960 number of "Holiday" magazine. The essay reworks the core points of "Style" more succinctly, in a different order and with some changes in emphasis, and adds new examples and a few autobiographical anecdotes. It was reprinted in Birk & Birk, "The Odyssey Reader: Ideas and Style" (New York, 1968) and in McCuen & Winkler, "Readings for Writers" (New York, 2009). The essay was reissued in 2012 as 'How to Write Powerful Prose', by Harriman House Publishing, Petersfield.

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The Craft of Research The Craft of Research is a book by Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, Joseph M. Williams, Joseph Bizup, and William T. Fitzgerald. The work is published by the University of Chicago Press. The book aims to provide a basic overview of how to research, from the process of selecting a topic and gathering sources to the process of writing results. The book has become a standard text in college composition classes and is now in its fourth edition. The first edition of "The Craft of Research" was a winner of the 1995–1996 Critics' Choice Award. Material from "The Craft of Research" has also been adapted to form the first part of Kate L. Turabian's "A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations". Structure. Below is the structure of the work, as outlined in the fourth edition.

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Turabian style

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IEEE style The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) style is a widely accepted format for writing research papers, commonly used in technical fields, particularly in computer science. IEEE style is based on the Chicago Style. In IEEE style, citations are numbered, but citation numbers are included in the text in square brackets rather than as superscripts. All bibliographical information is exclusively included in the list of references at the end of the document, next to the respective citation number.

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The Chicago Manual of Style The Chicago Manual of Style (abbreviated in writing as CMOS or CMS, or sometimes as Chicago) is a style guide for American English published since 1906 by the University of Chicago Press. Its 17 editions have prescribed writing and citation styles widely used in publishing. It is "one of the most widely used and respected style guides in the United States". The guide specifically focuses on American English and deals with aspects of editorial practice, including grammar and usage, as well as document preparation and formatting. It is available in print as a hardcover book, and by subscription as a searchable website as "The Chicago Manual of Style Online." The online version provides some free resources, primarily aimed at teachers, students, and libraries. Availability and uses. "The Chicago Manual of Style" is published in hardcover and online. The online edition includes the searchable text of both the 16th and 17th—its most recent—editions with features such as tools for editors, a citation guide summary, and searchable access to a Q&A, where University of Chicago Press editors answer readers' style questions. "The Chicago Manual of Style" also discusses the parts of a book and the editing process. An annual subscription is required for access to the online content of the "Manual". (Access to the Q&A, however, is free, as are various editing tools.) Many publishers throughout the world adopt "Chicago" as their style. It is used in some social science publications, most North American historical journals, and remains the basis for the "Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association", the "Style Sheet" for the Organization of American Historians, and corporate style guides, including the "Apple Style Guide". "The Chicago Manual of Style" includes chapters relevant to publishers of books and journals. It is used widely by academic and some trade publishers, as well as editors and authors who are required by those publishers to follow it. Kate L. Turabian's "A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations" also reflects Chicago style. "Chicago" style offers writers a choice of several different formats. It allows the mixing of formats, provided that the result is clear and consistent. For instance, the 15th edition of "The Chicago Manual of Style" permits the use of both in-text citation systems and/or footnotes or endnotes, including use of "content notes"; it gives information about in-text citation by page number (such as MLA style) or by year of publication (like APA style); it even provides for variations in styles of footnotes and endnotes, depending on whether the paper includes a full bibliography at the end. Citation styles. Two types of citation styles are provided. In both cases, two parts are needed: first, notation in the text, which indicates that the information immediately preceding was from another source; and second, the full citation, which is placed at another location. Author-date style. Using author-date style, the sourced text is indicated parenthetically with the last name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication with no intervening punctuation. Research has found that students do not always cite their work properly (Smith 2016). When page numbers are used, they are placed along with the author's last name and date of publication "after" an interposed comma. Research has found that students do not always cite their work properly (Smith 2016, 24). If the author's name is used in the text, only the date of publication need be cited parenthetically (with or without the page number). Research done by Smith found that students do not always cite their work properly (2016). In-text citations are usually placed just inside a mark of punctuation. An exception to this rule is for block quotations, where the citation is placed outside the punctuation. The full citation for the source is then included in a references section at the end of the material. As publication dates are prominent in this style, the reference entry places the publication date "following" the author(s) name. Heilman, James M., and Andrew G. West. 2015. "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17 (3): e62. doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Notes and bibliography style. Using notes and bibliography style, the sourced text is indicated by a superscripted note number that corresponds to a full citation either at the bottom of the page (as a footnote) or at the end of a main body of text (as an endnote). In both instances, the citation is also placed in a bibliography entry at the end of the material, listed in alphabetical order of the author's last name. The two formats differ: notes use commas where bibliography entries use periods. The following is an example of a journal article citation provided as a note and its bibliography entry. The third example of the bibliography entry is marked up with color to identify its parts. 1. James M. Heilman and Andrew G. West, "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language," "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17, no. 3 (2015): e62, doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Heilman, James M., and Andrew G. West. "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17, no. 3 (2015): e62. doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Heilman, James M., and Andrew G. West "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17 no. 3 e62 doi:10.2196/jmir.4069 History. What now is known as "The Chicago Manual of Style" was first published in 1906 under the title "Manual of Style: Being a compilation of the typographical rules in force at the University of Chicago Press, to which are appended specimens of type in use". From its first 203-page edition, the "CMOS" evolved into a comprehensive reference style guide of 1,146 pages in its 17th edition. It was one of the first editorial style guides published in the United States, and it is largely responsible for research methodology standardization, notably citation style. The most significant revision to the manual was made for the 12th edition, published in 1969. Its first printing of 20,000 copies sold out before it was printed. In 1982, with the publication of the 13th edition, it was officially retitled "The Chicago Manual of Style", adopting the informal name already in widespread use. More recently, the publishers have released a new edition about every seven to ten years. The 15th edition (2003) was revised to reflect the emergence of computer technology and the internet in publishing, offering guidance for citing electronic works. Other changes include a chapter on American English grammar and use, and a revised treatment of mathematical copy. In August 2010, the 16th edition was published simultaneously in the hardcover and online editions for the first time in the "Manual"s history. In a departure from the earlier red-orange cover, the 16th edition features a robin's-egg blue dust jacket (a nod to older editions with blue jackets, such as the 11th and 12th). The 16th edition featured "music, foreign languages, and computer topics (such as Unicode characters and URLs)". It also expands recommendations for producing electronic publications, including web-based content and e-books. An updated appendix on production and digital technology demystified the process of electronic workflow and offered a primer on the use of XML markup. It also includes a revised glossary, including a host of terms associated with electronic and print publishing. The "Chicago" system of documentation is streamlined to achieve greater consistency between the author-date and notes-bibliography systems of citation, making both systems easier to use. In addition, updated and expanded examples address the many questions that arise when documenting online and digital sources, from the use of DOIs to citing social networking sites. Figures and tables are updated throughout the book, including a return to the "Manual"s popular hyphenation table and new, selective listings of Unicode numbers for special characters. In 2013, an adapted Spanish version was published by the University of Deusto in Bilbao, Spain. In April 2016, the publisher released "The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation", Bryan A. Garner's expansion of his "Chicago Manual of Style" chapter on the topic, and coinciding with the release of the new edition of "Garner's Modern American Usage". The 17th edition was published in September 2017. It offers new and expanded style guidelines in response to advancing technology and social change. It also includes new and revised content reflecting the latest publishing practices and electronic workflows and self-publishing. Citation recommendations, the glossary of problematic words and phrases, and the bibliography have all been updated and expanded. In the 17th edition, email lost its hyphen, internet became lowercase, the singular "they" and "their" are now acceptable in certain circumstances, a major new section on syntax has been added, and the long-standing recommendation to use "ibid" has changed due to electronic publishing.

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APA style APA style is a writing style and format for academic documents such as scholarly journal articles and books. It is commonly used for citing sources within the field of behavioral and social sciences. It is described in the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. The guidelines were developed to aid reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences, for clarity of communication, and for "word choice that best reduces bias in language". APA style is widely used, either entirely or with modifications, by hundreds of other scientific journals (including medical and other public health journals), in many textbooks, and in academia (for papers written in classes). The actual edition is its 7th revision. The APA became involved in journal publishing in 1923. In 1929, an APA committee had a seven-page writer's guide published in the Psychological Bulletin. In 1944, a 32-page guide appeared as an article in the same journal. The first edition of the "APA Publication Manual" was published in 1952 as a 61-page supplement to the "Psychological Bulletin", marking the beginning of a recognized "APA style". The initial edition went through two revisions: one in 1957, and one in 1967. Subsequent editions were released in 1974, 1983, 1994, 2001, 2009, and 2019. Primarily known for the simplicity of its reference citation style, the "Manual" also established standards for language use that had far-reaching effects. Particularly influential were the "Guidelines for Nonsexist Language in APA Journals," first published as a modification to the 1974 edition, which provided practical alternatives to sexist language then in common usage. The guidelines for reducing bias in language have been updated over the years and presently provide practical guidance for writing about age, disability, gender, participation in research, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality (APA, 2020, Chapter 5). Seventh edition of the "Publication Manual". The seventh edition of the "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association" is the current one, published in October 2019. The goal of the book is to help people become better writers and communicators by promoting clarity, precision, and inclusivity. The manual has new resources for students, including a student title page, student paper formats, and student-related reference formats such as classroom course pack material and classroom website sources. The book also includes new journal article reporting standards for qualitative and mixed methods research in addition to updated standards for quantitative research. The bias-free language guidelines have also been updated to reflect current best practices for talking about people's personal characteristics. The manual addresses accessibility for people with disabilities for the first time. APA worked with accessibility experts to ensure APA style is accessible. For example, the in-text citation format is shortened so that the citations are easier to read for people who, for example, use screen readers or have cognitive disabilities. The manual has hundreds of reference examples, including formats for audiovisual media, social media, and webpages. There are many sample tables and figures, including basic student-friendly examples such as bar graphs. There are also sample papers for professionals and students. Since the seventh edition, APA also provides an APA Style website and APA Style blog to help people with APA style and answer common questions. Sixth edition of the "Publication Manual". The sixth edition of the "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association" was in effect from 2009 to 2019, after four years of development. The "Publication Manual" Revision Task Force of the American Psychological Association established parameters for the revision based on published critique; user comments; commissioned reviews; and input from psychologists, nurses, librarians, business leaders, publishing professionals, and APA governance groups. To accomplish these revisions, the Task Force appointed working groups of four to nine members in seven areas: bias-free language, ethics, graphics, Journal Article Reporting Standards, references, statistics, and writing style (APA, 2009, pp. XVII–XVIII). The APA explained the issuing of a new edition only eight years after the fifth edition by pointing to the increased use of online source or online access to academic journals (6th edition, p. XV). The sixth edition is accompanied by a style website as well as the APA Style Blog which answers many common questions from users. Errors in the first printing of the 6th edition. Sample papers in the first printing of the sixth edition contained errors. APA staff posted all of the corrections online for free in a single document on October 1, 2009, and shortly thereafter alerted users to the existence of the corrections in an APA blog entry. These errors attracted significant attention from the scholarly community and nearly two weeks later, on October 13, 2009, the article "Correcting a Style Guide" was published in the online newspaper "Inside Higher Ed" that included interviews with several individuals, one of whom described the errors as "egregious". All copies of the printing with errors were soon after recalled in 2009 (including those from major retailers such as Amazon.com) and a new printing correcting all the errors, with a copyright date of 2010, was issued. In-text citations. APA Style uses an author–date reference citation system in the text with an accompanying reference list. That means that to cite any reference in a paper, the writer should cite the author and year of the work, either by putting both in parentheses separated by a comma (parenthetical citation) or by putting the author in the narrative of the sentence and the year in parentheses (narrative citation). Reference list. In the APA reference list, the writer should provide the author, year, title, and source of the cited work in an alphabetical list of references. If a reference is not cited in the text, it should not be included in the reference list. The reference format varies depending on the document type (e.g., journal article, edited book chapter, blog post, webpage), but broadly speaking always follows the same pattern of author, date, title, source.

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MLA Handbook The MLA Handbook (8th ed., 2016), formerly the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers" (1977–2009), establishes a system for documenting sources in scholarly writing. It is published by the Modern Language Association, which is based in the United States. According to the organization, their MLA style "has been widely adopted for classroom instruction and used worldwide by scholars, journal publishers, and academic and commercial presses". The "MLA Handbook" began as an abridged student version of the "MLA Style Manual". Both are academic style guides that have been widely used in the United States, Canada, and other countries, providing guidelines for writing and documentation of research in the humanities, such as English studies (including the English language, writing, and literature written in English); the study of other modern languages and literatures, including comparative literature; literary criticism; media studies; cultural studies; and related disciplines. Released in April 2016, the eighth edition of the "MLA Handbook" (like its previous editions) is addressed primarily to secondary-school and undergraduate college and university teachers and students. MLA announced in April 2016 "MLA Handbook" will henceforth be "the authoritative source for MLA style", and that the 2008 third edition of the "MLA Style Manual" would be the final edition of the larger work. The announcement also stated that the organization "is in the process of developing additional publications to address the professional needs of scholars." History. The "MLA Handbook" grew out of the initial "MLA Style Sheet" of 1951 (revised in 1970), a 28-page "more or less official" standard. The first five editions, published between 1977 and 1999 were titled the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations". The title changed to the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers" in 2003 (6th ed.). The seventh edition's main changes from the sixth edition were "no longer recogniz[ing] a default medium and instead call[ing] for listing the medium of publication [whether Print or Web or CD] in every entry in the list of works cited", recommending against listing URLs, and preferring italics over underline. Additionally, the seventh edition included a website with the full text of the book. Later online additions allowed for citation of e-books and tweets. The eighth edition's main changes from the seventh edition are "shift[ing] our focus from a prescriptive list of formats to an overarching purpose of source documentation". Released in spring 2016, it changes the structure of the works cited list, most directly by adding abbreviations for volumes and issues (vol. and no.), pages (p. or pp.), not abbreviating words like "editor" or "translator", using URLs in most instances (though preferring DOI, as in APA), and not favoring the medium of publication. Editions. The table below identifies the year of publication of each edition of the MLA Handbook. MLA Style Manual. The MLA Style Manual, titled the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing in its second (1998) and third edition (2008), was an academic style guide by the United States-based Modern Language Association of America (MLA) first published in 1985. MLA announced in April 2016 that the publication would be discontinued: the third edition would be the last and was to be "taken out of print". The announcement also said that what began as an abridged version for students, the "MLA Handbook", was to be thenceforth "the authoritative source for MLA style", and that the organization was "in the process of developing additional publications to address the professional needs of scholars". Usage. MLA documentation style is used in scholarship throughout the humanities, especially in English studies, modern languages and literatures, comparative literature, literary criticism, media studies, cultural studies, and related disciplines. The "MLA Style Manual" was one of two books on MLA documentation style published by the MLA. While the "MLA Handbook" is aimed at secondary and post-secondary students and their teachers, the intended audience of the "Manual" primarily consisted of graduate students, academic scholars, professors, professional writers, and editors. History. Both the "MLA Handbook" and the "MLA Style Manual" were preceded by a slim booklet titled the "MLA Style Sheet", first published in 1951 and revised in 1970. The "Style Sheet" was allowed to go out of print after the commercial success of the "Handbook", creating the need for the "Manual" as a companion to the "Handbook". The "MLA Style Manual" was to go out of print in 2016. As of April 2017, the organization said it would be "developing additional publications to address the professional needs of scholars".

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MLA Style Manual

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ASA style ASA style is a widely accepted format for writing university research papers in the field of sociology. It specifies the arrangement and punctuation of footnotes and bibliographies. Standards for ASA style are specified in the ASA Style Guide, which is published by the American Sociological Association, the main scholarly organization for academic sociologists in the United States. The "ASA Style Guide", published by the American Sociological Association, is designed to aid authors preparing manuscripts for ASA journals and publications. General features. ASA style is closely related in appearance and function to APA (American Psychological Association) style. As with APA style, the general format for citing references is parenthetical referencing. All references are to be included at the end of the paper in a section titled "References," rather than "Works Cited" as in MLA style. Also unlike MLA style, parenthetical references include the year of publication. The "author-date" in text citation system is a readily recognizable feature of ASA style. This emphasis on dates is carried over into the references section, where the date is the first piece of information to follow the author's or authors' name(s). Software support. ASA style is supported by most major reference management software programs, including Endnote, Procite, Zotero, Refworks, and so forth, making the formatting of references a fairly straightforward task.

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A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations is a style guide for writing and formatting research papers, theses, and dissertations and is published by the University of Chicago Press. The work is often referred to as "Turabian" (after the work's original author, Kate L. Turabian) or by the shortened title, "A Manual for Writers". The style and formatting of academic works, described within the manual, is commonly referred to as "Turabian style" or "Chicago style" (being based on that of "The Chicago Manual of Style"). The ninth edition of the manual, published in 2018, corresponds with the 17th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. Structure and content of the manual. Except for a few minor differences, the style and formatting described in the ninth edition of the manual is the same as the 17th edition of "The Chicago Manual of Style". While "The Chicago Manual of Style" focuses on providing guidelines for publishing, Turabian's "A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations" is intended for the creation and submission of academic works; where the two works differ "in small ways," Turabian's manual is designed to "better suit the requirements of academic papers as opposed to published works." As such, the manual describes itself as the "authoritative student resource on 'Chicago style'." Part 1: Research and Writing. Part 1 of the manual approaches the process of research and writing. This includes providing "practical advice" to formulate "the right questions, read critically, and build arguments" as well as helping authors draft and revise a paper. Initially added with the seventh edition of the manual, this part is adapted from "The Craft of Research". Part 2: Source Citation. Part 2 of the manual explores the two methods of citing/documenting sources used in authoring a work: (1) the notes-bibliography style; and (2) the author-date style. The notes-bibliography style (also known as the "notes and bibliography style" or "notes style") is "popular in the humanities—including literature, history, and the arts." This style has sources cited in "numbered footnotes or endnotes" with "each note correspond[ing] to a raised (superscript) number in the text." This style also uses a separate bibliography at the end of the document, listing each of the sources. The more-concise author-date style (sometimes referred to as the "reference list style") is more common in the physical, natural, and social sciences. This style involves sources being "briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and year of publication" with the parenthetical citations corresponding to "an entry in a reference list, where full bibliographic information is provided." The manual provides extensive examples of how to cite different types of works (e.g. books, journal articles, websites, etc.) using both citation styles. Part 3: Style. Part 3 of the manual "addresses matters of spelling, punctuation, abbreviation, and treatment of numbers, names, special terms, and titles of works." This part also provides guidance on including quotations from different sources as well as the formatting of tables and figures. Appendix: Paper Format and Submission. The appendix provides specific requirements on the formatting of research papers as well as theses and dissertations. General formatting requirements include recommendations on paper and margin sizes, options as to the choice of typeface, the spacing and indentation of text, pagination, and the use of titles. Formatting requirements for specific elements include the ordering and formatting of content in the front matter, main matter (text), and back matter of a work. The appendix also includes a description on preparing and submitting files, both electronically and as hard copies. On the formatting and style, however, the manual notes that it "may be supplemented—or even overruled—by the conventions of specific disciplines or the preferences of particular institutions, departments or instructors." More so, the manual consistently reminds students to "review the requirements of their university, department, or instructor, which take precedence over the guidelines presented [in the manual]."

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MHRA Style Guide The "MHRA Style Guide: A Handbook for Authors, Editors, and Writers of Theses"—formerly the "MHRA Style Book"—is an academic style guide published by the Modern Humanities Research Association. It is most widely used in the arts and humanities in the United Kingdom, where the MHRA is based. Initially, the Book and Guide were only available for sale in the UK and in the United States. As of 2015, 50,000 copies of all editions, published between 1971 and 2013, have been sold worldwide. Availability. The 3rd edition of the Style Guide (reprinted with corrections in 2015) can be downloaded free of charge, as a PDF formatted document, from the MHRA's official website. Since 2017, an online version is available, in full and in a condensed Quick Guide format. Both online versions are also free of charge. Print versions of the most current edition continue to be offered.

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ACS style The ACS Style is a set of standards for writing documents relating to chemistry, including a standard method of citation in academic publications, developed by the American Chemical Society (ACS). Previous editions of the ACS style manual are entitled "ACS Style Guide: Effective Communication of Scientific Information", 3rd ed. (2006), edited by Anne M. Coghill and Lorrin R. Garson, and "ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors" (1997). As of 2020, ACS style guidance and best practices for scholarly communication in the sciences are incorporated into the "ACS Guide to Scholarly Communication", edited by Gregory M. Banik, Grace Baysinger, Prashant V. Kamat, and Norbert Pienta. The "Guide" is published online by ACS Publications. Citation format. Titles of journals are abbreviated; e.g.: The are optional.

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AMA Manual of Style AMA Manual of Style: A Guide for Authors and Editors is the style guide of the American Medical Association. It is written by the editors of "JAMA" ("Journal of the American Medical Association") and the JAMA Network journals and is most recently published by Oxford University Press. It specifies the writing, editing, and citation styles for use in the journals published by the American Medical Association. The manual was first published in 1962, and its current edition, the 11th, was released in 2020. It covers a breadth of topics for authors and editors in medicine and related health fields. The online edition also has regular updates (style points that have changed since the last edition or new guidance such as how to present new terms like COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 or address race and ethnicity in science publication), a blog (AMA Style Insider), quizzes, and an SI unit conversion calculator. A Twitter account is active at @AMAManual. AMA style is widely used, either entirely or with modifications, by many other scientific journals (including medical, nursing, and other health care journals), in many textbooks, and in academia (for papers written in classes). Along with APA style and CSE style, it is one of the major style regimes for such work. Many publications have small local style guides that cascade over AMA, APA, or CSE style (for example, "follow AMA style unless otherwise specified herein" or "for issues not addressed herein, follow AMA style"). Traits of AMA style. In general, AMA style strives for clarity and simplicity, and trusts the target readership to have a certain amount of knowledge and education. For example, AMA style dispenses with periods in abbreviations, on the grounds that they are unnecessary for meaning's or clarity in all but very few contexts. AMA style also requires expansion of most abbreviations at first use, for clarity's sake. The "AMA Manual of Style" sets standards for mechanical style, but does not insist on invariability for its own sake in contexts where a bit of limited variation is logical, especially in higher-level style.

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Bescherelle A Bescherelle is a French language grammar reference book best known for its verb conjugations volumes. It is named in honour of the 19th-century French lexicographer and grammarian Louis-Nicolas Bescherelle (and perhaps his brother Henri Bescherelle). It is often used as a general term, but the "Collection Bescherelle" is in fact a brand name, used by Éditions Hatier for Metropolitan French, and also by Éditions Hurtubise for Canadian French. Overview. The series is made up of three volumes dealing with various aspects of French grammar. Each of the three volumes uses example sentences to demonstrate proper French grammar. The term "Bescherelle" is often used to refer to the first book, "L'art de conjuguer". "L'art de conjuguer" (The Art of Conjugation) presents the conjugation of every type of verb in the French language in every verb tense. Each verb type is numbered so that multiple verbs with identical conjugation (such as "chanter" and "enchanter") can be grouped under one basic verb of that type. "L'art de conjuguer" also offers all of the rules concerning grammar within verb conjugation as well as a detailed guide on the purpose of each verb tense. The most recent versions cover 12,000 verbs in 95 conjugation tables. The second volume, "L'orthographe pour tous" (Spelling for All) explains how to convert spoken sounds in French into writing. The third volume, "Grammaire pour tous" (Grammar for All) is a guide on French syntax, sentence structure, the application of proper grammar to sentences, and punctuation. Bescherelles ("L'art de conjuguer" in particular) are commonly used in French immersion schools, and it is often required for students to purchase one for class. Bescherelles also exist on the grammars of German, English, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arabic and Latin although they are less popular than that of the original French. Similarly, there are not only editions written for students whose first language is the subject, but there are also editions for students with a grounding in another language. Students can choose an edition to use their existing or new language to read "about" the new one. Although the word "Bescherelle" has the typically feminine ending "-elle", it is a masculine noun in French ("le Bescherelle"). There is an iPhone and iPad application named "Bescherelle ‐ Le conjugueur" (The Conjugator), which contains all of the French language verbs and conjugations. It was published by the two French publishers: Anuman Interactive and Hatier.

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Victorian letter writing guides As letters became more and more popular as a means of communication, guides sprang up accordingly about just how one was to write a letter, what was proper, and what was out of the question. Many Victorian conventions shine through the guides, and are a valuable way of understanding certain tensions in nineteenth century England, such as a certain "artful artlessness" that came about as the result of the urge to speak from the heart, but never more than was proper. Physical concerns. A letter’s physical appearance, in addition to content, was a key concern for letter-writing guides. For men, they advocated as plain paper as could be made available, and for women a light spritz of perfume was sometimes acceptable. Other sources, however, disagreed, and suggested high outward ornamentation such as ribbons, flowery drawings, and interesting colors could be used by females, but part of this may have been the date of the guide, as vogue changed by the decade. Earlier in the century, ribbons were very popular, but fashion changed to heavy cream paper in the 1880s and then monogrammed letterheads by the end of the nineteenth century. The manner of sealing the letter also changed over the course of the years. Originally it had been wax wafers and dried gum, but as time went on colored wax became more prevalent, the use of which was dictated by social conventions. Black wax was always associated with mourning, but red wax was to be used in letters between men, particularly those dealing with business, and letters from men to women. Women were free to use a range of colors, no matter the correspondent. Even ink was hotly debated; though all sides agreed on bold black ink, blue was sometimes suggested as an alternative, and all other colors shunned, though most letter-writing guides acknowledged that they had once been in fashion. Contradictions. Letter writing guides simultaneously advised writing with absolute feeling and being cautious about saying too much, or saying the wrong things, regardless of whether or not these wrong things had real feeling behind them. Many guides cautioned that anyone could read your letters and thereby make inferences about you, even if those who you corresponded with assured you that they burnt your epistles. Matrimonial Letters. The caution about appearance in letters was doubly stressed in matrimonial letters, even as women and men were encouraged to still write from the heart. Men were warned against complimenting their chosen bride too heavily, as it seemed insincere; rather, their moral traits and the feminine virtue of indifference were set as prime subjects to appreciate in a marriage proposal. Women, meanwhile, were urged not to be too unguarded in their letters, even in the acceptance of a proposal, to only thank and address the man’s moral qualities. Love letters did not end in ‘love,’ but more frequently simply as ‘ever your friend.’ The value of letters. Aside from their use as a means of correspondence, letters can be seen as an accurate representation of people’s lived experiences during different historical eras, and much information can be gleaned from what we read in letters both public and private. Letters tend to be valuable for many reasons, and were used in Victorian times for several purposes. Some of these purposes are laid out by James Willis Westlake, who was a public school teacher born just prior to the Victorian era in England in 1830 and who moved to America at a young age, which is where he published his book. First, Westlake says letters are valuable in acquiring knowledge of past people and events. Secondly, he believes they are important in gaining insight into the moral lives of great people after which one’s own behavior could be modeled. Finally, Westlake claims that one may use the letters of well-written and eloquent individuals to adapt and improve his or her own letter-writing style. In the New London Fashionable Gentleman’s Writer, we find an example of the third usage of letter writing: a collection of quaint correspondences between hopeful men and the ladies they wished to court. Such a manual may have been used by anxious men as they prepared to write to their love interests and express their feelings, and perhaps by women as they decided how best to accept or reject the advances. Some prominent figures of the day turned to letter writing as a creative outlet. Emily Dickinson used her letters to push back against the constraints which women, herself included, faced during the era. Letter-writing was one of the few literary pursuits in which women were allowed to participate, and Dickinson used this to her advantage, infusing traditional letter-writing with her own artistic flair in order to develop her skills as a writer. George Howell, an amateur Victorian artist, used his letters to his brother as a space to entwine his words and his artistic works. Similarly, Beatrix Potter, an author/illustrator, often included pictures in her letters as a means of comfort and relief from the pressures she faced from her family. Children were taught the art of letter-writing, as well; they were particularly taught to form letters neatly with instructive books filled with drawing and line instruction. One of these such books, “"Elementary Drawing Copy Books",” incorporated traditional alphabet practice with instructions on drawing elements of the natural world. Aside from proper handwriting, young boys and girls were taught to compose letters for different reasons. Girls’ writing books taught them to use their writing skills for household management tasks, while those for boys taught proper form for business correspondence.

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The Elements of Typographic Style The Elements of Typographic Style is a book on typography and style by Canadian typographer, poet and translator Robert Bringhurst. Originally published in 1992 by Hartley & Marks Publishers, it was revised in 1996, 2001 (v2.4), 2002 (v2.5), 2004 (v3.0), 2005 (v3.1), 2008 (v3.2), and 2012 (v4.0). A history and guide to typography, it has been praised by Hermann Zapf, who said “I wish to see this book become the Typographers’ Bible.” Jonathan Hoefler and Tobias Frere-Jones consider it "the finest book ever written about typography," according to the FAQ section of their type foundry's website. Because of its status as a respected and frequently cited resource, typographers and designers often refer to it simply as "Bringhurst". The title alludes to "The Elements of Style", the classic guide to writing by Strunk and White.

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Le Bon Usage Le Bon Usage (, "Good Usage"), informally called Le Grevisse, is a descriptive book about French grammar first published in 1936 by Maurice Grevisse, and periodically revised since. It describes the usage of the French language, primarily in its written literary form. Description. Quite extensive (1600 pages), it includes numerous examples and counter-examples taken from Francophone literature of various periods, including newspapers, to form a reference for teachers of French, and in particular, authors and editors. Editions. In 1936, the first edition was published by De Boeck Supérieur (then named Duculot). A new edition was published in 1939, and another in 1946. The book was awarded the gold medal of the Académie française. The high praise of André Gide in the literary supplement of "Le Figaro" in February 1947 contributed to its success. After the death of Grevisse in 1980, his son-in-law André Goosse, also a grammarian, took over and published the 12th and 13th (1993) editions. The 14th edition was published in August 2007 in a completely new format. The 15th edition appeared in 2011. Since then there has been a 16th edition. Online Copy. "Le Bon Usage" is available on-line by paid subscription.

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ALWD Guide to Legal Citation ALWD Guide to Legal Citation, formerly ALWD Citation Manual, is a style guide providing a legal citation system for the United States, compiled by the Association of Legal Writing Directors. Its first edition was published in 2000, under editor Darby Dickerson. Its sixth edition, under editor Coleen M. Barger, was released in May 2017 by Wolters Kluwer. It primarily competes with the "Bluebook" style, a system developed by the law reviews at Harvard, Yale, University of Pennsylvania, and Columbia. Citations in the two formats are roughly similar. However, "ALWD" differs from "Bluebook" in one key respect: Under the "Bluebook" system, the type styles used in citations found in academic legal articles (always footnoted) are very different from those used in citations within court documents (always cited inline). While the "ALWD" system follows the standard convention of footnotes within academic articles and inline citations in court documents, it rejects "Bluebook"s insistence on using different type styles in the two classes of documents. The "ALWD" type style is identical to that used in the "Bluebook" system for citations within court documents. Adoption. Four U.S. jurisdictions have adopted "ALWD": In addition to those, 72 law schools and 47 paralegal schools have fully adopted "ALWD". Law journals such as "Animal Law", "NAELA", and "Legal Writing" have also adopted "ALWD".

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Australian Guide to Legal Citation The Australian Guide to Legal Citation (AGLC) is published by the Melbourne University Law Review Association in collaboration with the "Melbourne Journal of International Law" and seeks to provide the Australian legal community with a standard for citing legal sources. There is no single standard for legal citation in Australia, but the AGLC is the most widely used. History. By 1998, there existed a large number of competing styles for citing and referencing legal authorities in Australian law publications but one study identified the four major guides: There was no major, generally accepted Australian guide and law journals and law schools produced their own style guides. One of those guides was the "Melbourne University Law Review Style Guide" which, in 1997, had reached its third edition. The first edition of the "Australian Guide to Legal Citation" ("AGLC1") was published in 1998, a year which saw the publication of three other general guides: Fong's guide was prepared by Colin Fong, then Research Librarian with Sydney solicitors Allen Allen & Hemsley and now an Adjunct Lecturer at the UNSW Law School. While one reviewer described it as a "remarkably useful and sensible book", another reviewer conducted a comparative review of Fong's guide and AGLC1 and found Fong's guide a "quixotic work". The Law Book Co. guide had a second edition in 2003 and the Butterworths Guide a third edition in 2005. AGLC1. The AGLC1 contained general rules and examples for legal citation and specific rules for Australian primary law (cases and legislation) and secondary sources (journal articles, books and other materials). Its coverage of international legal materials was limited to Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States and some other basic international sources. It also had two appendices: commonly used abbreviations and a table of law reports. It also featured a concise "Quick Reference Guide". It was "comprehensive and easy to use". AGLC2. The second edition ("AGLC2") in 2002 expanded its rules to include more sources: transcripts (court, television, and radio), explanatory memoranda to legislation, translations, parliamentary committee and royal commissions reports, the constitutional convention debates, speeches, and letters. It also addressed internet sources. It expanded its coverage of basic international sources: decisions of the European Court of Justice, the WTO, and GATT. In its general rules, it added a rule on the use of bibliographies. It also revised the AGLC1 rules to make them clearer and increased the number of examples. AGLC3. The third edition ("AGLC3") in 2010 added 14 chapters and divided the whole into 6 parts. The lists of information in AGLC2 were replaced with tables and all the AGLC2 examples were replaced with new examples and further examples given. The international legal materials (Part IV) were greatly expanded and the foreign jurisdictions (Part V) covered now include China, Hong Kong, France, Germany, Malaysia, Singapore, and South Africa. Some rules were changed: for example, citations of books now require publisher information. AGLC3 is over 300 pages but "much of its length is due to the clear format and useful examples". AGLC4. The fourth edition ("AGLC4") was released in November 2018, combining secondary source rules into a single chapter on 'General Rules for Citing Secondary Sources'; it allows for cross referencing, and more kinds of materials have rules added, including intellectual property materials, podcasts, online secondary material, forthcoming journal articles, television episodes, social media posts, and journals that don't use a volume format.

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California Style Manual The California Style Manual is an order of the California Supreme Court that acts as the 'official organ for the styles to be used in the publication of the Official Reports'. Either The Bluebook or the "Manual" may be used in California state courts, so long as the same style is used consistently throughout the document. However, some local courts or judges may prefer the use of the "Manual". The 4th and latest edition of the "Manual", published in 2000 by West Group, is available online for free on the Sixth District Appellate Program webpage. History. The California Style Manual was first published in 1942 by Bernard E. Witkin, who was the California Reporter of Decisions from 1940 to 1949. Originally intended primarily for court staff and the Reporter of Decisions themselves, the "Manual" soon became popular amongst attorneys. The second edition was written by William Nankervis in 1961, who served as Reporter from 1949 to 1969; the second revised and third editions were written by Robert E. Formichi in 1976 and 1986, respectively, during his term as Reporter from 1969 to 1989. The fourth and latest edition was published in 2000 by Edward W. Jessen, who served as Reporter from 1989 to 2014. The fifth edition will be written by Lawrence W. Striley, the current reporter of decisions since 2014, and will be published by Lexis-Nexis under contract with the Supreme Court.

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Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation The Canadian Guide to Uniform Legal Citation (a.k.a. the McGill Guide), establishes the legal citation standard in Canada. It is published by the "McGill Law Journal" of the McGill University Faculty of Law and is used by law students and lawyers throughout Canada. The book is bilingual, one half being in English and the other in French ("Manuel canadien de la référence juridique"). Its 9th edition was published in 2018.

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Bluebook The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is a style guide that prescribes the most widely used legal citation system in the United States. It is taught and used at a majority of U.S. law schools, and is also used in a majority of federal courts. There are also several "house" citation styles used by legal publishers in their works. "The Bluebook" is compiled by the "Harvard Law Review" Association, the "Columbia Law Review", the "University of Pennsylvania Law Review", and the "Yale Law Journal". Currently, it is in its 21st edition (published July 2020). Its name derives from the cover's color. The Supreme Court uses its own unique citation style in its opinions, even though most of the justices and their law clerks obtained their legal education at law schools that use "The Bluebook". Furthermore, many state courts have their own citation rules that take precedence over the guide for documents filed with those courts. Some of the local rules are simple modifications to "The Bluebook" system. Delaware's Supreme Court has promulgated rules of citation for unreported cases markedly different from its standards, and custom in that state as to the citation format of the Delaware Code also differs from it. In other states, the local rules are different from "The Bluebook" in that they use their own style guides. Attorneys in those states must be able to switch seamlessly between citation styles depending upon whether their work product is intended for a federal or state court. California has allowed citations in Bluebook as well as the state's own style manual, but many practitioners and courts continue recommending the California Style Manual. An online subscription version of "The Bluebook" was launched in 2008. A mobile version was launched in 2012 within the rulebook app, an app that allows lawyers, scholars, judges, law students, paralegals, and others involved in the legal profession to reference federal and state court rules, codes, and style manuals on iPad and other mobile devices. Elements. The 20th edition of "The Bluebook" governs the style and formatting of various references and elements of a legal publication, including: History. According to Harvard, the origin of "The Bluebook" was a pamphlet for proper citation forms for articles in the "Harvard Law Review" written by its editor, Erwin Griswold. However, according to a 2016 study by two Yale librarians, Harvard's claim is incorrect. They trace the origin of "The Bluebook" to a 1920 publication by Karl N. Llewellyn at Yale on how to write law journal materials for the "Yale Law Journal". The authors point out that some of the material in the 1926 first edition of "The Bluebook" (as well as that in a 1922 Harvard precursor to it published as "Instructions for Editorial Work") duplicate material in the 1920 Llewellen booklet and its 1921 successor, a blue pamphlet that the "Yale Law Journal" published as "Abbreviations and Form of Citation". For several years before the first edition of "The Bluebook" appeared, Yale, Columbia, and several other law journals "worked out a tentative citation plan," but Harvard initially opposed it "because of skepticism as to the results to be attained and in part because of a desire not to deviate from our forms especially at the solicitation of other Reviews." Eventually, Harvard "reversed course" and joined the coalition by 1926. According to Judge Henry J. Friendly, "Attorney General [Herbert] Brownell, whom I had known ever since law school—he was Editor-in-Chief of the "Yale Law Journal" the year I was at the "Harvard Law Review" and he and I and two others [from Columbia and Pennsylvania] were the authors of the first edition of the "Bluebook"." The cover of the 1926 "A Uniform System of Citation" was green. The color was "brown from the second (1928) edition through the fifth (1936) edition. It was only with the sixth (1939) edition that it became blue." In 1939, the cover of the book was changed from brown to a "more patriotic blue" allegedly to avoid comparison with a color associated with Nazi Germany. The eleventh edition, published in 1967, was actually white with a blue border. The cover color returned to blue in the twelfth edition of 1976. The full text of the first (1926) through the fifteenth (1991) editions are available on the official website. "The Bluebook" uses two different styles. The first is used by practitioners in preparing court documents and memoranda, while the second is used primarily in academic settings, such as law reviews and journals. The latter uses specific formatting to identify types of references, such as the use of small caps for books, newspapers, and law reviews. A rule of thumb used by many is to see if the formatting can be reproduced on a typewriter—if so, it is used by practitioners, if it requires typesetting, it is used for academic articles. By 2011, "The Bluebook" was "the main guide and source of authority" on legal references for the past 90 years. It is recognized as the "gold standard" for legal references in the United States, even though it was originally designed only to help teach law students how to cite cases and other legal material. Although other citation systems exist, they have limited acceptance, and in general, "The Bluebook" is followed in legal citation as the most widely accepted citation style. Some states have adopted "The Bluebook" in full, while others have partially adopted "The Bluebook". States such as Texas have supplements, such as the "Greenbook", that merely address citation issues unique to Texas and otherwise follow "The Bluebook". Variations. Federal. The Solicitor General issues a style guide that is designed to supplement "The Bluebook". This guide focuses on citation for practitioners, so as an example, only two type faces are used for law reviews, normal and italics. Other changes are also minor, such as moving "supra" from before the page referenced to after the page number. The guide does state that unless explicitly specified otherwise, "The Bluebook" rule takes precedence in the event of conflict. State. California used to require use of the "California Style Manual". In 2008, the California Supreme Court issued a rule giving an option of using either the "California Style Manual" or "The Bluebook". The two styles are significantly different in citing cases, in use of "Ibid" or "Id." (for ""), and in citing books and journals. Michigan uses a separate official citation system, issued as an administrative order of the Michigan Supreme Court. The primary difference is that the Michigan system "omits all periods in citations, uses italics somewhat differently, and does not use 'small caps.'" As noted, Texas merely supplements "The Bluebook" with items that are unique to Texas courts, such as citing to cases when Texas was an independent republic, petition and writ history, Attorney General Opinions, and similar issues. Reception. Criticism of "Bluebook"s prolixity. At over 500 pages for the 19th edition, "The Bluebook" is significantly more complicated than the citation systems used by most other fields. Legal scholars have called for its replacement with a simpler system. The University of Chicago uses the simplified "Maroonbook", and even simpler systems are in use by other parties. Judge Richard Posner is "one of the founding fathers of "Bluebook" abolitionism, having advocated it for almost twenty-five years, ever since his 1986 "University of Chicago Law Review" article on the subject." In a 2011 "Yale Law Journal" article, he wrote: "The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation" exemplifies hypertrophy in the anthropological sense. It is a monstrous growth, remote from the functional need for legal citation forms, that serves obscure needs of the legal culture and its student subculture. He wrote that a cursory look at the Nineteenth Edition "put [him] in mind of Mr. Kurtz’s dying words in "Heart of Darkness"—'The horror! The horror!' " Posner personally uses a far simpler citation system based largely on the First Edition of the "Bluebook". This system, which he includes in a manual he provides for his law clerks, was reprinted in the aforementioned "Yale Law Journal" article. At the time of the article, his citation system was 885 "words" long, or about two printed pages—far shorter than the 511 pages of the Nineteenth Edition, the 640 pages of the then-current "ALWD Citation Manual", or the over 1,000 pages of the "Chicago Manual of Style". "BabyBlue" copyright controversy. Another dispute is over the copyright status of "The Bluebook". Open-source advocates claim that "The Bluebook" is not protected under copyright because it is a critical piece of legal infrastructure. Lawyers who represent the Bluebook publishing consortium claim that the "carefully curated examples, explanations and other textual materials" are protected by copyright. A group led by Professor Christopher J. Sprigman at NYU Law School has been preparing a "public-domain implementation of the "Bluebook"s Uniform System of Citation." which his group calls "BabyBlue". However, a law firm (Ropes & Gray) representing the Harvard Law Review Association (HLRA) sent him a letter stating: [W]e believe that "BabyBlue" may include content identical or substantially similar to content or other aspects of "The Bluebook" that constitute original works of authorship protected by copyright, and which are covered by various United States copyright registrations. . . . [M]y client has been and remains concerned that the publication and promotion of such a work may infringe the Reviews’ copyright rights in "The Bluebook" and "The Bluebook" Online, and may cause substantial, irreparable harm to the Reviews and their rights and interests in those works. . . . [I]t is our client’s position that the title "BabyBlue", or any title consisting of or comprising the word “Blue,” when used on or in connection with your work, would so resemble the "BLUEBOOK" Marks as to be likely, to cause confusion, mistake, and/or deception…Accordingly, and to avoid any risk of consumer confusion, my client respectfully demands that you agree (i) not to use the title or name "BabyBlue", or any other title or name including the word “blue,” for your work. . . . In response to the HLRA letter to Sprigman, over 150 students, faculty, staff and alumni of Harvard Law School signed a petition in support of "BabyBlue". Yale and NYU students added their separate petitions supporting "BabyBlue". A posting in the "Harvard Law Record" commented: The intellectual property claims that the HLR Association made may or may not be spurious. But independent of that, the tactics employed by the HLR Association’s counsel in dealing with Mr. Malamud and Prof. Sprigman are deplorable. The Harvard Law Review claims to be an organization that promotes knowledge and access to legal scholarship. It is a venerated part of the traditions of Harvard Law School. But these actions by the Harvard Law Review speak of competition and not of justice. The posting also suggested that HLRA should "redirect the money it spends on legal fees ($185,664 in 2013)" to a more worthy purpose. David Post commented: "It’s copyright nonsense, and Harvard should be ashamed of itself for loosing its legal hounds to dispense it in order to protect its (apparently fairly lucrative) publication monopoly." On March 31, 2016, it was announced that the project had changed its name to the "Indigo Book". Financial controversy. Revenues from the sale of the "Bluebook" are estimated "in the millions of dollars." For the first 50 years, the Harvard Law Review kept 100 percent of the revenues. In 1974, the editors of the "Columbia" and "University of Pennsylvania Law Reviews" and the "Yale Law Journal" apparently discovered this, due to an indiscretion. They complained that Harvard was illegally keeping all profits from the first eleven editions, estimated to total $20,000 per year. After they threatened to sue, and considerable wrangling, Harvard agreed with them to split the revenue: 40 percent for Harvard, 20 percent each for Columbia, Pennsylvania, and Yale; Harvard would continue to provide the production and distribution services. Legal technology and future. The "Bluebook" has also been affected by the disruptions to the legal industry due to legal technology. In 2017, the startup company LegalEase launched a legal citation generator that enables its users to create citations in the "Bluebook" format.

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Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities The Oxford University Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities (OSCOLA) is a style guide that provides the modern method of legal citation in the United Kingdom; the style itself is also referred to as OSCOLA. First developed by Peter Birks of the University of Oxford Faculty of Law, and now in its 4th edition (2012, Hart Publishing, ), it has been adopted by most law schools and many legal publishers in the United Kingdom. An online supplement (developed for the third edition) is available for the citation of international legal cases, not covered in the main guide. Cases. Cases are to be cited without periods in the names or the report names. If there is a neutral citation, which is generally the case after 2001 or 2002, cite it before the 'best' report: the "Law Reports" (AC, QB, Ch etc.), or the WLR or the All ER. When you cite something for a second time, an abbreviation can be used. In a footnote referring back to a particular page and another footnote, this would be, For European Union cases, For European Court of Human Rights cases, Journals and books. Journal articles, books etc. should be cited with the author's name as shown in the work being cited. Journal abbreviations are in roman, with no periods (full stops). If the journal does not have consecutive volume numbers, the year should be shown in square brackets, as in the second example. Books follow a similar pattern. Note the order is Author, "Title" (Edition, Publisher Year) page. If a title and a subtitle have nothing in between, a colon should be used to separate them. A chapter in an edited book would be cited as follows. Legislation. The title of UK legislation should always be written in Roman with the year at the end. The section is abbreviated without any periods. EU legislation should be as follows.

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Maroonbook The Maroonbook is a system of legal citation that is intended to be simpler and more straightforward than the more widely used "Bluebook". It was developed at the University of Chicago and is the citation system for the "University of Chicago Law Review". As a simplified and modernized citation method, it tends to be closer to the "Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities" in its conventions. Conventions. The "Maroonbook" gives the following examples:

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The Indigo Book The Indigo Book: An Open and Compatible Implementation of A Uniform System of Citation (formerly Baby Blue's Manual of Legal Citation) is a free content version of the "Bluebook" system of legal citation. Founded by New York University professor Christopher Jon Sprigman, authored collectively by Sprigman and a group of NYU law students, and published by Public.Resource.Org, it is an adaptation based on the 10th edition of the "Bluebook" as published by the Harvard Law Review Association in 1958, which had entered the public domain in the United States because its copyright had expired due to non-renewal. The project was inspired by correspondence between Public.Resource.Org's founder Carl Malamud and a Nagoya University academic, who was threatened by lawyers representing the HLRA over plans to incorporate the "Bluebook" system into the open source citation management program Zotero. Sprigman has argued that the system of citation expressed in the "Bluebook" was effectively public domain because its mandated usage in courts made it an "edict of government", and because, barring trivial changes, the then-current 19th edition was nearly identical to the public domain 10th edition. Sprigman stated that the project's main goal was to allow the Bluebook's system of citation to be widely available at no cost, and allow others to collaborate on it under an open-source model. The "Indigo Book" is an unofficial substitute to the official "Bluebook" and is not endorsed by the Harvard Law Review Association; in December 2015, the project faced legal threats over its original name, "Baby Blue's", which lawyers representing the HLRA felt was too similar to the "Bluebook" trademark. These threats led to the renaming of the guide to "The Indigo Book" in March 2016. History. Nagoya University Graduate School of Law academic Frank Bennett had wished to include support for the "Bluebook"—a widely used system of legal citations, into the open source citation management software Zotero. However, lawyers representing the Harvard Law Review Association, who publishes the "Bluebook," asserted that the "Bluebook"'s inclusion of "carefully curated examples, explanations and other textual materials" made it a copyrighted work. Carl Malamud, head of the organization Public.Resource.Org, was informed by Bennett about the refusals. New York University School of Law professor Christopher Jon Sprigman caught wind of Malamud's correspondence; he had argued that the system of citation expressed in the "Bluebook" was in the public domain because its widely mandated use in the court system made it an edict of government, going on to state that "in this case, a copyright is being used to keep something private that we all have to use." Additionally, U.S. copyright law states that a "system" is ineligible for copyright protection. Research conducted by Malamud and Sprigman found that the 10th edition of the "Bluebook", published in 1958, had fallen into the public domain because its copyright had not been renewed, as required by U.S. law at the time. On October 6, 2014, Sprigman sent a letter of response to the Harvard Law Review Association, disclosing these findings and arguing that the content of the then-current 19th edition was nearly identical to the 10th barring trivial changes. Thus, he also announced an intent to publish a free-content version of the "Bluebook" known as "Baby Blue", which would be adapted from the public domain text of the 10th edition with "newly-created material that implements the Bluebook's system of citation in a fully usable form." Sprigman explained that "every person, including every poor person, should be able to cite the law. Imprisoned litigants, pro se litigants, legal clinics, small law firms and solo practitioners — all of them need better access to our system of legal citation if the law is to work for them and for their clients. And that means free access." Sprigman also stated that the use of an open-source development model and licensing would allow others to contribute to and help improve the system; he argued that the "Bluebook" in its current form was "over-prescriptive and rigid" and "a barrier to entry to our legal system," going on to ask, "what other standard of this importance to the American public would be entrusted to a group so small, unrepresentative, closed to input, and beyond both supervision and discipline?" Trademark issues. In December 2015, following Twitter postings by Malamud teasing the upcoming release of "Baby Blue", the Harvard Law Review Association threatened legal action against the project, as it believed that the name "Baby Blue" had a confusing similarity to the "Bluebook" trademark, and requested a copy of the publication to perform intellectual property examinations under a presumption that it may be substantially similar to the copyrighted work. Sprigman objected to the trademark claims, feeling that "the idea they own the name 'blue' for a manual for legal citations is ridiculous." Following the threats, a group of over 120 Yale Law School students issued a letter in support of the "Baby Blue" project. In response to the trademark concerns, the name of the guide was changed to "The Indigo Book" on March 31, 2016.

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Practical English Usage Practical English Usage is a standard reference book aimed at foreign learners of English and their teachers written by Michael Swan. Published by Oxford University Press, it has sold over 2 million copies since the first edition was published in 1980. A new, and greatly extended second edition was published in 1995. A third edition was released in 2005, and a fourth in 2016. Feature. It features basic descriptions of English grammar and usage as well as highlighting various words which are often problematic for non-native speakers. Although the model is basically British English, it explains some of the stylistic differences between British and American usage. The third edition also takes into account some of the most recent changes within British English, particularly the commonisation of various American English forms (such as the use of "like" as a conjunction - e.g. like I do). Influences. In his Acknowledgements for the first edition, Swan refers to the aid given him by "various standard reference books - in particular, the splendid "A Grammar of Contemporary English", by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik" (Longman 1972), and in the second edition, to "the monumental "A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language"" (Longman 1985), by the same authors.

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The Gregg Reference Manual "The Gregg Reference Manual: A Manual of Style, Grammar, Usage, and Formatting" is a guide to English grammar and style, written by William A. Sabin and published by McGraw-Hill.  The book is named after John Robert Gregg.  The eleventh (“Tribute”) edition was published in 2010.  The ninth Canadian edition, entitled simply "The Gregg Reference Manual" with no subtitle, was published on February 25, 2014. The book was first published in 1951 as the "Reference Manual for Stenographers and Typists" by Ruth E. Gavin of the Gregg Publishing Company. The book is widely used in business and professional circles.  Neil Holdway, a news editor on the Chicago "Daily Herald" said the book “can answer the tough grammar questions, and it has provided me with authoritative yet readable explanations I can comfortably pass on to the newsroom when discussing our fair language.” Editions. These are the years of publication of all the editions of the "Gregg Reference Manual" in the United States: See also. Style guide

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The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage: The Official Style Guide Used by the Writers and Editors of the World's Most Authoritative Newspaper is a style guide first published in 1950 by editors at the newspaper and revised in 1974, 1999, and 2002 by Allan M. Siegal and William G. Connolly. According to the "Times" Deputy News Editor Philip B. Corbett (in charge of revising the manual) in 2007, the newspaper maintains an updated, intranet version of the manual that is used by "NYT" staff, but this online version is not available to the general public. An e-book version of this fifth edition was issued in February 2015, and it was released in paperback form in September 2015 (Three Rivers Press, ). "The New York Times Manual" has various differences from the more influential "Associated Press Stylebook". As some examples, the "NYT Manual":

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The Chicago Manual of Style The Chicago Manual of Style (abbreviated in writing as CMOS or CMS, or sometimes as Chicago) is a style guide for American English published since 1906 by the University of Chicago Press. Its 17 editions have prescribed writing and citation styles widely used in publishing. It is "one of the most widely used and respected style guides in the United States". The guide specifically focuses on American English and deals with aspects of editorial practice, including grammar and usage, as well as document preparation and formatting. It is available in print as a hardcover book, and by subscription as a searchable website as "The Chicago Manual of Style Online." The online version provides some free resources, primarily aimed at teachers, students, and libraries. Availability and uses. "The Chicago Manual of Style" is published in hardcover and online. The online edition includes the searchable text of both the 16th and 17th—its most recent—editions with features such as tools for editors, a citation guide summary, and searchable access to a Q&A, where University of Chicago Press editors answer readers' style questions. "The Chicago Manual of Style" also discusses the parts of a book and the editing process. An annual subscription is required for access to the online content of the "Manual". (Access to the Q&A, however, is free, as are various editing tools.) Many publishers throughout the world adopt "Chicago" as their style. It is used in some social science publications, most North American historical journals, and remains the basis for the "Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association", the "Style Sheet" for the Organization of American Historians, and corporate style guides, including the "Apple Style Guide". "The Chicago Manual of Style" includes chapters relevant to publishers of books and journals. It is used widely by academic and some trade publishers, as well as editors and authors who are required by those publishers to follow it. Kate L. Turabian's "A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations" also reflects Chicago style. "Chicago" style offers writers a choice of several different formats. It allows the mixing of formats, provided that the result is clear and consistent. For instance, the 15th edition of "The Chicago Manual of Style" permits the use of both in-text citation systems and/or footnotes or endnotes, including use of "content notes"; it gives information about in-text citation by page number (such as MLA style) or by year of publication (like APA style); it even provides for variations in styles of footnotes and endnotes, depending on whether the paper includes a full bibliography at the end. Citation styles. Two types of citation styles are provided. In both cases, two parts are needed: first, notation in the text, which indicates that the information immediately preceding was from another source; and second, the full citation, which is placed at another location. Author-date style. Using author-date style, the sourced text is indicated parenthetically with the last name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication with no intervening punctuation. Research has found that students do not always cite their work properly (Smith 2016). When page numbers are used, they are placed along with the author's last name and date of publication "after" an interposed comma. Research has found that students do not always cite their work properly (Smith 2016, 24). If the author's name is used in the text, only the date of publication need be cited parenthetically (with or without the page number). Research done by Smith found that students do not always cite their work properly (2016). In-text citations are usually placed just inside a mark of punctuation. An exception to this rule is for block quotations, where the citation is placed outside the punctuation. The full citation for the source is then included in a references section at the end of the material. As publication dates are prominent in this style, the reference entry places the publication date "following" the author(s) name. Heilman, James M., and Andrew G. West. 2015. "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17 (3): e62. doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Notes and bibliography style. Using notes and bibliography style, the sourced text is indicated by a superscripted note number that corresponds to a full citation either at the bottom of the page (as a footnote) or at the end of a main body of text (as an endnote). In both instances, the citation is also placed in a bibliography entry at the end of the material, listed in alphabetical order of the author's last name. The two formats differ: notes use commas where bibliography entries use periods. The following is an example of a journal article citation provided as a note and its bibliography entry. The third example of the bibliography entry is marked up with color to identify its parts. 1. James M. Heilman and Andrew G. West, "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language," "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17, no. 3 (2015): e62, doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Heilman, James M., and Andrew G. West. "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17, no. 3 (2015): e62. doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Heilman, James M., and Andrew G. West "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." "Journal of Medical Internet Research" 17 no. 3 e62 doi:10.2196/jmir.4069 History. What now is known as "The Chicago Manual of Style" was first published in 1906 under the title "Manual of Style: Being a compilation of the typographical rules in force at the University of Chicago Press, to which are appended specimens of type in use". From its first 203-page edition, the "CMOS" evolved into a comprehensive reference style guide of 1,146 pages in its 17th edition. It was one of the first editorial style guides published in the United States, and it is largely responsible for research methodology standardization, notably citation style. The most significant revision to the manual was made for the 12th edition, published in 1969. Its first printing of 20,000 copies sold out before it was printed. In 1982, with the publication of the 13th edition, it was officially retitled "The Chicago Manual of Style", adopting the informal name already in widespread use. More recently, the publishers have released a new edition about every seven to ten years. The 15th edition (2003) was revised to reflect the emergence of computer technology and the internet in publishing, offering guidance for citing electronic works. Other changes include a chapter on American English grammar and use, and a revised treatment of mathematical copy. In August 2010, the 16th edition was published simultaneously in the hardcover and online editions for the first time in the "Manual"s history. In a departure from the earlier red-orange cover, the 16th edition features a robin's-egg blue dust jacket (a nod to older editions with blue jackets, such as the 11th and 12th). The 16th edition featured "music, foreign languages, and computer topics (such as Unicode characters and URLs)". It also expands recommendations for producing electronic publications, including web-based content and e-books. An updated appendix on production and digital technology demystified the process of electronic workflow and offered a primer on the use of XML markup. It also includes a revised glossary, including a host of terms associated with electronic and print publishing. The "Chicago" system of documentation is streamlined to achieve greater consistency between the author-date and notes-bibliography systems of citation, making both systems easier to use. In addition, updated and expanded examples address the many questions that arise when documenting online and digital sources, from the use of DOIs to citing social networking sites. Figures and tables are updated throughout the book, including a return to the "Manual"s popular hyphenation table and new, selective listings of Unicode numbers for special characters. In 2013, an adapted Spanish version was published by the University of Deusto in Bilbao, Spain. In April 2016, the publisher released "The Chicago Guide to Grammar, Usage, and Punctuation", Bryan A. Garner's expansion of his "Chicago Manual of Style" chapter on the topic, and coinciding with the release of the new edition of "Garner's Modern American Usage". The 17th edition was published in September 2017. It offers new and expanded style guidelines in response to advancing technology and social change. It also includes new and revised content reflecting the latest publishing practices and electronic workflows and self-publishing. Citation recommendations, the glossary of problematic words and phrases, and the bibliography have all been updated and expanded. In the 17th edition, email lost its hyphen, internet became lowercase, the singular "they" and "their" are now acceptable in certain circumstances, a major new section on syntax has been added, and the long-standing recommendation to use "ibid" has changed due to electronic publishing.

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The Sense of Style The Sense of Style: The Thinking Person's Guide to Writing in the 21st Century is a 2014 English style guide written by cognitive scientist, linguist and popular science author Steven Pinker. Building upon earlier guides, such as Strunk & White's "The Elements of Style" and Fowler's "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage", it applies science to the process of writing, and explains its prescriptions by citing studies in related fields – e.g., grammatical phenomena, mental dynamics, and memory load – as well as history and criticism, to "distinguish the rules that enhance clarity, grace, and emotional resonance from those that are based on myths and misunderstandings". Pinker's prescriptions combine data from ballots given to the Usage Panel of the "American Heritage Dictionary", the usage notes of several dictionaries and style guides, the historical analyses in "Merriam–Webster's Dictionary of English Usage", the meta-analysis in Roy Copperud's "American Usage and Style: The Consensus", and views from modern linguistics represented in "The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language" and the blog Language Log. Contents. Prologue. "Style" is the effective use of words to engage the human mind. Style manuals that are innocent of linguistics are crippled in dealing with the aspect of writing that evokes the most emotion: correct and incorrect usage. Orthodox stylebooks are ill-equipped to deal with a fundamental fact about language: it changes over time. Language is not a protocol legislated by an authority but rather an evolving set of tacit standards from the contributions of millions of writers and speakers. Good writing. "Reverse-engineering good prose as the key to developing a writerly ear" – The starting point for becoming a good writer is to be a good reader. Good writers are avid readers. They have absorbed a vast inventory of words, idioms, constructions, tropes, and rhetorical tricks, and with them a sensitivity to how they mesh and how they clash. This is the elusive "ear" of a skilled writer – the tacit sense of style which cannot be explicitly taught. A window onto the world. "Classic style as an antidote for academese, bureaucratese, corporatese, legalese, officialese, and other kinds of stuffy prose" – The key to good style, far more than obeying any list of commandments, is to have a clear conception of the make-believe world in which you're pretending to communicate. A writer of classic prose must simulate two experiences: showing the reader something in the world, and engaging the reader in conversation. Classic style is an ideal. Not all prose should be classic, and not all writers can carry off the pretense. But knowing the hallmarks of classic style will make anyone a better writer, and it is "the strongest cure for the disease that enfeebles academic, bureaucratic, corporate, legal, and official prose". The curse of knowledge. The main cause of incomprehensible prose is the curse of knowledge – the difficulty of imagining what it is like for someone else not to know something that you know. Be aware of specific pitfalls that it sets in your path, e.g., the use of jargon, abbreviations, and technical vocabulary. Show a draft to some people who are similar to your intended audience, and find out whether they can follow it. Show a draft to yourself, after enough time has passed that the text is no longer familiar. Rework and revise. The web, the tree, and the string. "Understanding syntax can help a writer avoid ungrammatical, convoluted, and misleading prose" – Learning how to bring the units of language into consciousness can allow writers to reason their way to grammatically consistent sentences, and to diagnose problems. Grammar is a fascinating subject in its own right, when it is properly explained. Arcs of coherence. "How to ensure that readers will grasp the topic, get the point, keep track of the players, and see how one idea follows from another" – Even if every sentence in a text is crisp, lucid, and well formed, a succession of them can feel choppy, disjointed, unfocused, incoherent. A coherent text is a designed object: an ordered tree of sections within sections, crisscrossed by arcs that track topics, points, actors, and themes, and held together by connectors that tie one proposition to the next. Like other designed objects, it comes about not by accident but by drafting a blueprint, attending to details, and maintaining a sense of harmony and balance. Telling right from wrong. "How to make sense of the rules of correct grammar, word choice, and punctuation" – The idea that there are exactly two approaches to usage – all the traditional rules must be followed, or else anything goes – is a myth. The first step in mastering usage is to understand why the myth is wrong. There is no such thing as a "language war" between prescriptivists and descriptivists. "The alleged controversy is as bogus as other catchy dichotomies such as "nature versus nurture" and "America: Love It or Leave It"." The key is to recognize that the rules of usage are "tacit conventions". A convention is an agreement among the members of a community to abide by a single way of doing things. Linguists capture their regularities in "descriptive rules" – that is, rules that describe how people speak and understand. A subset of these conventions is less widespread and natural, but has become accepted by a smaller community of literate speakers for use in public forums such as government, journalism, literature, business, and academia. These conventions are "prescriptive rules" – rules that prescribe how one ought to speak and write in these forums. Unlike the descriptive rules, many of the prescriptive rules have to be stated explicitly, because they are not second nature to most writers: the rules may not apply in the spoken vernacular, or they may be difficult to implement in complicated sentences which tax the writer's memory. This raises the question of how a careful writer can distinguish a legitimate rule of usage from a tall tale. The answer: look it up. Pinker includes a short guide to a hundred of the most commonly raised issues of grammar, word usage, and punctuation. (For Pinker's Top 10 list, see .) Reception. "The Sense of Style" won Plain English Campaign's International Award for 2014, and was ranked among the best books of 2014 by "The Economist", "The Sunday Times", and Amazon. It received mainly positive reviews from several major publications, including "The New York Times", "Scientific American", and "The Washington Post", and a negative review from "The New Yorker". "The Telegraph" states Pinker "doesn't have anything new to say" and criticizes Pinker for allegedly "logrolling" in his choice of which authors to quote.

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APA style APA style is a writing style and format for academic documents such as scholarly journal articles and books. It is commonly used for citing sources within the field of behavioral and social sciences. It is described in the style guide of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is titled the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. The guidelines were developed to aid reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences, for clarity of communication, and for "word choice that best reduces bias in language". APA style is widely used, either entirely or with modifications, by hundreds of other scientific journals (including medical and other public health journals), in many textbooks, and in academia (for papers written in classes). The actual edition is its 7th revision. The APA became involved in journal publishing in 1923. In 1929, an APA committee had a seven-page writer's guide published in the Psychological Bulletin. In 1944, a 32-page guide appeared as an article in the same journal. The first edition of the "APA Publication Manual" was published in 1952 as a 61-page supplement to the "Psychological Bulletin", marking the beginning of a recognized "APA style". The initial edition went through two revisions: one in 1957, and one in 1967. Subsequent editions were released in 1974, 1983, 1994, 2001, 2009, and 2019. Primarily known for the simplicity of its reference citation style, the "Manual" also established standards for language use that had far-reaching effects. Particularly influential were the "Guidelines for Nonsexist Language in APA Journals," first published as a modification to the 1974 edition, which provided practical alternatives to sexist language then in common usage. The guidelines for reducing bias in language have been updated over the years and presently provide practical guidance for writing about age, disability, gender, participation in research, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and intersectionality (APA, 2020, Chapter 5). Seventh edition of the "Publication Manual". The seventh edition of the "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association" is the current one, published in October 2019. The goal of the book is to help people become better writers and communicators by promoting clarity, precision, and inclusivity. The manual has new resources for students, including a student title page, student paper formats, and student-related reference formats such as classroom course pack material and classroom website sources. The book also includes new journal article reporting standards for qualitative and mixed methods research in addition to updated standards for quantitative research. The bias-free language guidelines have also been updated to reflect current best practices for talking about people's personal characteristics. The manual addresses accessibility for people with disabilities for the first time. APA worked with accessibility experts to ensure APA style is accessible. For example, the in-text citation format is shortened so that the citations are easier to read for people who, for example, use screen readers or have cognitive disabilities. The manual has hundreds of reference examples, including formats for audiovisual media, social media, and webpages. There are many sample tables and figures, including basic student-friendly examples such as bar graphs. There are also sample papers for professionals and students. Since the seventh edition, APA also provides an APA Style website and APA Style blog to help people with APA style and answer common questions. Sixth edition of the "Publication Manual". The sixth edition of the "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association" was in effect from 2009 to 2019, after four years of development. The "Publication Manual" Revision Task Force of the American Psychological Association established parameters for the revision based on published critique; user comments; commissioned reviews; and input from psychologists, nurses, librarians, business leaders, publishing professionals, and APA governance groups. To accomplish these revisions, the Task Force appointed working groups of four to nine members in seven areas: bias-free language, ethics, graphics, Journal Article Reporting Standards, references, statistics, and writing style (APA, 2009, pp. XVII–XVIII). The APA explained the issuing of a new edition only eight years after the fifth edition by pointing to the increased use of online source or online access to academic journals (6th edition, p. XV). The sixth edition is accompanied by a style website as well as the APA Style Blog which answers many common questions from users. Errors in the first printing of the 6th edition. Sample papers in the first printing of the sixth edition contained errors. APA staff posted all of the corrections online for free in a single document on October 1, 2009, and shortly thereafter alerted users to the existence of the corrections in an APA blog entry. These errors attracted significant attention from the scholarly community and nearly two weeks later, on October 13, 2009, the article "Correcting a Style Guide" was published in the online newspaper "Inside Higher Ed" that included interviews with several individuals, one of whom described the errors as "egregious". All copies of the printing with errors were soon after recalled in 2009 (including those from major retailers such as Amazon.com) and a new printing correcting all the errors, with a copyright date of 2010, was issued. In-text citations. APA Style uses an author–date reference citation system in the text with an accompanying reference list. That means that to cite any reference in a paper, the writer should cite the author and year of the work, either by putting both in parentheses separated by a comma (parenthetical citation) or by putting the author in the narrative of the sentence and the year in parentheses (narrative citation). Reference list. In the APA reference list, the writer should provide the author, year, title, and source of the cited work in an alphabetical list of references. If a reference is not cited in the text, it should not be included in the reference list. The reference format varies depending on the document type (e.g., journal article, edited book chapter, blog post, webpage), but broadly speaking always follows the same pattern of author, date, title, source.

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The Business Style Handbook The Business Style Handbook: An A-to-Z Guide for Effective Writing on the Job, usually called The Business Style Handbook, is a 280-page style guide tailored to people who write on the job. The authors are Helen Cunningham and Brenda Greene. History. McGraw-Hill published the first edition in 2002 and the second edition in 2012. In 2003, McGraw-Hill published the book in complex Chinese. In 2004, China Financial and Economic Publishing House published a simplified Chinese edition. Tata McGraw-Hill released an Indian edition in 2003. Focus. This style guide focuses on business communications and is tailored for people who write on the job, which distinguishes it from style guides that are written from a journalism perspective. To develop the book, the authors surveyed communications executives at Fortune 500 companies. Results of that survey are summarized in the first chapter. The book also includes a 200-page section of A-to-Z entries on usage, grammar, punctuation and spelling for words and phrases commonly used in business writing. Example: ampersand (&) Use the "ampersand" in an organization’s formal name if that is what the organization uses, as in "Barnes & Noble" (do not write "Barnes and Noble"). But do not use the "&" in place of "and" in text. Write "Trinidad and Tobago," not "Trinidad & Tobago". If, however, you are using abbreviations, replace "and" with "&", so that "research and development" becomes "R&D", "profit and loss" becomes "P&L". "The Business Style Handbook" is on the recommended reading list for Microsoft Education Written Competencies and is found in university libraries around the world. It is frequently recommended for business writing courses at universities, including USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism. Writing institutes, such as Borders Connect, a U.K. learning provider, also use the book for courses. Organization. "The Business Style Handbook" is organized as follows. Acknowledgments Cites the Fortune 500 companies and communications executives who participated in the authors’ surveys for the first and second editions of the book. Introduction Describes the purpose of the book and its methodology. Fortune 500 Survey Results A summary of findings from the authors’ survey on writing practices at Fortune 500 companies. For example, it quotes one respondent who states, “No matter the level of employee, clearly communicating ideas is critical to the success of initiatives.” Why Style Matters Discusses the importance of writing well to establish credibility in business. For example, “Good communication skills are increasingly viewed as a core competency in the corporate world.” The Case for Standards Reviews the benefits organizations can gain from helping employees strengthen their writing skills. Write with Purpose Outlines how to approach writing strategically. Email: Before You Hit Send Gives recommendations for best practices in business emails, such as how to use cc, bcc and Reply to All appropriately. The A-to-Z Entries A 200-page section of entries on usage, grammar, punctuation and spelling for words and phrases relevant for business writing. Example: bottom line, bottom-line Two words when used as a noun, as in "How will the price increase impact the bottom line?" Write with a hyphen when used as an adjective: "It is too soon to assess to the bottom-line impact of the price increases."

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MLA Handbook The MLA Handbook (8th ed., 2016), formerly the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers" (1977–2009), establishes a system for documenting sources in scholarly writing. It is published by the Modern Language Association, which is based in the United States. According to the organization, their MLA style "has been widely adopted for classroom instruction and used worldwide by scholars, journal publishers, and academic and commercial presses". The "MLA Handbook" began as an abridged student version of the "MLA Style Manual". Both are academic style guides that have been widely used in the United States, Canada, and other countries, providing guidelines for writing and documentation of research in the humanities, such as English studies (including the English language, writing, and literature written in English); the study of other modern languages and literatures, including comparative literature; literary criticism; media studies; cultural studies; and related disciplines. Released in April 2016, the eighth edition of the "MLA Handbook" (like its previous editions) is addressed primarily to secondary-school and undergraduate college and university teachers and students. MLA announced in April 2016 "MLA Handbook" will henceforth be "the authoritative source for MLA style", and that the 2008 third edition of the "MLA Style Manual" would be the final edition of the larger work. The announcement also stated that the organization "is in the process of developing additional publications to address the professional needs of scholars." History. The "MLA Handbook" grew out of the initial "MLA Style Sheet" of 1951 (revised in 1970), a 28-page "more or less official" standard. The first five editions, published between 1977 and 1999 were titled the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations". The title changed to the "MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers" in 2003 (6th ed.). The seventh edition's main changes from the sixth edition were "no longer recogniz[ing] a default medium and instead call[ing] for listing the medium of publication [whether Print or Web or CD] in every entry in the list of works cited", recommending against listing URLs, and preferring italics over underline. Additionally, the seventh edition included a website with the full text of the book. Later online additions allowed for citation of e-books and tweets. The eighth edition's main changes from the seventh edition are "shift[ing] our focus from a prescriptive list of formats to an overarching purpose of source documentation". Released in spring 2016, it changes the structure of the works cited list, most directly by adding abbreviations for volumes and issues (vol. and no.), pages (p. or pp.), not abbreviating words like "editor" or "translator", using URLs in most instances (though preferring DOI, as in APA), and not favoring the medium of publication. Editions. The table below identifies the year of publication of each edition of the MLA Handbook. MLA Style Manual. The MLA Style Manual, titled the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing in its second (1998) and third edition (2008), was an academic style guide by the United States-based Modern Language Association of America (MLA) first published in 1985. MLA announced in April 2016 that the publication would be discontinued: the third edition would be the last and was to be "taken out of print". The announcement also said that what began as an abridged version for students, the "MLA Handbook", was to be thenceforth "the authoritative source for MLA style", and that the organization was "in the process of developing additional publications to address the professional needs of scholars". Usage. MLA documentation style is used in scholarship throughout the humanities, especially in English studies, modern languages and literatures, comparative literature, literary criticism, media studies, cultural studies, and related disciplines. The "MLA Style Manual" was one of two books on MLA documentation style published by the MLA. While the "MLA Handbook" is aimed at secondary and post-secondary students and their teachers, the intended audience of the "Manual" primarily consisted of graduate students, academic scholars, professors, professional writers, and editors. History. Both the "MLA Handbook" and the "MLA Style Manual" were preceded by a slim booklet titled the "MLA Style Sheet", first published in 1951 and revised in 1970. The "Style Sheet" was allowed to go out of print after the commercial success of the "Handbook", creating the need for the "Manual" as a companion to the "Handbook". The "MLA Style Manual" was to go out of print in 2016. As of April 2017, the organization said it would be "developing additional publications to address the professional needs of scholars".

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MLA Style Manual

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ASA style ASA style is a widely accepted format for writing university research papers in the field of sociology. It specifies the arrangement and punctuation of footnotes and bibliographies. Standards for ASA style are specified in the ASA Style Guide, which is published by the American Sociological Association, the main scholarly organization for academic sociologists in the United States. The "ASA Style Guide", published by the American Sociological Association, is designed to aid authors preparing manuscripts for ASA journals and publications. General features. ASA style is closely related in appearance and function to APA (American Psychological Association) style. As with APA style, the general format for citing references is parenthetical referencing. All references are to be included at the end of the paper in a section titled "References," rather than "Works Cited" as in MLA style. Also unlike MLA style, parenthetical references include the year of publication. The "author-date" in text citation system is a readily recognizable feature of ASA style. This emphasis on dates is carried over into the references section, where the date is the first piece of information to follow the author's or authors' name(s). Software support. ASA style is supported by most major reference management software programs, including Endnote, Procite, Zotero, Refworks, and so forth, making the formatting of references a fairly straightforward task.

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The Elements of Style R.A.Ripon KGF The Elements of Style is an American English writing style guide in numerous editions. The original was composed by William Strunk Jr. in 1918, and published by Harcourt in 1920, comprising eight "elementary rules of usage", ten "elementary principles of composition", "a few matters of form", a list of 49 "words and expressions commonly misused", and a list of 57 "words often misspelled". E. B. White greatly enlarged and revised the book for publication by Macmillan in 1959. That was the first edition of the so-called Strunk & White, which "Time" named in 2011 as one of the 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923, though it has also been criticized for misunderstanding basic grammatical concepts. History. Cornell University English professor William Strunk Jr. wrote "The Elements of Style" in 1918 and privately published it in 1919, for use at the university. (Harcourt republished it in 52-page format in 1920.) He and editor Edward A. Tenney later revised it for publication as "The Elements and Practice of Composition" (1935). In 1957 the style guide reached the attention of E.B. White at "The New Yorker". White had studied writing under Strunk in 1919 but had since forgotten "the little book" that he described as a "forty-three-page summation of the case for cleanliness, accuracy, and brevity in the use of English". Weeks later, White wrote a feature story about Strunk's devotion to lucid English prose. Macmillan and Company subsequently commissioned White to revise "The Elements" for a 1959 edition (Strunk had died in 1946). White's expansion and modernization of Strunk and Tenney's 1935 revised edition yielded the writing style manual informally known as "Strunk & White", the first edition of which sold about two million copies in 1959. More than ten million copies of three editions were later sold. Mark Garvey relates the history of the book in "Stylized: A Slightly Obsessive History of Strunk & White's The Elements of Style" (2009). Maira Kalman, who provided the illustrations for "The Elements of Style Illustrated" (2005, see below), asked Nico Muhly to compose a cantata based on the book. It was performed at the New York Public Library in October 2005. Audiobook versions of "The Elements" now feature changed wording, citing "gender issues" with the original. Content. Strunk concentrated on the cultivation of good writing and composition; the original 1918 edition exhorted writers to "omit needless words", use the active voice, and employ parallelism appropriately. The 1959 edition features White's expansions of preliminary sections, the "Introduction" essay (derived from his magazine feature story about Prof. Strunk), and the concluding chapter, "An Approach to Style", a broader, prescriptive guide to writing in English. He also produced the second (1972) and third (1979) editions of "The Elements of Style", by which time the book's length had extended to 85 pages. The third edition of "The Elements of Style" (1979) features 54 points: a list of common word-usage errors; 11 rules of punctuation and grammar; 11 principles of writing; 11 matters of form; and, in Chapter V, 21 reminders for better style. The final reminder, the 21st, "Prefer the standard to the offbeat", is thematically integral to the subject of "The Elements of Style", yet does stand as a discrete essay about writing lucid prose. To write well, White advises writers to have the proper mind-set, that they write to please themselves, and that they aim for "one moment of felicity", a phrase by Robert Louis Stevenson. Thus Strunk's 1918 recommendation: Strunk Jr. no longer has a comma in his name in the 1979 and later editions, due to the modernized style recommendation about punctuating such names. The fourth edition of "The Elements of Style" (2000), published 54 years after Strunk's death, omits his stylistic advice about masculine pronouns: "unless the antecedent is or must be feminine". In its place, the following sentence has been added: "many writers find the use of the generic "he" or "his" to rename indefinite antecedents limiting or offensive." Further, the re-titled entry "They. He or She", in Chapter IV: Misused Words and Expressions, advises the writer to avoid an "unintentional emphasis on the masculine". Components new to the fourth edition include a foreword by Roger Angell, stepson of E. B. White, an afterword by the American cultural commentator Charles Osgood, a glossary, and an index. Five years later, the fourth edition text was re-published as "The Elements of Style Illustrated" (2005), with illustrations by the designer Maira Kalman. This edition excludes the afterword by Osgood and restores the first edition chapter on spelling. Reception. "The Elements of Style" was listed as one of the 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923 by "Time" in its 2011 list. Upon its release, Charles Poor, writing for "The New York Times", called it "a splendid trophy for all who are interested in reading and writing." American poet Dorothy Parker has, regarding the book, said:If you have any young friends who aspire to become writers, the second-greatest favor you can do them is to present them with copies of "The Elements of Style". The first-greatest, of course, is to shoot them now, while they’re happy. Criticism of "Strunk & White" has largely focused on claims that it has a prescriptivist nature, or that it has become a general anachronism in the face of modern English usage. In criticizing "The Elements of Style", Geoffrey Pullum, professor of linguistics at the University of Edinburgh, and co-author of "The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language" (2002), said that: Pullum has argued, for example, that the authors misunderstood what constitutes the passive voice, and he criticized their proscription of established and unproblematic English usages, such as the split infinitive and the use of "which" in a restrictive relative clause. On "Language Log", a blog about language written by linguists, he further criticized "The Elements of Style" for promoting linguistic prescriptivism and hypercorrection among Anglophones, and called it "the book that ate America's brain". "The Boston Globe" review described "The Elements of Style Illustrated" (2005), with illustrations by Maira Kalman, as an "aging zombie of a book ... a hodgepodge, its now-antiquated pet peeves jostling for space with 1970s taboos and 1990s computer advice". In "" (2000, p. 11), Stephen King writes: "There is little or no detectable bullshit in that book. (Of course, it's short; at eighty-five pages it's much shorter than this one.) I'll tell you right now that every aspiring writer should read The Elements of Style. Rule 17 in the chapter titled Principles of Composition is 'Omit needless words.' I will try to do that here." In 2011 Tim Skern remarked (perhaps equivocally) that "The Elements of Style" "remains the best book available on writing good English". In 2013 Nevile Gwynne reproduced "The Elements of Style" in his work "Gwynne's Grammar". Britt Peterson of the "Boston Globe" wrote that it was a "curious addition". In 2016 the Open Syllabus Project lists "The Elements of Style" as the most frequently assigned text in US academic syllabuses, based on an analysis of 933,635 texts appearing in over 1 million syllabuses. See also. Several books were titled paying homage to Strunk's, for example:

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Sin and Syntax Sin and Syntax: How to Craft Wickedly Effective Prose (1999), by Constance Hale, is an American English guide to stylish prose. The term is often used as a method of teaching writing in an innovative method that combines the academy and the street. The book approaches prose through words, sentences, and music (which includes voice, lyricism, melody and rhythm). It then breaks down each of these ideas into separate chapters that are themselves broken into "bones" (grammar lesson), "flesh" (writing lesson), "cardinal sins" (the don'ts) and "carnal pleasures" (the do's).

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US Government Publishing Office Style Manual

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The Well-Spoken Thesaurus The Well-Spoken Thesaurus by Tom Heehler (Sourcebooks 2011), is an American style guide and speaking aid. The "Chicago Tribune" calls "The Well-Spoken Thesaurus" "a celebration of the spoken word". The book has also been reviewed in the "Winnipeg Free Press", and by bloggers at the "Fayetteville Observer", and the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer". Content. The book consists of two sections—a 50-page style guide entitled "Rhetorical Form and Design", and a 350-page thesaurus section. However, what distinguishes this thesaurus from all conventional thesauri is the inclusion of what the author calls rhetorically related words, or "powernyms"—as opposed to merely synonymous words. According to Heehler, these powernyms allow users to more readily transform rough drafts into more eloquent improvements. In "Rhetorical Form and Design," Heehler serves up 17 lessons from such writers and speakers as T.S. Eliot, Margaret Atwood, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway, Barack Obama, Martin Luther King Jr., and Cintra Wilson. Rhetorical and literary techniques covered include the objective correlative, rhetorical objectification, verb displacement, rhetorical agency, rhetorical tension, poetic articles, preposition exchange, creative number, and intuitive description. Origins. According to Heehler, the idea for "The Well-Spoken Thesaurus" came to him while attending the Harvard Extension School, where he came to realize just how poorly spoken he truly was. And because there were no books available with which to solve his problem, he began to create a database of eloquent words. Whenever he would chance upon a well-spoken word or phrase at Harvard, he would pair that with what "he" would have said. After three years of doing this, of "collecting words like butterflies," he decided that his "butterfly collection" could be of use to others.

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The Bedford Handbook The Bedford Handbook is a guide written by Diana Hacker, now in its eleventh edition, that provides basic explanations of proper English grammar, composition, citation, and textual analysis. The guide includes a number of sample texts (including essays) and illustrations throughout its sections. It also covers the concept of plagiarism. "The Bedford Handbook" contains guides to the MLA, APA, and Chicago citation styles and includes examples of each style in essay form. The book is paired with a companion website that has exercises and more writing models. The hardback is 820 pages and the paperback is 960 pages and are published by United States publisher Bedford/St. Martin's.

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A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations is a style guide for writing and formatting research papers, theses, and dissertations and is published by the University of Chicago Press. The work is often referred to as "Turabian" (after the work's original author, Kate L. Turabian) or by the shortened title, "A Manual for Writers". The style and formatting of academic works, described within the manual, is commonly referred to as "Turabian style" or "Chicago style" (being based on that of "The Chicago Manual of Style"). The ninth edition of the manual, published in 2018, corresponds with the 17th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. Structure and content of the manual. Except for a few minor differences, the style and formatting described in the ninth edition of the manual is the same as the 17th edition of "The Chicago Manual of Style". While "The Chicago Manual of Style" focuses on providing guidelines for publishing, Turabian's "A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations" is intended for the creation and submission of academic works; where the two works differ "in small ways," Turabian's manual is designed to "better suit the requirements of academic papers as opposed to published works." As such, the manual describes itself as the "authoritative student resource on 'Chicago style'." Part 1: Research and Writing. Part 1 of the manual approaches the process of research and writing. This includes providing "practical advice" to formulate "the right questions, read critically, and build arguments" as well as helping authors draft and revise a paper. Initially added with the seventh edition of the manual, this part is adapted from "The Craft of Research". Part 2: Source Citation. Part 2 of the manual explores the two methods of citing/documenting sources used in authoring a work: (1) the notes-bibliography style; and (2) the author-date style. The notes-bibliography style (also known as the "notes and bibliography style" or "notes style") is "popular in the humanities—including literature, history, and the arts." This style has sources cited in "numbered footnotes or endnotes" with "each note correspond[ing] to a raised (superscript) number in the text." This style also uses a separate bibliography at the end of the document, listing each of the sources. The more-concise author-date style (sometimes referred to as the "reference list style") is more common in the physical, natural, and social sciences. This style involves sources being "briefly cited in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and year of publication" with the parenthetical citations corresponding to "an entry in a reference list, where full bibliographic information is provided." The manual provides extensive examples of how to cite different types of works (e.g. books, journal articles, websites, etc.) using both citation styles. Part 3: Style. Part 3 of the manual "addresses matters of spelling, punctuation, abbreviation, and treatment of numbers, names, special terms, and titles of works." This part also provides guidance on including quotations from different sources as well as the formatting of tables and figures. Appendix: Paper Format and Submission. The appendix provides specific requirements on the formatting of research papers as well as theses and dissertations. General formatting requirements include recommendations on paper and margin sizes, options as to the choice of typeface, the spacing and indentation of text, pagination, and the use of titles. Formatting requirements for specific elements include the ordering and formatting of content in the front matter, main matter (text), and back matter of a work. The appendix also includes a description on preparing and submitting files, both electronically and as hard copies. On the formatting and style, however, the manual notes that it "may be supplemented—or even overruled—by the conventions of specific disciplines or the preferences of particular institutions, departments or instructors." More so, the manual consistently reminds students to "review the requirements of their university, department, or instructor, which take precedence over the guidelines presented [in the manual]."

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AP Stylebook The AP Stylebook, also known by its full name The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law, is an American-English grammar style and usage guide created by American journalists working for or connected with the Associated Press. Although it is sold as a guide for reporters, it has become the leading reference for most forms of public-facing corporate communication over the last half-century. The Stylebook offers a basic reference to American-English grammar, punctuation and principles of reporting, including many definitions and rules for usage as well as styles for capitalization, abbreviation, spelling and numerals. The first publicly available edition of the book was published in 1953. The first modern edition was published in August 1977 by Lorenz Press. Afterwards, various paperback editions were published by different publishers including, among others, Turtleback Books, Penguin's Laurel Press, Pearson's Addison-Wesley, and Hachette's Perseus Books and Basic Books. Since 1985 the "AP Stylebook" has been updated annually, usually in May. Modern editions are released in several formats, including paperback and flat-lying spiral-bound editions, as well as a digital e-book edition and an online subscription version. Additionally, today the "AP Stylebook" also provides English grammar recommendation through its presence on social media, including Twitter, Facebook, and Pinterest. From 1977 to 2005 more than two million copies of the "AP Stylebook" have been sold worldwide, with that number climbing to 2.5 million by 2011. Writers in broadcasting, magazine publishing, marketing departments and public relations firms traditionally adopt and apply AP grammar and punctuation styles. Organization. The stylebook is organized into sections: A reference section for reporters covering business and financial news including general knowledge of accounting, bankruptcy, mergers and international bureaus. For instance, it includes explanations of five different chapters of bankruptcy. Includes terminology, statistics, organization rules and guidelines commonly referenced by sports reporters, such as the correct way to spell and use basketball terminology like half-court pass, field goal and goal-tending. A specific guide on how to use punctuation in journalistic materials. This section includes rules regarding hyphens, commas, parentheses and quotations. An overview of legal issues and ethical expectations for those working in journalism, including the difference between slander and libel. Slander is spoken; libel is written. The simple formula of what to include when writing a photo caption, usually called a cutline in newspapers. A key with editing symbols to assist the journalist with the proofreading process. This provides second reference materials for information not included in the book. For example, it says to use "Webster's New World College Dictionary", as reference after the AP Stylebook for spelling, style, usage and foreign geographic names. Title. From 1909, when the first stylebook-like guide was released internally under the title: "The Associate Press Rules Regulations and General Orders", and until 1953, the stylebook was published under different titles including, among others, "Instructions for Correspondents of the Associate Press", "The Associate Press. Regulations Traffic Department", "A Guide for Filing Editors. The Associated Press", "A Guide for Foreign Correspondents. The Associated Press", "A Guide for Writers. The Associated Press", "The AP Copy Book", and "AP Writing Handbook". The first publicly available edition of "AP Stylebook" was published in 1953 under the title "The Associated Press Style Book". Since 1953, the stylebook has been published under different titles, including "Writing for The AP"; "AP Stylebook"; and "The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual". In 2000, the guide was renamed "The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law" and the paperback edition has been published under this title since then. Some editions, such as the spiral-bound and e-book editions, use the shorter title "The Associated Press Stylebook" on their covers. History. The Associated Press organization was first created in 1846. The first internal AP "guide" did not deal with English words and grammar and was more of a brochure with 24 pages of various titles and corporate structures of the Associated Press organization. It was published in 1900 under the title "The Associated Press". The first real stylebook-like guide dealing, to a significant extent, with American-English words and grammar was released in 1909, under the title: "The Associate Press Rules Regulations and General Orders". By the early 1950s the publication was formalized into the "AP Stylebook" and became the leading professional English grammar reference by most member and non-member news bureaus throughout the world. Due to growing demand by non-member journalists and writers working in public-facing corporate communications, the AP published their first official "stylebook" for the general public in 1953 under the title "Associated Press Style Book"; the first publication focused on "where the wire set a specific style". For nearly a quarter century it assumed its reader had a "solid grounding in language and a good reference library" and thus omitted any guidelines in those broader areas. In 1977, prompted by AP Executive News Editor Lou Boccardi's request for "more of a reference work", the organization started expanding the book and in 1977 produced a book that was different in a few fundamental regards. Firstly, The structure was changed and entries were organized in alphabetical order so that users could find what they need in a timely manner. Secondly, in 1977 the book was published for the first time by a 3rd party publisher – Lorenz Press. Thirdly, in 1977, UPI and AP cooperated to produce stylebooks for each organization that are based on revisions and guidelines jointly agreed on by editors of both "UPI Stylebook" (Bobby Ray Miller) and "AP Stylebook" (Howard Angione). In 1982, Eileen Alt Powell, a co-editor of "AP Stylebook" 1980 edition, stated that: In 1989, Norm Goldstein became the "AP Stylebook" lead editor, a job he held until the 2007 edition. After publishing the final edition under his editorship, Goldstein commented on the future of the "AP Stylebook"s section on name references: After Norm Goldstein stepped down as lead editor in 2007, in bibliographical records for all subsequent editions starting from 2008 lead editors' names are usually not explicitly called out and the author is simply referred to as "Associated Press" or "AP Editors". In 2009 and 2011 the "Stylebook" was released as an app called "AP Stylebook Mobile" edition for iOS and BlackBerry, respectively, however it was later discontinued in 2015 in favor of users simply accessing "AP Stylebook" Online edition through their desktop or mobile browsers. In March 2019 AP created an "Archived AP Stylebooks" section on its apstylebook.com website where anyone can access previous versions of the "AP Stylebook" starting from 1900 "brochure on AP corporate structure" and all the way to 1977 edition. The most recent print edition is the 2020 "AP Stylebook", available spiral-bound directly from AP, and as a perfect-bound paperback sold by Basic Books. Creation of "AP Stylebook" has been helmed by lead editor Paula Froke since 2016. Edition. Edition number: English edition. The first publicly available English edition of the book was released in 1953. However, all editions prior to 1977 are not included in the editions count and the first modern edition is considered to be the August 1977 edition released for the first time by Lorenz Press. The latest, 2020 version, is the 55th edition. Edition number: Spanish edition. Due to the rising influence of the Spanish language worldwide, in November 2012 Associated Press added, in addition to American-English, its first ever Spanish edition of its Stylebook. The Spanish edition is separate from English edition and has a different website, as well as Twitter and Facebook accounts. Unlike the English edition which currently has both online and print versions, the Spanish edition only has an online edition. The Spanish edition does not have an 'edition number' since it only exists as an online service. Revision process. From 1980 to 1984 the English edition was updated biennially. Since 1985 the English edition of the stylebook has been updated annually by Associated Press editors, usually in May, and at this time edits and new entries may be added. This is done to keep the stylebook up to date with technological and cultural changes. The AP Stylebook recently decided to change the frequency with which it is reprinted, and the 2020 stylebook will be sold through 2022. In 2005, dozens of new or revised entries were added, including words and phrases for "Sept. 11", "e.g." and "i.e.", "FedEx" and "Midwest region". In 2008, more than 200 new or revised entries were added, including words and phrases for "iPhone", "anti-virus", "outsourcing", "podcast", "text messaging", "social networking", "high-definition" and "Wikipedia". In 2009, more than 60 new or revised entries were added, including words for "Twitter", "baba ghanoush" and "texting". In 2013, more than 90 new or revised entries were added, including words for "Benedictine", "Grand Marnier", "madeleine" and "upside-down cake", "chichi" and "froufrou". In 2019, more than 200 new or revised entries were added, including words for "budtender", "deepfake" and "cryptocurrency". The 2020 edition was released on May 21, 2020 and included a new chapter in digital security for journalists.

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ACS style The ACS Style is a set of standards for writing documents relating to chemistry, including a standard method of citation in academic publications, developed by the American Chemical Society (ACS). Previous editions of the ACS style manual are entitled "ACS Style Guide: Effective Communication of Scientific Information", 3rd ed. (2006), edited by Anne M. Coghill and Lorrin R. Garson, and "ACS Style Guide: A Manual for Authors and Editors" (1997). As of 2020, ACS style guidance and best practices for scholarly communication in the sciences are incorporated into the "ACS Guide to Scholarly Communication", edited by Gregory M. Banik, Grace Baysinger, Prashant V. Kamat, and Norbert Pienta. The "Guide" is published online by ACS Publications. Citation format. Titles of journals are abbreviated; e.g.: The are optional.

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List of style guides A style guide, or style manual, is a set of standards for the writing and design of documents, either for general use or for a specific publication, organization or field. The implementation of a style guide provides uniformity in style and formatting within a document and across multiple documents. A set of standards for a specific organization is often known as "house style". Style guides are common for general and specialized use, for the general reading and writing audience, and for students and scholars of various academic disciplines, medicine, journalism, the law, government, business, and industry. International. Several basic style guides for technical and scientific communication have been defined by international standards organizations. These are often used as elements of and refined in more specialized style guides that are specific to a subject, region or organization. Some examples are: United States. In the United States, both corporate and journalistic forms of mass communication rely on styles provided in the "Associated Press Stylebook" (AP). A classic grammar style guide, which is designed to complement the AP Stylebook, is "The Elements of Style". Together, these two books are referenced more than any other general style book for U.S. third-person writing used across most professions.

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Style guide A style guide or manual of style is a set of standards for the writing, formatting and design of documents. It is often called a style sheet, although that term also has other meanings. The standards can be applied either for general use, or be required usage for an individual publication, a particular organization, or a specific field. A style guide establishes standard style requirements to improve communication by ensuring consistency both within a document, and across multiple documents. Because practices vary, a style guide may set out standards to be used in areas such as punctuation, capitalization, citing sources, formatting of numbers and dates, table appearance and other areas. The style guide may require certain best practices in usage, language composition, visual composition, orthography and typography. For academic and technical documents, a guide may also enforce the best practice in ethics (such as authorship, research ethics, and disclosure), pedagogy (such as exposition and clarity), and compliance (technical and regulatory). Style guides are specialized in a variety of ways, from the general use of a broad public audience, to a wide variety of specialized uses, such as for students and scholars of various academic disciplines, medicine, journalism, the law, government, business in general, and specific industries. The term house style refers to the individual style manual of a particular publisher or organization. Varieties. Style guides vary widely in scope and size. Sizes. This variety in scope and length is enabled by the cascading of one style over another, in a way analogous to how styles cascade in web development and in desktop cascade over CSS styles. A short style guide is often called a "style sheet". A comprehensive guide tends to be long and is often called a "style manual" or "manual of style" ("MOS" or "MoS"). In many cases, a project such as one book, journal, or monograph series typically has a short style sheet that cascades over the somewhat larger style guide of an organization such as a publishing company, whose content is usually called "house style". Most house styles, in turn, cascade over an "industry-wide or profession-wide style manual" that is even more comprehensive. Some examples of these industry style guides include the following: Finally, these reference works cascade over the orthographic norms of the language in use (for example, English orthography for English-language publications). This, of course, may be subject to national variety such as the different varieties of American English and British English. Topics. Some style guides focus on specific topic areas such as graphic design, including typography. Website style guides cover a publication's visual and technical aspects along with text. Style guides that cover usage may suggest ways of describing people that avoid racism, sexism, and homophobia. Guides in specific scientific and technical fields cover nomenclature, which specifies names or classifying labels that are preferred because they are clear, standardized, and ontologically sound (e.g., taxonomy, chemical nomenclature, and gene nomenclature). Updating. Most style guides are revised from time to time to accommodate changes in conventions and usage. The frequency of updating and the revision control are determined by the subject matter. For style manuals in reference work format, new editions typically appear every 1 to 20 years. For example, the AP Stylebook is revised annually, and the Chicago, APA, and ASA manuals are in their 17th, 7th, and 4th editions, respectively. Many house styles and individual project styles change more frequently, especially for new projects.

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TT language The TT language () is a style guide from the Swedish news agency Tidningarnas Telegrambyrå (TT). The TT language contains recommendations on how media of Sweden should express themselves in writing, to maintain good use of language.

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The Rudiments of English Grammar The Rudiments of English Grammar (1761) was a popular English grammar textbook written by the 18th-century British polymath Joseph Priestley. While a minister for a congregation in Nantwich, Cheshire, Priestley established a local school; it was his first successful educational venture. Believing that all students should have a good grasp of English and its grammar before learning any other language, and dismayed at the quality of the instruction manuals available, Priestley wrote his own textbook: "The Rudiments of English Grammar" (1761). The book was very successful—it was reprinted for over fifty years. Its humor may have contributed to its popularity; for example, Priestley illustrated the "couplet" with this rhyme: Priestley also quoted from the most famous English authors, encouraging the middle-class association between reading and pleasure, a reading that would also, Priestley hoped, foster morality. Priestley's innovations in the teaching and description of English grammar, particularly his efforts to dissociate it from Latin grammar, made his textbook revolutionary and have led 20th century scholars to describe him as "one of the great grammarians of his time." "Rudiments" influenced all of the major British grammarians of the late 18th century: Robert Lowth, James Harris, John Horne Tooke and even the American Noah Webster. The resounding success of Priestley's book was one of the reasons that Warrington Academy offered him a teaching position in 1761.

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F.M. (novel) F.M. (Russian: "Ф.М.", the initials of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky and also probably a pun ) is a novel in two volumes by Boris Akunin, which reached bookstores in Russia on 20 May 2006. This work presents a postmodern engagement with Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment". The main character of the book is Nicholas Fandorin, the grandchild of the famous sleuth Erast Fandorin, who seeks the lost variant of "Crime and Punishment" in modern-day Russia. Another character is Porfiry Petrovich, the detective in "Crime and Punishment", from whose perspective the story is told. Thus, the story is relayed through two distinct temporal perspectives: 21st century and 19th century. All the characters from Dostoevsky's work have counterparts in the more recent time. The book was published in Russian in 350,000 copies. According to Akunin, this work was inspired by a song about Dostoevsky written by Boris Grebenshchikov.

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Among Others Among Others is a 2011 fantasy novel written by Welsh-Canadian writer Jo Walton, published originally by Tor Books. It is published in the UK by Corsair (Constable & Robinson). It won the 2012 Nebula Award for Best Novel, the Hugo Award for Best Novel and the British Fantasy Award, and was a nominee for the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel. Background. "Among Others" is the ninth novel published by Welsh-born author Jo Walton. It was written in 36 days in 2008, distributed between 29 February and 29 May. Walton describes the novel as semi-autobiographical, about the "coming-of-age experience of having books instead of people for friends and solace", which since the publication of the novel she has discovered to be more common among readers than she had expected. The author also shared the experience with her protagonist of being a Welsh student in an English boarding school and walking with a cane. As the main character is 15 in 1979, she would also have been born and grown up in the same area of Wales at roughly the same time. Walton also credits her own experiences growing up with a paranoid schizophrenic mother as giving her a "useful knowledge of evil" that informed the portrayal of her protagonist's mother in this novel. The author indicates the inspiration was the response she received to an article she posted in her online journal that year about the area of Wales in which she grew up and how she "thought [she] was living in a fantasy landscape, when actually [she] was living in a science fictional one". However, she notes that it is not actually autobiography, but rather "a mythologisation of part of my life. It's a fantasy novel, but it's drawing on autobiographical material." Walton wrote the novel under the working title "The Industrial Ruins of Elfland" but altered it to the current title after a friend mentioned it to her as a good title for a novel due to its frequent use in biographical bibliographies – an author had written specific works "among others". This struck her as an apt description of the novel she was working on at the time. The novel was released in North America first, under the Tor imprint, in January 2011 before being released in the UK in October 2012 by Corsair. Plot. The novel is presented as the diary of Morgana, a 15-year-old Welsh science fiction and fantasy fan, in 1979 and 1980. She and her twin sister Morwenna, both frequently using the nicknames "Mor" or "Mori", grew up playing and occasionally working magic with beings they call faeries in the hills of Wales. Several months before the start of the novel, their mother, who is described as both insane and a witch, attempts to gain more power to take over the world. The sisters are able to stop her, but in the process their mother causes them to be struck by a car, killing Morwenna and disabling one of Morgana's legs. Morgana begins mostly using Morwenna's name, though still typically going by Mori. As her mother is insane and her grandfather (with whom she previously lived) has a stroke and is in a care facility, she has run away from her home and been sent to western England to live with her father and his three half-sisters, none of whom she has ever seen. Bereft of her sister, her joy in running, and her beloved Welsh countryside, Mori must reconcile to her new life as a disabled, friendless outsider. She feels that she can do this as long as she has books to read, and her one connection to her father is the love of books they share. Her paternal family send her to a nearby girls' boarding school, which she finds unmagical and very uncongenial. She has few friends and considerable free time because she can do her schoolwork quickly and because her injury prevents her from participating in sports. She spends most of her time reading books provided by her father (also an SF fan), the school library, the local public library, and interlibrary loan. Throughout her diary she records her and other characters' reactions to these books with as much interest as any other events of her life. At one point she casts a spell to locate friends who can unite with her on a common purpose and then is invited to join a SF/fantasy readers' club at the library. She makes a few connections there and eventually a boyfriend who not only shares her interested in books but in magic, although he can barely see the fairies and cannot himself work spells. Magic remains a persistent feature in Mori's life. Shortly after her arrival at the school, Mori's mother begins sending her letters and family photographs in which Mori's image is burned out and launching magical attacks to control her daughter. Mori tries to work with the fairies near her school but finds she must return to her home in Wales to truly connect and do her own protective magic. She is offered the opportunity to join her dead sister in becoming a fairy herself, but to do so must also die. She chooses instead to embrace her new life and whatever the future might hold. She confronts her mother in a final magical conflict, and, victorious, returns to her new family and her boyfriend. Genre and themes. "Among Others" combines the features of a fantasy novel and a coming of age story. It is an epistolary novel, presented as a series of diary entries of a teenage girl which detail the concerns of her life in chronological order, ranging from such mundane concerns as her grade in math and the experience of buying a first bra to performing ritual magic to allow the dead to pass into the other life. The book takes a careful balance between confirming and denying that Mori's perceptions of magic and fairies is real, although a slightly stronger confirmation comes when Mori's boyfriend is also able to see the fairies. Walton has affirmed that it was her intention that the magic within the novel be real, and the theme of unreliable narration was not an intentional one although it has been widely picked up by readers. In addition to unintended themes of reliable narration and whether the magic Mori perceives is wish-fulfillment, the novel explicitly explores the question of moral responsibility in doing magic. As the novel progresses, Mori comes to feel that the rippling impact of magic on others and its ability to deprive them of free will is unacceptable, and she pledges to use magic only for protection. The book also explores the ability of books to provide hope in times of grief and darkness. As the title suggests, the novel is also focused on making one's own way in a world in which one feels outside. "Otherness" is core to the story. In her English boarding school, Mori is differentiated from her peers on a number of axes: she is Welsh, she is disabled, she is the only student in her school depicted as reading for pleasure (often alone with the librarian), and she is aside from her sister and mother the only person depicted as having the ability to see and communicate with fairies, at least until she introduces her boyfriend Wim to the skill. Reception. "Among Others" was critically very well received. The book won the 2012 Nebula Award for Best Novel, the Hugo Award for Best Novel and the British Fantasy Award, and was a nominee for the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel. In 2012, "The Guardian" described the book as "one of only a handful of novels ever to get such a grand-slam shortlisting for all the major science fiction literary prizes". It also won the Best Adult Books 4 Teens award from the "School Library Journal" in 2011. Ursula K. Le Guin, in her review for "The Guardian", called the book "a funny, thoughtful, acute and absorbing story all the way through". Similarly, Elizabeth Bear, in her review for tor.com, stated that "The voice is sublime; the characters nuanced ... In any case, I think this is Walton's best book to date." Conversely, in her review for "The Washington Post", Elizabeth Hand wrote that "More than anything else, "Among Others" is a love letter to the literature of the fantastic and to SF fandom. This is problematic as well as charming, because nothing much happens in the novel."

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Jacob the Mutant Jacob the Mutant is a novella by the Mexican writer Mario Bellatin. The novella takes the form of an exegesis meant to interpret "The Border", a lost text by the Austrian novelist Joseph Roth. Organized as a set of fragmentary manuscripts from "The Border", the story initially chronicles events in the life of Jacob Pliniak, an Eastern European rabbi and owner of a roadside tavern. As he flees a pogrom and resettles in the United States, reality shifts and so does Jacob. He mutates quite suddenly into a woman, while the novella transforms into another story altogether. The novella's prose shifts constantly between this "found" material from "The Border", a secondhand account of the recovered manuscript of The Border, and exegetic commentary on the text of The Border. Joseph Roth did write a text called "Die Grenze" ("The Border"). The work appeared in 1919 and belonged to Roth’s journalistic production and has little to do with what Bellatin describes in "Jacob the Mutant". Therefore, the novella operates as a work of fictionalized literary historiography. The first Spanish-language edition was published by Alfaguara in Mexico in 2002. In 2015, an English translation by Jacob Steinberg was published by Phoneme Media.

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Don Quixote The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha (Modern Spanish: ' (in Part 2, " caballero) , ), or just "' (, ; , ), is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes. It was originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615. A founding work of Western literature, it is often labeled as the first modern novel and is considered one of the greatest novels ever written. "Don Quixote" also holds the distinction of being one of the most-translated books in the world. The plot revolves around the adventures of a noble (hidalgo) from La Mancha named Alonso Quixano, who reads so many chivalric romances that he loses his mind and decides to become a knight-errant ("caballero andante") to revive chivalry and serve his nation, under the name "Don Quixote de la Mancha". He recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire, who often employs a unique, earthy wit in dealing with Don Quixote's rhetorical monologues on knighthood, already considered old-fashioned at the time. Don Quixote, in the first part of the book, does not see the world for what it is and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story. The book had a major influence on the literary community, as evidenced by direct references in Alexandre Dumas' "The Three Musketeers" (1844), Mark Twain's "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (1884), and Edmond Rostand's "Cyrano de Bergerac" (1897), as well as the word "quixotic" and the epithet "Lothario"; the latter refers to a character in "El curioso impertinente" ("The Impertinently Curious Man"), an intercalated story that appears in Part One, chapters 33–35. The 19th-century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer cited "Don Quixote" as one of the four greatest novels ever written. When first published, "Don Quixote" was usually interpreted as a comic novel. After the French Revolution, it was better known for its central ethic that individuals can be right while society is quite wrong and seen as disenchanting. In the 19th century, it was seen as a social commentary, but no one could easily tell "whose side Cervantes was on". Many critics came to view the work as a tragedy in which Don Quixote's idealism and nobility are viewed by the post-chivalric world as insane, and are defeated and rendered useless by common reality. By the 20th century, the novel had come to occupy a canonical space as one of the foundations of modern literature. At the 21st century, sublimation of gender traits physical and otherwise - situational/grand adventuresome - are still top-of-mind for the "idle reader". Summary. Cervantes wrote that the first chapters were taken from "the archives of La Mancha", and the rest were translated from an Arabic text by the Moorish author Cide Hamete Benengeli. This metafictional trick appears to give a greater credibility to the text, implying that Don Quixote is a real character and that the events related truly occurred several decades prior to the recording of this account. However, it was also common practice in that era for fictional works to make some pretense of being factual, such as the common opening line of fairy tales "Once upon a time in a land far away...". In the course of their travels, the protagonists meet innkeepers, prostitutes, goat-herders, soldiers, priests, escaped convicts and scorned lovers. The aforementioned characters sometimes tell tales that incorporate events from the real world. Their encounters are magnified by Don Quixote's imagination into chivalrous quests. Don Quixote's tendency to intervene violently in matters irrelevant to himself, and his habit of not paying debts, result in privations, injuries, and humiliations (with Sancho often the victim). Finally, Don Quixote is persuaded to return to his home village. The narrator hints that there was a third quest, but says that records of it have been lost. Part 1. The First Sally (Chapters 1–5). Alonso Quixano, the protagonist of the novel (though he is not given this name until much later in the book), is a hidalgo (member of the lesser Spanish nobility), nearing 50 years of age, living in an unnamed section of La Mancha with his niece and housekeeper, as well as a boy who is never heard of again after the first chapter. Although Quixano is usually a rational man, in keeping with the humoral physiology theory of the time, not sleeping adequately—because he was reading—has caused his brain to dry. Quixano's temperament is thus choleric, the hot and dry humor. As a result, he is easily given to anger and believes every word of these fictional books of chivalry to be true. Imitating the protagonists of these books, he decides to become a knight errant in search of adventure. To these ends, he dons an old suit of armor, renames himself "Don Quixote", names his exhausted horse "Rocinante", and designates Aldonza Lorenzo, a neighboring farm girl, as his lady love, renaming her Dulcinea del Toboso, while she knows nothing of this. Expecting to become famous quickly, he arrives at an inn, which he believes to be a castle, calls the prostitutes he meets "ladies" ("doncellas"), and demands that the innkeeper, whom he takes to be the lord of the castle, dub him a knight. He spends the night holding vigil over his armor and becomes involved in a fight with muleteers who try to remove his armor from the horse trough so that they can water their mules. In a pretended ceremony, the innkeeper dubs him a knight to be rid of him and sends him on his way. Don Quixote next "frees" a slave named Andres who is tied to a tree and beaten by his master, and makes his master swear to treat the slave fairly, but the slave's beating is continued (and in fact redoubled) as soon as Quixote leaves. Don Quixote then encounters traders from Toledo, who "insult" the imaginary Dulcinea. He attacks them, only to be severely beaten and left on the side of the road, and is returned to his home by a neighboring peasant. Destruction of Don Quixote's library (Chapters 6 and 7). While Don Quixote is unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, and the local barber burn most of his chivalric and other books. A large part of this section consists of the priest deciding which books deserve to be burned and which to be saved. It is a scene of high comedy: If the books are so bad for morality, how does the priest know them well enough to describe every naughty scene? Even so, this gives an occasion for many comments on books Cervantes himself liked and disliked. For example, Cervantes' own pastoral novel "La Galatea" is saved, while the rather unbelievable romance "Felixmarte de Hyrcania" is burned. After the books are dealt with, they seal up the room which contained the library, later telling Don Quixote that it was the action of a wizard ("encantador"). The Second Sally. After a short period of feigning health, Don Quixote requests his neighbour, Sancho Panza, to be his squire, promising him a petty governorship ("ínsula"). Sancho is a poor and simple farmer but more practical than the head-in-the-clouds Don Quixote and agrees to the offer, sneaking away with Don Quixote in the early dawn. It is here that their famous adventures begin, starting with Don Quixote's attack on windmills that he believes to be ferocious giants. The two next encounter two Benedictine friars travelling on the road ahead of a lady in a carriage. The friars are not travelling with the lady, but happen to be travelling on the same road. Don Quixote takes the friars to be enchanters who hold the lady captive, knocks a friar from his horse, and is challenged by an armed Basque traveling with the company. As he has no shield, the Basque uses a pillow from the carriage to protect himself, which saves him when Don Quixote strikes him. Cervantes chooses this point, in the middle of the battle, to say that his source ends here. Soon, however, he resumes Don Quixote's adventures after a story about finding Arabic notebooks containing the rest of the story by Cid Hamet Ben Engeli. The combat ends with the lady leaving her carriage and commanding those traveling with her to "surrender" to Don Quixote. The Pastoral Peregrinations (Chapters 11–15). Sancho and Don Quixote fall in with a group of goat herders. Don Quixote tells Sancho and the goat herders about the "Golden Age" of man, in which property does not exist and men live in peace. The goatherders invite the Knight and Sancho to the funeral of Grisóstomo, a former student who left his studies to become a shepherd after reading pastoral novels (paralleling Don Quixote's decision to become a knight), seeking the shepherdess Marcela. At the funeral Marcela appears, vindicating herself from the bitter verses written about her by Grisóstomo, and claiming her own autonomy and freedom from expectations put on her by pastoral clichés. She disappears into the woods, and Don Quixote and Sancho follow. Ultimately giving up, the two dismount by a pond to rest. Some Galicians arrive to water their ponies, and Rocinante (Don Quixote's horse) attempts to mate with the ponies. The Galicians hit Rocinante with clubs to dissuade him, whereupon Don Quixote tries to defend Rocinante. The Galicians beat Don Quixote and Sancho, leaving them in great pain. The inn (Chapters 16–17). After escaping the musketeers, Don Quixote and Sancho ride to a nearby inn. Once again, Don Quixote imagines the inn is a castle, although Sancho is not quite convinced. Don Quixote is given a bed in a former hayloft, and Sancho sleeps on the rug next to the bed; they share the loft with a muleteer. When night comes, Don Quixote imagines the servant girl at the inn, Helen, to be a beautiful princess, and makes her sit on his bed with him, scaring her. Seeing what is happening, the muleteer attacks Don Quixote, breaking the fragile bed and leading to a large and chaotic fight in which Don Quixote and Sancho are once again badly hurt. Don Quixote's explanation for everything is that they fought with an enchanted Moor. He also believes that he can cure their wounds with a mixture he calls "the balm of Fierabras", which only makes them sick. Don Quixote and Sancho decide to leave the inn, but Quixote, following the example of the fictional knights, leaves without paying. Sancho, however, remains and ends up wrapped in a blanket and tossed up in the air (blanketed) by several mischievous guests at the inn, something that is often mentioned over the rest of the novel. After his release, he and Don Quixote continue their travels. The galley slaves and Cardenio (Chapters 19–24). After Don Quixote has adventures involving a dead body, a helmet, and freeing a group of galley slaves, he and Sancho wander into the Sierra Morena and there encounter the dejected Cardenio. Cardenio relates the first part of his story, in which he falls deeply in love with his childhood friend Lucinda, and is hired as the companion to the Duke's son, leading to his friendship with the Duke's younger son, Don Fernando. Cardenio confides in Don Fernando his love for Lucinda and the delays in their engagement, caused by Cardenio's desire to keep with tradition. After reading Cardenio's poems praising Lucinda, Don Fernando falls in love with her. Don Quixote interrupts when Cardenio suggests that his beloved may have become unfaithful after the formulaic stories of spurned lovers in chivalric novels. They get into a fight, ending with Cardenio beating all of them and walking away to the mountains. The priest, the barber, and Dorotea (Chapters 25–31). Quixote pines for Dulcinea, imitating Cardenio. Quixote sends Sancho to deliver a letter to Dulcinea, but instead Sancho finds the barber and priest from his village and brings them to Quixote. The priest and barber make plans with Sancho to trick Don Quixote to come home. They get the help of Dorotea, a woman whom they discover in the forest, that has been deceived by Don Fernando with promises of love and marriage. She pretends that she is the Princess Micomicona and coming from Guinea desperate to get Quixote's help. Quixote runs into Andrés, who insults his incompetence. Return to the inn (Chapters 32–42). Convinced that he is on a quest to return princess Micomicona to the throne of her kingdom, Quixote and the group return to the previous inn where the priest reads aloud the manuscript of the story of Anselmo (The Impertinentely Curious Man) while Quixote, sleepwalking, battles with wineskins that he takes to be the giant who stole the princess Micomicona's kingdom. A stranger arrives at the inn accompanying a young woman. The stranger is revealed to be Don Fernando, and the young woman Lucinda. Dorotea is reunited with Don Fernando and Cardenio with Lucinda. A captive from Moorish lands in company of an Arabic speaking lady arrive and is asked to tell the story of his life; "If your worships will give me your attention you will hear a true story which, perhaps, fictitious one constructed with ingenious and studied art can not come up to." A judge arrives, and it is found that the captive is his long-lost brother, and the two are reunited. The ending (Chapters 45–52). An officer of the Santa Hermandad has a warrant for Quixote's arrest for freeing the galley slaves. The priest begs for the officer to have mercy on account of Quixote's insanity. The officer agrees, and Quixote is locked in a cage and made to think that it is an enchantment and that there is a prophecy of his heroic return home. While traveling, the group stops to eat and lets Quixote out of the cage; he gets into a fight with a goatherd and with a group of pilgrims, who beat him into submission, and he is finally brought home. The narrator ends the story by saying that he has found manuscripts of Quixote's further adventures. Part 2. Although the two parts are now published as a single work, "Don Quixote, Part Two" was a sequel published ten years after the original novel. While "Part One" was mostly farcical, the second half is more serious and philosophical about the theme of deception and "sophistry". Opening just prior to the third Sally, the first chapters of Part Two show Don Quixote found to be still some sort of a modern day "highly" literate know-it-all, knight errant - Sancho his squire, however. "Part Two" of "Don Quixote" explores the concept of a character understanding that he is written about, an idea much explored in the 20th century. As "Part Two" begins, it is assumed that the literate classes of Spain have all read the first part of the story. Cervantes' meta-fictional device was to make even the characters in the story familiar with the publication of "Part One", as well as with an actually published, fraudulent Part Two. The Third Sally. When a Duke and Duchess encounter the duo they already know their famous history and they themselves "very fond" of books of chivalry plan to "fall in with his humor and agree to everything he said" in accepting his advancements and then their terrible dismount setting forth a string of imagined adventures resulting in a series of practical jokes. Some of them put Don Quixote's sense of chivalry and his devotion to Dulcinea through many tests. Pressed into finding Dulcinea, Sancho decides they are both mad here but as for Don Quixote, "with a madness that mostly takes one thing for another" and plans to persuade him into seeing Dulcinea as a "sublimated presence" of a sorts. Sancho's luck brings three ragged peasant girls along the road he was sitting not far from where he set out from and he quickly tells Don Quixote that they are Dulcinea and her ladies-in-waiting. When Don Quixote only sees the peasant girls, Sancho pretends (reversing some incidents of "Part One") that their derelict appearance results from an enchantment for Sancho is perceiving it as he explained. Don Quixote's lack of conviction in this matter results in "Sancho, the rogue" having "nicely befooled" him into thinking he'd met Dulcinea, delivered by Sancho. Don Quixote then has the opportunity to purport that "for from a child I was fond of the play, and in my youth a keen lover of the actor's art" while with players of a company and for him thus far an unusually high regard for poetry when with Don Diego de Miranda, "She is the product of an Alchemy of such virtue that he who is able to practice it, will turn her into pure gold of inestimable worth" "sublime conceptions". Don Quixote makes to the other world meeting enchanted people, at return reversing the timestamp of the usual event and with a possible apocryphal example. As one of his deeds, Don Quixote joins into a puppet troop, "Melisendra was Melisendra, Don Gaiferos Don Gaiferos, Marsilio Marsilio, and Charlemagne Charlemagne." Having created a lasting false premise for them, Sancho later gets his comeuppance for this when, as part of one of the Duke and Duchess's pranks, the two are led to believe that the only method to release Dulcinea from this spell (if among possibilities under consideration, she has been changed rather than Don Quixote's perception has been enchanted - which at one point he explains is not possible however) is for Sancho to give himself three thousand three hundred lashes. Sancho naturally resists this course of action, leading to friction with his master. Under the Duke's patronage, Sancho eventually gets a governorship, though it is false, and he proves to be a wise and practical ruler although this ends in humiliation as well. Near the end, Don Quixote reluctantly sways towards sanity. The lengthy untold "history" of Don Quixote's adventures in knight-errantry comes to a close after his battle with the Knight of the White Moon (a young man from Don Quixote's hometown who had previously posed as the Knight of Mirrors) on the beach in Barcelona, in which the reader finds him conquered. Bound by the rules of chivalry, Don Quixote submits to prearranged terms that the vanquished is to obey the will of the conqueror: here, it is that Don Quixote is to lay down his arms and cease his acts of chivalry for the period of one year (in which he may be cured of his madness). He and Sancho undergo one more prank by the Duke and Duchess before setting off. A play-like event, though perceived as mostly real life by Sancho and Don Quixote, over Altisidora's required remedy from death (over her love for Don Quixote). "Print on Sancho's face four-and-twenty smacks, and give him twelve pinches and six pin-thrusts in the back and arms." Upon returning to his village, Don Quixote announces his plan to retire to the countryside as a shepherd, but his housekeeper urges him to stay at home. Soon after, he retires to his bed with a deathly illness, and later awakes from a dream, having fully recovered his sanity. Sancho tries to restore his faith, but Quixano (his proper name) only renounces his previous ambition and apologizes for the harm he has caused. He dictates his will, which includes a provision that his niece will be disinherited if she marries a man who reads books of chivalry. After Alonso Quixano dies, the author emphasizes that there are no more adventures to relate and that any further books about Don Quixote would be spurious. Meaning. Harold Bloom says "Don Quixote" is the first modern novel, and that the protagonist is at war with Freud's reality principle, which accepts the necessity of dying. Edith Grossman, who wrote and published a highly acclaimed English translation of the novel in 2003, says that the book is mostly meant to move people into emotion using a systematic change of course, on the verge of both tragedy and comedy at the same time. Grossman has stated:The question is that Quixote has multiple interpretations [...] and how do I deal with that in my translation. I'm going to answer your question by avoiding it [...] so when I first started reading the Quixote I thought it was the most tragic book in the world, and I would read it and weep [...] As I grew older [...] my skin grew thicker [...] and so when I was working on the translation I was actually sitting at my computer and laughing out loud. This is done [...] as Cervantes did it [...] by never letting the reader rest. You are never certain that you truly got it. Because as soon as you think you understand something, Cervantes introduces something that contradicts your premise. Jonathan Shockley has placed the novel in the context of Terror Management Theory, claiming that the figure of Don Quixote represents the hidden essence of human culture: the centrality of heroic madness and its related death anxiety in all people. The flimsy, delusional (and evil-causing) nature of the things that grant humans conviction and self-aggrandizement. And the ironic (and ultimately tragic) need to acquire this conviction and self-aggrandizement to experience the goodness, richness and reality of life . Themes. The novel's structure is episodic in form. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as "ingenioso" (Spanish) means "quick with inventiveness", marking the transition of modern literature from dramatic to thematic unity. The novel takes place over a long period of time, including many adventures united by common themes of the nature of reality, reading, and dialogue in general. Although burlesque on the surface, the novel, especially in its second half, has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but also in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss. The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book's publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel. Even faithful and simple Sancho is forced to deceive him at certain points. The novel is considered a satire of orthodoxy, veracity and even nationalism. In exploring the individualism of his characters, Cervantes helped move beyond the narrow literary conventions of the chivalric romance literature that he spoofed, which consists of straightforward retelling of a series of acts that redound to the knightly virtues of the hero. The character of Don Quixote became so well known in its time that the word "quixotic" was quickly adopted by many languages. Characters such as Sancho Panza and Don Quixote's steed, Rocinante, are emblems of Western literary culture. The phrase "tilting at windmills" to describe an act of attacking imaginary enemies (or an act of extreme idealism), derives from an iconic scene in the book. It stands in a unique position between medieval chivalric romance and the modern novel. The former consist of disconnected stories featuring the same characters and settings with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character. The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters. In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment. By Part II, people know about him through "having read his adventures", and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image. By his deathbed, he has regained his sanity, and is once more "Alonso Quixano the Good". Background. Sources. Sources for "Don Quixote" include the Castilian novel "Amadis de Gaula", which had enjoyed great popularity throughout the 16th century. Another prominent source, which Cervantes evidently admires more, is "Tirant lo Blanch", which the priest describes in Chapter VI of "Quixote" as "the best book in the world." (However, the sense in which it was "best" is much debated among scholars. Since the 19th century, the passage has been called "the most difficult passage of "Don Quixote"".) The scene of the book burning gives us an excellent list of Cervantes' likes and dislikes about literature. Cervantes makes a number of references to the Italian poem "Orlando furioso". In chapter 10 of the first part of the novel, Don Quixote says he must take the magical helmet of Mambrino, an episode from Canto I of "Orlando", and itself a reference to Matteo Maria Boiardo's "Orlando innamorato". The interpolated story in chapter 33 of Part four of the First Part is a retelling of a tale from Canto 43 of "Orlando", regarding a man who tests the fidelity of his wife. Another important source appears to have been Apuleius's "The Golden Ass", one of the earliest known novels, a picaresque from late classical antiquity. The wineskins episode near the end of the interpolated tale "The Curious Impertinent" in chapter 35 of the first part of "Don Quixote" is a clear reference to Apuleius, and recent scholarship suggests that the moral philosophy and the basic trajectory of Apuleius's novel are fundamental to Cervantes' program. Similarly, many of both Sancho's adventures in Part II and proverbs throughout are taken from popular Spanish and Italian folklore. Cervantes' experiences as a galley slave in Algiers also influenced "Quixote". Medical theories may have also influenced Cervantes' literary process. Cervantes had familial ties to the distinguished medical community. His father, Rodrigo de Cervantes, and his great-grandfather, Juan Díaz de Torreblanca, were surgeons. Additionally, his sister, Andrea de Cervantes, was a nurse. He also befriended many individuals involved in the medical field, in that he knew medical author Francisco Díaz, an expert in urology, and royal doctor Antonio Ponce de Santa Cruz who served as a personal doctor to both Philip III and Philip IV of Spain. Apart from the personal relations Cervantes maintained within the medical field, Cervantes' personal life was defined by an interest in medicine. He frequently visited patients from the Hospital de Inocentes in Sevilla. Furthermore, Cervantes explored medicine in his personal library. His library contained more than 200 volumes and included books like "Examen de Ingenios" by Juan Huarte and "Practica y teórica de cirugía" by Dionisio Daza Chacón that defined medical literature and medical theories of his time. Spurious "Second Part" by Avellaneda. It is not certain when Cervantes began writing "Part Two" of "Don Quixote", but he had probably not proceeded much further than Chapter LIX by late July 1614. About September, however, a spurious Part Two, entitled "Second Volume of the Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha: by the Licenciado (doctorate) Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, of Tordesillas", was published in Tarragona by an unidentified Aragonese who was an admirer of Lope de Vega, rival of Cervantes. It was translated into English by William Augustus Yardley, Esquire in two volumes in 1784. Some modern scholars suggest that Don Quixote's fictional encounter with Avellaneda in Chapter 59 of Part II should not be taken as the date that "Cervantes" encountered it, which may have been much earlier. Avellaneda's identity has been the subject of many theories, but there is no consensus as to who he was. In its prologue, the author gratuitously insulted Cervantes, who not surprisingly took offense and responded; the last half of Chapter LIX and most of the following chapters of Cervantes' "Segunda Parte" lend some insight into the effects upon him; Cervantes manages to work in some subtle digs at Avellaneda's own work, and in his preface to Part II, comes very near to criticizing Avellaneda directly. In his introduction to "The Portable Cervantes", Samuel Putnam, a noted translator of Cervantes' novel, calls Avellaneda's version "one of the most disgraceful performances in history". The second part of Cervantes' "Don Quixote", finished as a direct result of the Avellaneda book, has come to be regarded by some literary critics as superior to the first part, because of its greater depth of characterization, its discussions, mostly between Quixote and Sancho, on diverse subjects, and its philosophical insights. In Cervantes' "Segunda Parte", Don Quixote visits a printing-house in Barcelona and finds Avellaneda's "Second Part" being printed there, in an early example of metafiction. Other stories. "Don Quixote, Part One" contains a number of stories which do not directly involve the two main characters, but which are narrated by some of the picaresque figures encountered by the Don and Sancho during their travels. The longest and best known of these is "El Curioso Impertinente" (the impertinently curious man), found in Part One, Book Four. This story, read to a group of travelers at an inn, tells of a Florentine nobleman, Anselmo, who becomes obsessed with testing his wife's fidelity, and talks his close friend Lothario into attempting to seduce her, with disastrous results for all. In "Part Two", the author acknowledges the criticism of his digressions in "Part One" and promises to concentrate the narrative on the central characters (although at one point he laments that his narrative muse has been constrained in this manner). Nevertheless, "Part Two" contains several back narratives related by peripheral characters. Several abridged editions have been published which delete some or all of the extra tales in order to concentrate on the central narrative. Style. Spelling and pronunciation. Cervantes wrote his work in early modern Spanish, heavily borrowing from Old Spanish, the medieval form of the language. The language of "Don Quixote", although still containing archaisms, is far more understandable to modern Spanish readers than is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the "Poema de mio Cid", a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes' language as Middle English is from Modern English. The Old Castilian language was also used to show the higher class that came with being a knight errant. In "Don Quixote", there are basically two different types of Castilian: Old Castilian is spoken only by Don Quixote, while the rest of the roles speak a contemporary (late 16th century) version of Spanish. The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies the language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times, when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old. This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays because the reader must be able to distinguish the two old versions of the language, but when the book was published it was much celebrated. (English translations can get some sense of the effect by having Don Quixote use King James Bible or Shakespearean English, or even Middle English.) In Old Castilian, the letter "x" represented the sound written "sh" in modern English, so the name was originally pronounced . However, as Old Castilian evolved towards modern Spanish, a sound change caused it to be pronounced with a voiceless velar fricative sound (like the Scots or German "ch"), and today the Spanish pronunciation of "Quixote" is . The original pronunciation is reflected in languages such as Asturian, Leonese, Galician, Catalan, Italian, Portuguese, and French, where it is pronounced with a "sh" or "ch" sound; the French opera "Don Quichotte" is one of the best-known modern examples of this pronunciation. Today, English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation of "Quixote" ("Quijote"), as , although the traditional English spelling-based pronunciation with the value of the letter x in modern English is still sometimes used, resulting in or . In Australian English, the preferred pronunciation amongst members of the educated classes was until well into the 1970s, as part of a tendency for the upper class to "anglicise its borrowing ruthlessly". The traditional English rendering is preserved in the pronunciation of the adjectival form "quixotic", i.e., , defined by "Merriam-Webster" as the foolishly impractical pursuit of ideals, typically marked by rash and lofty romanticism. Setting. Cervantes' story takes place on the plains of La Mancha, specifically the "comarca" of Campo de Montiel. The story also takes place in El Toboso where Don Quixote goes to seek Dulcinea's blessings. The location of the village to which Cervantes alludes in the opening sentence of "Don Quixote" has been the subject of debate since its publication over four centuries ago. Indeed, Cervantes deliberately omits the name of the village, giving an explanation in the final chapter: Theories In 2004, a multidisciplinary team of academics from Complutense University, led by Francisco Parra Luna, Manuel Fernández Nieto, and Santiago Petschen Verdaguer, deduced that the village was that of Villanueva de los Infantes. Their findings were published in a paper titled "'El Quijote' como un sistema de distancias/tiempos: hacia la localización del lugar de la Mancha", which was later published as a book: "El enigma resuelto del Quijote". The result was replicated in two subsequent investigations: "La determinación del lugar de la Mancha como problema estadístico" and "The Kinematics of the Quixote and the Identity of the 'Place in La Mancha'". Researchers Isabel Sanchez Duque and Francisco Javier Escudero have found relevant information regarding the possible sources of inspiration of Cervantes for writing Don Quixote. Cervantes was friend of the family Villaseñor, which was involved in a combat with Francisco de Acuña. Both sides combated disguised as medieval knights in the road from El Toboso to Miguel Esteban in 1581. They also found a person called Rodrigo Quijada, who bought the title of nobility of "hidalgo", and created diverse conflicts with the help of a squire. Language. Because of its widespread influence, "Don Quixote" also helped cement the modern Spanish language. The opening sentence of the book created a classic Spanish cliché with the phrase ("whose name I do not wish to recall"): ("In a village of La Mancha, whose name I do not wish to recall, there lived, not very long ago, one of those gentlemen with a lance in the lance-rack, an ancient shield, a skinny old horse, and a fast greyhound.") The novel's farcical elements make use of punning and similar verbal playfulness. Character-naming in "Don Quixote" makes ample figural use of contradiction, inversion, and irony, such as the names "Rocinante" (a reversal) and "Dulcinea" (an allusion to illusion), and the word itself, possibly a pun on (jaw) but certainly (Catalan: thighs), a reference to a horse's rump. As a military term, the word "quijote" refers to "cuisses", part of a full suit of plate armour protecting the thighs. The Spanish suffix "-ote" denotes the augmentative—for example, "grande" means large, but "grandote" means extra large. Following this example, "Quixote" would suggest 'The Great Quijano', a play on words that makes much sense in light of the character's delusions of grandeur. "La Mancha" is a region of Spain, but "mancha" (Spanish word) means spot, mark, stain. Translators such as John Ormsby have declared La Mancha to be one of the most desertlike, unremarkable regions of Spain, the least romantic and fanciful place that one would imagine as the home of a courageous knight. Publication. In July 1604, Cervantes sold the rights of "El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha" (known as "Don Quixote, Part I") to the publisher-bookseller Francisco de Robles for an unknown sum. License to publish was granted in September, the printing was finished in December, and the book came out on 16 January 1605. The novel was an immediate success. The majority of the 400 copies of the first edition were sent to the New World, with the publisher hoping to get a better price in the Americas. Although most of them disappeared in a shipwreck near La Havana, approximately 70 copies reached Lima, from where they were sent to Cuzco in the heart of the defunct Inca Empire. No sooner was it in the hands of the public than preparations were made to issue derivative (pirated) editions. "Don Quixote" had been growing in favour, and its author's name was now known beyond the Pyrenees. By August 1605, there were two Madrid editions, two published in Lisbon, and one in Valencia. Publisher Francisco de Robles secured additional copyrights for Aragon and Portugal for a second edition. Sale of these publishing rights deprived Cervantes of further financial profit on "Part One". In 1607, an edition was printed in Brussels. Robles, the Madrid publisher, found it necessary to meet demand with a third edition, a seventh publication in all, in 1608. Popularity of the book in Italy was such that a Milan bookseller issued an Italian edition in 1610. Yet another Brussels edition was called for in 1611. Since then, numerous editions have been released and in total, the novel is believed to have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide. The work has been produced in numerous editions and languages, the Cervantes Collection, at the State Library of New South Wales includes over 1,100 editions. These were collected, by Dr Ben Haneman, over a period of thirty years. In 1613, Cervantes published the "Novelas Ejemplares", dedicated to the Maecenas of the day, the Conde de Lemos. Eight and a half years after "Part One" had appeared came the first hint of a forthcoming "Segunda Parte" (Part Two). "You shall see shortly," Cervantes says, "the further exploits of Don Quixote and humours of Sancho Panza." "Don Quixote, Part Two", published by the same press as its predecessor, appeared late in 1615, and quickly reprinted in Brussels and Valencia (1616) and Lisbon (1617). Parts One and Two were published as one edition in Barcelona in 1617. Historically, Cervantes' work has been said to have "smiled Spain's chivalry away", suggesting that Don Quixote as a chivalric satire contributed to the demise of Spanish Chivalry. English editions in translation. There are many translations of the book, and it has been adapted many times in shortened versions. Many derivative editions were also written at the time, as was the custom of envious or unscrupulous writers. Seven years after the "Parte Primera" appeared, "Don Quixote" had been translated into French, German, Italian, and English, with the first French translation of 'Part II' appearing in 1618, and the first English translation in 1620. One abridged adaptation, authored by Agustín Sánchez, runs slightly over 150 pages, cutting away about 750 pages. Thomas Shelton's English translation of the "First Part" appeared in 1612 while Cervantes was still alive, although there is no evidence that Shelton had met the author. Although Shelton's version is cherished by some, according to John Ormsby and Samuel Putnam, it was far from satisfactory as a carrying over of Cervantes' text. Shelton's translation of the novel's "Second Part" appeared in 1620. Near the end of the 17th century, John Phillips, a nephew of poet John Milton, published what Putnam considered the worst English translation. The translation, as literary critics claim, was not based on Cervantes' text but mostly upon a French work by Filleau de Saint-Martin and upon notes which Thomas Shelton had written. Around 1700, a version by Pierre Antoine Motteux appeared. Motteux's translation enjoyed lasting popularity; it was reprinted as the Modern Library Series edition of the novel until recent times. Nonetheless, future translators would find much to fault in Motteux's version: Samuel Putnam criticized "the prevailing slapstick quality of this work, especially where Sancho Panza is involved, the obtrusion of the obscene where it is found in the original, and the slurring of difficulties through omissions or expanding upon the text". John Ormsby considered Motteux's version "worse than worthless", and denounced its "infusion of Cockney flippancy and facetiousness" into the original. The proverb "The proof of the pudding is in the eating" is widely attributed to Cervantes. The Spanish word for pudding ("budín"), however, doesn't appear in the original text but premieres in the Motteux translation. In Smollett's translation of 1755 he notes that the original text reads literally "you will see when the eggs are fried", meaning "time will tell". A translation by Captain John Stevens, which revised Thomas Shelton's version, also appeared in 1700, but its publication was overshadowed by the simultaneous release of Motteux's translation. In 1742, the Charles Jervas translation appeared, posthumously. Through a printer's error, it came to be known, and is still known, as "the Jarvis translation". It was the most scholarly and accurate English translation of the novel up to that time, but future translator John Ormsby points out in his own introduction to the novel that the Jarvis translation has been criticized as being too stiff. Nevertheless, it became the most frequently reprinted translation of the novel until about 1885. Another 18th-century translation into English was that of Tobias Smollett, himself a novelist, first published in 1755. Like the Jarvis translation, it continues to be reprinted today. A translation by Alexander James Duffield appeared in 1881 and another by Henry Edward Watts in 1888. Most modern translators take as their model the 1885 translation by John Ormsby. An expurgated children's version, under the title "The Story of Don Quixote", was published in 1922 (available on Project Gutenberg). It leaves out the risqué sections as well as chapters that young readers might consider dull, and embellishes a great deal on Cervantes' original text. The title page actually gives credit to the two editors as if they were the authors, and omits any mention of Cervantes. The most widely read English-language translations of the mid-20th century are by Samuel Putnam (1949), J. M. Cohen (1950; Penguin Classics), and Walter Starkie (1957). The last English translation of the novel in the 20th century was by Burton Raffel, published in 1996. The 21st century has already seen five new translations of the novel into English. The first is by John D. Rutherford and the second by Edith Grossman. Reviewing the novel in the "New York Times", Carlos Fuentes called Grossman's translation a "major literary achievement" and another called it the "most transparent and least impeded among more than a dozen English translations going back to the 17th century." In 2005, the year of the novel's 400th anniversary, Tom Lathrop published a new English translation of the novel, based on a lifetime of specialized study of the novel and its history. The fourth translation of the 21st century was released in 2006 by former university librarian James H Montgomery, 26 years after he had begun it, in an attempt to "recreate the sense of the original as closely as possible, though not at the expense of Cervantes' literary style." In 2011, another translation by Gerald J. Davis appeared. It is the latest and the fifth translation of the 21st century. Tilting at windmills. Tilting at windmills is an English idiom that means attacking imaginary enemies. The expression is derived from "Don Quixote", and the word "tilt" in this context refers to jousting. The phrase is sometimes used to describe either confrontations where adversaries are incorrectly perceived, or courses of action that are based on misinterpreted or misapplied heroic, romantic, or idealistic justifications. It may also connote an inopportune, unfounded, and vain effort against adversaries real or imagined. List of English translations. Reviewing the English translations as a whole, Daniel Eisenberg stated that there is no one translation ideal for every purpose, but expressed a preference for those of Putnam and the revision of Ormsby's translation by Douglas and Jones.